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ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.
EIGHTH EDITION.
I
ENCYCLOPJSDIA BRITANNICA,
OK
DICTION AEY
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND GENERAL LITERATURE.
EIGHTH EDITION.
WITH EXTENSIVE IMPROVEMENTS AND ADDITIONS;
AND NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.
VOLUME XIII.
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH.
MDCCCLVII.
[The Proprietors of this Work give notice that they reserve the right of Translating it.]
KEILL AND 00., PRINTERS, EDINBURGH.
In Quarto, Cloth, Price 24s.,
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA,
<
EIGHTH EDITION. VOL. XIII.
ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.
PRINCIPAL CONTENTS.
KAFRARIA. By Sir Benjamin Pine.
KANT. By the Rev. John Cairns, M.A.
KARS. Revised by Dr Sandwith, K.B.
KNIGHTS, KNIGHTHOOD, LIVERY, and LORRAINE. By Dr Doran.
LABRADOR and LAPLAND. Revised by Augustus Petermann, F.R.G.S., &c.
LAGRANGE and LALANDE. By Thomas Young, M.D.
LANGUAGE. Revised by R. G. Latham, M.A., M.D., &c.
LAW. By J. F. M‘Lennan, M.A., Advocate.
LAW OF NATIONS and LIBERTY OF THE PRESS. By James Mill.
LEAD, LEATHER, and LIFE PRESERVERS. By Charles Tomlinson.
LEPROSY. By J. Y. Simpson, M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the University of Edinburgh.
LIBRARIES. By Edward Edwards, Free Library, Manchester.
LIGHT. By T. S. Traill, M.D., Professor of Medical Jurisprudence in the University of Edinburgh.
LIGHTHOUSES. By Alan Stevenson, C.E.
LOCK. By E. B. Denison, M.A., Q.C.
LOGIC. By William Spalding, M.A., Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of St Andrews.
LOMBARDS and LOMBARDY. By the Author of the Article “ Italy.”
LONDON. By H. G. Reid.
LUTHER. By C. C. J. Bunsen, D.D., D.C.L., D. Ph., &c.
MADAGASCAR. By the Rev. W. Ellis, Author of “ Polynesian Researches,” <&c.
MADEIRA. By J. Y. Johnson, Author of a “ Handbook for Madeira.”
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Volumes I. to XIII. are now published, bringing the work down to the article Magnetism; and the
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LIST OF SOME OF THE CONTRIBTJTORS:-
Right Hon. Thomas Babington Macaulay.
Right Rev. Richard Whately, D.D., Archbishop of Dublin.
Right Rev. R. Dickson Hampden, D.D., Bishop of Hereford.
William Whewell, D.D., Trinity College, Cambridge.
Sir David Brewster, K.H., LL.D., Principal of the United
Colleges of St Salvator and St Leonard, St Andrews.
Richard Owen, Esq., F.R.S., British Museum.
John Lee, D.D., Principal of the University of Edinburgh.
Sir William Hamilton, Bart., late Professor of Logic and
Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh.
Sir Archibald Alison, Bart., Author of the “ History of
Europe,” &c.
Sir John Richardson, Author of “ Voyage of Erebus and
Terror,” &c.
Sir John M'Neill, G.C.B.
Henry Rogers, Esq., Author of the “ Eclipse of Faith,” &c.
Isaac Taylor, Esq., Author of the “ Natural History of Enthu¬
siasm,” &c.
Rev. Charles Kingsley, Author of “ Hypatia,” “ Westward
Ho,” &c.
J. D. Forbes, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University
of Edinburgh, &c., &c.
Robert Stephenson, Esq., M.P., President of the Institution
of Civil Engineers, &c.
Richard Monckton Milnes, Esq., M.P.
Hepworth Dixon, Esq., Author of “ Life of Howard, &c.
Theodore Martin, Esq.
Colonel Portlock, R.M.A., President of the Geological Society
of London.
David Masson, M.A., Professor of English Literature in Uni¬
versity College, London.
Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., K.H., M.A., D.C.L., &c.
D. F. Arago, late Member of the Royal Institute of France.
John Robison, LL.D., late Professor of Natural Philosophy in
the University of Edinburgh.
Sir Walter Scott, Bart.
C. C. J. Bunsen, D.D., D.C.L., D.P.h.
Lord Jeffrey.
Thomas Young, M.D., late Corresponding Member of the Royal
Institute of France.
Sir John Leslie, late Professor of Natural Philosophy in the
University of Edinburgh.
Sir John Barrow, Bart.
John Playfair, F.R.S., late Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of Edinburgh.
The Right Hon. Sir James Mackintosh, LL.D., &c.
Dugald Stewart, F.R.SS. L. and E.
Sir James E. Smith, F.R.S., late President of the Linnsean
Society.
Jean Baptiste Biot, Member of the Royal Institute of France.
Right Rev. George Gleig, D.D.
Lieut.-Col. Charles Hamilton Smith, F.R.S.
E. G. Squier, formerly Charge D’Affaires of the United States
to the Republic of Central America.
William Gregory, M.D., Professor of Chemistry in the Uni¬
versity of Edinburgh.
George Wilson, M.D., Professor of Technology in the Uni¬
versity of Edinburgh.
Rev. William Scoresby, LL.D., &c.
Robert Carruthers, Esq.
John HillBurton, Esq., Authorof the “History of Scotland,”&c.
J. B. Jukes, Esq., M.A., Vice-President of Geological Society
of Dublin.
William Hosking, Professor of Arts and Construction, King’s
College, London.
Alexander Smith, Esq., Author of “ A Life Drama,” &c.
Rev. William Hanna, LL.D, Author of the “ Life of Thomas
Chalmers.”
Rev. Robert Main, M.A., F.R.A.S., &c.
John Tulloch, D.D., Primarius Professor of Divinity, St
Andrews.
Charles Maclaren, Esq., F.R.S.E., &c.
J. L. Ricardo, Esq., M.P.
Leonard Schmitz, LL.D., F.R.S.E., &c., Author of Hand¬
book of Ancient History,” &c.
Edward Thornton, Esq., Statistical Department, East India
House.
George Fergdson, LL.D., Professor of Humanity, King’s Col¬
lege, Aberdeen.
James Pillans, M.A., Professor of Humanity in the University
of Edinburgh.
F. Grace Calvert, Professor of Chemistry, Royal Institution,
Manchester.
Robert Christison, M.D., Professor of Materia Medica in the
University of Edinburgh.
R. S. Poole, Esq., M.R.S.L., &c., British Museum.
Joseph D. Hooker, M.D., R.N., Author of “Himalayan Jour¬
nals,” &c.
Charles Tomlinson, Esq., Editor of a “ Cyclopaedia of Useful
Arts,” &c.
W. L. Alexander, D.D., Author of “Christ and Christianity ,”&c.
Thomas Bazley, Esq., Chairman of the Chamber of Commerce,
Manchester.
W. H. Langley, Esq., Editor of “ Bell’s Life in London.”
Charles Mackintosh, Esq., Author of the “Book of the
Garden.”
T. C. Archer, Esq., Author of “ Popular Economic Botany.”
J. P. Lacaita, Esq.
Arthur Ashpitel, Esq.
A. V. Kirwan, Esq.
William Blair, Esq., Author of “ Inquiry into Slavery amongst
the Romans,” &c.
Robert Chambers, Esq.
Rev. Richard Waterston, M.A.
Sir John Graham Dalyell, Kart.
Robert Jameson, F.R.S., lata Regius Professor of Natural
History in the University cf Edinburgh.
Alan Stevenson, Esq., F.R.S.F., C.E.
Edward Edwards, Esq.
John Crawfurd, Esq., F.R.S., Author of “A Descriptive
Dictionary of the Indian Islands.”
J. Y. Simpson, M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the University
of Edinburgh.
Thomas de Quincey, Esq.
R. G. Latham, Esq., M.A., M.D., &c.
W. E. Aytoun, Professor of Rhetoric and Belles Lettres in the
University of Edinburgh.
J. R. M'Culloch, Esq., Member of the Institute of France, &c.
Augustus Petermann, Esq., F.R.G.S., &c.
William Spalding, M.A., Professor of Logic and Metaphysics
in the University of St Andrews.
Rev. J. E. Ryland, M.A., Author of “ Life of Kitto,” &c.
Rev. P. Kelland, M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the Uni¬
versity of Edinburgh.
Antonio Panizzi, Esq., Principal Librarian, British Museum.
Thomas Anderson, M.D., Professor of Chemistry in the Uni¬
versity of Glasgow.
Dr Doran, Author of “ Habits and Men,” &c.
William Fairbairn, Esq., C.E., Manchester.
H. L. Mansel, Reader in Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy,
Magdalen College, Oxford.
James Caird, Esq., Author of “ English Agriculture in 1850,
1851,” &c.
Thomas Laycock, M.D., Professor of the Practice of Physic in
the University of Edinburgh.
Daniel Wilson, LL.D., F.R.S.A., &c.
Lawrence Oliphant, Esq., Author of the “ Russian Shores of
the Black Sea.”
George Farquhar Graham, Esq.
John Fleming, D.D., Professor of Natural Science, New Col¬
lege, Edinburgh.
E. B. Denison, Esq., M.A., Q.C., &c.
Rev. John Cairns, M.A.
J. H. Balfour, M.D., Professor of Botany in the University of
Edinburgh.
J. S. Blackie, Professor of Greek in the University of Edin¬
burgh.
James Montgomery, Esq., Author of “ Greenland and other
Poems,” &c.
Sir Benjamin Pine, late Governor of Natal.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
JONAH.
Jonah. JONAH, the fifth in order of the minor prophets. No
era is assigned to him in the book of his prophecy, yet
there is little doubt of his being the same person who is
spoken of in 2 Kings xiv. 25, where he is described as the
son of Amittai, and a native of Gath-hepher, in the tribe of
Zebulon. He flourished in or before the reign of Jero¬
boam II., and predicted the successful conquests, enlarged
territory, and brief prosperity of the Israelitish kingdom
under that monarch’s sway.
The Book of Jonah contains an account of the prophet’s
mission to denounce Nineveh, and of his refusal to under¬
take the embassy—of the method he employed to evade
the unwelcome task, and the miraculous means which God
used to curb his self-willed spirit, and subdue his petulant
and querulous disposition. After narrating his fulfilment
of the Divine command we are again presented with another
exemplification of his refractory temper. His attempt to
flee from the presence of the Lord must have sprung from
a partial insanity, produced by the excitement of distracting
motives in an irascible and melancholy heart. The mind
of Jonah was dark and moody, not unlike a lake which
mirrors in the waters the gloomy thunderclouds overshadow¬
ing it, and flashing over its sullen waves a momentary gleam.
The history of Jonah is certainly striking and extraordi¬
nary. Its characteristic prodigy does not resemble the other
miraculous phenomena recorded in Scripture ; yet we must
believe in its literal occurrence, as the Bible affords no in¬
dication of being a mythus, allegory, or parable. Our Sa¬
viour’s pointed and peculiar allusion to it is a presumption
of its reality (Matt. xii. 40). The opinion of the earlier
Jews (Tobit xiv. 4; Joseph. Antiq. ix. 10, 2) is also in
favour of the literality of the adventure. It requires less
faith to credit this simple excerpt from Jonah’s biography,
than to believe the numerous hypotheses that have been in¬
vented to deprive it of its supernatural character. Some,
who cannot altogether reject the reality of the narrative,
suppose it to have had a historical basis, though its present
form be fanciful or mythical. Grimm regards it as a dream
produced in that sleep which fell upon Jonah as he lay on
the sides of the ship. The opinion of the famous Herman
VOL. XIII.
von der Hardt, as given by Rosenmiiller was, that the book Jonah,
is a historical allegory, descriptive of the fate of Manasseh,
and Josiah his grandson, kings of Judah. Tarshish, accord¬
ing to him, represents the kingdom of Lydia ; the ship, the
Jewish republic, whose captain was Zadok the high-priest ;
while the casting of Jonah into the sea symbolized the tem¬
porary captivity of Manasseh in Babylon. Others regard
this book as an allegory, such as Bertholdt and Rosenmiiller,
Gesenius, and Winer—an allegory based upon the Phoeni¬
cian mythus of Hercules and the Sea-monster. Less sup-
posed that all difficulty might be removed by imagining that
Jonah, when thrown into the sea, was taken up by a ship
having a large fish for a figure-head—a theory somewhat
more pleasing than the rancid hypothesis of Anton, who
fancied that the prophet took reiuge in the interior of a
dead whale, floating near the spot where he was cast over
board. De Wette regards the story as not a true history,
yet not a mere fiction ; its material being derived from po¬
pular legends, and wrought up with the design of making a
didactic work. But many regard it as a mere fiction with
a moral design—the grotesque coinage of a Hebrew ima¬
gination. This opinion, variously modified, seems to be
that of Semler, Michaelis, Herder, Staudlin, Eichhorn, Au¬
gust!, Meyer, Pareau, and Maurer.
These hypotheses are all vague and baseless, and do not
merit a special refutation. Endeavouring to free us from
one difficulty they plunge us into others yet more intricate
and perplexing. Much profane wit has been expended on
the miraculous means of Jonah’s deliverance, very unneces¬
sarily and very absurdly. The species of marine animal is
not defined, and the word is often used to specify, not the
genus whale, but any large fish or sea-monster. There is
little ground for the supposition of Bishop Jebb, that the
asylum of Jonah was not in the stomach of a whale, but in
a cavity of its throat, which, according to naturalists, is a
very capacious receptacle, sufficiently large, as Captain
Scoresby asserts, to contain a merchant ship’s jolly-boat full
of men. Since the days of Bochart it has been a common
opinion that the fish was of the shark species, Lamia canis
carcharias, or “ sea-dog ” (Bochart, Op. iii. 72; Calmet’s
2
JON
Jones, Dissertation sur Jon) Entire human bodies have been
Inigo, found in some fishes of this kind. I he stomach, too, has
no influence on any living substance admitted into it.
The Book of Jonah is a simple narrative, with the excep¬
tion of the prayer or thanksgiving in chap. ii. Its style and
mode of narration are uniform. There are no traces ot
compilation, as Nactigall supposed ; neither is the prayer, as
De Wette imagines, improperly borrowed from some other
sources. That prayer contains, indeed, not only imagery
peculiar to itself, but also such imagery as at once was sug¬
gested to the mind of a pious Hebrew preserved in circum¬
stances of extreme jeopardy. There was little reason either
for dating the composition of this book later than the age
of Jonah, or for supposing it the production of another than
the prophet himself. The Chaldaeisms, which Jahn and
others find, may be accounted for by the nearness of the
canton of Zebulon, to which Jonah belonged, to the northern
territory, whence by national intercourse Aramaic peculi¬
arities might be insensibly borrowed. Gesenius and Ber-
tholdt place it before the exile ; Jahn and Koester after it.
Rosenmiiller supposes the author may have been a con¬
temporary of Jeremiah ; Hitzig postpones it to the period
of the Maccabees. Apocryphal prophecies ascribed to
Jonah may be found in the pseudo-Epiphanius (De Vitis
Proph. c. 16), and the Chronic. Paschale, p. 149. Vari¬
ous spots have been pointed out as the place of his sepulchre,
such as Mosul in the East, and Gath-hepher in Palestine;
while the so-called Epiphanius speaks of his retreating to
Tyre and being buried there in the tomb of Cenezaeus,
judge of Israel.
Among the numerous commentators on Jonah may be
noticed J. Gerhard, Annot. in Proph. Am. et Jon., Jkc.,
Frag. 1692; Lessing, Observat. in Vatic. Jon. 1782 ;
Grimm, Der Proph. Jionas af. Neue Ubersetz, 1798 ; For-
biger, Prolusio, &c., 1827; Krahmer, Das B. Jon. Hist.
Krit. untersucht, Cassel, 1839.
JONES, Inigo, a celebrated architect, often but absurdly
called “ the English Palladio” was born in London in 1572.
His father was a respectable cloth-worker in the neighbour¬
hood of St Paul’s. Little is known of Jones’ early years.
According to some accounts he was apprenticed to a joiner ;
according to others, he received a liberal education. This
much is certain, however, that while still very young he
exhibited a great turn for drawing. Some of his designs
fell into the hands of William, Earl of Pembroke, who was
so much pleased with them that he supplied the draughts¬
man with the means of prosecuting his art-studies abroad
for three or four years. Thus provided, Jones travelled
through France, Germany, and Italy, carefully examining
the best specimens of ancient and modern architecture, and
taking measurements and drawings of such as struck his
fancy. His progress was of course slow, as every important
building, or at least every style had to be studied separately.
He had left home without any training for the art-world
that now began to open up before him. The Grecian or¬
ders had been forgotten in England, it indeed they had ever
been known there ; and the Italian orders had never been
introduced, except in fragmentary details. I his though a
misfortune for England was an advantage to Jones. I he
popular Tudor style had begun to fall into disrepute from
the many corruptions that had crept into it, and no other
had arisen to take its place. To the fact that Jones now
stepped in and supplied a long-felt want he owed the fame
which he enjoyed in his own life-time, as well as in succeed¬
ing ages, and his nick-name (for it is nothing more) of “ the
English Palladio.” In 1604, on the invitation of Christian
IV., Jones migrated from Italy to Denmark, and is said to
have there furnished the plans'for the two royal palaces of
Rosenborg and Fredericksborg. These edifices are both
still extant, and if they really are due to their reputed archi¬
tect, merely confirm the idea of his mediocrity. Iheir
JON
authenticity, however, is more than suspicious. In the fol- Jones,
lowing year Christian used his interest on Jones’ behalf with John Paul,
his brother-in-law, James I. of England ; and Jones on re-
turning to his native country was kindly received at court.
Besides being appointed architect to the Queen and Prince
Henry, he was entrusted with the conduct of the masques,
then a favourite court amusement. From the time, thought,
and money, expended on these displays, they seem to have
been little inferior in splendour to those magnificent fetes
afterwards given at Versailles by Louis XIV. Ben Jonson
supplied the poetry ; Jones the designs and decorations;
skilful composers the music; while the royal family and the
flower of the young nobles danced in the interludes. The
best part of Jones’ time was squandered on these shows,
and accordingly none of his greater works can be referred
to this period of his life. In 1612 he paid a second visit to
Italy, and there learned the defects of the bastard style of
mingled Greek and Gothic which his half-educated taste
had'led him too often to adopt. On his return home he
was made surveyor-general of the royal buildings, and be¬
gan to draw the designs for a new palace at Whitehall.
The plans of the whole work, which is undoubtedly Jones’
chef d’ceuvre have been published along with many other of
his drawings ; but the only part of the proposed palace that
was ever built is the Banqueting House. While the build¬
ing was still in progress, Jones was commissioned by his
royal patron to examine and report upon Stonehenge. He
set about this task with a zeal far beyond its importance,
and came to the startling conclusion that these vast and
shapeless masses of stone were the ruins of a Roman tem¬
ple. Posterity has only to regret that so much time and
ingenuity should have been thrown away on such a solution
of the mystery. Jones’ next work was the restoration of
old St Paul’s. He renewed the sides with very bad Gothic,
and completed his blunder with a splendid Corinthian por¬
tico. Both were much admired in their day, as were also
his designs for the river-front of Somerset House. Not less
bepraised were the arcade and church of St Paid, Covent
Garden—“ two structures,” says Walpole, “ of which I
want taste to see the beauties. In the arcade there is no¬
thing remarkable ; the pilasters are as arrant and homely
stripes as any plasterer could make. Ihe barn-roof over
the portico of the church strikes my eyes with as little idea
of dignity and beauty as it would do if it covered nothing
but a*barn.” With reference to the church Quatremere de
Quincey, an upholder of Jones declares that the most me¬
morable thing about it is the repute in which it is held.
Surgeons’ Hall, Lindsay House, Shaftesbury House, and
many others both in London and the provinces, attest at
once the fertility of their designer’s pencil and the unculti¬
vated taste of his employers. Scotland only boasts of two
buildings in which Jones is said to have had a hand ; these
are, Heriot’s Hospital in Edinburgh, and Glammis Castle
in Forfarshire. His claims to the first are now held to be
apocryphal; and such repairs as he executed on the second,
add little to his credit.
When the civil war broke out Jones clung faithfully to
his royal master and his party. Besides being a courtier, he
was also a Roman Catholic, and therefore doubly hateful to
the victorious Parliamentarians. The heavy fines which he
was forced to pay failed to shake his loyalty or his faith, and
he died, heart-broken and poor, July 21,1651, in his seventy-
ninth year. Many of his designs were published at inter¬
vals after his death by Kent, Colin Campbell, and Isaac
Ware ; and his Notes on Palladio were published in an edi¬
tion of that architect’s works in 1714.
Jones, John Paul, was born in 1747, at Arbigland,
in the parish of Kirkbean and stewartry of Kirkcudbright.
He was a natural son of Craig of Arbigland; but his re¬
puted father was John Paul, a gardener in that gentleman’s
service. The agnomen of Jones was assumed by himselt
JON
Jones, at the outset of what may be called his public career. At
William, the age of twelve he went to sea, and traded forborne years
to America. In the course of these voyages he made him¬
self so thorough a master of seamanship and navigation,
that, according to a local account, “ he was allowed to be
unmatched on that coast (the west coast of Scotland) for
skill in sea matters. For some time he was engaged in
the slave-trade, from which, however, after a few voyages,
he retired in disgust. On his way back to England the
captain and mate of the vessel in which he was, both died.
At the request of those on board, Jones took the command,
and brought the vessel safe into port. For this service, the
owners made him captain of the ship, and in a few years he
realized a handsome fortune. In 1773 he settled in Vir¬
ginia on a property which had fallen to him on the death
of his elder brother, a planter and merchant in that state.
When the war of the American Independence broke out,
he offered his sword to the revolted colonies, was made
captain of a small ship of war, and in six vveeks had made
no fewer than sixteen prizes. In 1777 he set out for France,
and was appointed to the “ Kanger,” with which he made a
descent on the north coast of England, seized the fort of
Whitehaven, burnt some of the shipping, and for some
weeks kept the adjoining shores of England and Scotland
in constant alarm with his single ship. Two years later he
set sail on a similar expedition to the east coast, reached
the Firth of Forth, and very nearly executed his threat of
burning every ship in the harbour of Leith. A strong
wind drove him out to sea, and saved the town. Altering
his tack, he turned his prow southwards, and off Flam-
borough Head fell in with the homeward-bound British fleet
from the Baltic, convoyed by two powerful men-of-war.
After a desperate and bloody battle, one of these struck its
flag to Jones’ own ship, which was itself so much shattered in
the action, that it went to the bottom next day. This vic¬
tory raised his fame to its acme ; and on his arrival in Paris
he was presented by Louis XVI. with a splendid sword,
enhanced in value by a very flattering inscription. For a
while he reigned as the lion of the day in Paris, followed
the fashions, and desired to be thought a man of ton. An
Englishman then resident in the French capital described him
as “a smart little man of thirty-six; speaks but little French,
and appears to be an extraordinary genius; a poet as well
as a hero.” A contemporary Scottish account describes
him as a “short, thick, little fellow, about 5 feet 8 inches
in height, of a dark swarthy complexion.” Jones, it seems,
had already wrought hard to supply the defects of a neglected
education, and talks in his letters of the “ midnight studies”
in which he was then engaged. On his return to America,
Congress voted him a splendid gold medal, and passed a
resolution commending his “ zeal, prudence, and intre¬
pidity.” When peace was concluded, Jones returned to
France as American agent for prize-money. A few years
later he entered the Russian service with the title of rear-
admiral, and was in the fair way of rising still higher when
the jealousies and petty intrigues of his brother officers in¬
duced him to quit it altogether. It was in vain that Catha¬
rine tried to retain him by temptations of no ordinary value.
He returned once more to Paris, where the great events of
the Revolution prevented him from getting a hearing for
his claims. The last days of his life were spent in poverty
and neglect, embittered by lingering and painful diseases.
An attack of dropsy finally carried him off, July 18, 1792.
Jones, William, an eminent divine of the Church of Eng-
mnd, was born at Lowick, in Northamptonshire, in 1726.
He received his education at the Charter-House and Uni-
™sity College, Oxford. He became in succession vicar
of Bethersden, Kent, in 1764; rector of Pluckley, perpetual
curate of Nayland, Suffolk, and rector of Hollingbourne,
Kent, in 1798. He took up his residence at Nayland, in
1776, and remained there till his death, in 1800. He was
JON 3
an intimate friend of Bishop Horne, with whom he was asso- Jones, Sir
ciated in the defence of John Hutchinson’s philosophical and William,
theological tenets, and whose biography he wrote in 1795.
Although best known for his book on the Trinity, Jones
employed his pen with considerable felicity on political and
other subjects. Bishop Horsley eulogizes him for his
“ quick penetration, extensive learning, and sound piety,
and for the talent he had of writing upon the deepest sub¬
jects to the plainest understandings.”
His works were published, in 12 vols. 8vo, in 1801. The
theological and miscellaneous works were republished in 6
vols. 8vo, in 1810. In addition, two posthumous volumes
of sermons were published in 1830. The principal treatises
are Ills Catholic Doctvinc oj' the Tvinity jpvovcd Jvonx
iScviptuTc y A full Answer to Bishop Clayton!s Essay on
Spirit; Remarks on the Confessional; Zoologia Ethica ;
A Course of Lectures on the Figurative Language of Scrip¬
ture; An Essay on the Church; An Essay on the First
Principles of Natural Philosophy, and a number of po¬
litical tracts written after the commencement of the French
Revolution. Prefixed to the first volume is a life of the
author (by William Stevens). Jones of Nayland was the
originator of the British Britic.
Jones, Sir William, an illustrious Orientalist, lawyer,
and general scholar, w^as born in London, September 28,
1746. Fie was the son of William Jones, a man of some
note in his day, and the author of several treatises on the
higher mathematics. This parent died when his son was
only three years old; and the care of the child’s up-bring¬
ing devolved upon his mother, a woman of strong sense and
considerable accomplishments. At the age of seven, young
Jones was sent to Harrow, and remained at that school for
ten years. Though his studies were on one occasion in¬
terrupted for a twelvemonth, he easily and far outstripped
all the lads of his standing. The head master himself was
so strongly impressed with the idea of his favourite pupil's
intellectual force, that he often said that “ if Jones were
left naked and friendless on Salisbury Plain, he would never¬
theless find the road to fame and riches.” Another head
master was heard to assert that Jones knew more Greek,
and was a greater proficient in the idiom of that language
than himself. During the latter years of his attendance at
Harrow he began to dip into matters beyond the classic
routine of the school. He mastered the Arabic alphabet,
and made sufficient progress in Hebrew to be able to read
the language with some ease. During his vacations he
addressed himself to French and Italian. To perfect him¬
self in most of these tongues he spent much time in com¬
posing in them. In 1764, being then in his eighteenth year,
he went to Oxford, where, at University College, he con¬
tinued to study as diligently and successfully as ever. The
Eastern languages continued to engage his thoughts, and a
native of Aleppo, whom he discovered in London, rendered
him effective aid in his researches. After graduation he
joined the family of Earl Spencer, as tutor to Lord Althorp,
and resided with that nobleman for five years. A fellow
ship conferred upon him at this time placed him beyond
the fear of want, and enabled him to prosecute his studies
without distraction. His fame now began to spread as one
of the first orientalists of his age. In 1768, while still with
Earl Spencer, he had been requested by Christian VII. of
Denmark to translate into French a Persian Life of Nadir
Shah. The work appeared in 1770, and its value was en¬
hanced by the treatise on Eastern Poetry, and the trans¬
lations from the Odes of Hafiz (both written in French),
which accompanied it. His Persian Grammar, published in
the following year, is still the standard text-book on that
subject. Having long contemplated with pleasure “the
stately edifice of the laws of England,” Jones now resolved
to study for the bar. He had hardly begun when he found
himself called upon to defend his university from the mean
4 JONES, SIR
Jones, Sir and unjust aspersions of the French orientalist, Anquetil du
William. Perron, in his introduction to the Zend-avesta. 1 he de-
fence was written in the same language as the attack; and
the French themselves have never denied that in the learn¬
ing as well as the bitterness of the controversy, their coun¬
tryman was left far behind. Jones’ pamphlet was anony¬
mous- and its French was so racy and idiomatic that many
foreign savans not acquainted with the details of the quar¬
rel attributed it to some bel esprit of the French capital.
In the following year he published a small volume of poems,
chiefly translations from various eastern tongues. 1 his
work was a sort of harbinger of a far greater and more im¬
portant one, which he gave to the world in 1 774, under
the title of Poeseos Asiatics Commentariorum Libri Sex.
His design was to familiarize the European mind with the
oriental modes of thought and styles, and the specimens of
translation from the Hebrew, Arabic, 1 urkish, and Persian,
show that, with this kind of learning, rare even among the
most erudite men, the writer combined a taste rare even
among litterateurs. He extracted so skilfully, and translated
so adroitly, that the Eastern writers quoted by him acquired
under his pen a charm and purity which one looks for in
vain in their own works. Called to the bar in this same year,
Jones devoted himself for a time exclusively to legal studies.
A patriotic feeling was mingled with this resolve. “ Had I
lived at Rome or Athens,” he said, “ I should have preferred
the labours, studies, and dangers of their orators and illustrious
citizens, connected as they were with banishment and even
death, to the groves of the poets or the gardens of the phi¬
losophers. Here I adopt the same resolution. The con¬
stitution of England is in no respect inferior to that of
Rome or Athens.” Carrying out this design, he tried to
obtain a seat in parliament. But his politics were too libe¬
ral and too hostile to the government of the day. He was
known to have expressed cordial sympathy with the Ame¬
rican colonies in their revolt and War of Independence. He
was strongly opposed to the slave-trade, and no less strong
in favour of electoral and parliamentary reform.
It was no wonder then, that, when he stood for Oxford
in 1780, he found his chances of success so small that he
withdrew from the contest. His political views and lean¬
ings he had made known at various times in a fragmentary
manner in his Principles of Government ; Plan of a Na¬
tional Defence ; Enquiry into the Legal Mode of Suppress¬
ing Riots ; and other short essays, reprinted in the collec¬
tive edition of his works. But though he was always writ¬
ing and speaking in favour of liberty and free government,
he was no party man, and was desirous, he said, of being
transported 5000 leagues from all the fatal discord of
contending politicians. His wishes were soon gratified.
Through the influence of Lord Ashburton he was appointed,
in 1783, a judge in the supreme court of judicature at Fort-
William in Bengal. On this occasion he was knighted,
and a few weeks after these two-fold honours he married
Miss Shipley, the eldest daughter of the Bishop of St Asaph.
Not long before he set sail for India he had resumed his
Oriental studies, and in 1782 had published an English ver¬
sion of the seven old Arabic poems known as the Moalla-
cah or Suspended, so called from having hung on the walls
of the great temple of Mecca, ever since the death of the
prophet. On arriving in India he entered upon his judicial
duties with all the advantages of a high reputation, unsul¬
lied integrity, disinterested benevolence, and unwearied
perseverance. One of his first acts on landing, was to seek
out such persons witnin his reach as had pursued a line of
research similar to his own. These he formed into a so¬
ciety for inquiring into the history and antiquities, the arts,
sciences, and literature of Asia. He was chosen the first
president of this learned body, and after an interval of four
years, that is to say, in 1788, saw through the press the
first volume of its Memoirs. To these Asiatic Researches
WILLIAM.
European scholars owe a very large share of their knowledge Jones, Sii
of the religion, antiquities, and history of the Hindus. The William,
papers contributed by the president himself on these and kin- '•"•v-"*''
dred subjects were of immense value. Sir William’s next care
was to master Sanscrit, the law language of the country.
Till his time the British judges had not seen fit to take this
precaution ; and thus important powers were vested in the
pundits, who dealt out Hindu law as they pleased. To en¬
sure the better administration of justice Sir William next
offered to government to make a complete digest of Hindu
and Mohammedan law, and to translate it when made.
Government closed with the offer, and Jones began the
work; which, however, he did not live long enough to
finish. It devolved on Mr H. T. Colebrooke to carry out
the imperfect design ; and the Digest of Hindoo Laws was
issued under his superintendence at Calcutta in 1800.
This compilation was based on the famous ordinances of
Menou or Manu, a very ancient Indian legislator. The
ordinances themselves, containing a complete system of
civil and religious duty, were translated by Sir William in
1794. Not the least valuable service which he rendered
to Hindu literature, was his English version of the Sacon-
tald, or The Fatal Ring, a dramatic poem of Kalidasa.
Nor should we overlook his translation of the Hitopadesa,
the mine from which the celebrated fables of Pilpay are
believed to have been taken. These literary occupations,
severe and engrossing as they were, were only the “ par-
erga” of Sir William’s life. His primary duties were judi¬
cial ; and he performed these with a laborious and conscien¬
tious exactitude beyond all praise. As his biographer re¬
marks, “ the inflexible integrity with which he discharged
the solemn duty of his station will long be remembered in
Calcutta, both by Europeans and natives.” His unremitting
labours at last undermined his health, and he was prepar¬
ing to return to England, when a sudden illness, neglected
at first, carried him off". He died at Calcutta, April 27,
1794, in the forty-eighth year of his age.
In the course of his comparatively short life Sir William
Jones condensed an amount of hard and honest labour
that seems scarcely compatible with the limited faculties ot
the human mind. His powers, however, were those of an
acquirer and exponent rather than of an original thinker.
Every thing that came before him to be learned he mas¬
tered with equal ease. Selecting languages as his special
sphere, he mastered Greek and Latin, while Italian, French,
Spanish, Portuguese, and German were almost as familiar
to him as his mother-tongue. Of the Eastern dialects those
in which he was most at home were Sanscrit, Arabic, and
Persian. It may be doubted, indeed, if there ever was
any European so deeply learned in the literatures of these
tongues as he. Hebrew, Turkish, and even Chinese like¬
wise fell within his range; while there were many other
languages of which he had a great, though less thorough
knowledge. Of his contemporaries Mezzofanti alone was
his superior as a linguist; but in general force of mind, and
in the power of making his knowledge available, either to
himself or others, the Englishman was vastly superior to
the Italian. His range was also infinitely wider. Had he
devoted to the sciences the time and labour he bestowed
on the languages, he would have attained equal eminence
in them. As it was, he had a wide acquaintance with ma¬
thematics and chemistry; and in his latter years botany
became a favourite study. “ He seems to have acted,”
says his biographer, “ on this maxim, that whatever had
been attained was attainable by him; and he was never
observed to overlook or neglect any opportunity of adding
to his accomplishments, or to his knowledge. When in
India his studies began with the dawn, and, in seasons of
intermission from professional duty, to have been continued
throughout the day. Meditation retraced and confirmed
what reading had collected or investigation discovered.”
5
JON
JON
Jonkoping
II
Jonson,
Ben.
He was very careful in his distribution of his time.
Edward Coke had written—
“ Six hours in sleep, in laws grave study six,
Four spend in prayer, the rest on nature fix.”
Jones altered the distich thus:—
Sir
“ Seven hours to law, to soothing slumber seven,
Ten to the world allot, and all to heaven.”
It is much to be regretted that Jones did not concen¬
trate his powers. Much as he certainly did make out of
his vast attainments, he might have made far more, had he
chosen, instead of continually increasing his stores, to think
out and reason upon those already amassed. His intellec¬
tual force became weakened by diffusion over too great a
variety of objects. His weakness manifests itself in his
judgments of men and questions, as well as in his style,
which is often languid and heavy. His numerous contri¬
butions to the Asiatic Researches, valuable and instructive
as they are, owe more of their interest to their subject-mat¬
ter than to their setting; and the same may be said of
nearly all his writings that bear upon the East. Nor can
it be fairly said that as a poet he has any claim to original
genius. His verse is often lofty and sonorous, and is not
without a certain nobility of thought. Sometimes it even
glows with the semblance of passion. Even his best pieces,
however, are not much more than showy rhetoric or bril¬
liant imitation. But with all these deductions there re¬
mains a great deal in the writings of Jones that is worthy
of our admiration. The man can never be estimated too
highly. As a judge, as a scholar, as a citizen, and as a
friend, there is hardly any Englishman of whom his country
has greater reason to be proud.
In addition to the works already mentioned, Jones trans¬
lated the speeches of Isaeus on the Right of Inheritance at
Athens, and two Mohammedan essays on the same subject,
some of the Tales and Fables of Nizami, and considerable
portions of the Vedas. There have been two complete
editions of Jones’ works, one in 6 vols. 4to, 1799, and the
other in 13 vols. 8vo, 1807. To the latter of these was
appended a life of the author by Lord Teignmouth, to which
we are chiefly indebted for the facts of the foregoing nar¬
rative.
JONKOPING, a laen in the southern part of Sweden,
bounded on the N. by Mariestad, Lake Wetter, and Lin-
koping, E. by Kalmar, S. by Wexio, and W. by Halmstad
and Wenersberg. Area 4275 square miles. A great part
of the surface is rocky and mountainous, but other parts
are of considerable fertility, producing grain sufficient for
the wants of the people, as well as potatoes, hemp, flax, and
buckwheat. It is rich in minerals, particularly iron, which
is worked to a considerable extent. The woods are ex¬
tensive and furnish deals, pitch, tar, and potash for export¬
ation ; cattle, butter, and cheese, are also among its exports.
Pop. (1850) 163,426.
Jonkoping, the capital of the above laen, is situated
at the southern extremity of Lake Wetter, 80 miles E. of
Gottenborg. It is generally well built, with wide and re¬
gular streets; and has a handsome church, a guildhall,
arsenal, theatre, and grammar school. Chief manufactures,
woollen and linen goods, leather, and tobacco. Pop. 4742.
JONSON, Ben, an eminent English dramatist, the con¬
temporary and friend of Shakspeare, was born at West¬
minster in 1573. His family was originally of the south of
Scotland, no doubt cadets of the old border clan of John¬
stone, of which the Lairds of Lochwood, ancestors of the
Marquisses of Annandale, were the chiefs. His grandfather
had migrated from Annandale to Carlisle, and afterwards
entered into the service of Henry VIII. His father suf¬
fered confiscation and imprisonment under Queen Mary
for his adherence to the Protestant faith; but living into
the happy reign of Elizabeth, he became a preacher and
survived till 1573. Benjamin, or Ben (Ins own familiar Jonson,
abbreviation) was a posthumous son, born about a month Ben*
after his father’s decease. His mother’s name has not
transpired, but from an incident related by her son, she
must have been a remarkable person, with more of the
spirit of a Roman matron than that of an Englishwoman
who had been a minister’s wife. In 1604, Jonson, accord¬
ing to his own narration to Drummond of Hawthornden,
was accused of writing, in conjunction with Chapman and
Marston, against the Scottish nation, in a play named East¬
ward Hoe. Sir James Murray had laid a complaint on the
subject before the king; and the report was that the offend¬
ing dramatists would have their ears and noses cut. The
charge was abandoned ; and Jonson in congratulation of his
escape, banquetted all his friends. Camden, Selden, and
others were present, and “ at the midst of the feast,” he
says “ his old mother drank to him, and showed him a
paper which she had (if the sentence had taken execution)
to have mixed in the prison among his drink, which wras
full of lusty strong poison, and that she was no churl, she
told, she minded first to have drunk of it herself.” This
high-spirited dame is said to have married again shortly
after the death of Jonson’s father, her second husband being
a bricklayer, living in Hartshorn Lane (now Northumber¬
land Street) Charing Cross. Fuller, who mentions this
fact, does not give the second husband’s name, but Malone
and Gifford, finding that a Mrs Margaret Jonson was
married in 1575 at St Martin’s-in-the Fields (where Ben
Jonson, when a child, is known to have attended school),
to a man named Thomas Fowler, concluded that this was
the marriage of Jonson’s mother. Recent researches,
however, prove that the Mrs Fowler married in 1575 was
dead before 1595, whereas, Jonson’s mother was living, as
we have seen, in 1604. We have consequently yet to as¬
certain the name of Jonson’s stepfather, if such a relation¬
ship really existed. All that he tells us himself is that he
was brought up poorly, sent to school by a friend, and after¬
wards put to a craft which he could not endure. The school
in which he was placed by the generous unnamed friend,
was the famous Westminster School, then taught by Cam¬
den, the learned antiquary and historian, to whom Jonson
has expressed his gratitude both in prose and verse. The
disagreeable occupation to which he was removed was that
of a bricklayer ; and Fuller states that Ben assisted in build¬
ing part of Lincoln’s Inn, having a trowel in his hand and
a book in his pocket. The trowel w'as soon thrown aside;
Ben enlisted in the army and served during one or two
campaigns in the Low Countries. In his epigram To True
Soldiers he boasts that he did not shame the great profes¬
sion of arms; and on one occasion, in the face of both
camps, he killed an enemy and took opima spolia from
him. On his return to England, he “ betook himself,” he
says, “ to his wonted studies.” He is said to have entered
himself of St John’s College, Cambridge, but there is no
evidence of his academical career, and the statement may
have arisen from the fact that in advanced life, as a com¬
pliment to his scholarship and dramatic genius, he was
created Master of Arts in both universities. In his lines
addressed to Camden he emphatically says:—
“ Camden, most reverend head ! to whom I owe
All that I am in arts—all that I know.”
Jonson was not the man to have concealed his university
education had he received that distinction. Before he was
twenty years of age he was married, and earning a preca¬
rious subsistence by acting at the Curtain Theatre in
Shoreditch, and writing for the stage. At this time Lon¬
don and its suburbs swarmed with low theatres, and the
licentious character of the performances led the privy
council to issue orders for their suppression. The players,
supported by the populace, kept up a constant war with the
6 J O N S 0 N.
Jonson. civic rulers, but Jonson fortunately obtained a better field
for the display of his dramatic talents. As an actor he
seems to have failed. He was of too rugged and unbend¬
ing a nature for that plastic profession, and his person
would seem to have been unsuitable, as he mentions his
“ mountain belly and rocky face,” the results perhaps of
his subsequent deep potations of Canary. In 1598 his
comedy of Every Man in his Humour was performed by
the Lord Chamberlain’s servants at the Globe Theatre.
Shakspeare was one of the original performers, and, ac¬
cording to a tradition mentioned by Rowe, it was in conse¬
quence of his friendly recommendation that the play was
accepted and brought on the stage. The peculiar merits
of this comedy and the leading characteristics of Jonson’s
dramatic genius, have already been described by one to
whom universal homage is due (see the article Drama),
and we need only remark that before the appearance of this
first play of Jonson’s, English comedy can scarcely be said
to have existed. Shakspeare drew none of his scenes from
the domestic life and manners of his countrymen, and the
delineations of Nash, Greene, and other contemporary
dramatic writers, were either gross caricatures or lifeless
inanities. Jonson gave the true form and pressure of
English society, in which individual character was developed
and a succession of natural and probable incidents repre¬
sented. “ He had learned the principles of comedy,” says
Mr Hallam, “ from Plautus and Terence;” true, but his
adaptation of those principles to English characters and
manners was the happy conception of genius wrought out
with consummate skill and judgment. Jonson never im¬
proved upon his first work. His Bobadil and Kiteiy are
his most successful inventions in the way of comic por¬
traiture; and though his later comedies,—The Alchemist,
Volpone, or The Fox, and The Silent Woman,—display
greater affluence of dramatic powers and language, and a
wider range of character and incident, they depart wholly
from the simplicity of nature, and are disfigured by pedantic
and over-laboured description.
The brilliant commencement of Jonson’s career as an
author was clouded by an event which threw him into
prison, and almost brought him, as he said, to the gallows.
He quarrelled with a brother actor named Gabriel Spencer;
a duel ensued, and Jonson killed his antagonist, though the
latter, as he stated, was provided with a sword 10 inches
longer than his own. Henslowe, a theatrical manager,
writing to his son-in-law, Edward Alleyn (the successful
tragedian and founder of Dulwich College), on the 26th of
September 1598, thus quaintly describes the unfortunate
accident:—“ Since you were with me I have lost one of my
company, which hurteth me greatly,—that is Gabriel; for
he is slain in Hoxton Fields by the hands of Benjamin
Jonson, bricklayer.” This allusion to Jonson’s former em¬
ployment was no doubt made in contempt of the successful
duellist, who was an inferior actor to Spencer. In prison
Jonson was visited by a Roman Catholic priest, who con¬
verted him to the Romish Church, and he remained in that
communion twelve years. His literary studies seem not to
have been interrupted by his incarceration, which probably
did not last long. In 1599 he produced his Every Man
Out of his Humour, a comedy which attracted Queen
Elizabeth to the theatre; and in 1600 and 1601 two other
plays proceeded from his ready pen—Cynthia!s Bevels, and
The Poetaster. In the latter he satirised his contempo¬
raries, Decker and Marston; and Decker retaliated by a
counter-satire, The Satiromastix, or the Untrussing of a
Humorous Poet. The angry dramatists were, however,
soon reconciled; and, on the accession of James I., when
Jonson was desired by the court and the city to prepare a
masque or pageant for the reception of the king, he selected
Decker as his associate in the task. Previous to this (1603)
Jonson’s tragedy oft Sejanusyms, brought out at the Globe
Theatre, and Shakspeare is again mentioned as one of the Jonson.
performers (the last time that his name occurs as an actor).
Jonson’s tragedy was ill received by the audience. He had
copied largely from Tacitus, to evince his “integrity to the
story,” as he relates, and to save himself from those “com¬
mon torturers ” who criticised his plots, and whom he com¬
pares to swine rooting up the muses’ gardens. The tor¬
turers, however, were not propitiated by this sacrifice to
historic truth, for Sejanus suffered nearly as much violence
from the London audience as its subject did from the rage
of the people of Rome. Some one had assisted Jonson in
the composition of the tragedy; he threw out the contri¬
butions of this unknown “ second hand,” and the play being
remodelled, was brought out with success. It is a heavy
but grand and imposing classic drama.
The reign of James was eminently propitious to the stage.
A few days after his arrival in London the king took the
Lord Chamberlain’s players into his pay and patronage;
the queen adopted the Earl of Worcester’s company; and
Prince Henry that of the Lord Admiral. The new sovereign,
as appears from Mr Peter Cunningham’s Extracts from the
Accounts of the Revels at Court (Shakspeare Society, 1842),
saw five times as many plays in a year as Queen Elizabeth
was accustomed to witness. Jonson, though unfortunate
in his play of Eastward Hoe, atoned for the imagined insult
to royalty and Scotland by assiduous and successful court
to James, and participated liberally in his majesty’s bounty
and favour. Between the years 1605 and 1618 he appears
to have been incessantly employed either in the production
of what may be termed legitimate dramas, or in the pre¬
paration of masques for the court and principal nobility, in
which his classic impersonations and fine lyrics were aided
by music and machinery, and by the effects of splendid
dresses and decorations. In these courtly entertainments
Jonson was assisted by the inventive and artistic skill of
Inigo Jones. During the period we have mentioned Jonson
produced his Volpone, or The Fox (1605) ; the Silent Wo¬
man (1609) ; Catiline, a classic tragedy resembling his
Sejanus (1611); Bartholomew Fair (1614) ; The Devil is
an Ass (1616); and his masques of Blackness, of Queens,
of Beauty, Oberon, Christmas, &c. Of Jonson’s remunera¬
tion from these gorgeous masques, we have no account.
The cost of Oberon, or Prince Henry’s Masque, is given in
the Court Revels, and it appears to have amounted to no
less than L.1412, 6s. lOd. The mercers and silkmen have
the principal share; and, while only L.16 were awarded to
Inigo Jones as “ deviser,” the tailors’ bill was L.142, 13s. 6d.
As long as King James lived Jonson produced a masque
every year on Twelfth Night, and received a pension of
100 merks. He was now at the height of his popularity
as a dramatist, though experiencing frequent reverses as to
public favour and the reception given to his plays, all of
which he affected to despise and condemn. He bore him¬
self loftily to the world, but had gathered round him a knot
of young admirers, of whom he was the assumed poetical
father, and who were said to be “ sealed of the tribe of
Ben.” The scene of their festivities was a great room,
“The Apollo,” in the Devil Tavern, near Temple Bar;
and the Leges Conviviales, or rules of the club, were drawn
up by Jonson in Latin, and painted in gold letters on a
board over the chimney-piece. (This curious relic is still
preserved in the Messrs Child’s banking-house.) Jonson
was also a frequenter of the Mermaid Tavern in Friday
Street, where he had higher intellects to contend with, as
Shakspeare, Beaumont and Fletcher, Selden, Carew, Donne,
Raleigh, &c. The joyous meetings of the Elizabethan wits
have been immortalized by Beaumont in the well-known
lines addressed to Jonson, commencing—
“ What things have we seen
Done at the Mermaid! heard words that have been
So nimble and so full of subtle flame,” &c.
JOG
Jonson. Viewing in fancy these “wit contests,” Fuller compared
—Jonson to a Spanish great galleon, and Shakspeare to an
English man-of-war. “ Master Jonson, like the former,
was built far higher in learning; solid but slow' in his per¬
formances. Shakspeare, like the latter, lesser in bulk, but
lighter in sailing, could turn with all tides, and take advan¬
tage of all winds, by the quickness of his wit and invention.”
Who but must regret that the Mermaid had not a Boswell
to give these scenes a life through all ages ?
In 1613 Ben Jonson visited France in the capacitv of
governor to Sir Walter Raleigh’s son. This was an office
for which the dramatist’s habits peculiarly unfitted him ; and
he related himself that the “ knavish youth ” on one occa¬
sion caused him to be drunken, laid him on a car, and had
him drawn by pioneers through the streets, at every corner
showing his governor stretched out! While in Paris he
was introduced to Cardinal du Perron, who showed him his
translations of Virgil, on which Ben pronounced the com¬
pendious criticism that “they were naught.” In 1618 he
undertook a more memorable journey to Scotland, resolving
to walk all the way both going and returning; which feat,—
remarkable in a man forty-five years of age, and of bulky
frame,—he successfully accomplished. He spent some
months in Edinburgh and Leith, and towards the close of
the year went on a visit to Drummond of Haw'thornden.
In the course of conversation, Jonson, over his cups, was
characteristically free in his strictures on his contemporary
poets, and in relations of his own adventures and opinions.
Drummond took notes of the table-talk of his distinguished
guest, for which he has been accused of treachery, “ discre¬
diting the name of poet,” says Mr Procter (Barry Corn¬
wall), “and tarnishing the hospitality of his hospitable
country.” Gifford had before branded the Scottish poet
with “malignity,” and Sir Walter Scott had undertaken
his defence. A complete copy of these Notes was pub¬
lished in 1842, edited by Mr David Laing; and, so far from
condemning Drummond, we are disposed, with Mr Hallam,
to thank him for so much literary anecdote, only regreting
that his industry had not been equal to his curiosity and
fidelity, and that he had not accompanied Jonson’s reve¬
lations with explanatory circumstances. Drummond never
published the Notes, though he survived his visitor a period
of twelve years; and this fact should of itself relieve his
memory from the charge of being a traitor to his friend and
guest. In these private memoranda Jonson does not appear
to advantage. He was vain, boastful, and censorious; and
these defects, exaggerated by the influence of wine, con¬
cealed the nobler qualities which appear in his poetry and
animated his conduct. To Shakspeare, whom he has been
accused of envying and maligning, he has devoted the
highest and most discriminating tribute of love and admira¬
tion. Jonson intended to have described his journey to
Scotland, and written a “ fisher play ” on Loch Lomond.
He had collected materials from Drummond and others,
but his manuscripts were destroyed by a fire in his house,
on occasion of which he poured forth hearty execrations on
Vulcan. His spirit was indomitable; never was a more
laborious literary workman, despite his convivialities, but
he seems to have been deterred from resuming his Scottish
task, so unfortunately interrupted.
Evil days came with advance of years. In 1628 Jonson
was struck with palsy, and he seems to have been at first
neglected by the new sovereign, Charles I. He alluded to
his necessities and sufferings in the epilogue to his play,
Fhe New Sun. The audience ungenerously hissed the
play, but the king sent the dramatist a present of L.100.
Thus encouraged, Jonson ventured to solicit, as a compen¬
sation for the unjust censures and bad taste of the age, that
his yearly pension of 100 merks should be raised to pounds,
and Charles granted the petition. He added also what was
pei haps not less welcome, a tierce of Jonson’s favourite
J 0 R 7
Canary wine, which was continued yearly during his life, Jooria
and descended to his successors, the poets-laureate. The I!
annual stipend and tierce of Canary, with the produce of J°rdaen8^
plays and masques, should have secured comfort to the ^
poet’s declining years; but Ben was an improvident and
bountiful liver. In December 1631 he is found petitioning
his generous patron, the Earl of Newcastle, for such bounty
as he could spare, “in the name of good letters;” and he
enforced his claim by stating that “ the barbarous court
of aldermen had withdrawn his chandlery pension of
L.33, 6s. 8d.” Disease had not prostrated his intellect;
in 1632 and 1633 he produced two comedies and two
masques, which, though ranked by Dryden among Jonson’s
dotages, are not inferior to some of his early productions.
His last work was an unfinished pastoral drama, The Sad
Shepherd; a beautiful and highly poetical pastoral, the
precursor and prototype of Fletcher’s Faithful Shepherdess
and Milton’s Comus. Thus, in every department of poetry
except the epic, Jonson challenged and won success, if not
from his contemporaries, at least from posterity. His irre¬
pressible pedantry and overcharged “humours,” with the
grossness which was the vice of his age, repel ordinary
readers from his plays, and have banished them from the
stage; but his masculine sense, wit, observation, and fancy
(the last abounding in his exquisite lyrics and minor poems),
constitute his right to be considered a great original master
in our literature, and as second only to Shakspeare. He
died August 6, 1637, and was buried in Westminster
Abbey. A pavement stone marked the spot, inscribed
“O Rare Ben Jonson;” which was done, says Aubrey,
“at the charge of Jack Young (afterwards knighted), who,
walking there when the grave was covering, gave the fellow
eighteen pence to cut it.” This stone has since been re¬
placed by an uninteresting square, the work of some dull
son of earth, a lover of uniformity; but the brief and preg¬
nant inscription can never be forgotten, and supersedes any
more elaborate epitaph. (r. c—s.)
JOORIA, a populous and thriving sea-port of Hindustan,
in the Gujerat peninsula, belonging to the rajah of Amram.
It is situated on the Gulf of Cutch, twenty miles below
Wowamia, and carries on a considerable traffic with Man-
davee, and others places in the Gulf of Cutch, and on the
western coasts of India, Persia, and Arabia, and occasion¬
ally with Bombay. Its exports consist chiefly of cotton,
ghee, oil, and hides, to the southward, and coarse cloth for
Persia and Arabia. In return it receives spices of all sorts,
powder, lead, and cocoa-nuts. In 1808, the rajah and
principal inhabitants agreed with the Bombay government
not to permit or connive at piracy, and also to abstain from
plundering persons in distress. E. Long. 70. 22., N. Lat.
22. 40.
JOPPA. See Jalla.
JORDAENS, Jacob, a celebrated Flemish painter, was
born at Antwerp in 1594. He studied under Adam van
Oort, but his real master in the art of painting was his
fellow-student Rubens. His marriage, at a very early age,
w'ith Van Oort’s daughter prevented him from visiting Italy
as he had intended; but the master-pieces of Titian, Paul
Veronese, Caravaggio, and others, then to be seen in the
Flemish galleries, gave him a perfect knowledge of the
Italian schools without quitting his native country. Many
of these chef d'oeuvres were copied by him with such force
and beauty that Rubens entrusted him with the execution,
on a large scale, of many of his small sketches. These were
afterwards touched up by the great master, and many of
them now pass under his name. In many respects Jor-
daen’s pieces bear a great resemblance to those of his friend ;
and it is believed that, after Rubens, he is the greatest
painter in that style of the Flemish school. There is in
both the same abundance of ideas, the same knowledge of
chiar-oscuro, the same warmth of colouring, truth to nature,
—-—    J
JOB
and energy of expression ; but Jordaens wants the dignity
of thought, and is inferior in the choice of forms, the cha¬
racter of his heads, and correctness of drawing. His taste
is also not unfrequently defective. Jordaens painted with
great rapidity, and, as he lived to a great old age, Ins works
are very numerous. Many of his pieces are preserved m the
churches of the Netherlands; and the public galleries of
Saxony, France, Sweden, and England, and some of the
private collections in the last-named country, contain admi¬
rable specimens. Jordaens died at Antwerp in 1678, in
his eighty-fifth year. Dr Waagen, in his Art Treasures of
Great Britain, criticises many of Jordaens’ pieces, which
he found in all the best private collections in England.
JORDAN. See Palestine.
JORTIN, John, D.D., an English divine and miscel¬
laneous writer, whose learning and literary accomplishments
have been as unjustly overlooked by posterity as they were
ill-rewarded in his own day, was born at London in 1698.
His father, a French Protestant of Brittany, had come to
England in quest of that religious freedom which was
crushed in France when the edict of Nantes was revoked.
Educated at the Charter House, he passed thence, in due
course, to Jesus College, Cambridge; took his first degree
in 1719 ; was soon after made a fellow of his college ; and, in
1722, graduated as M.A. About this time he published,
under the title of Lusus Poetici, a small volume of Latin
poems, which were greatly admired, and are still fairly en¬
titled to rank high among modern efforts of the kind. His
merits were rewarded by his college with a living in the
country ; but after his marriage he fixed his abode in Lon¬
don, where he became known as a highly popular and use¬
ful minister. The sermons which he wrote and published
during this period are quite memorable for their acuteness
of thought and racy freshness of style. Retiring for a time
to Eastwell in Kent, to the living of which he had been
presented by the Earl of Winchelsea, he was again drawn to
London, where, in 1751, he was made rector of St Dun-
stan’s-in-the East, by his friend Archbishop Herring. Four
years later the same influence procured for him the degree
of D.D. In 1762 his friend Dr Osbaldiston, promoted in
that year to the bishopric of London, made Jortin his do¬
mestic chaplain, and besides the living of Kensington, ob¬
tained for him a prebendal stall in St Pauls. On being
made, in 1764, archdeacon of London, Jortin declined
various promotions that were afterwards put in his gift.
Fixing his residence at Kensington, he remained there till
his death, September 5, 1770, and was buried in the new
churchyard of that place.
Jortin’s most important works were his Miscellaneous
Observations upon Authors, Ancient and Modern ; Remarks
upon Ecclesiastical History; and a. Life of Lrasmus. Be¬
sides these, however, he wrote many miscellaneous criti¬
cisms,—such as those on Spenser, Milton, Tillotson, Car¬
dinal Pole, Seneca, and others. All these works display a
great amount of curious learning, besides a singular acute¬
ness of thought, expressed in terse, and often forcibly elo¬
quent language. A play of gentle satire gives a piquancy
and zest to them that keeps up and heightens the interest.
The Life of Erasmus is based on that by Le Clerc in the
Bibliotheque Choisie, and embodies a mass of notes and
digressions on the literary and ecclesiastical history of that
period. Though it can hardly be called a finished life of
Erasmus, it affords a mine of rich material, from which a
life worthy of the man might be constructed.
JORULLO, a volcano of Mexico. See Mexico.
JOSEPH, the name of two princes of the house of Haps-
burg, emperors of Germany in the eighteenth century.
Joseph I., son of Leopold L, was born in 1678, mounted
the throne of Hungary in 1689, and was soon after crowned
king of the Romans. In 1705 he succeeded his father as
Emperor of Germany. Besides the imperial dignity, he in-
J 0 s
herited the war of the Spanish succession, which, begun in Joseph II.
1701, outlasted the whole period of his reign. Studious, ||
tolerant, pious, and humane, he was of too gentle, perhaps Josephus,
weak, a spirit, to interfere personally in the conduct of the v-*-
war, yet success everywhere attended his arms and those of
his allies. Marlborough and Eugene shared between them
the honours of Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet; and
these victories, combined with the surrender of Naples, the
rescue of Turin, and the progress of the Archduke Charles
in Spain, seemed to have settled the question in favour of
Austria. In the midst of these successes, however, Joseph
died, rather suddenly, of small-pox, April 17, 1711, and
bequeathed the war and the crown to his brother Charles.
Joseph II., the eldest son of Maria Theresa and Francis
duke of Lorraine, was born March 13, 1741, was elected
king of the Romans in 1764, and, on the death of his father
in the following year, became emperor of Germany. Dur¬
ing his mother’s lifetime, he was nominally a co-regent with
her in the hereditary states of the house of Austria, and
held the command in chief of the army. But his real power
was small, as the empress-queen kept in her own hands the
administration of her vast dominions. Much of his time
was spent in travel, both in his own and adjoining countries.
More than once he visited the hereditary enemy of his
house, Frederic of Prussia, for whom he cherished an un¬
bounded admiration, and whom in his subsequent political
career he seems to have copied, or at least imitated, as his
model. Mounting the Austrian throne on the death of
Maria Theresa in 1780, he gave a loose to that spirit of in¬
novation and reform which gained for him the title of im¬
perial avant-courier of the French revolution. His reign
naturally falls into three epochs of innovation, organization,
and restoration. The first period, from 1780 to 1783, was
given up to experimental failures. The next three years
were devoted to useful governmental reforms. The third
and last period was occupied in retracing most of the steps
which he had taken in the previous periods, more especially
in the first; and the close of it was marked by the revoca¬
tion of the various edicts by which he had abolished the con¬
stitutional liberties of the several parts of the empire. Uni¬
formity became his ruling passion, and to establish it he
did not hesitate to overturn and destroy the historical and
political peculiarities of the various nations under his sceptre.
Declaring that he alone understood the wants of the country,
he issued edict after edict, many of them in the highest
degree praiseworthy in their object, but arbitrary and de¬
spotic in their operations. Disregarding the various nation¬
alities, he parcelled out his dominions into thirteen govern¬
ments, and subdivided these into circles, establishing in
each a uniform civil and judicial administration. He esta¬
blished general toleration in religious matters, suppressed
many convents, withdrew the censorship of the press from
the clergy, and forbade papal bulls to be published in his
realms without the sanction of the government. The Jews
were not only permitted to follow whatever calling they
chose, but had access allowed them to the colleges and
universities. As all these changes were introduced in total
disregard of individual and local rights and privileges, they
excited in many places a feeling of hatred which at last
found vent in rebellion. His attempts to force the German
tongue on his Hungarian subjects led to a revolt, of which
he did not live to see the end. A similar indiscretion cost
him his valuable Belgic provinces. I hese disasters, com¬
bined with the doubtful issue of the Turkish war, in which
he took part along with Russia, preyed upon his mind, and
cut him off in the midst of his career, February 20, 1790.
See Austria.
JOSEPHUS, Flavius, the celebrated Jewish historian,
was born at Jerusalem, a.d. 37, in the first year of Cali¬
gula, and four years after the ascension of our Lord. Flis
advantages of birth were very considerable. His father
JOSEPHUS.
Josephus. Matthias, sprung from the highest priestly family, belonged
to the first of the twenty-four courses. On his mother’s
side he was descended from the Asmonaean princes. He
was very proud of his high birth ; and it was a theme on
which he used to dwell with a delighted complacency. He
complained bitterly of some malignant persons who had
ventured to laugh at his claims to an aristocratic lineage.
The wealth and high standing of his parents procured for
him the best Jewish education. Such was his progress—at
least if his own account of himself is to be believed—that
at the age of fourteen he was often consulted by learned
rabbis on abstruse points of the Jewish law. At the age of
sixteen he began to study with peculiar care the doctrines
of the three leading Jewish sects, the Pharisees, Sadducees,
and Essenes. Though a Pharisee by birth, and in later life
a Pharisee both by belief and temperament, he seems at
this period to have inclined to the views of the Essenes.
Hearing at least that Banus, a celebrated member of that
sect, was living in the wilderness with the rigorous asceti¬
cism of a hermit, he joined him, and remained under his
teaching for three years. Whatever his real creed was, on
his return to Jerusalem he allied himself with the Pharisees,
and remained faithful to them ever after. At the age of
twenty-six he set out for Rome to intercede for some priests
of his acquaintance, whom Felix, the procurator of Judea,
had sent to be tried there on some trifling charges. Land¬
ing safely at Puteoli after a very narrow escape from death
by shipwreck in the Adriatic, he gained the friendship of
Aliturus, a famous mime of that day, and a favourite of
Poppaea, the wife of Nero. Through the good offices of
this actor, Josephus not only obtained the pardon of his
friends, but was rewarded with many valuable gifts by the
empress. On his arrival in Judea, Josephus found his
countrymen bent at all hazard on throwing off the Roman
yoke. Knowing well the resources of Rome and the hope¬
lessness of successfully resisting her power, he did his best
to dissuade the Jews from their mad attempt. His efforts
were thrown away ; and though he was well aware that the
struggle could only issue in the ruin of his country, he de¬
termined to share her fall. His own talents for administra¬
tion were by this time well known, and to him was assigned
the task of governing and defending the province of Gali¬
lee. His appointment was violently opposed by a strong
party in the Sanhedrim at Jerusalem, headed by John of
Giscala, who intrigued against him, opposed his policy, and
even tried to take his life. But Josephus having fortified
the chief cities, and trained his subjects to war, repelled with
ease the first attack of the Romans, and this gained the
affection and confidence of the Galileans. This success,
combined with his own skill in diplomatic manoeuvring,
enabled him to crush, or at least to defy his enemies in the
state. Meanwhile the Romans had assembled a large force;
and, in a.d. 67, entering Palestine with Vespasian at their
head, laid the whole country in ashes as they advanced.
Hopeless of success, and abandoned by the authorities at
Jerusalem, Josephus still tried to make head against the
foe. Throwing himself into Jotapata he roused the inhabi¬
tants to desperate resistance, and conducted the defence of
the town for forty-seven days. At the end of that time
the town was stormed, and such of the garrison as had not
perished in the siege were put to death by the conquerors.
When it came to the governor’s turn to die, he demanded to
be led into the presence of the Roman general. With great
adroitness he assured his captor that he was no chance
prisoner, but had been commissioned from heaven to fore¬
tell that he was shortly to become the sole head of the
Roman empire. Vespasian, finding that Josephus, who
had predicted the exact number of days that the siege
would last, was looked upon as a prophet, spared his life,
and even loaded him with valuable presents. He kept him
in close confinement, however, for three years, and even
VOL. xm.
then only set him free on the urgent instance of Titus. Josephus.^
When the siege of Jerusalem was begun, Josephus who * *
had accompanied his patron Titus on the expedition, tiled
to persuade his countrymen to yield ; but he was treated by
them with scorn as a renegade, and even with the Roman
soldiers he was very far from popular. When the city fell,
Titus offered to grant any favour he might ask. Josephus
asked for the lives of his brother and fifty friends, and
begged that the sacred books be spared. Besides his request
he obtained a valuable estate in Judea, and on returning to
Italy with his patron was rewarded with the freedom ol the
state, a large annual pension, and a house originally occupied
by the emperor himself, in compliment to whom he assumed
the name of Flavius. Under Titus and Domitian he was
confirmed in all his privileges. The remainder of his life was
spent chiefly at Rome in literary pursuits. The exact date
of his death is not known. He was alive very near the close
of the first century, and probably survived a few years of
the second.
Josephus was three times married. His first wife was a
captive virgin, whom he espoused at the instance of Vespa¬
sian, but appears to have subsequently divorced. His second
was an Alexandrian lady, whom, he says, “ I forsook because
her manners pleased me not, though she was the mother of
my three children.” His third was a Jewess born of a
noble Cypriote family, and, as he himself says, “ endowed
with as laudable manners as any other woman whatsoever.”
By her he had two sons, Justus and Simonides Agrippa.
Josephus’ character was a strange mixture of strength
and weakness. Flis great abilities for administration, both
in peace and war, were acknowledged by his countrymen,
and proved in his public career. The manner in which he
maintained himself in his province of Galilee, perfected its
military organization, and conducted the defence of Jota¬
pata, has been already described, and puts beyond doubt
his courage as well as his skill. But though he is un¬
doubtedly entitled to great praise for these exploits, his
insatiable vanity appears in every line of his narrative, and
seduces him into displays of the most amusing vainglory.
From the very first he seems to have been spell-bound by
the power and majesty of Rome, and to have lost that faith
in the destiny of his own people without which there can
be no true patriotism. Since he could not check the pro¬
gress of the Romans, he could at least hope to reach emi¬
nence by making himself useful to them. Hence his mean
truckling to the emperors, and his flattery of the great nobles
whom he met at court,—a flattery so gross as sometimes to
fall little short of blasphemy. What his religious creed was,
is exceedingly difficult to decide. In a famous passage in
his Antiquities of the Jews, first quoted by Eusebius, he
speaks of Christ as something more than human, and attests
his miracles, death, and resurrection. The authenticity of
the passage has been very much disputed. If it be admitted
(and the external evidence in its favour is very strong), then
Josephus must have been a Christian. On the other hand,
the common belief that he was not a Christian condemns
the passage as spurious. But it happens that Josephus
nowhere else in all his writings commits himself in favour
of Christianity. As an impartial historian he could not but
accept it as an historical fact; yet even though he may have
believed in its truth, he was too sceptical and indifferent to
make himself a martyr for the sake of any truth or doctrine
whatsoever. It is most probable that the passage in ques¬
tion, without being absolutely spurious, has been modified
into its present form by Eusebius, who is well known to
have often taken such a liberty in his quotations. As a
historian Josephus possesses many valuable qualities. His
diction is for the most part purely classical, and his narrative
is so clear, lively, and vigorous, as to have earned for him,
with some show of reason, the title of the Greek Livy. He
claims for himself the merit of strict faithfulness, and under
B
10 JOS
Joshua certain limitations he deserves it. His most important works
|| are his History of the Jewish War, and his Antiquities of
Joudpoor. the Jews. The first of these was originally written in the
Chaldo-Syriac tongue for the sake of the Jews dwelling
beyond the Euphrates, and was afterwards translated by its
author into Greek. It is divided into seven books, and
gives the history of the Jews from the taking of the city by
Antiochus Epiphanes to its destruction by Titus. The
second was written in Greek and was published in a.d. 93.
It consists of twenty books, and is dedicated to Epaphrodi-
tus, a Roman philosopher of that day. Commencing with
the creation of the world, it details the history of the Jews
in a continuous narrative from the birth of Abraham to the
beginning of the war with Rome. Much of it is taken from
the Old Testament; but on the main stem of the narrative
many traditions have been grafted, chiefly for the purpose
of magnifying the importance of his countrymen with the
Romans and refuting many of the calumnies against them.
His other works are—an Autobiography, and two books
Against Apion, in which he answers the charges brought
against the earlier part of his Antiquities. The authenti¬
city of this part of the work had been doubted, on the ground
of its being passed over in silence by the Greeks.
The best editions of Josephus are those of Hudson, Ox¬
ford, 1720; Havercamp, Amst., 1726; Oberthiir, Leipzig,
1782-85; Richter,, in the Bibliotheca Patrum, Leipzig,
1826; and Dindorf, Paris, 1845.
Josephus has been translated into most of the European
tongues. Of the English versions may be mentioned those
of Lodge; Lestrange, Lond., 1702; and Whiston, Lond.,
1737. The French translation is by Gillet, Paris, 1756;
and the Italian by Angiolini, Verona, 1779. There are seve¬
ral German translations; one by J. F. Cotta, Tubingen,
1736 ; another by J. B. Ott, Zurich, 1736; and the Jewish
War by J. B. Frise, Altona, 1804—5.
JOSHUA, the assistant and successor of Moses, was the
son of Nun, of the tribe of Ephraim. According to the
Tsemach David, he was born in Egypt, in the year of the
Jewish era 2406 (b.c. 1537). In the Bible he is first men¬
tioned as being the victorious commander of the Israelites
in their battle against the Amalekites at Rephidim. He
distinguished himself by his courage and intelligence during
and after the exploration of the land of Canaan, on which
occasion he represented his tribe, which was that of Eph¬
raim (Num., xiii., xiv.). Moses, with the Divine sanction,
appointed him to command the Israelites, even during his
own lifetime. After the death of Moses he led the Israel¬
ites over the Jordan, fortified a camp at Gilgal, conquered
the southern and middle portions of Canaan, and also some
of the northern districts. But the hostile nations, although
subdued, were not entirely driven out and destroyed. In
the seventh year after entering the land, it was distributed
among the various tribes, who then commenced individu¬
ally to complete the conquest by separate warfare. Joshua
died 110 years old (b.c. 1427), and was buried at Timnath-
serah on Mount Ephraim. There occur some vestiges of
the deeds of Joshua in other historians besides those of the
Bible. Procopius mentions a Phoenician inscription near
the city of Tingis in Mauritania, the sense of which was—
“We are those who fled before the face of Joshua the rob¬
ber, the son of Nun” (De Bell, Vandal, ii. 10). Suidas—
“We are the Canaanites whom Joshua the robber perse¬
cuted.” Compare Fabricii Codex Pseudepigraphus Vete-
ris Testamenti, i. 889, sq., and the doubts respecting this
statement in Dale, De Oriqine et Proqressu Idolatries,
p. 749, sq.
JOUDPOOR, or Marwak, an extensive rajpoot prin¬
cipality of Hindustan, bounded on the N.W. by Jessalmere,
on the N. by Bikaneer, on the E. by Jeypoor, Ajmeer, and
Mewar, on the S. by Oodeypoor, and on the W. by the
Runn of Cutch and Scinde. It lies between the 25th and
J 0 u
28th degrees of N. Lat., and has an area of 35,672 square Joudpoor
miles. The southern and eastern parts of Joudpoor are ||
fertile, being watered by streams that flow from the moun- J°uffroy.
tains. They are chiefly cultivated by Jauts, and they pro-
duce wheat, barley, and other kinds of grain common in
India ; also cotton, sugar, &c. The western portion of the
country consists principally of desert or pasture lands, on
which is bred a hardy race of horses, camels, and cattle.
There are also lead mines in the country. The imports
consist of cloth, shawls, spices, opium, rice, sugar, steel,
and iron. The exports are salt, camels, bullocks, and
horses. The principal inhabitants of Joudpoor are Rha-
tore rajpoots, who are a brave, handsome race of men, of
the purest castes. The rajahs of Oodeypoor, Jeypoor, and
Joudpoor formerly enjoyed considerable power and conse¬
quence, and their alliance was much sought after by the
Mogul emperors of Hindustan. The country is described
as having been much more populous in ancient times.
The rajahs of Jeypoor and Joudpoor were employed with
their followers in the imperial armies, and attained the
highest military rank till the time of Arungzebe, who at¬
tempted to enforce the capitation tax on his Hindu sub¬
jects, and sought to obtain possession of the children of the
rajah Jerwont Sing, who died in the year 1678 ; a circum¬
stance that gave rise to a war, in which the rajpoots were
ultimately victorious, and, after the death of Arungzebe,
they only paid a nominal allegiance. Being afterwards
weakened by dissensions amongst themselves, they became
tributary to the Mahrattas, and were only delivered from
their yoke by the British in their successful war against the
Pindaries. In 1818 a treaty was concluded between the
maharajah of Joudpoor and the British, under which the
former became tributary to the paramount power, and
bound himself to afford military aid when required. At a
later period the chief of Joudpoor suffered his tribute to
fall into arrear, supplied the stipulated military assistance
reluctantly and tardily, protected plunderers, and was be¬
lieved to have entered into political correspondence having
objects hostile to British interests and influence in India.
These acts of misconduct were submitted to with great
forbearance for a long period, during which the misgovern-
ment and distraction of the country were extreme ; and at
length, from all these causes, it was deemed necessary to
send a mission to Joudpoor demanding reparation. The
mission proving ineffectual, a body of troops was moved to
enforce that which negotiation had failed to achieve. Their
approach alarmed the rajah, who forthwith displayed tokens
of submission. The immediate consequences were, the
establishment of a council of regency, with a British agent
at its head, to carry on the government in conjunction with
the rajah. A variety of useful reforms followed. The ra¬
jah died a few years after the commencement of the sys¬
tem which led to these beneficial steps, but they were pur¬
sued by his successor, Tukht Singh of Ahmadnuggur, who
was elected to the vacant throne by the feudal chiefs. The
administration being thus confided to able hands, the Brit¬
ish withdrew from further interference in the internal affairs
of Joudpoor. (E*T')
Joudpoor, a fortified city, and capital of the above prin¬
cipality, is well built, mostly of stone. It is situated on a
hill; and carries on a considerable traffic, by means of
caravans, with Gujerat and the Deccan. E. Long. 73. 8.,
N. Lat. 26. 19.
JOUFFROY, Theodore-Simon, an eminent French
philosopher, was born in 1796 at the village of Pontets, near
Mouthe, a town situated on the verdant slopes of the Jura
Mountains. As soon as he was able to read, he perused
with avidity the pages of Robin’s History of Rome, and
was to be found in the fields fighting over again the great
battles of antiquity, by means of opposing rows of stones,
arranged so as to represent the position of the hostile armies.
Jouffroy.
J o u
JOY
11
At the age of ten he was placed under the care of one of
his uncles in the College of Pontarlier, and afterwards re¬
moved to that of Dijon, where his skill in French composi¬
tion attracted general notice. Some fragments of a five-act
tragedy, which he composed at this early age, have been
preserved among his papers. His precocious talents pro¬
cured him admission to the Normal school, in which, at the
age of twenty, he was appointed tutor in philosophy. He
was shortly afterwards appointed to the chair of philosophy
in the College Bourbon, from which, after a three years’
tenure of office, he retired. When the Normal school was
closed in 1822, Jouffroy opened in his own house a private
course of lectures, embracing the whole range of the philo¬
sophical sciences, and began to write extensively on politics,
literature, and even natural history, for the periodical press.
In 1826 he gave to the world his translation ot Dugald
Stewart’s Sketches of Moral Philosophy, with a preface on
the distinction between the facts of consciousness and those
of the senses. Two years later he resumed his lectures on
the history of ancient and modern philosopy in the Normal
school, which had been reopened under a new name. 1 he
professorship of Greek philosophy and literature in the Col¬
lege of France was his next preferment, and he shortly
afterwards entered the arena of politics as a member of the
Chamber of Deputies. The duties of these multifarious
offices undermined his constitution so seriously, that, not
long after his reception into the Academy of Moral Science,
he found it necessary to retire to Italy for the benefit of his
health. Here he employed his time in completing the
translation of Reid’s works, the first volume of which had
been published eight years before, in 1828. In 1838 he
quitted the College of France to occupy the post of librarian
of the university, and in 1840 he was summoned by Cousin
to assist the Royal Council of Public Instruction. Mean¬
while, his health, never robust, again began to give way, and
after two years of continually increasing infirmities he died
in February 1842, in the forty-seventh year of his age.
In the philosophy of Jouffroy we find, as in that of
the Scottish school, a rational appeal to consciousness as
the broad basis upon which the inquirer builds his super¬
structure. The grand object of his observations and spe¬
culations is man; and, adopting the most simple division,
he views this moral being in a threefold aspect,—as having
existed, as now existing, and as destined to exist hereafter.
That he is destined to a future existence is deduced from
a consideration of his nature. “ Every being,” says Jouff¬
roy, “ is predestined to a certain end, and that of man is in¬
dicated by the instinctive and primitive tendencies which
result in knowing, acting, and loving.” From the blind im¬
pulses of childhood he rises till he comes under the do¬
minion of reason, in so far as regards the government of
self, and thence to the still higher elevation of submission
to universal order, in which we have the central point, the
leading maxim of Jouffroy’s ethical system. “ The beauti¬
ful is order expressed, the true is order thought, and the
good is order accomplished.” All conflicting claims are to
be determined by the answer to the question which in¬
volves the greatest amount of good, for that must be ac¬
cordant with universal order. As we rise from this last to
the notion of God, the author of order, it follows that
morality and religion are different names for obedience to
universal order. But in speaking of good, and the greatest
amount of good, the old question arises, whence have we
evil ? The answer to this brings us to the Theodicee of
Jouffroy, or scheme in which he defends the Divine govern¬
ment. Evil, according to him, is to be regarded as an
obstacle in the path of man, necessary for the development
of those very characteristics which make him what he is,—
a being possessing liberty and personality. He even ven¬
tures to take his station upon the slippery, if not untenable
ground, that the difference between man and the lower
animals consists in this, that while the latter are born and Jovellanos.
die animals, the former is born animal and dies a free being.
The psychological system of Jouffroy is developed in
connection with the second of the leading divisions with
which we started,—man as at present existing. Here again
we have a simple threefold division into the soul as an in¬
tellectual agent, as desirous of action, and as it is per se,
i.e., apart from the foregoing manifestations. As the source
of intelligent acts, whether voluntary or involuntary, the soul
possesses the two faculties of observation and reason (the
former dividing itself into consciousness, external percep¬
tion, and memory), and, by affording the knowledge of con¬
tingent truths, causes the development of reason, by which
we reach the knowledge of absolute and necessary truths.
To the soul, as acted upon and determined to will, Jouffroy
applied the peculiar term receptivity, as he applied the term
productivity to the soul in the aspect under which we have
just been considering it. As liable to be acted upon, the
ego is exposed to an irritation which, according as it is
agreeable or the reverse, produces love, which is a positive
desire, or hate, which is a negative desire,—desire being the
last simple phenomenon of sensibility, and the only thing
which can determine the soul to will. Putting out of view
all the phenomena included under the productivity and
receptivity of the ego, Jouffroy brings us to the ego itself,
which is a force intelligent, free, simple, and always the
same. The distinction between soul and body, or, as he
preferred expressing it, the distinction between physiologic
and psychologic life, was with him a favourite subject, and
one which he approaches frequently from different direc¬
tions, and illustrated in a variety of ways.
JOVELLANOS, Gaspar Melchior de, one of the
most distinguished Spaniards of modern times, whether as
a patriot, statesman, or writer, was born in 1744 at Gijon,
in Asturia. Though sprung from an ancient an noble
family, he early resolved to win fame and wealth for Litnself.
Selecting the law as his profession, he went through the
usual courses of study at the universities of Oviedo, Avila,
and Alcala. A judicial appointment at Seville awaited him
immediately on his leaving college; but so disinterested
was his zeal for the public service that, though but a poor
man, he could with difficulty be persuaded to accept the
emoluments of his office. In 1778 his integrity and ability
were rewarded with the chief judgeship of the King’s Court
at Madrid, where he gained the friendship of Campomanes,
and the leading literati of Spain, and took a prominent part
in most of the scientific societies. About this time he had
made the acquaintance of the brilliant French adventurer
Caburrus; and when that friend afterwards fell a victim to
court-intrigue, Jovellanos was for a time involved in his
fall. Retiring to the place of his birth, he devoted himself
to carrying out many useful schemes for developing the in¬
ternal resources of the country. He founded the Asturian
Institution for the purpose of improving the agriculture,
working the mines, and effecting social and educational re¬
form throughout that province. This institution continued
his darling project up to the latest hours of his life. Sum¬
moned again in 1799 to take his part once more in public
affairs, he repaired to the capital, where he was made home
secretary-of-state under Manuel de Godoy, the famous
Prince of Peace. The looseness of Godoy’s private life,
and the miserable character of his policy, disgusted Jovel¬
lanos, who used his influence to have his principal dismissed.
Intrigue followed intrigue ; plot was met by counter-plot;
and the final result was that the home-secretary was banished
to the island of Majorca, and there kept a close prisoner,
first in a Carthusian convent, and afterwards in the castle
of Belver. He beguiled the seven years of his exile in col¬
lecting materials for a history of the island; and, in the in¬
tervals of these studies, wrote many bold and vigorous ad¬
dresses to the king on the wretched policy of his prime
12
J O V
Jovianus. minister. The French invasion changed the aspect of
affairs. Jovellanos was recalled ; and when Joseph Bona¬
parte mounted the throne, he was offered the portfolio of the
interior. Many liberal and well-informed men had recog¬
nised the French king; but Jovellanos, sternly keeping aloof,
joined the patriotic party, became a member of the central
junta, and contributed to re-organize the cortes. As soon
as the parliament had been reconstituted, the supreme
junta fell into suspicion and was dissolved. Jovellanos,
who had been the guiding spirit of its councils, was involved
in its fall. To expose the conduct of the cortes, and to de¬
fend the junta and himself, were the last labours on which
he exercised his pen. So great were his popularity and in¬
fluence that it became necessary for his enemies to get rid
of him. On the 27th Nov. 1811, the dagger of the assassin
deprived Spain of one of her best benefactors and most en¬
lightened patriots.
Jovellanos’ literary faculties were of a very high order,
and were proved by numerous compositions both in prose
and verse. His poetical attempts comprised the tragedy of
El Pelayo (the valiant Goth who fought against the Moors
for the freedom of Spain), a collection of miscellaneous
pieces, and a translation of the first book of Milton’s Para¬
dise Lost. None of these, however, reflect any great credit
on his name ; and had his fame depended on any or all of
them, he wonld have been long ago forgotten. It is espe¬
cially as a political economist and legislator that Jovellanos
will be remembered. A deep, sure thinker, he was, at the
same time, a brilliant rhetorician ; and, indeed, as a mere
writer of Spanish prose, has no equal in modern times. His
Elogios on the celebrated architect Ventura Rodriguez,
and on the king, Charles III., with the vices inherent in that
species of composition, combine a memorable depth of
thought couched in language of extraordinary beauty. But
the greatest of all his works is his Informe Sobre un Pro-
yecto de Ley Agraria, a remarkable monument of political
foresight and legislative sagacity. No one ever knew or
explained better than Jovellanos did in this and some of
his other works the causes of his country’s downfall, or point
out with greater clearness the true means of restoring it to
its ancient greatness.
JOVIANUS, Flavius Claudius, emperor of Rome,
a.d. 363-4, was a scion of a noble Mcesian family, and the
son of the Comes Veronianus, a distinguished general and
high officer of state under Constantius. Jovian, who was
captain of the life guards of the Emperor Julian, accom¬
panied his master on his disastrous campaigns against the
Persians. When Julian fell in battle, a.d. 363, Jovian was
proclaimed by the army his successor. His first task, on
assuming the purple, was to conduct his army back to his
dominions. He reached the Tigris in safety ; but Sapor
with his hosts hung upon his rear, and he found it impossi¬
ble to cross that great river in presence of the Persian army.
Sapor, afraid to drive the Romans to despair, proposed terms
of peace, which, ignominious as they were, Jovian was fain
to accept. The terms were, that the Romans should sur¬
render their conquests beyond the Tigris, along with the
fortress of Nisibis, and many other strongholds in Mesopo¬
tamia ; and should, moreover, bind themselves to give no
aid to the Armenians, with whom Persia was then at war.
Saving his army and himself, if not his honour, on these
conditions, Jovian hastened westwards to arrange the in¬
ternal affairs of his kingdom. One of his first acts was to
proclaim himself a Christian, and to rescind the edicts of his
predecessor against the Christians. He granted protection,
however, to such of his subjects as adhered to the old sys¬
tem ; and when urged by some importunate sectaries to
help them against other sectaries, he sternly reminded them
that impartiality was the first duty of an emperor. Him¬
self strictly orthodox, he upheld the Nicene creed against
the Arians, and reinstated the ecclesiastics who had suffered
J 0 V
at their hands. One of his first acts, indeed, on arriving at
Antioch, was to restore his friend Athanasius to his see of v-
Alexandria, from which the machinations of the Arians had
driven him. After waiting a few months at Antioch to re¬
ceive homage from the various provinces of the empire,
he set out for Constantinople, and, taking Tarsus on his
way, paid the last honours to the ashes of Julian. Con¬
tinuing his journey in the face of an unusually severe winter,
he arrived at Aucyra, where he assumed the consular honours,
and a few days later at Dadastana, a frontier town of Galatia
and Bithynia. On the following morning (Feb. 17, 364),
he was found dead in his bed. His death was attributed to
various causes. Some say that he was suffocated by the
fumes of a charcoal fire in his chamber ; others, by exhala¬
tions from the plaster with which it had been newly laid.
It is most likely that he died under the dagger or poison of
an assassin. He was in the thirty-third year of his age, and
had only reigned for seven months. Valentinian was pro¬
claimed his successor by the army.
JO VIUS, Paulus, a celebrated historical and biogra¬
phical writer of Italy, was a scion of a noble family of Como,
and was born in that town in 1483. His own name was
Paolo Giovio, but as his most important works are written
in Latin, he is better known under the Latinized form of
that name. Choosing medicine as his profession, he studied
at the universities of Padua and Pavia ; but, in the course
of his studies, being seized with the idea of becoming the
historian of his age, he abandoned his first choice and de¬
voted himself to the career of letters. His first care was
to master the Latin classics chiefly with the view of form¬
ing a good Latin style for himself. His success was deci¬
sive, and gained him the favour of Leo X., who, on reading
some of Giovio’s compositions, declared that “after litus
Livius there was no writer more elegant or more eloquent.”
Honours and rewards soon poured in upon the lucky his¬
torian, who was sent upon various important missions to
different countries in the train of Giulio de Medici. When
this patron afterwards became pope, under the name of Cle¬
ment VII., he rewarded Giovio’s services with the bishopric
of Nocera. The historian, however, was too fond of the
literary society and other attractions of the capital to ex¬
change them for a see in the country, and accordingly en¬
trusted the duties of his diocese to a deputy. In 1530,
when the Emperor Charles V. met the pope in the famous
conference of Bologna, Giovio was present, and heard from
that monarch’s own lips the details of his recent expedition
against the Algerian pirates, intending to incorporate them
in the historical work on which he was then engaged. After
the death of his patron, Giovio was regarded with very little
favour by the new pope, Paul III. He lived freely, talked
freely, and wrote freely, and was therefore a fair match for
the satirists of that day to shoot their arrows at. In reli¬
gious matters he was described as a latitudinarian, and even
as an infidel or an atheist; and it is certain that his morals
were verv far from being such as those of a bishop ought to
be. On the accession of the austere Paul HI., Giovio found
it convenient to withdraw from the papal court altogether.
He retired to his native town where he built himself a de¬
lightful villa, and gratified his luxurious tastes with the
ample means he had amassed at Rome. 1 he formation of
a picture gallery and a museum was the business and the
amusement of his later years. But he w-as too much of a
courtier both by habit and disposition to endure the unbroken
quiet of a country life. His bumorous conversation and
genial bonhommie made him a welcome guest at most ot
the Italian courts, and there he continued to spend a con¬
siderable part of each year. In the course of one of these
periodical visits at Florence, he was seized with a violent
attack of gout which carried him off in December 1552.
He was buried in the church of St Lorenzo, where a monu¬
ment records his virtues, his piety, and his learning.
Jovius.
J U A
Juan Giovio’s works are of very different degrees of excellence
Fernandez, and value. His Historia sui Temporis, 2 vols., 1550, though
it contains much interesting information, is nearly valueless
from not being trustworthy. Quite reckless as to the accu¬
racy of any statement, he was too lazy and careless to verify
it; and as he picked up a great deal from the gossip of the
papal court and the strangers who visited it from all parts
of the world, he could not but incorporate much in his his¬
tory that was false with what was true. The Historia
is, besides, characterized by so strong a spirit of partiality
towards its author’s friends and patrons, that it is prac¬
tically useless as a historical guide. Charles V. detected
this weakness of the historian, whom he discarded as a flat¬
terer, and condemned as “ writing with the golden pen of
history.” Giovio had warmly praised Charles’ liberality; but
when he found that all his arts could not wile a single ducat
out of the stingy monarch, he denounced him (though not
till after his death), as a man of the most niggardly parsi¬
mony. Greatly superior in literary finish as well as moral
tone are his Illustrium Vivorum Vita, a series of bio¬
graphical sketches of his most eminent contemporaiies.
This work, with some small deductions for defects, like those
of the History, throws a useful side light on the annals of
these stirring times. His only other work in Latin was that
which first made him ; it was entitled De Piscibus Romanis,
and was dedicated to the Cardinal Louis de Bourbon. Of
his vernacular compositions his Letters Volgare, published
after his death, are alone worthy of notice. Many of them
are in a style of jovial humour that makes them well worth
reading even in the present day.
JUAN FERNANDEZ, an island in the South Pacific,
about 400 miles W. of the coast of Chile, in S. Lat. 33. 40.,
and W. Long. 79. It is about 15 miles long by 6 broad,
and contains an area of nearly 65 square miles. The coast
line is much indented, and the shores generally abrupt. On
the north side the mountain called El Yunque, from its re¬
semblance to an anvil, attains an elevation of 3000 feet
above the sea level. The surface of Fernandez is irregular,
with a general declination from N. to S. Its climate is
agreeable, the island being neither visited with tempestu¬
ous winds nor exposed to the extremes of heat or cold.
Little rain falls, but copious dew prevents any injury to ve¬
getation from drought. The valleys on the N. are well
sheltered, and a fine black vegetable mould forms the soil.
The rocks of the island are either basaltic, trap, or volcanic,
and are much disturbed by earthquakes. The soil produces
oats, turnips, radishes, apples, strawberries, melons, peaches,
figs, sandal-wood, and cork ; while off the coast fish of every
kind abound, and seals are plentiful. The only quadrupeds,
however, that live on the island have been exported thither
by accident or otherwise.
Juan Fernandez is only of importance as a calling place
for vessels, forming a convenient stage for those sailing be¬
tween Chile and Australia as well as for those coming round
Cape Horn, for Lima or California. Very good water may
be had on the island, and also fruits in considerable variety.
There are in all three harbours, namely, Port English on
the S.E. side, Port Juan on the W., and Cumberland Bay
on the N.E. Of these the last is the safest and the only
convenient one, having, it is said, 10 fathoms of water at
two cables length from the shore, and plenty of fresh water
at the head of the bay.
The history of Juan Fernandez is necessarily associated
with the events which happened during the exploratory
navigations of the Pacific. The island long formed a rest¬
ing place for the early Spanish and English navigators in
these waters. The time of its discovery and the name of
the first European who sighted its shores are subjects of
doubt. It is certain, however, that one Juan Fernandez
visited and gave his name to the island. The advantages
which this island afforded for repairing and victualling, ren-
j U B 13
dered it a principal resort of the buccaneers in that part; Juba I.
and, in order to deprive them of supplies, the Spaniards II
landed a number of Chilean greyhounds on the island for vJu a ^
the purpose of exterminating the goats, which were thus "
driven to the steep and inaccessible elevations. About the
year 1750 the Spanish government established a colony
here, consisting of civilians, and a small garrison ; but the
settlement had hardly been established when it was destroyed
by an earthquake, the sea having risen and overwhelmed
the houses and carried off 35 persons, among whom were
the governor, his wife, and children. This convulsion was
also severely felt in Chile and Peru.
During the War of Independence in Chile which lasted
from the year 1811 to 1818, Fernandez was used by the
royalists and republicans respectively, according to the party
in power, as a penal settlement for political offenders, and
continued in the hands of the Chilean republic after the ter¬
mination of that strife. The small penitentiary that re¬
mained in the island was, however, all but totally destroyed
by the earthquake of 1835, and the Chilean government,
after making another vain endeavour to colonise it, gave up
the attempt and ultimately withdrew the garrison. It then
remained unoccupied for a considerable time, until an ad¬
venturer from the United States rented the island from
Chile and colonized it. This also was unsuccessful, and the
settlement broke up. Of late years the occupants have
been few in number, amounting to from ten to twenty, who
live in rudely constructed huts not far from the sea shore,
depending on the natural produce of the soil and on the
seal fishing; they also earn small sums of money by sup¬
plying the ships with fresh provisions. The advantages
possessed by Juan Fernandez as a calling station for vessels
have been considerably overrated. Its proximity to the
port of Valparaiso is a sufficient reason for shipping bound
for Chile not breaking their voyage at the island, except in
cases of emergency; while vessels outward bound would,
have still less occasion to anchor in Cumberland Bay, only
400 miles from the point of departure.
It is well known that here Alexander Selkirk, a Scotsman,
lived alone for more than five years ; and it is generally be¬
lieved that the narrative of his sojourn formed the 1< unda-
tion on which Daniel Defoe reared his celebrated work of
Robinson Crusoe.
About 70 miles W. of Juan Fernandez is the island called
Fernandez de Afuera (to seaward), with precipitous shores,
on which there is always a high surf.
JUBA L, the son of Hiempsal, king of Numidia, suc¬
ceeded to the throne on the death of his father, about B.c.
50. In the civil wars of Rome he espoused the cause of
Pompey, induced both by a spirit of political conservatism,
and by hatred to Caesar, with whom he had quarrelled
violently when young. He gained a signal victory at Utica
over Curio, Caesar’s lieutenant in Africa, and barbarously
put to death all the prisoners that fell into his hands. When
the Pompeian party was overthrown at Pharsalia, Juba still
continued faithful to the cause, raised large masses of troops
to check the conqueror’s passage through Africa, and at one
time reduced him to great straits. Joining his forces to
those of Scipio and Cato, he encountered Caesar at fhapsus.
The allied army was utterly routed, and Juba fled for re¬
fuge to his own dominions. A rebellion had broken out
among his subjects in his absence, and Juba, in despair, put
an end to his life. His kingdom was reduced into the form
of a province, of which the historian Sallust was the first
governor. Juba plays a conspicuous part in Addison’s tra¬
gedy of Cato, with whose destiny his own had latterly been
linked.
Juba II., the son of Juba I., was, after his father’s
death, carried captive by Caesar to Rome. He was there
carefully educated, and, according to Plutarch, “ soon
equalled, in learning and knowledge, the wisest philoso-
14 J U B
Jubilee, phers of Greece and Rome.’’ Identifying himself with the
cause of Augustus, he fought on his side, and was rewarded
for his valour with the kingdom of Mauritania. He culti¬
vated the arts of peace, and made himself so much beloved
by his subjects that they ranked him among their gods, and
raised numerous statues in his honour. He mairied belene,
or Cleopatra, the daughter of Antony and the Egyptian
Cleopatra. Coins and medals commemorating their reign
are still extant. Juba’s learning was attested by historical
writings, which were held in high repute, and were fre¬
quently quoted by such men as Pliny and Plutarch as ulti¬
mate authorities on many points. They were written in
Greek, and, so far as is known, comprised the History of
Africa, in which he made use of the Punic authorities ac¬
cessible to him, and thus greatly enhanced their value ;
The Antiquities of Assyria and Rome; The History of
Arabia, with Notes on its Natural History ; The History
of Painting and Painters ; a History of Theatres, of which
some fragments have been preserved; an Essay on the
Source of the Nile. The body of these works has been
completely lost, but enough of them has been preserved in
quotation to show that their loss was really to be regretted.
A detailed account of the life and writings of Juba by the
Abbe Sevin, is preserved in the ALimoires de VAcademie
des Inscriptions, vol. iv., p. 457.
JUBILEE, a festival celebrated among the Jews every
fifty years, and which led to important changes in their
social condition. The word is supposed to be derived from
jobel, a ram’s horn, which was used as the trumpet for pro¬
claiming the arrival of the year of jubilee ; or, according to
others, it was derived from jabal, to recall or return, be¬
cause slaves were restored to liberty, and exiles recalled
during this year. The periodical recurrence of the jubilee
is closely connected with the Sabbatical institutions of
Moses. As the seventh year, as well as the seventh day,
was to be observed as a period of rest, it follows that every
forty-ninth year would be one devoted to rest, and during
it no crops were to be sown ; but, according to the enact¬
ment in Exod. xxv., the year of jubilee was to be one of
rest also, so that during two successive years there would
be no crops sown. This has appeared such a difficulty to
many, that they have endeavoured to prove the year of
jubilee to be the forty-ninth instead of the fiftieth; but, in
opposition to this, there are insuperable objections, for, in
Exod. xxv. 8-17, the fiftieth year is repeatedly referred to
as that on which the jubilee was to be celebrated. As to
the difficulty, that a famine would follow if, for two succes¬
sive years, all agricultural operations were neglected, it is
to be remembered that the Jews were under a theocracy,
and, so long as the Divine command was faithfully obeyed,
there was no danger of famine. The injunction which re¬
quired all the males periodically to visit Jerusalem neces¬
sarily left the country exposed to foreign invasion, but so
long as they obeyed the Divine injunction, no man was to
desire their land.
The object of the jubilee was to prevent the rise of any
great disparity between the social condition of individuals.
If the institution did not encourage splendid affluence on
the one side, it helped to prevent sordid pauperism on the
other. It tended to restrain cupidity, and preclude do¬
mestic tyranny, as well as to remind the rich and poor of
their essential equality. It also served to preserve the dis¬
tinction of families and tribes down to the coming of Mes¬
siah. For it is admitted that the original institution was in
actual operation after the Babylonish captivity, as indeed
can be proved from Ezek. xlvi. 17; Maccabees vi. 49 ; Jose¬
phus Antiq. xiv. 10, 6; and Tacitus, Hist. v. 4. The ac¬
ceptable year of the Lord, spoken of by Isaiah before the
captivity, must, without doubt, refer to the year of jubilee.
Like the Greek Olympiads and the Roman Lustra, the
jubilee was also most useful in a chronological point of view.
J U D
In modern times the word jubilee has been used to de-Judas Mac-
note the ceremony at Rome, during which the pope grants cabeus
plenary indulgence to those who visit the churches of St H
Peter and St Paul. This jubilee first took place under ju^’a”r
Boniface VII. in 1300, and was to return every 100 years; i ^ ^ . i
but as it was the means of bringing vast wealth to Rome,
Clement VI. shortened the time to fifty years. This period
was in its turn reduced to thirty-five years, and in 1475, by
Sextus IV., to twenty-five years. The privilege of holding
jubilees was also bestowed upon princes and convents, and
in process of time the celebration of a jubilee was deter¬
mined as occasion required.
JUDAS MACCABEUS. See Jews, and Jerusalem.
JUDE, or Judas. There were two of this name
among the twelve apostles—Judas, called also Lebbaeus
and Thaddaeus (Matt. x. 4 ; Mark iii. 18), and also Judas
Iscariot. Judas is the name of one of our Lord’s brethren,
but it is not agreed whether our Lord’s brother is the
same with the apostle of this name. Luke calls him ’lovSas
TaKio/?ov, which in the English version is translated “Judas,
the brother of James.” The ellipsis, however, between TovSas
and ’laKwfiov is supplied by the old Syriac translator with
the word son, and not brother. Among our Lord’s brethren
are named James, Joses, and Judas. If, with Helvidius
among the ancients, and Kuinoel, Neander, and a few other
modern commentators, we were to consider our Lord’s
bi'ethren to be children of Joseph and the Blessed Virgin,
we should be under the necessity of supposing that there
was a James, a Joses, and a Judas, who were uterine bro¬
thers of our Lord, together with the apostles James and
Judas, who were children of Mary, the sister or cousin ot
the Virgin. If, however, the hypothesis of their being
children of the Blessed Virgin be* rejected, there remains
for us only a choice between the two opinions, that our
Lord’s brethren were children of Joseph by a former wife
(Escha, or Salome, according to an apocryphal tradition),
which wras the sentiment of the majority of the fathers (still
received in the Oriental Church), and that adopted in the
Western Church, and first broached by St Jerome, that the
brethren of our Lord were his cousins, as being children ot
Mary, the wife of Cleophas, who must therefore be consi¬
dered as the same with Alphaeus. If we consider James,
the brother of our Lord, to be a different person from James
the son of Alphaeus, and not one of the twelve, Jude, the
brother of James, must consequently be placed in the same
category; but if they are one and the same, Jude must be
considei'ed as the person who is numbered with our Lord’s
apostles. We are not informed as to the time of the voca¬
tion of the Apostle Jude to that dignity. Only one cir¬
cumstance relating to him is recorded in the Gospels. Nor
have we any account given of his proceedings after our
Lord’s resurrection, for the traditionary notices which have
been preserved of him rest on no very certain foundation.
It has been asserted that he was sent to Edessa, to Abga-
rus, king of Osroene (Jerome Annot. in Alatti), and that
he preached in Syria, Arabia, Mesopotamia, and Persia ;
in which latter country he suffered martyrdom (Lardner’s
Hist, of the Apostles). Jude the Apostle is commemorated
in the Western church, together with the Apostle Simon
(the name, also, of one of our Lord’s brethren) on the 8th
of October. There is an interesting account preserved by
Hegesippus (Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. iii. 20) concerning
some of Jude’s posterity“ When Domitian,” he ob¬
serves, “ inquired after David’s posterity, some grandsons
of Jude, called the Lord’s brother, were brought into his
presence. Being asked concerning their possessions and
mode of life, they assured him that they had thirty-nine
acres of land, the value of which was 9000 denarii, out ot
which they paid him taxes, and maintained themselves by
the labour of their hands. The truth of this was confirmed
by the hardness of their hands. Being asked concerning
J U D
JUG
15
Jude, Christ and the nature of his kingdom, they replied that it
Epistle of, was not a kingdom of this world, but of a heavenly and an¬
il gelic nature ; that it would be manifested at the end of the
^nath1"" wor^’ when he would come in glory to judge the living and
v , the dead, and render to every man according to his works.
Having observed their humble condition and their harmless
principles, he dismissed them with contempt,after which they
ruled the churches,both as witnesses and relatives of the Lord.”
Jude, Epistle of, is placed by Eusebius among the con¬
troverted books, having been rejected by many of the an¬
cients. It is, however, cited by Clemens Alexandrinus
{Strom, iii. 431), by Origen (Com. in Matt., &c., &c.),
and by Tertullian (De Habit. Foem.). It is also included
among the books of the New Testament in the ancient
catalogue discovered by Muratori, a work of the second
century. It is found in the catalogues of the Councils of
Laodicea, Hippo, and Carthage, and in the apostolical canons,
but is wanting in the Peshito or ancient Syriac version.
It is, however, cited as of authority by Ephrem. In mo¬
dern times its apostolic source at least, if not its canonicity,
was called in question by Luther, Grotius, Bolten, Dahl,
Berger, and Michaelis, but it is acknowledged by most to
be genuine. Indeed, the doubts thrown upon its genuine¬
ness arose solely from the writer having cited two apocry¬
phal books. In regard to the authorship moderns are di¬
vided in opinion between Jude the apostle and Jude the
Lord’s brother, if indeed they be different persons; Hug
and De Wette ascribe it to the latter. The author simply
calls himself Jude, the brother of James, and a servant of J e-
sus Christ. This form of expression has given rise to various
conjectures. Dr Lardner supposes that Jude’s Epistle was
written between the years 64 and 66, Beausobre and L’En-
fant between 70 and 75 (from which Dodwell and Cave do
not materially differ), and Dr Mill fixes it to the year 90.
If Jude has quoted the apocryphal book of Enoch, as seems
to be agreed upon by most modern critics, and if this book
was written, as Liicke thinks, after the destruction of Jeru¬
salem, the age of our Epistle best accords with the date as¬
signed to it by Mill.
JUDEA. See Palestine.
JUDENBURG (the ancient Idunum), a town in the
Austrian province of Styria, capital of a cognominal circle,
on the Mur, 38 miles W. of Gratz. In the middle ages it
carried on an important trade with Germany and Italy, but
at present it has scarcely any trade, and its chief manufac¬
tures are gunpowder and ironware. On 7th April 1797,
an armistice was signed here between the French and Aus¬
trians. Pop. about 2000.
JUGDULUK, a village of Afghanistan, in the defiles
between Jelalabad and Cabool, 5375 feet above the level
of the sea, in N. Lat. 34. 25., E. Long. 69. 46. It was one of
the principal scenes of the massacre of the British troops
retreating from Cabool in the beginning of 1842.
JUGGERNATH, properly Jagatnatha (the Lord
of the World), a celebrated temple and place of Hindu
worship, on the sea-coast of Orissa, and district of Cuttack,
esteemed the most sacred of all the Hindu religious esta¬
blishments. It is situated a few miles to the N.E. of the
Chilka Lake, close to the sea shore, and when seen from a
distance is a shapeless mass of building, but forms an ex¬
cellent landmark for navigators in approaching so low a
coast. The temple of Juggernath stands within a square
area inclosed by a lofty stone wall measuring 650 feet on a
side. The inclosure is entered on the E. by a grand gate¬
way, from which a broad flight of steps gives access to a
terrace 20 feet in height, inclosed by a second wall 445
feet square. From this platform the great pagoda rises to
the height of about 180 feet from the platform. At the
gate of the outward wall are two large statues of singhs, an
imaginary or fabulous animal, nearly as large as an elephant.
Juggernath is said to be one of the incarnations of Vishnu;
but the original dedication of the temple is involved in fable. Jugurtha.
It is known to have existed for above 800 years, and is men-
tioned as a celebrated place of Hindu worship by the oldest
Mohammedan historians of India. The idol itself is a huge
disgusting image of the human form, made of wood, with a
frightful black visage, and a distended mouth foaming with
blood. On each side of him is another image, one part of
which is painted white, and the other yellow; the first is
said to be the image of his sister Shubudra, the other that
of his brother Balaram. The throne of the idol is placed
on a stupendous car or moveable tower about 60 feet high,
resting on wheels, which, from the weight, indent the ground
deeply as they move along. Formerly devotees threw them¬
selves under the wheels, and were crushed to death, but
these horrible deeds are now prohibited by the British go¬
vernment. The tower is drawn along by the people by
means of ropes, amidst the shouts of the ignorant multitude ;
and upon the car are the priests and attendants. The con¬
course of Hindu pilgrims to this shrine is immense; the
aged come to die at Juggernath; and so numerous are
these pilgrims, that the approach to it is known at the dis¬
tance of 50 miles by the quantity of human bones strewed
on the way. The impurity of the Hindu idolatry is strongly
indicated by the indecent sculptures that cover the walls of
the temple and the sides of the machine.
The resort of Hindu pilgrims to Juggernath is the source
of a considerable revenue ; and the British, by the conquest
of the province of Cuttack from the Mahrattas in 1803, had
succeeded to all their rights as sovereigns, and consequently
to the right of collecting this tax on the superstition of the
inhabitants. The pilgrim tax thus became a regular source
of revenue to the East India Company. At home the
measure was disapproved by the Court of Directors, but
the president of the Board of Control, Mr Dundas, took a
different view; and, through his influence, a despatch was
framed, to the effect that, as the tax on pilgrims had been
levied under Mohammedan and Mahratta governments,
there did not appear any objection to its continuance under
the British government. In 1839, under the administration
of Lord Auckland, the subject came again under notice,
when arrangements were made for the abolition of the pil¬
grim tax, and shortly after the British government wholly
disconnected itself from idolatrous worship. It is a circum¬
stance for congratulation that the government has thus
purged itself from a foul scandal, which lowered its cha¬
racter and impaired its usefulness. The superintendence
of the temple is now exercised by the rajah of Khoordah,
who is forbidden to receive any payments from pilgrims
except such as may be voluntarily offered. One of the chief
periods of pilgrimage is in March, when the Dole Jattrah
takes place; and the other in July, when the Ruth Jattrah
is celebrated. Distant S.W. from Calcutta 250 miles.
E. Long. 86. 5., N. Lat. 19. 49. (e. t.)
JUGURTHA, the Numidian usurper, occupies a pro¬
minent place in the history of Rome, not only from the
greatness of his own exploits, but as having furnished the
subject of one of the most masterly pieces of historical
writing that antiquity has handed down to modern times.
He was born shortly before the middle of the second cen¬
tury B.C. He was the illegitimate child of Mastanabal, the
youngest son of Masinissa, king of Numidia. He was
brought up by his uncle, Micipsa, and at an early age gave
signs of that warlike, intriguing, and ambitious spirit which
enabled him for some years to defy the generals and armies
of Rome itself. In the hope that he might fall in battle,
Micipsa gave him the command of the troops which he was
sending into Spain to help the Romans in the Numantine
war. Jugurtha distinguished himself greatly, and returning
home in safety at the end of the war, was adopted by Mi¬
cipsa, and named joint-heir with his own sons, Adherbal
and Hiempsal. Micipsa died soon after, and Jugurtha,
16 J U L
Julian aspiring to the undivided sovereignty, caused Hiempsal to
Calendar be murclered, and Adherbal only escaped the same fate by
a timely flight to Rome, where he laid his case before tbe
'Junanus.^ genate> ^ commissiori was appointed to decide upon the
V ™~ v claims of the rivals. By means of unscrupulous bribery
Jugurtha secured the largest and best portion of his uncle’s
kingdom. Scarcely had peace been restored, when Ju¬
gurtha invaded his cousin’s territory, defeated him in the
open field, shut him up in Cirta, his capital, and having
taken that city by storm, cruelly put him to death. This
outrage excited great indignation at Rome, and war was
immediately declared against the usurper. Partly by a
desperate resistance, partly by skilful bribery, Jugurtha
foiled the generals opposed to him, and was by them con¬
firmed in possession of the whole realm of Numidia. The
senate refused to sanction this arrangement, and Jugurtha
repaired to Rome under the public guarantee to plead his
cause in person before the senate. Unstinted bribery was
as effective now as ever, and he practically gained his case
by prevailing on the senate to suspend judgment altoge¬
ther. This success encouraged him to fresh outrages.
Hearing that his cousin Massira was plotting to supplant
him on the Numidian throne, he caused him to be assas¬
sinated. The murder was traced to him; but as he had
come to Italy under the public guarantee, it was impossible
to punish him in Rome. He was immediately ordered out
of Italy. On quitting the city, he is said to have looked
back upon it, and to have apostrophized it as venalis, et
mature peritura si emptorem inveniet.” War was now
formally declared, b.c. Ill, and the campaign opened dis¬
astrously for the Romans. Aulus Posthumius was surprised,
surrounded, and, with his whole army, sent under the yoke.
Metellus, the new consul, next took the field with fresh
troops, and prosecuted the war with great vigour. Bribes
were offered to him in vain by his wily adversary, who was
speedily reduced to desperate straits. Caius Marius next
took the command; but Jugurtha, aided by the Maurita¬
nian Bocchus, still continued to make head against this ter¬
rible foe. Town after town fell into the hands of Marius,
and a bloody pitched battle at last laid Africa at his feet.
Bocchus temporized, and, as the price of his own safety,
delivered up his ally to the Romans. Jugurtha was carried
to Rome, where, after decking the triumph of Marius,
he was thrown into the Mamertine prison, and cruelly put
to death, b.c. 106. (Sallust’s Jugurtha ; Plutarch’s Life
of Marius ; Diodorus Siculus, Fragm., vol. x., p. 141.)
JULIAN CALENDAR. See Calendar.
JULIANUS, Flavius Claudius, emperor of Rome
from December 361 to June 363, was the son of Julius
Constantius, and nephew of Constantine the Great, and was
born in a.d. 331. On the death of Constantine, the sol¬
diers, to assure the empire to his sons, murdered his colla¬
teral relations. Julian and his half-brother Gallus alone
escaped. Constantius the new emperor hearing that his
cousin was still in life, consigned him to the care of Euse¬
bius, bishop of Nicomedia. By this prelate and the
learned eunuch Mardonius, Julian was trained not only
in every branch of polite literature, but in the doctrines
of the Christian system. At a befitting age he was made
a reader in the church, and in that capacity used to expound
the Scriptures to the people. At the age of fourteen he
was transferred to the castle of Macellum, where he and
Gallus were educated together under the strictest surveil¬
lance. When Constantius, who was childless, found it ne¬
cessary to adopt Gallus as his heir, Julian returned to the
capital to carry on his studies, and there made the friend¬
ship of the sophist Libanius. Reasons of state induced
his cousin to send him back once more to Nicomedia, where
he fell under the sway of Maximus of Ephesus, and other
Platonists. After the tragic death of Gallus in 355, Julian
was sent to Milan, where he remained for some months as
J U L
closely watched and guarded as ever. More than once his Julianas,
life, endangered by the suspicions and caprice of his impe-
rial cousin, was saved at the instance of the empress Euse-
bia. By her advice he was now invited to court, and named
heir to the purple. The emperor next gave him his sister
Helena in marriage, and assigned to him the government of
Gaul, which the hordes of German invaders were then lay¬
ing waste with fire and sword. In four successful cam¬
paigns Julian displayed his bravery and military skill. The
Germans were driven across the Rhine, and Chnodomar,
their most powerful king, taken prisoner. Fixing his head¬
quarters at Lutetia (Paris), he set himself to repair the
havoc of the barbarian invasions. Cities were rebuilt, im¬
post and taxes abolished, and rapacious governors punished.
All these reforms were brought about in such a way as to
gain to their author the highest credit for gentleness and
clemency, as well as wisdom and sagacity. When the war
with Sapor, king of Persia, broke out, Constantius, alarmed
at his cousin’s growing popularity, took the occasion to draft
away to the East the veteran legions of Gaul. When they
were preparing to depart, Julian assembled them at Paris,
and formally bade them farewell. His address was re¬
ceived with shouts of displeasure, and before he could
understand what was meant he found himself saluted as
emperor. His first step was to announce the fact to his
cousin, whose timely death saved the Romans from the
scourge of a civil war. Julian hastened to the capital,
and was quietly invested with the imperial purple. His
first act was to put an end to the reckless and wasteful
extravagance which had prevailed at the court of his
predecessor. He himself affected the extreme of simpli¬
city, always walked on foot, prided himself on the length
of his nails, and the inky blackness of his hands; and, in his
Misopogon, “ celebrates with visible complacency the shaggy
and populous beard, which he fondly cherished after the
example of the philosophers of Greece ” (Gibbon, ch. xxii.).
To carry out his reforms he established, at Chalcedon, on
the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus, an extraordinary cham¬
ber of justice, consisting of six judges of the highest rank
in the state and army. The object of this tribunal was to
bring to trial such public men as in the last reign had abused
their influence with the emperor to grind down and oppress
the people. Many guilty persons were condemned and
punished, but unfortunately some who were quite innocent
shared the same fate. In the latter class was Ursulas, the
able and honest treasurer of the empire, “ over whose fate,”
in the words of the historian Ammianus, “justice herself
appeared to weep.” Among the wise edicts which Julian
had published on ascending the throne, was one proclaim¬
ing universal toleration. His own conduct, however, was
soon marked by a keen and even bitter hatred to Chris¬
tianity. Though brought up in that faith, he had never
owned himself its disciple ; and the name of the Pagan
would have suited him better than that of the Apostate,
which was fixed upon him when he abolished Christianity
as the religion of the empire. Revoking the edict of uni¬
versal toleration, he persecuted the Christians, confiscated
the revenues of their churches, and taxed them heavily to
rebuild the heathen temples, which, in their day of power,
they had pulled down and plundered. He excluded them
from every, even the meanest, office of state; and by a
special edict forbade them either to study or to teach polite
literature. With his connivance, if not at his instigation,
the whole paganism of the empire rose in arms against the
disciples of the new faith, and imprisoned, tortured, and
even offered them as victims on the altars of the heathen
gods. Such of the unfortunates as claimed Julian’s pro¬
tection were answered with the heartless taunt that “ Every
Christian is called upon to suffer.” Among the victims was
the aged Marcus, bishop of Arethusa, who had saved Ju¬
lian, when a boy, from the general butchery of his father’s
J U L
Julianus. family. When the emperor heard that his old preserver
had been ignominiously dragged through the mud and tor¬
tured to death, he allowed the perpetrators of the foul deed
to pass unpunished. The feeble efforts which he made to
check these and similar excesses only served to stimulate
the fanaticism of the persecutors. Meanwhile, Julian had
resolved to make war upon Sapor, king of Persia. On his
way to the East he made Antioch his head-quarters till the
expedition should be completely organized. During his
sixth months’ residence in that city, his unkingly dress and
manners, ill-trimmed beard, and strange retinue, offered a
tempting mark to the shafts of ridicule, and gave abundant
occupation to the epigrammatists and small wits of the place.
Julian avenged himself in his famous satire of Misopogon,
or Beard-hater, the most trenchant and original of his
works. He afterwards took a far more terrible vengeance,
by appointing to the government of the city one of the
worst men in his dominions. When the inhabitants remon¬
strated, he replied, “ I well know that Alexander is a bad
man, and does not deserve a government; but he is exactly
such a governor as the greedy and insolent Antiochians de¬
serve.” When everything was at last ready, Julian set out
on his expedition with a brilliant and well-appointed army
of 65,000 men. The campaign brought out the better
qualities of his nature. He was indefatigably active, and
exposed himself to every hardship like the meanest sol¬
dier. Success at first attended his arms. He crossed the
Euphrates, and afterwards the Tigris, without loss, took
several strongly fortified towns, and defeated the Persians
in many skirmishes. His nimble foe, however, refused to
close with him in a pitched battle, but his clouds of light
horsemen cut off the foraging parties, and the Romans were
soon reduced to great straits for supplies. Still, they held
out so gallantly, that Sapor seriously thought of suing for
peace, when, in a skirmish of outposts, the Roman emperor
fell mortally wounded. Brought back to his tent, and feel¬
ing that he had but a short time to live, he spent his last
hours in discoursing with his friends on the immortality of
the soul. He reviewed his reign, and declared himself sa¬
tisfied with his own conduct, and as having neither penitence
nor remorse to express for anything that he had done. He
died on the 27th July 363, after a reign of one year and
nearly seven months. In accordance with his own instruc¬
tions, his ashes were carried to Tarsus, in Cilicia, where a
stately monument was erected to his memory by his suc¬
cessor, Jovian.
The character of Julian is one of the most interesting
and difficult of historical problems. He seemed to have
embodied, if not reconciled in himself, qualities in their own
nature most opposite. With brilliant endowments, he often
acted as for the most part fools only act. Naturally, and to
the last humane, he allowed his kingdom to be drenched
with the blood of his Christian, in other words, his best
subjects. Many of his acts and edicts were lofty in aim
and wise in effect; others were illogical and arbitrary. His
personal morals were austerely pure, and many of his
meanest subjects were both better clad and better fed than
he ; yet he lavished his wealth and hospitalities on the so¬
phists whom he chose as his friends. With all his modesty
and self-denial, he had no small share of vanity, which
showed itself in his eager thirsting for posthumous fame.
1 o be remembered, when other monarchs of his line should
be forgotten, was to him a prize worth any amount of hard¬
ship and self-sacrifice. When in early life his chances of
the throne were very small, he sought to immortalize him¬
self as an author ; and, to make his character as marked and
unique as possible, he affected those eccentricities from
which in later life he failed, if indeed he ever tried, to dis-
engage himself. When he came to assume the purple, his
imagination glowed with the hope of doing some great deed
that should transmit his name to prosperity. His visions of
VOL. xm.
J U L 17
military glory were soon dispelled, when he found, at first* Julich.
no foe against whom to concentrate the whole power of his ||
empire. In the internal administration of his kingdom he J“lina<J)er
found “ ample room and verge enough ” for reform, which v Qoa ‘ t
he was not long of effecting. Such services as these, how-
ever, posterity was likely to regard as mere acts of duty,
for which no special credit was due to him. A much better
chance lay in his restoring the ancient greatness of the re¬
public and the empire, and with it the religious system
under which its triumphs had been achieved. Paganism,
though on the wane, was still able to oppose a strong front
to the new faith. Personally, Julian had little reason to
prefer the new to the old. From his own relations—all
adherents of the former—he had suffered nothing but cruel
maltreatment, and more than once had narrowly escaped
with his life, while the Christian church itself presented a
sad spectacle of schism, disunion, angry controversy, and
intolerance. On the other hand the friends of his youth, as
of his riper years, had all been pagans, and by them he had
uniformly been caressed, flattered, and admired ; while the
unity and splendid ceremonies of the pagan worship were pro¬
bably not without their influence. It is ridiculous to suppose
that he did not see through the absurdities of the old mytho¬
logy; butitwas part of his tactics to profess reverence for the
deities of Rome, and he himself used to sacrifice to the mother
of the gods and compose orations in honour of Apollo, whose
son he ordered himself to be called. The sophists, his
chosen friends, were not slow to confirm what his vanity
had already whispered; and it is not difficult to see why
they should have done so. Encouraged by their advice
and the hopes of immortal fame, of which he might count
himself secure, if successful, Julian came forward as the
champion of paganism. It would almost seem as if, in doing
so, he had done violence to the dictates of his conscience
and the early religious impressions, from which his che¬
quered career could hardly have set him free. If, in com¬
ing to this conclusion, we disregard the fierce attacks of
the Christian fathers, Gregory of Nazianzus, Cyril, and
Jerome, who accused him of downright hypocrisy, it is much
less easy to reject the testimony of his own friend Libanius,
and the historian Ammianus, who unconsciously make a
similar admission.
Even had he not reigned, Julian’s name would, in all
probability, have been saved from oblivion by his writings.
Of these the best are his Letters, especially that to The-
mistius, in which, in a lofty style, and with great closeness
and force of reasoning, he details the duties of a sovereign.
His Ccesars, or The Banquet, is a satire in which the Ro¬
man emperors are described as one by one seating them¬
selves round a table in heaven, and defending themselves
from the attacks made on the vices, crimes, and follies
of their earthly career by Silenus. Gibbon pronounces this
work one of the most agreeable and instructive produc¬
tions of ancient wit. His Orations are less interesting.
His narrative of his Gallic Campaigns, as also his Refuta¬
tion of the Christian Religion, has unfortunately perished.
The best editions of Julian’s complete works are those of
Petavius, Paris, 1630; and of Ezechiel Spanheim, Leip¬
zig, 1696. {Life of Julian, in Gibbon’s Decline and Fall;
Vie de Julien, by the Abbe de la Bletterie ; Vie de Julien,
by M. Thourlet; Histoire de Julien, by M. Jondot; Nean-
der’s Ueher den Kaiser Julian, &c., &c.)
JULICH, the capital of a cognominal circle in the
Prussian province of Aix-la-Chapelle, is situated on the
Roer, 15 miles N.E. of Aix-la-Chapelle, and 24 miles W.
of Cologne. It is strongly fortified, and has a citadel of
great strength. Chief manufactures, woollen cloth, leather,
and soap. Julich is the ancient Juliacum, and is said to
have been founded by Julius Caesar. Pop. 2890.
JULINDER DOOAB, a tract of country in Upper
India, lying, as the word Dooab implies, between two rivers,
6
18 J U L
Julius I. which, in this case, are the Beas and the Sutlej. It has
. II an area of about 374 square miles. This territory came
^ullus IL into British possession during the earlier operations against
the Seikhs, and was permanently retained as a portion of
the British dominions under the Treaty of Lahore, con¬
cluded in March 1846, whereby the Maharajah of the Pun-
ja b ceded to the East India Company, in perpetual sove¬
reignty, all his territory between the Beas and the Sutlej.
The tract is situated between the 31st and 33d degrees of
N. Latitude.
JULIUS I. succeeded Marcus on the papal throne A.D.
337. It was during his pontificate that the church was
embroiled by the Arian heresy. Athanasius, bishop of
Alexandria, driven from his see by the Eusebians, had re¬
paired to Rome to defend himself from the charges brought
against him by them. Julius received him with honour;
and, in a council held at Rome in 342, but which the Euse¬
bians refused to attend, the deposed bishop was held to have
completely cleared himself. The Eusebians complained,
and another council was held at Sardica in Illyria. This
council likewise they refused to attend; and Athanasius
was again acquitted. The two parties then mutually ex¬
communicated each other, the Eastern faction being pecu¬
liarly indignant at Julius, whom they accused of being the
author of the whole evil. Another cause of their bitter
feeling seems to have been that the council invested the
bishop of Rome with the power of arbitrating on matters
relating to the deposition of a bishop. After a pontificate
of fifteen years, Julius died in 352. Two letters of his are
extant, both bearing upon the affair of Athanasius. Some
others have been spuriously ascribed to him.
Julius IL, one of the greatest of all the successors of
St Peter, came to the throne on the death of Pius III. in
Nov. 1503. He was the nephew of Sixtus IV., but his own
parents were obscure and poor persons in the little town of
Abizal, near Savona. Entering the church and occupying
successively the sees of Carpentras, Ostia, Albano, Bologna,
and Avignon, he had reached all but the highest grade in
the church as Cardinal della Rovere. From an early age
he had taken an active part in all the political movements
of that stirring age. Few of his contemporaries were so
well able as he, either to read or to control the signs of the
times; and he was likened to Virgil’s Neptune lifting his
serene head above the billows, and calming their fury with
a glance. His keen sagacity pierced into the inner core of
men. His mind was capable of forming vast designs, while
his intellect, fertility of resource, and indomitable will en¬
abled him to give them practical effect. These qualities,
combined with a boundless ambition, a courage which no¬
thing could daunt, and an insatiable passion for war, went
to form a character apparently better adapted to lead great
armies, or govern a great state, than to diffuse and maintain
peace and good-will among men. The great idea of his life,
as soon as he assumed the tiara, was to enlarge the territorial
domains of the church. This aim he always kept steadily in
view, and before his death he could boast that he had laid
the foundations of such a power as never pope before him
had possessed. His first step was to rid himself of Caesar
Borgia, whose crimes, passions, and power had long made
his name a watchword of terror in Rome. Julius was dex¬
terous enough to drive this scourge of the country out of
his dukedom and possessions in the Romagna; but he found
that his claims to the conquered lands were contested by
the Venetians who had seized Ravenna, Rimini, and other
important places. They were determined to keep them at
all hazards, and Julius was far too weak to cope with them
in war unaided. It was to no purpose that they offered to
do him homage and pay him tribute for what they looked
upon as their lawful conquests. The pope refused to con¬
tent himself with anything short of their unconditional sur¬
render of these cities and lands to the church, as repre-
J U L
sented in his own person. The Venetians were obstinate* Julius lit.
and Julius organized against them, in 1508, the celebrated '
“ League of Cambray,” by which the Emperor Maximilian
of Germany, Louis XII. of France, and the Duke of Fer¬
rara, bound themselves to blot out the republic of Venice
from the map of Europe, and parcel out its dependencies
among them. But the pope, resolute as he was to assert
his rights to the hereditary possessions of the church, had
no desire to see either French or Germans (or, as he called
them, “ the barbarians”) secure a permanent foothold in the
Italian peninsula. No sooner, therefore, had he vindicated
his ancestral rights, and been confirmed in his conquests of
Parma, Piacenza, and Reggio, than he concluded peace
with Venice, which, after a disastrous war of two years, was
ready to listen to his overtures. To rid Italy of “ the bar¬
barians,” he tried to sow the seeds of discord between the
French and Germans. Foiled in this attempt, he called
in the Swiss to his aid, and with their help took the field in
person against the French in Lombardy. In 1511 he laid
siege to the town of Mirandola, took it, and caused himself
to be drawn over the frozen trenches, and through the
breach into the ruins. The summer campaign was less
prosperous, and was marked by the loss of Bologna to the
pope. In the autumn, however, he formed what he was
pleased to call a “holy” league with the Swiss and Vene¬
tians, and the kings of Spain and England. The allied
troops took the field in the following year. Under their
cruel but able general Gaston de Foix, the French made a
most gallant resistance; but in the desperate fight of
Ravenna they were utterly routed. Their commander was
killed, and the relics of the army were speedily driven across
the frontier into their own country. But though he had
thus rid himself of the French, he had little reason to pride
himself on his success. Italy was as full as ever of “bar¬
barians”—the motley armies of Spain, Switzerland, and Ger¬
many,—who took upon themselves to remodel the internal
constitution of such of the Italian states as were in their
power. Julius did not live to see all the evils which his
policy entailed on his country, as he died after a brief ill¬
ness, Feb. 21, 1513. But he witnessed the overthrow of
the Florentine republic, and the beginnings of other changes
well calculated to fill with gloomy forebodings a mind so
acutely alive as his to the political tendencies of the age.
Though Julius left no literary record of his genius, he
was a warm and enlightened patron of literature and the
fine arts. He treated with marked honour the leading
scholars of that age, Bembo, Castiglione, Flaminio, and
others, and enriched the library of the Vatican with many
rare and precious books and MSS. He gave full scope to
the genius of Bramante, and with his own hand laid the
foundation of the new church of St Peter, which that ar¬
chitect had planned. Michael Angelo and Raphael owed
their early fame to his patronage. Perugino reached in his
pontificate the acme of his renown, and Leonardo da Vinci
then first came forward to share with Michael Angelo the
suffrages of the world. The reign of Julius in short was
the golden dawn of that day which reached its splendid noon
under Leo X.
Julius III., Cardinal del Monte, whose family name
was Giocchi, succeeded Paul III. in 1550. One of his
first acts was to recommence the sittings of the Council of
Trent, which had been discontinued under his predecessor.
A silly quarrel between him and Ottavio Farnese, involved
France and the Empire in a bloody war. One of its con¬
sequences was another suspension of the Council of Trent;
for which Julius was secretly very thankful, as the debates
had threatened to be troublesome and complicated. The
closing of the council seems to have been the last act of his
public life. The remainder of his days were spent in an
imbecile and immoral self-indulgence. He died in 1555, in
the sixty-fourth year of his age, and sixth of his pontificate.
J U M
Jambasier JUMBASIER, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
II Gujerat, and district of Broach, situated on the headland pro-
Junagur. jecting between the estuaries of the rivers Nerbudda and
Myhee. It exports to Bombay and other places, cotton,
grain, oil, and piece-goods. The tide rises from five to six
fathoms. It is 28 miles from the town of Broach. N. Lat.
22. 2., E. Long. 72. 50.
JUMILLA, a town of Spain, province of Murcia, on the
S. declivity of a hill, the summit of which is crowned by a
castle, 37 miles N. by W. of Murcia. The streets, though
mostly narrow, are paved and clean, and the houses are
generally well built. Jumilla is the see of a bishop, and
has two handsome parish churches, one of which is adorned
with fine frescoes and paintings, two convents, an hospital,
and a public granary. There are a number of oil and corn
mills in the town, and several branches of manufactures are
carried on. Pop. 8397.
JUMNA. This celebrated river takes its rise in the
Himalaya Mountains, at the south-western base of the group
called the Jumnotri Peaks, at an elevation of 10,849 feet
above the sea-level, and in Lat. 31., Long. 78. 32. It first
holds a course, for about 100 miles, in a S.W. direction,
through the mountainous districts of Gurwhal and the Dehra
Dhoon, during which it receives the waters of the Berai-
Ganga, the Budeear, Comalda, Rickna, Khootnee, Aglar,
Tonse, Giree, and Asun. From the point of its confluence
with the last named stream, the Jumna takes a direction,
first westerly, then southerly, and flowing through a ravine
in the Sewalik Mountains, it enters the plains of Hindustan
in Lat. 30. 20., Long. 77. 38. After emerging from the
mountains, it throws off the Delhi and Dooab Canals, the
former issuing from its right, and the latter from its left
bank. It then directs its course in a parallel line to that
of the Ganges, until, after passing the cities of Delhi and
Agra, it falls into the Ganges at Allahabad, in which, as
the holier and rather the larger stream, its name is absorbed.
Between Delhi and Allahabad the Jumna receives the
waters of many considerable streams, among which may be
enumerated the Chumbul, the Sind, the Betwa, and the
Cane. Jacquemont styles the Jumna in the lower part of
its course, an enormous river; in the rainy season, it is in
some places a mile in width, with a very rapid current. The
total length of this river, from its source to its confluence
with the Ganges at Allahabad, is 860 miles. The streams
at the junction are nearly equal in volume ; the Ganges, the
deeper, with yellow water ; the Jumna, the more rapid, with
water as clear as crystal, but considered less palatable and
wholesome than that of its fellow. The confluence of the
two rivers takes place in Lat. 25. 26., Long. 81. 45. The
Jumna is only useful as a military barrier to the British
territories during the rainy season, when all field operations
are impracticable. At this period it may be navigated by
flat-bottomed boats of considerable burden ; but at other
times it is of no utility to commerce. Above its junction
with the Chumbul, or 10 miles below the fort of Etayeh, it
is fordable, except for a few weeks during the rainy season.
From Calpee to its junction with the Ganges there is no
obstruction, and only one place where, in the dry season,
the passage is rendered difficult by a bank of limestone. It
is mentioned by Bishop Heber that its waters aqt on stran¬
gers like the Cheltenham waters. (e. t.)
JUNAGUR, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Gujerat, possessed by an independent native chief, now one
of the British allies. He and other chiefs engaged, in 1808,
with the Bombay government, not to connive at piracy, and
to permit a free and open commerce with the British ves¬
sels, on paying the stipulated duties. The chief, a Mussel-
man, styled the Nawaub of Junagur, possesses a territory
estimated to contain a population of 284,300 souls. Juna¬
gur is distant N.W. from Bombay 235 miles. Lat. 21.31.,
Long. 70. 31.
J U N 19
JUNGFRAU (*.c., Virgin), one of the most picturesque Jungfrau
mountains in Switzerland, rises very steeply from the valley juijjug
of Lauterbrunnen to the height of 13,671 feet. It is one t ^ 1 ^,
of the ridges of the Bernese Alps, separating the cantons
of Valais and Berne. It is in reality a group of mountains,
increasing gradually in height, and separated by deep ra¬
vines. Of these heights, the Silberhorner, on the W. side,
are remarkable for the graceful forms assumed by the snow
which covers them. The Jungfrau, like the other moun¬
tains of the chain to which it belongs, is characterized by
its sharp edge, the summit being not more than two feet
broad. As seen from the Wengern Alp in full front, it
appears a massive mountain, but as seen edgewise it is nar¬
row and sharp. This, it is said, may be owing to the gneiss
rock, of which it is composed, splitting into immense plates.
The top of the Jungfrau was long considered inaccessible.
In 1811, however, the Brothers Meyer of Aarau laid claim
to having reached the summit. In 1828 six peasants of
Grindelwald made a successful ascent. On the 28th Aug.
1841, a party of scientific gentlemen, including MM. Forbes
and Agassiz, proceeding by the glaciers of Oberaar, Viesch,
and Aletsch, succeeded in gaining the top. While they
were there the thermometer fell to six and a half degrees
below zero. Lichens were found on the highest exposed
rocks.
JUNIEN, St, a town of France, department of Haute-
Vienne, and arrondissement of Rochechouart, on the right
bank of the Vienne, at its confluence with the Glane, 8
miles N.E. of Rochechouart. It is built in the form of an
amphitheatre, and is surrounded by boulevards, planted with
trees, and commanding pleasant prospects of the surround¬
ing country. The inhabitants are actively engaged in the
manufacture of serge, blankets, gloves, hats, woollen cloths,
leather, and earthenware. Pop. 5500.
JUNIPER. The juniper tree belongs to the natural
order Coniferce, and is useful, both for its wood and its
berries. The Virginian species, which is called red cedar,
affords a light and durable material valuable in ship-build¬
ing. It attains the height of about 30 feet, and grows well
in barren soil. The berries used for flavouring gin are ob¬
tained from the Juniperus communis, and about 200 tons
of them are annually imported to this country. They are
also used for imparting pungency to beer. When roasted
and ground, they afford a substitute for coffee. The oil of
juniper is an important ingredient in varnish for pictures,
wood-work, &c. The berries have also a diuretic property,
and are used in medicine. The heavy duty to which they
were subject was abolished in 1845. See Botany ; nat.
ord. 220, Coniferce.
JUNIUS, Franciscus, an eminent scholar and philolo-
ger of the seventeenth century, was born at Heidelberg in
1589. His father, whose name w'as also Franciscus, was a
Protestant minister at Leyden, and a professor in the uni¬
versity of that city. He had made himself a considerable
name by the Latin translation of the Scriptures, which he
had written with the assistance of Tremellius, and which is
still favourably known under the name of its conjoint authors.
After his death in 1603, his son, abandoning study, followed
the military profession, till the truce of 1609 put an end to
his hopes of preferment in that career. During the next
ten years, he devoted himself solely to study and literary
pursuits. Passing over to England in 1620, he became
librarian to Thomas Howard, earl of Arundel, one of the
best of the many good men who have borne that title.
During the thirty years in which he held that office he
amassed vast treasures of antiquarian, and especially of
philological lore. His attention had early been drawn to
the languages of northern Europe, more especially to the
Gothic. This tongue is now universally allowed to belong
to the great Teutonic family. A dialect of it was, at a very
remote period, spoken in Scandinavia, and another at a still
20 J U N
Junius more distant epoch, in Mcesia and Thrace. For the bene-
II fit of the Goths inhabiting these two latter countries, their
Jun0, bishop, Ulplnlas, had translated the historical part of the
New Testament. His MS. was discovered in the library of
the abbey of Werden in Westphalia, and is now preserved at
Upsala in Sweden. It is written on vellum leaves of vari¬
ous hues, violet being the predominant colour. The letters
are an adaptation of the capitals of the Greek and Latin
alphabets, and are all of silver except the initials, which are
of gold. Junius did a real service to letters when, in 166o,
he published a facsimile of this “codex argenteus,” or silver
book, by far the most precious relic of the Gothic tongue,
and illustrated it with many learned and valuable notes.
As early as 1637, Junius had made his name known by his
useful essay, in three books, De Pictura Veterum. Of this
work, he himself published an English version in the follow¬
ing year. But the most useful of all his writings, and one
which has been largely turned to account by all English
lexicographers, is his Etymologicum Anglicanurn, in which
he evolves the Saxon element of the English tongue with
great acuteness and learning. When on a visit to Germany
in 1650, he learned that a curious dialect was spoken in
some parts of Friesland. Two years’ residence and study
on the spot satisfied him that the language in question was
identical with the Saxon, and proved of great advantage to
him in his collateral researches. In 1674 he returned to
England, and spent his remaining years at Oxford. He
died in 1678 at Windsor, where he had gone to visit his
nephew, the illustrious scholar, Isaac Vossius. His valuable
collection of MS. he bequeathed to the Bodleian library at
Oxford, and the grateful university erected a handsome mo¬
nument to his memory.
JUNIUS, Letters of. See Francis, Sir Philip.
JUNKSEYLON or Salang, an island of Siam, on the
W. coast of the Malay peninsula, and separated from it by
a narrow channel about a mile in width, and nearly dry at
low water. The island is about 25 miles in length, by 10
miles in breadth, and has at its northern extremity a har¬
bour called Popra, which may be entered over a mud bar
during the spring tides by ships drawing 20 feet of water.
The anchorage round the island is generally good, with a
mud bottom. Previous to the settlement of Prince of
Wales’ Island, it carried on a considerable trade. It has
valuable tin mines which formerly yielded an average of 500
tons annually, but several of the richest mines are said to
be now nearly exhausted. Pop. about 6000. N. Lat. 8.,
E. Long. 98. 30.
JUNO, a Roman divinity, corresponding in most of her
attributes to the Here of the Greeks. She was the daught/ar
of Saturn and Rhea, the sister and wife of Jupiter, the
queen of heaven ; and, as the only married goddess among
the Olympians, the especial protectress of marriage and
married women. Many places of Greece contested the
honour of having given her birth, especially Argos and
Samos, which long remained the principal seats of her wor¬
ship. Though the Samian temple of the goddess was the
largest and most splendid, Argos seems to have been the
* cradle of her worship, which at a very remote period spread
through the Peloponnesus, and thence into all the adjoining
countries. In Greek sculptures and reliefs Juno is generally
represented in a splendid stola, sometimes sitting or stand¬
ing in a light car drawn by peacocks, and attended by the
Aurse or air-nymphs, or by Iris, the goddess of the rainbow.
At Rome she was worshipped under the titles ot Pronuba,
as the goddess of marriage; Matrona, as the goddess of
married women ; Lucina, as presiding over child-birth ;
Moneta, as the warner, in which capacity she had a temple
on the capitol on the site of Manlius’ house. In this temple
the mint was afterwards established. Her other titles were
very numerous, but they all had reference to some of the
qualities indicated in those already mentioned. The great
J U R
annual festival in her honour, in which all the married Jupiter
women of Rome took part, was called Matronalia, and was ||
celebrated on the first day of March. Jura-
JUPITER, the great deity of the Romans, whose at-
tributes corresponded almost exactly with those of the
Greek Zeus. The etymology of the word, which is a cor¬
ruption of Jovis-pater, Dies-piter, or Diu-piter, fixes down
its meaning as father of day, or light, or air, and points out
Jupiter as having been originally the god of the elements
and the controller of the operations of the upper air such
as the thunder, rain, snow, &c- Hence in the classics the
word is very often used to denote the open air. The root
of the word occurs in the kindred languages—Sanscr. dera,
Greek #eos, Latin deus and divus—which are all nearly
allied to Zeus or Ju-piter. In Greek and Latin the oblique
cases, Jovis, Jovi, Jovem, are exactly identical with Aios,
Au, Aia, by the same change of letters as in £uyov, jug am,
and dies, diurnus, giorno, jour.
In the old mythology there were three deities known
under the name of Jupiter. Of these the most celebrated
was the son of Cronos and Rhea. He was born in Crete,
and his mother’s care saved him from his father’s cruelty at
his birth. When he grew up he dethroned his father, and
divided his kingdom, reserving to himself the upper world
of air and earth, and assigning to Neptune the sea, and to
Pluto the nether world. The deposed monarch called in
the Titans to his aid, but though they made head for a time
against the usurper, they were finally overthrown and de¬
stroyed. His throne established, Jupiter reigned in heaven
and earth with irresistible authority and infinite wisdom.
Of his wives the most famous was Juno, by whom he had
Mars and Vulcan. His marriage, his loves, and his quar¬
rels were among the commonest themes of the old mytho¬
logy. His worship was widely diffused throughout Greece
and Italy. The most famous of his temples was that on the
Capitoline Hill of Rome, where he was worshipped under
the title of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. On ancient coins
and sculptures the father of gods and men was commonly
represented as seated on a throne of ivory, grasping in his
right hand a sheaf of thunderbolts, and in his left a sceptre.
His favourite bird, the eagle, stands on the right side of the
throne.
JURA, an island on the W. coast of Scotland, one of the
inner Hebrides, 5 miles W. of the Mull of Cantire, between
N. Lat. 55.52. and 56. 9., and W. Long. 5. 43. and 6. 8.
It is bounded N. by the Gulf of Corriveckan, E. by Jura
Sound, S. and S.W. by Islay Sound, and W. by the Atlan¬
tic Ocean. The island is 23 miles in length from N.E. to
S.W., by 6 miles in average breadth, and contains an area of
about 156 square miles. A chain of rugged hills traverses its
whole extent, interrupted only by Tarbert Loch, an arm of
the sea, which stretches into the island for about 6 miles,
nearly separating it into parts. Jura difters much in aspect
from its sister isle, Islay, although belonging to the same
geological formation. The soil is inferior and the minerals
unimportant. Some good slate is quarried, and a very fine
sand found on the western shore is used for making glass.
Bere, oats, turnips, and potatoes form the chief crops, the
first being raised for the distilleries here and in Islay. Jura
belongs to the parish of Jura and Colonsay. In 1851 there
were 200 inhabited houses, and a population ot 1064. See
Hebrides.
Jura, an eastern frontier department of France, formerly
a part of the province of Franche-Comte, lying between N.
Lat. 46. 16. and 47. 19., and E. Long. 5. 16. and 6. 11. It
is bounded N. by the department of Haute-Saone, N.E. by
that of Doubs, E. by Switzerland, S. by the department ol
Ain, W. by that of Saone-et-Loire, and N.W. by that of
Cote d’Or. It is 114 miles in length from N.to S., and 40
miles broad, containing an area of 1928 square miles. Ihe
surface of the country is for the most part irregular, traversed
J U R
J U R
21
Jura as it is by the Jura Alps, from which it takes its name. This
Mountains, mountain range enters the department from Switzerland, and
runs in a southerly direction, attaining at some places an ele¬
vation of 4000 to 6000 feet. The eastern portion of Jura is
the most elevated, the western for a considerable extent is
level, while the middle districts form a series of table-lands.
The climate is variable according to the contour of the coun¬
try. In the higher regions it is cold and tempestuous
in the winter, and humid during the warmer months. The
chief rivers are—the Ain, Doubs, Seille, and Oignon, the
latter forming the northern boundary of the department.
They are navigable only for small barges. The soil is va¬
rious. In the level parts to the W. it is a marly clay which
is very productive, while in the highlands it is calcareous,
thin, and stony. The products are similar to those of the
neighbouring departments, including wheat, rye, maize,
hemp, wine, and fruit, besides butter and cheese. Cattle
and sheep in large numbers are fed on the hill sides, and
on the extensive plateaux. Of 1,234,097 acres contained in
the department of Jura, 452,498 are arable, 3o9,286 under
wood, 195,242 moors and heaths, 124,907 acres under grass,
51,959 under vines, 29,662 roads, buildings, &c., 13,623
rivers, lakes, canals, &c., and 6920 in gardens and nurseries.
Agriculture generally is progressing. The number of
wolves and foxes which come from the mountains in winter
do considerable damage, especially to the flocks, which re¬
quire to be tended with great care and kept in strong and
high folds. In Jura manufacture is mostly confined to the
nicer articles of workmanship, as the making of clocks and
watches, and the turning of wood, ivory, bone, and horn.
The coarser manufactures include paper, linen, wool, lea¬
ther, tiles, chemicals, and hardware. The corn grown here
is sufficient for the wants of the inhabitants, without having
recourse to importation.
The following are the political divisions and population
of the department:—
Arrondissements. Cantons. Communes. Pop. 1851.
Lons-le-Saulnier  11 212 108,214
Poligny  7 152 78,311
D61e  9 138 75,350
Saint-Claude  5 82 51,486
Total  32 584 313,361
The principal towns are Lons-le-Saulnier, the capi¬
tal, (with 9400 inhabitants), Dole, Poligny, and Saint-
Claude.
Jura Mountains (Ger. Leberberg, Fr. Jorat), a
chain in the S.W. of Switzerland, extending from the can¬
ton of Schaffhausen S.S.W. to Savoy. The curve which
it forms is about 200 miles long, its breadth being about 30
miles. The Jura chain strikes through Soleure, Berne,
and Neufchatel, parallel to the great range of the Bernese
Oberland, and forms the frontier between the Canton de
Yaud, and the French department of Jura. The N.W.
portion of the range is low ; further to the S.W. it is pre¬
cipitous on the Swiss side; and on the French side it
gradually retires in ridges, which successively become
lower. Some of the highest points of the range are as
follows:—
Feet.
Mont Molesson  6577
Reculet de Thoiry  5627
Grand Colombier  5567
Mont Tendre  5521
Feet.
Dole 5510
Mont Chasseral 5410
Mont Chasseron  5400
The following are some of the passes:—Fort Ecluse,
close under Mont Vouache; Col de Villeneuve, S. of
Grand Colombier; Marchairu, S.W. of Mont Tendre;
Echelle, S.W. of Mont d’Or ; Yerrieres, near Pontarlier ;
Pierre Pertuis, an immense archway cut through the rock in
the Valley of St Imier as early as the time of the Romans ;
and the Klus Pass in Ballsthal, important as a military Jurieu.
station in time of war. The chief roads by which the
range is crossed are from Nyon into France, over St Cer-
gue ; from Orbe, Yverdun,and Neufchatel, to Pontarlier—
the latter of these being by the picturesque Motiers Tra¬
vers; also from Neufchatel to Morteau in France; from
Biel to Porrentruy; two from Basle to the interior of
Switzerland, viz., the Upper and Under Hauenstein ; over
Stafelegg, between Friekthal and Aarau; over Botzberg
between Basle and Zurich, an old road which existed in the
time of the Romans.
Geologically the Jura chain is a limestone formation,
varying between grey and yellow in colour. (For the Jurassic
formation, see Mineralogical Science.) The strata are
tilted up sometimes almost perpendicularly, and contain
stalactite caverns usual in limestone districts. The more
remarkable of these grottoes are in the valleys of Verrieres,
Travers, Orbe, and Frick. Beds of marl and clay are
found alternating with the limestone. Marble, asphalt
and gypsums are also found ; iron and coal never in such
abundance as to form an important source of wealth.
The iron mines have as yet been turned to account only
by the French. The same remark applies to the rich salt
springs of Salins, Montmorot, Courbauson, Tormont, Gro-
son, and in the neighbourhood of Poligny, which occur in
the chain. The fossils consist of the bones of large Sau-
rians, Didelphis, crabs, shells, ammonites, zoophytes, coral,
wood, &c. The trees which at present grow on the range
are mainly pine and box. The former are found in large
quantities near Poligny, and afford materials to the French
tor ships of war. The forests of ash, lime, beech, &c., also
afford an abundant supply of wood for the iron-foundries
and salt works of Arc, Salins, &c. During the rigour of
winter the inhabitants occupy their time in cutting all sorts
of fancy articles of wood, from which they derive consider¬
able revenue. Wolves are numerous; and the brown bear,
at one time so destructive to herds, is still found in the
more secluded parts of the Western Jura.
The pastures are covered with the herds which supply
the Gruyere cheese. The meadows are so well watered
by nature and art that they yield three crops a-yeqr; vine¬
yards occur in the valleys. There are no glaciers, and
snow lies only in the sheltered ravines. A remarkable
phenomenon, occurring all along the Swiss side of the Jura,
is the existence of large detached blocks of granite and
gneiss, the chain itself consisting of limestone. The largest
of these blocks is the Pierre-a-bot (toad-stone), upwards
of 60 feet long. It is about 2 miles above Neufchatel,
and the nearest rock of the same kind is found at Great
St Bernard. In the same way protogine blocks occur near
Geneva, which must have come from Mont Blanc ; while
towards the N.W. extremity of the range others occur,
which must have come from the direction of the Grimsel.
It has been supposed, accordingly, that these masses were
borne by huge glaciers along the Arve, the Rhone, and
the Aare, across the plain of Switzerland, and thus depo¬
sited in the places in which they now stand.
JURIEU, Pierre, a French Protestant divine of consi¬
derable note in his day as a controversialist, was born in
1637 at Mer in Orleanais. Trained at the academy of
Saumur, he was sent to Holland, and afterwards to Eng¬
land to finish his studies. Returning home, he was ap¬
pointed to the living which his father had held at Mer, and
was afterwards promoted to the professorship of Hebrew and
Divinity in the Academy of Sedan. In 1681 that seat of
learning was suppressed; and Jurieu, who had made himself
obnoxious to government by a satirical pamphlet against the
established clergy, retired to Rotterdam, where he became
pastor of the Walloon church. Persecution and exile
soured his temper, and the remainder of his life was made
up of quarrels and controversies with men of his own or
22
J U R
Jury Trial. the opposite party. At the very moment that he was at-
tacking Beauval, Basnage, and Saurin, lie was constituting
himself umpire between Bossuet and Fenelon, both whom
he insulted with an audacity little short of insane. When
his friends Bayle and Jacquelot interfered to moderate a
little the fury of his wrath, he libelled and ridiculed them
as if they had been his bitter foes. 1 he Catholic contro¬
versialists of the day used to call him in irony the Croliath
of Protestantism. Though he is now chiefly remembered
for his quarrels, Jurieu was a man of real learning and
ability; but all his good qualities were stultified by the
bad temper, fanaticism, and occasional insanity that marked
alike his writings and his conduct. His works, with the
exception of his Treatise on Devotion, are all controver¬
sial and have long since passed into oblivion. Jurieu died
at Rotterdam in 1713, in the seventy-sixth year of his age.
JURY TRIAL, the most thoroughly expressive feature
in the administration of British justice, is, in its essential
principle, nothing more than the citizen’s right to have the
judgment of an impartial committee of his fellow-citizens
on any question of fact tending to affect his life, his liberty,
or some important patrimonial interest. The origin of the
practice has been traced by juridical antiquaries into many
and far diverging sources, but they have all been found con¬
verging in one direction, by the influence of a common
determination, which seems to have ever guided the pur¬
pose of the Anglo-Saxons and some other northern races,
in the practical application of such existing institutions as
could be influenced to the end in view. Guided by a
suspicion that the interests of free men could not be entirely
confided either to their political rulers or to trained officers
of the law, the end they had thus ever before them was to
obtain the judgment of a fairly selected body of their equals
to decide those simple questions of fact, which all men of
sense and perception can better decide according to the
rules of every-day life which guide their own actions, than
the best trained philosopher or lawyer can by the applica¬
tion of abstract principles or traditional practices. 1 hus,
the jury has been identified with the compurgators of the
Saxons; with the inquisitors or assessors who investigated
and certified to the Norman lord the extent of his feudal
rights; with the peers who represented the interests of the
vassals in the court of the feudal seigneur, as parliament re¬
presented the interests of the tenants of the crown ; with the
judices of the Romans, and with the dieasts of the Greeks.
Perhaps the practice of jury trial has drawn something from
all of these sources except the last; and we may even see
their divergencies typified at the present day. I hus the
necessary unanimity of the English jury is supposed, not
without reason, to be a relic of the accused Saxon s privilege
to clear himself by the oaths of twelve compurgators who
believed him guiltless, while the Scottish verdict by a ma¬
jority bears the character of the old feudal court ot peers,
where each member gave his council and his vote. However
humiliating it may be to trace the “palladium of our liber¬
ties” to such a source, yet there is no resisting the evidence,
that the practice which had most concern in the formation
of jury trial was that compurgation which was one of the
ordeals on which men threw their cause, influenced in some
instances by superstition, in others by a propensity for
gambling, in many by a reliance on their own audacity and
discretion, but in none by an expectation that justice would
be impartially administered through mere human wisdom.
The ordeal of battle lived so long in the theory of English
law, as to have been absolutely claimed so lately as the year
1817, as a remedy against the abuse of its rival ordeal, trial
by jury. Down to that time, the process called an Appeal
in murder enabled the relations of a person said to be mur¬
dered to appeal from the acquittal of a jury to another jury,
whose verdict, if it condemned the accused, could not, like
ordinary verdicts of guilty, be obviated by the royal preroga-
J U R
tive of mercy. On this, the last reference to a jury by appeal J ary Trial,
of murder, the accused offered the other ordeal ot battle,
and the legislature had to deal with, and abolish both these
remnants of barbaric practice. (See Appeal.) Nine hun¬
dred years earlier'—in the tenth century—the northern sagas
afford evidence of an almost identical competition of ordeals.
Thus, a report, as it may be termed, relative to a litigation
by Egil Skallagrimson, is thus translated by a Norse scholar:
“ When Atli entered the court with the jurors, Egil met
him, saying that he had no mind to receive the oath of a
jury for his money. The law which I offer, he said, is dif¬
ferent; we shall fight a duel here in court, and let the
money be his who gains the victory. What Egil said was
indeed law, and an ancient custom, for every man had a
right to challenge another, whether he was a defender or
prosecutor in a cause. Atli said that he would not refuse
Egil’s challenge. You speak, said he, what I ought to
speak. Then Atli and Egil shook hands, mutually ratifying
their agreement to fight. He who gained the victory was
to have the estates about which they contended” (Egil’s
Saga; Repp on Ancient Juries, 10).
There was still a third class of ordeals, which was essen¬
tially the ordeal by miraculous intervention. It is exem¬
plified in the well-known ceremony of walking blindfold
on a path where red-hot ploughshares were laid down at
intervals. The origin of this ordeal is attributed to the
legend of Bishop Boppo, who, when engaged in the con¬
version to Christianity of the obstinate Jutlanders, was
quite unsuccessful, until he tested the truth of his faith by
putting his hand in a red-hot iron glove, and withdrawing
it unhurt. Such a form of ordeal naturally fell into the
hands of the priesthood, who would constitute themselves
the agents of miraculous intervention, and it became un¬
popular among the lay opponents of spiritual supremacy
The ordeal by combat, too, held out more hope to those
who wielded ibrce or policy than to those who sought ab¬
stract justice ; and it at last diverged through the institutions
of chivalry to the single combats of later times. 'I he duel
so peculiar to the manners of Europe in the present, or
perhaps it should more properly be said in the previous
generation, was, with its special ceremonies and obliga¬
tions, the natural descendant of the ordeal by battle, d he
ordeal by compurgation had much to recommend it in pre¬
ference to the others among a people eminent for their
common sense and their attachment to justice. It adjusted
itself to the system of frank-pledge, or common liability. If
the person who committed a depredation was not discovered
the neighbours were responsible for it. What then more
just than to admit the innocence of him who could get a
sufficient number of those neighbours to express their
belief in it?
In the laws of Alfred, to whom trial by jury, along with
many other national institutions, is popularly attributed, the
system of compurgation is briefly described thus : “ If any
one accuse a king’s thane of homicide, it he dare to purge^
himself, let him do it along with twelve king’s thanes. If
any one accuse a thane of less rank than a king s thane, let
him purge himself, along with eleven of his equals, and
one king’s thane.” Hallam justly warns us not to be mis¬
led by the number twelve in identifying the Saxon prac¬
tice with proper jury trial. From whatever cause it may
have happened, this number seems to have been consecra¬
ted by the northern nations to numerous collective func¬
tions. By the treaty of Ethelred HI. certain disputes be¬
tween Welsh and English were adjusted by a standing com¬
mittee of twelve men, six of them Saxon and six Welsh.
By a law of the same prince, a committee of twelve thanes
sat as assessors to the sheriff. Many forms of inquest were
held through twelve men. When the throne of Norway
became vacant, twelve men from each of the great provinces
were selected to undertake the responsible duty of appoint-
JURY TRIAL.
23
Jury Trial, ing a successor; and it is said that the humble ceremony of
v—the return of the constable in the court-leet of an English
manor, was the last representative of this method of dele¬
gated selection.
No one of these is to be counted the sole origin of
jury trial; nor can it be exclusively traced to the feudal
practice of the assembling of the chief vassals or pares
curice, to assist the feudal lord with their council. But
with that peculiar facility for turning to improved prac¬
tical account ancient institutions with the least possible
change either in their name or their character, through
which the British constitution has developed itself, the jury
system grew to maturity by absorbing into itself more or
less vitality from nearly all these elements. An institution
very like it in external character has been found in the
customs of Normandy, and was prevalent in several of the
French provinces. The English institutions were thus so
far impregnated with the Norman character after the con¬
quest, that some antiquaries have held jury trial to be an
institution of entirely Norman extraction. In Magna
Charta, and the other confirmations of liberties by the
early kings, it is provided that “ no freeman shall be taken
or imprisoned, or be disseized of his freehold or liber¬
ties or free customs, or be outlawed or exiled, or any other¬
wise destroyed; nor will we pass upon him, or condemn
him, but by lawful judgment of his peers, or by the law of
the land.” By the more rigid juridical antiquaries it has
been called a mistake in Blackstone and other popular
writers, to suppose this passage to refer to trial by jury, since
it speaks of a separate practice common to England with
other feudal countries—the inquisition by peers ;—but it was
one of the systems out of which the modern practice of
jury trial was moulded, and was, in fact, the form in which it
existed through a considerable period of the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries.
In all their shapes and characters it must be kept in
view that the early jurors were rather witnesses than
judges. They did not sit to receive the testimony of
others, but they communicated the resolution adopted
on the ground of their own knowledge. This feature is
the more remarkable, as one of the great objects in the
theory of modern jury trial is to obtain the decision of
persons whose judgments are unwarped by previous ac¬
quaintance with the matter at issue, or the statements of
the parties in dispute. The obsolete principle is still repre¬
sented in the term verdict, vere dictum (truly said), as applied
to the decision of a jury. In Scotland there is a still more
palpable relic of the principle, in the oath put to a jury,
which is to the effect, that the juror shall “ the truth tell,
and no truth conceal,” in passing on the assize. The Scot¬
tish jury was feudal in its institution, having probably been
directly imported from France, and its character as a testify¬
ing, rather than an adjudging body, lasted down to a com¬
paratively late period. For instance, in the year 1606, Max¬
well of Gribtoun, and his followers, were charged with a
murderous attack on his relations, with whom he disputed
the possession of the family estates. Among other outrages
the offenders laid siege to the tower or keep of Newbie, the
family seat and stronghold; and altogether the affair was
one of those savage feuds in which all the neighbours were
deeply embarked on one side or the other, and any such
thing as impartial testimony was out of the question. The
Privy Council, which frequently acted as a court of justice,
endeavoured to deal with the case, but were impeded by
the total want of testimony, and it was brought into the
Court of Justiciary on the principle that, as that tribunal had
the services of a jury, testimony was unnecessary for its
guidance. The Lord-Advocate represented that crimes
are often committed secretly, and in such manner that no
witnesses can be cognizant of them, and therefore it is that
crimes need not be proved by witnesses, but are referred
to the knowledge of a sworn assize, whose determination, Jury Trial,
according as they are persuaded in their conscience, is a
sufficient warrant to themselves, and a just cause of convic¬
tion. The notoriety of the offence was all the material
offered for the guidance of the jury; and they were told the
singular rule of law, that, with this notoriety before them,
if they could not conscientiously cleanse or absolve, they
must of necessity convict, and they did so. (Pitcairn’s
Criminal Trials, ii., 266.) In the trial of James Scrim-
geur for murder in the year 1619, a stand appears to have
been taken by the crown lawyers against the admission of
witnesses to contradict the accusation, and influence the
minds of the jury. “ Thair audit,” said the prosecutor, “na
witnesses be ressauit befoir the assyse, seing the haill poyntis
consists in facto, and the tryell thairof is remittet to the
assyse, quha becumis bayth tryeris and witnesses thairin”
{Ibid, iii., 470). It used at the same period to be custom¬
ary to put juries on trial for “ wilful error,” or a finding
contrary to what they knew to be the truth, and the ana¬
logy of the character and functions of the jury was carried
out in the punishment of such error, which was the same
as the punishment for perjury.
The practice of punishing juries for improper verdicts
was known also in England, but it disappeared at an early
period; and nearly a century before the date of the in¬
stances cited from Scottish practice, the jury in England had
acquired the function expressed in the obligation of their
oath, to “ give a true verdict according to the evidence.”
Although no longer the neighbours of the party concerned,
acting on their own personal knowledge of the state of
facts, yet, as representing “ the country,” a jury was looked
upon as the jealous protectors of the innocence of their
fellow-countrymen. Hence it seems to have been held un¬
fair to arraign a foreigner before a jury entirely consisting
of Englishmen, and the jury de medietate linguae, of which
one half were aliens, was early conceded to the trial of
foreigners, and has been a permanent feature of the Eng¬
lish administration of justice.
Trial by jury became a peculiar instrument of the com¬
mon law courts. In the courts of civil or ecclesiastical
origin, the method of inquiry was by commission ; but the
inquisitorial secrecy in which this process was supposed to
be involved has always rendered it unpopular; and in equity
proceedings it became the practice to take the aid of the
common law courts, and send disputed matters of fact to
be decided by juries on issues. The staple questions on
which juries decide in England are, in the first place, all
the heavier offences, and, in the second place, disputed
matters of fact in litigations before the common law courts.
In these it came to be the form, that when issue was joined
by the simple and distinct announcement, “And this the said
A prays may be inquired of by the country;” or, “ And of
this he puts himself upon the country, and the said B does
the like ;” that the court, by the appropriate writs, caused to
be summoned on such a day “ twelve free and lawful men,
who are of kin neither to the foresaid A nor the foresaid
B, to recognize the issue of the truth between the said
parties.” Before an indictment for a crime comes be¬
fore the real working jury, it is still customary for the
grand jury “ to find a true bill;” but this preliminary,
which was formerly one of the solid barriers against op¬
pression, has become little better than a ceremony. An¬
tecedent to the grand jury, in cases of violent death, is
the coroner’s inquest, which has become a somewhat clumsy
means of achieving the very desirable object of preserving
a certified official record of all the circumstances con¬
nected with the discovery of a dead body, or the occurrence
of a violent death. Thus, a person tried for murder in
England or Ireland passes three times through the ordeal
of a jury. The function of juries has in all parts of the
United Kingdom been considerably extended by the pro-
24
JURY TRIAL.
Jury Trial, gress of railways and other public works; the propel ty
^ ^ — J taken from private owners, under the pailiamentary powers,
being in disputed cases valued by a jury.
It is natural that the adjustment of the boundary between
the function of the jury to ascertain the fact, and that of the
court to apply the law, should have been subject to much
jealous contention. If the rules of law prevented the jury
from getting access to a knowledge of the facts, or failed
to give effect to their finding, the efficacy of jury trial as a
protection to public justice was annihilated. On the other
hand, if juries got beyond their proper function, the law ot
the land would become as mutable as the opinions of every
casual assemblage. The law has always assumed the pre-
roo-ative of dictating what is to be evidence ; and as it could
not, in all cases, keep the jury from being influenced by
that which it declared not to be evidence, the clumsy ex¬
pedient of new trials on account of verdicts contrary to the
evidence was adopted. In Scotland, in the reign of Charles
II., the courts endeavoured, in criminal cases, to take out
of the hands of the jury the plain question of “ guilty” or
“not guilty,” by settling beforehand a train of facts whence
guilt might be presumed, and requiring the jury to find
whether these facts were or were not established. It was
not until the trial of Carnegy of Finhaven for the murder
of Lord Strathmore in 1728, that they re-established their
privilege to give a general finding of guilty or not guilty.
The class of persons of whom juries are to consist has
varied at different periods, and the specific qualification of
the juryman is at present peculiar to each ot the United
Kingdoms. The function has always been deemed a bur¬
den rather than a privilege ; and several classes of citizens
have obtained exemption from it, more by their influence
than by their unfitness to perform the juryman’s functions.
It has always been a popular belief that butchers, from their
supposed callousness to suffering, are excluded from juries;
but there is no such law.
The qualifications of ordinary jurymen in England, as
fixed by the Act of 1825 (6th Geo. IV., c. 50), may be
taken as a type of the class who now serve as jurymen
throughout the United Kingdom. Every man between the
ages of twenty-one and sixty, who has no special exemption
to plead, is liable to serve, if he possess landed property
under any of the ordinary tenures, which are specifically
enumerated in the Act, worth L.10 a-year; or who is a
leaseholder for twenty-one years, or life, of land worth
L.20; or who is rated as a householder for poor-rates or
inhabited house-duty, at L.30 in Middlesex, or L.20 else¬
where ; or who occupies a house containing not fewer than
fifteen windows.
There are very complex arrangements throughout the
empire for preserving, through the aid of the parochial and
other petty officers, an accurate and impartial record of
jurors. There is a double object to be served in the accu¬
rate impartiality of the lists,—the one to save qualified
jurymen from the oppression of too frequent service ; the
other to disable persons interested from “ packing a jury,
or placing men upon it who will serve their object. Ihe
panel of jurors—or the whole body out of whom the twelve
who are to act are selected by lot—is returned by the
sheriff according to an established rotation. 1 he Act of
1825 rendered it unnecessary to summon a separate panel
for each cause to be tried at an assizes, and appointed one
panel, of not less than forty-eight, or more than seventy-
two, jurors to be summoned. The Act authorizes two pan¬
els, one for the civil, and one for the criminal work of the
assizes. The right of challenge is one of the arrange¬
ments for securing an impartial trial. The suitor may
challenge the array, as it is termed, or the whole jury, if
there be any fundamental blemish in its constitution ; or he
may bring against any particular juryman a challenge, per
poll, on disqualification, personal interest, or other similar
objection. A person under trial for a capital offence has Jury Trial,
the privilege of objection to one juryman after another, to
the number of thirty-five, by peremptory challenge, with¬
out assigning any cause. Questions may, on special appli¬
cation, be tried by what are called “ special juries.” I he
special jury list consists of those who are entered as esquires;
and the privilege of resorting to such a jury has generally
been used in cases where the nature of the litigation ren¬
dered it of moment that a verdict should come from persons
skilled in the matter in dispute. The arrangements for ad¬
judication by special juries were adjusted in the Common
Law Procedure Act of 1852.
It has already been seen that in the development of the
jury system Scotland did not follow the same course as
EnMand ; but the general spirit of the English system has
had&an influence over the tendency of its neighbour. In
Scotland there is no coroner’s inquest. In ordinary crimi¬
nal prosecutions there is no grand jury, and the ordinary
jury or assize, consisting of fifteen, give their verdict by a
simple majority. In questions of treason the English sys¬
tem was, much to the discontent of the country, introduced
immediately after the Union. Jury trial in civil cases was
inconsistent with the traditional spirit of the Scottish legal
tribunals. The Court of Session, consisting, like the penal
jury, of 15 members, represented the old judicial commit¬
tees of parliament, or the grand jury of the nation. Their
method of procedure had, down to a very late period,
several elements of a popularly deliberative character, dis¬
tinguishing them in an emphatic manner from the rigid
legal technicalities of the English common law courts. In
the year 1815 it was determined that the English system
of jury trial should be brought into Scotland, and a sepa¬
rate court of commissioners was appointed to carry it
into effect. In 1830, after what was deemed a suffi¬
cient trial of the system in this separate form, it was
made a portion of the ordinary jurisdiction and procediue
of the Court of Session. Trial by jury in civil questions
has not been popular in Scotland; and whatever good it
may have accomplished has certainly been balanced by
much costliness, uncertainty, and tedious protraction of liti¬
gation. The English system of pleading has, through a
long course of refining, brought itself to that simplicity of
assertion and denial which at once opens the issues on
which a jury have to decide. But the Scottish system of
pleading was formed for the purpose of reaching results in
a different manner. It was predicted by law. refoi mers,
that what in England offers the means of a rapid and dis¬
tinct decision on the point in dispute, would in Scotland
merely add an element of prolixity and confusion to a me¬
thod of procedure already too cumbrous ; and the predic¬
tion has, at least in popular estimation, been verified. It
is a common remark, that the threat of a jury trial is one
calculated at once to enable a rich man to frighten his op¬
ponent into submission. A people not trained to a tradi¬
tional veneration for every feature of the system, could not
see a logical conformity in making twelve men swear that
they would do justice according to their consciences, and
then coercing them by confinement and starvation until
they had agreed to be all of one mind. In 1854 the stiin-
gency of the rule of unanimity was accordingly relaxed by
a provision that, after six hours’ deliberation, a verdict re¬
turned by nine of the twelve jurymen should be effectual
(17th and 18th Viet., cap. 59). Some attempts were made,
but in vain, to introduce this arrangement in England.
In estimating the general merits of the jury system, its
inapplicability to communities not trained to it must be
counted. Like many other safeguards of freedom, it is
effectual only for the protection of those who raise it for
themselves. Among people trained by arbitrary govern¬
ments to submit when they must, and rebel when they
can, it has been found utterly futile ; they cannot compre-
JUS
Jury Trial, bend any use of a power or a privilege save the serving of
V—their own immediate objects. Even in France, where it
was introduced after the Revolution in criminal questions, it
has given imperfect satisfaction. It has been said that in
important, and especially in popular cases, juries have been
led astray by excitement; while for conducting the ordi¬
nary routine of dry business, the country does not afford
sufficient public spirit. It will probably soon be seen how
far juries may be effectually replanted in those Scandinavian
states, whence, in their indigenous growth, they have been
long uprooted.
Whether in England itself jury trial is not worshipped
with a superstitious and indiscriminating reverence is a fair
question. No one will deny its inestimable services in
criminal trials. It is not only a protection against political
oppression and the procrustean cruelty of implacable legal
technicalities, but it tends to bring the method of discern¬
ing truth in questions between man and man to scientific
perfection. It is quite true that there are eminent diffi¬
culties before the prosecutor who requires to bring all his
evidence up at one moment, and fit together its several
parts before a public audience. From the sound rule, that
no man can be twice tried, any defect in the completeness
or the adjustment of the evidence is fatal, and a criminal
escapes. But the rigid exactness thus enforced only tends
to give the evidence adduced to a jury a perfection which
the method of secret inquisition does not require. There
are few nobler objects than a great trial, in which the re¬
sults of legal and detective skill, all brought to a focus, are
exhibited before the world, bringing out, as in a drama, the
unravelled intricacies of some great crime.
For civil cases, the great utility of the jury has consisted
in its being a method of keeping the facts of each case ab¬
solutely separated from the law. The importance of this
absolute separation can scarcely be over-estimated; and
though it might seem possible that it should be accomplished
in a less ceremonious manner, yet respect is due to the
opinions of those who hold that the employment of men
taken from the ordinary affairs of life, and restrained neither
by technical rules of law nor official routine and prejudice,
brings daylight into courts of justice, and enables them to
walk in the proper direction of their functions to do sub¬
stantial justice between man and man. It is proper, in con¬
clusion, to mention a tentative arrangement for substituting
the decisions of a judge for the verdict of a jury, when par¬
ties consent to an issue being so tried. It was introduced
by an Act of 1850 regulating the procedure in Scotland, and
it was transferred to England by the Common Law Proce¬
dure Act of 1854 (17th and 18th Viet., c. 125). It is said,
however, that the arrangement so sanctioned has been rarely
adopted. The measure for deciding small debt questions
in England in county courts passed in 1846, had pre¬
viously adopted a modified jury system. The number
of jurors was to be five, but unless a jury was specially
demanded, and the required notices sent, the function
of deciding the fact as well as the law was left to the
judge. (j. h. B.)
JUSSIEU, Antoine Laurent de, the most illustrious
member of a family which has given several great names
to science and was long known as the dynastie botanique
of France, was born at Lyon, April 12, 1748. At the age
of seventeen he left his native town to study medicine in
Paris. He took up his abode with his uncle Bernard de Jus¬
sieu, one of the lecturers on botany in the Jardin du Roi, and
a man of immense scientific learning and skill. The teaching
and example of this relative first gave the young student a
taste for the science which he may be said in a great mea¬
sure to have created, or at least re-modelled. He did not,
however, wholly abandon medicine ; but the thesis which
he defended on taking his degree in 1770—“An CEcono-
miam Animalem inter et Vegetalem Analogia”—indicates
VOL. XIII.
JUS 25
clearly enough the bent that his thoughts and studies had Jury Trial,
already taken. In this same year he was made professor v-—
of botany in the Jardin du Roi, in room of Lemonnier,
whose duties as first physician to the king prevented him
from lecturing regularly in person. This rapid and sudden
promotion took him by surprise. Lie was only twenty-
two years of age, and his knowledge was so far from being
adequate to the duties of his chair, that he had to prepare
carefully the evening before the prelections of the follow¬
ing day. His indefatigable zeal and industry soon brought
him abreast of the science as then taught; and his Memoir
on the family of the Ranunculaceae procured his admission
into the Academy of Sciences, and was incorporated in the
Transactions of that body. In this memoir one sees the
germs of that system of classification according to characters
which he afterwards extended and applied to the whole
vegetable kingdom. To illustrate the new method he
could not have fixed upon a more safe or convenient order
than that which he selected; and he used to say in after
life that it was while engaged in preparing this memoir that
he first felt himself truly a botanist. A wider field was
presently opened up to him. The Jardin du Roi was at
this time arranged according to the system of Tournefort.
In 1774 the number of specimens had so greatly increased,
that by the advice of Buffon it was determined to replant
the garden. Jussieu profited by this occasion to send in
to the authorities a scheme of his method, which was finally
adopted. The general idea of it was undoubtedly borrowed
from what was called the Catalogue of Trianon, which had
been drawn up by his uncle Bernard. Many of the details,
however, were so different, and the scheme itself was ap¬
plied on such a large scale, that the credit of the whole fell
to the younger Jussieu, especially as his uncle, now aged
and infirm, and imbecile, had become a victim to the here¬
ditary scourge of blindness. The new views were given
to the world in a Memoir, entitled “ Exposition d’un Nouvel
Ordre de Plantes adopte dans la Demonstration du Jardin
Royal,” and embodied in the Transactions of the Academy
of Sciences for 1774. Great as were the merits of the “ Na¬
tural” system, Jussieu was himself well aware that as first
evolved by him it was merely provisional. Accordingly, the
next twelve years of his life, that is from 1775 to 1787, were
entirely spent in testing it in his class lectures, and modify¬
ing it according to the new genera which were brought to
him by travellers from every quarter of the globe. When at
length, in 1778, he began to publish, so thoroughly had he
matured his plan in its minutest details as well as its gene¬
ral outline, that he did not find it necessary to transcribe the
whole work before consigning it to the press. Leaf by
leaf his MS. was put in type as soon as it was written.
The printing of the work lasted fifteen months, during all
which time Jussieu, according to the testimony of his son,
was never more than two sheets a-head of the compositors.
The difficulty experienced in wringing either “ copy” or
“ revises” out of his hands, and the elaborate care with
which he corrected and often re-cast the proof-sheets, are
dwelt upon by his biographers as sufficient evidence that
he was really the author of his own work, and was not
merely transcribing or translating into Latin his uncle’s MS.
notes, as was at one time alleged against him. Making-
due allowance for all this care, however, we are still sur¬
prised that the composition of the Genera, Plantarum should
have taken so long as it did. It only comprises some 2700
genera; and in the then state of botanical science could
hardly have contained more. The botanical text-books of
the present day contain from 9,000 to 10,000 genera. When
at length the work appeared, it was at first very coldly re¬
ceived, and nowhere more so than in the author’s native
country. The artificial or sexual system of Linnaeus had
been adopted in all the schools, and had taken root so
firmly that it was impossible at once to eradicate it. The
D
26 JUS
Jussieu, hurricane of revolution was likewise sweeping oyer France,
and men were too busy with politics to spare time for de¬
ciding between rival systems of botany. In England and
Germany it began, though slowly, to find favour with the
learned few ; and when order was at length restored in
France, its merits secured its adoption as the text-book in
most of the scientific schools. It was not, however, till
about the year 1820 that the Jussieuan system came to be
recognised and publicly taught everywhere in England
and America as well as on the Continent. The leading
feature of this, as of every other natural system is, that it
brings together all those plants which are allied in all essen¬
tial points of structure, and takes into account the true
affinities of plants on a comparison of all their organs. As¬
suming that as the lowest species which has no cotyledon
in its embryo, that as next higher in the scale which has
one, and that as highest of all which has two, Jussieu di¬
vided plants into the three primary groups of Acotyledones,
Monocotyledones, and Dicotyledones, under which he in¬
cluded fifteen classes. Of these classes one is Acotyledo-
nous, three are Monocotyledonous, and eleven Dicotyledo¬
nous. The three Monocotyledonous classes are distin¬
guished by the position of the stamens, whether inserted
on the thalamus (hypogynous), attached to the calyx (peri-
gynous), or to the ovary (epigynous). Dicotyledonous
plants are divided into Apetalous (monochlamydeous)—
plants having a calyx only; Monopetalous (gamopetalous)—
plants having united petals; Polypetalous—plants having
separate petals ; and Diclinous—plants which are unisexual
and incomplete : the last constitutes the fifteenth class,
while the other ten classes of Dicotyledons, included in the
three other divisions, are determined chiefly by the position
of the stamens and the corolla in relation to the ovary.
Under these classes he included 100 orders. A tabular
view of Jussieu’s “ Natural” system is given in art. Botany,
part ii., chap. 2.
When the Revolution broke out, Jussieu, very much
against his own wishes, was drawn into its vortex. In
1790 he was made a member of the municipality of Paris,
and was entrusted with the supervision of the hospitals and
charities,—an office which he held for two years. In 1793,
when the Jardin du Iloi was re-organised as the Museum
of Natural History, Jussieu succeeded Daubenton as di¬
rector and treasurer, and signalized his year of office by
laying the foundation of what has since become one of the
best, if not actually the best scientific library in Europe.
From this time till 1820 he continued to enrich the Annales
and Memoires of the museum with contributions, bearing
chiefly on the orders, genera, and species of his own system.
After that year the infirmities of old age and blindness dis¬
abled him from keeping abreast with the progress of the
science to which he had himself given the strongest im¬
pulse. In 1826 he resigned his chair at the museum in
favour of his son Adrian, to whom he transmitted the vir¬
tues as well as the talents of his family. The next ten
years of his life were spent in dictating a new edition of
the Genera Plantarum, in which all the recent discoveries
were to be embodied. But his strength was not equal to
the task, and he never got beyond the introduction, which,
however, is itself sufficient to show that to the last he re¬
tained that union of knowledge and philosophy which places
him at the head of all the botanists of France. While
lingering over this last effort of his mind he was carried off
after a short illness, September 17,1836, in the eighty-ninth
year of his age. Jussieu’s life, long as it was, and embracing
the stormiest era of French history, was a happy and a
peaceful one. His temper, less austere than that of his uncle,
was singidarly equable; and the fierce attacks that were
often levelled against him never drew from him an angry or
even a harsh retort. To the last he retained undiminished
the affection of his family and the respect of his friends.
JUS
JUSTICE-CLERK of Scotland. See Scotland. justice-
Justice of the Peace. Before the institution of tins Clerk of
office, as it now exists, certain public functionaries in Eng- Scotland
land, such as the Lord Chancellor, the Judges of the Queen’s II
Bench, sheriffs, and coroners, were invested with powers, as tj^peactf
they still are, for the maintenance of the public peace. v \
Besides these there were, however, in earlier times, persons
appointed to that duty by the freeholders in their county
courts, under authority of the common law of England, as
well as others, who were bound to discharge it by the tenure
of their lands. These persons were at length superseded
by justices on the accession of Edward III., who issued writs
commanding each sheriff to cause the peace to be kept within
his bailiwick. The statute 1st Edward III., c. 16, passed
soon after, transferred the appointment of these newly cre¬
ated conservators of the peace to the king; and when, by
34th Edward III., c. 1, they acquired the power of trying
minor offences, they received the name of Justices. Since
that time the sovereign has been constitutionally recognized
as the chief conservator of the peace ; and commissions are
granted at the royal pleasure, authorizing any one to cause
it to be kept, with power to punish whoever may break it.
The form of the commission was first settled in 1590; and,
among the number of those included in the commission,
one or more were named—popularly styled Justices of the
Quorum—without whose presence the others were not en¬
titled to act. This distinction is, however, not now kept up,
and all are equally empowered to act. On their appointment
they must take the oaths prescribed by law. Their services
are rendered gratuitously; and hence they are usually called
the unpaid, to distinguish them from stipendiary, magistrates.
A variety of statutes were passed between the reign of Ed¬
ward III. and Henry VI., regulating the numbers, qualifica¬
tions, and residences of justices in England, but these are
not now of much practical importance. In order to exclude
persons from the office who were unsuitable on account of
their poverty, the statute 18th Henry VI., c. 11, required that
each justice should have lands to the value of L.20 per
annum. To meet the depreciation of money, the statute
5th George II., c. 11, raised the required sum to L.100 per
annum, clear of all deductions, and subjected every person
who acted without that qualification to a penalty of L.100.
This statute, and the 6th and 7th Viet., c. 73, § 33, dis¬
qualify every practising attorney, solicitor, or proctor, from
acting as a justice of the peace. The 34th section of the
latter of these statutes declares, that this disqualification
does not extend to any town, having justices within its
limits, by charter or commission. The statute 18th Geo.
II., c. 20, continues the requirement, that the English county
justice shall possess L.100 per annum from heritage, but
excepts the justices of the English burghs.
In Scotland, we find the office of justice of the peace
mentioned so far back as the Act 1587. In cap. 82 of that
year, the sovereign was authorized to grant commission to
noblemen of all ranks, and landed gentlemen, actual in¬
dwellers in the shires, the number for each shire being
limited, together with four of the council of every burgh.
The following statutes were afterwards passed for the
better regulation of the office:—1609, c. 7; 1617, c. 8;
1633, c. 26; 1661, c. 38. This last is worthy of perusal.
An act, passed in 1686, c. 20, vested the appointment of
clerk to the justices in the crown. In 1707 a new commis¬
sion for Scotland was issued, conferring on justices the
same powers, in reference to the customs and excise, as
were exercised by justices in England; and the Act 6th
Anne, c. 6, declared that justices in Scotland are “ autho¬
rized to do, use, and exercise over all persons within their
several bounds, whatever doth appertain to the office and
trust of a justice of the peace, by virtue of the laws and acts
of Parliament made in England before the Union, in rela¬
tion to, and preservation of, the public peace; provided,
JUS
justice of nevertheless, that in the sessions of the peace the methods
the Peace, of trial and judgment shall be according to the laws and
customs of Scotland.” With commissions for Scotland
there are issued writs authorizing the appointed justices to
be sworn; but, by 7th Geo. III., c. 9, the oaths do not re¬
quire to be taken oftener than once in each reign. In
Scotland no property qualification is required. When the
office is conferred on sheriffs or magistrates, they cease to
hold it on the termination of their office. By the 6th
George IV., c. 48, § 27, it is declared that “ no solicitor or
procurator in any inferior court in Scotland, or the partner
of any such person,” shall act as a justice in any county in
Scotland during the time that he is in, or connected with
any such business.
The powers of justices of the peace are conferred and
defined, ls£, By the terms of the royal commission in their
favour ; and, 2d, By the terms of a great variety of Acts of
Parliament, conferring on justices the power of carrying
them into effect. The leading clause of their commission
runs thus,—“ to keep and cause to be kept all the ordinances
and statutes for the good of our peace, and for the preser¬
vation of the same, and for the quiet rule and government
of our people;” and “ to chastise and punish all persons
that offend against” the same ; and “ to cause to come be¬
fore you, or any one of you, all those- who, to any one or
more of our people concerning their bodies, or the firing of
their houses, have used threats; to find sufficient security
for the peace, or their good behaviour towards us and our
people; and, if they shall refuse to find such security, then
there in our prisons, until they shall find such security, to
cause to be safely kept.” they are also empowered to
grant warrant for apprehending all criminals, and for re¬
mitting them to be dealt with in higher courts, when the
offence charged is one which they cannot themselves try.
The Acts of Parliament which have been passed from time
to time, within the last two centuries, have devolved on
them an amount of business which our limits do not enable
us even to specify. We may mention generally, that under
special statutes they hold both criminal courts and small-
debt courts, and decide in matters connected with the poor,
with the highways, the excise and customs^ and other re¬
venue matters, fishings, game, factories, and public-houses.
They judge also in questions between master and servant,
and in cases of petty thefts and trifling assaults. They hold
quarter-sessions, which they may continue and adjourn when
necessary. Two justices form a quorum for trial and judg¬
ment, both in England and Scotland. One justice may,
however, grant a warrant to apprehend an accused party,
and bring him into court, except where any special statute
requires that to be done by more than one. They never
had the power, in Scotland, of trying cases with a jury like
the quarter-sessions of England. They are not entitled to
judge or act in any matter which affects the interests of
themselves or their near relatives. No military officer can
act as a justice of peace in the billeting of soldiers under
the Mutiny Act; nor millers or bakers under the Bread
Act; nor tradesmen in charges of violent combination
against the w'orkmen of the same trades; nor brewers,
maltsters, or distillers, or dealers in exciseable commodities
under the Licensing Act, or in excise questions connected
with their trades.
As the office of justice is conferred by, it subsists only
during the pleasure of the crown ; so that the issuing of a
new commission, in effect, recalls the former one, as two
cannot exist for one place at one time. The commission
also expires in six months after the demise of the crown.
Sometimes a writ passes the Great Seal, discharging a par¬
ticular justice from any longer exercising the office. The
entire commission may also be suspended by a writ of
supersedeas, and it may be revived by another writ called
a procedendo. The office is of great public utility. It
JUS 27
must necessarily, however, on account of the great num- Justiciar
her of justices required, be conferred on many persons ju|tJn
who have had no training for the discharge of its duties; Martyr.
and, therefore, most statutes which confer a cumulative y ^ j
jurisdiction, require the concurrence of two justices wheie
one stipendiary magistrate (who must necessarily have un¬
dergone a professional training) is sufficient.. V herever a
justice of peace, however, acts conscientiously and consis¬
tently with the statute which he is called on to enforce, he
is protected from all personal responsibility; but if he
plainly exceed the powers conferred on him by the statute,
or if he act maliciously and without reasonable and pro¬
bable cause, he is justly liable in damages. Malice is not
required to be proved where the justice acts grossly irre¬
gularly, or plainly beyond his powers. Acting within his
powers it is otherwise; but not where, in the words of
Lord Corehouse, his proceedings are “ extra-judicial, law¬
less, and oppressive.” Lord Chief-Commissioner Adam re¬
marked, however, that, “ if there was probable cause, the
magistrate is protected, in whatever situation his mind
may have been.” For their protection in England, see the
statute 24th George IL, c. 44; and both in England and
Scotland, see 43d George III., c. 141, by which it is de¬
clared, that even when their judgments are quashed, the
justices in actions of damages, besides the penalties levied,
shall not be liable in more than two pence of damages, nor
costs of suit, unless the acts complained of “ were done
maliciously, and without any reasonable and probable cause.”
Nor are they liable in any consequences, though their judg¬
ment is quashed, where they can prove that the plaintiff
was guilty of the offence of which he was convicted, and
had undergone no greater punishment than the law assigns
to such an offence. See also 9th George IV., c. 29, § 26;
and 1st William IV., c. 37 ; and 11th and 12th Viet., c. 44.
A calendar month’s notice must be given to the justice be¬
fore the raising of the action, and it must be raised within
six months after the act complained of.
JUSTICIAR, or Justice-General. See Scotland.
JUSTIN MARTYR, oneofthefathersofthe early Chris¬
tian church, who flourished in the second century, was born
at Flavia Neapolis, near Shechem in Samaria. The exact
date of his birth is much disputed, some authorities assign¬
ing it to a.d. 89, others to a.d. 118, while others again
adopt intermediate dates. He seems to have entered upon
the study of philosophy with an ardent desire to arrive at
the knowledge of God ; but neither the system of the Stoics
nor that of the Peripatetics, which he tried in succession,
brought him to the knowledge for which he thirsted. The
next system which he determined to study was that of the
Pythagoreans, but owing to his ignorance of some ot the
elementary sciences, he was denied admittance to the schools
where that philosophy was taught. Foiled in this resolu¬
tion, he sought refuge in the doctrines of the academy.
Expecting to be favoured with a sight of the Divine Being,
he was, upon one occasion, walking alone by the sea-shore,
when he was met by an old man who pointed out to him
the errors of Plato, and advised him to turn his attention
to the Jewish prophets as inspired by the Spirit of Truth.
For the fifth and last time Justin changed his creed, and
about the year 132 made a public profession of Christianity.
The Christians, at the time when Justin joined them, were
suffering greatly from the false rumours regarding their
character and principles, which were industriously circulated
by their enemies. One of Justin’s earliest acts was to ad¬
dress an Apology to the Emperor Antoninus in defence of
his fellow-sufferers. His appeal was so far successful as to
gain some little toleration for the new faith. His second
Apology, addressed to the Emperor Marcus Aurelius was
called forth by the renewed persecution of the church, but
had unfortunately no other effect than that of making its
author a conspicuous mark for vengeance. In both these
28 JUS
Justinian. Apologies Justin turned to such good account his knowledge
of the Greek schools, that Tertullian and many of the early
writers called him The Philosopher. About the year 165
Justin was himself called upon to seal his testimony with
his blood. He might have saved his life by consenting to
offer sacrifice to the heathen gods; but he refused, and his
refusal was punished with death. As his life and death had
been both in an eminent degree those of one bearing witness
to the truth, he became known to posterity as the Martyr.
The writings of Justin are chiefly valuable as having been
written at so early a period in the history of Christianity,
for they display nothing approaching to genius, and are
faulty in method, reasoning, and style. His most import¬
ant works are the two Apologies already mentioned, and
his Dialogue with Trypho, a learned Jew, in which he
describes his conversion to Christianity, and defends that
faith from Jewish prejudices and assaults. Many other
works are attributed to him, of which that on the Unity and
Sovereignty of God is alone accepted as genuine. Of the
rest the majority are spurious, and the whole at best doubtful.
The best editions of his works are those of R. Stephanus,
Paris, 1551-1571, in Greek; of Commelin, 1593, in Greek
and Latin; of Prudentius Maranus, 1742; and of Otto,
Jena, 1842-4, in 2 vols. 8vo, with a valuable preface and
notes. The Apologies and the Dialogue with Trypho have
been both translated into English ; the former by William
Reeve, M.A., in 1809; and the latter by Henry Brown,
M.A., in 1755. A good idea of the life, times, and theo¬
logy of Justin is given in Bishop Kaye’s Writings and
Opinions of Justin Martyr, Cambridge, 1829 ; and a still
better in Semisch’s two essays on that same subject, Ham¬
burg, 1842, 1848.
JUSTINIAN I., Flavius Anicius, surnamed the Great,
emperor of Constantinople and Rome, was born in May
a.d. 483, at Tauresium in Dardania. His parents were ob¬
scure, but his uncle, Justin I., who had risen to a high posi¬
tion in the court of Constantinople, took Justinian under
his care, attended to his education, and resolved to further
his fortunes. As Justin was without issue, Justinian wisely
identified his own interests with those of his uncle, and
manifested great zeal in the destruction of certain persons
who were considered dangerous to the imperial safety ; and
as a reward for his services he was appointed commander
of the forces in Asia. But he consulted his own interests
better by remaining in Constantinople and ingratiating him¬
self with the senate. In a.d. 521, that body raised him to
the consulship ; and as he still continued to increase in fa¬
vour, the senate recommended the emperor, who was now-
old and infirm, to adopt his nephew into a share of the go¬
vernment of the empire. This was done in 527, Justinian
having reached the age of forty-four. In a few months
afterwards Justin died, and his nephew was crowned by the
patriarch of Constantinople. The coronation was accom¬
panied by most magnificent festivals, and vast quantities
of money, amounting to 288,000 pieces of gold, were given
to the populace. The new emperor persisted in having
Theodora, who had been a common actress, crowned along
with him as his empress. The first years of this reign were
spent in repelling the inroads of the Huns and the Arabs ;
and an extensive war was carried on in Armenia with the
Persians, which ended in an annual payment of 440,000
pieces of gold to Chosroes, the Persian king.
At this time the struggle between the Blue and the
Green factions, as they were called, raged within the city ;
and a conflagration, kindled by them for the sake of mas¬
sacre, woidd have cost Justinian his empire but for the cou¬
rage of Theodora, who exhorted him to fight for his empire
to the last extremity. See Constantinopolitan History.
The rebellion was quelled, and Justinian being esta¬
blished on the throne, turned his arms against surrounding
enemies. His generals, Belisarius, Germanus, and Narses
JUS
fought the battles of the empire against the Vandals in Justinian
Africa, the Goths in Italy and Spain, the Persians in the U-
East, and the countless hordes of Huns, Franks, Bulgarians,
Slavonians, and others who were ever ready to invade the
imperial dominions when they had the least prospect of
plunder. When the successes of the generals above men¬
tioned had restored peace, the emperor turned his attention
to the formation of a complete code of laws, the execution
of which has conferred great lustre upon his name. (See
Civil Law.) He died in November 565, in the eighty-
third year of his age, of which he had reigned 38.
The time of Justinian is a bright epoch in history ; but
when his character and conduct are fairly canvassed, it is
found that much of the merit for ability displayed during
his reign attaches to others, and much demerit to himself.
The glory of the warlike operations carried on against the
enemies of the empire, belongs to his faithful generals Beli¬
sarius, Germanus, Narses, and others, for Justinian himself
was no warrior, nor did he ever enter a field of battle. It is
true he supplied his generals with abundant means for carrying
on active warfare, but it was by the most merciless rapacity
exhibited towards his own subjects. They vrere often com¬
pelled to bring their stores for the supply of the troops
without receiving adequate remuneration, and sometimes
without any remuneration at all. The emperor could well
afford to scatter hundreds of thousands of gold pieces
amongst the people, when this money so distributed was
quite certain to find its way back to his own treasury by the
oppressive taxes which were imposed upon all branches of
industry, and by his monopoly of the silk trade. In the
same way, at the expense of his subjects, he could gratify
his desire for associating his name with art, by building
splendid monuments in almost every important town of his
empire. Procopius has written a work, De cedificiis Jus-
tiniani, which contains an account of these buildings ; and
one of them, the church of St Sophia, so impressed the
emperor when he saw it in all its splendour, at its dedica¬
tion, that he exclaimed in a transport of delight, that he had
surpassed Solomon himself! But besides avarice his cha¬
racter was deformed by religious intolerance. Zealous in
the cause of orthodoxy as then professed, he persecuted
those who held different opinions from his own, and tried
to expel them from his empire ; yet he ended by becoming
a Nestorian himself. Having risen to power by unscrupu¬
lous means, he was naturally suspicious ; and his ungenerous
treatment of Belisarius has left an indelible stain upon his
memory. (See Belisarius.) Although he raised Theodora,
who was a mere courtezan, to be his empress in spite of all
remonstrance, yet, when he had set his heart upon Amala-
suntha, the queen of Theodat, it is pretty certain that he
would have sacrificed both Theodora and Theodat in order
to gain the object of his desire. It is to his Pandects, In¬
stitutes, and Novels, that Justinian is chiefly indebted for
his fame ; and perhaps his merit in respect of these has been
overrated. In private life he was a man of hard applica¬
tion, frugal, and even penurious; for though he frequently
helped those who were suffering from the effects of plagues
and earthquakes, yet he turned a deaf ear to the complaints of
those who were suffering from the rapacity of his ministers.
Justinian II., surnamed Rhinotmetus, succeeded his fa¬
ther Constantine IV. as emperor of the East, and reigned
from 685 to 695, and again from 704 to 711. His reign
was signalized by his wars and truces with the Saracens
and the Christian Maronites of Mount Lebanon, by the dis¬
sensions created in the church through his intolerance, the
bloody persecution set on foot against the Manicheans, and
the insatiable rapacity with which he taxed his subjects in
order to raise the means of gratifying his sumptuous tastes.
His cruelty and extortions at last maddened his subjects
into rebellion. Under the command of the famous soldier
Leontius, they rose en masse, dethroned Justinian, cut off
JUS
Justinus. his nose (from which indignity he obtained the surname of
Rhinotmetus), and banished him to the Crimea. Leontius
was proclaimed emperor, and after a reign of three years
was in his turn dethroned and banished by Tiberius Absi-
marus, who wore the purple for seven years. Meanwhile,
Justinian, having escaped from the Crimea, had married the
daughter of Busiris, the khan of the Khazars. Compelled
by the intrigues of Tiberius to quit his new home, he fled
to Terbelis, king of the Bulgarians. With an army of
15,000 horsemen he suddenly pounced upon Constanti¬
nople, slew his old rivals Leontius and Tiberius, with thou¬
sands of their partizans, and reinstated himself on the throne.
Cruelty, rapacity, and disaster marked his second reign.
Conspiracies again broke out, and Justinian, to the great joy
of the whole Roman world, was at length dethroned and
put to death by Philippicus Bardanes, a.d. 711.
JUSTINUS, a Latin historian, whose name appears in
some MSS. as M. Junianus Justinus, and in others as
Justinus Frontinus. Of his personal history absolutely no¬
thing is known. He was at one time believed to have
flourished in the reign of Antoninus Pius, as the preface of
his history was addressed to that emperor. But the passage
in which Antoninus’ name occurs has now been proved to
be spurious, and there is nothing by which to indicate this
historian’s era until a reference to him by St Jerome fixes
it down to some point before the fifth century a.d. Jus¬
tinus’ name has been kept alive by his work entitled His-
toriarum Philippicarum, libri xliv., which he himself
describes as derived solely from the Universal History of
Pompeius Trogus, a Latin writer of the Augustan age.
The work of Trogus has perished, with the exception of a
few fragments preserved in quotation by Pliny and others;
but the prologi, or abstracts prefixed to each chapter, and
giving a synopsis of its contents, still remain, and indicate
the general tenor of the history. The work, as its title
suggests, was, strictly speaking, an account of the Macedo¬
nian monarchy; but the author, imitating the example of
Herodotus and Theopompus, indulges in frequent digres¬
sions, and discusses every subject, however remotely con¬
nected with the main narrative. The first book is devoted
to the Assyrians from the time of Ninus to that of Sardana-
palus, and to the Medes and Persians to the reign of Darius
Hystaspes. The next five books discuss the wars between
Greece and Persia. The way is thus paved for the main
theme,—the rise, progress, and decline of the Macedonian
empire,—which occupies the next ten books. Then follow
six books devoted to Carthage and Sicily. Sixteen books,
from the twenty-fourth to the fortieth, are allotted to
Greece, Egypt, and Asia, and the gradual subjugation of
these countries to the Roman power. The rise of the Par¬
thian monarchy engrosses the next two books. The forty-
third is devoted to the early history of Rome and Mar¬
seilles ; and the forty-fourth contains scattered notices of
the Ligurians and Spaniards.
Though Justin’s work is generally described and criti¬
cised as an epitome of the great history of Trogus, it is in
reality nothing more than a selection from that work of
such passages as struck the compiler’s fancy. The general
idea, however, is that Justin designed to furnish a syste¬
matic abridgement of Trogus’ work, and on that under¬
standing he has been severely censured for the careless and
slovenly way in which he has performed his task. There
is, indeed, great reason to regret that he has seen fit to
dwell at length on trifling subjects, and to dismiss with a
few words others of deep importance. At the same time
it should not be forgotten that, with all its omissions, intri¬
cacies, and digressions, Justin’s work contains a large mass
of valuable learning, which, but for him, would never have
been recorded at all. A sufficiently honest, though not
very discreet compiler, he might have given a high value
to his work by bestowing a little more care on the plan,
JUS 29
and, above all, on the chronological and geographical por- Justinus I.
tions of it. His style,—very far, indeed, from being per- .11
feet,—has, nevertheless, the merit of clearness, occasionally ^ustmus /
even of elegance. There have been numerous editions of
Justinus. Among the best may be mentioned those of
Grcevius, Leyden, 1683; Hearne, Oxford, 1705; Grono-
vius, Leyden, 1719 (reprinted in the Variorum Classics in
1760); the Bipontine Society, 1802; Wetzel, 1806; and
Froscher, Leipzig, 1827. The English translations by
Codrington, 1664 ; Thomas Brown, 1712 ; Nicolas Bayley,
1732 ; John Clark, 1732 ; and Turnbull, 1746, all of
which were published in London, have gone through
several editions.
JUSTINUS L, Emperor of the East, a.d. 518-527, was
a native of Tauresium, in Dardania, who, discontented with
his humble lot as a shepherd, set off to Constantinople to
seek his fortunes in the capital. Enlisting in the guards of
the Emperor Leo, he greatly distinguished himself in his
and the two following reigns, and attained successively the
rank of tribune, comes, senator, and finally commander-in¬
chief of the troops which, some years before, he had joined
as a private. On the death of Anastasius, in 518, he was
raised to the purple by the army, being then in his sixty-
eighth year. He was brave, and fond of war ; and clergy
and people both ratified the choice of the troops. Though
he could neither read nor write, and was wholly unskilled in
civil affairs, he was always able to preserve order throughout
his vast empire, and to select the best men to the special offi¬
ces of state. He made over the civil administration to the
queestor Proclus, a faithful and able officer, whose policy
gave equal satisfaction to the emperor and his subjects.
Himself an orthodox churchman, he brought about a recon¬
ciliation between the Eastern and Western Churches in
520, which was maintained for a considerable time undis¬
turbed. In that same year he adopted his nephew, the
famous Justinian, with whom from this time he shared the
cares of state. It was at his nephew’s instigation that Jus¬
tin caused the Goth Vitalianus to be assassinated. This
turbulent and unruly spirit had recently been raised to the
consulate, and his conduct in that office had roused the
jealousy and suspicion of the court. Justin invited him to
a sumptuous banquet, and there caused him treacherously
to be murdered in presence of himself and Justinian. This
cruel act throws a dark stain on the characters both of uncle
and nephew, and led to fierce contests between the green
faction, by which Vitalian had been beloved, and the blue
faction, which enjoyed the favour of the emperor. In 522
a war broke out with Persia, which continued for several
years, without any decisive result. It was in this war that
Belisarius first gave proof of his military genius. Justin
died in 527, soon after having conferred the dignity of Au¬
gustus on his illustrious nephew. Though rude, illiterate,
and warlike in his tastes, Justin was a wise and successful
ruler. He was perfectly honest, a sincere well-wisher of
his subjects, and ever ready to promote their best interests.
His insight into human character was both deep and sound,
and to his tact in singling out and promoting men of talent
was due much of the happiness and success of his reign.
Justinus II., Emperor of the East, from a.d. 565 to 578,
was the nephew of the great Justinian, and immediately
after his uncle’s death in 565 was raised to the throne by
the senate and the army. The opening of his reign augured
well for the future. He paid the debts of his predecessor,
distributed large sums of money among the poor, published
an edict of universal toleration for religious belief recalled
many persons who had been banished for heresy, and re¬
stored peace to the church. As soon as he was fairly seated
on the throne, however, his real character began to show
itself. His rapacity, cruelty, and pride raised a host of
enemies against him, abroad as well as at home. One of
his victims was the famous eunuch Narses, the exarch of
30 JUT
Juterbock Ravenna, and the great champion oi the empire against the
II Goths. Justin’s wife Sophia, a haughty and ambitious
Juvenalis. womanj imted Parses on private grounds, and persuaded
her husband to recall him, adding, in her own hand, that he
ought to leave the cares of state to men, and live for the
future among the maidens of the palace, who would teach
him to spin. Stung to the quick the old general opened
negociations with Alboin, king of the Longobards, and in¬
vited him to pour down his hordes upon Italy, an invita¬
tion which the barbarian chief was not slow of accepting.
Narses, repenting of his treachery, died of a broken heart
when he saw the fairest provinces cf Italy laid waste by
fire and sword. His repentance came too late, and the
whole of northern Italy, along with a great portion of the
peninsula, was soon lost to the Roman empire. Persia,
under its great king Chosroes, next rose in arms against
Justin. The fortress of Dara, the bulwark of the empire,
was taken, and the fairest provinces of Asia were overrun
and devastated as completely as those of Italy had been by
the Longobards. These accumulated disasters unmanned
the spirit of the emperor, who resigned the conduct of
affairs into the hands of his wife. An ignominious peace
was obtained from Persia on the payment of a large annual
tribute. Justin, hopeless of retrieving his losses, named
Tiberius, the captain of his guard, as his successor. This
great general had been practically at the head of affairs
since the year 574, and in the September of 578 Justin
publicly resigned in his favour. This last act of his life
showed a sense and wisdom which he had never before dis¬
played. He only survived his abdication by about a month.
JUTERBOCK, a walled town, capital of a circle of the
same name, in the Prussian province of Brandenburg and
government of Potsdam, on the River Rohrbach, 40 miles
S.S.W. of Berlin, with which it is connected by railway. It
has manufactures of woollen and linen cloth, and some trade
in horses, cattle, and wool. In the church of St Nicholas
is the indulgence-box taken from Tetzel by a knight to
whom he had previously sold a pardon for any sins he might
commit. At Dennewitz, in the vicinity, on 6th September
1813, the Prussians under Bulow defeated the French under
Ney. Pop. (1849) 5632.
JUVENALIS, Decimus Junius, one of the greatest of
the Roman classics, the details of whose personal history
are both scanty and obscure. What little we know of his
life is chiefly derived from a biographical sketch of him,
purporting to be written by Suetonius, but more probably
the work of some later hand. According to this authority
he was the son or foster-child of a rich freedman of Aquinum,
where he was born about a.d. 40, in the reign of Caligula.
Though carefully trained to the bar, and extremely fond of
declamation, he never pleaded professionally, but practised
his art in the schools as a mental discipline. The praise
awarded to some satirical lines which he composed on the
actor Pans, Jien high in favour and power at court, en¬
couraged him in that kind of composition. He suppressed
his satires, however, for some time; but when at length he
published them in his sixtieth year, they took the world by
surprise, and gained a great name for their author. The
severity with which the old poet lashed the degeneracy
of public morals and the decay of the old national great¬
ness became offensive at court, and Hadrian, on pretext
of rewarding his services, gave him the command of a
cohort, which was then on its way to garrison a frontier
fortress of Egypt. Soon after reaching this place of honour¬
able exile Juvenal died of chagrin and disappointment. At
the time of his death he was in his eighty-first year. Such
is the gist of the great satirist’s life as given in the sketch
attributed to Suetonius. Meagre as it is, however, much
of it has been already shown by modern criticism to be un-
authentic. All that we can accept as undoubtedly true is
that the poet was born, or at least spent much of his time
J U Y
at Aquinum during the latter half of the first century after Juvenalis.
Christ. From other sources we know that he lived on
terms of intimate friendship with the poet Martial.
To the scholar the works of Juvenal are of the highest
value, from the insight which they give into the social and
moral condition of Rome, during the first century of the
Christian era. A richer or more tempting field has seldom
opened to the satirist than offered itself to him. The
foundations of the old Roman virtue had been sapped, and
the worst vices had been openly practised and fostered by
the Neros and Domitians. On such an age the genial
humour and sly sarcasm of Horace would have been wholly
thrown away. None who could not boldly and even fiercely
denounce its vices, crimes, and follies, would have gained a
hearing. Conscious of this, and imbued in no small degree
with the vicious taste of the schools, Juvenal adopted that
style of splendid and vehement declamation, which, had his
force and weight of thought been less, might have degene¬
rated into sheer bombast and hyperbole. Even as it is the
rhetorician not seldom throws the moralist into the shade,
and a wholesome lesson is often sacrificed to a brilliant
point. This indeed is the capital defect of his writings,—
they are too ambitious, too obviously artistic, too manifestly
designed to dazzle or to stun. At the same time it must
be remembered, that, in so far as his aim was to produce
effect, he succeeded ao no Roman author, Horace himself
hardly excepted, ever did. There is no Latin composition,
from which so many thoughts and expressions have passed
into the common speech of all languages, as the Tenth Satire
of Juvenal—the highest flight of the satiric muse of Rome.
It is in its author’s best vein. Fulfilling the negative con¬
ditions of satire in ridiculing and denouncing vice and folly,
it also fulfils the positive conditions of a moral essay by
alluring and encouraging to virtue. In loftiness and purity of
sentiment it stands unsurpassed in Greek or Roman litera¬
ture, and the moral precepts it embodies may safely claim
a high place even in the Christian ethics of modern times.
In all his other satires the gold is mixed with much alloy.
The vices which he lays bare and chastises he displays with
a revolting minuteness of detail which disgusts the pure,
while it feeds the morbid appetite of the depraved mind.
It is not easy to see how a man of strictly pure life should
have that wonderful familiarity with the social corruptions
of Rome under the empire which Juvenal delights to show.
We have no grounds for asserting that he was personally
tainted with any of those hideous vices which he describes
with so much force and fulness. Yet his satires are mani¬
festly the fruits of a personal experience, and their teach¬
ing is of that directly practical kind, which could only have
been aimed at by one who had tracked vice and crime to
their haunts, and seen with his own eyes their operation
and results. It quite accords with the laws of human na¬
ture, that he should in his youth have drained the cup of
dissipation, and when wisdom came with maturer years and
cooler blood, that he should lash with no sparing hand the
follies of his own early life. Many, if not most of the great
satirists of the world, have merely reflected in their works
their struggles with temptation, their defeat at first, and
their final victory.
The editions of Juvenal are very numerous. That of
Ruperti is the most popular, and, so far as the text is con¬
cerned, is the best; Heinrich’s, in virtue, of its notes and
commentaries, is better still. The editions of Henninius,
Leyden, 1695 ; and Achaintre, Paris, 1810, are also highly
valuable. The English translations of Juvenal are nume¬
rous. Those of Holyday, Gifford, Badham, and Hodgson,
are the most common. Dryden translated the First, Third,
Sixth, Tenth, and Sixteenth Satires with great force a.nd
spirit, though often with little reference to the original. The
French prose version of Dusaulx, more elegant and correct
than that of Gilbert, is less forcible and characteristic.
ai
K.
K T7" the eleventh letter, and eighth consonant, of our al-
II XV, phabet, is formed by a guttural expression of the
Kaemper. |}reat]1> Its sound is much the same with that of the
hard c, or qu, and it is used for the most part only before
e, i, and n, in the beginning of words, as ken, kill, know, and
the like. It used formerly to be always joined with c at the
end of words, but is now omitted. Thus, for publick, mu-
sick, we now write public, music, and so on. However, in
monosyllables it is still retained, jack, block, &c.
K was borrowed from the Greek kappa, or the Oriental
kaph, and finds only an ambiguous place in occidental al¬
phabets. Priscian looked on it as a superfluous letter, and
says that it was never to be used except in words borrowed
from the Greek. Dausqueius, after Sallust, observes that
it was unknown to the ancient Romans. Indeed we sel¬
dom find it in any Latin authors, excepting in the word
kalendce, where it sometimes stands instead of c. Carthage,
however, is frequently spelt on medals with a K—salvis
aug. ex caes. EEL. kart. ; and sometimes the letter K
alone stood for Carthage. M. Berger has observed, that
a capital K, on the reverse of the medals of the emperors of
Constantinople, signifies Konstantinus; and that on the
Greek medals it signified KOIAH 2YPIA, Cede-Syria.
Lipsius observes, that K was a stigma anciently marked on
the foreheads of criminals with a red-hot iron. For its mo¬
dern use, see Abbreviations.
K is also a numerical letter, signifying 250. When it had a
stroke above it, K, this letter stood for 250,000. K on the
French coinage denotes money coined at Bordeaux.
KAEMPFER, Engelbert, a celebrated naturalist and
scientific traveller, was born in 1651 at Lemgo, in the prin¬
cipality of Lippe Detmold in Westphalia, where his father
was rector of the church of St Nicholas. Trained at first
by his father, he went to prosecute his studies at Hameln
in Saxony, and afterwards at the schools of Luneburg,
Hamburg, and Lubeck. In all these places he distinguished
himself by the ardour and success with which he studied
history and geography, and the languages both living and
dead. After graduating as Ph. D. at the University of
Cracow in Poland, he removed to Konigsberg in Prussia,
where he spent four years chiefly in the study of medicine
and the natural sciences. His early training, whether
accidentally or by design, seems to have been fitted exactly
to make him what he afterwards became, the most enlight¬
ened traveller of his age, and the worthy forerunner of the
Pallases, Tourneforts, and Humboldts of a later age. In
1681 Kaempfer visited Upsal in Sweden, and many tempt¬
ing proposals were made to him if he would consent to
settle in that country. His desire for foreign travel, how¬
ever, led him to decline these offers ; but he gladly agreed
to accompany as secretary the embassy which Sweden was
at that time preparing to send through Russia to Persia.
Setting out from Stockholm on the 20th of March 1683,
they passed through Moscow, where they were sumptuously
entertained, and arrived at Astrakan on the shores of the
Caspian Sea. There they embarked for Persia, and land¬
ing at Nizabad pursued their way to Ispahan, which they
entered in a little more than a year from the day they set out
on their travels. Kaempfer was the first naturalist that ever
set foot in the more sequestered spots of Georgia, and the
strange aspects and operations of nature that met him at
every step are described in some of the most interesting
chapters ot his Amcenitates Exoticee. With his appetite
for foreign travel thus whetted, Kaempfer refused to return
to Europe with the embassy. Various reasons, most of
them very absurd, have been assigned by his biographers
for his conduct. His real motive was to pursue his scien- Kaffa.
tific investigations in the rich and fresh field of the East.
A residence of two years in the Persian capital enabled him
to master the natural history and botany of the surrounding
country. At the end of that period he entered the service of
the Dutch East India Company as head surgeon of their
fleet which was then cruising in the Persian Gulf. An
illness with which he was seized at Gomron disabled him
for active service for two years, and, indeed, nearly proved
fatal. In 1688, however, he set sail in the Dutch fleet for
Batavia, touching at various points of interest on the coasts
of Hindustan, Ceylon, and Sumatra. Arriving at his des¬
tination in 1689, he spent the winter of that year in investi¬
gating the natural history of Java, and in the month of May
following set out to Japan, as physician to the embassy
which the Dutch used to send yearly to that island. He
embarked in a ship which was to touch at Siam, and had
thus an opportunity of visiting Ayuthia, which has since
been supplanted by Bang-kok as the capital of the country.
In the September of 1690, he landed at Nagasaki, where
he was allowed to remain for fully two years, during which
he twice visited Jeddo, the capital. His adroitness, insinu¬
ating manners, and medical skill overcame the habitual
jealousy of the natives, and enabled him to elicit much valu¬
able information which he has embodied in his History of
Japan. Returning to Europe in 1693, and graduating as
doctor of medicine at Leyden in the following year, he
settled quietly down in his native city, there to spend the
remainder of his days. His design was to edit and publish
his travels at his leisure ; but being appointed physician to
the Count of Lippe, he soon found himself involved in the
cares of an extensive medical practice. In 1712 he gave
to the world his Amcenitates Exoticce, intended, as he re¬
marks in the preface, as a kind of prelude to a complete
edition of his works. Unfortunately, however, he did not
live to carry out his plan. An unfortunate marriage, and
other domestic calamities following thick upon each other,
broke down his health, already sufficiently impaired by his
travels. He died on the 2d of November 1716, in the
sixty-sixth year of his age.
'file original of Kaempfer’s History of Japan has never
been published, for what reason is unknown. Sir Hans
Sloane bought from his heirs a MS. copy which was trans¬
lated into English by J. G. Scheuchzer, and published in
2 vols. fbl. in 1727. From this English version the work
has been translated into French and German. This work
of Kaempfer’s is probably unique among books of travels.
After an interval of nearly two centuries, it remains as true
and applicable to the actual condition of Japan as when its
author first set foot on the island. Subsequent travellers
have acknowledged the conscientious accuracy of his de¬
scriptions of the civil and religious, as well as physical, con¬
dition of Japan. To the general reader it is intensely in¬
teresting for the rare information which it gives. The great
work of the American expedition does not even yet super¬
sede that of the German naturalist.
KAFFA, Theodosia, or Feodosia, a fortified sea-port
town of Russia on the S.E. coast of the Crimea, and on the
western side of a wide gulf of the same name ; N. Lat. 45. 2,
E. Long. 35.20. It occupies the site of the ancient Theodo¬
sia, an important town of the Greek kingdom of the Bos¬
porus. It was founded by Milesian colonists at an early
period, and was taken after a long siege by Leucon, king
of the Bosporus, who named it after his wife Theodosia.
He likewise made it a port, and gave certain advantages to
Athenian vessels coming there for purposes of trade, so
•32 KAFR
Kafraria. that in a short time it became a place of great commercial
V. ■J importance. After many vicissitudes, it came into the
hands of the Genoese in the thirteenth century, and be¬
came the seat of an extensive commerce with the East by
way of Persia and the Caspian. During this period it is
said to have contained 80,000 inhabitants, but after its cap¬
ture by the Turks in 1474, its prosperity rapidly declined.
Since it came into their hands, the Russians have attempted
to revive its former greatness, but with very partial success.
KafFa was declared a free port in 1806; and a museum of
antiquities, botanic garden, and public library have been
established by the Russian government. The harbour is
protected by a promontory from the S. and S.W. winds, and
there is excellent anchorage with deep water two cables’
length from the shore. Pop. (1849) 8435.
KAFRARIA, or Kafirland, taken in its widest sense
as denoting the country chiefly peopled by the Kafirs,
extends along the eastern shores of South Africa, from the
River Keiskamma, the eastern boundary of the colony of
Cape of Good Hope, to Delagoa Bay, a distance of about
700 miles, and stretches inland to a distance varying from
150 to 400 miles from the sea. Within these limits are in¬
cluded,—1st, British Kafraria, lying between the Rivers
Keiskamma and Kei. 2d, The country between the Kei
and the River Umzimkulu, the south-western boundary of
the British colony of Natal, called in recent maps Kafraria
Proper. 3<7, The colony of Natal, extending along the sea¬
board from the Umzimkulu to the Rivers Tugela and Um-
zimyati, and inland to the Drahenberg, or Kathlamba Moun¬
tains. Ath, The country ruled by the Zulu-Kafirs, stretch¬
ing from the last-named rivers to the vicinity of Delagoa
Bay. 5th, The country formerly called the Orange River
sovereignty, now the territory of the Free Dutch republic of
that name ; and, Qth, The country north of the Vaal River,
under the rule of another section of Dutch boers, and called
the Transvaal republic. In the narrower sense of the
term, however, Kafraria is taken to include only the two
first-named districts lying between the eastern boundary of
the Cape Colony and Natal.
In this article, our remarks on the physical features of the
country apply only to those narrower limits, but part of our
observations on the people will include the whole Kafir race.
In its general formation, the country resembles the Cape
Colony, rising from the sea in a series of steppes or plateaux,
the walls of which are formed by ranges of hills nearly
parallel to the lofty range which, for the most part, forms
its N.W. boundary, consisting of the Amatola, the Winter-
berg, Stormberg, and Kathlamba, or Drahenberg Moun¬
tains. These steppes, however, are not so well defined as
in the Cape Colony, and the surface of the country is ex¬
tremely varied, in some parts presenting plane and table¬
land, in others a succession of gently sloping hills ; in others
lofty mountains rear their rugged and scarped sides, inter¬
sected by deep ravines, which form the beds of mountain
torrents. The latter description particularly applies to the
Amatola Mountains in British Kafraria, which have formed
the stronghold of the Kafirs on so many occasions. A
considerable part of British Kafraria is covered with dense
bush, consisting, for the most part, of a thorny mimosa. Be¬
yond the Kei, however, the upper part of the country is
generally open and devoid of wood, except in ravines and
the folding of the hills; but near the coast there are fine
timber trees, in some places forming dense forests, in others
scattered singly or in clumps, and giving the country a
beautiful park-like appearance. The rivers in Kafraria run
nearly parallel to one another, flowing from the several
ranges of hills into the Indian Ocean. The most consider¬
able of them are the Kei, the Umbashi, the Umtata, the
Umsimvubu, or St John’s River, and the Umzimkulu.
They flow, for the most part, between high banks fringed
with brushwood or in some places shaded by large trees,
ARIA.
and, like all mountain streams, are low and feeble in the Kafraria.
dry weather, but swollen and turbid in the rainy season. y-*—/
None of them are navigable, except the St John’s or Um-
zimvubu, which will admit small craft to a distance of about
10 miles from the sea. There are no harbours on the coast,
except that of East London, in British Kafraria, but it is
scarcely more than an open roadstead, and far from safe.
The vegetable productions of Kafraria are similar to those
of the Cape Colony. Oats, barley, rye, and most kinds of
vegetables grow well in the valleys, and where irrigation can
be applied. Wheat will also grow, but the crop is more
uncertain than that of other grain just named, which are
all, more or less, subject to rust, smut, and mildew. Indian
corn and a species of millet, called Kafir’s corn, thrive re¬
markably well. Indigo is indigenous. Cotton has been
planted on a small scale, and found to grow extremely well.
The forests produce a variety of timber for building and
cabinet-making.
The wild animals of Kafraria are similar to those found
in the Cape Colony. In regard to domestic animals, horned
cattle thrive well, but sheep are subject to disease, unless
kept on the higher ridges. Poultry of all kinds thrive well.
The climate differs in some respects from that of the
Cape ; the greatest amount of rain falls in the spring and
summer. The winter is generally dry. In summer the heat
varies from 70° to 90°; in the winter it is seldom below 50°
in the day time ; but the nights are very cold, and snow
falls on the mountains. The temperature is subject to
great changes within the space of very few hours; but the
climate is, on the whole, extremely healthy.
British Kafraria, not being within the Cape of Good Hope,
is not subject to the legislation of its parliament; it is,
however, under the governor of that colony, who rules it
by regulations based chiefly on military law. Its chief
town is King Wfilliam Town, on the left bank of the
Buffalo River, about 40 miles from the sea. Besides it,
there are several forts duly garrisoned, scattered over the
country. In the country between British Kafraria and
Natal, there are no European settlers, except missionaries
and a few traders. It is entirely under native rule. The
British government, however, has agents or residents in
some places, whose duty it is to advise the native chiefs,
and to protect British interests. They have not, however,
hitherto been found very useful.
The name Kafir is of Arabic origin, meaning infidel. It The Kafir
was applied to the natives of the south-eastern shores ofrace>
Africa by the early Portuguese discoverers, who probably
received it from the Moorish navigators of the Mosambique
Channel. It was afterwards adopted by the Dutch settlers
of the Cape. By them and their British fellow-colonists the
name is applied to all the tribes of the race living within the
limits mentioned in the beginning of this article, whose form
and appearance, and kindred languages, show a common
origin. The several tribes are distinguished by names
generally derived from former chiefs from whom they or
their ruling families sprung. The tribe called Amaxosa
inhabit the country from the Keiskamma to the Umbashi
river. This is the tribe, the various branches of which have
so often come into collision with the Cape colonists and the
British forces. The Amatembu or Tambookies dwell on the
high land at the sources of the rivers N. of the Amaxosa,
and nowhere approach the sea. Between the Bashi and
the Umzimkulu Rivers dwell various tribes, the most power¬
ful of which are the Amaponda, under their chief Faku,
and the Amabarca. Beyond the latter river the natives
of Natal are composed mostly of refugees from the
Zulu country. They are incorrectly called Zulus, being
chiefly fragments of tribes formerly inhabiting Natal or its
neighbourhood, who were broken up by the Zulu con¬
queror Chaka, and incorporated into his nation. Beyond
Natal, again, as far as Delagoa Bay, the country is inha-
Kafraria.
Fhe Amax-
>sa.
KAFRARIA.
hited by various tribes; but, being under the rule of the
Zulu king and his tribe, it is commonly called the Zulu
country. The native tribes of the Orange River and
Transvaal countries of the Kafir race are—the Basutos, tbe
chief of whom is the famous Moshesh ; the Manlitus; the
Bechuanas ; and the Matabele.
Various conjectures have been formed as to the origin of
this race. 1 hat of Sir John Barrow is most plausible, viz.,
that they sprung from a tribe of Bedouin Arabs, who moved
from the N.E., gradually traversing the eastern border of
Africa. In this case, however, they must have mingled and
intermarried during their passage with some negro races,
since their appearance shows some affinity to both races.
The question, how long, and under what circumstances,
they occupied the country they now and recently possessed
in South Africa, has given rise to some discussion. We
believe the following is the substance of most that is known
on the subject. Although there are strong grounds for
supposing that the race at no very remote period were
strangers to South Africa, yet it is certain that the Portu¬
guese discoverers in the sixteenth century found them in¬
habiting the country from Delagoa Bay to the southward
of Natal. It is, however, probable that they did not then
extend S. of the River Kei; and it is certain that they were
not S. of the Keiskamma, since there is reliable evidence
to prove that at a comparatively late period they took pos¬
session of the country, then belonging to the Hottentots,
between the latter river and the Gamtoos. This fact is
admitted by all who have studied the subject—the only
question being as to the mode of acquisition ; some contend¬
ing that it was by purchase from the Hottentots, others that it
was by conquest. The latter is the more probable opinion.
Without entering on the history of the several tribes
comprising this widely scattered race, we shall confine our¬
selves to a brief sketch of the recent history of the two tribes
with which this country has had most intercourse, viz., the
Amaxosa, or Cape Frontier Kafirs, and the Amazulus, or
the Kafirs near Natal; together with a short statement of
the more prominent traits common to the whole ••ace.
This tribe, the Amatembu, and the AmapondR, probably
sprung from a common ancestor named Zwide, who lived
upwards of 300 years ago. The eldest, or most direct
branch of his descendants is doubtless represented by the
Amatembu or 1 ambookies; since, by the other two tribes
they are regarded as the royal race, and the chiefs generally
take some of their wives from them, whose sons inherit their
father’s rank, to the exclusion even of elder sons by other wives.
I he immediate ancestor of the Amaxosa was Toguh,
from whom descended Palo. The latter had two sons,
from whom sprung the principal chiefs on the frontier ; Ga-
leka the eldest, the founder of the Amagalekas, whose head
is the paramount chief of the Amaxosa, and Hahabi, whose
sons were Omlao and Thlambi. Gaika, the son of the for¬
mer, was the founder of the Gaikas and the father of Ma-
como, Fyali, and Sandili, the chief of the branch. From
Fhlambi the Ithlambis sept take their name. The subjoined
table will render this account clearer:—
Galeka
Klanta
Hintza
I
Krili,
paramount chief.
VOL. XIII.
Toguh
Palo
Hahabi
i ^ 1
Omlao Thlambi
I
Gaika
_J 
™ 1 i I
Macomo Tyali. Sandili,
chief of the Gaikas.
The Gaikas and Thlambis live close to the Cape frontier,
the Amagaleka, beyond the Basin River.
The Dutch settlers at the Cape first came in contact
with the Kafirs of this tribe about 1740. The Gamtoos
River was then their boundary, and mutual injuries led to
frequent skirmishes between them, but the first regular war
took place about 1780, when a commando, as it was called,
of Dutch drove the Kafirs over the Great Fish River, which
was then settled as the boundary between the two races.
A guerilla warfare, however, was still being carried on, when,
in 1795, under the circumstances mentioned in our article on
the Cape, the British took possession of the country, which
they held till 1802, when it was restored at the peace of
Amiens. During this period the Dutch boers settled on
the eastern frontier gave the British authorities great trou¬
ble. A force under General Vandeleur was sent against
them, and succeeded in reducing them to order, but it after¬
wards encountered a body of Kafirs under the chiefs Congo
and Thlambi, with very doubtful success. From 1802 to
1806, when the Dutch again held the Cape, matters con¬
tinued in the same position on the eastern border,—the
boers, in more or less open rebellion against the govern¬
ment, and carrying on guerilla warfare with the Kafirs.
In 1806 the Cape was finally taken possession of by the
British. The Kafirs had again taken possession of the
country west of the Fish River, and committed depreda¬
tions on the colonists, when, in 1811, Sir John Cradock,
with a considerable force defeated them and drove them
beyond that boundary. It was during this campaign that
the Landtdrost Stockenstrom was murdered by the Kafirs
at a conference which he had sought for the purpose of
inducing them to lay down their arms. In 1817 Lord
Charles Somerset, governor of the colony, in consequence
of disturbances on the frontier summoned a chief named
Gaika to an interview with him, in which he acknowledged
that chief as the head of Kafirland, gave him certain privi¬
leges, and held him responsible for the acts of the nation.
I his was a great error, and led to mischievous results.
Gaika was not entitled to this rank. He was merely head
of a sept of Amaxosa Kafirs, the paramount chief of whom
was, as we have stated above, the chief of the Amagale¬
kas at this period, one Hintza, whom Gaika acknowledged
as his chief. The first consequence of this ill-advised
measure was, that Gaika being attacked by a kindred chief
named Thlambi, sought for and obtained the assistance of
the government, which then improperly interfered in na¬
tive quarrels. This led to the invasion of the colony by
the Kafirs under Thlambi and Congo, and the war in 1819,
during which Graham’s Town was attacked by the enemy,
who were repidsed with great loss by a small force under
Colonel Willshire. The result of this war was the expul¬
sion of the Kafirs from the country between the Great
Fish and Keiskamma Rivers, which was declared to be
neutral ground, to be occupied neither by colonists nor
Kafirs, but still some of the latter were allowed to occupy
it. Some time after this, in 1820, 5000 emigrants, mostly
Scottish, were sent by government to the eastern part of
the colony, and were at first partly located in this neutral
territory by Sir Rufane Donkin, who was acting as gover¬
nor in the absence of Lord Charles Somerset. The latter,
however, on his return, refused to confirm this arrangement,
and ordered the settlers to withdraw within the former limit
of the colony, but his lordship shortly afterwards gave away
large tracts of land in this territory to persons the nature
of whose claims will not admit of close investigation. A
year or two after this, an attempt was made, under the sanc¬
tion, as it is said, of the governor, to seize the person of
Gaika during a time of peace. The design was frustrated,
and it served only to provoke the enmity of the Kafirs and
produce hostilities. In 1828 the whole of the Amaxosa
Kafirs were threatened with destruction by Chaka, the ter-
E
33
Kafraria.
' , '
34
K A F R A R I A.
Kafraria. rible Zulu chief, who had subdued Natal, and was advanc-
ing towards the Cape frontier. I he Kafirs called upon the
government for aid, but the Zulu chief withdrew his forces
mainly, we believe, out of respect foi British authority. A
force however was sent against him, winch unfoi tunately
attacked and defeated a tribe under the chief Matuwana,
which had been in no way concerned in the meditated in¬
vasion, but had itself been driven from Natal by the Zulu
armies. It was at this time that a large body of Kafirs of
various tribes, driven from Natal and its vicinity by Cha-
ka’s armies, took refuge with the Amaxosa Kafirs chiefly
with the Amagaleka branch, by whom they were reduced
to a species of slavery under the name of Amafingu or Fin-
o-oes. In 1828, Lord Charles Somerset was succeeded in
the government by Sir Lowry Cole. In 1829 the chief
Gaika died, and was succeeded by the infant Sandili, Ins son
by his chief wife ; but during the minority of the child, the
government of the tribe now called Gaikas devolved on his
elder half-brother Macomo. Macomo and his followers had
hitherto been permitted to live on the Kat River, part of
neutral ground, but now, on account of his attack on the
Amatembu Kafirs, he was ordered to leave that locality,
upon which a settlement of Hottentots was established with
a view of helping to check the inroads of the Kafirs. This
is the origin of the celebrated Kat River settlement. In
1833, Tyali, another of Gaika’s sons, who had been allowed
to live on the neutral ground, was removed to beyond the
Keiskamma. Shortly afterward, both Tyali and his brother
Macomo were permitted to return within this colony, but
were again expelled. The course pursued towards these
chiefs seems to have been very vacillating and to have been
among the causes which led to the next war.
Sir Benjamin D’Urban assumed the government in 1834,
and towards the close of that year a vast mass of Kafirs
poured into the colony, headed by the chiefs 1 yali, Macomo,
and Xoxo, sweeping over the frontier district, murdering
the farmers in their course, and burning their homesteads.
The colonial authorities were unprepared for the inva¬
sion, but Colonel (afterwards Sir Harry) Smith and the
governor proceeded at once to the frontier, and with a force
of about 3000 men, about one-half being regular troops,
marched into Kafirland. In the course of about nine
months the Kafirs were subdued, and a treaty was entered
into with them, by which the country as far as the River
Kei was declared to be British, and the people subjects of
the crown. During this war an incident occurred which
has given rise to much discussion. Hintza, chief of the
Amagalekas, who, as such, was paramount chief of the
Amaxosa Kafirs, that is, of nearly all the Kafirs on the
frontier, had openly refused to take part in the war ; but the
governor suspecting, not without reason, that he had covertly
assisted to foment it, and had received cattle stolen by the
Kafirs actually engaged in hostilities, crossed the Kei River
and encamped near the chief’s residence. Hintza, to save his
country from destruction, went to the camp of the governor,
who demanded of him compensation in cattle, for the pro¬
perty stolen from the colonists, and also the liberation of
the Fingoes, who, as mentioned above, were held in a spe¬
cies of servitude by the Amaxosa Kafirs. I o these terms,
Hintza assented, and voluntarily remained in the camp,
though told he was free to depart. A few days afterwards,
a report arrived that the Kafirs were murdering the Fingoes.
This the governor supposed to be the result of Hintza’s
orders, and that chief was informed that having broken the
terms agreed to, he would be held responsible for the safety
of the Fingoes, upon which he sent to his people to stop
the massacre, and his order was obeyed. The cattle de¬
manded as compensation for the colonists’ losses not having
arrived within the stipulated time, Hintza was tried. He
was considered responsible for their payment. He stated
that his people would obey his orders, and produce the
cattle, if he appeared among them supported by a British Kafrarfa.
force. The governor sent him with a detachment of troops
under Colonel Smith towards the Bashi, but he was warned
that any attempt to escape might cost him his life. On the
road the chief clearly evinced his desire to prevent his
people’s cattle from being taken, and, at length, being well
mounted, and seizing a favourable opportunity, he attempted
to make his escape. He was pursued by Colonel Smith
and those about him, and, after a desperate chase and per¬
sonal struggle, he was shot dead, by a Mr Southey, in self-
defence it is alleged, as the chief was on the point of stab¬
bing him with an assegai. Other versions have been given
of this transaction, but the above we believe to be sub¬
stantially correct. Lord Glenelg, the colonial secretary,
who had previously taken a very unfavourable view of it,
was led by a subsequent enquiry to consider that Flintza
had been, if not the fomenter of the war, at least engaged
in a secret alliance with its authors. The account of the
chief’s death is taken from Sir Harry Smith’s and Mr
Southey’s statements, but we have had opportunities <
hearing them confirmed by the evidence of impartial anu
most trustworthy persons who were near the scene.
The proceedings of the governor were disapproved of by
the colonial minister, the ceded country ordered to be re¬
stored, and Sir Benjamin D’Urban was recalled.
The chief grounds on which this course was adopted,
briefly stated, were as follow :—1 st, That the Kafirs were
justified in engaging in the wrar by the encroachments
made on their territory, and other wrongs inflicted on them
by the government and the colonists. 2d, I hat the war
had been conducted in a manner at variance with the prin¬
ciples of humanity. 3d, That the proposed extension of the
colonial limits would involve an expenditure for civil and
military establishments beyond all proportion to the wealth
and number of the inhabitants.
Lord Glenelg, at the same time, laid down rules for
future intercourse with the Kafirs, of which the following
is the substance-ls<, That the responsibility of villages
or kraals for the acts of individuals must no longer be en¬
forced. 2d, That the chiefs alone should be looked to for
restitution of stolen property, they being left to detect
offenders, or indemnify themselves at the expense of the
tribe collectively. 3d, That the killing or wounding a
Kafir should be considered in the same light as the like
offence committed on Her Majesty’s subjects.
This reversal of Sir Benjamin D Urban’s policy, and his
recall, together with other causes stated in a former article,
led to the emigration from the colony of a large number
of Dutch boers to countries beyond the boundaries.
In December 1836 the restoration of the ceded territory
took effect, and Mr Stockenstrom was appointed lieutenant-
governor of the eastern frontier, for the purpose of carrying
out the policy laid down by Lord Glenelg. Treaties were
entered into with the sevei'al chiefs, defining their rights
and responsibilities.
This policy, however, was distasteful to the mass of the
frontier colonists, and Lieutenant-Governor Stockenstrom
was shortly recalled, solely on the ground of his unpopu¬
larity, and rewarded with a baronetcy and a pension.
Meanwhile, Sir George Napier had succeeded Sir Ben¬
jamin D’Urban as governor-in-chief, and, during his six
years term of office, peace was generally maintained. In
1844 Sir Peregrine Maitland became governor, who seems
to have seen cause to alter, in some respects, the treaties
made by Sir Andries Stockenstrom. Affairs assumed a
very disturbed aspect on the frontiers, and in 1846 another
Kafir war commenced.
The immediate cause of this war was an attack, in w hich
a Hottentot was killed, made by a party of natives on a
escort which was conveying a Kafir, who had committed a
theft, to Graham’s Town for trial. There is no doubt the
KAFR
Kafraria. Kafirs were eager to find a pretext for war, although the
^ conduct of the colonial authorities on this occasion was not
wholly free from blame. The Gaikas were the chief tribe
engaged in this, but they were, in the course of it, assisted
by the Tambookies. A British force marched into Kafir-
land, the Amatola Mountains were stormed and taken pos¬
session of by a burgher force under Sir Andries Stocken-
strom, who afterwards defeated the Tambookies under
Mapassa. The Gaikas again occupied the Amatolas, but
at length Macomo surrendered himself, the Kafir who
killed the Hottentot was given up, and peace seemed to be
restored. On the arrival, however, of Sir Henry Pottinger
in 1847, hostilities recommenced, and were carried on with
great energy, till at length Sandili, the chief of the Gaikas,
surrendered himself as a prisoner. In October 1847, Sir
Henry Pottinger was succeeded by Sir Harry Smith, who,
after exacting the submission of the chiefs, and proclaiming
himself paramount chief of the Kafirs, liberated Sandili.
The country was again declared to be under British rule,
and a part of the land was disposed of to white settlers.
At the same time a machinery of government was estab¬
lished in the country, consisting of a chief commissioner,
assisted by subordinate magistrates, and a police force, partly
composed of Kafirs, armed with muskets and bayonets.
During the temporary peace which ensued, the convict
agitation took place, of which some account is given else¬
where (see Cape of Good Hope), but it is referred to
here because some persons have, not without reason, in
part attributed to it the war of 1850, as the Kafirs may have
considered that the divisions which that agitation caused
between sections of the population, especially between
the Dutch and British, presented a good occasion for re¬
newing hostilities. Another cause of the subsequent out¬
break was, we think, the too hasty weakening of the mili¬
tary force on the frontiers after the last war, by sending
away several regiments. This measure of false economy
was enjoined on the governor by the ministry at home,
who, in their turn, were urged by a strong party in Parlia¬
ment to diminish the military expenditure.
About October 1850 it was reported that the Kafirs, ex¬
cited by the eloquence of a pretended prophet, named Um-
lanjeni, were preparing for war. Sir Harry Smith proceeded
to the frontier, but refused to believe that an outbreak was
at hand, although many signs of the coming storm were
observed and pointed out by the authorities and people on
the spot. However, he summoned Sandili and the other
chiefs to an interview. Sandili refused obedience; upon
which, at an assembly of other chiefs, the governor declared
him deposed from his chiefship, and appointed an English¬
man, Mr Brownlee, a magistrate, to be chief of the Gaika
tribe. This measure is said to have been the immediate
cause of the ensuing outbreak ; but there is no doubt that
the Kafirs had already determined on war. On the 24th
of December Colonel Mackinnon, being sent with a small
force to capture Sandili, was attacked in a narrow defile by
a large body of Kafirs, and compelled to retreat with some
loss. This was the signal for a general rising of the Gaika
tribe. The settlers in the military villages, assembled in
fancied security to celebrate Christmas day, were sur¬
prised by the treacherous foe, many of them murdered, and
their houses given to the flames. Other disasters followed
in quick succession. A small patrol of military was cut off
to a man. The greater part of the Kafir police deserted,
many of them carrying off their arms and accoutrements.
Flushed with success, the Kafirs in immense force sur¬
rounded and attacked Fort Cox, where the governor was
with an inconsiderable force. His situation was truly criti¬
cal. More than one unsuccessful attempt was made to re¬
lieve him ; but his dauntless spirit was equal to the occa¬
sion. At the head of 150 mounted riflemen, accompanied
by Colonel Mackinnon, he dashed out of the fort, and,
A R I A. 35
through a heavy fire of the enemy, rode to King William’s Kafraria.
Town,—a distance of 12 miles. Meantime, a new enemy
appeared. A large number of the Kat River Hottentots,
who had in former wars been our firm allies, rose in rebel¬
lion. This revolt was followed by that of the Hottentots
at other missionary stations ; and part of the Hottentots of
the Cape Mounted Rifles followed their example. We have
only space to state the general results of the war. After
the confusion caused by the sudden outbreak had subsided,
and due preparations were made, Sir Harry Smith and his
gallant force soon turned the tide of war against the Kafirs.
The Amatola Mountains were stormed ; the paramount
chief Krili, who all along covertly assisted the Gaikas, was
invaded and severely punished. In April 1852 Sir Harry
Smith left the country in consequence of his recall, and was
succeeded by Lieutenant-General the Honourable George
Catlicart. The new governor completed the work which
his predecessor had so well advanced. Krili was again at¬
tacked and reduced to submission. The Amatolas were
finally cleared of Kafirs, and small forts erected among them
to prevent their reoccupation.
Having subdued British Kafraria, the governor turned
his attention to another region. During the war, the Orange
River sovereignty had been the scene of anarchy and confu¬
sion. Collisions had thus taken place between her Majesty’s
troops and the Basuto tribe, under the chief Moshesh, caused
by the alleged depreciation committed by that tribe on the
Dutch farmers and another tribe called Bosolongs. At one
time matters were in so critical a state in this region that
the British resident there wrote the lieutenant-governor of
the neighbouring colony of Natal, to send some Zulu Kafirs
(as the natives of Natal are called) to his assistance. In a
very short space of time the lieutenant-governor raised the
required force, which, together with a small party of military
under Captain Parish of the 45th regiment, marched in the
middle of winter over the Drachenberg Mountains into the
sovereignty, the lieutenant-governor accompanying the force
to the summit of the mountains, where his jurisdiction ter¬
minates.
To punish Moshesh and the Basutos, General Cathcart,
with a force of2500 men, now marched into the sovereignty,
and, after some fruitless negotiation with the chief, was at¬
tacked by his tribe in overwhelming numbers, all mounted
and well armed. The action lasted a whole day, and ter¬
minated in a doubtful victory, the loss on the side of the
British being thirty-eight men killed and many wounded.
The chief Moshesh, however, showed singular forbearance.
Feeling, as he said, assured that the partial success which
had crowned his arms could be only momentary, and that
he never could hope to contend with the British forces, he
sent, on the night after the battle, for a missionary residing
near him, and had a letter written to the governor suing for
peace. The request was granted, and the governor and his
force retired. Not long after this event the sovereignty
was, as mentioned in the article on the Cape, given up to
the Dutch boers. On his return from this expedition,
General Cathcart instituted measures for securing the per¬
manent peace of the frontiers. He issued regulations for
governing the country under martial law. The mountain
part of it, from which the Gaikas had been expelled, was
made a royal reserve, in which certain military posts were
to be established, to serve as centres of villages to he
occupied by colonists on condition of military service. The
General considered it necessary to the success of his mea¬
sures that an adequate regular military force should be kept
in the district, until some organized corps of military colo¬
nists could be sent to colonize it. General Cathcart left
the colony in 1854, and was succeeded by Sir George
Grey, K.C.B., late governor of New Zealand, who has
given a general outline of the policy he proposes for the
government of Kafraria. The chief features of it are, the
36 KAFR
Xafraria. establishment of institutions for the education of the children
and the relief of the sick, and the employment of the Kafirs
on the construction of roads to open up the country. He
estimated the cost of these measures at L.45,000 per annum,
L.40,000 of which is to be provided by the British Parlia¬
ment for a limited period. Parliament in 1856 made
this grant. Sir George Grey has further proposed the in¬
troduction of military pensioners from this country. This
measure could not be carried out, owing to the unwilling¬
ness of the pensioners to go out; but their want is likely
to be in some degree supplied by the settlement of the dis¬
banded German Legion in the country.
Tha Zulu We proceed to give some account of these tribes. The
Kafirs. Portuguese, in the sixteenth century, found the country
from Delagoa Bay to the southward of Natal peopled by
Kafirs divided into small tribes. Little is known of them
until 1810, when an extraordinary character arose in the
country just north of Natal. This was Chaka, son of the
chief of a small tribe called Zulus. Owing to accidental
circumstances, he was brought up by the chief of a neigh¬
bouring and very powerful tribe called the Umtelwas.
This chief dying without heirs, Chaka, probably owing to
his abilities, succeeded to the chiefship of that tribe, as well
as to that of his own. The two tribes, thus united and
ruled by a master-spirit, became a powerful nation, and
went forth like a consuming fire to spread destruction
among other tribes far and wide. Natal was almost depo¬
pulated, the majority of the people being annihilated, or in¬
corporated into the conquering host. Some broken tribes took
refuge withthe A maxosa Kafirs, by whom they w7ere enslaved,
under the derisive name of Amafingu or Fingoes. Chaka
formed his warriors into regiments, and established a stern
military discipline, which against other natives made him
almost invincible. We have seen that he was on the point
of attacking the Amaxosa Kafirs, but he desisted from do¬
ing so on finding that they were protected by the Bi'itish
government, for which he expressed the greatest respect.
He possessed great intelligence, and extraordinary military
skill. He was capable of noble and generous acts, but his
general conduct was that of a cruel, relentless despot. The
wanton massacres committed by his orders almost exceed be¬
lief. During his reign a party of British settled in Natal and
were kindly treated by him. In 1828 he was murdered, at
the instigation of his brother Dingaan, who succeeded him.
Dingaan imitated the bloody acts of his brother, without
possessing his ability or generosity. Towards the end of
1837 a part of the Dutch boers who, as we noticed in our
article on the Cape, left the colony in 1836, found their
way to Natal. One Retief, their leader, and about sixty-
five followers, sought an interview with Dingaan, by whom
they were barbarously murdered in cold blood. A bloody
war then ensued between the boers and Dingaan, in the
course of which the latter, at the head of a force 14,000
strong, was signally defeated with great loss by a party of
360 boers. During these hostilities, the governor of the
Cape sent to Natal a small detachment of troops to try to
prevent further bloodshed, hut, being found useless for such
object, it was soon withdrawn. A brother of Dingaan,
named Panda, now joined the boers, with a large section of
the natives. The combined force completely routed Din¬
gaan, who fled to the neighbourhood of Delagoa Bay, where
he was murdered by a tribe with whom he had taken refuge.
The boers proclaimed Panda chief of the Zulus. In
1842 Natal was taken possession of by the British govern¬
ment after some severe fighting with the boers, and in
184o it was created a separate government under a lieute¬
nant-governor and other officials. As Panda’s rule was
nearly as cruel as that of his brothers, numbers of his sub¬
jects, chiefly those who had been subdued by Chaka, fled
into Natal for protection. These refugees, very few of whom
belong to the Zulu tribe, form the greater part of the black
ARIA.
population of Natal. Panda continues to rule over the Kafraria.
country lying between Natal and Delagoa Bay, commonly /
called the Zulu country, and his power is still very formid¬
able ; but, owing to his fear of the Dutch boers beyond
our jurisdiction, and other causes, he has hitherto remained
on friendly terms with the British authorities.
In regard to form and appearance there is a slight differ- Character,
ence between some of the tribes inhabiting so vast a tract &c., of the
of country. They may, however, be described generally Kafirs-
as tall and well-formed; having regular features and well-
developed foreheads; with skins varying from black to
copper colour, and crisped woolly hair like that of the negro,
only growing in small detached tufts. The Amaxosa are
lighter in the skin, taller, and with an expression of counte¬
nance more fierce and haughty than the Natal and Zulu
Kafirs and the kindred Fingoes.
The Kafirs generally are acute and subtle, with the usual
faults of savages, duplicity and cruelty. They have, how¬
ever, redeeming traits; for they are faithful when trusted,
and not incapable of gratitude. Polygamy prevails univer¬
sally—wives are purchased with cattle, and are compelled
to work for their husbands, who pass their time in indolence,
except when engaged in the exciting pursuits of the chase
or war. A Kafir cannot marry a blood relation, but he may
marry the widow of a deceased brother. As children, espe¬
cially daughters, are valuable, instances are not unknown of
old or impotent men giving out their wives to younger men,
reserving his right to the children procreated. The cloth¬
ing of the Kafirs consists of a cloak made of skins, or, latterly
of a blanket. They wear armlets and necklaces made of ani¬
mals’ teeth or beads. They are also fond of wearing brass
rings on their arms. Their war dress is more elaborate,
consisting of kilts of skins, and head-dresses of feathers of
various kinds. Their weapons are the assegai,—a kind of
spear,—one kind of it being short, with a broad blade about
12 to 18 inches long, for stabbing; the other longer in the
shaft, with a narrow blade about 9 inches long, for throwing.
They carry large shields made of hides. They have latterly
acquired firearms, and use them with some skill.
Their chief property is cattle, and the laws regulating its
succession are very complicated, in consequence of poly¬
gamy, and producing much litigation. In general the eldest
son of the chief wife succeeds to the chiefship. The go¬
vernment of the tribe resides in the chief, assisted by his
head men or councillors. Many crimes are punished with
death, especially such as affect the sovereignty of the chief;
others, and among them, in some cases, murder, are punished
with fine or confiscation of property.
In their savage state the Kafirs have little sense of re¬
ligion. They believe in a Being who made the world;
but that now, if not extinct, he takes no heed of its govern¬
ment. They conceive that the spirits of their forefathers ex¬
ercise an influence over them, and they have a strong belief
in witchcraft. The witch-doctor, who professes to discover
wizards and witches, plays a prominent part in their social
and political system. Fie is the ready instrument of oppres¬
sion in the hands of the chief, who, whenever he dislikes or
fears any of his subjects or covets their property, employs
the “doctor” to accuse them of witchcraft, for which they
are killed, and their cattle is seized by the chief. They
practise circumcision, eschew pork as food, and have other
customs similar to those of the Jews, from whom, some have
supposed, they were borrowed; but similarity of climate,
and other external circumstances, will produce similar habits
in men. The Kafirs also abstain from eating fish, fowls, or
eggs. They cultivate Indian corn, pumpkins, and a kind of
millet. They chiefly live upon these articles and milk, eat¬
ing little meat except in war time, when they freely kill
their cattle. Their language is singularly soft and harmo¬
nious. Its structure is very peculiar and complicated. Its
chief characteristic is, that the relation between words is
K A F
Kafiristan expressed by prefixes ; those of the nouns and pronouns re-
II gulating those of the verbs and other parts of the sen-
Kaisanyen. tence< Xlie language has been reduced to writing, gram-
mars formed of it, and the New Testament has been trans¬
lated into it. The best grammars are those of Appleyard
and Boyce of the Amaxosa Kafir. There is only one
small grammar written in English of the Zulu Kafir—that
by Dr Collenson, the bishop of Natal. It is, however, chiefly
taken from the work of a Norwegian missionary, written in
Danish.
It is almost impossible to form anything like a correct
estimate of the Kafir population. We should think the
Amaxosa, in all its branches, numbers not less than 200,000
souls. The Amatembu, or Tambookies, may be about
70,000. The Amaponda and their neighbours about
90,000. The Kafirs of Natal are estimated at 100,000.
The population of the Zulu and other Kafir countries it
is impossible to estimate. (b. c. p.)
KAFIRISTAN, in Asia, a country adjoining the N.E.
boundary of Afghanistan, and remarkable because, though
surrounded by powerful and implacable enemies, it has
never been conquered. The name Kafiristan, signifying
“ land of infidelity,” has been given to the country by the
neighbouring Mussulmans, in consequence of the rejection
of Mohammedanism by the inhabitants. They are called
Siyah Posh, or “ black clad,” from wearing black goat-skin
dresses. The country is drained by four considerable rivers,
the Kamar, Alingar, Alishang, and Tagoa, which fall into
the River Kabool. It is situate between N. Lat. 35. 36.,
and E. Long. 70. 74.
KAIRA, in Hindustan, the principal town of the British
collectorate of the same name, situate within the Presi¬
dency of Bombay, near the confluence of two small rivers,
the Watruk and Seree. It is of considerable size, and sur¬
rounded by a wall with bastions. The streets are uneven
and narrow, but the houses are substantial and lofty, with
sloping tiled roofs, and a good deal of carving about the
woodwork of their gables and verandahs. The district of
which this place is the chief town has an area of 1869
square miles, with a population of 580,631 persons, inha¬
biting 138,958 houses. The tract was ceded to the East
India Company by the Guicowar, under different treaties
and engagements, commencing with the grant of the fort
of Kaira, which was made over to the British in May 1803,
The town of Kaira is distant from Bombay N. 265 miles.
Lat. 22. 45., Long. 72. 41
KAIRWAN, a large town of Northern Africa, regency
of Tunis, and about 80 miles S.S.E. of the city of that
name. In extent and importance it ranks as the second
city of Tunis, and by Mohammedans is regarded as the
holy city of Africa. The great mosque, supported, it is
said, by 500 marble or granite pillars, is esteemed the most
magnificent, as well as the most sacred, in Barbary. Kair-
wan was founded by the Arabs about a.d. 670. It stands
in a barren, sandy plain, and is surrounded by a low wall
having four gates. The houses are generally good, and
the streets wide, but there is a great deficiency of water.
Yellow Morocco boots and slippers made here are famous
for the beauty of their dye. Pop. about 50,000.
KAISARIl EH or Kaisariah (anciently Mazaca and
Ccesared), an important commercial city of Asia Minor,
pashalic ot Caramania, situate in a plain at the N. foot of
the Erjish Dagh (the ancient 150 miles E.N.E. of
Konieh. It is the entrepot for a large extent of country,
and the resort of merchants from all parts of Asia Minor
and Syria., Besides cotton, gums, fruit, wine, furs, skins,
wool, goats hair, and the other products of its own terri¬
tory, it trades in numerous articles of British and colonial
produce, hardware, silks, woollens, indigo, dye-woods, &c.
The chief articles of industry are cotton-thread and cloth,
and yellow Morocco leather. The vicinity is fertile, and
K A L
37
tern
II
Kaleido¬
scope.
the climate salubrious, but Kaisariyeh itself is the filthiest Kaiserslau-
town in all Turkey. The streets are narrow and irregular,
and the houses, though solidly built of stone and brick,
have a mean and dilapidated appearance. Mazaca was the
capital of Cappadocia, and when that kingdom became a
Roman province in the reign of Tiberius, the name of
Mazaca was changed to Caesarea. In the later times of
the empire it became a city of great importance, and is said
to have had a population of 400,000 persons. The present
population is variously estimated at from 8000 to 25,000.
KAISERSLAUTERN, a town in the Bavarian circle
of the Palatinate, and capital of a cognominal district,
stands on the Lauter, 34 miles W.N.W. of Spires. It
was fortified as early as the middle of the twelfth century
by the Emperor Friedrich Barbarossa, who also built the
strong castle which was destroyed by the French in the war
of the succession. Three engagements took place here in
1793-94, between the French and Germans, in which the
latter gained some advantages. The town has manu¬
factures of linen and woollen goods, leather, and paper;
but is chiefly dependant upon its iron-works, which are
supplied from mines in the vicinity. Pop. about 7000.
KALAMAIKA, a favourite Hungarian dance of a lively
kind, in -|th time, consisting of two strains, each of four bars,
and each repeated.
KALBE, a town on the River Saala, in the Prussian
province of Saxony, and government of Magdeburg, 18
miles S. of the town of that name. It is noted for its
manufactures of friezes, flannels, and hosiery. Pop. 5903.
KALEIDOSCOPE (KaA.os, beautiful, cTSos, a form, and
crKOTrew, I see), an optical instrument, which, by means of
two equal plane mirrors inclined to each other at a certain
angle, and placed in a particular manner relative to the eye
and object, is used, as its name imports, to produce and to
exhibit beautiful forms. It was invented in 1814 by Sir
David Brewster while experimenting on the polarization of
light; and ere the inventor had time to secure it by patent
unprincipled opticians made kaleidoscopes by thousands,
and sent them to all parts of the world. Sir David Brew¬
ster states that no fewer than 200,000 of these instruments
were sold in London and Paris in the space of three
months ; and yet, he says, that out of this immense number,
there are, perhaps, not one thousand constructed upon scien¬
tific principles, or capable of giving anything like a correct
idea of the power of the kaleidoscope; and of the millions
who have witnessed its effects, there are perhaps not one
hundred who have any idea of the principles upon which
it is constructed, and of the mode in which its effects are
produced.
In order to produce its effects, the instrument may be
said to depend on the principle of a repetition of the re¬
flections of an ob¬
ject situate between -
two plane mirrors
inclined to each
other at a certain
angle ; or, more
particularly, if two
reflecting planes
form a section with
each other, then
the reflections of
an object between
the planes will all
be found in the
circumference of a
circle, the centre of
which is the pro¬
jection of the intersection of the planes, and the number of
images will be such as will exactly complete the circle.
This will be more easily understood from fig. 1, where AC
38
KALEIDOSCOPE.
Kaleido¬
scope.
BC, are the orthogonal projections of two plane mirrors, C
the projection of their line of junction, and P the position of
a luminous point or object within the angle ABC, made
by the reflecting planes; then from centre C and ra¬
dius equal to CP, describe a circle AB. It is clear that
we shall have two series of virtual images which will be all
ranged round the circumference of the circle AB ; for the
rays of light, and, therefore, a perpendicular ray from P, re¬
garded as a luminous point, will have a virtual image P„ an
image of itself on the other side of the plane BC, and as
far distant from that mirror as P is. But the bright im¬
age Pj, letting a perpendicular ray fall on the mirror AC,
has a virtual image P2 as far distant from AC as Pi is ; P2
is also a luminous point, and has its image at P3 in the
mirror QC produced, and at the same distance from it as is
its focus P2; the last repeated reflection of P is caused by
the bright point P3 being seen at P4, its virtual image be¬
hind and as far from the mirror AC produced as P3. If we
make a similar construction for a ray of light emanating from
the focus P upon the mirror AC, the virtual image of P
will be Qi, which will also produce Q2 as its image, and
so on, till at last we arrive at Q4. Now, since the bright
images P4 and Q4 are at the back of both reflecting planes
produced, they can suffer no reflection ; therefore, the re¬
peated reflections of P in the two mirrors are P„ P^ P3, P4,
and Qj, Q2, Q3, Q4, and they are, by Euclid 3. III., points in
the circumference. Now, since these points are the respec¬
tive foci of these perpendicular rays, they will also be the
foci of all the rays diverging from their respective points,
and, therefore, will form perfect images of the object be¬
tween the mirrors.
Suppose, now, that instead of having the mirrors perpen¬
dicular to the plane of the paper (tig. 2) they have an inclina-
Fig. 3.
tion to each other, and have on the inner edges of AC, BC,
one or both, small bits of vari-coloured glass; and if the sys¬
tem of mirrors be inclosed in a case blackened on the inside,
then an eye placed at c will see
a gorgeous and symmetrical pat¬
tern or picture. If the instru¬
ment be turned to different parts
of the room, the pieces of glass
remaining as before, the light
will fall on the other portions of
the coloured glass, and conse¬
quently produce a different pat¬
tern. This was the first kind of kaleidoscope which Sir
D. Brewster made. It occured to him some time after¬
wards, that the pattern might be varied by a motion or
change of position in the objects reflected by the mirrors;
the coloured glass or other objects were therefore placed
between two plates of very thin glass, which formed, as it
were, an object-glass ; and being held in the hand, could be
moved about at pleasure. The kaleidoscope was still further
improved by making the object-plates circular, while a mo¬
tion took place round the axis of the tube, or by sliding the
object-plate in a groove, the object being placed in a cell of
the reflectors.
The principal parts of the kaleidoscope, then, are the
two mirrors (fig. 2) ACca, BCc6; which should be Irom
6 to 10 inches in length, and from 1 to H inches broad at
the end ABC, but about half this breadth at the end abc.
These mirrors are kept apart at their upper, and united
along their lower edges Cc, so as to form the solid angle
ACcb, and which must be some measure of 4 right angles, Kaleido-
or 180°. The planes, which must always be free from scope,
dust, are placed in a tube, as in fig. 3; but the end ab is
covered, and a small eye-piece affixed, so that the eye may
take in the field of view ACB. It is of importance to have
the angle of the mirrors as accurate as possible, for any de¬
viation from the even angle will be immediately perceived
by the eye. If the angle be a little larger than it should
be, the image is deficient, and in some parts irregular or
non-symmetrical; if the angle be a little smaller than it
should be, the image is redundant, from a reduplication of
one part. Sometimes portions of the images overlap and
interfere with each other; but on the angle of the mirrors
being rectified, these double images coalesce and form one
image perfectly symmetrical in all its parts. The angles,
therefore, which the mirrors of a kaleidoscope must make
with each other are such as the following:—^, i, £, £,
h, tV, ^ &c, of 180°; or 90°, 60°, 45°, 36°, 30u,
18°, 15°, 12°, 10°, 9°, &c. Whatever part, therefore, the
angle ACB is of 180°, the same will be the number of times
the image is reflected or repeated in the mirrors. If, in
fig. 1, ACB were an aliquot part of 180°, then the images
P4 Q4 would form a single image; but when this is not
the case, a want of symmetry will be perceived. It is im¬
portant also that the line of junction cC of the mirrors (fig.
2) be of the finest possible kind and free from chips, for,
otherwise, an imperfection will take place in the image.
The planes, which have been previously blackened on the
back, may be kept together at the proper angle by means
of a piece of cloth glued on to their non-reflecting surface,
so that they may fold in and out like the leaves of a book.
By this contrivance the mirrors may be adjusted to the
proper inclination, but chiefly by directing them to any
line, or the straight edge of any object in contact with the
broad ends, and very obliquely situate with respect to the
edge of either of the mirrors; then looking through the
instrument at one end, if the image be symmetrical with
respect to its pattern, we may be sure that the planes are ac¬
curately inclined. The mirrors are now to be carefully set
in the hollow tube which is to receive them; and the ar¬
rangement of a piece of cork or wood (e. g.) at the back of
the mirrors must be such that the angle of inclination will
remain unaltered. The remaining side ABba of the hollow
prism made by the planes (fig. 2) may be effectually closed
up by a piece of black velvet glued to the back part of the
mirrors. The object-case of the instrument at the farther
end from the eye is made up of two pieces of thin glass,
kept separate by a brass rim about J th or ^th of an inch
broad; the intervening hollow part contains the objects
which are to be reflected. This case is seen in fig. 3, and
at the wide end of the mirrors to which it is to be affixed.
The end ABC of the planes (fig. 2) is in fig. 3 represented
by abed; run is a brass ring, which moves easily upon the
tube, and rests steadily in its place; MN is a brass cell,
slipping tightly on the moveable ring mn. The objects are
placed in a case, one of the glasses of which is transparent,
and the other ground ; the brass rim separating them should
consist of two pieces, the one screwing into the other, so
that the objects in the case might be unscrewed and changed
at pleasure. The object-box is placed at the bottom of the
cell MN, as at OP; and the depth of the cell is such as to
allow the side O to touch the end of the mirrors when the
cell is slipped upon the ring mn. It is an essential condition
that the objects be as near as possible to the plane ABC of
the mirrors. The objects employed for reflection are va¬
rious ; but generally small pieces of transparent coloured
glass, occupying a certain portion of the interval between
the mirrors, produce at times the most splendid patterns.
Wires of glass also, both spun and twisted, different in
colour and form, may be intermixed with larger masses of
coloured glass, beads, bugles, fine needles, metallic wires,
K A L E I D
Kaleido- lace, seaweed, looped figures and letters (as 8 and S), circles,
scope, ovals, spirals, triangular lines, varnish, indurated Canada
balsam, &c.; the case, however, must not be too crowded
with objects, so as to interfere with each other’s motion.
The patterns produced are of the most gorgeous descrip¬
tion, and sometimes defy imitation ; the pictures of the
images are best comprehended by looking into the instru¬
ment itself. When objects are to be looked at which are
not in the case, they must be held as near as possible to the
object end; such objects are generally viewed as through
a microscope, the light falling very strongly upon the object.
The simple kaleidoscope has, as we have seen, two mir¬
rors, but on the same principles as above, we may construct
one with 3, 4, 5, &c., or any number of reflecting planes,
and which will repeat images in endless succession on every
side. Such optical instruments are termed Polycentral
Kaleidoscopes. But where symmetry and regularity of
form are required, the polycentral kaleidoscope is confined
within narrow bounds; for the angles of the several re¬
flecting planes with each other must be an aliquot part of
180°. Thus, if the kaleidoscope have three mirrors, the
angles, in order that a perfect image may be produced by
each angle of the prism, must be 60°, 60°, 60°; or 45°, 45°,
90°; or 30°, 60°, 90°. When the reflecting planes are equi¬
lateral, and, therefore, have each side making an angle of
60° with each other, the instrument is termed the Tria-
scope, from the triangular symmetry which the images pre¬
sent, the images of each plane being combined in groups
of three together in every part of the pattern. When
we have an isosceles right angled triangular prism, and,
consequently, with angles of 45°, 45°, 90°, the pattern pro¬
duced is regularly divided into square compartments, and
therefore this disposition of the mirrors has received the
name of Tetrascope. When the polycentral kaleidoscope
has its angles of 30°, 60°, 90°, the pattern produced is hexa¬
gonal, and the symmetry is very conspicuous, especially with
reference to that centre round which are congregated the
greatest number of repetitions caused by the angle of 30°.
This disposition of the reflecting mirrors is termed a Hexa-
scope. Of these the last two kaleidoscopes are of use to
the draughtsman, in affording him the best material for his
designs.
The principal advantage which the polycentral has over
the simple kaleidoscope is, that the former has a greater
field of view than the latter. Were no loss of light to arise
from repeated reflections, the field of view would be infinite ;
but since each reflected ray is not so intense as its corre¬
sponding incident one, a diminution of light takes place
from repeated reflections. The effects of polarization also
increase the loss, but more from this cause in the polycen¬
tral than in the simple kaleidoscope; hence metallic specula
are preferred to the best of glass mirrors. The number of
reflections required, in order to obtain any great extent of
spectrum, that is, the whole appearance in the kaleidoscope,
being greater than in the ordinary kinds of simple kaleido¬
scopes, the instrument must be of greater length compara¬
tively with the breadth of the mirrors, as in this way the
course of the rays will be more oblique with respect to the
mirrors, and a larger portion of light will reach the eye.
A greater obliquity is also obtained with the same propor¬
tion between the length and breadth of the mirrors, by
making them taper at the end next the eye.
We may add, also, that of four-sided kaleidoscopes, those
which can give perfectly symmetrical forms are the square
and rectangle, where all the angles are right angles.
We may repeat here the conditions necessary for the
kaleidoscope producing perfectly symmetrical images, isf,
inclination of the mirrors must be an even or
odd aliquot part of 180°, or 360°, when the object is regular
and similarly situate with respect to both of the mirrors;
or an even aliquot part of 180° or 300°, when the object is
O S C O P E. 39
irregular. 2d, That out of an infinite number of positions Kaleido-
for the object, both within and without the reflectors, there scope,
is only one position where perfect symmetry can be ob-
tained, viz., by placing the object in contact with the ends
of the reflectors, or between them. 3o?, That out of an in¬
finity of positions for the situation of the eye there is only
one where the symmetry is perfect, viz., as near as possible
to the angular point, so that the whole of the circular field
can be distinctly seen ; and this point is the only one
at which the uniformity of the reflected light is the greatest.
When these conditions are properly attended to, the pic¬
tures produced in the field of view are beautiful beyond
description, and present an endless variety of symmetrical
combinations, never recurring a second time when the ob¬
jects have been displaced by a slight vibration, or by turn¬
ing the instrument on its axis.
In order to extend the power of the instrument, and
to introduce into symmetrical pictures external objects,
w hether animate or inanimate, Sir David Brewster very in¬
geniously substituted a double convex lens L (fig. 4), for
Fig. 4.
the case of objects between the circular glass plates, by
means of which the second condition for symmetry in ka¬
leidoscopes can be fulfilled. This lens L formed at F be¬
tween the mirrors an inverted image of the object R; and
this image is multiplied by the reflecting planes, and forms
a symmetrical spectrum precisely in the same way as if a
real object of that size had occupied its place. The lens L
may be placed in or at the mouth of one tube, while the
reflecting planes are accurately placed in another, so that
by pulling in or pushing out the tube next the eye, the
images of objects at any distance can be formed at the place
of symmetry. Thus may flowers, trees, animals, pictures,
busts, &c., be introduced into symmetrical combinations.
A blazing fire gives the appearance of beautiful fireworks.
Such a disposition of the mirrors and the lens is a Telescopic,
or Compound Kaleidoscope. If the distance of F from the
eye-piece be less than that at which the eye sees objects
distinctly, a convex lens must be placed before the eye, so
as to give distinct vision of the objects in the picture.
The images produced by the kaleidoscope may be exhi¬
bited to an assembly of spectators at the same time by
placing the flame of a lamp between a spherical reflector
and a convex-plane lens, the latter of which concentrates
the rays, and, being next the instrument, throws a flood of
light upon the object-case; the picture is projected on the
opposite wall through a double convex lens placed at the
eye end. The lamp may be replaced by a jet of oxygen.
The beautiful designs produced by this simple instru¬
ment may be copied by means of the Camera obscura, but
more successfully traced by using a Camera lucida.
Instead of employing reflecting surfaces, Sir David
Brewster tried the effect of solid prisms of glass, and ob¬
tained in this way a total, instead of a partial, reflection of
light. It is difficult, however, even to make these prisms free
from veins or bubbles, and also to obtain a perfect junction
of the planes.
Simple kaleidoscopes have been variously constructed,
with reference to the angles of inclination of the mirrors,
Brewster’s Poly angular Kaleidoscopes are so constructed
that the angle of the mirrors may be varied at pleasure, by
allowing the reflecting surfaces to move on their connecting
edges as on a hinge, and thus to open or close at pleasure
by means of a screw. Others, again, admit of the mirrors
entirely separating, so as gradually to become parallel to
40
K A L
Kalends each other. (Sir David Brewster’s Treatise on the Ixaleido-
II scope, Edin., 1819; Harris’s Treatise on Optics; Woods
Kama. Optics ; Dr Rogel “ On the Kaleidoscope,” Annals of Phi-
1 v ' ^ losophy, vol. xi., p. 375 ; Compte Rendu des 1 ravaux de
VAcademic de Dijon, 1818, pp. 108-117; and Brewster’s
Treatise on Optics, 1853.)
KALENDS. See Calendar.
KALISZ, or Kalisch, a city of Russian Poland, capi¬
tal of a province of the same name, situate on an island
in the Prosna, close to the Russian frontier, and 130 miles
W. by S. of Warsaw. It is surrounded by old walls,
flanked with towers, and entered by five gates. Kalisz is
considered one of the finest cities of Poland ; its streets are
wide and well paved, and the houses are generally good.
Among its public buildings are the citadel, founded by
Cassimir the Great, the former palace of the Voivodes, now
occupied by the courts of justice, the cathedral, church of
St Nicholas, and the Lutheran church. There are six
Roman Catholic churches, five convents, a Jewish syna¬
gogue, theatre, several hospitals, Roman Catholic gymna¬
sium, with fine library, and extensive scientific collections,
and a military school. Kalisz was founded about the middle
of the seventh century, and was long the residence of the
dukes of Great Poland. Pop. (1854) 11,778.
KALLEENJUR. See Callinger.
KALOCSA, or Kolocsa, a town of Hungary, near
the left bank of the Danube, 67 miles S. of Pesth. It
is the see of an archbishop, and has an ecclesiastical ly-
ceum, piarist college, gymnasium, and an old castle, now
the arehiepiscopal palace, containing a fine library of up¬
wards of 30,000 volumes. Pop. (1851) 11,000.
KALUGA, a government of European Russia, bounded
W. and N.W. by Smolensk, N.E. by Moscow, E. by Tula,
and S. by Orel, and lying between N. Lat. 53.20. and 55. 20.,
and E. Long. 33. 20. and 37. Area 12,178 square miles.
The surface is an almost uninterrupted flat, and the soil is
usually of a sandy, or hard clayey nature, requiring a large
quantity of manure to render it moderately fertile. About
two-fifths of the government are arable, and more than one-
half of it is covered with forests. It is well watered with
numerous rivers and streams, the principal of which are the
Oka and its tributaries. There are also several lakes and
marshes in the central and western parts of the government.
The climate is considered mild for Russia; winter usually
sets in about the end of November, and disappears by
March. The principal crop is rye, but oats, wheat, and
barley are also largely grown, as well as hemp and flax.
Cattle are not numerous, but a considerable number of
horses are bred. Neither game nor fish are abundant.
The mineral products are bog iron-ore, millstones, lime,
and gypsum. This government being naturally unsuitable
for agriculture, the attention of its inhabitants has been
chiefly directed to the manufactures, and in this respect
Kaluga ranks immediately after Moscow and Vladimir.
The chief manufactures are iron, brandy, sail-cloth, linens,
woollens, calicoes, silk-velvet, ribands, leather, paper, and
glass. Pop. (1851) 941,402.
Kaluga, the capital of the above government, is situate
on the right bank of the Oka, 95 miles S.W. of Mos¬
cow. Though consisting of not more than 4000 houses,
it is said to be nearly 7 miles in circumference. It is
surrounded by a rampart, which has been formed into a
public walk. The houses are chiefly wooden, and the streets
narrow, crooked, and dirty. There are, however, some
good public edifices,—as the government-house, town-hall,
theatre, and several of the churches. Besides carrying on
an extensive trade, it manufactures largely sail-cloth, wool¬
lens, cottons, leather, sugar, hats, &c. Pop. (1851) 29,580.
KAMA, a large river of European Russia, the principal
affluent of the Volga. It rises in the government of Viatka,
N.E. of Glazov, flows first N. and then N.E. into the go-
K A M
vernment of Perm, where it takes a S.W. direction; it Kaminietz
afterwards separates the government of Viatka from those
of Perm and Orenburg, and, entering Kasan, joins the
Volga, after a course of more than 100 miles. One of its
affluents is connected with an affluent of the Dwina by a
canal 12 miles in length, thus establishing water communi¬
cation between the White Sea and the Caspian.
KAMINIETZ, or Kamenez, a town of Russian Poland,
capital of the government of Podolia, on the Smotritza, at
a short distance from its junction with the Dniester. It was
formerly the strongest bulwark of Poland on the side of
Turkey. Its walls were levelled by order of the Russian
government in 1812, and it is now defended by a citadel
and a detached fort. The streets are narrow, crooked, and
dirty, and the houses are generally of wood. There are,
however, some handsome public buildings, among which
are the two cathedrals and several of the churches and the
government offices. Kaminietz is the seat of a Greek arch¬
bishop, and of a Roman Catholic bishop. It has some manu¬
factures, and a considerable trade. Pop. (1851) 17,109,
one-half of whom are Jews.
KAMISHIN, or Kamyschin, a walled town of Russia,
government of Saratov, on the Volga, at its junction with
the Kamyschinka, which flows through the town. It has
large salt magazines, water-mills, and tallow factories; and
carries on a considerable trade in agricultural produce. Pop.
(1851) 7651.
KAMTSCHATKA, a large peninsula of Asia, project¬
ing from its N.E. coast in a southern direction for about 800
miles from N. Lat. 62. to 51., and between E. Long. 155.
and 165. It forms part of Russian Siberia, and is bounded
on the N. by the country of the Tchuktchi, E. by the Sea
of Kamtschatka, S. by the North Pacific Ocean, and W. by
the Sea of Okhotsk. From Cape Lopatka, its southern
extremity, it gradually increases in breadth to the middle,
where it is about 250 miles across; and N. of this its
breadth averages from 80 to 150 miles. A chain of lofty
and rugged mountains traverse the peninsula from N. to S.
through its entire length. Many of the peaks are active
volcanoes, and they are considered to form the northern
extremity of a great volcanic chain continued through the
Kurile and Japanese islands and the Philippines. On the
eastern side the mountains approach close to the coast,
which is rocky and precipitous, with numerous bold pro¬
montories and inlets. The western coast is low and sandy,
with no elevations for 25 or 30 miles inland. The principal
elevations, proceeding from S. to N., are Awatchinskaja,
8760 feet above the sea; Korjazkaja, 11,215; Japanowa,
9060; Kronolzkaja, 10,625; Kliutschewskaja, 16,512;
and Schiwelutschkaja, 10,590. The general formation of
Kamtschatka is igneous ; comprising porphyry, jasper, trap,
granite, &c; the W. side, however, belongs to the se¬
condary and tertiary formations. The only river of im¬
portance is the Kamtschatka, which is said to be 300 miles
in length, and to be navigable for vessels of 100 tons for
150 miles.
The climate is very severe, but is much milder than that
of Eastern Siberia. Winter continues for seven or eight
months in the year. Spring is the finest season, the sum¬
mer being extremely disagreeable owing to the frequent
rains and heavy fogs which settle on the land. The greatest
heat is in July. The frost begins to set in about October,
and usually continues till May. In the middle of winter
the temperature averages about 14° Fabr.; but in severe
frosts it sometimes falls as low as — 15°, or even lower. From
the severe and variable nature of the climate, and the rocky
nature of the country, the vegetable productions are of little
value. Forests of considerable extent occur, consisting of
several species of birch, pine, poplar, and willow ; but these
are all stunted in their size. Shrubs are plentiful, and so
are wild berries and wild garlic. In some few favoured
KAN
KAN
41
Kanawha spots the Russian settlers succeed in raising wheat, barley,
rye, oats, potatoes, turnips, radishes, &c. The wild ani-
Kandy. rna]S) which were formerly very abundant, have been much
thinned by the hunters. They comprise bears, wolves,
foxes, reindeer, mountain sheep, beavers, and otters. Wild
fowl are still plentiful; but it is on fish, which abound every¬
where, that the inhabitants chiefly depend for subsistence.
The dogs of Kamtschatka are much valued, and are trained
to perform many useful operations. The trade of the country
is very limited. There is no equitable system of taxation,
and the Russian governors, at such a distance from the
capital, have few checks on their cupidity. The people
thus labour only to supply their daily wants. Furs and
dried fish are exported from Petropaulowsky; the imports
are rice, flour, coffee, sugar, brandy, and whisky.
The natives of Kamtschatka consist of two tribes,—the
Kamtschatdales and Koriaks, who differ from each other
more in mode of life than in physical conformation. They
are in general of low stature, with broad shoulders, a large
head, and short legs. They have scarcely any beard, their
face is long and flat, eyes small and sunken, lips thin, and
hair lank and black. Their features seem to identify them
with the Mongolian race. They are mild and hospitable,
but at the same time filthy, lazy, and sensual in the ex¬
treme. Notwithstanding the severity of the climate, they
are subject to few maladies, and generally reach an ad¬
vanced age.
The Kamtschatdales occupy the southern part of the
peninsula to about 58° of N. Lat; while the country N.
of that is occupied by the Koriaks. The former have fixed
habitations, and employ themselves in fishing and hunting.
During the summer or fishing season they leave their winter
residences for the places which they use for drying fish. The
summer is thus occupied in providing food for the winter,
in which their only employment is the chase. Their winter
habitations are sunk some feet under the ground for the
sake of warmth, the w-alls formed of trees laid over each
other and plastered with clay, and the roof slanting, and
covered with coarse grass or rushes. The summer house is
raised to the height of 12 or 13 feet from the ground by
means of posts, in order to afford them a sheltered space to
dry their fish. The Koriaks are a wandering, nomadic
tribe, subsisting on the produce of their numerous herds of
reindeer. The whole population of the peninsula is said
not to exceed 5000, of whom about one-third are Russian
settlers or their descendants.
Kamtschatka was first visited, in 1649, by some Russians,
who were wrecked on the coast. They lived in peace with
the natives for some time, but afterwards, quarrelling among
themselves, were all murdered. It was not till 1696 that a
body of Cossacks from Anadirsk penetrated into the country;
and from that time a series of hostilities were maintained
against the natives till 1706, when they were completely
subjected to Russia.
KANAWHA, a river of the United States of North
America, rising in the N. of North Carolina, and flowing
in a N.N.W. direction through Virginia to its mouth in the
Ohio, at Point Pleasant, 252 miles below Pittsburg. It is
about 300 miles in length, and is navigable for steamers to
Charleston, 60 miles from its mouth.
KANDAHAR. See Candahar.
KANDY, a city of Ceylon, near the centre of the island,
and about 65 miles E.N.E. of Colombo. It was the capital
of the kings of Kandy till 1815, when it came into the pos¬
session of the English. The town stands on the margin
of an artificial lake, and is almost surrounded by an amphi¬
theatre of steep and loity hills. Since 1815 many good
buildings have been erected, and several streets formed;
but the ordinary dwellings are mere mud huts. The royal
palace, once a building of great magnificence, has been in
a great measure allowed to fall into decay. See Ceylon.
YOL. XIII.
KANGAROO Island, a large island of South Aus- Kangaroo
tralia, at the mouth of the Gulf of St Vincent, in S. Lat.
36., E. Long. 137. It is 95 miles in length from E. to W.,
and, with the exception of a narrow portion at its eastern
end, is about 25 miles wide. Area estimated at 1970 square
miles. The surface is for the most part covered with brush¬
wood, with here and there clumps of trees. It contains
numerous salt lakes. It was discovered by Capt. Flinders,
and received its name from the number of kangaroos found
Kansas
on it.
KANGRAH, an extensive hill fort of the Punjab,
situated to the S.W. of the Himalaya Mountains, between
the Beyah and the Rauvy rivers. The country is covered
with wood. The fortress, which is situated in the northern
part of the province, has long been celebrated. It was taken,
a.d. 1010, by the famous Mahmoud of Ghizni, who plun¬
dered it of immense riches. It was retaken by the rajah of
Delhi in 1043 ; and afterwards by the Emperor Akbar, after
a very long siege, who conferred it on one of his officers,
with the adjoining district. About the beginning of the
present century it belonged to Sansa Chand, who ultimately
surrendered it to Runjeet Singh. When the Punjab be¬
came a British possession, the vicinity of Kangrah was
selected as one of the localities for the culture of the tea
tree. The experiment was eminently successful, and an
extensive plantation now covers the base of the Chumba
range of hills. The fort of Kangrah is in Lat. 32. 5., Long.
76. 18.
KANO, a town of Houssa, Central Africa. See Houssa.
KANOGE, a town and district of Hindustan, in the
province of Furruckabad. The district extends along the
E. side of the Ganges, and is generally of a sandy soil,
though well cultivated. The town is of great antiquity
and celebrity, about 2 miles distant from the Ganges, with
which it communicates by a canal. It was in former times
of much greater extent and magnificence; and for an ex¬
tent of about 6 miles the small pieces of brick which are
seen on the spot, and the occasional traces of building,
mark out the site of the ancient capital of Hindustan. The
town at present consists of but one street; there are no
buildings of any consequence; and the brick walls, which
appear of no great antiquity, are going rapidly to decay.
The adjacent plain is covered with ruined temples and
tombs, and everywhere broken images are seen lying under
the trees. The most curious remains of antiquity are often
found amongst the ruins, such as ancient coins inscribed
with Sanscrit characters, and sometimes with the figure of
a Hindu deity on one side. Kanoge was the capital of a
powerful empire wdiich existed at the period of the Moham¬
medan invasion. It was conquered, though not permanently
retained, by Mahmoud of Ghizni, a.d. 1018. The distance
from Agra is 110 miles; from Lucknow, 75; from Delhi,
214; and from Calcutta, 650. N. Lat. 27. 5., E. Long.
79. 59.
KANSAS, a territory of the United States of North
America, lying between N. Lat. 37. and 40., and W. Long.
94. 25. and 107. 20., and bounded on the N. by the territory
of Nebraska, E. by the state of Missouri, S. by the Indian
and New Mexico territories, and W. by the main chain of
the Rocky Mountains which separates it from the territory of
Utah. Kansas may be said to constitute the territorial
centre of the vast continent of North America, being about
equally distant from the Atlantic on the E. and the Pacific
on the W., from Hudson’s Bay on the N. and the Gulf of
Mexico on the S. It is about 800 miles in length from E. to
W., by 208 in breadth from N. to S., and has an estimated
area of114,798 square miles. The surface of the country pre¬
sents a gradual inclination from the base of the Rocky Moun¬
tains to the frontier of Missouri. It has no mountains, properly
so called, except on its western borders. A series of hills
or ridge-like elevations traverse the entire territory from
F
42 KAN
Kansas. \\r. E. between the waters of the Kansas and Arkansas.
The eastern portion of Kansas, extending W. from the
Missouri about 200 miles, consists of an undulating country,
with a rich and fertile soil, well watered, and having a large
amount of good timber. The streams flow through fine
picturesque valleys, and are generally bordered with timber
for a quarter or half a mile. Ihe face of this pait of the
country, with its climate, soil, and productions, corresponds
generally with that of Western Missouri. The middle por¬
tion of Kansas is more level, the depressions are shallow,
long, and gradual, timber less abundant, the streams not so
frequent, and the country in general is not so well adapted
to sustain a large population as the more eastern part. This
portion extends W. of the former for probably about 200
miles, and includes part of that great belt of desert ex¬
pending from the 47th deg. of N. Lat. southward to New
Mexico. Good grasses, however, are found in many places,
and ultimately much of it may be found suitable for graz¬
ing. That section of the country lying along the eastern
slope of the Rocky Mountains is represented as one of great
beauty. It is well supplied with timber, and well watered
by numerous streams winding in various directions between
gently sloping hills and ridges richly covered with grass.
Over these hills, and on the broad plains at their bases,
buffaloes range in thousands, feeding upon the bunch and
buffalo grasses with which this district is densely covered.
It is said that few countries in the world are better suited
for grazing, have a finer climate, or more interesting scenery
than this portion of Kansas.
The principal river within the territory is the Kansas or
Kaw, one of the largest affluents of the Missouri. It rises
by two large forks, which have their sources near the eastern
base of the Rocky Mountains, and flowing eastward, mostly
at a considerable distance from each other, unite their waters
at Fort Riley, where the Kansas proper commences. Re¬
publican Fork, the more northern and longer of the tw'o,
issues from Lake Kansas, and has as its principal affluents
First Creek, Prairie Dog Creek, and Sandy Creek, all on
the right. The chief affluents of Smoky Hill Fork are the
Solomon Fork, and the Grand Saline Fork, both on the
left. The Kansas is about 1200 miles in length from the
source of the Republican Fork, and is navigable for steamers
as far as the junction of its two great forks, if not farther.
The principal of the other streams watering this territory
are the Osage and the Arkansas, with its tributaries the
Neosho, Verdigris, Little Arkansas, and Red Fork. The
Missouri forms part of its eastern boundary, and affords it
a ready outlet for its productions. In the great Kansas
valley below Potawatomie, and in the eastern region along
the Missouri, there are some of the finest hemp lands in the
world. Wheat, corn, oats, and vegetables grow as well
there as in any of the western states. The winters are gene¬
rally dry and pleasant. Little snow falls, and even then
lies on the ground only for a short time. The summers
are long and warm; while on the high lands the heat is
generally fanned by refreshing breezes. Ploughing com¬
mences in January ; much rain falls from March to June,
and the months of August, September, and October are
dry and pleasant. The trees are chiefly oak, walnut, ash,
hickory, mulberry, hackberry, linden, and cotton-wood.
Some 40 miles up tbe Smoky Hill Fork an extensive bed
of gypsum has been found, specimens of which have been
tested and found to be of superior quality. Salt is also
alleged to be very abundant on the Saline Fork. Speci¬
mens of coal, both bituminous and anthracite, and of tin,
lead, and iron ore, have been found.
In 1854 a bill was introduced into Congress for form¬
ing that extensive tract of country then known as Nebraska,
and which formed part of the Louisiana territory purchased
from the French in 1803, into two territories, Nebraska and
Kansas. This has again led to the agitation of the slavery
S A S.
question, which has so frequently occasioned disputes be- Kansas,
tween the Northern and Southern States. On the admis-
sion of the state of Missouri as a member of the Union in
1820, this question was fiercely debated, the House of Re¬
presentatives having passed a resolution that it be admitted
only as a free state, but in this the Senate refused to concur.
At length a compromise was effected, the House of Repre¬
sentatives consenting to Missouri being a slave state, on
condition that slavery shall be prohibited in all those states
that may subsequently be formed out of that portion of the
Louisiana purchase lying N. of N. Lat. 36. 30. In terms
of this compromise, Nebraska and Kansas could be ad¬
mitted into the Union only as free states; but, notwith¬
standing this, the pro-slavery party maintained that the
first population of a territory have alone the right to deter¬
mine the political and social institutions of that territory,
and, in accordance with this, an act was passed, declaring
that whether these shall subsequently be admitted into the
Union as slave or free states shall be determined by the
voice of the inhabitants at the time of their admission.
This partial success served only to incite the pro-slavery
party in the United States to farther exertions, and slave¬
holders from the Southern States flocked to Kansas in great
numbers, while, on the other hand, emigration societies
were formed in various parts of the Northern States for the
purpose of forwarding to it colonists holding anti-slavery
principles. Nor is this all, the neighbouring state of Mis¬
souri has taken an active part in the struggle. The Mis¬
sourians crossed the border in immense numbers on election
days, to swell the votes of the pro-slavery party, and they
even had recourse to intimidation and force to restrain the
“ free soilers” from voting. Judges who refused to receive
their votes, without administering the oath as to residence
in the territory, were expelled, and others of the Mis¬
sourians appointed. These are known as the “ border
ruffians,” and are the most dangerous class in the territory,
having frequently recourse to bloodshed and murder to ac¬
complish their purposes. It is evident that the legislature
thus elected would represent the opinions of Missouri rather
than that of Kansas. In terms of two conventions of dele¬
gates representing the people of Kansas, and repudiating
all the acts of the so-called territorial legislature, an election
was held on the 4th day of October 1855, for choosing
members of a convention to form a state constitution, pre¬
paratory to application for admission as a state of the Union.
The number of delegates was fixed at fifty-two, and no
non-resident, and no one who had not been resident lor
thirty days, was allowed to vote. The constitution adopted
by these delegates was one eminently republican in its
character, and embracing the views of the majority in the
territory, by whom it was ratified. On the 9th of April
1856, a bill was presented to the Senate of Washington for
the admission of Kansas as a state into the Union, and the
debate on the question is memorable on account of a brutal
attack made upon the Honourable Charles Sumner by Mr
Brooks, a member of the House of Representatives for the
slave state of South Carolina. The president and the
executive manifested their sympathies in favour of the
slavery party, and under the plea of preserving peace, are
charged with supporting the movements of the “border
ruffians” by the federal troops. On the eve of the adjourn¬
ment of last Congress (1856) the feeling was so strong
against the President for thus supporting the slavery party,
that the House of Representatives threatened to stop the
supplies, and it was with great difficulty that the executive
were able to secure a majority of three. For the later
history we must refer to the article United States.
In terms of the act passed in 1854, Kansas was divided
into eighteen districts, and was found to contain a popula¬
tion of 8521 persons, of whom 5138 were males, and 3383
females. The number of slaves was 192. This was in the
K A N
Kansuh eastern part; the central and western parts being still in
II the possession of the wandering tribes of Indians, of whom
Kaiit. jt jg estimated that there are about 25,000 in the territory.
The chief town, Leavenworth, on the Missouri, is esti¬
mated to contain a population of about 1500.
KANSUH, the most N.W. province of China, lying be¬
tween N. Lat. 32. 30. and 40., and E. Long. 98. and 108.,
and bounded on the N. and W. by Mongolia, into which it
projects a long tongue of land, E. by Shen-si, and S. by
Shen-si and Szuchuan. The surface is mountainous, some
of the peaks rising to more than 10,000 feet above the level
of the sea. The principal river is the Hoang-ho, or Yellow
River, which flows in an easterly direction through the pro¬
vince. The climate is rather cold ; and the soil in general
sterile. Wild animals abound, and large flocks of cattle are
kept in the province. The capital is Lan-chou. Pop.
about 16,000,000.
KANT, Immanuel, the greatest metaphysician of the
eighteenth century, was horn at Konigsberg, the chief city
of Eastern Prussia, on the 22d April 1724. His father,
John George Cant, was the son of a Scottish emigrant, who,
according to the testimony of the philosopher himself, had
left Scotland about the end of the seventeenth century, when
a considerable influx of Scotsmen took place into the Prus¬
sian territories upon the Baltic, as is proved by the names of
their descendants, Douglas, Simpson, Hamilton, &c., which
survive to this day. Kant’s grandfather, in regard to whose
profession or original residence in Scotland nothing is known,
settled ultimately at Tilsit, but seems to have halted for a
time at the seaport of Memel, near which the father of the
philosopher was born. This individual removed at a very
early period of his life to Konigsberg, where he learned the
trade of a saddler, and carried on a small business in that
department, working at the same time with his own hands.
In his character, though in comparatively humble life, the
hereditary intelligence and piety of the Scottish stock were
conspicuous ; and he found a like-minded associate in a
wife, of German blood, Anna Regina Reuter, who possessed
a mind far above her station, and religious sensibilities of
the liveliest nature. To the virtues of his parents Kant
ever delighted to bear honourable testimony ; and the image
of his mother in particular, to whom he bore a marked re¬
semblance, was indelibly impressed upon his mind. He was
the fourth of eleven children, of whom most died in infancy,
and none, besides himself, attained to any distinction. His
parents, whose income was barely sufficient to raise them
above debt, zealously exerted themselves for the education
of their children ; and as Kant displayed the most hopeful
talents of the family, though he accuses himself of sloth and
truancy, it was early resolved to train him for some learned
profession. That to which he was first destined was theo¬
logy. At ten years of age, he was entered in the Fre¬
derick’s College, a classical seminary, then under the pre¬
sidency of Dr Schultz, one of the city clergy, and an ex¬
cellent man, whose religious strictness exposed him to the
charge of pietism, notwithstanding that he was an emi¬
nent disciple of the philosopher Wolff, and a professor in the
university. Under the influence of these views, to which
his parents were also most earnestly attached, the youthful
Kant was trained ; and though he afterwards renounced the
doctrines of his instructors, their moral impression was ap¬
parent to the last in the purity of his life, and the elevation
of his ethical system. The seven years of his course in the
gymnasium were chiefly marked by his zeal for the classics,
in which the great philologer Ruhnken was his fellow-
student. Towards metaphysical pursuits he showed at this
time absolutely no tendency. In the year 1740 Kant entered
K A N 43
the university of Konigsberg as a theological student, in Kant,
which character he preached occasionally in the neighbour- 's—/
ing country churches. He soon, however, abandoned this
course, apparently from some change in his views of doctrine,
and devoted himself to the mathematical and physical sci¬
ences, but without as yet manifesting any taste for philoso¬
phy. Lie mastered with eagerness the higher mathematics of
Newton ; and his whole subsequent writings bear deep
traces of his familiarity with this study. During the last
years of his university career, the straitened circumstances
of his father, his sole surviving parent, compelled Kant to
have recourse to private teaching of the humblest kind in
the town of Konigsberg, till, in 1746, his father’s death dis¬
pelled for the time his hopes of ultimately obtaining some
place in the university, and obliged him to seek employ¬
ment as a domestic tutor at a distance. In this position he
spent nine of the best years of his life, from 1746 to 1755,
exchanging one family for another, and at last returning in
that of a nobleman of the name of Kayserling to his favourite
Konigsberg. The lady of this house seems to have dis¬
covered his extraordinary qualities, which were not unno¬
ticed in other families; and in spite of Kant’s own complaint
that this mode of life was his necessity and not his choice,
it certainly enlarged his knowledge of the world, and added
to his other accomplishments the grace and polish of re¬
fined society, which he displayed ever afterwards to a de¬
gree somewhat unusual in a philosopher by profession. In
1755, Kant, having returned to the university, obtained the
standing of a private lecturer, on entering which office he
delivered two theses—one de igne, another on the first prin¬
ciples of metaphysical science.1 Fifteen weary years passed
away in this obscure station, during which he lectured over
almost the whole encyclopedia of human knowledge, but
with a prevailing fondness at first for the physical sciences,
to which philosophy was rather subordinate. A favourite
course with him was physical geography ; and this retained
its place when other topics of his early years were laid aside.
He became almost from the first a popular lecturer, and
was often called upon to deliver special courses to persons
of distinction, while, at the same time, his class-room was
filled with amateur students, many of them in the prime of
life. While thus active in his public duties, he continued
to publish, at irregular intervals from 1755 to 1770, a series
of essays and treatises, which all bear the stamp of his great
powers, but only dimly foreshadow his future philosophy.
Of these, perhaps the most remarkable is his Theory of the
Heavens, published anonymously in 1755, and dedicated by
its author, who set a high value on it, to Frederick the Great.
It consists of a bold attempt to extend the Newtonian
theory to the original formation of the planetary system, and
is remarkable as containing, amongst other anticipations, a
prediction of the discovery of additional planets, such as
Uranus and Neptune, and of the resolution of the nebulae
into systems of stars. The style of this treatise Kant never
surpassed ; and, with his other works of this early period, it
proved him to belong to the great family of metaphysicians,
represented by Aristotle, Descartes and Leibnitz, to whom
the most widely remote fields of knowledge have been equally
familiar. In 1763 appeared an equally elaborate work on
the Only Possible Method of Demonstrating the Existence
of God. This states the argument from design, which, of
course, Kant does not hold to be demonstrative, much in
the same light as his subsequent philosophy; but the de¬
monstration itself, resting upon the necessity of a deity to
account for the abstract possibility of things, is a remnant
of the Wolfian metaphysics, against which he afterwards
waged so remorseless a warfare. Far inferior to these trea-
1 He had already published in 1747 his first work, Thoughts on the True Measure of Living Forces. This treatise, written at the age
of twenty-two, contains a most acute and elaborate refutation of the doctrine of Leibnitz, and is worthy to rank with the best in that
famous controversy.
K A N T.
tises in vigour and freshness, is his essay on the Evidence of
the Principles of Natural Theology and Morals, which ob¬
tained in 1763 the accessit prize from the Berlin Academy,
the first honour being gained by Moses Mendelssohn, who
soon after became his correspondent, and, in several ^points,
his friendly antagonist. To this period belongs Kant’s acute
tract on the False Subtlety of the Syllogistic Figures, the
last three of which he shows to contain unexpressed propo¬
sitions, and to be merely contorted forms of the first and
only legitimate figure. These writings, with the growing
number of his pupils, gradually spread his fame beyond his
immediate circle, and gave him a place with Sulzer, Lam¬
bert, and Garve, among the lights of German philosophy.
It was long, however, before he could obtain a congenial
position in his own university. In 1764 the Professorship
of Poetry was offered him and declined. His first post was
that of under keeper of the royal library, at the modest
salary of less than L.10 a-year, conferred on him in 1766,
as a person “ fully accomplished, and celebrated for his
learned writings.”* In 1770, after declining offers from
Erlangen and Jena, he was promoted, as the reward of his
patience, to the ordinary chair of logic and metaphysics in
Kbnigsberg, the emoluments not amounting in all to more
than L.60 per annum. On this occasion, he published his cele¬
brated thesis De Mundi Sensibilis et Intelligibilis Forma et
Principiis, which contains more than the germ of his suc¬
ceeding philosophy, and proves that by this time he was in
possession of the key to all his future discoveries. Hardly
any mind so great ever ripened so slowly ; and it was not
till after eleven years more of patient thinking, often in¬
terrupted by delicate health, that his completed system was
given to the world. His Critique of Pure Reason, by far
his greatest work, w'as published in July 1781. It was de¬
dicated to Baron von Zedlitz, minister of public instruction
in Prussia, an accomplished and liberal-minded man, who
had honoured Kant with many marks of his favour, and
sought in vain to remove him to Halle in 1778 by the pro¬
spect of a double salary, and a larger academic sphere. The
Critique contained a complete revision of metaphysical
science, and was the most important work that had appeared
in philosophy since the Meditations of Descartes, or Locke’s
Essay on the Human Understanding. It was the first great
work of the kind in the German language. It terminated
for ever the metaphysical dogmatism of Leibnitz and Wolf,
while, at the same time, it sought to outflank the scepticism
of Hume, and determine infallibly the contents and limits of
philosophical knowledge. An outline of its doctrines will be
found below, whence some conception of its extraordinary
originality and herculean vigour of thought may be obtained.
As was natural with such a work, it made its way at first
slowly, and was exposed to some ignorant or captious re¬
views, one of which especially denounced it as a system of
idealism ; but its chief danger lay of sinking into oblivion,
before its true significance could be ascertained. Hence
Kant, in 1783, published a kind of running commentary on^
his first work, and reply to his critics, under the title of
Prologornena to every Future System of Metaphysics claim¬
ing to be a Science. This more popular and interesting
treatise, which is still by far the best introduction to the
Kantian philosophy, made a great impression, and by de¬
grees the new' system attracted universal attention, and pro¬
voked unexampled controversy. A second edition of the
Critique was called for in 1787, and considerably modified,
so as to obviate the charge of idealism, after which it re¬
mained unaltered.
Meanwhile Kant laboured with intense ardour, though
now upwards of sixty years of age, to perfect the develop¬
ment of his philosophy in all its compass. His Metaphysic
of Ethics appeared in 1785; his Metaphysical Principles
of Natural Science, in 1786; his Critique of Practical
Reason, in 1788 ; and his Critique of Judgment, which in
some measure crowned his system, and contained its appli¬
cations to aesthetics and natural theology, in 1790. His '>
ethical system, in its turn, attracted almost as much notice
as his speculative ; and the energy with which he set forth
the moral law as a categorical imperative or absolute precept
of reason to itself, and condemned all intermixture of senti¬
ment with this sovereign motive, made the deepest impres¬
sion. His speculative system seemed to have shut the door
on all communion between the human mind and the infi¬
nite ; but his doctrine of practical reason withdrew the ob¬
stacle, and in connecting man with absolute duty, restored
him for all practical ends to absolute truth.
In spite of its frequent obscurity, its novel terminology,
and its declared opposition to prevailing systems, the Kant¬
ian philosophy made rapid progress in Germany. In the
course of ten or twelve years from the publication of the
Critique of Pure Reason, it was expounded in all the lead¬
ing universities, and it even penetrated into the schools of the
Church of Rome. Such men as Schulze in Kbnigsberg,
Kiesewetter in Berlin, Jacob in Halle, Born and Heyden-
reich in Leipzig, Schmid in Jena, Buhle in Gottingen,
Tennemann in Marburg, and Snell in Giessen, with many
others, made it the basis of their philosophical teaching,
wdiile theologians like Tieftrunk, Staudlin, and Ammon,
eagerly applied it to Christian doctrine and morality. Young
men flocked to Kbnigsberg as to a shrine of philosophy.
The Prussian government even undertook the expense of
their support. Kant was hailed by some as a second Mes¬
siah. He was consulted as an oracle on all questions of
casuistry,—as, for example, on the lawfulness of innoculation
for the small-pox. Learned ladies joined in the act of pil¬
grimage ; and the whole philosophic world was divided into
Kantists and anti-Kantists. Much of this enthusiasm was
only transient; and in the case of a Reinhold or a Fichte,
the vehement idolater only portended the future iconoclast.
Kant.
This universal homage for a long time left Kant unaffected
it was only in his later years that he spoke of his system as
the limit of philosophy, and resented all further progress. He
still pursued his quiet round of lecturing and authorship, and
contributed from time to time papers to the literary journals.
Of these, among the most remarkable, was his review of
Herder’s Philosophy of History, which greatly exasperated
that author, and led to a violent act of retaliation some years
after in his Metakritik of Pure Reason. Schiller at this
period in vain sought to engage Kant upon his Horen. ^ He
remained true to the Berlin Journal, in which most of his
criticisms appeared.
In 1792, Kant, in the full height of his reputation, was
involved in a painful collision with the government on the
question of his religious doctrines. Another minister of
spiritual affairs had replaced Von Zedlitz; and, in an age
peculiarly lax and heterodox, an unwise attempt was made
to apply a rigid censorship to works of philosophical theo¬
logy. It was not w’onderful that the philosophy of Kant
had* excited the declared opposition of all adherents of his¬
torical Christianity, since its plain tendency was towards
a moral rationalism, and it could not by any process of
interpretation be reconciled to the literal doctrines of
the Lutheran church. It would have been much better
to permit his exposition of the Philosophy of Religion to
enjoy the same literary rights as his earlier works, since
Kant could not be interdicted without first silencing a mul¬
titude of theologians who w'ere at least equally separated
from positive Christianity. The government, however,
judged otherwise ; and after the first part of his book, On
Religion within the Limits of Pure Reason, had appeared
in the Berlin Journal, the publication of the remainder,
which treats in a more rationalizing style of the peculiari¬
ties of Christianity, was forbidden. Kant, thus shut out from
Berlin, availed himself of his local privilege, and, with the
sanction of the theological faculty of his own university,
K A
Kant, published the full work in Kbnigsberg. Idle government,
wlio were probably as much influenced by hatred and fear
of the French Revolution, of which Kant was supposed to
be a partizan, as by love of orthodoxy, resented the act; and
a secret cabinet order was received by him intimating the
displeasure of the king, Frederick William II., and exact¬
ing from him a pledge not to lecture or write at all on re¬
ligious subjects in future. With this mandate Kant, after
a struggle, complied, and kept his engagement till 1797,
when the death of the king, according to his construction
of his promise, set him free. This incident, however, pro¬
duced a very unfavourable effect on his spirits. He with¬
drew in 1794 from society ; next year he gave up all his
classes but one public lecture on logic or metaphysics ; and
in 1797, before the removal of the interdict on his theolo¬
gical teaching, he ceased altogether his public labours, after
an academic course of 42 years. He had previously, in
the same year, finished his two treatises on the Laic of
Nature, and on Practical Morals, which, with his Anthro¬
pology, completed in 1798, were the last considerable works
which he revised with his own hand. His I^ectures on
Logic, and on Physical Geography, were edited during his
lifetime by his friends and pupils. By way of asserting his
right to resume theological disquisition, he also issued in
1798 his Strife of the Faculties, in which all the strongest
parts of his work on religion were urged afresh, and the
correspondence that had passed between himself and his
censors was given to the world.
From the date of his retirement from the chair Kant de¬
clined in strength, and gave tokens of intellectual decay.
His protest against Fichte, published in 1799, is perhaps to
be traced to this cause; and he manifested other signs of
uneasiness at the revolt of his former disciples from his au¬
thority. His memory began to fail, and a large work at
which he wrought night and day, on the connection between
physics and metaphysics, was found to be only a repetition
of his already published doctrines. After 1802, finding
himself attacked with a weakness in the limbs, attended with
frequent fits of falling, he mitigated a little the Spartan seve¬
rity of his life, and also consented to receive medical advice.
A constant restlessness oppressed him ; his sight gave way ;
his conversation became an extraordinary mixture of meta¬
phors ; and it was only at intervals that gleams of his former
power broke out, especially when some old chord of asso¬
ciation was struck in natural science or physical geography.
A few days before his decease, with a great effort he thanked
his medical attendant for his visits in the words, “ I have
not yet lost my feeling for humanity.” On the 12th of
February 1804, he breathed his last, having almost com¬
pleted the eightieth year of his age.
It is superfluous to characterize the genius of Kant; but
a few words may be added as to his personal appearance
and habits of life, study, and teaching.
His stature was small, and his appearance feeble. He
was little more than five feet high; his breast was almost
concave, and, like Schleiermacher, he was deformed in the
right shoulder. His hair was light, his complexion fresh,
his forehead high and square, while his eye of light blue
showed an expression of unusual depth and power. His
senses were quick and delicate; and, though of weak con¬
stitution, he escaped, by strict regimen, all serious illness
till the close of life.
His life was arranged with mechanical regularity; and,
as he never married, he kept the habits of his studious youth
to old age. His man-servant awoke him summer and win¬
ter at five o’clock; and, on being appealed to on one occa¬
sion, testified that Kant had not once failed in thirty years
to respond to the call. He studied after rising for two
hours, then lectured other two, and spent the rest of the
forenoon, till one, at his desk. He then dined at a restau¬
rant, which he frequently changed, to avoid the influx of
N T. 45
strangers, who crowded to see and hear him,—till in later Kant,
years his growing means enabled him to invite a friend or
two daily to his own home. This was his only regular
meal; and as he loved the ducere ccenam of the Romans, he
often prolonged the conversation till late in the afternoon.
He then walked out for at least an hour in all weathers,
and spent the evening in lighter reading, except an hour or
two devoted to the preparation of his next day’s lectures,
after which he retired between nine and ten to rest. The
furniture of his house wras of the simplest character; and
though he left a considerable sum, the produce of his
writings, to his relatives, he indulged in no luxury, and
was a pattern of that superiority to fashion and appearance
so often met with in the literary life of Germany. In his
earlier years he often spent his evenings in general society,
where his overflowing knowledge and conversational talents
made him the life of every party. He was especially inti¬
mate with theTamilies of two English merchants of the name
of Green and Motherby, where he found many opportunities
of meeting ship-captains, and other travelled persons, and
thus gratifying his passion for physical geography. This
social circle included also the celebrated Hamann,—the
Magus of the North,—the friend of Herder and Jacobi,
who was thus a mediator between Kant and these philoso¬
phical adversaries.
Kant’s reading was of the most extensive and miscellaneous
kind. He cared comparatively little for the history of spe¬
culation, being in this department more a discoverer than
a scholar. But his acquaintance with books of science,
general history, travels, and belles lettres, was boundless.
He was well versed in English literature, chiefly of the age
of Queen Anne; and had read English philosophy from
Locke to Hume, and the Scottish school. He was at home
in Voltaire and Rousseau, but shows little acquaintance with
the French sensational philosophy. Fie was familiar with
all German literature up to the date of his Critique; but
ceased to follow it in its great development by Goethe and
Schiller. It was his habit to obtain books in sheets from
his publishers Kanter and Nicolovius ; and he read over for
many years all the new works in their catalogue, in order
to keep abreast of universal knowledge. He was excessively
fond of newspapers and works on politics ; and this was the
only kind of reading that could interrupt his studies in philo¬
sophy.
As a lecturer, Kant avoided altogether that rigid style in
which his books were written, and which was only meant
for thinkers by profession. He sat behind a low desk, with
a few jottings on slips of paper, or text-books marked on
the margin, before him, and delivered an extemporaneous
address, opening up the subject by partial glimpses, and
with many digressions and interspersed anecdotes or fami¬
liar illustrations, till a complete idea of it was presented.
His voice was extremely weak, but sometimes rose into
eloquence, and always commanded perfect silence. Like
Adam Smith, he fixed his eye on one student, and marked
by his countenance whether the lecture was understood.
The least irregularity in the appearance or dress of this
selected hearer disconcerted him; and the story is well
known of the missing button, which defeated a lecture.
Though kind to his students, he refused on principle to
remit their fees, as this, he thought, would discourage
independence. It was another principle, that his chief
exertions should be bestowed on the intermediate class of
talent, as the geniuses would help themselves, and the
dunces were beyond remedy. Hence he never delivered
his deeper doctrines, such as are found in his Critique,
from the chair. His other avocations allowed him little
personal intercourse with his numerous hearers, and he
often complained of the want of lively sympathy and ascer¬
tained progress inseparable from such a system.
Simple, honourable, truthful, kind-hearted, and high-
f
46
K A N T.
Kant.
minded as Kant was in all moral respects, he was some¬
what deficient in the region of sentiment He had little
enthusiasm for the beauties of nature, and, indeed, never
sailed out into the Baltic, or travelled more than 40 miles from
Konio'sber<r. Music he disregarded, and all poetiy that
was more “than sententious prose. His ethics have been
reproached with some justice as setting up too low an ideal
for the female sex. 1 he devotional element, as distinct fiom
the moral, was but faint in his nature ; and he almost never
attended any religious service. Though faithful in a high
decree to the duties of friendship, he could not bear to
visit his friends in sickness, and after their death he repressed
all allusion to their memory. His engrossing intellectual
labours no doubt tended somewhat to harden his character;
and in his zeal for rectitude of purpose he forgot the part
which affection and sentiment must ever play in the human
constitution. Those who count these defects most grave
will yet find much to admire in the lofty tone of his charac¬
ter, and in the benevolence which could thus express itself:
“ Whoever will suggest to me a good action left undone,
him will I thank, though he suggest it even in my last
hour!”
This notice may appropriately close with Herder s beau¬
tiful sketch of Kant’s character, all the more interesting
that it was written in 1795, after their quarrel,—“I have had
the o-ood fortune to know a philosopher who was my teacher.
In die vigour of life he had the same youthful gaiety of
heart that now follows him I believe into old age. . His
open forehead, built for thought, was the seat of imperturb¬
able cheerfulness and joy; the most pregnant discourse
flowed from his lips; wit, humour, and raillery came to him at
will, and his instructions had all the charm of an entertain¬
ment. With the same easy mastery with which he tested
the doctrines of Leibnitz, Wolf, Baumgarten, Crusius and
Hume, or pursued tbe discoveries of Newton, Kepler, and
other lights of science, he also took up the current writ¬
ings of Rousseau, such as the Emile or Heloise, or any new
phenomenon of the natural world, and from the criticism of
each came back to the impartial study of nature, and to the
enforcement of the dignity of man. History in all its
branches, natural science, physics, mathematics, and ex¬
perience, were the materials that gave interest to his lectures
and his conversation ; nothing worthy of study was to him
indifferent; no faction or sect, no selfishness or vanity, had
for him the least attraction, compared with the extension
and elucidation of truth. He excited and pleasantly impelled
us to mental independence; despotism wras foreign to his
nature. This man, whom I name with the deepest gratitude
and respect, is Immanuel Kant; his image rises before me
surrounded with pleasing recollections!”
Subjoined is a brief sketch of the Kantian philosophy,
drawn from original sources. The list of the works of Kant,
which have been more or less consulted, will be found com¬
plete in the twelfth and last volume of llosenkrantz and
Schubert’s edition, Leipzic, 1838-42.
The Kantian philosophy is essentially an Inquiry into
the Possibility of a System of Metaphysics. This gives
unity to the whole of Kant’s writings on philosophy. His
views on psychology and logic are chiefly interesting
from their bearing on this great question, while his
ethics virtually contain the solution, and are thus a vital
part of his metaphysics. His philosophy is nearly all in¬
cluded in his Critique of Pure Reason ; and this work, ac¬
cordingly, must be taken as the basis of a development of
his system. A few words as to Kant’s conception of the
problem which he had to solve, and his own view of his re¬
lation to other philosophers, will fitly introduce the account
of his own metaphysical investigations.
Metaphysics, according to Kant, in which he only echoes
the general voice of philosophers, is conversant with the
world above sense, or beyond experience. It is occupied
with such problems as the nature of absolute being {onto-
logy), the essence and immortality of the soul {pneuma- 's-
tology), the prevalence of freedom or fate in the world
{cosmology), the being of God {speculative theology).
Such problems as these have eternally recurred to human
reason, and cannot be escaped, as there are inevitable ten¬
dencies in the mind itself to give them birth. We have fa¬
culties that go beyond sense, and elements of thought, which,
as being universal and necessary, cannot be derived from ex¬
perience ; and these in their workings infallibly create the
inquiries with which metaphysics has to deal.
According to Kant, metaphysical inquiries up till his
time had passed through two stages. A succession of
systems had confidently decided all the questions that arose,
and each of these systems, on its own principles, had an¬
nounced itself as the consummation of metaphysical truth.
This was the dogmatic stage. Then the collision of these
systems and their inherent contradiction had begotten a
distrust of the whole alleged results, and issued in the as¬
sertion that sense and experience were the only sources of
our knowledge, and that the metaphysical region was an en¬
tire illusion. This was the sceptical stage which followed in
the wake of the other. Kant saw the type of the dogma¬
tist in Leibnitz or Wolff, of the sceptic in David Hume.
In contradistinction to both, he maintained the necessity
of instituting a critical inquiry into the powers of human
reason, so as, on the one hand, to test the sceptic s denial of
all beyond experience in the mind; and, on the other, to
test the dogmatist’s application of what was above expe¬
rience in the mind to the nature of things, or the world of
metaphysics. The result was, that against the sceptic a
whole system of knowledge, underived from experience, was
proved to exist in the mind; and that against the dogma¬
tist this knowedge was declared to give no hold, at least so
far as speculation is concerned, over the nature of things
or metaphysical truth. The Kantian philosophy thus substi¬
tutes for positive metaphysics a criticism of pure reason,
explaining why there can be none; and at the same time
vindicates those elements of knowledge that beget meta¬
physical inquiry from sceptical rejection and contempt.
Hence, in opposition to dogmatism, Kant chose to call his
the critical philosophy; in opposition to an empirical scep¬
ticism which denied the existence of all knowledge
or as transcending experience, he called it the criticism of
pure reason, or transcendental philosophy.
Kant admits that, having been once himself a dogmatist
of the school of Wolff, he was awaked out of his slumber
by Hume’s resolution of the causal law into a product of
association or experience. He saw that, if there wrgs to be
a valid science of metaphysics at all, it must be founded
upon a power of the mind to frame such judgments as that
of cause and effect antecedently to all experience, and to
guarantee their application to the whole realm of being.
He was led to generalize the whole class of such judgments,
as distinguished by this common character, that they unite
two totally unconnected ideas in a single proposition, which,
being necessary and universal, is not derived liom expe¬
rience. This is his celebrated designation of synthetic
judgments d priori, which alone can form the basis of meta¬
physics; whereas logic deals exclusively in analytic judg¬
ments, in which the one idea is deduced from the other as as¬
sumed, and can never reach the world of reality. These syn¬
thetic judgments, touching cause and effect, substance and
phenomenon, and other metaphysical ideas, to say nothing
of mathematical truths, which, with a bold originality, Kant
annexes to the same class, prove an element to exist in
knowledge unrecognised by the sensationalism of Locke and
Hume. But it remains to be seen how far such judgments
reach in binding down absolute truth to the human stand¬
ard, or in conquering a world of metaphysical reality. I he
whole Critique of Pure Reason is written fb prove that
Kant.
/
K A N T.
47
Kant. they come short of this aim ; and this humbling thesis is
—v—^ elaborately maintained in all the three departments which
supply the materials of pure, or a priori knowledge, or, in
other words, furnish the elements of synthetic judgment,
viz.,—sense, understanding, and reason. In each of these
departments, then, we must show how Kant, on the one hand,
lays open elements of knowledge pre-existent to experience;
and yet, on the other, asserts these elements to fail in reaching
the nature of things, or in grasping absolute metaphysical
truth.
In the world of sense, the transcendental or pre-existent
elements of knowledge are space and time. . These are
pure sensuous intuitions, without which empirical sensations
would be impossible. They are hence call&l by Kant the
forms or formal conditions of sensation ; the one applying
to all sensational experience in the outward world.- the
other as well to all. sensational experience of mental phe¬
nomena. As mathematics- is occupied with these primary
forms of sense, it is easy to see how all its synthetic judg¬
ments are originated, because they rest on sensuous intui¬
tion or contemplation, comparing mathematical quantities
with dach other ; and also how they hold good in the
actual world of sense, since that world only exists in con¬
formity to these a priori conditions. Thus far, Kant, as
a transcendentalist, vindicates an a priori space and time
against the sensationalist who deduces them from expe¬
rience, as also against the intellectualist, like Leibnitz, who
treats them as mere relations of co-existent and successive
objects. But no sooner is an attempt made by the. dogmatic
metaphysician to give to space and time an absolute and
eternal reality, or to claim for things as existing in space
and time anything but a phenomenal aspect as relative to
our senses, than he turns the other or critical edge of his
sword to assail this result. His principal argument is, that
real and independent existences being facts, can never be
known a priori, but only through experience; and hence that,
if time and space were independently existing realities, the
necessary character of our judgments regarding them would
be entirely destroyed. This argumentation will of course
be valid with those who allow necessity to nothing but judg--
ments regarding ideas. With those who hold that necessity
may belong as well to judgments regarding'facts, and that
the existence of space and time severally is given as a ne¬
cessary fact, it will be powerless.
In the department of understanding, which is the second
great field of Kant’s critical inquiry, substantially the same
result is attained, Sense delivers up its presentations in
space and time to this higher faculty, whose office it is to
introduce into them unity and system, so that they shall
deserve the name of knowledge" or experience. This is
done by the faculty of judgment, the characteristic process
of the logical understanding, which combines the multiform
data of sense in the unity of propositions. Ordinary logic
lays down xhe forms of propositions, irrespective of their
matter; and is entirely analytical. But the required con¬
nection would not be introduced among the data of sense
without certain transcendental or pre-existent elements,'
which belong to the matter of propositions, and consequently
furnish synthetic judgments d priori, to be investigated by
a higher or transcendental logic. These necessary elements,
or & priori principles of judgment, Kant, by an unhappy
adaptation of Aristotle’s language, called “ categories of the
understanding; and he developed them in a parallel line
with the logical form of propositions, since it seemed to him,
though the analogy is more than doubtful, that the tran¬
scendental matter of judgment must correspond with its
logical form. I his celebrated table of the categories is
subjoined:—
■ Logical. Transcendental.
t Universal. Unity.
I. Quantity < Particular. Plurality.
V Singular. Totality.
II. Quality.
Logical.
Affirmative.
/ Negative.
I Indeterminate.
( Categorical.
III. Relation < Hypothetical.
( Disjunctive.
f Problematical.
IV. Modality  •< Assertory.
1 Apodictic.
Transcendental.
Reality.
Negation.
Limitation.
Substance.
Cause.
Reciprocity.
Possibility.
Existence.
Necessity.
Kant.
As a still higher principle of a priori judgment than even
the categories, Kant insisted on the consciousness of per¬
sonality, by which alone unity is introduced among the
data of outward and inward perception, and the multi¬
plicity of existence made to converge towards one necessary
centre. In regard to this principle, and the twelve cate¬
gories, he laboured to show that without them no connec¬
tion of the materials of sense is possible ; that they are thus
the intellectual conditions of sensational experience, and
that, abstracted from them, even the conception of a single
object in nature, much more of a system of things called
nature, is unattainable. So far from nature giving laws
to mind, mind gives laws to nature; and it is thus alone
that synthetic judgments d priori are possible and autho¬
ritative, since the only world man can know must exist
under these conditions. Such synthetic judgments Kant
deduces as corollaries from the application of the categories,
with the help of imagination, to time, as the main d priori
datum of sensation. Amongst these synthetic judgments,
on the deduction of which a vast amount of ingenuity is
expended, is that of cause and effect; and thus the philosophy
of Hume is inverted ; for, while Hume derives the causal
judgment from experience, Kant proves that without this
judgment, and others akin to it, the very idea of an objec¬
tive world, and of experience in that world, such as is univer¬
sally held by all systems of philosophy, idealist as well as
realist, would remain impossible. Kant even goes so far
in vindication of our original knowledge, against the sensa¬
tionalist, that he attempts to show that the reality of an out¬
ward world, which the sensationalist believes in from expe¬
rience, can alone be made good by borrowing from the tran¬
scendentalist the d priori notions of time and of substance ;
since the mind, according to Kant, needs some substance dis¬
tinct from itself to mark the succession of its own ideas, w hich
substance is the external world. But here again, having, as a
transcendentalist, dissected and laid open the texture and ori¬
ginal furniture of the understanding, he proceeds, as a critical
or anti-dogmatical philosopher, to shut up the understanding
from all excursions into the region of metaphysical reality,
and to limit it to the territory of phenomena or sense. His
celebrated distinction between phenomena, or objects known
by sensible experience, and noumena, or objects knowable
by the pure understanding, is here brought to bear; and he
allows to the latter only a problematical existence, as the
bare negation of what we can know by our understanding,
or as something of whose existence and whose mode of being
known, if known- at all, by other understandings, we must
ever remain ignorant. This distinctio-n is thus carried out
by him in regard to the actual objects of our understanding.
Man must know objects as quantities, qualities, substances,
causes, &c., because without these conceptions, as the con¬
stitutive and regulative principles of his understanding, that
understanding would leave its objects an undigested chaos,
as good as none at all; but whether there be an unknown
basis to this phenomenal world or not, or if there be, what
its own nature is, must continue, so far as the understand¬
ing is concerned, an entire and insoluble mystery. On
this point, indeed, Kant’s language is fluctuating, and even
contradictory; for in some places he proceeds on the exist¬
ence of this unknown x, and even treats phenomenal
existence as its product and manifestation, while he else-
w’here, in the strongest terms, maintains that it is only a
48 ‘ K A
Kant, negative conception, ami that we can predicate, because
we can know, absolutely nothing of it whatever, but his
doctrine is.so far clear and unambiguous, that our under¬
standing has no power to lay hold on a super-sensible
world ;0 that the categories and synthetic judgments ot
the understanding are mere abstractions, till realized in
phenomenal experience; and that unless the umr? ele¬
ments of intellect be brought down, through the ministry
of imagination, to unite with presentations of external or
internal sense, they have as little significance as the latter
would have without their co-operation.
On this fundamental point of the Kantian philosophy
much may be conceded by those who yet reject his conclu¬
sions. Waiving Kant’s error (for such it seems) in making
the understanding, which can never be more than a mere
logical faculty, the fountain of the categories and so-called
intellectual conditions of sensible experience, it may be ad¬
mitted that such conditions must be furnished by some mental
power or other, and that Kant’s analysis has in it much truth,
if not the whole. It may also be admitted that mind thus
unites with nature in forming a joint product of knowledge,
to which both elements or factors are necessary. But it
may fairly be denied that the world of experience is thus
the creature of mind, and that its objects only become
such by virtue of subjective laws and necessities, since this
would represent the understanding as practising upon itself
a constant delusion, and mistaking its own products for ob¬
jective realities. The validity of our synthetic judgments a
'priori does not, in spite of Kant’s oft-repeated asseveration,
depend on the fact that these judgments cast our expe¬
rience in their own mould, without which it would be no
experience at all; but it rests upon a mysterious primary
belief, by virtue of which these judgments are held valid
the moment they are formed, and are extended to all
objects in connection with which they can arise. There is
not the least reason why, because certain judgments make
sensible experience possible, they should either be affirmed
to make that experience relative to us, or should be them¬
selves limited to the domain of sensible experience, if capa¬
ble of being extended beyond it. The causal judgment, for
example, is necessary to connect our world of phenomena,
outward and inward ; but why it should, on this ground,
be limited to our phenomenal world, or to any enlarged
phenomenal world of which we may be supposed capable
of having experience, is quite inconceivable. It is only
limited by its own nature, for, as Kant has justly shown,
it pre-supposes time, and change in time, and of course does
not emerge without these conditions. So of every other
synthetic judgment of the understanding in Kant’s series.
It is thus plain that Kant’s attempt to limit the use of the
categories and principles of the understanding is founded on
a mistake. It is their own nature which limits them, and not
their relativity to our sensible experience. A noumenal
world—or world in which these laws, their proper conditions
being given, should be set aside—we have absolutely no
power to believe in as existing for any intelligence. 1 hat
there may be a world beyond the conditions of time and
change, which are the highest principles ot Kant’s synthe¬
tic judgments of the understanding, is not in the least de¬
gree opposed to the universal necessity ot these judgments,
for they ask no validity beyond their own condition or
sphere. This is the only sense in which Kant’s noume¬
nal world can be admitted ; and the investigation ot this
problem belongs to the next section of his inquiry. But
it must be contended that he has no right, so tar as he
has yet proceeded, to introduce a contrast between things,
in themselves and things as conditioned by the laws ot
our understanding, and that his noumenal world, lying
at the bottom of our actual world, and exempted from the
laws of our necessary synthetic judgments, is a mere su¬
perfluity and self-made shadow. If it be a pure license
N T.
of thought, let it remain so ; but let not Kant claim for it, Kant,
as a veritable world, exclusive metaphysical reality, to the
disparagement of the only world we know, in which the
laws of the understanding find their application.
It is in the third and last grand division of Kant’s critical
philosophy that all the highest questions of metaphysics find .
the possibilty of an answer denied. This division is occupied
with the Reason or Faculty of Ideas. The idea is a Platonic
word, as the category an Aristotelian, and denotes, in Kant’s
writings, an object which cannot be reached in any possible
experience. Reason creates no new materials of its own,—
it only enlarges the data of the understanding, by taking
in alf the conditions on which they depend. Hence, an
idea is the sum total of conditions, itself unconditioned, by
which a still higher unity is given to the materials of expe¬
rience than understanding could supply. Reason resembles
reasoning, as understanding resembles judgment; and since
reasoning employs a universal proposition as the condition
of a particular conclusion, Reason must, in finding out the
sum total of conditions, follow an analogous procedure to
the processes of reasoning ; whence, as there were twelve
categories'corresponding to the twelve forms ot propositions,
there are three transcendental ideas corresponding to the
three processes of reasoning—categorical, hypothetical, and
disjunctive. These ideas, which are deduced even in a
more strained and arbitrary fashion than the categories, are,
(1.) Pure thinking, substance, or soul, the correlate of an ab¬
solute subject in a categorical syllogism, and the basis of
the science of'rational psychology-, (2.) 1 he totality of
dependent phenomena in space and time, or the world,
the correlate of the consequent in a hypothetical syllogism,
and the basis of cosmology-, and, (3.) The Highest Ideal,,
which is the condition of the possibility ot every object ot
thought, or God, the correlate of an exhaustive disjunctive
syllogism, and the basis of theology.
' These three ideas Kant, as a transcendentalist, strenu¬
ously maintains to have their birth in human reason, irre¬
spective of all experience, and to spring up inevitably, so as
to control and influence the working ot the understanding
as applied to experience. But they difi'er, he contends,
from the categories in this, that they cannot be brought
down by the ministry of imagination and united to experi¬
ence in any presentation within the limits of space or time, so
that they have no objective validity, and are designed to serve
no other use than to regulate our own thoughts. Neverthe¬
less they perpetually tend, by a necessary sophistication, to
acquire objective subsistence; so that, from being mere pos¬
tulates, or maxims of reason employed to give our subjective
views of experience the greatest enlargement and unity, they
become assertions as to absolute existence, and posit their
objects—a pure, incorporeal spirit; a world, finite or infi¬
nite, dependent or independent; and a supreme Being
amongst the entities of metaphysical reality. . This so-called
dialectical illusion it is the aim ot the most interesting and
energetic part of Kant’s Critic[ue of Put e Reason to ex¬
pose"; and here the critical thrusts of his philosophy seem
to bear most hard upon the treasured and precious convic¬
tions of the human race. ( A brief notice of his elaborate
argumentation is all that can be given, with still briefer
hints of its tailures and deficiencies.
He first unmasks what he calls the paralogism of pure
reason in regard to the thinking subject, or soul. It may
be remarked that this is one of the most forced ot all Kants
ideas, since it is only his transcendental self-consciousness,
already discussed as the highest principle or the under¬
standing, brought up under a new form, and without any
reference to the sum total of the conditions of experience
at all, in which an idea according to him ought to consist,
given forth as a pure idea of thinking substance simple,
personal, incorruptible, &c. The dogmatic conclusions of
rational psychology, as founded on this idea, Kant opposes
K A
Kant, by showing that they confound the consciousness of the
mind in thinking with its nature as an object in existence.
He grants the consciousness of simplicity, personality, &c.,
but denies the validity of the inference which would guar¬
antee the indivisibility of the soul and its unaltered sub¬
stance, as well as unbroken duration ; since all this lies be¬
yond the compass of experience in space and time. Few
will contend against Kant that the bare a priori necessity of
unity in our consciousness, apart from experience, would
warrant any solid inference as to the substance or fortunes
of the soul, as few will care to defend a so-called rational
psychology from his attacks. But it seems too much to
ask that mental simplicity, unity, and identity, as admitted
facts of experience, should go for nothing, and that any and
every inference against the materialist should be forbidden,
so as to leave room for a supposition like Kant’s, that, for
aught we can tell, the unknown base of mind and matter, in
spite of their divergent phenomena, may be the same.
Kant next discusses his second Idea of Pure Reason, or
the World, that is, the sum total of the conditions of phe¬
nomena presented in sensible experience. The world is
thought under the categories of the understanding; and
each of the four leading categories, when extended beyond
experience, gives birth to a transcendental idea, or rather a
pair of such ideas contrasted and opposite ; for, in quantity,
the world is either bounded by a limit in time and space, or
unbounded ; in quality, it is either ultimately simple, or in¬
finitely divisible; in relation, it is either caused by free ac¬
tivity, or made up of an infinite series of mechanical causes ;
and in modality, it has either an independent cause, or is
composed of mutually dependent members. Such are Kant’s
famous antinomies, which brought the controversies of ages to
a focus, and have exerted an immense influence on all later
European philosophy, giving birth to a whole body of cele¬
brated discussions respecting the conditioned and uncon¬
ditioned, and necessitating the German philosophy of the
Absolute to build upon contradiction, or at least upon anti¬
thesis, as the essence and criterion of truth. Kant endea¬
vours to show that each of the two sides of the antinomy is
speculatively as well supported as the other, and that the hu¬
man mind must remain eternally in equilibria, if the forms
of thought are held to apply to the realities of existence.
It is of course impossible to condense Kant’s reasoning on
this subject. It may be remarked, however, that his four
antinomies seem reducible, when liberated from the net¬
work of the categories, to two, arising from the notions of
whole and part on the one hand, and of cause and effect
on the other. Kant’s two first, or mathematical antinomies,
fall under the first head ; his two last, or dynamical, under
the second. It is readily conceded to Kant that we can¬
not reach in experience or in thought a time eternal or a
space infinite, or stop with a finite of either kind. And it
is as freely admitted that we cannot reach an infinite series
of parts of any given portion of space and time, or stop
with a finite. Applied to these mysterious quantities—
space and time—Kant’s antinomies seem invincible; but
it may be questioned if his argumentation has any force at
all in regard to a ivorld in space and time, considered either
in its totality or in its parts. If I am allowed to think space
and time as not merely forms of imagination, but as inde¬
pendent entities, I can easily make them boundaries of
matter, and thus reach a universe that had a beginning and
that has a limit, so as to escape Kant’s first antinomy ; and
by the same means I can reach a part which may be believed
to be ultimate, though it is greater than a conceivable sub¬
division of the space which contains it, and thus escape his
second. The difficulties, too, are of different magnitude on
the side of the infinite and of the absolute. We cannot
exhaust the former by imagination, but we can readily
stop in imagination with the latter at the bidding of any
higher reason which should give law to that faculty. In
VOL XIII.
N T. 49
other words, the infinite labours under an insuperable dilli- Kant,
culty of imagination ; the absolute labours under a superable
difficulty of belief.
The remaining antinomy of freedom or necessity in
the universe, including Kant’s additional one of indepen¬
dence or contingency, which may be easily reduced to
it, does not seem capable of stronger resistance. There
must be free causation somewhere, Kant argues on the
one side, else there is no causation at all; and there can¬
not be free causation, he argues on the other, since the
free cause is itself an effect. This latter assertion is,
however, based on a false idea of causality. The energy
of causation is destroyed by the supposition of an infi¬
nite series of dependent causes, each receiving and trans¬
mitting a mechanical impulse. Unless there be some¬
where a single First Cause there is no true causation ; fur
the multiplication of relatively caused phenomena cannot
solve the problem or explain so much as one of the series.
Kant’s feeble conception of causality, as little more than
regulated sequence in time, permitted him to leave both
sides of the antinomy equal; but a juster definition would
reduce all mechanical causation to the mere effect of free
causation, and would thus abolish Kant’s last antinomies, so
as to place, even on the basis of pure reason, carrying out the
causal law to its limits, a single hyper-physical cause at the
head of a dependent universe. The causal judgment, in its
true construction, runs up all dependent phenomena in time
to an absolute beginning, and thus bursts through Kant’s two
last antinomies ; while it also supplies the element of will
or freedom, which, by setting limits to matter in space and
time, decides against the validity of his two first, as alleged
insoluble contradictions of reason.
Kant’s own solution of his antinomies is very different.
He maintains that they only arise from our inveterate habit
of confounding our own laws of thought with independent
existence. If existence had to be subjected to each dilem¬
ma, nothing would remain but pure scepticism. It is only
our own confusion of a totality in our conceptions with a
totality in things, as existing in themselves, which misleads
us; whereas if we would onlyconfess that the ideaofthe world
in its totality is too great for us, and would confine it as a re¬
gulative principle to our thoughts in order to give them their
greatest enlargement, leaving existence altogether undefined,
we should be empowered to discard both sides of each dilem¬
ma, and to hold existence as unaffected by neither. Un¬
fortunately this seems forbidden by the law of excluded
middle between contradictories, which applies to existence
as well as to thought; and thus Kant’s denial of the meta¬
physical range of his antinomies, and his attempt to speak
pleasantly of them as a torment and doom of finite reason
for mistaking its shadows for realities, its fragments for the
whole of things, is a consolation which can only be accepted
by despair. Our knowledge of existence becomes thus not
onlyfaintbutnull; and speculative reason goes out in darkness.
A few words remain to be added respecting Kant’s third
Idea of Pure Reason ; the Being which is the condition of
the possibility of all being, or God. This Being, according
to the exhaustive process of a disjunctive syllogism, in re¬
semblance to which the idea is framed, possesses all reality ;
hence, though a mere idea of reason, it is objectified, hy-
postatized, personified ; and afterwards this dialectical illu¬
sion is supported by three arguments,—the only three that
can be employed to prove the existence of such a Being
on the ground of speculative reason. These three argu¬
ments for the existence of God, which, after Kant, have
been generally called the ontological, cosmological, and
physico-theological, are subjected to rigid analysis, and suc¬
cessively declared insufficient. The ontological argument,
or that which, in the hands of Anselm or Descartes, from
the bare notion of an all-real or perfect Being, deduces his
existence as a part of this reality or perfection, is shown to
G
X
50 K A N T.
Kant, involve the fallacy of inferring objective existence from a
mere logical conception, or, in Kant’s language, of substi¬
tuting an analytic judgment for a synthetic, which latter
alone is wanted. The cosmological argument, or that
which, in the hands of Dr Clarke, from the existence of
something contingent, rises to a necessary Being, is de¬
clared to come short of any definition of this Being’s cha¬
racter ; since it cannot invest him with all perfection without
taking for granted that very connection between ideal per¬
fection and necessary existence, in assuming which the
fallacy of the ontological argument consisted. And the
physico-theological argument, or that from design and
order in the universe, though Kant speaks of it with the
highest respect, and declares it sufficient to awaken the
speculatist from his subtle objections and difficulties, as
from a dream, is nevertheless affirmed to stop short of the
ideal of Deity, inasmuch as the finite cannot warrant an in¬
ference to the infinite ; and thus the argument a posteriori
is left to depend for its completion on the a priori resources
already proved in themselves incompetent.
It seems possible to escape these negative conclusions of
Kant only by enforcing the law of causality, so as to rise
from the actual universe to an absolute First Cause, not
merelv of the order of this universe, but of its existence ;
with which First Cause the attributes of perfection or in¬
finitude are then united, not by any ontological argument,
but by a native belief. The limitation inseparable from a
logical process in proving a Deity is thus avoided; and yet
existence, in conformity with the universal judgment of
reason, is traced back to an uncaused and independent ori¬
ginal. Few have ever cordially accepted the marvellous
results of Kant’s criticism of speculative theology, according
to which, Reason gives birth, along with other regulative
ideas, to an idea of God, and compels us to think and ar¬
range the universe in our minds,—as if it had been made
by a Being conformable to this idea,—while it is yet utterly
impossible for us to find a rational ground for believing in
His existence.
Thus the soul, the world, and God, are left by Kant’s
speculative philosophy as problems not only unsolved, but,
according to him, demonstrably insolvable ; and, if no other
oracle existed within, the riddle of man’s being and relation
to existence would remain unread. Such an oracle, however,
is found in Practical Reason ; and, to use a figure of Rosen-
krantz, the life-boat of Kant’s ethics rescues from the ship¬
wreck of his metaphysics the truths necessary to human dig¬
nity and happiness.
Kant’s speculative Ethics, as they are set forth in
his Outlines, and his Critique of Practical Reason, are
chiefly occupied with his analysis of the moral law as the
ultimate fact of our practical nature, in which it holds a
place, corresponding to the ideas of speculative reason.
Unlike these ideas, however, the moral law is an asser¬
tion,—an assertion of something to be done, and done
with absolute necessity for its own sake,—hence it is a
categorical imperative. Here, for the first time in human
reason, we meet an idea realized, or to be realized in
experience ; and thus our foot is planted upon the uncon¬
ditioned, absolute, noumenal, or intelligible world. The
moral law, as a categorical imperative, cannot determine
the will by any motives beyond its own authority ; hence, by
nothing in the matter of its precepts, but only in the form ;
and as the only formal element in the will, in relation to
motives, is voluntary determination, it follows that the
moral law, as a universal and necessary imperative, involves
autonomy or freedom, without which it cannot possibly
exist. The moral law, as a law abstracted from all matter,
and only retaining the form of legislation, or its relation to
a free and self-determining will, necessarily expresses itself
in these formulas, which are all equal, and which all flow
from this principle:—“ Act as a self-ruled agent, and not
as a determined.” “ Act at all times so that your action Kant,
may become a universal law.” “ Act so that each moral
agent shall be treated as an end to himself.” The moral
law, as an a priori revelation, thus excludes all motives that
do not directly spring from itself, and regard itself as law; so
that all systems of morality, which admit other motives such as
personal happiness, general benevolence, the love of perfec¬
tion, or the will of God, fall under the charge of heteronomy.
The law, as an imperative, governs by its own force; the
only permissible moral sentiment is moral awe ; and just in
the degree in which this excludes other sentiments, as well
as overcomes the working of passion and self-love, is an
action morally pure. The imperative aspect of the moral law
is the same to all intelligences, except the Highest; and,
according to Kant, we dare not affirm that any can in any
stage of their being be trusted without its influence.
While the moral law thus acts independently of all con¬
siderations of utility or happiness, it links us at the same
time with a moral wrorld, in which we cannot but believe
that virtue and happiness are connected, and in which the
moral law itself, by embracing the happiness of others in its
precepts, makes it our absolute duty to strive after their con¬
nection. This moral world, in which virtue and happiness
go hand in hand, corresponds to the ancient ideal of the
highest good; and the belief in its existence is a necessary
postulate of the moral law, which cannot be carried out if
this faith in a moral world be subverted. Hence Kant
employs this postulate of the highest good to gain a firm
hold of immortality, which could not be secured by spe¬
culative reason, and shows that, without immortality, an
infinite progress towards perfect virtue is impossible. la
like manner he establishes the otherwise problematical ex¬
istence of God, on the ground that God must exist as the
source of the blessedness to the good; and, from his attributes
as the author and ruler of this moral world, in which happi¬
ness is made to follow duty, he deduces all those perfections
which speculative reason left doubtful. And while the
first and third ideas of speculative reason are thus alleged
to find solid footing, the second, or that of free causation,
is also established on the basis of that liberty which is the
condition of the moral law, or rather its inseparable corre¬
lative. Though actions must still be looked on as neces¬
sitated by motives, so long as man is considered to belong
to the sensible world, yet in the higher or intelligible world
to which, as the subject of the moral law, he belongs, they
are absolutely self-caused ; and thus the worst dilemma of
speculation is practically decided in the interest of freedom.
It cannot be denied that there is a singular vigour and
individuality in these ethical labours of Kant; and, in point
of fact, his influence as the preacher of an unconditioned
moral law not only awakened the schools, but even vitalized
the pulpits of Germany. Nor can a certain accordance
with the deepest convictions of the greatest thinkers of all
ages be overlooked in his turning round for the solution of
the gravest speculative difficulties to the oracle of practical
duty. At the same time very serious objections lie against
his ethical, not less than his speculative system. The radi¬
cal difference between speculative judgments containing
mere knowledge, and moral judgments bearing on right and
wrong, is obscured by the common designation, Reason.
The influence of moral sentiment, especially love of good¬
ness, is all but proscribed and withered under the stern law
of duty. The very law of duty, by the necessity of ab¬
stracting from all motives and all matter,—in short, every¬
thing but the bare form of law, becomes vague and in¬
definite ; so that Kant’s categorical imperative, in all its
formulas, is rather a problem of the understanding than a
law written out on the heart; and Kant himself, in the sub¬
sequent development alike of his system of jurisprudence
and of virtue, has shown himself unable, except in the most
constrained manner, and by the help of the very principles
K A
Kant, and sentiments he had eondemned as selfish and utilitarian,
to bring down his generalities to practice. It must be con¬
fessed, also, that his settlement of’ the outstanding specula¬
tive problems, by the help of ethics, is not remarkably
happy. Immortality is only deduced from the incurable
defects of moral agents, which require an everlasting pur¬
gatory to remove them. Freedom is not directly based on
the fact of felt responsibility, but rather on the utterance
of a particular kind of law, viz., a categorical imperative,
which contains at best an inferential assurance of power to
obey. And God, instead of having his authority absolutely
and unconditionally revealed as that of the Lawgiver, is ra¬
ther discovered by the circuitous and secondary necessity
of squaring the moral law and its consequences.
The third of Kant’s leading critiques,—that of Judgment,
—contains his ^Esthetics and Doctrine of Final Causes.
It consists of an elaborate attempt to find in judgment
a middle term between understanding and reason, corre¬
sponding to the middle term between our intelligence on the
one side, and our will on the other, furnished by pleasure and
pain,—and thus to bridge over the interval between meta¬
physics and ethics. Kant finds the object of this judging
faculty in the harmony of nature, of which, whether aestheti-
cal or teleological, pleasure is the reflex and indication. This
whole treatise, however highly lauded in Germany, probably
from its tendency to favour, more than Kant’s other works, a
speculative construction of the infinite and absolute, seems
forced in its plan and unsatisfactory in its development, and
can only be regarded as interesting and valuable when
taken out of the frame of the arbitrary method in which it is
set. The discussions on teleology amplify, and in some
respects modify, the argument from final causes already
noticed (the physico-theological), in a spirit of remarkable
conciliation with the ordinary strain of natural theology.
The doctrines of aesthetics are propounded for the first
time, and may be thus simply stated. The beautiful is
no real existence in nature, nor is it capable of definition
by a single formula; but it is a harmony (arising from an
unknown cause which we place in nature) between the
free play of the imagination and the laws of the under¬
standing, in the enjoyment of which harmony the plea¬
sure of taste consists. The sublime is the struggle of the
imagination to grasp the vast in quantity or power, awakening
pain from the sense of limitation, but counterbalancing that
pain by the higher pleasure of reason, as it tends at the same
moment towards the infinite, so that the discord is merged
in purer harmony. The chief fault of both parts of this theory
is vagueness. What this harmony of the faculties is, is not
explained; and, in spite of many ingenious efforts, Kant’s pro¬
mised critical deduction of the validity of general principles of
taste, as opposed to individual caprice, ends in little more
than an appeal to the uniformity of our common nature.
This exposition of Kant’s philosophy may close with an
outline of his philosophy of religion, as contained in his
work Religion ivithin the Limits of mere Reason. This
interesting and important treatise, which sets forth at length
Kant’s point of view as regards Christianity, has much to
instruct, but also to pain, an adherent of positive and his¬
torical Christianity ; though a candid appreciation of Kant’s
relation to his theological contemporaries will do something
to mitigate its offence.
Kant starts in this treatise with such strong views of hu¬
man depravity, that he has scandalized the naturalist school,
who ascribe evil to negation, or to the influence of sense.
Free will has, by a mysterious and original surrender, as indi¬
cated by Scripture allegories, placed impure motives above the
law of duty. 'I he forfeiture, though inexplicable, is real and
sad ; and the consequent depravity is universal and radical,
though, from the very nature of freedom, not irrecoverable
by a mighty act of will. This, however, requires a moral
crisis or revolution ; and the struggle with evil must remain
N T. 51
severe, and, in respect of absolute deliverance from it, inter- Kant,
minable. There is, however, a new birth, in which the law
of duty recovers its ascendency ; and the pain of repen¬
tance in the new man satisfies the justice of God for the
sins of the old. This is allegorized in Scripture by the
death of Christ as a comprehensive ideal of all the pangs of
repentance; so that the new man puts on Christ, that is, the
character of a person acceptable to God; is justified by the
grace of God, which allows the hidden change to avail before
it is proved by experience ; and enjoys in the personal con¬
sciousness of this change the witness of the Holy Ghost.
This is a sample of Kant’s moral allegory considered as a
principle of Scripture interpretation ; but nothing can be
more indefinite than the position in which he leaves the
life of Christ as an actual history, and the origin of the
Scriptures as historical documents. He accepts the re¬
cord as current and in wide credit; and as, according
to the further development of his theory, the individual
who has been morally born again, requires for the
strengthening of his principles a visible moral society or
kingdom of God in which to enrol himself, and to edify
himself by sympathy and union ; and as, through an in¬
vincible infirmity of human nature, all such societies de¬
mand some positive religious histories and rites, grounded
on alleged revelation, as the vehicles of the one moral reli¬
gion and the statute-books of the one moral church of God,
Kant regards it as matter of thankfulness that the Christian
revelation so greatly excels all others in its moral contents ;
and he ascribes it to a working of Providence—short, how¬
ever, of miracle—that this revelation has proved hitherto,
and will for an indefinite period prove, able to maintain
its influence as an inspired authority. Meanwhile, it is
the duty of the Christian theologian and preacher to
interpret the historical statements of the Christian books
in a moral sense, and rather to allegorize them than offend
pure reason,—in no case, however, imposing them as ne¬
cessary to salvation ; and it is the duty of the Christian
worshipper, without expecting any special blessing from
the exercises of religion as means of grace, to employ
them as remembrancers of moral obligation, and thus to
revive and strengthen reverence for the moral law, and to
cultivate a practical disposition to regard all duties as Divine
commandments. The gradual disentanglement of religion
from historical dogmas and positive statutes is its moral per¬
fection, and the advance of Christianity to this stage is its
own goal, the final victory of good over evil, or the coming
of the kingdom of God upon earth.
This philosophy of religion could not long satisfy men’s
minds, though it had great influence in confirming the anti¬
supernaturalist direction of the age from which it arose. A
series of pantheistic schemes sprung up to reverse it, prov¬
ing with how little ground Kant had appealed to his own ethi¬
cal religion as a permanent and established contrast to posi¬
tive Christianity. The rightof licentious allegorical interpre¬
tation, in pleading for which Kant so strangely forgets the ab¬
solute imperative of the moral law, idtimately degenerated into
the extravagance of the mythical theory. Schleiermacher,
in so much besides the antipodes of Kant, vindicated the claims
of the devotional elementof our nature against the exclusive¬
ly moral, and thus restored historical Christianity to its just as¬
cendency. And nothing has remained of Kant’s influence in
this department but his tribute to the moral singularity of
Christianity, as the only historical religion which has ex¬
hausted the moral law ; a concession which ought to have
led him farther, since, in the circumstances of its origin, this
amounted to nothing less than a moral miracle.
It is impossible to enter into the speculations and theories
of Kant in other departments, or to narrate farther the re¬
actions and conflicts by which his philosophy as a whole has
been attended. I his belongs not to the biographer of Kant
but to the historian of philosophy. Taken altogether, it is
52 KAN
Kantemir impossible to regard bis writings as other than a prodigy of
|| human intellect, and his influence as one of the mightiest
Karanum forces that has ever ruled philosophical opinion. His mark
is stiH on all the speculative sciences in Germany and
Europe; and though his sceptre has long been broken, the
most opposite systems meet in homage at his tomb. Great
as the currency of his leading ideas has been, much still
remains in his works to be developed by the struggle and
collision of future systems ; and it may be safely pronounced
that no philosopher of the eighteenth century, perhaps none
since the days of Aristotle, has left behind such monuments
of thought, or has so firmly imposed the task of mastering
them on the speculation of all succeeding ages. (j. c—s.)
KANTEMIR. See Cantemir.
KANTURK, a market-town of Ireland, county of Cork,
at the confluence of the Alina and Dallua, 26 miles N.W.
of Cork. The town is neatly built. The principal public
buildings are the sessions’ house, bridewell, workhouse
(covering 6 acres), parish church, and Roman Catholic
chapel. The chief industrial products are beer, flour, and
serges. Pop. (1851) of town, 3125 ; in workhouse, 3352.
KARAK, a small rocky island in the Persian Gulf, about
15 miles in circuit, in N. Eat. 29. 14., E. Long. 50. 20.
On the north side is a small village with about 1000 inha¬
bitants, who support themselves chiefly by fishing and rais¬
ing fruits. Karak affords a safe anchorage for vessels at
all seasons, but especially during the severe gales which
blow from the N.W., and are the prevailing winds in this sea.
KARAMANIA. See Caramania.
KARAMSIN, Nikolai Mikhaelovitch, the greatest
of Russian historians, and one of the greatest writers that
Russia has yet produced, was born in the government
of Simbrisk, Dec. 1, 1765. His family belonged to the
lower grades of the nobility, and Karamsin, according to the
custom of his class, adopted the profession of arms. He
served for some time in the imperial guards, beguiling his
leisure hours in minor literary attempts, especially transla¬
tions from the English and German. Quitting the service
in 1789, he set out on a tour through Western Europe, and
visited Germany, Switzerland, France, and England. His
impressions of this tour which extended over three years,
he gave to the world, in his Letters of a Russian Traveller,
translated into German by Richter in 1804, and from Ger¬
man into English. On his return home he devoted him¬
self entirely to literature, contributing industriously to the
Moscoio Journal (of which many numbers were written
wholly by himself), and afterwards to the Aglaia, the Pan¬
theon, and the Vcestnik Europce. The success of his
poems and miscellaneous essays in these periodicals was
due to their national character and interest. His aim was
to magnify his country by dwelling on her past glories and
rising greatness. Themes so flattering to the national
vanity soon became popular with all classes of the Russian
people, and were further recommended by the elaborate
care and polish of their style. In 1803 his labours were
rewarded with the sinecure office of imperial historiographer,
and the resources thus placed at his command inspired him
with the idea of writing the history of his country. The
national archives were thrown open to him ; the govern¬
ment aided him in his researches in every possible way ; and
the Czar himself countenanced the undertaking by telling
him that “ the Russian people well deserves to know its
history—a history well worthy of the Russian people.” To
select judiciously from the vast mass of materials placed at
his disposal was itself a work of immense care ; and he taxed
the whole powers of his mind to fuse these selections into
a harmonious whole. For thirteen years he toiled with
incredible industry at his task, and in 1816 the first eight
volumes of the work were ready. The Czar himself de¬
frayed the expenses of printing and publication. The
praises of the book had been sounded in every corner of
K A R
the empire, and when it appeared it was eagerly welcomed Karical
by intelligent readers of every class. Its popularity was ||
without precedent or parallel in Russian literature. Honours Kars,
and rewards were heaped upon the author. He was made
a councillor of state, and received from the Czar the order
of St Anne, and a home in the Tauridian Palace, one of the
pleasure-palaces of the Empress Catherine II. Continuing
his task with renewed confidence, Karamsin had, in 1824,
finished the eleventh volume, bringing down the narrative to
the reign of Ivan V. Enfeebled"health disabled him from
carrying out his plans with his former energy, and he did
not live to complete the twelfth volume, which was edited
and carried through the press by his friend Bludov, minister
of the interior. He diedat theTauridian Palace, June 3 (Rus¬
sian style), 1826. A few days before his death, he had receiv¬
ed from the new Czar Nicholas a flattering autograph letter,
and a ukase entitling him to an annual pension of 50,000
roubles. The pension was continued to his widowand family.
Karamsin is with justice styled the father of Russian his¬
tory. Neither before nor since his day has Russia had an
historian worthy of the name. Judged by the standard of
that country, Karamsin’s history deserves all the praises
that have been lavished upon it; tried by a higher standard
it falls far short of them. Everywhere the style is stately
and sonorous, often far too ambitious for the narrative or
the thought. It does not flexibly adapt itself to the ever-
varying importance of the persons or facts passed under re¬
view ; and thus, to the foreign reader at least, it soon be¬
comes wearisome from its monotony. In a historical point
of view the matter of the narrative is also open to strong
objections. The outlines of great characters and events
are often feebly and vaguely drawn. The personages are
not grouped, and the events are not marshalled, in such a
way as to produce any powerful effect, or even to convey
any definite idea to the mind of the reader. Salient points
are missed, and points of very minor importance paraded in
their place. No attempt is made to explain the causes or
the consequences of events or the motives of the actors.
The arrangement likewise is bad. With all these defects,
however, Karamsin’s work is still the only history of Russia.
KARICAL, a town of Hindustan, on the sea-coast of
the province of Tanjore, 50 miles E. by N. from the pro¬
vince of Tanjore. The surrounding territory produces rice
and salt. Karical was granted to the French by the rajah
of Travancore in 1739. The fort is built upon one of the
branches of the Cavery, the mouth of which is so choked
by a bank of sand, that it is only navigable for boats.
In 1760 Karical was taken from the French by Colonel
Monson. It has been frequently taken and retaken since
that period by the contending parties, and was ceded
to the French at the conclusion of the last war. E. Long.
79. 54., N. Lat. 10. 55. The population for town and ter¬
ritory is estimated at—Europeans 43, East Indians 71, na¬
tives 49,193 ; giving a total of 49,307.
KARNAK. See Egypt.
KARNATA, an ancient Hindu geographical division,
which comprehended all the high table-land in the S. of
India, situated above the Ghauts. The name has been
transferred to the adjacent provinces on the sea-coasts of
India, Carnatic, and Canara. In the remote period of
Hindu history, Karnata existed as a powerful empire, which
comprehended great part of the S. of India.
KARNTHEN. See Austria.
KARS, a fortified town on the frontier of Asiatic Turkey,
in the province of Turkish Armenia, five days’journey from
Erzeroum, seven from Batoum, and two from Gumri, in
Russian Armenia; N. Lat. 40. 25., E. Long. 41. 10. Pop.
about 2000 families. It lies in a loop of a cognominal river
in an amphitheatre of rugged hills of black basalt, and is
4000 feet above the level of the sea. On a precipitous rock
overhanging the town on the same side of the river is the
K A It
old castle, a massive building formerly the only defence of
the place. The houses are mostly built of mud, although
the surrounding hills furnish excellent stone, which has
been turned to account in the better class of dwellings.
There are no public buildings of importance, except the
baths, four in number, and the mosques, of which there are
twenty-four. The streets, like those of most Turkish towns,
are narrow and dirty ; and the people are squalid in appear¬
ance.
There are two suburbs without the walls, which may con¬
tain about one-third of the population of the city itself
That suburb known by the name of Ousta Kassi contains
a population of about 500 Armenian Christian families, who
are the most active traders in the town, and cherish strong
Russian sympathies. With the exception of this Armenian
quarter, the people are Mussulman Georgians, who have
adopted a form of the Turkish language. Since their con¬
version to Islamism they have become mixed a good deal
with Turks and Kurds. 1 he latter people inhabit the
mountains to the S.E., while the mountainous region to the
N. is inhabited by a branch of the Georgian stock called
Laz ; the country itself is called Lazistan.
rpp0 town has no manufactures, and but little trade of
its own ; but as it is one of the stations for caravans travel-
lino- between Trebizonde and Western Persia, it has periodic
x-ecurrences of commercial activity. The interest which at¬
taches to Kars arises wholly from the importance of its posi¬
tion as the key of eastern Asia Minor, and from the numer¬
ous sieges it has sustained. The castle was founded in
1586 by Amurath III. It was besieged in 1735 by the
Persian conqueror Nadir Shah, who, though he utterly an¬
nihilated a relieving army of 100,000 Turks, was baffled in
his attempts to take the town, and at last compelled to raise
the siege. A few years later, the town fell into the hands
of semi-independent chieftains, who set the Sultan at de¬
fiance. The Porte, however, compromised matters by ac¬
knowledging the title of one of these, Selim by name, and
ever since his death the governor of the fortress has been
nominated by the Sultan. In 1806 the Russians, under
General Neswatoff, besieged Kars for the fii'st time, but
finding it stronger than they had anticipated, abandoned
the attempt after a short blockade. In 1828 they again ap¬
peared before its walls, under the command of the cele¬
brated Paskiewitsch, and after an obstinate resistance ob¬
tained possession of the town and fort. But the most
famous of all its sieges is that of 1855. Under the com¬
mand of General Williams, an English officer of artillery,
assisted by a few Englishmen and Hungarians (among the
latter of whom was the patriot Kmety), the Turkish garri¬
son, about 17,000 strong, with scarcely any cavalry, held
out against a Russian army under Muravieff of nearly
40,000, including 10,000 cavalry, for five months, amid in¬
credible hardships. The blockade commenced on the I6th
June, and, varied from time to time by skirmishes, and two
attempts to gain possession of some detached forts, continued
until all the Turkish cavalry was destroyed, and the garri¬
son weakened for want of food, when a genei'al assault was
given on the 29th Sept. The Russians had calculated on
taking the town by a coup-de-main in the early morning,
but were foiled by the vigilance of the gai’rison. After a
desperate engagement, which lasted for seven hours and a
half, the Turks were left masters of the field. The Rus¬
sians acknowledged the loss of 6300 men in this attack.
On account of the utter want of cavalry, and the weakness,
both physical and numerical, of the Turkish army, the Rus¬
sians, having retired fi'om the assault, were still able, by
means of their numerous and untouched cavalry, to resume
the blockade. The garrison was obliged at length to capi¬
tulate to their vanquished enemy, after having gone thi'ough
such frightful sufferings that scarce two-thirds of the original
numbers remained, and many of these expired after the
K A S 53
surrender, which took place on the 28th Nov. 1855. By Kasan.
the treaty of 1856 Kars was restored to the Turks. There
are several good accounts of Kars. I he best are Mon-
teith’s History of Prince Paskiewitsch’s Campaigns in Asia
Minor; Narrative of the Siege of Kars, 1856, by H. Sand-
with, M.D., who was an eye-witness of the whole siege.
KASAN, a government in the eastern part of European
Russia, lying between N. Eat. 54. 10. and 56, 45., and E.
Long. 46. 20. and 51. 45., and bounded on the N. by
Viatka, E. by Orenburg, S. by Simbh’sk, and W. by Nov¬
gorod. Area 23,947 square miles. The surface is gene¬
rally flat, with here and there ranges of low hills. In the
S.E. are some long oft’-shoots of the Ural Mountains. The
principal rivers are the Volga and the Kama, the former
entering the government from the W., the latter from the
E. They meet near the centre, and, uniting their streams,
pursue a southern course into Simbirsk. Besides these,
there are many smaller streams, and numerous lakes abound¬
ing in fish. The climate, although very severe in winter, is,
on the whole, salubrious. The rivers ax-e covered with ice
from November to the end of March, but the x’est of the
year is mild, and apples, pears, cherries, plums, apricots, and
other fruits, come to perfection in the open air. The soil
is fertile, but agriculture is very imperfectly carried on.
Sufficient crops of rye, wheat, hemp, flax, &c., are raised for
home consumption. Extensive fbi'ests of pine, fir, and oak,
occupy nearly one-half of the surface. Bears, wolves, and
various kinds of game abound. Besides agriculture and
fishing, the inhabitants find employment in the numerous
distilleries, tanneries, oil and saw-mills, and potash works.
Spinning and weaving are also common pursuits. Pop.
(1851) 1,347,352, of whom about one-half are Russians, the
x'est being Tartars, Circassians, Chuvasses, &c.
The khanat, or kingdom of Kasan, was founded by the
Tartars in 1441, and comprised the present Russian govern¬
ments of Kasan, Pensa, Perm, Simbrisk, and Viatka. It
was subjected to Russia in 1552.
Kasan, the capital of the above government, is situated
on an elevated tongue of land formed by the Kasanka, and
its tributary the Bulak, about 5 miles above the mouth of
the former, in the Volga. It consists of three parts, the
kremlin, the middle town, and the lower town. The krem¬
lin is situated close to the steepest part of the bank, ami is
surrounded by a high stone wall built by the Tartars. It
contains the governor’s and archbishop’s palaces, barracks,
prisons and workhouses for ci’iminals, and the highly vene¬
rated cathedral of the Kasan “ Mother of God.” In the part
of the middle town which adjoins the fortress, the great
size of the bazaar, and the grand appearance of some of the
private houses near it, attest the rank which Kasan held at
an early period. In the bazaar are seen immense piles of furs,
vegetables and fruits both fresh and dried, fish, &c. The
market-place is surrounded by lofty buildings for the most
part of stone, and has x'ecently been much improved in ap¬
pearance by the planting of rows of trees. Many of the old
churches here display elaborate execution, and some of
them, perhaps, excel in this respect even those of Moscow.
The lower town contains several rows of elegant houses,
separated from one another by gai’dens, and inhabited chiefly
by opulent merchants. The chief building here, however,
is the university, an elegant structure of white hewn stone,
having its principal fi-onts adorned with Corinthian columns.
It contains a library of 30,000 vols., a fine collection of
Russian and Tartar coins, scientific apparatus and collec¬
tions, observatory, botanical garden, &c., and had, in 1854,
91 professors, and 366 students. The study of history and
of the Eastern languages receive special attention here.
The Tartars dwell apart from the Russians, having a settle¬
ment on the eminences which surround Lake Kaban in the
vicinity. Kasan is the seat of various manufactures, as
woollens, cottons, leather, soap, cutlery, &c., and carries on
54 K A S
Kaschau an extensive transit trade between Siberia, Bokhara, and
I! European Russia. The town has frequently suffered from
Kasmark. ^re tiiree times within a century after it came into the
  hands of the Russians; in 1552; and, more recently, in
1774, when the ancient archives were destroyed ; in 1815,
when the government powder stores exploded ; and in 1842,
when more than one-half of the city was destroyed. Pop.
(1851) 45,049.
KASCHAU (Hung. Kassa, Lat. Cossovid), a royal free
city of Hungary, finely situated at the confluence of the
Hernad and Csermel, in the county of Abaujvar, 125 miles
N.E. of Pesth. It is enclosed by vineyards, at an elevation
of 1060 feet above the sea-level, in N. Lat. 48.39., E. Long.
21. 16. The town, which is nearly oval in shape, is well
built, its streets are regularly laid out, and it is adorned with
squares, and handsome buildings. The cathedral, called
Elizabeth-Pfarrkirche, with its copper-covered tower, and
fine internal decorations, is as old as the middle of the four¬
teenth century, and is the best specimen of Gothic eccle¬
siastical architecture in Hungary. There are thirteen Ca¬
tholic, and two Lutheran churches, besides the various
government houses, bishop’s palace, schools, museum,
library of 10,000 vols., infirmary, theatre, and aristocratic
mansions. The manufactures consist of leather, hats, to¬
bacco, woollen cloth, paper, and gunpowder. There are
quarries of stone and slate, and works for making tiles and
bricks. The chief trade of Kaschau is in wine. The no¬
bility and upper classes resort to the town in the winter
time. Latin, as well as German, is spoken, and both in
great purity. Pop. (1851) 13,034.
KASHGAR, or Cashgar, The Principality of, forms
the extreme eastern frontier of the Chinese empire, and
reaches on the N. to the chain of snowy mountains. Marco
Polo, who visited it towards the close of the thirteenth cen¬
tury, describes the country as fertile, and covered with
towns, but the Chinese, who conquered it in 1759, describe
the soil as poor. The inhabitants are covetous and frugal
in their mode of living, amounting to 60,000 families, and
inhabiting 17 towns, and 1600 villages and hamlets. It is
now considered a fertile country, producing corn, wine,
fruits, flax, hemp, and cotton.
The town of Kashgar, in the above, on a river of the
same name, is the most westerly place of importance in the
Chinese empire. It is situated in N. Lat. 39. 28., and E.
Long. 73. 55., 140 miles N.W. of Yarkand, and 2300 W.
of Pekin. The town, which is built of brick, is surrounded
with an earthen wall pierced by four gates. The citadel
is strongly garrisoned with Chinese troops. The part of the
town not held by the Chinese is occupied by Mohamme¬
dans, and a few Nestorians. A considerable trade is carried
on between Kashgar and Bokhara, the former affording
silks, porcelain, rhubarb, and tea; while from the latter are
imported woollen cloths, cloth of gold, velvet, mirrors,
ploughshares, and various other articles of merchandise.
The merchants of Kashgar are described as rich and luxu¬
rious, while the artizans are skilful in their various works
and manufactures.
In ancient times Kashgar was called Sule, and is men¬
tioned as having been an important commercial city before
the Christian era. After being the residence of an inde¬
pendent prince, it fell into the hands of the Karakitcyan
khans, then of the Jagatayan khans, and was captured by
the Eluths towards the close of the seventeenth century.
In 1759 it was taken by the Chinese, and during the first
quarter of the present century it contained 10,000 houses,
while its trade was estimated at upwards of 700 camel loads
annually. But both its importance and its trade were di¬
minished by the rebellion which broke out in 1826. Pop.
16,000, exclusive of the Chinese garrison of 8000.
KASMARK, a free town of Northern Hungary, county
of Zips, on the right bank of the Poprad, 125 miles N.E.
K A T
of Pesth. It is an old-fashioned town, with three gates, Kassimow
but its walls have for the most part been removed. It has ^ ||
considerable manufactures of linen and woollen stuffs, and Kattywar.
some trade by means of the river, which also affords good v—
salmon fishing. Pop. 4500.
KASSIMOW, a town of European Russia, capital of a
cognominal circle, in the government of Riazan, and 70
miles E.N.E. of the town of that name. It stands at the
junction of the Rivers Babinka and Oka, and is surrounded
by a wall which has been formed into a pleasant prome¬
nade. The houses are mostly of wood. It carries on a
considerable trade with the East in furs, silk, and cotton
goods; and has some manufactures of cloth, leather, earthen¬
ware, &c. Under Tartar rule, it was a place of some note,
having been the capital of a prince of that race. Some of
the original Tartar inhabitants occupy one of the suburbs.
Pop. (1849) 7781.
KASTAMOUNI, or Costambone, a town in Anatolia,
in Asia Minor, in N. Lat. 41. 22., and E. Long. 33. 55.,
about 230 miles E. of Constantinople, 115 miles N.N.E. of
Angora, 50 miles S. of the Black Sea, and situated 2350 feet
above the sea level. It stands in a dreary hollow, from which
rises a solitary rock surmounted by a fortress in ruins. The
houses are two stories high, but ill-built, and the streets
are both dirty and narrow. The town contains 30 mosques,
4 monasteries, and 24 baths. The trade, which is incon¬
siderable, consists in wool, copper, cotton, and sails for ship¬
ping. It is said there are 32 printing-houses for cotton,
22 dyeing houses, and 2 tanneries. During the Greek
empire, the fortress was in possession of the Comneni. It
was taken by Bajazet, retaken by Timour, and, lastly, con¬
quered by Mohammed I. Pop. 48,000.
KATRINE, Loch {i.e., Lake of the Caterans or Plun¬
derers), one of the most celebrated lakes in Scotland, is
situated in the S.W. of Perthshire, 9^ miles from Callander.
It is about 10 miles long, 2 broad, and of great depth. It
is surrounded with lofty mountains, of which the most pro¬
minent are Benvenue and Ben-a’an, the sides of which are
indented with picturesque ravines and wooded dells. The
lake is fed by the numerous torrents which come down from
the mountains, and it discharges its waters through the wild
pass of the Trossachs to join Lochs Achray and Venacher,
which flow into the Teith. About half-a-mile from the
shore is Eilan Yarnoch, to which the plunderers used to
drive their booty, and which occupies a conspicuous place
in the Lady of the Lake as Ellen’s Isle. Since 1846 a
steamer has plied upon the lake, for the convenience of
tourists.
KATTYWAR, a province of Hindustan, comprehend¬
ing the whole of the peninsula of Guzerat, bounded on the
N. and N.W. by the Runn and the Gulf of Cutch, on the
S.W. and S. by the Arabian Sea, on the E. by the Gulf of
Cambay and the British district of Ahmedabad. It is de-
vided into twelve districts, which are again subdivided into
the separate possessions of a host of Hindu chiefs, some of
whom are tributary to the British government, others to the
Guicowar. The Peishwa formerly claimed very con¬
siderable tributary rights in Kattywar, and the destruction
of his power and sovereignty by the British transferred them
to the latter. In this manner did the British government
acquire superiority over part of the chiefs above mentioned ;
and it being found inconvenient that two authorities should
exercise the power of levying tribute, all have been placed
under the control of that government, by whose agency
the entire tribute is riow collected, the Guicowar’s share
being accounted for to that prince. The number of chiefs
amounts to 216 ; their total revenue to L.450,172, of which
L.104,739 is paid as tribute, leaving a residue of L.345,433.
The chiefs are left in a large degree of independence. A
criminal court has been established for the trial of more
serious offences, through the agency of the British resident
K A V
Kavala but the native chiefs of the several states sit therein as as-
II sessors. The area of the Kattywar is returned at 19,850
Kean. SqUare miles, with a population of 1,468,900.
KAVALA, or Cavallo, a seaport town of European
Turkey, in the S.E. of Macedonia, opposite the island of
Thasos in the Aegean Sea. It is surrounded by walls, and
is farther protected by a citadel. The harbour is small,
but a considerable trade is carried on, cotton and tobacco
being the chief exports. Kavala was the birth-place of
Mehemet Ali, the late Pasha of Egypt. Pop. about 4000.
KAYNS, Kiayns, or Carianers, a singular tribe who
inhabit that mountainous and woody tract which lies be-,
tween Bengal, Aracan, Ava Proper, and the province of
Munipoor or Cassay. They are represented as a simple,
innocent race, speaking a language distinct from that of the
Burmans, and entertaining rude notions of religion. 1 heir
habits are altogether pastoral, and they are the most indus¬
trious subjects of the state. Their villages form a select
community, from which they exclude all other sects, and in
no case reside in any city,’ or marry or intermingle with
strangers. They profess and practise the doctrine of uni¬
versal peace, never engaging in war, nor taking any part
in contests for dominion. They devote themselves to agri¬
culture, the care of cattle, and the raising of poultry. Al¬
most all the provisions used in the country are raised by
this tribe, and they particularly excel in gardening. They
have of late years been oppressed and heavily taxed by the
great Burman landholders, and have in consequence with¬
drawn into the mountains of Aracan. They have no written
laws, but are guided by immemorial custom, which stands
in the place of law. Some learn to speak the Burman
tongue, and a few can read and write it imperfectly. They
are (says Symes, in his account of his embassy to Ava)
timorous, honest, mild in their manners, and exceedingly
hospitable to strangers.
KAZEROON, a town in the province of Ears in Persia,
60 miles W. of Shiraz, in N. Lat. 29. 35., E. Long. 51. 38.
It is a strongly fortified place, situated in a fine valley, and
stands 2800 feet above the sea level. It has manufactories
for cotton, and carries on trade with Shiraz, and is a good
mart for horses. Its population has dwindled down from
50,000 to 5000.
KEAN, Edmund, one of the greatest of English trage¬
dians, was a native of London. His biographers assign the
November of 1787 as the date of his birth, while he himself
maintained that he was born on the 17th of March, 1790.
His parentage is equally dubious. Who his father was is
quite unknown; his mother seems to have been a Miss
Carey, a descendant of the reputed author of the National
Anthem. When a mere infant he appeared on the stage
in the shows and pageants of the fairy-pieces and panto¬
mimes. As he grew up his taste for acting increased with
his years, and by the time he was seventeen he had wan¬
dered over England, Scotland, and Ireland with a strolling
company, and played in every character from Richard III.
down to harlequin in the pantomime. He soon discovered
that tragedy was his forte, and the flashes of genius with
which he sometimes astonished his rustic audiences were
taken by his fellow players as an earnest of future emi¬
nence. His readings in Milton and Shakspeare attracted
the notice of Dr Drury, head-master of Harrow, who inte¬
rested himself in the young actor’s destiny, and sent him to
Eton, where he studied, though with moderate success, for
about three years. Again he resumed his wandering life,
visiting the principal cities in the United Kingdom, and
playing with increasing success in Shylock, Hamlet, Rich¬
ard III., and other Shakspearian characters. In 1813 Dr
Drury’s influence secured him an engagement at Drury
Lane, where he made his debut, January 25 of the follow¬
ing year, as Shylock. The house was tliinly attended, but
he was applauded to the echo. The critics pronounced
K E A 55
him the greatest tragedian of the age, and next morning, Keats,
like Byron after the publication of Childe Harold, “ he
awoke and found himself famous.” His Richard III.,
Othello, Sir Giles Overreach, and Zanga, gained him fresh
laurels, and he was everywhere hailed as a worthy rival of
the Kembles and their school. For several seasons his star
continued to rise; and had his personal character corre¬
sponded at all with his professional eminence, he might
have divided the honours and rewards of social life with
the most respected actors of the day. But he was a man
of no education, and in early life had contracted many vi¬
cious tastes and habits, which seemed to grow upon him
with his years. Finding it necessary to quit England for
a time, he visited America, and on returning he failed to
reinstate himself in the high place he had once held.
Dissipation and imprudence precipitated his fall, and finally
destroyed his health, and on the 15th May 1833, he died
a perfect wreck at Richmond, where he had latterly become
manager of the theatre.
The genius of Kean was first fully recognised and in¬
sisted upon by Hazlitt. It was in all respects a complete
contrast to that of the Kemble family, being impulsive,
fiery, and startling. Though he played in a greater va¬
riety of character than Garrick himself, whom he resem¬
bled in the diminutive slightness of his person, the range
of his real eminence was very narrow. The parts in which
he excelled, Shylock, Richard III., Othello, Sir Giles
Overreach, and Zanga, were probably never played as they
were played by him ; but in his most ambitious efforts, such
as Brutus, Coriolanus, Hamlet, Lear, and Wolsey, he was
left far behind by John Kemble. In his own walk, how¬
ever, he has never had a rival. In the depth, the tragic
force, the terrible intensity of his acting, he overleapt the
barriers of art and training, and rose to heights which genius
only could have dared.
KEATS, John, was born in London on the 29th of
October 1795. His father married the daughter of his
employer, Mr Jennings, the proprietor of large livery-
stables in Moorfields. The offspring of this marriage were
George, who afterwards emigrated to America, John, Tho¬
mas, and a sister several years their junior. John at an
early age was sent, along with his brothers, to Mr Clarke’s
school at Enfield, where the three boys distinguished them¬
selves by their strong pugilistic tendencies and general
fierceness of disposition. They fought with every school¬
fellow who felt inclined to gratify them; and when no foe
was procurable they supplied the deficiency in the best
manner they could by fighting with one another. This
pugnacious spirit was, however, in John combined with a
passionate tenderness ; he gave way on the slightest occa¬
sion to hysterical bursts of laughter and tears; and when,
after a lingering illness, his mother died, to whom he was
fondly attached, he hid himself in a nook under his mas¬
ter’s desk for several days, and gave himself up to uncon¬
trollable grief. His career at school was not for some time
particularly remarkable ; he learned his lessons with ease
and kept a respectable position, but did not seem desirous
to outstrip his fellows. Suddenly his ambition awoke ; he
determined to carry off the prizes in literature as well as in
boxing, and, by dint of energy and sacrificing to his studies
his walks and even his half-holidays, he succeeded. Dur¬
ing this burst of industry at Enfield he translated the
twelve books of the JEneid. On the death of his father
the family were consigned to the guardianship of Mr Ab¬
bey, a merchant, and a sum of L.8000 was left to be di¬
vided amongst them. Keats was designed for the medical
profession, and after leaving school he was apprenticed for
five years to Mr Hammond, a surgeon, at Edmonton. Liv¬
ing in the vicinity of Enfield, he still remained on terms
of intimacy with the family of his former instructor, and
found in his son Charles (since favourably known in litera-
55
\
KEATS.
Keats, ture) a congenial and profitable companion. An ardent
, friendship sprang up between them; they walked togetliex,
talked together about the poets, and sometimes continued
their readings of Chaucer and Spenser fiom evening till
daylight, ft was the study of the latter poet which seems
to have first impelled Keats to original composition, and
the influence of his favourite may be traced throughout all
his productions. On the termination of his apprenticeship he
removed to London for the purpose of walking the hospitals,
and soon made the acquaintance of Mr Leigh Hunt, then edi¬
tor of the Examiner, and subsequently that of Haydon, Haz-
htt, Shelley, and others. Encouraged by the praise of his
friends, he published his first volume, which, out of his own
immediate circle, found few readers. The disease of his fa¬
mily beginning to manifest itself, he was advised to leave
London, and while wandering about England—by his corre¬
spondence we trace him to the Isle of Wight, Margate,
Oxford, and Canterbury—he was busy with the composi¬
tion of Endymion. This, his first poem of any consider¬
able length, was completed in November 1817, and pub¬
lished in the following year, with a very remarkable pre¬
face, exhibiting the earnestness with which he strove to
perfect himself in his divine art, and giving utterance to a
proud yet humble belief in his future fame. Its appearance
was the signal for an assault in the Quarterly more than
usually truculent, even in those days, when the reviewer
wrote inflamed with political animosities, and when his pen
was a tomahawk. Blackwood’s Magazine in its turn emp¬
tied on the head of the poet all the vials of its wrath. No¬
thing was spared. His literary associates, his family, his
private affairs, his profession, and even his name were made
the subjects of the coarsest ridicule. Nor is this much to
be wondered at. Keats had allied himself with a political
party especially obnoxious to the Tories. Hazlittand Hunt
stank in the nostrils of Blackwood and the Quarterly, and
their literary offences were equally unpardonable with their
political ones. If the truth must be told, there was in the
whole “ Cockney School,” as it was then called, a good deal of
effeminacy and puerile sentimentalism. LIunt,its chief leader,
was an apostle of cheerfulness and universal benevolence, and
seemed to look upon fine scenery as only a more exquisite
place for pic-nics. From their peculiar circumstances they
lived very much in the society of one another; they “ bab¬
bled of green fields,” of streams, of flowers. They wrote
sonnets to one another, sent one another bouquets of roses
and baskets of fruit, they wreathed crowns of ivy and placed
them on one another’s foreheads. Although nothing
could be calmer and nobler than the temper of Keat’s
mind, or more resolute than his purpose to cultivate himself
to the utmost, he did not altogether escape the taint of
weak sentiment. His first volume, although it contains one
of the grandest sonnets in the language, and although the
reader is every now and again delighted with fresh and un¬
expected beauties, is exceedingly crude and immature.
The poet maunders about flowers and streams ; he weeps
for the mere delight he has in weeping, and disports him¬
self in the strangest and uncouthest phraseology. . Endy¬
mion, perhaps the richest poem in colour and music given
to the world since the Comus of Milton, is far from being
perfect. The reader is smothered in roses. 1 he story is
lost in ornament. You cannot see the string for the beads.
The charm lies in single lines—seldom in linked and sus¬
tained passages. It is full of the same barbarous and dis¬
sonant diction, the same lax and nerveless versification,
which disfigured his earlier productions. He still wrote in
a style of babyish effeminacy about
“ Plums
Ready to melt between an infant’s gums.”
These and lines of a similar nauseous sweetness are of the
most frequent occurrence.
Shortly after the publication of Endymion, Keats, ac- Keats,
companied by his friend and correspondent, Mr Brown,
started on a pedestrian tour through the north of England
and Scotland. His chief object was, of course, to re-estab¬
lish his health, but he also hoped, by familiarizing himself
with the stern and gloomy scenery of a mountainous re¬
gion, to raise his mind to the pi'oper elevation, and to fur¬
nish him with fit imagery for a story of the fallen Satur¬
nian gods; for at this time he had already planned Hype¬
rion.
The travellers, disappointed in meeting Wordsworth at
the Lakes, bent their course to Scotland, where everything
connected with the memory of Burns interested them ;
and it is characteristic of Keats that he made a point of
writing a sonnet in the cottage where the great poet was
born. They visited Ireland, but soon returned to Ayr¬
shire, and pursued their course northwards, touched at Staffa
and Iona, and penetrated as far as Inverness. From this
point, a severe cold caught on the road and unfortunately
resulting in inflammation of the throat, determined Keats
to return to London. On his arrival he was shocked to
find his younger brother at the point of death ; he hurried
down to Teignmouth, and brought the invalid to London,
who, however, survived the removal only a few days.
This event, in which the poet read a prophecy of his own
fate, threw a deeper shade of despondency over his mind.
Immediately after his brother’s death may be dated the
beginning of the passion which throws such a tragedy over
the closing months of his career. Calling on one occasion
at a friend’s house, he met a young lady, who, on account
of some misunderstanding with her relatives, had come to
reside there. Her beauty seems to have made an indelible
impression on his mind. From her rich Eastern look he
always called her “ Charmain,” and wrote to his brother
George, then in America, “ When she comes into the room
she makes the same impression as the beauty of a young
leopardess.” Her name, and the wildest reference to her,
are constantly appearing in his correspondence, and towards
the close of his life the remembrance of her love and beauty,
and his inexorable disease, seems to have burned up his
very existence. In the fierce alternations of passion, in
failing health, and harassed by pecuniary difficulties, he was
busily engaged in the study of Paradise Lost, filling his
ear with the organ-music of Milton, and preparing his last
volume for the press, containing his odes on the “ Night¬
ingale” and the “ Grecian Urn,"’ the poems of “ Lamia,”
“ Isabella,” the “Eve of St Agnes,” and the fragment of
“ Hyperion.” In the midst of his labours he returned home
late one night in a state of great excitement. He said he
had been on the stage-coach, and had been chilled by the
night air. He was persuaded to go to bed, but had scarcely
laid down when he coughed, and said, “ Bring me a candle.”
A light was brought, he looked at the dark stain on the
white pillow for a few moments in silence, his surgeon’s
knowledge told him the fatal truth, he turned to his friend,
and said calmly, “ I know the colour of that blood, it is
arterial blood, I cannot be deceived in that colour, lhat
drop is my death-warrant, I must die.” Getting rapidly
worse, he was advised to winter in a more genial climate;
and, in the autumn of 1820, Keats, accompanied by his
friend Mr Severn the artist, whose name will be for ever
famous in the annals of friendship, sailed for Italy. In the
Bay of Biscay they experienced a severe storm. “ Water
parted from the sea,” said Keats, as a wave deluged the
cabin. When he reached Naples his sufferings were ag¬
gravated by a ten days’ quarantine. Goaded by disease,
and his own thoughts, he hurried to Home, where every
kindness and attention were shown him by Dr Clarke (now
Sir James) ; and Mr Severn was never absent from his
bedside day nor night. While at Rome, Keats suffered
much from want of sleep, and would rave about his beloved
K E A
Keats, friends in England, of the happy hours he spent in their so-
ciety, but chiefly about her. Once in a moment of good
spirits, and when full of merry talk, he was seized with a
paroxysm of coughing, and vomited a large quantity of
blood. He never rallied after. One night he told his
friend, he wished this inscription to be placed on his grave¬
stone, “ Here lies one whose name was writ in water.” On
the 23d of February he started from sleep crying, “ Severn
•—I—lift me up—I am dying—I shall die easy—don’t be
frightened—be firm and thank God it has come.” He was
lifted up, “ the phlegm boiling in his throat,” his agony
shortly after decreased, and he died quietly as if in slumber.
After his death his body was opened, his lungs were found
completely gone, and his physicians expressed their surprise
that he should have Jived so long. He was buried in the
Protestant cemetery. “ Enough to make one in love with
death,” says Shellev, “to think that one should be buried
in so sweet a place.” Many of the English residing in
Rome at the time followed Keats to his grave.
After Chatterton, Keats is the most extraordinary phe¬
nomenon in our poetic literature ; and, had life been granted
him, there is reason to believe he would have taken his
place in the very first rank of English poets. Misunder¬
stood at the time, and supposed by many to be a senti¬
mental weakling, oppressed by adverse circumstances, and
bowed dow n by a mortal disease, his mind was of the no¬
blest strain. His ambition was lofty, but he duly estimated
his own powers and the difficulties he had to encounter; he
shrunk from no labour, and gathered ardour from defeat.
Those who are accustomed to consider him a poetic vision¬
ary,—who turned from the realities of life to shed melodious
tears over morning roses, and to fall into unnatural extasies
at the sight of beautiful women, w ill be surprised to find in
his letters warm human sympathies, practical sense, clear
judgment, a considerable knowledge of mankind, and a
healthy contempt of everything mean and degrading; they
will see the sun of a strong intellect, rising out of the co¬
loured mists of fancy and sentiment, consuming them in its
path, and will be led to form the highest anticipations of
the day which would have followed, had not the luminary
been arrested by the hand of death just wdien it emerged
full-orbed above them all.
The advance from Endymion to Hyperion, taking into
consideration the shortness of the time in which it was ac¬
complished,—about three years,—is without a parallel in
our literary history. The glorious and uncultured profusion
of the earlier poem is displeasing to a pure taste, from its
very flush of colour and excess of sweetness. All form
and outline are lost in the exuberance of ornament. In
his latter poems, Hyperion especially, he had learned to
husband his strength, and had acquired that last gift of the
artist, to know where to stop. There is no excess, nothing
extraneous, everything is clear and well-defined, as the
naked limbs of an Apollo. He had overcome, too, the fop¬
peries of style, the taste for conceits and fantastical diction
so characteristic of the poets amongst whom he lived, and
which so often marred the beauty of his earlier performances,
and had gained a noble simplicity, and a pomp and depth
of music which seems caught from the “ far-foamed sea
sands.” One could hardly have expected that the florid
and luscious fancies of Endymion should have ripened into
the terrible power which gave us the picture of the fallen
gods, stretched here and there on the flinty rocks, and veiled
with everlasting twilight,—
“ Their clenched teeth still clenched, and all their limbs
Locked up like veins of metal cramped and screwed.”
The same wonderful artistic sense is exhibited in the Eve
of St Agnes. It is rich in colour as the stained windows of
a Gothic cathedral, and every verse bursts into picturesque
and graceful fancies; yet all this abundance is so subdued
VOL. XIII.
K E I 57
and harmonized in such wonderful keeping with the story Kedarnath
and the mediaeval period, as to render it a perfect chryso- II
lite—a precious gem of art. Perhaps the most exquisite lveighley-
specimen of Keats’ poetry is the Ode to the Grecian Urn ;
it breathes the very spirit of antiquity,—eternal beauty and
eternal repose.
In one of his letters, Keats gives utterance to the hope,
that “ after his death he would be among the English
poets.” This anticipation has been abundantly verified.
Even in his lifetime the tide had turned in his favour.
The late Lord Jeffrey, in 1820, after regretting that his at¬
tention had not been earlier turned to the book, remarks,
that “ Endymion is, in truth, at least as full of genius as
absurdity;” and concludes, “ We are very much inclined,
indeed, to add, that we do not know any book which we
would sooner employ as a test to ascertain whether anyone
had in him a native relish for poetry, and a genuine sensi¬
bility to its intrinsic charm.” With but one or two excep¬
tions, no poet of the last generation stands at this moment
higher in the popular estimation, and certainly no one has
in a greater degree influenced the poetic development of
the last thirty years. (a. s—n.)
KEDARNATH, a celebrated place of Hindu pilgrim¬
age in Northern Hindustan, situated in the mountains of
Gurwhal. Those who perform this difficult pilgrimage
have to travel over the most steep and inaccessible roads,
which, during half the year, are blocked up with snow.
The place lies about 14 or 15 miles of direct distance
W.N.W. of Bhadrinath. The ceremonies observed here
are nearly the same as at other places of Hindu ablu¬
tion. The most peculiar of these is that of the widows
shaving their heads, having previously bathed and purified
themselves in the Ganges, which is here a narrow stream.
N. Lat. 30. 44., E. Long. 79. 17.
KEDGEREE, a town of Bengal, situated near the mouth
of the Hooghly, where ships frequently stop either in enter¬
ing or going out of the river. The river here expands to a
breadth of nearly 9 miles across. It is esteemed healthier
than Diamond Harbour. The first section of telegraphic
communication in India extended from this place to Cal¬
cutta, a distance of 40 miles. Lat. 21. 53., Long 88.
KEDJE, or Kedgb:, in Beloochistan, the capital of Mek-
ran, is situated on the Mooleanee River, in N. Lat. 26.20.,
E. Long. 62. 15. It is defended by a strong fortress on an
eminence, on three sides of which the town is built. It
once contained 3000 houses, and carried on considerable
trade, which has fallen off' since the Khan of Kelat ceased
to protect commerce.
KEELING, or Cocos Islands, a group in the Indian
Ocean, in S. Lat. 12. 5., E. Long. 96. 53., consisting of a
circular chain of small coral islands, enclosing within them
a spacious harbour called Port-Albion. Those islands, of
which the chief are Horsburgh and Keeling, are inhabited
by Malays and a few English, and covered with numerous
cocoa nut and other trees. They were discovered by Keel¬
ing in 1609.
KEFIL, a village of Irak Arabi, held in peculiar vene¬
ration both by Jews and Mohammedans as the tomb of
the prophet Ezekiel, and hence a frequent resort of pil¬
grims. It is 14 miles S. of Hillah.
KEHL, a town in Baden, on the right bank of the
Rhine, where that river is crossed by a bridge of boats,
situated in N. Lat. 48. 36., E. Long. 7. 52., and directly
opposite Strasburg. It was at one time a bidwark of Ger¬
many, and, having been taken by the French, was fortified
by Vauban. It has been frequently taken and retaken
since, but now the fortifications are dismantled. The in¬
habitants are employed mostly in the transit trade. Pop.
1500.
KEIGHLEY, or Keithlet, a market-town in the West
Riding of Yorkshire, situated in a deep valley, near Black-
H
58 K E I
Keith stone Edge, on a little stream which runs into the Aire, 44
II miles W. of York, and 204 from London by the Great North-
v Kelat‘ ern and Midland line. Although containing many fine stone
/ houses, yet, as a town, it is not regularly built. 1 he parish
church, a large handsome building, occupies the site of one
erected during the time of Henry I. The living, which is a
rectory, is in the power of the Duke of Devonshire. There
are also places of worship for the Independents, Methodists,
Wesleyans, Baptists, Quakers, and Swedenborgians. Keigh¬
ley has a neat court-house, a mechanics’ institute, a market¬
place, a library, a savings bank, and several national schools.
The manufactures consist of coarse stuffs, merinos, and
worsted yarns. The various mills employ upwards of2000
people. The canal which joins this town with Hull and
Liverpool affords a cheap means of transit for goods. Mar¬
ket-day, Wednesday. In 1645 Keighley was the scene of
a battle between the royal and parliamentary forces. Pop.
(1851) 13,050.
KEITH, a market-town in Banffshire, 20 miles W. of
Banff, situated on the Isla, and consisting of three villages,
Old Keith, New Keith, and Fife Keith, all surrounded by
hills. Old Keith is very ancient, irregularly built, and
mean in appearance ; New Keith contains a market-place,
a parish church, an Episcopal and a Roman Catholic chapel,
and meeting-houses for other denominations, a court-house,
several branch banks, libraries, and schools. Fife Keith,
connected with Old Keith by two bridges, is a finely built
village, and dates from 1816. The inhabitants are en¬
gaged in weaving and bleaching, and also in manufacturing
woollens, linens, and tobacco. Before the introduction of
railways Keith was the chief starting point for cattle-dealers
going to the south. At Old Keith the forces of the Pre¬
tender, in 1745, gained an advantage over the Royalists.
In the neighbourhood Ferguson the mechanical philosopher
was born. Markets weekly. Pop. (1851) 2101.
KELAT, a city of Asia, the capital of Beloochistan, and
thence called Kelat, or the city. Its situation is elevated
on the western side of a well-cultivated plain or valley,
about 8 miles in length and 2 or 3 in breadth, the greater
part of which is laid out in gardens and other enclosures.
The town is built in the form of an oblong square; three
sides of it are encompassed by a mud wall 18 or 20 feet
high, flanked at intervals of 250 paces by bastions, which,
as well as the wall itself, are pierced with numberless loop¬
holes for matchlock-men ; but no cannon are now mounted.
The defence of the fourth side of the city is formed by the
western face of the hill on which it is built, being cut away
perpendicularly. There are within the walls 2500 houses,
without the wall, 1250. They are built of half-burnt brick
or wooden frames, and plastered over with mud or mortar;
the streets are broader than those of native towns, and have
mostly a raised pathway on either side for foot passengers,
and an uncovered kennel in the centre, which is a recipient
for all filth, and dirt, and stagnant water. The upper storeys
of the houses also stretching across the streets, render the
part beneath them gloomy and damp. The palace of the
chief of Kelat stands on the summit of the hill on which
the city is built. Viewed from the outside, it appears an
irregular heap of common mud buildings, with flat roofs,
forming terraces, protected by low parapet walls pierced
with loop-holes. The quarter on which the khan’s residence
is erected has been enclosed by a mud wall with bastions.
The bazaar of Kelat is extensive, and well furnished with
every kind of goods, and with provisions of all sorts, which
can be procured at a moderate rate. The town is also sup¬
plied with delicious water, from a spring in the face of a
hill on the opposite side of the plain, whence it meanders
through the centre of it. The inhabitants of Kelat may be
divided into four classes, namely, the Belochees or Brahooes,
Hindus, Afghans, and Dehwars. The latter are the prin¬
cipal merchants of the place, and are therefore encouraged
K E L
by the chief. On the invasion of Afghanistan by the Bri- Kelat
tish in March 1839, Mehrab Khan, the ruler of Beloochis- II
tan, was considered to evince such hostile feeling towards Keller-
the British, as required that he should be chastised, and ^ maDD-
rendered incapable of future mischief; and in the following v'—V"
November, on the return of the Bombay column from
Cabul to Scinde, Major-General Willshire was detached
from Quetta against Kelat. One of the gates was knocked
in by the fire of the horse-artillery guns which accompanied
the force, and the town and citadel immediately stormed,
the Khan being killed fighting sword in hand, and with
him above 400 of his troops; nearly all the rest, amount¬
ing to about 2000, were made prisoners. The British
force on this occasion consisted of 1261 men. Their loss
was 31 killed and 107 wounded. In the following year,
a weak garrison of sepoys was overpowered by some insur¬
gent Beloochees, who made themselves masters of the
town, deposed the chief placed in power by the British,
made prisoner the British officer in command, and subse¬
quently put him to death. In the close of the same year,
the place was retaken by General Nott. In 1841 the
British government recognised as ruler Nasir Khan, the
youthful son of Mehrab Khan, and subsequently withdrew
their troops from his dominions. The population of the town
and suburbs is about 12,000. Lat. 28. 52., Long. 66. 29.
Kelat, or The Fortress, is a singular valley in the pro¬
vince of Khorassan, in Persia, which extends, in a direc¬
tion nearly E. and W., from 50 to 60 miles in length, and
from 12 to 15 in breadth, situated amongst the hills that
divide the plain of Mushed from the desert. It is sur¬
rounded by mountains so steep and difficult by nature as to
be almost impassable, and they have been rendered com¬
pletely so by art. The rocks, says Fraser, are scarped in
the outside, presenting a mural appearance, so that there is
no possibility of scaling them ; and beyond these is a lesser
range, with a hollow between, which the natives call the
ditch. Not less care has been taken in the inside to in¬
crease every natural difficulty, so as to render a descent
into, or an escape from, the valley equally impracticable.
There are two openings in this valley, one at the western
and one at the eastern extremity. These openings, which
are both narrow and intricate, are called the gates of the
fortress, and have been built up and fortified in such a
manner that it is impossible to force an entrance. On
these fortified gateways there are towers where watchmen
are continually posted to give warning of all who approach,
and none are admitted except those who have passed from
the end of the valley. In this valley there is a great deal
of cultivation, and its population amounts to 2000 families.
It was in this stronghold that Nadir Shah intended to
deposit his vast treasure. Futeh Alice Khan was placed
in command of the fortress by Alice Shah, after the death
of Nadir, and was killed in a brawl which subsequently took
place. His son succeeded in putting the murderer to death,
and he has ever since retained possession of the fortress.
He is an independent chieftain, possessed of 1000 horse
and 2000 foot, and can considerably increase the number
by arming his villagers. As he is, besides, on good terms
with the Turkomans of the desert, he can always com¬
mand a large force of their cavalry.
KELLERMANN, FuANgois-CmusTOPHE, Duke of
Valmy, one of the most distinguished generals of the French
Revolution, was born at Strasbourg in 1735. Choosing the
career of arms, he rose slowly through the various grades,
and when the Revolution broke out he obtained a command
in the army of the Moselle. The Duke of Brunswick, with
an army of 60,000 Austrians and Prussians, was then ad¬
vancing towards the French frontier, and the raw levies of
the republic were vastly inferior, both in number and dis¬
cipline, to his well-trained warriors. Success at first at¬
tended his manoeuvres, and Kellermann was cut off’ from
K E L K E M 59
Kells the main body of the French under Dumouriez. By forced
II marches he effected a junction with the commander-in-chief
Kemaon. on the September 1792; but taking up a position
different from that which had been assigned to him, he found
himself on the following morning on the plateau of Valmy,
“projected like a cape into the midst of the lines of the
Prussian bayonets.” In this position the French maintained
a desperate struggle during the whole day, and being rein¬
forced at night by Dumouriez, they drove the Prusso-Aus¬
trian troops from the field. The victory of Valmy is memor¬
able as the first of that great series of victories achieved by
the arms of revolutionary France. Goethe, who was pre¬
sent during the engagement, told the troop to which he was
attached, “From this place, and from this day forth, com¬
mences a new era in the world’s history; and you can all
say that you were present at its birth.” Professor Creasy
has given Valmy a place among the fifteen decisive battles
of the world. The victor of that day afterwards rose to still
higher commands in the French army, and, in 1795, became
general-in-chief of the armies of the Alps and Italy. Under
Napoleon, he rose to be a peer and senator of the empire;
and when the Bourbons were restored, he continued to re¬
tain office under them. He died in 1820; and, in accord¬
ance with his last wishes, his heart was buried in the field
of Valmy, the scene of his greatest triumph.
KELLS (originally Reulis), an ancient market-town
and municipal burgh, county Meath, Ireland. It is plea¬
santly situated on the Blackwater, 36 miles N.W. of
Dublin, but is, for the most part, meanly built and dirty.
Amongst the antiquities of the town and neighbourhood
are the old church, a round tower 99 feet high, a richly
carved cross, and some remains of a monastery, said to have
been founded by Columba in 550. In the neighbourhood
is the seat of the Marquis of Headfort. Pop. 3997.
KELP. See Glass, § Manufacture of Crown Glass.
KELSO, the county town of Roxburghshire, Scotland,
is picturesquely situated at the confluence of the Tweed
and Teviot, 23 miles S.W. from Berwick. The general
aspect of the streets is clean and agreeable; and the mar¬
ket-place, a spacious square in the centre of the town, has
a highly respectable appearance. Towering above the mo¬
dern edifices are the majestic ruins of the abbey, founded
by David L, and demolished by English invaders in 1545,—
one of the noblest extant relics of the early Norman style.
Over the Tweed is a handsome bridge by Rennie. Kelso
is well furnished with schools and libraries, and has two
newspapers. It was the first provincial Scottish town that
could boast of a printing press. The manufactures are un¬
important. Shopkeeping and agriculture are the main
sources of employment. There is a weekly corn-market,
and the principal fair in the S. of Scotland, St James’ Fair,
is held here in August. In the vicinity is a fine race¬
course. About a mile from the town, on a commanding
eminence, are the ruins of the once strong castle of Rox¬
burgh, fronting which, to the N., is the magnificent mo¬
dern residence of the Duke of Roxburgh, Fleurs Palace.
1 wo miles to the N. is the village of Ednam, the birth¬
place of the poet Thomson. Pop. 4783.
KEMAON, or Kumaon, a district of Northern Hin¬
dustan, which was formerly a Hindu principality, conter¬
minous with that of Duti on the E., the boundary line being
the Cali River. On the W. it was separated from Gurwal
by the Ramgunga, and extended a considerable way into
the plains of Bareilly. The modern district of Kemaon, as
it has been regulated by the British since its conquest in
1815, comprehends the whole tract of country between the
Aluknunda and the Cali, from the plains to the highest
pinnacle of the Himalaya, which space includes a large por¬
tion of the Gurwal province S.E. of Alcananda, whilst the
Cali River on the E. forms a natural and well-defined
boundary towards Nepal. The geographical divisions are
Kemaon Proper, and British Gurwal, within the limits of Kemaon.
which latter is the Pass of Niti, supposed to have been the
earliest and most frequented route into Chinese Tartary.
Area 7000 square miles.
Kemaon is situated amongst the lower ranges of the Hi¬
malaya Mountains. It is separated from the lower districts
of Bareilly and Morabad by a thick forest of nearly two
days’ journey, which surrounds the whole and skirts the
margin of the mountains. The soil is marshy, and the at¬
mosphere, during two-thirds of the year, is more pestilential
than that of the Sunderbunds; it is, says Heber, “ a literal
belt of death, which even the natives tremble to go near,
and which, during the rains more especially, the monkeys
are forced to abandon. After the middle of November this
is dry, practicable, and safe.” Kemaon Proper is separated
on the N.W. from the province of Gurwal by a range of
mountains, which, in point of ruggedness, presents a con¬
trast to the hills of Kemaon. These latter appear to rise
in a regular gentle acclivity from their bases; and the soil
is fertile, consisting of rich earth, which gives nourishment
to fine verdure and extensive forests. The hills are also
intersected by rather spacious valleys, rendered fertile by
tillage; and the cultivation is more extended, and carried
farther up the hills, than in Gurwal with a denser popula¬
tion. In these valleys, rice is produced in abundance, and
the cultivator is thus in a manner rendered independent of
the seasons, as the numerous mountain-streams, descending
in every direction, enable him to irrigate all the lower
lands. The higher lands produce wheat, barley, and va¬
rious small grains, which being raised in a redundant quan¬
tity, form an article of traffic with Bhutant. There are
several passes into Kemaon from the districts of Bareilly
and Morabad, but those leading through Cossipoor and Ro-
derpoor are considered as the best, and are most frequented.
The first leads by Chilkeah, where an annual fair is held,
to which the hill people resort in great numbers. Similar
meetings also occur at Bhagesur, on the banks of the Cali,
each continuing ten days, and are frequented by merchants
from Bhote and the low countries. Chilkeah is one of the
principal marts of trade in Kemaon, and through that
country into Thibet and Tartary. The article which meets
with the readiest sale is cloth with distinct colours on each
side. European articles of a coarse quality are also in de¬
mand, such as knives, razors, wine-glasses, tumblers, spy¬
ing and looking glasses, spectacles, and cheap enamelled
watches; and Bishop Heber also saw exposed to sale Eng¬
lish cloths and Eastern shawls of good appearance, with
many other serviceable and valuable commodities. The
greatest staple that is exported from this southern frontier
has always been timber, found in the immense forests already
mentioned, which skirt the border. Here the saul forests
are of great extent, and produce some of the best timber of
that species in India. Owing to the difficulty of access, it
is necessary to convert the trees into planks on the spot,
that they may be the more easily transported to the popu¬
lous parts of the country. In some parts they have to be
carried down a perpendicular height of 500 feet. The fir-
tree grows to an immense size, and it is much stronger than
the firs of Europe, and as heavy as teak, the grain strong
and full of turpentine. Some of the trees have from 60 to
70 feet clear of branches, and the spans are from 20 to 23
inches in diameter. Rosin, turpentine, doedwar, oil, and
hemp of an excellent quality, are to be found among the
Kemaon Hills. The bamboo, though small, grows remark¬
ably tough, and seems to gain consistency and soundness
from a certain degree of frost. The same is said to be the
case with the plantains. The tea-plant grows wild all
through Kemaon, but cannot be made use of, from an
emetic quality which it possesses. The upper mountains
produce copper, lead, iron, and the Panar River gold, but
there is no mine ot consequence. The northern parts are
60 K E M
Kemaon. cold, and yield pasture for numerous flocks of sheep; and
in summer a considerable intercourse is carried on with the
country subject to China.
The towns and villages of K^piaon, when viewed from a
distance, present a neat appearance. But a nearer approach
does not confirm these favourable prepossessions. They
are generally surrounded by dirt and filth ; though Bishop
Heber mentions, that the town of Almorah is very neat,
with a natural pavement of slaty rock, which is kept beau¬
tifully clean. He mentions, however, of the peasantry,
namely, the Khasyas, that, near Almorah, though they are
honest, peaceable, and cheerful, they are dirty to a degree
which he never saw amongst the Hindus, and extremely
averse to any improvement, using their women ill, and em¬
ploying them in the most laborious tasks. These people
are rigid Hindus. The houses are generally constructed
of large masses of stone, roofed with slate, and of two stories
in height, the lower story being allotted to cattle. Their
poverty is extreme, their food consisting of coarse cakes
made from the grain of a kind of holcus, in which the flour,
bran, and husk, are mixed together, and baked, or rather
scorched, on the fire. In other parts, however, as he ad¬
vanced farther among the hills, Bishop Heber saw tolerably
neat and comfortable cottages, the people better fed and
clothed than most of the Khasyas. Polygamy is common
among the lower classes.
Wild animals abound in the mountains and forests of
this country. The tiger is found, quite up to the glaciers,
of size and ferocity undiminished. There are also lynxes,
and bears are common and mischievous throughout the pro¬
vince. Though they do not, except when pressed by hun¬
ger, eat flesh, preferring roots, berries, and honey, yet, as
if out of capricious cruelty, they often worry and destroy
passengers. The chamois is not uncommon in the snowy
mountains, but scarce elsewhere; and the hares are much
finer and larger than those in Hindustan, and not much
inferior to those of Europe. The musk-deer is also found
in the highest and coldest parts of the province, and the
neighbouring countries of Thibet and Tartary. It cannot,
says Heber, even bear the heat at Almorah. In like man¬
ner, the yak or mountain ox of Tartary droops as soon as
it leaves the neighbourhood of the ice. The shawl-goat
will live, but its wool degenerates. On the other hand,
English dogs, impaired by the climate of the plains, im¬
prove in strength, size, and sagacity, amongst the moun¬
tains ; and it is remarkable that, in a winter or two, they
acquire the same fine short shawl-wool, mixed with their
own hair, which distinguishes the indigenous animal of the
country. The same is in some degree the case with horses.
Flying squirrels are also common amongst the colder and
higher parts of these woods. Some of the marmots, of the
alpine kind, also abound in the neighbourhood of the snow.
A singular species of wild dog is mentioned as a native of
these hills. In form and fur these animals resemble a fox,
but they are much larger. They hunt in packs, give tongue
like dogs, and possess a very fine scent. They make great
havock of the game amongst the hills, and even attack and
destroy the tiger, overpowering him by their numbers. Of
birds, the vulture is to be found of a remarkable strength
and size. Eagles are numerous, and very large and for¬
midable ; and these birds do much injury to the shepherds
and goatherds, and sometimes carry away the poor naked
children of the peasants. Their nests being in the remote
glaciers, and among inaccessible crags, there is no possi¬
bility of destroying these dangerous animals. There are
larks in Kemaon, not very different from the English, as
well as quails, partridges, pheasants, thrushes, &c. A little
bird resembling the robin, and the goldfinch, are found at
the foot of the snowy mountains.
This country, though, from its elevation, the climate is
colder than in Hindustan, with ice and snow in winter, is
K E M
remarkably unhealthy, from a certain malaria which pre- Kemble,
vails in all the lower valleys, especially during and after the
rainy season, and which gives rise to ague, intermittents,
and fevers, which assume the appearance of typhus, and
under which the powers of life decline more rapidly, though
often not more surely, than under continued fits of the ague.
Several of the inhabitants seen by Bishop Heber in this
devoted region, he describes as singularly wretched; the
fever and the ague destroying all their energy, and prevent¬
ing them from adopting the simple means of dry and well-
raised dwellings, and sufficient clothing, to support life and
health. “ They are,” says the intelligent traveller already
quoted, “a very ugly and miserable race of human beings,
with large heads, and particularly prominent ears, flat noses,
tumid bellies, slender limbs, and sallow complexions, and
have scarcely any garments but a blanket of black wool,
though most of them have matchlocks, swords, and shields.”
The chief region of insalubrity is at the foot of the lowest
hills, where a long, black, and level line of forest extends,
though the mountainous country is also more or less un¬
healthy in all the low valleys. The fatal malaria is described
as prevailing from the middle of March to the middle of
October. “ No one,” says Mr Hodgson, “can traverse this
region without feeling that the pestilence is generated by
the undue and almost exclusive prevalence of vegetable
exhalations in the atmosphere.” There is no free ventila¬
tion, and the forest and lesser hills are absolute wildernesses
of rank vegetation. Yet it is worthy of remark, that in this
pesthouse, from which all mankind flee during eight months
of every twelve, constantly reside and are bred some of the
mightiest quadrupeds in the world. The tiger, elephant,
and rhinoceros abound; and these malarious regions nourish
also the Python hivittatus, and other huge creatures of this
order.
This country was acquired by the British government in
1815, when its limits wrere extended to the westward by
the annexation of a portion of Gurwal, E. of the Alca-
nanda. Prior to this, it was ruled by military chiefs, who
owned a nominal allegiance to Nepal, though they were
nearly independent within their own territories. They were
extremely tyrannical, and not only divided the lands amongst
themselves, without regard to the rights of the ancient pro¬
prietors, but, on any arrears of rent, sold the wives and
children of the peasants as slaves, to an amount almost in¬
credible, whilst they quelled every murmur among the people
by the most barbarous severity. The court of Nepal
issued repeated edicts against the practice, but without
effect, since most of the young persons w ho w’ere of a mar¬
ketable age were sold into slavery, when the British, to the
great joy of the inhabitants, w'ho gave them every possible
aid, acquired possession of the country. Since this period
uninterrupted tranquillity has prevailed, which may be partly
ascribed to the peaceable and orderly habits of the people,
and to the general popularity of the British government.
The revenue of the country has been fixed at 154,794
rupees for Kemaon Proper, and at 68,644 rupees for the
annexed districts of Gurwal; and, as a proof that the assess¬
ment is moderate, it has been punctually realized, and has
even been paid in many instances in advance.
The population of Kemaon Proper is estimated at 166,755;
that of Gurwal, E. of Alcananda, is yet more considerable.
Almorah, the chief town is in Eat. 29. 35., Long. 79. 42.
KEMBLE, John Philip, one of the greatest trage¬
dians that England ever produced, was born on the 1st of
February 1757, at Prescot, in Lancashire. Mr Roger
Kemble, his father, though only the manager of a provin¬
cial company of actors, was of ancient and respectable
family; and, sensible of the disadvantages attending his
own profession, sent his son to receive his education at a
Roman Catholic seminary, for the purpose, it is believed,
of qualifying him to take orders in the Catholic church.
K E M
Kemble. He was also a student for two or three years at the College
of Douay; but the strength of natural bias prevailed, and
he became an actor in 1776. After performing in York,
Liverpool, Manchester, Edinburgh, Dublin, and other
places, and gradually acquiring reputation, he made his^
first appearance before a London audience on the 30th of
September 1783, in the character of Hamlet. He was
received by the public generally with great applause, al¬
though, as always happens in such cases, a party lagged
behind, preferring and paying greater homage to a favourite
idol of longer standing. He rapidly attained an acknow¬
ledged pre-eminence in the tragic scene, and took dial
decided lead which he ever afterwards maintained. In 1790
he became manager of Drury Lane T heatre, which he
conducted, with only a slight interruption, till 1801 ; and
during that period he did much to reform the morals and
raise the character of the stage. In 1794, he brought out
a musical piece of his own, entitled Lodoiska, which was
very successful at the time, and is still occasionally pei-
formed. He likewise revived old pieces of merit, and
brought forward many new productions, some of which were
of considerable merit, altered by himself. In 1802 he
visited the Continent; and, on his return to London, pur¬
chased for L.24,000 a sixth share of Covent G arden Theatre,
and became manager of that establishment. His career in
this place was brilliantly successful, but partially suspended
in consequence of the total destruction of the theatre by
fire in 1809. A new edifice, however, was speedily reared,
and opened with an increase of entrance-money, which,
along with certain arrangements regarding the private
boxes, created a series of disturbances, known by the name
of O. P. riots. These lasted for sixty-six nights, and only
ceased when the public carried their point. Kemble stood
the storm with firmness; but during the whole of that
period he never showed himself on the stage without being
grossly insulted. In 1812 he retired for two years, con¬
ceiving he hid done his part, and being desirous of repose.
His return to the stage was hailed with the utmost enthu¬
siasm. He rose to the summit of popularity, and was
acknowledged, without dispute, as the first actor in Britain,
probably in the world. His health, however, began to give
way ; and he formed the resolution of taking farewell of the
stage, which he did on the 23d of July 1817, after perform¬
ing, with unabated power, his great character of Coriolanus.
The “ Valedictory Stanzas” addressed to him at a public
meeting held in that month, do equal honour to the actor,
and the poet Mr Campbell; and Sir Walter Scott composed
the “Farewell Address” which he delivered on taking leave
of the Edinburgh stage in the month of March preceding.
He retired to the Continent, and fixed his residence at
Lausanne, where he died on the 26th of February 1823.
In judging of the talents of Kemble, we must regard
him in the threefold character of actor, manager, and stage-
reformer. In reference to the first, tragedy,—and that of the
most stately and majestic character,—was the line in which
he excelled. His person was on a scale suited to the stage,
being tall and stately; his countenance, in nobleness of ex¬
pression, resembled the finest models of the antique; and
his movements and demeanour, at once majestic and grace¬
ful, corresponded to the heroic cast of his form and features.
The grand characters of republican Rome,—Coriolanus,
Cato, Brutus,—were those to which he was led, both by
nature and by choice; but he was no less powerfully effec¬
tive in Macbeth, King John, Wolsey, Lear, Hamlet,
Jacques, and Penruddock. The memory of his triumphs
in these and many other parts is still fresh in the hearts of
thousands, among whom it is not an uncommon remark,
that another Shakspeare may appear, sooner than another
Kemble. The personal character and influence of Kemble
consummated the work of stage-reform which Garrick had
begun. Austerely correct in his own morals, he enforced
K E M 61
the same high standard on all connected with the theatres Thomas a
which he managed. A student and a scholar, he was a Kempis.
welcome guest at the tables of the highest persons in the 's,—
land; and his success in social as well as professional life
gave a character to the British stage such as it never enjoyed
before or since his day. Fie turned his learning to account
in reproducing the exact costumes and manners of the age
to which every piece belonged, and correcting the ridicu¬
lous anachronisms which had crept upon the stage. His
taste was shown in the correctness and splendour of the
scenic decorations, on which he bestowed much care and
expense. His life, by his friend Boaden, 2 vols. 8vo, 1825,
is a well-meant, though very inadequate monument of his
fame.
KEMPIS, Thomas a', the reputed author of the De Imi-
tatione Christi, was born about the year 1380 at Kempen,
near Cologne. His family name was Hammerchen or
Hammerlein (in Latin, Malleolus), but he always called him¬
self from his birth-place. Destined from an early age for
the church, he was sent to receive the necessary training
in a school at Deventer, belonging to the Brethren of the
Common Life {gemeines Lebens). In his twenty-second
year he joined the monks in the convent of St Agnes, near
Zwoll, of which his brother, John a Kempis, was prior.
After a noviciate of six years, he took the monastic vows,
and remained a canon in the convent for the long period of
sixty-five years. He died in 1471, at the advanced age of
ninety-two. The greater part of his life seems to have been
spent in transcribing books of devotion. One Bible in four
folio volumes is mentioned which cost him fifteen years to
copy and illuminate. His transcript of the famous essay on
the Imitation of Christ has given rise to a controversy as
to the authorship of that work, which has been keenly main¬
tained, and is still as far from being decided as ever. Be¬
sides A' Kempis, two other candidates have been brought
into the field, whose claims have been warmly advocated
by their respective partizans. These are Jean Gerson, •
chancellor of the University of Paris, and Jean Gersen,
whose supporters describe him as abbot of a monastery at
Vercelli in the thirteenth century, while his opponents deny
his existence altogether, and pronounce his name to be a
corruption of Gerson’s. The authorities for each opinion
are pretty equally balanced. German and Flemish writers,
countenanced by the Sorbonne, contend stoutly for A' Kem¬
pis ; the French are equally zealous for their distinguished
countryman ; while the claims of Gersen are upheld by the
most learned of the Benedictines. In favour of A' Kempis
has been urged the testimony of many editions bearing his
name, one of which is dated 1471, besides the wide-spread
and generally accepted tradition which has ascribed the work
to him ever since his own time. Against him, on the other
hand, it is urged that he was merely a calligrapher or copyist;
that the Chronicle of St Agnes, a contemporary work, makes
no mention of his having written the Imitation, and that
its name is not found in an early list of the works attributed
to him. In support of Gerson are brought forward a great
number of French and Italian editions, belonging to the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, one of which bears date
of Venice 1483. Gersen’s claims are based on a very an¬
cient MS., which ascribes the authorship to him directly,
while he has the benefit of all the manuscripts held to be
older than the times of Gerson and A' Kempis. The in¬
ternal evidence furnished by the book itself is equally con¬
flicting. On the one hand, the Gallicisms are very numer¬
ous, and such as could hardly have occurred to any one
whose native tongue was not French. On the other hand,
the whole spirit that breathes throughout the work is that
of a solitary ascetic, who places the rule of life in absolute
seclusion from the world, and seldom refers to the exercise
of any social or domestic duty. As the first of these testi¬
monies decidedly strengthens the case of Gerson, the second
62 K E M
Kempten is equally conclusive against him, for the greater part of his
II life was spent in active duty as Chancellor of the University
eTU y of Paris, and head of the Gallican church. Of late years,
however, his claims have been very keenly pressed by the
French critics, among whom Gence and Daunou are con¬
spicuous ; the former in various articles in the Biographic
Universelle, and the latter in the Journal des Savans for
1826-1827. It may be doubted, however, if the contro¬
versy either will or can ever be settled. The work itself,
which has been the subject of so much debate, has been
often translated into the various European tongues, though
it may be doubted if any of the versions can vie in expres¬
sion with the concise and energetic, though somewhat bar¬
barous Latin, original. It is calculated that it has now gone
through 1800 editions, and that it has been more read than
any other book except the Bible. With a deep knowledge
of human nature and of the world, it breathes a spirit of
the most refined and lofty devotion, while many isolated
sentences are memorable for their beauty and heart¬
piercing truth. (See Hallam’s Liter, of Europe; Biog.
Univers. ; Barbier’s Dissertation; Napione’s Dissertation ;
Ullmann’s Reformers, See.; Ersch u. Gruber’s Encyclo¬
pedic, &c.)
KEMPTEN (Campodunum), a town of Bavaria, circle
of Suabia, is situated on the Iller, 50 miles S. of Augsburg.
It consists of an old and new town ; the former in the
valley, walled and inhabited by tradespeople, the latter,
called the Stifts-stadt, on the height, formerly the seat of
an abbot, who was lord of the town and surrounding terri¬
tory. Its chief manufactures are linen, cotton, and woollen
stuffs. On the neighbouring eminence of Hilarment are
the ruins of a fortress supposed to be Roman. Pop. about
8000.
KEN, Thomas, bishop of Bath and Wells, was born at
Berkhamstead, in Hertfordshire, in July 1637. From Win¬
chester School, to which he was sent at the age of thirteen,
he went to New College, Oxford, and there became a pro¬
bationer-fellow at the age of twenty. In 1666 he was
chosen fellow of W inchester College, and afterwards be¬
came successively domestic chaplain to Bishop Morley,
rector of Brixton, in the Isle of Wight, and in 1669, pre¬
bend of Westminster. In 1674 he started with his nephew,
Isaac Walton, upon a tour to Rome, and, upon his return,
after five years of absence, took his degrees in divinitj^.
Having been appointed chaplain to the Princess of Orange,
he went to Holland, and on his return to England, was ap¬
pointed chaplain to Lord Dartmouth, in the expedition to
Tangier. In 1684 he became chaplain to Charles II., whom
he closely attended during his last illness, speaking to him,
according to Burnet, “ with great elevation of thought and
expression, and like a man inspired.” Charles, shortly be¬
fore his death, had nominated Ken to the bishopric of Bath
and Wells, and after some delay he was fully invested in
his episcopal functions after the accession of James II. In
1685 appeared his Exposition of the Church Catechism,
and Prayers for the Use of the Bath. Zealous in his at¬
tachment to the Church of England, he did not shrink from
pointing out, even in the chapel-royal, the danger of a coali¬
tion with the sectaries. On the other hand, he was no
friend to Popery, for the attempts made by the court to gain
him over were unsuccessful; and when the king, having
assumed the dispensing power, ordered the declaration of
indulgence to be read, Ken openly opposed it, and, along
with six others, was sent to the Tower. Still he considered
James his lawful sovereign, and after the Revolution, when
the Prince of Orange ascended the throne as William HI.,
he would not transfer his allegiance to the new monarch.
In consequence of this refusal he was deprived, and retired
to Longleate, in Wiltshire, where he died on the 19th
March 1711 at the age of seventy-four. A small pension
settled on him by Queen Mary was his chief means of sup-
K E N
port during his latter years. A collective edition of his Kendal
works, consisting of sermons, charges, and poems, was pub- II
fished in 1721, in 4 vols. 8vo. His prose works, and much Kenil*
of his poetry, have passed into oblivion ; but his hymns, v wort
which breathe a spirit of lofty and resigned devotion, have v-"’
fixed themselves in the hearts and memories of the Eng¬
lish people, and will never be forgotten.
Intellectually and morally, Ken stood highest among the
nonjuring prelates. He was a man of solid and extensive
learning, refined taste, and wide sympathies. While in
office, he laboured with an apostolic zeal and self-devotion.
His high sense of duty was shown in the readiness with
which he relinquished wealth and station, and retired into
obscurity and poverty, rather than forego his principles.
The tenderness and humanity of his nature were strikingly
displayed in his kindness to the victims of the Monmouth
rebellion,—many of them personal, and all of them politi¬
cal enemies,—whom he helped from his private resources
with no sparing hand.
KENDAL, Kirkby-Kendal, or Kirkby-in-Kendal
(the Kirk-Town of Ken Dale), market-town and parliamen¬
tary borough, county of Westmoreland, is situated in a
pleasant valley, on the E. bank of the Ken or Kent, 50
miles S. of Carlisle. The general appearance of the place
is agreeable—a long fine of white walls and blue-slate roofs,
rows of poplars, neat stone bridges, background of hills,
and in the distance, up the valley, the high summits that
overlook Kentmere. Its position is probably the main
cause of its being one of the most rainy places in Eng¬
land. On a steep eminence to the E. are the ruins of the
castle of the Kendal barons, of which only four broken
towers, and the outer wall surrounded by a deep fosse, re¬
main. It was here that Queen Catherine Parr was born,
and her remains are interred in the parish church. Fac¬
ing Kendal Castle on the W. is the Castle-How, or Castle-
Law-Hill, an ancient mound encircled by a ditch and
rampart, and surmounted by an obelisk of modern erection
in commemoration of the Revolution of 1688. Kendal has
been noted for its woollen manufactures since the four¬
teenth century, when a colony of Flemish weavers settled
here by the invitation of Edward III. The manufacture
of green cloth seems to have acquired considerable reputa¬
tion before Shakspeare’s time, who speaks of
“ Three misbegotten knaves in Kendal green.”
To the branches of industry connected with these manu
factures, several others are now added, as marble cut¬
ting, currying, &c. The town is respectably supplied with
educational and literary institutions, and publishes two
weekly newspapers. By the Reform Act, which disfran¬
chised Appleby, Kendal returns one M.P. Dr Thomas
Shaw, the celebrated traveller, was born here in 1693. Pop.
11,829.
KENEH, or Gheneh (Ccenopolis), a town of Upper
Egypt, on the N. bank of the Nile, nearly opposite the
ruins of Denderah. It is the principal entrepot of the Ara¬
bian trade by way of Cosseir, and is one of the stations for
the great pilgrim caravan from West and Central Africa.
Passengers to and from India sometimes travel by the Nile,
passing through Keneh instead of going by Suez. The
place is celebrated for its' manufacture of porous water-jars,
&c., which are floated down the Nile in rafts.
KENIL WORTH, a small town of Warwickshire, nearly
equidistant (5 miles) from Warwick, Leamington, and
Coventry. The only interest of the place centres in its
ruined castle, which stands on a rocky and commanding
eminence. This castle, formerly one of the most extensive
and majestic baronial edifices in England, was founded by
Geoffrey de Clinton, Lord Chamberlain and Treasurer to
Henry I. It was granted by Henry III. to Simon de
Montfort Earl of Leicester, and became the chief rallying-
KEN KEN 63
Kenmare point of the insurgents who sided with that noble. After
II his death, it held out for six months against the royal forces.
^Rennet. jt was t|ie scene 0f a splendid tournament in the time of
Edward I., and here his successor was confined before his
removal to Berkeley Castle. In the reign of Edward III. it
passed into the hands of John of Gaunt, who made large
additions to it. Under his son Henry IV. it reverted to
the crown, and so continued till it was conferred by Queen
Elizabeth on her favourite Leicester, who expended im¬
mense sums in enlarging and adorning the building. Eliza¬
beth visited Kenilworth three times, and on the occasion of
her last visit (1575), was entertained in a style of unpa¬
ralleled magnificence. (See Sir Walter Scott’s Kenilworth^)
After Leicester’s death, the castle was seized by the crown.
It was dismantled in the time of Cromwell, and thenceforth
abandoned to decay. Since the Restoration it has belonged
to the house of Clarendon. The only remnant of the ori¬
ginal fortress is the Keep, “ Caesar’s Tower,” the walls of
which are in some places 16 feet thick. The more modern
portions have suffered most from the ravages of time.
KENMARE, a market-town of Ireland, county of Kerry,
Munster, at the head of Kenmare Bay, 15 miles S.S.W. of
Killarney. The town is neatly built, having one wide
street, from which several smaller ones diverge. It has a
large Roman Catholic chapel, handsome parish church,
newsroom, bridewell, and workhouse. The bay is crossed
by an elegant suspension bridge, and a little below the town
is a pier affording sufficient depth of water for vessels of
large burden. Chief exports, corn and salmon. Pop.
(1851) 1501.
KENMORE, a parish and village of Perthshire, in the
district of Breadalbane, embracing some of the finest scenery
in Scotland. See Perthshire, and Tay.
KENNET, an English river, rising in the Wiltshire
Downs, flowing through Wiltshire and Berks eastward, by
Avebury, Marlborough, Hungerford, Newbury (where it
becomes navigable), and Reading, below which it joins the
Thames, after a course of about 50 miles. The vale of
Kennet, from Newbury to Reading, is one of the most fer¬
tile districts in England. The Kennet is celebrated for its
trout, and its eels are commemorated by Pope :—
“ The Kennet swift, for silver eels renowned.”
KENNET, White, bishop of Peterborough, a learned
antiquarian, historian, and theological writer, was born at
Dover in 1660. Educated at Westminster School, and
afterwards at Oxford, he became at an early age rector of
Amersden, with a prebend in the church of Peterborough.
In 1691 he returned to Oxford as tutor and vice-principal
of Edmund Hall, where, among other pupils, he numbered
the famous antiquary Hearne. In 1700 he resigned Amers¬
den, and removed to London, where he was presented with
the living of St Botolph, Aldgate. In the following year
he was made Archdeacon of Huntingdon; and at a later
period, Dean of Peterborough. In 1718 he received, as
his last preferment, the bishopric of Peterborough, which
he retained till his death in 1728. Two years after his
death a detailed biography of him was published by the
Rev. W. Newton, rector ofWingham in Kent.
According to his biographer’s account, Kennet was a man
of great mental activity, “ of incredible diligence and appli¬
cation, not only in his youth, but to the very last.” Besides
his published works, which amply confirm this testimony,
his autograph MSS., now preserved in the British Museum,
furnish decisive proof. In the religious controversies of the
day he took a keen and active part; indeed, his biographer
admits that his party zeal was carried to excess. Identify¬
ing himself with the Low Church party, he opposed the
Sacheverell movement with all his might, and afterwards,
when the Bangorian controversy broke out, he being at
that time dean of Peterborough, fought with so much ar¬
dour on Hoadley’s side, that he believed his chances of Kennicott.
church preferment to be totally ruined. His zeal in these
and other disputes, sharpened by a strong temper and strong
passions, raised many bitter enemies against him, by wdiom
lie was sometimes very roughly handled. A colour was
given to the outcry against him, from his having been
thought in early life to have had High Church leanings. His
funeral sermon on the first Duke of Devonshire, in which
he was charged with having sacrificed some of the funda¬
mental points of religion to his own ambition, was also
brought up against him ; but he was too useful and too
able a controversialist to be given up by his party.
Kennet’s principal works are his Parochial Antiquities
attempted in the History of Amhrosden, Burcester, and
other adjacent parishes in the counties of Oxford and
Bucks, 1695, 4to. In 17 06 appeared a Compleat History
of England, 3 vols. fol. The third of these, bringing down
the narrative from Charles I. to Queen Anne, was written
by Kennet. In 1698 he had published an edition of Sir
Henry Spelman’s History and Fate of Sacrilege, which six
years later he followed up with his own Case of Impropria¬
tion, and of the Augmentation of Vicarages, &c., a de¬
partment of church administration which he had much at
heart. His other works were for the most part occasional
sermons, and controversial pamphlets. The value of most
of these fell with the occasion which called them forth, and
they are now interesting only to the antiquary.
KENNICOTT, Benjamin, an eminent Hebrew scholar,
was born at Totness in Devonshire in 1718. At an early age
he was appointed to succeed his father as teacher of a charity
school in his native town. His precocious talents and
learning interested some rich friends in his behalf, and by
their kindness he was provided with the means of study¬
ing at Oxford. Entering himself of Wadham College in
1744, he soon distinguished himself in Hebrew and Divi¬
nity ; and, while still an undergraduate, published two essays.
On the Tree of Life, and The Oblations of Cain and Abel.
These popular treatises came to a second edition in 1747,
and procured for their author the degree of B.A. free of
expense, and also a year before the usual time. He was
soon afterwards chosen fellow of Exeter College, and in 1750
took the degree of M.A. Continuing to pursue his studies
peacefully at Oxford, he was, in 1767, made keeper of the
Radcliffe Library, and, a few years later, rector of Mynhen-
yote in Cornwall. This, though a very valuable living, he
subsequently resigned, finding himself without time to do
duty in person, and having scruples of conscience against
doing it by deputy. In 1770 he was made prebend of
Westminster; a preferment which he soon exchanged for
a canonry in Christ Church, Oxford. Lie died in 1783,
after a lingering illness, at the age of 65.
Kennicott’s great work is his edition of the Hebrew Bible.
To prepare the way, he published in 1753 an essay On the
printed Hebrew Text of the Old Testament, the object
of which was to overthrow the opinion at that time received
by many eminent divines, and at one time held by Kenni¬
cott himself, that the Hebrew text was absolutely correct,
that it agreed with the MSS., and, as a consequence, that
the MSS. agreed with each other except in very trifling
cases. In some religious communities a belief in the Divine
authority of what is known as the Masoretic text was re¬
quired as an article of faith from those entering the ministry.
The question was obviously to be decided by an appeal to
the Hebrew MSS. themselves, and in this important work
Kennicott led the way in those laborious researches which
have resulted in the collation of many hundreds of Hebrew
MSS. Kennicott undertook to show that the MSS. which
had been supposed to agree with each other, and with the
printed text, contained numerous and various readings,
which tended to support the authority of the ancient ver¬
sions; and he announced, the existence of six Samaritan
64 KEN
Kent. MSS. of the Pentateuch in the libraries of Oxford, from
which not only the printed Samaritan, but even the Hebiew
text might be corrected. It was to be expected, hom what
we have already said of the state of feeling on the subject of
the intej^ritv of the Hebrew text, that the position assumed
by KennicoU would be strenuously attacked, and we find the
names of Rutherforth, Warburton, and Bishop Horne, among
his assailants. Nevertheless, by many eminent and learned
men in his own country, as well as abroad, he was considered
to have established his point. In 1760, seven years after
his First, appeared his Second Dissertation on the state of
the printed Hebrew text. In this treatise he defended the
Samaritan version of the Pentateuch, and showed that the
Chaldee paraphrase had been wilfully corrupted; he gave
a history of the Hebrew text from the time at which the
canon of the Old Testament was completed to the inven¬
tion of printing ; and produced a catalogue of 110 Hebrew
MSS. in the British Museum, Oxford, and Cambridge, as
well as a collection of 11 Samaritan MSS. Considerable
interest had by this time been excited regarding these MSS.,
and a desire was extensively felt by divines, and the learned
generally, to have the subject fully investigated. Accord-
mgly, Dr Kennicott published a proposal that subscrip¬
tions should be raised to defray the expenses of a complete
collation of all accessible MSS. at home and abroad. Ihe
list of subscribers was headed by King George III., and in
a short time nearly L.10,000 were raised—an unprecedented
amount for a literary purpose. For nine years the w ork of
collation was actively conducted by eminent men employed
for the purpose, Kennicott himself examining the MSS. of
Great Britain and France, while Professor Bruns examined
those of Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. Sixteen Sama¬
ritan, and upward of six hundred Hebrew MSS. were either
wholly or in part collated between 1760 and 1769, an annual
statement being furnished by Kennicott regarding the pro¬
gress of the w ork. Several years more elapsed before all
the materials were properly arranged, and, when ready for
press, they extended to 30 vols. folio.
His great work bears the title Vetus Testamentum He-
braicum, cum variis Lectionibus, Edidit Beujaminus Ken¬
nicott, S.T.P., Oxonii, 1776-1780, 2 vols. folio. The text
followed was that of Van der Hooght, with which the MSS.
had been collated; the points, however, were omitted.
The Dissertatio Generalis, prefixed to the second volume,
contained a history of the Hebrew text from the time of
the return from Babylon to the invention of printing, along
with an account of the Rabbinical works and MSS. which
he had consulted. The poetical books were printed accord¬
ing to the metrical laws of parallelism as established by
Lowth. The various readings were printed at the foot of
the page with references connecting them with the texts
from w hich they differ, while the Samaritan variations were
placed in a column parallel with the Hebrew itself.
To this w’ork of Kennicott, a valuable supplement was
published by De Rossi at Parma, 1784-87, 4 vols. 4to.;
but a more commodious work, containing a selection of the
more important various readings collected by Kennicott, De
Rossi, and others, was published by Doederlein and Meiss¬
ner at Leipsic, 1793, 8vo. A more correct edition, on the
same plan, w as published by Jahn at Vienna, 1806, 4 vols.
8vo. This again has been followed by the editions of
Boothroyd, Judah d’Allemand, and others.
A full account of Kennicott’s edition of the Hebrew
Bible is given in the Monthly Review (O. S.), vols. lv., Ixiv.,
Ixv., and in Marsh’s Divinity Lectures, part ii.
KENT, a maritime county in the N.E. of England,
bounded on the N. by the estuary of the Thames, on the E.
and S. by the English Channel, on the S.W. by the county
of Sussex, and on the W. by the county of Surrey. The
name is supposed to be Celtic, signifying a corner or pro¬
jection (as the same word in Cantyre evidently denotes):
KEN
and this name aptly describes the position occupied by Kent Kent,
on the map of England. The extreme length of the county
is, from Deptford to the North Foreland, W. and E., 63
miles; and the extreme breadth, from the North Foreland
to Dungeness, N. and S., 40 miles.
The geological character of the county exhibits five pa¬
rallel belts, occupied by different formations, and running
E. and W. The first belt consists of the soil extending
from the estuary of the Thames to the foot of a range of
hills called the North Downs, and is occupied by the Lon¬
don and plastic clays; but with this variation, that, while
the plastic clay overlies the chalk for the most part, the Lon¬
don clay overlies the plastic clay in the Isles of Sheppey and
Graine, and in a large district extending from the sea-shore
at Reculver and Whitstable S. to Canterbury. The second
belt consists of the North Downs, a range of chalk hills
which enters the county from Surrey, near Westerham, and
extends to the coast near Folkestone. The range varies in
breadth from 3 to 6 miles; and its greatest elevation, Hal-
lingbourne Station, is 616 feet above the level of the sea.
The third belt consists of a tract of chalk, marl, and green¬
sand, cropping out of the North Downs, and varying in
breadth from 2 to 7 miles. The marl and greensand lie
in strips, the latter being the widest, and the southern slope
of the belt forms what are called the “ Ragstone Hills,” over¬
looking the valleys of the Bealt, the Eden, and the Med¬
way. The fourth belt consists of the Weald clay, and
extends throughout the county from the borders of Surrey
to Romney Marsh, with an average breadth of 5 miles;
the clay is sometimes intermixed with thin beds of sand.
The filth belt consists of a range of hills occupying the re¬
mainder of the county and bordering on Sussex, amongst
which the Medway and other rivers rise; it is occupied by
iron sand. It will be seen, then, that the county presents
two valleys, known as the Homesdale and the Weald, and
three ranges of hills, succeeding each other from the banks
of the Thames to the border of Sussex. Singularly enough,
however, most of the rivers, though they rise in the southern¬
most part of the county, instead of finding outlets into the
English Channel to the E., traverse the county, cutting the
ranges of hills, and fall into the Thames on the N. This
imparts a broken and irregular appearance to the surface.
Dr Lyell, in describing the Weald, has given a graphic
picture of the central portion of the county. “ I shall sup¬
pose,” he writes, “ the reader first to travel southwards from
the London basin. On leaving the tertiary strata he will
first ascend a gently inclined plane, composed of the upper
flinty portion of the chalk, and then find himself on the sum¬
mit of a declivity, consisting for the most part of different
members of the chalk formation; below which the upper
greensand, and sometimes also the gault, crop out. This
steep declivity is called by geologists ‘ the escarpment of
the chalk,’ which overhangs a valley excavated chiefly out
of the argillaceous or marly bed termed gault. The escarp¬
ment is continuous along the southern termination of the
North Downs, and the reader may trace it from the sea at
Folkestone westward to Guildford and the neighbourhood
of Petersfield, and from thence to the termination of the
South Downs at Beachy Head. In this precipice or steep
slope the strata are cut off abruptly, and it is evident
that they must originally have extended farther 
The geologist cannot fail to recognise in this view the exact
likeness of a sea cliff; and if he turns and looks in an oppo¬
site direction, or eastward, towards Beachy Head, he will
see the same line of heights prolonged. Even those who are
not accustomed to speculate on the former changes which
the surface has undergone, may fancy the broad and level
plain to resemble the flat sands which were laid dry by the
receding tide, and the different masses of chalk to be the
headlands of a coast which separated the different bays from
each other.”
KENT.
65
Kent. The rivers of the county are—the Medway, the Stour,
—the Darent, the Cray, the Kavensbourne, and some minor
streams. The Medway is a noble stream; its trunk and
branches cover 30 square miles of the surface of the
county, and its length is nearly 60, of which 40 are na¬
vigable. T he river well deserves the name of “ Vaga,”
by which the Britons described its wanderings ; the Saxons
added the syllable med, the sign of middle, because the ri¬
ver runs through the centre of the county, and thus it gets
its present name of Medway. The river has four heads—one
rising in Surrey, in the parish of Bletchingley; two in Sussex,
at Waterdown Forest; and one in Kent, at Goldswold in
Great Chart. The highest branch, which enters the county
from Surrey, flows by Eaton Bridge and Hever Castle, and
being constantly swelled by the brookswhich drain the higher
part of the weald of Sussex, it becomes navigable on reach¬
ing Penhurst. Here it separates into two branches for a
mile, and is joined by the Eden, one of its main branches,
which rises above Godstone in Surrey, and receives the
drainage of the valley that separates the green-sand hills
from the central iron-sand high lands in the Weald. From
Penhurst the stream rolls on to Tunbridge, separating into
five channels above that town, and reuniting into one just
below it. From thence proceeding to Twyford Bridge, it
receives the waters of two ofits sources,—one rising in Sus¬
sex, the other in Kent,—and rolls on to Yalding in the
Weald, where it is joined by the Teyse and the Bealt; and
from thence to Maidstone, where, by means of a lock, erected
in the reign of George II., at Allington below that town, the
river has been rendered navigable as high as Penhurst. From
Allington, where the river meets the tide, it flows on with
many a mazy fold, and amidst magnificent scenery, to Ro¬
chester, becoming there a noble tidal river. A fine stone
bridge of six arches crosses it at this city. The Medway
next reaches Chatham, where a fleet of war ships “ repose
on their own shadows” in its land-locked waters, awaiting
the time of action. The stream now widens its surface,
and its rapidity frets the land into several islands, of which
the island of Sheppey is the largest; and while one part of
its waters escape into the open sea through the Swale
channel, the main stream enters the Thames at Sheer¬
ness, the seat of a second naval arsenal. The Stour, a
name supposed to be derived from “ Es Dwr,” the water,
has twm branches, known as the Greater and Lesser Stour.
1 he Greater Stour has two sources, which flow from oppo¬
site directions; one from Lenham in the N.W., the other
from near Hythe in the S.E., and after each has flow'ed ten
miles, they unite at Ashford, and proceed to Canterbury,
where the stream becomes navigable. Farther on at Starre,
the river separates into two branches, one of which falls
into the estuary of the Thames near Reculver, and the
other into the English Channel at Pegwell Bay. Thanet
being situated between the arms of the Greater Stour, is
therefore an island, and in former times was insulated from
the rest of Kent. A thousand years ago the arms of the
Stour formed a channel 3 or 4 miles wide, which was called
the Wantsume, and shipping used it as late as the reign of
Henry VIII., to avoid the delay and danger of doubling
the North Foreland. The channel has, however, gradually
filled up with silt; and the mischief was completed by erect¬
ing flood-gates to irrigate the adjoining land with its wa¬
ters. 1 he Lesser Stour rises at Liminge near Hythe, flows
along the edge of Barham Downs, and, after running pa¬
rallel with the Greater Stour, falls into that arm of it which
joins the sea at Pegwell Bay. The Darent rises at Wester-
ham on the border of Sussex, flows by Shoreham, Farning-
ham, and South Darent, and from thence to Dartford, where
h becomes navigable for small craft, and falls into the
lhames at Long Reach. 1 he River Cray rises at Op-
pington, flows by several villages which take their names
from it, and falls into the Darent at Dartford Creek. The
VOL. XIII. /
Ravensbourne rises on Keston Downs, flows between Hayes
and Bromley, by Lewisham to Lee, where it is joined by
the Leeburne, becomes navigable at Deptford Creek, and
there falls into the Thames. The Rother rises in Sussex,
to wLich county it properly belongs, though it is one of the
streams which insulate Oxney Isle, forming the continua¬
tion of Romney Marsh ; it is navigable in all that part of
its course which touches Kent. Finally the great Thames
may be considered one of the rivers of Kent, as it forms
the northern boundary of the county, and empties itself
into the sea on its coast.
I he coast line of the county may be described as com¬
mencing at Gravesend, where the River Thames widens
into an estuary. From thence to the channel of the Swale,
it is broken into the islands of Graine, Sheppey, Elmley,
and Harty, which are marshes insulated by the arms and
creeks of the Thames and Medway. Graine is so low, that
it is necessary to defend the soil by strong embankments,
but the sea face of Sheppey is formed by chalk cliffs from
80 to 90 feet high. Cliffs of sand and clay succeed from
the east bank of the Swale to the western limit of the Isle
of Thanet, and here the chalk cliffs recommence, and ex¬
tend to the North Foreland, the eastern extremity of the
county, and from thence S. to Pegwell Bay, where one
arm of the Stour forms the limit of the Isle of Thanet in
that direction. The coast line sinks from Pegwell Bay to
W aimer near Deal; and here commence the tall white
cliffs of chalk from which England has obtained its name
of Albion. These extend round the South Foreland to
Sandgate, and from thence the coast-line falls to the level
of Romney Marsh, a great part of which is below the level
of the sea, and is protected from overflow by a massive
embankment called Dymchurch Wall. The coast from
the Isle of Sheppey to the North Foreland is skirted by
sands and flats, which prevent ships of any size from ap¬
proaching it. On the eastern coast, at from 3 to 7 miles
from the shore, lie the Goodwin Sands, which, while they
are a dangerous obstacle to the navigation of the Straits of
Dover, serve as a breakwater to the roadstead of the Downs,
which is indeed created by them. This anchorage is about
8 miles long and 6 wide; it is sheltered from the E., W.,
N.W., and partially from the N., and is a celebrated ren¬
dezvous for ships outward and homeward bound. The sea
is gradually eating away the coast line of Kent, with the
exception of that part formed by Romney Marsh, which has
been recovered from the sea. Fifty acres of land on the
cliffs of the island of Sheppey have disappeared within
twenty years, and it is calculated that the whole of the
island wall be lost in a century. Nearly 100 yards of land
have been lost at Reculver since 1780, part of the church¬
yard has been swallowed up, and the church, now aban¬
doned, would also have been washed away, if a breakwater
bad not been constructed to deprive the waves of their force.
Bedlam Farm, in the Isle of Thanet, is gradually diminish¬
ing in extent, and the far-famed Shakspeare’s cliff at
Dover is losing its height, the slope being towards the
land. The cliffs are, in short, disappearing at the rate of
from 2 to 3 feet every year. The Goodwin Sands, accord¬
ing to tradition, were a part of Kent, which was over¬
whelmed by the sea in 1097, when it belonged to the estate
of Goodwin, Earl of Kent, a famous chieftain of his time.
This is supported by the fact, that a bed of blue clay under¬
lies the sand at a depth of 15 feet; but, on the other hand,
many geologists and antiquarians incline to the opinion
that, instead of land having been converted into sea, these
sands were laid bare by a terrible inundation in the reign
of William Rufus, when the drowning of Flanders and the
low countries on the opposite side of the Channel, lowered
the level of the sea in the narrow strait separating England
from the Continent. It is a familiar expression, “ Tenter-
dn steeple is the cause of Goodwin Sandsand, though
i
Kent.
66 K E
Kent, it is generally used to ridicule false reasoning, nevertheless,
^ — ■l according to tradition, it is the truth. 1 inie out of mind,
we are told, money was collected throughout the county
to maintain the banks of the land against the sea; but no
damage having been done for many years, the Bishop of
Rochester, in whose hands the money had been placed,
spent it in building Tenterten steeple. A storm arose
afterwards and swallowed up the land; and thus, though
the old man who said, “ The Goodwin Sands were firm land
before Tenterten steeple had been built,” was laughed at
in his own time, and has furnished reasoners with a sarcasm
for eight centuries, he was right after all. Geologists
generally agree in the opinion that England was originally
a part of the continent of Europe, the British Isles being
fragments broken off by an irruption of the sea, similar
to that which, in the thirteenth century, separated Fries¬
land from Holland. De la Beche, however, contends that the
separation was not caused by a violent movement, but by
the gradual action of the sea. Certain it is, that the oppo¬
site cliffs of Kent and France are of chalk, having a re¬
markable resemblance in their contour, and that a chain of
rock extends, at a depth of 14 feet below the low water
line, from Folkestone to Boulogne.
There is not a single good harbour, at least one that
ships can enter at all times of the tide, along the whole
coast of Kent. The harbours usually consist of piers pro¬
jecting from the land, and are dry at low water. The
Strait of Dover, however, is the great artery of our fo¬
reign commerce, and Kent is the water-gate of England;
to provide, then, for the safety of navigation and the great
stream of passengers constantly pouring between England
and the Continent, artificial harbours have been formed at
Folkestone and Dover.
The climate of Kent is, on the whole, mild, pleasant, and
healthy. Lambarde, a writer of the sixteenth century,
quaintly tells us, indeed, “ The air is bad in winter, worse
in summer, and at no time good; fit only for those vast
herds of cattle which feed all over it.” Though this may
have been true in the days of the writer, it is untrue in our
own. Now that cattle are no longer free denizens of the
soil, that the ground is cultivated, that marshes have been
drained, and that the laws of health are known, the climate
is mild and genial. The N.E. winds, too, sweeping
over the Continent, absorb the superabundant moisture of
the low grounds. Cranbrook, it has been demonstrated, is
one of the healthiest places in the kingdom ; and medical
experience, and longevity amongst the inhabitants, testify
almost as highly of the whole county. The coast is
dotted with towns, the population of which is made up of
persons seeking, and, as we may suppose, finding health
there. The mineral waters of Tunbridge, on the western
side of the county, have long been celebrated for their
health-giving properties; and, though the influence of
fashion has created many rivals, it is still the resort of a large
number of invalids and plea-sure- seekers.
The soil of the county, to speak generally, consists of
clay, chalk, and gravel, which, when mixed, produce an
exceedingly fine loam. Clay predominates; indeed, the
county belongs geologically to the great clay basin of which
London is the centre. No part of the kingdom, however,
exhibits within such a limited compass so great a variety
of soils, and, in consequence, so many modes of cultivation
and production.
For the purpose of agricultural description, Kent may be
divided into eight districts. The first of these is the Isle
of Thanet, in the N.W. angle of the county, containing
23,000 acres of arable land, and 3500 of pasture. The
soil is a light mould, on a chalky bottom, highly enriched
by seaweed and other manure obtained from the shores,
and there is scarcely an acre of waste in the district. The
produce consists of wheat and beans, which are grown with-
N T.
out fallow or intermission, and of canary, mustard, spinach, Kent,
and other seeds; and in order to preserve the latter from
birds, trees and hedgerows are not suffered to exist. I he
second district comprises the sheep downs and upland
farms which surround Canterbury, extending to Dover on
one side, and Ashford and Rochester on the other. I he
soils here are very dissimilar; some being heavy loamy clay,
with flint stones on the surface, others being stiffer, while
the whole rest on a subsoil of chalk. All kinds of grain are
grown, and the harvest is usually a fortnight later than in
the Isle of Thanet. The third district comprises a rich
sandy loam, in the neighbourhood of Sandwich, Faversham,
and "Deal, producing, in addition to the ordinary crops, a
large quantity of apples. The fourth district extends from
Maidstone to Sandwich, including Canterbury, and may be
called the garden of Kent. In this district hops, apples,
and cherries are the chief produce. The soils on which
the hops are grown differ materially ; one, locally called
stone-shalten, is mixed with many small portions of sand
and stone, and rests upon the Kentish ragstone, which is
burned into excellent lime; others, and these are the most
productive, have a deep loam surface, with a subsoil of deep
loamy brick earth, and are mixed with a large number of
flint stones. The fifth district is the Isle of Sheppey, 11
miles long and 8 broad, and separated from the rest of the
county by the Swale, a navigable arm of the sea. Four-
fifths of this district are either marsh or dry pasture land ; the
arable land, of which there are about 10,000 acres, is highly
productive, especially of wheat. I he soil is a heavy clay,
enriched with the cockle-shells found on the beach, and as
many as thirty cart-loads have been applied to the acre.
The"sixth district is formed by the uplands of West Kent,
a ridge of chalk hills, locally called the “ Hog’s Back,” about
6 or 7 miles broad; the soils are various, but chiefly a stiff
clay, with many surface flints. A large number of flocks
of sheep are grazed in this district, and much timber is
grown. The seventh district is the Weald, the ancient
forest of the county. The soil is principally clay, with a
substratum of marl, varying in stiffness. It produces wheat,
oats, barley, rye-grass, clover, and beans, and a large num¬
ber of cattle are fed. The eighth division is the rich, level,
and extensive expanse of Romney Marsh, on the southern
coast. The whole is alluvial land, consisting of a fine rich
soft loam, with portions of sea sand and broken shells in¬
termixed. The subsoil consists of alternate layers of sand
and clay, mixed with shells, amongst which are sometimes
found large oak trees, in various positions, and as black and
hard as ebony. The breeding and fattening of sheep form
the principal pursuit in this level, and the number bred is
greater perhaps than in any other district of similar extent
in the kingdom. The farmer has usually two kinds of land,
one for breeding, the other for fattening cattle. I he
Romney Marsh sheep have become celebrated for the ex¬
cellence of their mutton, the length of their wool, and its
fineness of fibre.
The practice of agriculture in Kent is peculiar to the
county. While the farmers of England generally devote
their attention to two or three main crops, those of Kent
remain faithful to the special productions for which the
county has become famous. Kent grows half the hops
produced throughout the entire country,—the “ wicked
weed,” as it was called when introduced in the time of
Henry VI.,—and they are superior to all others except
those grown at Farnham. In Kent hops are generally
cultivated with the spade, and planted on mounds ; the
cost of manure, poles, and labour is very large, the crop
is uncertain, and its produce varies greatly. Owing to the
demand for hop-poles more attention is paid to the growth of
underwood than to that of timber, and the extensive woods
for which the county was once celebrated have greatly di¬
minished, and are rapidly disappearing. The best poles
KENT.
67
Kent, are those of chesnut, willow, ash, and maple, and they are
generally cut from wood of from ten to fourteen years’
growth. Another peculiar production of the county is
seeds, especially canary and radish seeds, which form a
main crop in the Isle of Thanet. Filberts are another pe¬
culiar production ; the trees grow well in a rocky and gra¬
velly soil, and are planted 12 feet apart. Only one stem
is allowed to grow, and this a few inches above the ground ;
the branches on it are not suffered to rise higher than
5 feet, and are trained into the shape of a punchbowl; for
thus the trees yield the most abundantly. Kent is, in
truth, the great fruit and kitchen garden of London. Pease,
asparagus, cabbage, and other vegetables are cultivated by
the acre in the neighbourhood of the metropolis ; kidney
beans are raised to the same extent at Sandwich ; there are
orchards of plums and cherries, as well as of apples and pears,
scattered throughout the county, but they are especially
numerous in the district between Maidstone and Canter¬
bury. There, the common plan is to plant hops, apples,
cherries, and filberts in alternate rows, or two rows of
filberts between a row of apples and a row of cherries. It
is scarcely surprising if, under these peculiar circumstances,
the agriculture of Kent is not so forward as in other
counties. The rich grass cultivation which is at once the
pride and peculiarity of England, is but little adopted ; nor
has draining been generally employed, though it would
greatly improve the refractory clay soil of the county.
The plough still in use is mounted on two wheels, 3 feet
high ; it has a beam 10 feet long, and a share 20 inches, and
requires four horses in the lightest soil, and six in the stiff-
est. With a lighter plough two horses would be sufficient
for the work. The other implements are in keeping with
this unwieldy instrument, and thrashing is very generally
performed with the flail. There is nothing remarkable in
the stock of Kent, with the exception of the valuable breed
of sheep already mentioned, which combines superior wool
with the highest quality of mutton. The great national
types of stock will be sought in vain in this county.
The other natural productions of the county are—salt,
which is obtained at Sandwich and in the Isles of Graine
and Thanet; iron pyrites, found in the Isle of Sheppey, and
largely manufactured into copperas for exportation; and fish
caught on the coast for the London market, and amongst
them a large quantity of oysters, which are reared in arti¬
ficial beds at Milton.
There are two canals in Kent. The Royal Military Canal,
23 miles long, connects the sea at Hythe with the River
Rother, in Oxney Isle, and was constructed to facilitate the
defence of the country during the threatened invasion of
Napoleon L, but it is now converted to the peaceful pur¬
poses of commerce. The second canal is a short cut from
the Stour at Sandwich, to the sea, its object being to avoid
the circuitous course of the lower part of that river. There
was, until of late years, a third canal, 9 miles long, extend¬
ing from Gravesend to Frindsbury, opposite Chatham, by
which vessels avoided a tedious circuit of 47 miles round
the Isle of Graine, but this has been converted into a rail¬
road. The county is intersected by the South Eastern
Railway, which forms the great high road, via Folkestone
and Dover, between London and the Continent; the
branches of this line reach nearly every town within the
county.
Kent has very little foreign commerce, though it is seated
on a great river, and abuts on the sea. This arises from
the badness of its harbours, and the proximity of London,
which is naturally the reservoir of the business of the coun¬
ties forming its outskirts.
formerly there were extensive iron-works in the Weald
of Kent, where iron ore is found; but since coal has been
substituted for the dearer charcoal in the manufacture of
iron, these works have been extinguished. Cloth and silk
were formerly manufactured largely, but these branches of Kent,
industry have been destroyed by the competition of York-
shire. Calico-printing and bleaching are carried on to a
limited extent; bagging is made for hops ; ware is made at
Tonbridge, and gunpowder at Faversham and Dartfbrd.
Paper-making is general throughout the county. But the
chief manufacture, so to speak, is that of ships, and the ma¬
teriel of war. At Deptford, Woolwich, Sheerness, and Cha¬
tham, the government maintains large ship-building yards,
in which, during the war of 1854-6, upwards of 5000 arti-
zans were employed ; and at Woolwich, there is an exten¬
sive arsenal, the largest in the world, for manufacturing
and storing arms and equipments. It may be added, that
the Nore, at the mouth of the Medway, is a naval station, and
that a fleet of men-of-war is generally at anchor there.
The population of Kent amounted, in 1821, to 427,224;
1831,479,558; 1841,549,353; 1851,615,766. Of these
last, 471 were landed proprietors; 4659 farmers; 209
graziers ; 40,943 out-door agricultural labourers, and 4994
in-door; 3651 post-office, inland revenue, customs, and other
government officers; 6961 soldiers; 1254 marines; 415
military and 496 naval officers; 1081 seamen R.N.; 283
Greenwich pensioners ; 4537 merchant seamen ; 1225 fish¬
ermen ; 1571 boat and barge men ; 3997 male, and 25,457
female domestic servants.
The following was the population of the principal towns
in 1851:—
Canterbury
Chatham ...
Dartford ...
Deal 
Dover 
Folkestone
Gravesend..
Greenwich .
18,398
28,424
5,763
7,067
22,244
6,726
16,633
105,784
Maidstone 
Margate 
Ramsgate 
Rochester 
Sheerness 
Tunbridge Wells
Woolwich 
20,740
9,107
11,838
14,938
8,549
10,587
32,367
The number of houses was, in 1841, 101,332, and in
1851, 114,475. The area of the county was 1,041,479
statute acres, and the amount of real property assessed to
the income-tax in 1851 was L.3,152,173.
For civil purposes the county is divided into 5 “laths,”
and these are sub-divided into 63 hundreds and 415
parishes, with 2 cities, Canterbury and Rochester, and
26 market-towns. The term “ lath” is derived from the
Saxon word gelathian, to assemble; in the times of the
Saxon heptarchy, when Kent formed a separate kingdom
of itself, the principal men of the hundreds within each
of the “ laths,” used to assemble to regulate the affairs
of the entire district. For legal and political purposes, the
county is divided into East and West Kent; each division
returns two members to the House of Commons, and the
election for the former takes place at Canterbury, for the
latter at Maidstone. The cities of Canterbury and Ro¬
chester also return two members each; the borough of
Maidstone two; the cinque ports of Dover, and Sandwich
with Deal and Walmer attached to it, two each; Hythe,
with Sandgate and Folkestone attached, one ; Greenwich,
with Woolwich and Deptford attached, two ; and Chatham
one. The total number is eighteen.
The Cymri were the first settlers in Kent, and were fol¬
lowed by the Belgae. The county afterwards became
famous in history. Caesar, when he invaded Britain, landed
on its coast, it is thought on the flat shore between Wal¬
mer and Sandwich. The North Foreland is the Acantum
of the historian Ptolemy. Hengist and Horsa, the Saxon
allies of the ancient Britons, landed in Pegwell Bay in 445,
and received a grant of the Isle of Thanet, which was then
really an island, separated from the mainland by wide
channels. St Augustine, “ the apostle of the English,”
landed in the Isle of Thanet in the year 596. Ethelbert,
King of Kent, was the first Christian king of England,
and his subjects the first Christian people. The first
68 KEN
Kent. Christian church in the island was also built at Canter-
^ bury, and it formed the nucleus of Canterbury cathedral.
In the struggles of the Saxons between themselves, and
against the Northmen, Kent provided a perpetual battle¬
field ; and, so great was the courage of the Kentish men,
that they obtained the right of forming the van of the
Anglo-Saxon forces. About the end of the seventh cen¬
tury, Kent became subject to Mercia; and, in 823, it passed
under the supremacy of the West Saxons, and became the
appanage of the heir-apparent of the King of Wessex. Just
before the battle of Hastings, William the Conqueror burnt
Romney, and massacred the inhabitants, for having defeated
a detachment of the Norman forces which had landed there.
After the battle he burnt Dover, and hanged the governor of
the castle ; but during his march to London he found it ex¬
pedient to confirm the privileges of the Kentish people.
King John submitted to the pope’s legate, Randolph, at
Dover, in the year 1213. The Dauphin of France made
a descent in the Isle of Thanet in 1216, when he invaded
England to assist the barons against John. Wat Tyler’s
insurrection broke out in Kent in 1381, and Jack Cade’s in
1450. At the commencement of the disastrous War of
the Roses, in 1451, the Duke of York fortified himself at
Dartford; and, in 1554, Sir Thomas Wyatt raised the
standard of rebellion against Queen Mary. In 1648 a
desperate battle was fought at Maidstone between the troops
of Charles I. and the Parliament, the latter being victo¬
rious ; and, in 1667, during the reign of Charles II., a divi¬
sion of the Dutch fleet under De Ruyter, violating a treaty
of peace, sailed up the Medway, broke the chain stretched
across the river, burnt several ships at Chatham, and carried
off the “ Royal Charles.” It may be added, that three
of the most remarkable English sovereigns, Henry VIII. and
his daughters, Mary and Elizabeth, were born in Kent, in
the palace at Greenwich, now the hospital.
Kent, it has already been stated, formed a separate king¬
dom in Saxon days. It still retains many peculiar customs.
The most remarkable amongst these is the tenure of gavel¬
kind, by which the land of a father dying without a will
does not descend absolutely to the eldest son, as the case is
in the rest of England ; but is shared by all the sons, and,
in default of sons, it is shared by the daughters. According
to Tacitus, this custom was derived from the ancient Ger¬
mans ; but there are many conjectures respecting its origin.
Its effect has been to subdivide the ownership of the soil,
and raise up the race of yeomen, for which the county has
always been celebrated. A distich, still quoted in honour
of the Kentish yeomanry, runs,—
“ A knight of Cafes, a gentleman of Wales, and a laird of the north
[countree,
A yeoman of Kent, with his yearly rent, will buy them all three.”
The tenure of villainage never existed in Kent; and in the
olden time a man had only to show that his father was born
in Kent to be exempt from the bondage imposed upon the
bulk of the people. The inhabitants were, therefore, em¬
phatically called “ men of Kent,” it being held that a bonds¬
man was no man, and the distinction is still cherished by
the fine-spirited natives of the county. The number of
yeomen tilling their own land is still considerable in Kent,
principally in the hilly districts, but they are rapidly dis¬
appearing before the new constitution of property and
farming.
I he county is strewed with antiquities, and with his¬
torical sites. There are also several Saxon and Danish
earthworks and encampments. Near Aylesford there is a
remarkable cromlech, formed of four large stones, called
Kit’s Coty House. It is commonly supposed to be the
monument of Catigern, son of Vortimer, the British com¬
mander, killed in a battle fought there in 454 against Hen-
gist and Horsa, the latter of whom was also slain; but
KEN
whether the cromlech is a British or a Saxon work, anti- Kent,
quarians cannot determine. There are remains of Roman William,
stations at Reculver, Dover, Lymne near Hythe, Rich-
borough, and other places. Richborough Castle, situated
near Sandwich (which was the ancient point of communi¬
cation with the Continent), is one of the noblest of the
Roman remains in England. The Roman road, Watling
Street, passes through the county from Dover to the metro¬
polis ; and there are many other monuments of the Roman
occupation. The ecclesiastical remains are very interesting.
The church of St Martin, at Canterbury, is supposed to be
the oldest Christian edifice in England. The abbeys of
St Augustine’s (Canterbury), Faversham, Mailing, Aylesford,
St Radigund’s near Dover, Boxley near Maidstone, West
Langdon, Bilsington, Aylesford, Monk’s-Horton, and one
belonging to the Benedictines, near Dover, still linger in
ruins, parts of some of them having been turned to useful
purposes. The churches of the county are remarkably
good, and amongst them are two fine cathedrals, those of
Canterbury and Rochester. The church of Barfreston,
between Canterbury and Dover, is a highly interesting
edifice of Anglo-Saxon or early Norman architecture. Of
the secular buildings, the chief are Hever Castle, on the
River Eden, near the border of Sussex, the seat of the
Boleyns, where Henry VIII. courted Queen Anne ; Ailing-
ton Castle, near Maidstone, the seat of the Wyatts; Chil-
ham Castle, near Canterbury ; and the hall and gateway of
the royal palace at Eltham. Besides these, are the castel¬
lated mansions of Leeds Castle, near Maidstone, formerly
the residence of Richard II. and Henry IV.; Knowle,
near Sevenoaks, the seat of the Dukes of Dorset; and
Penhurst Castle, the seat of the Sydneys. On the coast
are the castles of Sanddown, Sandgate, Deal, and Walmer,
which are fortifications rather than residences; the latter
will ever be famous as the residence and death-place of the
great Duke of Wellington, being attached to his office of
Governor of the Cinque Ports, four of which (Dover, Hythe,
Romney, and Sandwich) are situated in Kent. Nor must
we forget the national asylum for disabled and aged sea¬
men, Greenwich Hospital, the fittest and noblest insti¬
tution of our maritime nation, and fully justifying, in the
character of its architecture, one part of the French criti¬
cism, that “in England the palaces are built like hospitals,
and the hospitals like palaces.” Adjacent to it is the Royal
Observatory. (f. c.)
KENT, William, the father of modern landscape-gar¬
dening, was born in Yorkshire in 1685. His parents, per¬
sons in humble life, apprenticed him to a coach-painter ;
but he soon became conscious that he had talent for a much
higher walk of art, and set off to London to seek his for¬
tunes there as a portrait and historical painter. He had the
good luck to fall in with kindly patrons, who supplied him
with the means of completing his studies in Italy. After a
six years’ residence in that country he became acquainted
in 1716 with the Earl of Burlington, with whom he returned
to England, and under whose roof he continued to reside
till his death in 1748. The studies of both lay in the same
direction, and the patron, from his wealth and position, was
able to procure many commissions for his protege. Aban¬
doning altogether pictorial art, in which he was never likely
to attain any distinction, Kent henceforth found his true
sphere in architecture and landscape-gardening. Of the
latter of these arts, as now practised in England, he may
justly be regarded as the father. The Temple of Venus at
Stowe, and the splendid palace of the Earl of Leicester at
Holkham in Norfolk, are attributed to him, and, if really
his, do great credit to his architectural taste and talent. In
the ages previous to his, artists had been held to succeed in
proportion as they banished every touch of nature from
their designs; and every garden with the least pretensions
to fashion was filled with giants, animals, monsters, coats of
KEN
Kentucky, arms, and mottoes in yew, box, and holly. Absurdity could
. ^ ' go no further, and luckily at this moment Kent appeared
painter enough, in the words of Walpole, “ to taste the
charms of landscape, bold and opinionative enough to dare
and to dictate, and born with a genius to strike out a great
system from the twilight of imperfect essays.” Nature was
everywhere restored, and the old absurdities were discarded
for ever. Gardens and lawns were from this time laid out
according to the laws of perspective, and light and shade.
A similar reformation was effected in the management of
water ; canals, circular basins, and cascades tumbling down
marble steps, were supplanted by streams which seemed to
wind away at pleasure, and w'ere lost and restored to view
again at proper intervals. Not seldom his imitations of
nature were carried too far, as when, in Kensington Gardens,
he planted dead trees to give a greater air of truth to the
scene. But he was easily laughed out of this extreme,
whose folly he was himself one of the first to detect. As a
sculptor, Kent never attained any eminence. The well-
known statue of Shakspeare in Westminster Abbey is from
his chisel, and does very little credit either to his taste or
judgment.
KENTUCKY, one of the western states of N. America,
is bounded N. by the Ohio, separating it from Ohio, Indi¬
ana, and Illinois, W. by the Mississippi, separating it from
Missouri, S. by Tennessee, and E. by the Cumberland
Mountains and Big Sandy River, which divide it from Vir¬
ginia. Its greatest length E. and W. is 368 miles ; average
breadth 150. Area 37,680 square miles, of which about the
half was cultivated in 1850.
The face of the country for the most part is level or un¬
dulating. The most elevated land is in the S.E., where the
spurs of the Cumberland Mountains traverse several of the
counties. Their elevation nowhere exceeds 2000 feet. A
range of hills, intersected by deep narrow vales, runs nearly
parallel with the Ohio at a distance of from 5 to 20 miles.
Between the hilly region of the E. and N.E. and Green
River, extends an undulating and fertile tract of about 150
miles long, embracing more than half the area of the state.
The district between Green and Cumberland Rivers, known
as the “Barrens,” is chiefly occupied as pasture-land ; that
to the W. of Cumberland River is mostly flat and mode¬
rately fertile. The country generally is well wooded, and
the hills are crowned with lofty trees. All the principal
streams are tributary to the Ohio, which washes the north¬
ern boundary of Kentucky in its entire extent, giving a
steamboat navigation of above 600 miles, and opening to the
state the inland commerce of the Ohio Valley. In like
manner the Mississippi on the W. gives access to the com¬
merce of the vast territory beyond. The Big Sandy
forms the eastern boundary of the state for about 100 miles.
It enters from Virginia, flowing northward into the Ohio,
and is navigable for about 50 miles. The Licking, Ken¬
tucky, and Green River have their entire course within the
state. They all rise in the Cumberland Mountains, and
flow W. and N.W.; the two latter are navigable respec¬
tively to distances of 60 and 150 miles. The Cumberland
River also rises in the mountains of that name, flows W.
and S.W. for about 300 miles, makes a bend of above 200
miles into Tennessee, and re-enters Kentucky about 80
miles from its junction with the Ohio. It is navigable for
steamers to Nashville in Tennessee. The Tennessee River
has about 70 miles of its course in Kentucky, and enters
the Ohio about 10 miles below the Cumberland.
The prevailing geological formation throughout Ken¬
tucky is the blue limestone, which is much used for build¬
ing. A good marble is found among the cliffs of the
Kentucky River. Sandstone is also common, and extends
from Louisville to Danville. Bituminous shale and pud¬
ding-stone are also abundant. The lime-stone region
abounds in caverns, sinks (deep conical hollows), and sub-
K E N 69
terranean water-courses. Into these latter the smaller Kentucky,
streams disappear during the dry season. Of the caverns,
the most celebrated is the Mammoth Cave, which is re¬
garded as one of the chief wonders of the American con¬
tinent. It lies near Green River, in Edmonson county,
and consists of an endless series of lofty chambers con¬
nected by long narrow galleries, supposed to extend in all
their ramifications to more than 40 miles. Near the entrance,
which is reached after a descent of 30 feet, is a great ante¬
chamber, 200 feet long, 150 feet wide, and 50 feet in height:
here have been found large quantities of gigantic bones. In
one chamber mummies have been discovered ; from the roof
of another hang clustering countless legions of bats ; the
waters of the cave are inhabited by a species of fish abso¬
lutely destitute of eyes; and one chamber has been con¬
verted into a residence for consumptive patients, to whom
its pure and mild air is found beneficial. Another place
of much interest to the naturalist is Big Bone Lick, near
the banks of the Ohio, so named from the fossil remains of
antediluvian megatheria found there in large quantities. Of
these many have found their way to Britain.
The coal-beds of Kentucky, which extend from the
neighbouring states on the N. and E., occupy a vast area,
but have hitherto been worked to a very inconsiderable ex¬
tent. Iron is equally abundant, but of inferior quality, and
it also has been comparatively neglected. Lead and silver
are found in small quantities. Salt springs or “licks” (so
called by the early settlers, from their being favourite re¬
sorts of wild animals, which regaled themselves by licking
the mineral) abound in the sandstone formation; and
nitrate of lime and gypsum are found in the caves. Mine¬
ral springs are numerous.
The climate is salubrious, the thermometer seldom rising
above 80°, or descending below 25°, in the centre of the
state. The mean annual temperature is about 58°. The
best soil of Kentucky is that of the limestone formation.
The most fertile portion of the state, and surpassed by few
tracts in America, is that watered by the Licking, Ken¬
tucky, Dick’s River, and the upper course of Green River ;
the soil is a loose black mould, the product of the dense
forests which at one time covered the face of the country.
Of these there are still considerable remains, and the variety
of trees, some of which, as the poplar, attain enormous dimen¬
sions, is as great as in any of the states. Among the more
common trees in the cultivated districts are the paw-paw,
sugar-maple, honey-locust, and coffee-tree. The Pani-
cum virgatum which grows in dense brakes to the height
of 12 feet, affords rich pasture for cattle.
The principal agricultural products of Kentucky are
flax, hemp, and tobacco. Of the entire crop of these raised
in the states, Kentucky yields respectively five-eighths,
four-sevenths, and above one-fourth. The number of farms
in 1850 was 74,777; the extent of improved land in farms
5,968,270 acres ; of unimproved 10,981,478 acres. The
cash value of these farms was estimated at L.31,204,250,
ranking it fourth in this respect among the states. In pro¬
duction of wheat it stood eleventh ; of oats, third; of
Indian-corn, second ; of wool, seventh. The crop of wheat
was 2,142,822 bushels ; of maize, 58,672,591 bushels; of
oats, 8,201,311 bushels; potatoes, 1,492,487 bushels; of
tobacco, 55,501,196 lbs; of wool, 2,297,433 lbs; of flax,
2,100,116 lbs.; of hemp, 17,787 tons. The number of
horses was 315,682; milch cows, 247,475 ; working oxen,
62,274; other cattle, 442,763; sheep, 1,102,091 ; swine,
2,891,163 ; total value of live stock, L.5,932,300. Pro¬
duce of butter, 9,947,523 lbs. ; cheese, 213,954 lbs. ; bees’-
wax and honey, 1,158,019 lbs. The principal fruits reared
are apples and peaches, from which cider and brandy are
extensively manufactured for home consumption. The in¬
dustry of the state is mainly agricultural; the chief manu¬
factures are leather, tobacco, woollens, cotton, ropes, &c.
70
K E N
Kentucky. Its foreign commerce is limited, and passes chiefly through
New Orleans. The amount of shipping (all steamers)
in 1850 was 14,820 tons. The means of internal com¬
munication are extensive, the state being nearly insu¬
lated by navigable waters, with numerous tributaries,
aided by canals and other works. Of these the most im¬
portant is the Portland and Louisville Canal, constructed
to obviate the difficulty to navigation caused by the Ohio
Falls. This important work is about 3 miles long, and has
been for the most part hewed out of the solid limestone :
the cost was L.240,000. Several railways are in opera¬
tion, of which the chief are the lines connecting Louisville,
Frankfort, Lexington, and Covington ; and other lines are
in progress.
There were in 1851 five banks, with twenty-one branches,
in Kentucky, with an aggregate circulation of L.1,522,650.
Capital, L.1,507,400; deposits, L.464,750.
The population in 1850 was 982,405, of whom 761,417
were whites, 10,007 free coloured, and 210,981 slaves;
601,764 were natives of Kentucky. The state is divided
into 100 counties. The capital is Frankfort, in the county
of Franklin, but the largest town, and the commercial me¬
tropolis of the state, is Louisville, which in 1853 had 57,726
inhabitants. After it in population come Covington, Lex¬
ington, Newport, Maysville, Frankfort, and Paducah. The
state legislature consists of a governor, elected by the peo¬
ple for four years, a senate of 38 members, elected for a
like term, one-half every two years, and a house of repre¬
sentatives of 100 members, elected for two years. Ken¬
tucky sends 10 members to the national congress, and has
12 votes in the presidential election.
The state revenue in 1854 was L. 177,050; the ex¬
penditure, L.154,690; the public debt, L.1,229,470; the
assessed value of property, L.81,166,000. The rate of
taxation, 17 cents for every 100 dollars’ worth of property.
The judicature consists of an appeal court, composed of
one chief justice, and three associate judges, with salaries
of L.417 each; a court of chancery, presided over by a
single chancellor, salary L.375; twelve circuit courts and
county courts, consisting of a presiding judge and two asso¬
ciates. All these officials are popularly elected. There
are also two justices of peace and a sheriff in each county.
The state militia, in 1852, numbered 88,979 men. Edu¬
cation is provided for by a state school fund, amounting, in
1854, to L.280,070, and an annual property-tax yielding
about L.15,600. The number of children between five
and sixteen, in 1854, was 227,123, of whom 207,210 were
on the school books; the average attendance was 76,429.
There were, in 1852, 8 colleges with 656 students, besides
2 medical schools, with 590 students, two law schools with
125 students, and 1 theological school with 18 students.
The principal colleges are the Louisville University, and the
Transylvania University at Lexington. Of religious deno¬
minations the most numerous are the Baptists, next to
them the Methodists; total number of places of worship in
1850, 1818 ; value of church property, L.452,030. The
number of newspapers and periodicals published in 1850
was 67,—9 daily, 5 tri-weekly, 4 bi-weekly, 41 weekly,
1 fortnightly, and 7 monthly ; their total annual circulation,
6,582,838 copies.
The first pioneers of civilization in Kentucky were Boone
and Knox, whose exploits and perils are among the most
cherished traditions of the Kentuckians. The first settle¬
ment was established between 1760-70. At first Kentucky
was a county of Virginia ; it was declared independent in
1790, and was admitted into the Union in 1792. The in¬
habitants still retain much of that frank and hospitable, if
sometimes boisterous, style of life and manners inherited
from the bold hunters who first wrested the land from the
dominion of savages and beasts of prey. Certain relics of
antiquity seem to indicate that at a very remote period this
K E N
country was possessed by a race not unacquainted with the Kenyon,
arts of civilization. The most remarkable of these are the
traces of regular fortifications on the banks of the Ohio,
opposite Scioto River.
KENYON, Lloyd, Lord, an eminent English law¬
yer, Chief-Justice of the King’s Bench from 1788 to 1802,
was born in 1732, at Greddinsiton, in Flintshire. Such
early training as he had he received at the grammar-school
of Rathin ; but he had only some small progress in the La¬
tin grammar when he was withdrawn, and at the age of
fourteen articled to an attorney in extensive practice at
Nantwieh, in Cheshire. During his seven years’ apprentice¬
ship he showed such aptitude for legal studies, that he be¬
came a great favourite with his master, and was even led
to hope that in course of time he would be admitted to a
partnership in the business. Disappointed in this hope, he
resolved to prepare himself for the English bar. Proceed¬
ing to London in 1754, he entered Lincoln’s-Inn ; and,
seven years later, was called to the bar. Without friends,
and too proud to stoop to the small arts by which success
is reached, he remained for many years poor and unknown.
Still hopeful, he attended regularly the courts of equity and
common law (especially the former), and was equally punc¬
tual at sessions and circuit. At last, by slow degrees, he
began to make way as an equity draftsman and conveyancer;
and, having attracted the notice of Mr Thurlow, then at¬
torney-general, he had scon more to do than he could over¬
take. In 1779 he wras associated with Mr Erskine as lead¬
ing counsel for Lord George Gordon, then on his trial for
high treason. Three years later he was made attorney-
general under the Rockingham administration, and retained
office when Pitt became Chancellor of the Exchequer. In
1784 he became Master of the Rolls, and was made a ba¬
ronet ; and, four years later, he succeeded Lord Mansfield
as Chief-Justice of the King’s Bench, with the title of Lord
Kenyon, Baron Greddington. His elevation to this high
office gave great offence to the lawyers, with whom Kenyon
was very far from being popular. 11 is personnel was very
little calculated to recommend him to the profession. Deeply
learned in the law, he wjas quite ignorant of everything be¬
yond its pale. He was a very poor orator; and his man¬
ners, always ungracious, were often irritating, and even
insolent in the extreme. Hating show and pomp of every
kind, he dressed shabbily, drove a miserable equipage, and
almost never entertained. On the bench he ruled like a
despot, and would never allow even his brother judges to
express opinions differing from his own. To the counsel
who appeared before him he was still more stern and arbi¬
trary, and often put down any freedom of thought or speech
on their part in cruelly harsh and undignified language.
With the public, on the other hand, Lord Kenyon was in
the highest degree popular, chiefly on account of the in¬
flexible impartiality with which he administered justice.
The vices and crimes of the higher classes he punished
more severely in proportion to the rank and wealth of the
offenders. He often threatened, that if the highest lady in
the land were brought before him and convicted of gambling,
she should stand on the pillory for it. Libels, and especially
political libels, he also punished with rigorous severity. In
the case of poor offenders, or such as he believed to have
been betrayed into crime by designing persons, he was al¬
ways merciful; and, though his great maxim was, that the
law was no respecter of persons, he sometimes strained it
in their favour.
From his complete destitution of literary accomplishment,
Lord Kenyon’s decisions, though now regarded as of the
highest authority, were often so ill-reasoned and obscurely
worded, as to be far from satisfactory; and thus the value
of the adjudication was damaged by the apparent unsound¬
ness of the grounds on which it was based. This defect
was also due in some measure to the haste with which he
Kepler
Kerman.
K E P
pushed through his work. He often despatched between
twenty and thirty cases in the course of a single day.
Lord Kenyon died in 1802, in the fifteenth year of his
public life as Chief-Justice of the King’s Bench. His death
is said to have been hastened by the loss of his eldest son,
who was to have inherited his title and the immense fortune
which he had amassed.
KEPLER, John. See Dissektations IV. and V.;
and art. Astronomy, Parts I. and IV.
KERBELA, or Meshed Hossein, a large and populous
city of Asiatic Turkey, pashalic of Bagdad, and 60 miles
S.W. of the town of that name. It is surrounded by a wrall
upwards of 2 miles in circumference, is entered by five
gates, and has a well-supplied bazaar, and several caravan¬
saries. The chief ornaments of the city, however, are the
tomb of Hossein, adorned with a lofty gilded cupola, and a
magnificent mosque. Its ancient name was Vologesia;
but it was an inconsiderable place till Hossein, the son of
Ali by Fatima, the daughter of the prophet, was interred
here, having been slain in the vicinity, when it became a
great resort of pilgrims. An ancient canal connects this
town with the Euphrates.
KERESOON, or Kerasan (the ancient Cerastes), a
seaport-town of Asiatic Turkey, on the Black Sea, govern¬
ment of Trebisond, and 75 miles W. by S. of the town of
that name, in N. Lat. 40. 57. 10., E. Long. 38. 24. It is
situate on a rocky promontory forming the western bound¬
ary of a spacious bay. The town, which is now in a very
wretched and ruinous condition, appears to have been for¬
merly a place of considerable strength and importance, and
a considerable part of the ancient wall still exists. It has
some ship-building, and carries on a small trade in corn
with the Crimea. Pop. probably about 3000.
KERGUELEN LAND, or Island of Desolation, an
island of the Indian Ocean, named after its discoverer,
Kerguelen, a Frenchman, and visited by Captain Cook in
1779. It is almost totally destitute of vegetation, and has a
cold and moist climate. The surface is rugged and moun¬
tainous, and the coasts deeply indented by bays and inlets.
It is resorted to by numerous wild fowl and seals. N. Lat.
69. 30., E. Long. 49. 20.
KERKOOK (the Demetrias of Strabo, and the Corcura
of Ptolemy), a large town of Asiatic Turkey, Lower Kur¬
distan, on the direct road from Bagdad to Mosul, 130 miles
N. of the former, and 100 S.E. of the latter. It is a large
open town, in a plain ; but, like all the towns in this part
of the world, is in great part in ruins. The streets are nar¬
row and filthy, and the houses mean. It is said to have no
manufactures except a coarse calico, but there is a consider¬
able trade in gall-nuts, which are brought from the Kurdis¬
tan Mountains. There are numerous naphtha pits in the
vicinity. Pop. about 13,000, Arabs and Osmanlis, with some
Christians and Jews. N. Lat. 35. 27., E. Long. 44. 27.
KERMAN, or Kirman (anc. Caramania), a province
of Persia, lying between N. Lat. 25. 30. and 31. 20., and
E. Long. 54. 30. and 60. 20., having N. Khorassan, E.
Afghanistan and Beloochistan, S. the Persian Gulf, and W.
Laristan and Pars. It is about 380 miles in length from
N. to S. by 250 in extreme breadth, and has an estimated
area of 65,000 square miles. Kerman is represented as be¬
ing a generally mountainous territory, but the greater part
of it is comparatively unknown. A mountain chain, the
Djebel Abaci, intersects the province from E. to W., and
sends off numerous ramifications southward towards the
coast. N. of this chain, the country is in general a barren,
dreary waste, without a single river to irrigate the land.
Almost the only exception to this is the district of Nurman-
sheer, about 90 miles in length by from 20 to 30 miles in
breadth, and which is tolerably well watered by mountain
streams, and has a good soil. A few productive spots are
also to be found in the neighbourhood of mountain springs,
E E R
71
Kerowlee.
or where subterraneous reservoirs have been made for irri- Kerman
gation. S. of the Djebel Abaci, the country is very moun¬
tainous. Many of the plains and valleys are of great fer¬
tility, but here too are large tracts of barren waste. The
principal river here is the Rud Shur, which flows southward
into the Persian Gulf. The climate of Kerman is said to
be less healthy than that of other parts of Persia. The
chief productions are wheat, maize, barley, cotton, tobacco,
saffron, madder, gums, and various kinds of fruits. The
dates and grapes of particular parts are said to be very fine,
but the other fruits are of inferior quality. White roses
are extensively cultivated, the attar of these being highly
esteemed. The mulberry tree is also largely cultivated for
the breeding of silkworms. The rearing of cattle, sheep,
goats, and camels, receives much attention. The inhabi¬
tants on the coast are chiefly engaged in fishing, but the
pearl fishery, once so famous, has now been abandoned.
The mineral wealth of the province is said to be consider¬
able, but iron, copper, and sulphur, are the only products
hitherto obtained. The manufactures comprise fine woollen
fabrics, carpets, goats’ and camels’ hair shawls, coarse linens,
and matchlocks. The southern part of Kerman, called
Mogostan, is subject to the Imam of Muscat. Pop. about
600,000.
Kerman, or Sergan, the capital of the above province, is
situate at the western extremity of an extensive plain, and
commanded by two old forts on the neighbouring hills, N.
Lat. 29. 56., E. Long. 56. 25. It is surrounded by a mud
wall and dry ditch, and is entered by four gates. It has a
citadel, in which the governor resides, a well furnished
bazaar, several large caravansaries, and numerous baths and
mosques. Kerman was once the most important city in the
empire, being the great centre of trade between the Persian
Gulf and the countries to the N.E. and W. It has fre¬
quently suffered from hostile attacks, particularly in 1794,
when it was taken by Aga Mahomet Khan, its walls and
public buildings levelled to the ground, many of its inhabi¬
tants put to death, and 30,000 driven into exile. The rise
of Bushire as a trading port has also taken away a great part
of the trade of Kerman, which, however, is still considerable.
It has also important manufactures of goats’ and camels’
hair shawls, carpets, and matchlocks. Pop. about 30,000.
KERMANSHAW, a town of Persia, capital of Persian
Kurdistan, and of a cognominal district, 80 miles W.S.W.
of Hamadan, in N. Lat. 34. 30., E. Long. 47. 12. It stands
on the S.W. slope of a range of mountains at the extremity
of a large plain, near the right bank of the Kerkah or Karasu,
and is surrounded by an earthen wall nearly 3 miles in cir¬
cumference. It is said to be a very flourishing town, de¬
riving great advantage from its situation on the great S.
road from Persia into Asiatic Turkey. It has many public
buildings, gardens, and baths. Chief manufactures, carpets
and swords. Pop. about 30,000. About 6 miles from
Kermanshaw, on the road to Hamadan, are excavations
and sculptures of great extent on the face of the mountains.
KERMES. See Dyeing, Chap. IV., 3.
KEROWLEE, a town of Hindustan, and the principal
place of a native state of the same name, situate in the pro¬
vince of Rajpootana. The houses are built of brick, and
those of a superior class are faced with squared stone, but
the streets are narrow and filthy. The territory of Kerow¬
lee has an area of 1878 square miles, with a population of
187,000. Within the last few years, the distracted condition
of this principality induced the reigning prince to solicit the
interference of the British government, and a compliance
with his request led to the restoration of tranquillity. Upon
the death, in 1852, of the Rajah Nursing Pal, his adopted
son, Bhurt Pal, was recognised by the British government
as his successor, and arrangements were made for the ad¬
ministration of the state during the minority of the young
prince. The total revenue of the country is stated at
72 K E R
Kerry. L.50,690, but so much has been alienated as to leave little
^ _—/ more than tvvo-thirds of that sum lor the use ot^the state.
The town of Kerowlee is in Tat. 26. 28., Long. 7 i. 10.
KERRY, a maritime county in the province of Munster,
in Ireland, bounded on the N. by the estuary of the Shan¬
non, which separates it from the county of Clare; on the
E. by the counties of Limerick and Cork ; on the S. by the
county of Cork and part of Kenmare estuary; and on the W.
by the Atlantic Ocean. The tribe of the Juvernii inhabited
this part of Ireland when Ptolemy wrote. Previously to the
English invasion, the O’Connors were in possession of the
northern, the Moriartys of the central, and the O’Sullivans
and O’Donoghoes of the southern portion of the district.
The M’Carthys, who were the chief of the Irish septs in
South Munster before the arrival of the English, retired into
the wilds of Kerry when dispossessed of their more valuable
tracts of country. In consideration of services rendered,
Dermod MacCarty granted a considerable tract of this county
to the celebrated English adventurer Raymond le Gros,
who settled his son Maurice here. Maurice became so
potent that he gave his name to the part of Kerry then
called Lixnaw, from the ancient Luceni, as also to his
family, the country being called Clamnaurice, and the
family Fitzmaurice, to this day. In 1329 Maurice Fitz¬
gerald, great-grandson of the first Lord of Kerry, was
created Earl of Desmond. The county had been made
shire-ground so early as 1210 by King John ; but now the
southern portion, together with a large part of the county
of Cork as far as the mouth of the Blackwater, was formed
into a palatinate in favour of the Desmond family, the head
of which exercised an authority nearly equal to that of sove¬
reign in the district until the close of the reign of Queen
Elizabeth. After the attainder of Gerald, the sixteenth and
last Earl of Desmond, the family estates were parcelled out
among various English knights and gentlemen, viz.,—Sir
William Herbert, Charles Herbert, Esq., Sir Valentine
Browne, Sir Edward Denny, Captain Conway, John Holly,
Esq., &c. On the breaking out of the rebellion of 1641
the native Irish regained possession of a considerable por¬
tion of the county, but their property was afterwards exten¬
sively confiscated, and among the new proprietors was Sir
William Petty, whose estates, as well as those of the Fitz-
maurices, are held by the Marquis of Lansdowne, who re¬
presents the ancient barons of Kerry. The county is at
present divided into the eight baronies of Clanmaurice,
Corkaguiney, Dunkerron, Glenarought, Iraghticonnor,
Iveragh, Magunihy, and Trughanachmy, and extends over
a surface of 1853 square miles, or 1,186,126 acres, of which
414,614 are arable, 726,775 are uncultivated, 11,169 are in
plantations, 807 are occupied by towns and villages, and
the remaining 32,761 acres are covered with water.
The county contains the two dioceses of Ardfert and
Aghadoe, which have from time immemorial been united
so intimately that the parishes belonging to each cannot be
ascertained. In 1663 they were both allowed to be held in
commendam by the Bishop of Limerick, and the union thus
formed has not been since disturbed. This union of dioceses
is the only one that has not been in some manner altered by
the late arrangements for the reduction of the number of
Irish bishoprics. The diocese of Ardfert includes the north¬
ern part of the county; the seat of the see is Ardfert, a
small town, now little more than a village. The cathedral
was burned in the wars of 1641, but a small part of the
building was afterwards fitted up for divine service, and in
1831 was completely repaired. The seat of the diocese of
Aghadoe, which comprehended the southern part of the
county, is at a place of the same name, near Killarney, where
the ruins of the cathedral are still to be seen. The num¬
ber of parishes in the united dioceses is 88.
Previously to the Union, the county returned eight mem¬
bers to parliament,—two for the county, and two for each of
K E R
the boroughs of Tralee, Dingle, and Ardfert. At the Union Kerry,
the number was reduced to three,—two for the county and
one for Tralee. The Reform Act made no alteration in
this arrangement. Kerry is in the Munster circuit, and is
divided for poor-law purposes into the unions of Cahirciveen,
Dingle, Kenmare, Killarney, Listowee, and Tralee. The
head-quarters of the constabulary force in the county are at
Tralee, and sub-inspectors are stationed at Cahirciveen,
Dingle, Kenmare, Killarney, Listowel, and Tralee.
The population of the county, according to the estimate
of De Burgo, amounted to 56,628 in 1760 ; in 1792 Beau¬
fort judged it to amount to 107,000. The first parliamen¬
tary census, taken in 1813, which, however, was very inac¬
curate, stated it at 178,622 ; that of 1821 gives 216,185 ;
that of 1831, 263,126. The census of 1834 being returned
according to dioceses instead of counties, prevents the spe¬
cification of the amount of the population at that period ;
but from that return it appears that the dioceses of Ardiert,
and Aghadoe, which are nearly commensurate with the
county, contained 304,687 souls, of whom 7529 were Pro¬
testants of the Established Church, 27 Protestant Dissenters,
and 297,131 Roman Catholics. In 1841 the population
was 293,880, which decreased in 1851 to 238,239. Of
this number, 44,455 are returned as speaking only the Irish
language, which is spoken by 61 per cent, of the population
of the county.
The land in the northern part of the county is low, rich,
and generally level, although it rises to an elevation of 710
feet above the sea in Maulin Mountain, which occupies the
centre of Kerry Head, a remarkable promontory projecting
from the mainland into the Atlantic. The middle part is
an upland, gradually rising to the E. and S. ; the southern
and western parts are almost wholly mountain, glen, and bog,
comprising some of the highest points in Ireland. The lof¬
tiest of these, and the highest mountain in Ireland, is Car-
rantuohill, 3414 feet above the sea, being the summit of the
range called M'Gillycuddy’s Reeks, which stretches across
the barony of Dunkerron, sending out branches in various
directions. Next to Carrantuohill the highest summits are—
Caper, 3200; Mangerton, 2756; Purple Mountain, 2739;
and Coomenagh, 2446 feet above the ocean. To the west
is the mountain of Drung, which rises precipitously from
Dingle Bay to a height of 2104 feet; over the edge of the
cliffs at an elevation of 200 feet, a road is carried, little in¬
ferior, says Inglis, in the magnificence of its mountain and
sea views, to any of the celebrated roads along the shores
of the Mediterranean, and every way superior to the road
from Bangor to Conway in North Wales. In the barony
or peninsula of Iveragh also rise the lofty summits of Cul¬
len, 2231 ; Knockadubber, 2000 ; and Knockatubrid, 1556
feet high. More northerly are—Brandon Hill, 3127 feet;
the Slieve Mish Hills, the Stacks, and the Glanruddery
Mountains, all of inferior elevation to those already meir-
tioned. These mountain ranges are intersected by deep
and precipitous glens and ravines, possessing features of sub¬
lime and picturesque scenery. The most remarkable of
these is the Gap of Dunloe, lying between lomies and
M‘Gillycuddy’s Reeks, formed by mountains on each side,
nearly perpendicular; it has a flat base or floor, which ren¬
ders the passage through it easy to both horsemen and pe¬
destrians, and opens into a valley watered by a succession
of mountain lakes, and terminated by a romantic waterfall.
These valleys are the beds through which numerous small
rivers take their course. The most northern rivers are the
Feale, Gale, and Brick, which, having formed a junction
near Rattoochurch, form the Cashin, a wide but short tidal
stream which runs into the estuary of the Shannon. I he
Maine runs from Castle Island to the head of Castlemaine
Haven. The Flesk, after a winding course through Glan-
flesk, falls into the Lower Lake of Killarney, from which
it passes, under the name of the Laune or Lane, with a
KERRY. 73
Kerry, body of waters much augmented, into Castlemaine Haven.
—The Carra, rising in the mountains of Dunkerron, falls into
the same bay. The Ferta and the Inny rise near Drung
Mountain, collect the waters from the boggy uplands, and
flow westward, the former into Valentia Harbour, the latter
into Ballinskeligg Bay. The Ruaghty empties itself into
the head of the estuary called Kenmare River. The Black-
water flows from the Dunkerran Mountains into Kenmare
River, part of the boundary between this county and Cork.
Lakes are numerous, but few of large size. The principal
are the picturesque Lakes of Killarney. They are situated
near the town of Killarney, at the northern side of the range
of mountains of which the Reeks form the summit, and con¬
sists of three lakes, named the Lower (Lough Leane), the
Middle (Muckross or Tore), and the Upper Lake. The
first and second, which are on the same level, are separated
only by a narrow peninsula, on which stands the fine ruin
of Muckross Abbey, embosomed in lofty woods, and still re¬
taining many fragments of its ancient grandeur and pictu¬
resque architecture. The Upper Lake, the level of which
is five feet higher, is connected with the others by a river
navigable by boats, a perfect specimen of close river scen¬
ery, and equally admired as the lakes themselves. The
lower lake is studded with islands, of which the most re¬
markable, both for fertility and beauty, is Inisfallen, above
12 acres in extent, and contains, besides a small banqueting
house, the ruins of an abbey of the same name, founded in
600, and the locality where one of the most ancient of the
native chronicles, entitled the Annals of Inisfallen, was
written. It consists of extracts from the Old Testament, a
compendium of universal history down to the arrival of St
Patrick in 432, and, thenceforward to the end, treats of the
affairs of Ireland, finishing at 1319. The original, com¬
menced a.d. 600, and continued during 500 years, is now
preserved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. On Ross
Island are the ruins of Ross Castle, the garrison of which
made a gallant stand against the parliamentary forces in the
wars of 1641. Another, named O’Donoghoe’s Prison, is
supposed to have been used as a place of confinement by a
chieftain of that name. The other more remarkable fea¬
tures of the Lower Lake are O’Sullivan’s Cascade, and the
Bay of Glena, where there is an extraordinary echo. The
Upper Lake has twelve small islets. The other lakes in
the county are Lough Carrane, near Ballinskeligg Bay, con¬
taining several islands, Lough Brin, Lough Carra, and
Lough Guitane, besides many of smaller extent.
The Lakes of Killarney are not of great size, the Lower
Lake, which is the largest, covers 5001 acres, the Middle 680,
and the Upper Lake only 430 acres. They are all exceed¬
ingly beautiful, but the Upper Lake, although smaller, has
more grandeur. The numerous islets and wooded promon¬
tories diminish the extent of water seen at one time; but
“ almost every islet and promontorj', whether rising from
the water in steep, bare rocky cliffs, or sloping gentler down
to it, is crowned with the most luxuriant canopy of trees,
among which the arbutus, distinguished by its subdued and
mellow green, is most conspicuous.”
The coast is indented by several large bays. Nearest to
the county of Cork is the great estuary called the Kenmare
River, which contains some good harbours, and has many
small islands along its shores. The next is Ballinskeligg
Bay, to the N. of which are the Skeligg Islands. On
the largest of these, which is a lofty rock of slate rising-
several hundred feet above the level of the sea, there was
formerly a convent, which was afterwards transferred to the
mainland. 1 wo lighthouses were erected on this island in
1826 : one of the lights is placed 372 feet above the level
of the sea, being the most elevated of all the lights on the
Irish coast. 1 he gannet breeds here, and nowhere else on
the coast. N. of this bay, and separated from the main¬
land by a safe and capacious roadstead, is Valentia Island,
VOL. XIII.
chiefly the property of the Knights of Kerry ; the greater Kerry,
part of the island is under tillage, and it contains an exten-
sive and valuable slate quarry, which is worked for export.
Dingle Bay succeeds, containing within it Castlemaine,
Ventry, and Dingle Harbours, and having the Blasquet
Islands at its northern extremity. Dunmore Head, to the
N.W. of this bay, is the most western point of the main¬
land of Ireland. Smerwick Bay, Brandon Bay, and Tra¬
lee Bay are adapted for smaller vessels only : between the
two latter are the Magharees or Seven Hogs Islands. Bal-
lyheige Bay, which is entirely exposed during westerly
winds to the fury of the Atlantic Ocean, is separated from
the Shannon by the bold promontory of Kerry Head. With¬
in the mouth of the Shannon are the harbours of Ballylong-
ford and Tarbert, the latter protected by the island of the
same name. Nearly the whole of the coast of Kerry is
bold and mountainous, adding much to the picturesque
beauty of the district. The late Sir David Wilkie expressed
an opinion that the county of Kerry, so nobly indented with
bays of the Atlantic Ocean, and possessing a climate so
favourable for vegetation, along with its mountains and in¬
land waters, might, without injustice, be pronounced, in
point of scenery, the finest portion of the British islands.
Many plants, generally deemed suitable only for the genial
atmosphere of more southern latitudes, grow here freely;
and cattle remain frequently in the open air during the
whole winter.
The soil in the northern parts of the county is retentive
and coarse ; the middle district is mostly of an alluvial cha¬
racter. The valley of the River Maine is entirely limestone.
The uplands are chiefly argillaceous, but with limestone in¬
termixed. The valleys in the mountainous region of the
S. are mostly covered with bog; and, though at present
little better than wastes, they are capable, from their favour¬
able exposure, of being cultivated to advantage. All the
limestone in the county is secondary, with marine remains
and calc spar. The north-western coast to Kerry Head is
composed of beds of argillaceous sandstone, nearly horizon¬
tal, in the parting of which, the quartz crystals called Kerry-
stones are found. The midland district is mostly argilla¬
ceous, composed chiefly of slate clay and hard sandstone,
covering beds of anthracite and culm, which has not been
raised for fuel, partly on account of the abundance of turf,
partly from the offensive vapour of the coal when ignited.
The component rock of the mountains which form the
whole of the southern district is of the clay-slate forma¬
tion. The slate is quarried for roofing, particularly at Va¬
lentia Island. It is light and durable, splits readily, bears
piercing, and is harder and more siliceous than that of Ban¬
gor. In all the mountains the common gritstone contains
large quantities of quartz crystals. Detached blocks of it
are also found in the valleys, in some places in such quan¬
tity as seriously to impede cultivation. Iron ore is found
in great plenty in the southern parts, and was largely
manufactured at Killarney and Blackstones, until the works
were stopped by the failure of timber for fuel. Copper was
raised at Ardtully, near Kenmare, at Muckross, and in Ross
Island. The marble of Tralee is marked like that of Kil¬
kenny, with more white spots; other kinds of marble have
been raised in various parts. Fine amethysts have been
found near Kerry Head. Potter’s and pipe clay, a sub¬
stance like tripoli, brown ochre, and fuller’s earth, are to be
met with in various places. The whetstones found near
the Devil’s Punch-Bowl are much valued. Fossil shells,
particularly cardites and terebratulites, are frequent. Se¬
veral mineral springs, some chalybeate, others sulphureo-
chalybeate, have been discovered. Of the former, there is
one near Killarney, another near Valentia Island, another
at the mouth of the Inny, and several between Blackstones
and Killorglin. Of the latter, the most celebrated are near
Dingle, Castlemaine, and Tralee. A saline spring at Mag¬
ic
74
KERRY.
Kerry.
herybeg, in Corkaguiney, rises a little below high-water
mark, bursting out of a clear white sand.
The following tables exhibit the variations in the culti¬
vation of the land, and the quantity of stock, in each year
since 1847, when the agricultural returns were first collected
and published by the Irish government:—
Kerry.
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
1855
1856
Acres.
5,616
4,939
5,149
4,502
3,532
1,637
1,932
2,450
2,716
3,549
Acres.
40,188
32,440
27,983
30,190
33,726
34,942
35,922
34,139
36,651
35,525
Barley,
Bere, Rye,
Beans, and
Pease.
Acres.
10,704
12,218
16,622
17,326
20,482
13,463
12.865
9,696
7,702
6,537
Potatoes.
Acres.
18,319
34,455
26,030
30,963
24,892
25,811
27,700
30,144
31,357
33,810
Turnips.
Acres.
5,788
5,498
10,986
10,434
14,912
12,896
12,677
10,512
9,737
10,206
Other Green
Crops.
Acres.
957
1,510
2,198
1,732
2,646
2,472
2,970
2,334
2,523
3,053
Plax.
Acres.
132
243
136
300
678
680
1,035
673
621
1,039
Meadow
and Ciover.
Acres.
47,091
56,946
50,104
53,424
56,813
52,461
56,174
54,101
56,362
56,570
Total under
Crops.
Acres.
128,795
148,249
139,208
148,871
157,681
145,362
151,275
144,049
147,669
150,131
Years.
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
No. of
holdings
exceed¬
ing 1
acre.
25,006
21,592
19,082
17,994
17,253
16,604
16,776
2 years
old and
upwards.
I year old
and
under 2.
15 536
12,643
11,918
11,529
10,913
10,320
10,264
872
622
682
505
591
737
Under
1 year.
1,404
887
795
838
887
1,010
1,370
1,587
1,679
1,516
1,506
1,335
1,389
3,581
3,439
3,283
3,417
3,942
3,710
4,289
Cattle.
2 years old
and
upwards.
2 years old
and
under.
115 356
97,959
101,924
100,070
103,830
107,191
111,735
20,106
20,645
24,435
26,812
31,057
36,548
Under 1
year.
16,324
20,565
18,384
22,743
28,465
32,650
37,824
1 year
old and
upwards.
63,664
55,499
51,350
45,935
49,784
51,532
53,814
Under 1
year.
9,939
13,051
11,217
13,996
14,654
13,605
20,852
Pigs.
1 yearold
and
upwards.
15,699
10,922
15,252
17,487
22,279
21,915
19,324
Under 1
year.
9,842
15,473
13,450
18,759
22,270
17,405
21,513
14,434
15,617
17,487
17,382
18,835
21,388
24,853
Poultry.
170,960
201,239
168,604
183,150
211,331
201,077
239,489
There are no manufactures of importance carried on in
the county; the manufacture of coarse linen is mostly con¬
fined to the barony of Corkaguiney. A quality of narrow
cloth, of strong texture, called bandle-linen, and also “ box
and trap,” was formerly in demand for the army and the
West India market. It owed its reputation to the careful
method of preparing the yarn, but has fallen into disrepute.
The manufacture of woollens is almost entirely confined to
that employed in the domestic consumption, the rest being
sent in the raw state to the Cork and Limerick markets.
Flannels, however, are sold in some quantities in the mar¬
kets of Tralee and Dingle.
The fishery is chiefly carried on at Dingle and Valen-
tia, from the former in row-boats, and from the latter in
sailing vessels. A fishery is also carried on along the shores
of the Kenmare River. All kinds of round fish are taken,
as are also herrings. Pilchards were caught in large quan¬
tities, but they have lately deserted the coast. Shell-fish
of every kind are large and abundant. Salmon is caught
in the rivers ; but in some places the numbers are supposed
to be considerably diminished by the seals which frequent
the rocky shores.
The deep and extensive vales with which the mountain¬
ous district in the south is everywhere indented, are al¬
most wholly occupied with bog, most of which, from its
elevated position, and the declivities of the land, would ad¬
mit of easy and profitable reclamation. The extent of bog
throughout the county is estimated at 171,054 acres. One
species of it, called by the people meagh-bone, or fat turf,
is of a highly inflammable quality, and is therefore used
more to give light than heat: a small piece applied to a
lighted candle burns like a wax taper.
The county contains a vast extent of unimproved pasture
land, amounting on the whole to 727,000 acres, the greater
portion of which is situate within the elevated mountain
promontories, to the N. and S. of Dingle Bay; but large
tracts of low, and comparatively improvable, boggy lands,
are situate in a cold clayey country, extending from Tar-
bert on the Shannon, by Listowel and Castleisland, to Kil-
larney, many parts of which are highly improvable, and are
similarly circumstanced, in every respect, with the crown
lands of Kingwilliamstown, in the county of Cork, where
extensive land improvements have been effected. Similar,
and very successful improvements were also made to
the W. of Listowel, in this county, by the late Mr Pierce
Mahony, which prove what can be done at a moderate cost
in an extensive district which is similarly circumstanced.
It is probable that, of the entire extent of waste lands of
this county, about 150,000 acres may be drained and re¬
claimed, so as to produce corn and green crops: 250,000
acres may be drained, both for the purposes of pasture and
coarse meadow; and 327,000 acres, consisting either of
mountain tops or deep flat bogs, may be deemed incapable
of improvement under present circumstances.
The county was once covered with timber, much of which
has been cut down for the supply of the iron-works; but
there are still many fine tracts of wood; and, even where
the land has been cleared, its re-growth is prevented solely
by the cattle; for, wherever these are excluded, the trees
shoot up from the old roots so vigorously as often to choke
up the young plantations.
Kerry, in acreable extent, is the third largest county in
Ireland ; but if we deduct from its aggregate area the waste
of mountain and deep bog land which could not be im¬
proved at a profit, the district engineer reports that it will
be found that in no other county has so much been done
in the way of drainage and improvement on a given surface
of available land, or with better and more satisfactory re¬
sults ; for, probably in no part of Ireland has agriculture
made more rapid progress, whether in dairy or mixed hus¬
bandry, which is mainly to be attributed to the large sums
expended under the provision of the drainage acts ; for,
consequent upon the thorough drainage of the land, fol¬
lowed an improved system of husbandry. The occupiers
have been enabled to introduce a better rotation of crop¬
ping, and by degrees to introduce a different and superior
breed of stock, so that the produce on the improved farm,
whether as regards cattle, sheep, or corn, has been very
K E R
Kertch. much increased, but the great feature in the change is the
extended breadth of turnips annually sown, this being the
principal crop whereby to judge of the progress of agricul¬
ture in any district, it being the foundation of all good hus¬
bandry. In districts where nothing has been done in the
way of drainage, the old system of agriculture is still pur¬
sued in its primitive form of lazy-bed culture, and alternate
croppings of oats and potatoes.
Tralee, the assize town, with good open streets, and
many good houses, is the largest in the county, and was
once the chief residence of the Earls of Desmond, and the
place where they held their palatine court. On the ruin of
that family, it was made the county town, and obtained a
charter, wdth the right of returning two members to parlia¬
ment, which it retained till the Union, when it was deprived
of one of its members. Previously to that period, the con¬
stituency was limited to the burgesses, fifteen in number,
who were nominated by the proprietor of the town, Sir
Edward Denny. It now consists of about 315 burgesses
and householders. The town suffered greatly in the civil
wars of 1641 and 1688. Its situation on the River Lee,
about a mile from Tralee Bay, is healthy and picturesque,
but not well adapted for trade, as vessels above 300 tons
can approach no nearer than the Samphire Islands, six
miles distant. The court-house and jail form one side of a
square in the centre of the town. The other public build¬
ings are,—the church, which is a fine modern structure, two
Roman Catholic chapels, the Methodist and Independent
meeting-houses, the county infirmary, the new court-house,
and an infantry barrack for 600 men. The remains of
one of the four castles belonging to the Desmond family
are still in existence. At some distance from the town is
a celebrated sulphureo-chalybeate spa. The population in
1851 amounted to 9957. The next town in rank and popu¬
lation is Killarney, which owes its celebrity chiefly to the
lakes in its neighbourhood; and there were formerly exten¬
sive iron and copper mines wrought here. Mennius states,
that there were four circles of mines round this town ; tin,
lead, copper, and iron. Tin has not been found here in
modern times. Lord Kenmare’s seat is contiguous to the
town. Its population is 5962. Dingle, a place of some
trade, and a fishing station, contains 3262 inhabitants. The
population of the other towns which have more than 1000
inhabitants each, is as follows:—Listowel, 2126; Castle-
island, once the county town, but now a declining village,
1005,; Tarbert, 1000; Ballylongford, a rising seaport on
the Shannon, with a very improveable harbour, 1862 ; Ca-
hirciveen, 1862; and Kenmare, at the head of the estuary
of the same name, 1509. (h. s—R.)
KERTCH, a fortified town and seaport of Russia, on
the eastern coast of the Crimea, stands on a small penin¬
sula at the mouth of the strait of Yeni Kaleh, about 10
miles S.W. of the town of that name. From its command¬
ing position between the Black Sea and the Sea of Azof, it
is, both in a commercial and military point of view, a place
of considerable importance. The streets are regular, the
houses well-built of" stone, the harbour good, strongly forti¬
fied, and generally filled with shipping. All vessels enter¬
ing the Sea of Azof do quarantine here for four days. Pop.
about 10,000. The present town is built close to the site
of the ancient Panticapaeum, the last residence of Mithri-
dates the Great. In the neighbourhood are numerous tu¬
muli, some of them of enormous size, in which there have
been discovered large quantities of Grecian antiquities of
the most exquisite workmanship. The best part of these
is at St Petersburg, but a very valuable collection, preserved
in the museum at Kertch, was barbarously destroyed or
pillaged by a mob of drunken soldiers, after the capture of
the place by the allied forces of Britain and France in May
1855. Subsequent excavations by Dr D. MTherson brought
to light what seems to have been the burying-place of the
KEY 75
Scythian kings, as described by Herodotus. The hill near Keswick
the town is still called after Mithridates, who is said to have II
reviewed his troops from its summit, before his last expedi- ^
tion against the Romans. The peninsula of Kertch was
colonized by Milesians about 500 B.C. About 50 B.c. it
became part of the Roman empire, and in a.d. 375 it fell
into the hands of the Huns. In 1280 it was occupied by
the Genoese, who were driven out by the Turks in 1473.
It was seized by the Russians in 1771, and formally ceded
to them in 1774.
KESWICK, a market-town of Cumberland, 30 miles S. of
Carlisle, is delightfully situate on the left bank of the Greta,
close to the Lake of Derwentwater, and beneath the shadow
of Skiddaw. It is one of the chief stations for visitors to the
lakes, surrounded as it is by one of the finest landscapes in
England. It was for many years the residence of Southey,
whose house, Greta Hall, stands close by the river side.
There is a monument to the poet in the parish church, a
handsome building in the perpendicular style. Keswick is
noted for its manufacture of lead pencils; the mineral, of
the finest quality, is obtained in the neighbouring mines of
Borrowdale. It has a public library and reading-room, and
two museums illustrative of the mineralogy of the neigh¬
bourhood. Pop. 2618.
KESZTHELY, a town of Hungary, county of Szalad,
near the W. end of Lake Balaton, 96 miles S. of Pres-
burg. It is the seat of a very complete agricultural col¬
lege, called the Georgicon, after its founder Count George
Festetits. The inhabitants, numbering about 8000, are
chiefly employed in the manufacture of wine and of woollen
cloths.
KETSKEMET, a town of Hungary, county of Pesth,
50 miles S.E. of Buda. It is irregularly built, in the midst
of a level country, which breeds large numbers of horses
and cattle. The cattle-market is the largest in Hungary.
The inhabitants are chiefly employed in the rearing of live¬
stock, and in the manufacture of wine, soap, and leather.
Pop. (1851) 32,308.
KETTERING, a market-town of Northamptonshire, is
built on a slope near the Ise, a tributary of the Nen, 13
miles N.N.E. of the county town. The principal building
is the church, a good specimen of the perpendicular style,
with a fine old tower, surmounted by a crocheted spire.
The principal manufactures are silk plush for hats, woollens,
and shoes. Pop. 5125.
KEW, a small village and parish of Surrey, pleasantly
situate on the right bank of the Thames, 6 miles W. of
Hyde Park Corner. A stone bridge of seven arches connects
it with Brentford, on the opposite bank. The great object
of interest at Kew is the gardens. The old palace here,
built in the time of James L, was long the favourite home
of George III., who, carrying out the designs of his parents,
greatly improved and enlarged the grounds. These, which
embrace, inclusive of the Botanic Garden, an area of about
245 acres, were, in 1840, placed under the management of
the Commissioners of Woods and Forests, and opened to
the public. The Royal Botanic Garden, occupying about
75 acres, was begun by the Princess of Wales, mother of
George III., and received continual additions during the
reign of her son; but not till the recent improvements,
under the able direction of Sir William Flooker, did the
arrangements of the establishment entitle it to be regarded
as one of the most complete in the world. The palm-house
was, at the time of its erection, a wonder in architecture,
being built of iron and glass, of the length of 362 feet, by
a breadth of 100, and height of 66 feet in the central com¬
partment. The whole of the grounds are laid out with ad¬
mirable skill and taste. The most prominent object in the
pleasure-grounds is a Chinese pagoda of 10 storeys, 163
feet high, and commanding an extensive view.
KEY, or Cat, a common name given to many of the
76
Key
Islands
II .
Khania.
KEY
islands and reefs on the coast of Florida and Central Ame¬
rica. See Bahamas.
KEY ISLANDS. See Ki Islands.
KEY WEST, an island of the United States of North
America, part of Munroe county, Florida, and one of the
Pine group, forming the most southern territory of the
United States, in N. Lat. 24. 31., and W. Long. 81. 36.
It is 4 miles long by 1 in breadth at the widest part. Its
position commands the trade of the Mexican Gulf, an ad¬
vantage of which the government have availed themselves
by constituting it a naval and military station. Like the
rest of the Archipelago it is a coral formation, and has but a
scanty soil. The climate, however, is so salubrious that
Key West has become the resort of invalids from the
Northern States. The inhabitants trade in wrecks, salt,
sponges, and coral. Key West town has a safe and con¬
venient harbour much resorted to. Pop. of town about
3000.
KEYNSHAM, a market-town of Somersetshire, at the
confluence of the Chew and Avon, nearly equidistant (5
miles) between Bath and Bristol. It consists of one long
street, and has a fine large church with a lofty tower. Pop.
2318, chiefly employed in malting.
KHAFALUN, a town of Tibet, at the junction of the
Shayuk and Leh, 90 miles N. W. of Leh. Pop. about 12,000.
KHALKAS, one of the principal races of Mongolia,
inhabiting the regions on the southern frontier of Siberia.
See Mongolia.
KHANDESH, in Hindustan, a British collectorate of the
presidency of Bombay, bounded on the N. by the territory
of Holkar, on the E. and S. by portions of the Nizam’s
dominions, and on the W. by Guzerat. It is situate
between N. Lat. 21. 22., and has an area of 9311 square
miles. This district may be described as a valley or
basin traversed by the River Taptee, which flows from
E. to W., and flanked on the N. by the Sautpoora range
of mountains, on the S. by the range on which are the
fort of Chandore and the ghaut of Adjunta, and on the
S.W. by the Syadree range. On the S.E. the boundary
surface is but slightly elevated. According to the census
of 1851, the population of Khandesh amounts to 778,112.
Khandesh was governed in the beginning of the fifteenth
century by independent sovereigns, who, claiming descent
from the Khalif Omar, resided at Aseerghur; but, to¬
wards the close of the sixteenth century, it was subdued
by Akbar, and annexed to the Mogul empire. Shah Jehan,
in 1634, made a new arrangement, adding some districts to
Candeish, and constituting the whole a soobah or province
of his empire. During the contests for power and dominion
between the families of the Mahratta chiefs Holkar and
Scindia at the commencement of the present century,
Khandesh was reduced to the state of a desert; and, on the
final overthrow of the Peishwa, in 1818, it was annexed to
the British dominions. The Bheel chiefs, trusting to their
mountainous and jungly recesses, for some time continued
refractory. They were dislodged from many of their re¬
treats by the vigilance of British officers, who were long
engaged in this harassing warfare; but in 1825 it was de¬
termined to adopt a more conciliatory line of conduct, and
the province, in a short time, was restored to a state of per¬
fect tranquillity. The district was combined with that of
Ahmednuggur until 1849, when it was detached and formed
into a separate zillah.
KHANIA, or Canea (Cydonia), the chief commercial
town of Candia, and capital of a sanjak of the same name,
is situate on the N.W. coast of the island, surrounded by a
fertile and beautiful country. It is well built and strongly
fortified, and has the best harbour in the island. The prin¬
cipal exports are oil, soap, wax, silk, fruit, &c. Soap is ex¬
tensively manufactured. Pop. about 8000, the majority of
whom are Mohammedans.
K H E
KHARKOV, or Charkov, a government in the S. of Kharkov
European Russia, lying between N. Lat. 48. 30. and 51. 20., ^ ||
and E. Long. 34. 20. and 38.20. It is bounded N. by the go- Kherson,
vernment of Noursk, E. by Voronez, S. by Ekaterinoslav,
and W. by Poltava. Area, 20,900 square miles. The surface
is generally flat, and not much wooded. The soil is very fer¬
tile, and in ordinary years about one-fourth of the quantity
of corn produced is exported. Flax, hemp, tobacco, hops,
and potatoes, are also grown. Bees are abundant, and
cattle-rearing receives a considerable degree of attention.
The principal rivers are the Donetz and Oskol, neither of
which is navigable. With the exception of distilleries,
which are numerous, the industrial establishments are few
and unimportant, the principal being tanyards, saltpetre-
works, and tallow-melting houses. Pop. (1851) 1,366,188.
Kharkov, the capital of the above province, is situate
at the confluence of the Kharkov and Lopan, in N. Lat.
49. 59., E. Long. 36. 26. The town is composed of narrow
and crooked streets of wooden houses. The ramparts by
which it was formerly surrounded have been converted into
gardens and public promenades. It is the seat of the pro¬
vincial courts, and has a cathedral, university, ecclesiastical
seminary, military academy, and other educational institu¬
tions. The university (founded in 1803) had, in 1854,
75 professors, and 457 students. It has a library of 25,000
volumes, a botanical garden, and a museum. Kharkov car¬
ries on a considerable trade, and has four great annual fairs.
Pop. (1851) 24,933.
KHARTOOM, the capital of the Egyptian province of
Beled-es-Sudan, is situate on the W. bank of the Bahr-
el-Azrek, or Blue River, about lg mile from its junc¬
tion with the Bahr-el-Abiad, or White River. At the begin¬
ning of the present century only a few huts occupied the
site of the present town; but when, in 1822, this territory
became an Egyptian province, Khartoom was fixed upon as
the seat of government. Being favourably situate near
the junction of two large rivers, and near the great caravan
route from Darfur and Kordofan, it carries on a very ex¬
tensive trade. The White River brings into it, from the
most distant parts of the country, ivory, ostrich-feathers,
gum, &c.; while gold, coffee, senna, and tamarinds, are
brought by the Blue River. These articles, as well as
slaves, are thence conveyed to Cairo, the Red Sea, and
Mediterranean. Pop. estimated at about 20,000.
KHATMANDU. See Catmandoo.
KHERSON, a government in the S. of European
Russia, on the N. shore of the Black Sea, between N. Lat.
46. 10. and 49., and E. Long. 29. 20. and 34. It is bounded
N. by the governments of Kiev and Poltava, E. by Ekateri¬
noslav and Taurida, S. by the Black Sea, and W. by Bes¬
sarabia and Podolia. It is about 250 miles in length from
E. to W. by 180 miles in breadth, and has an area of 28,280
square miles. With the exception of the S.W. part, where
are some of the last ramifications of the Carpathians, and a
hilly portion in the N.E., the government consists almost
entirely of an immense steppe, destitute of trees, but co¬
vered with long grass. In the S.W. and N.E. parts there
are considerable forests. The Dniester flows along a great
part of its W. border, and the Dnieper along its E. The
principal of its other rivers is the Bug, which flows south¬
ward through the territory, dividing it into two not very
unequal parts. The climate is very variable, and charac¬
terized by extremes both of heat and cold. Agriculture
is but little attended to, the country being much better
adapted for pasturage. The sheep are numerous, and of a
superior breed. Among the horned cattle, buffaloes are
common. Wild animals are abundant, especially wolves
and wild cats. Flax, hemp, tobacco, saffron, and liquorice,
are cultivated. Several varieties of the vine are cultivated,
and wine of an inferior quality is made. The fisheries are
important, both on the sea-coast and in the rivers. Its
K H E K H 0 77
Kherson commerce, carried on at Odessa and Kherson, is very ex-
II tensive. Pop. (1851) 889,205.
Khiva. Kherson, the capital of the above province, is situate on
the right bank of the Dnieper, 90 miles E.N.E. of Odessa.
It was founded in 1778, and fortified in 1780, and soon rose
to be a place of importance ; but the want of sufficient depth
of water for large vessels, and the rise of Odessa with supe¬
rior advantages for trade, led to its decline. It is divided
into four parts—the citadel, the admiralty, and the Greek
and military suburbs. The first contains the different go¬
vernment offices, cathedral, arsenal, barracks, and prison.
In the admiralty quarter are extensive docks, building-
yards, and storehouses, but these are now little used. The
trade of the town is inconsiderable, with the exception of
that in timber. Howard, the philanthropist, died here in
1790; and over his grave, about 3 miles N. of the town, is
an obelisk erected by the Emperor Alexander. Pop.
(1851) 24,338.
KHIVA, a kingdom or khanat of Turkistan in Asia,
bounded on the N. by Ust-urt and the Sea of Aral, N.E. by
the Desert of Kizil Koum, E. by Bokhara, S. by Merve and
Persia, and W. by the Caspian Sea. Its extent is variously
estimated at 150,000 to 450,000 square miles. It is for the
most part a series of arid steppes broken by oases of various
magnitude. Of these, the most important—constituting
the khanat properly so called—is a narrow tract lying on
the W. bank of the Oxus (now called the Amou Deria, or
Jihun), along the lower part of its course. It is in length
about 150 miles, and in area about 4000 square miles, wa¬
tered by innumerable canals, carefully cultivated, and
thicky inhabited. The climate of Khiva is dry, and, on the
whole, healthy, though the extremes of summer heat and
winter cold are considerable. The clearness of the sky is
specially remarkable. The soil is naturally arid, but irriga¬
tion and manure have rendered it very productive. Among
the principal vegetable products are wheat, barley, rice,
millet, cotton, the mulberry, vine, apple and apricot, peas,
lentils, melons, potatoes, &c. The country generally is
destitute of wood, but the region on the E. side of the Oxus
produces forest trees. The Sheik-Djeli, a range of hills
running parallel to the Oxus, between Lat. 42. 20. and
40. 35., are said to contain gold and copper, but these
minerals are not worked. Limestone, salt, and sulphur,
are found in quantities sufficient for economic use. The
numbers of the population are very variously estimated—
by some authorities at 200,000, by others at 2,000,000.
Slavery is general; and the power of the khan is absolute.
The capital, Khiva, is a collection of low mud houses, con¬
taining from 5000 to 10,000 inhabitants. The manufactures
and commerce of the country are inconsiderable, the sta¬
tionary population being chiefly occupied in agriculture;
while the Turkomans live, for the most part, by cattle-
breeding and plunder. Some cotton, woollen, and silk
stuffs, earthenware, &c., are made and exported; about
2000 camels’ loads of agricultural produce, silk, &c., are an-
Inually sent to Orenburg, Astrakhan, and Cabul. The chief
trade is with Russia and Bokhara, and none but Moham¬
medans are allowed to traffic within the khanat. The Khi-
vans are of the Sunnite persuasion—one great cause of en¬
mity between them and the Persians.
Khiva is part of the ancient Chorasmia, or Kharazm ;
which, after owning the sovereignty of China and Persia,
was an independent kingdom from the tenth to the thir¬
teenth century7. In 1221 it was conquered by Genghis
Khan, from whose descendant it was wrested by Timur in
1379. Early in the sixteenth century it was overrun, with
the rest of lurkistan, by the Uzbeks, the race which has
continued dominant there to this day. Their language is
the lurkish. Nearly equal to them in numbers are the
lanjiks or Sarts, a Persian race, said to be the original
inhabitants. I he nomadic tribes are the Turkomans or
7
Trukmans, the Karakalpaks, and the Kirghiz. Of these,
the Turkomans are the least subordinate to the khan. They
rear large herds of horses (prized for their beauty), cattle,
and sheep, but are still fonder of plunder and kidnapping.
The number of Russian subjects detained as captives in
Khiva moved the Czar, in 1839, to send an expedition
against the khan. The difficulties of the march prevented
it from reaching its destination, but since then the Russians
have been permitted to erect forts on the line of their cara¬
van route into the territories of the khan. The extension
of their frontier in this direction is probably only a matter
of time.
KHOI, a walled towm of Persia, province of Azerbijan,
on a tributary of the Kar, 15 miles N. of Lake Urumiah.
It is situate in a very fertile district, and is described as
one of the best built towns in the Persian empire. The streets
are wide and regular; and are shaded by rows of trees.
Khoi carries on a considerable trade between Turkey and
Persia. In the plain of Khoi, Shah Ismael signally defeated
the Turks under Selim I., in 1514. Pop. about 15,000.
KHOJEND, a town of Independent Turkistan, Central
Asia, and Khanat of Khokan, on the Jaxartes, 90 miles
W. of Khokan. It is surrounded by walls and wet-ditches,
and intersected by canals. It manufactures coarse cotton
goods, and carries on a considerable trade in these, and
Russian merchandise. Caravans entering the Khanat from
Bokhara pay toll at Khojend.
KHOKAN, Kokan, or Ferghana, a khanat of Inde¬
pendent Turkistan, Central Asia, between N. Lat. 40. and
45., and E. Long. 67. and 75.; bounded N. by the Kirghiz
Steppe, E. and S.E. by Chinese Turkistan, S. by Bokhara
and the tableland of Pamere, and W. by the Kara-kalpak
territory. It is for the most part mountainous, comprising
part of that lofty region which forms the W. wall of the
great plateau of E. Asia. The principal river is the Jax¬
artes or Syr, which flows at first westward, and afterwards
northward, through the territory, dividing it into tw7o nearly
equal parts. The plains and valleys near the Jaxartes, or
its tributary streams, are generally rich and fertile, while in
other parts, the land is comparatively arid and sterile. Kho¬
kan is more of a pastoral than an agricultural territory, al¬
though there are many cultivated spots scattered over its
surface. One of the chief productions of the country is
silk, for which it has long been famous. Cotton is another
of its staple productions. Corn, and the various fruits of
Europe, especially grapes and melons, are grown. The
hills are covered with pine, poplar, almond, walnut, pista¬
chio, and other trees. Large flocks of sheep are pastured
here, and wool constitutes an important article of export.
The climate is one of extremes ; in summer, heat is great
and parching, and little rain falls till towards the end of
harvest, while the winter is very severe, though there is
not much snow. The mineral products are coal, iron, cop¬
per, jasper, lapis-lazuli, &c. The chief manufactures
are silk and cotton stuffs. The inhabitants are mostly
Uzbeks, who are shepherds, and a few Tanjiks, who live in
villages, and are described as a stout, fair, and high-com-
plexioned people; quiet and hospitable; and fond of the
chase. There are also several wandering tribes of Kirghiz.
Khokan, the capital of the above khanat, is situate on
the left bank of the Jaxartes, 230 miles N.E. of Samar-
cand, and about the same distance N.W. of Kashgar. It
is an open town, the palace only being surrounded by a
mud wall. The streets are unpaved and narrow, and the
houses mostly of mud. It has numerous mosques, and
several bazaars and caravansaries. The chief manufactures
are silk and cotton stuffs; and the trade in cattle and silk
is considerable. The vicinity is fertile and well cultivated.
Pop. about 50,000.
KHOOLOOM, Khulm, or Tash-Kurgan, a town of
Central Asia, khanat of Koondooz, on the Khooloom River,
Khoi
Khooloom.
78
K II O
K H U
Khorasan. a tributary of the Oxus, and on the high road between
Balkh and Koondooz, 40 miles E. by S. of the former, and
68 W. by S. of the latter; N. Lat. 36. 38., E. Long. 68.
It is surrounded by mud walls, and defended by two forts
of the same material. Pop. about 10,000.
KHORASAN, or Kiiorassan {Country of the Sun), a
province of Persia lying between N. Lat. 34 and 38, and
E. Long. 53. and 61., and bounded on the N. by Khiva, E.
by Afghanistan, S. by Yezd, and W. by Irak-Ajemi and
Mazanderaun. Its boundaries, however, have varied much
at different times. It has never been a great and indepen¬
dent empire; but frequently the loosely attached province
of a dissolving state, and the scene of invasion, rebellion,
and anarchy. It has formed a frequent subject of dispute
between the independent monarchs whose territories lay
on the E. and W. ; and it was sometimes in the power
of one and sometimes of the other. At one time it ex¬
tended N. to the Oxus, including Kharazm and Balkh,
E. to Candahar, S. to Kerman and Seistan, and W. to the
districts of Ispahan, Cashan, and Rhe.
The surface of this province, like other parts of Persia,
is much diversified by plains and mountains. A very large
portion of it is quite unfit for the habitation of man, and
consists of arid rocks, destitute of vegetation or fresh water,
and deserts, either of salt land or sand, among which are to
be found a few fertile oases. The Elburz range of moun¬
tains crosses the northern part of the province in an east¬
erly direction, sending forth various ramifications to the
southward. From the base of these mountains a desert of
barren sand stretches northward to a great extent, includ¬
ing the steppe of Kharazm, and forming part of that immense
plain which extends eastward as far as the Jaxartes and the
Oxus. In this plain are many fertile districts, but in that
portion of it belonging to Khorasan there is no permanent
habitation, and its scanty population comprises only a few
tribes of wandering Turkomans. At the toot of the moun¬
tains, however, are many fertile and well-watered valleys,
which were formerly well-peopled and cultivated, and once
contained several large towns, which are now deserted and
in ruins, in consequence of the incessant attacks of the
plundering Turkomans. To the S. the Elburz Mountains
send forth ramifications which penetrate from 60 to 100
miles into the plain. Beyond this is the vast salt desert,
which extends southward, with occasional fertile tracts,
very nearly to the Persian Gulf. This desert varies very
much in its nature in different parts. In some places the
surface is dry, and even produces a few of those plants that
thrive in a salt soil; in others it consists of a cracking crust
of dry earth, covered with a saline efflorescence. There
are extensive marshy tracts, in the lower parts of which
water accumulates during the winter months, which is eva¬
porated by the summer sun, leaving a quantity of salt in
cakes, upon a bed of mud. In some places the soil is a
hard-baked and perfectly barren clay. Again, in certain
districts, extensive plains of sand are found, which is occa¬
sionally heaped up in hillocks in the form of waves, and
frequently so light as to be raised aloft by the wind in
clouds, under which travellers are frequently buried, as in
the Arabian deserts. The saline desert, however, accord¬
ing to Fraser, predominates in Khorasan. It is of a con¬
siderably higher level than the desert to the N. of the El¬
burz Mountains; but still this traveller is of opinion that
they are connected. The only fertile parts of Khorasan
are where the country is penetrated by the Elburz Moun¬
tains ; and in the N.E. corner of Khorasan there is a long
stripe of country, consisting of the lower parts of these
mountains, from 10 to 20 miles in breadth, which bear
some inconsiderable traces of cultivation, and give shelter
to a few miserable hamlets, but contain no village of any
consequence. The valley of Meshed, amongst the Elburz
Mountains, is of great length. It commences 10 or 12
miles to the N.W. of Sheerwan, extends without interrup- Khosru
tion for 50 miles beyond Meshed, and continues for the
greater part of the way to Herat. It varies from 12 to 30 ^huzistan.
miles in breadth, and contains in its extent, beside the city
of Meshed, the towns of Chinnaran, Radcan, Koukan,
Sheerwan, and their dependencies, with a great extent of
cultivated land. The road from Meshed to Herat also
passes through several well-peopled and well-cultivated
districts. The extensive valley here spoken of contains a
considerable portion of the district known by the appella¬
tion of Kurdistan, being inhabited by Kurdish colonies.
The cultivated parts of the province produce wheat, rice,
tobacco, cotton, hemp, assafeetida, and most of the fruits of
Southern Europe. The rearing of cattle is the chief em¬
ployment of the nomad tribes that roam over the desert.
The camels and goats of Khorasan are celebrated for their
fine soft hair, which is a valuable article of trade. The
chief towns are Meshed or Mushed, and Nishapoor.
KHOSRU, or Kiiosrew I., called Chosroes by the
Greeks, and surnamed Anushirwan, “ generous spirit,” suc¬
ceeded his father, Cobades or Kobad, as King of Persia,
a.d. 531, and reigned with great glory and success till 579.
He is justly entitled to be looked upon as one of the greatest
of all the kings of Persia. As a warrior he proved him¬
self able to cope with the best armies and most skilful
generals of Rome. So terrible was his name, even to that
warlike people, that the emperors were glad to purchase
peace by the payment of a heavy annual tribute. He car¬
ried his conquests eastwards to the Indus, and northwards
to the Oxus. Native historians dwell with pride on the
embassies that came from the distant kingdoms of Africa,
India, China, and Tibet, to solicit his friendship and gain
his good will with valuable gifts. Feared abroad, he was
respected and beloved at home, and the Persians look back
upon his reign as the golden age of their history. His vir¬
tues, and more especially his justice, dwell in their memo¬
ries. Science, literature, trade, and agriculture found in
him a sure and constant patron. Academies and libraries
were founded in the chief cities of his kingdom; and the
masterpieces of Sanscrit, Greek, Latin, and Hindoo learning
were, by his orders, translated into the Persian tongue.
Among other translations which he caused to be made may
be mentioned that of the Indian Fables of Pilpay, from
which the versions in most of the European tongues have
been taken. Among his countrymen Khosru holds a place
analogous to that held by Alfred among Englishmen, or by
Charlemagne among the Franks. (For the details of his
life and reign, see Persia.)
KHURD-CABUL, a village of Afghanistan, situate
in a pleasant valley, 16 miles S.E. of Cabul, and 7466 feet
above the sea-level. Here, in 1841, the British troops, re¬
treating from Cabul to Jelalabad, became totally disor¬
ganized, and were murdered without resistance by the
Afghans ; and here, in 1842, General Pollock encamped
after the decisive defeat of the Afghans at Tezeen.
KHUZISTAN, a province in the west of Persia, lying
between N. Lat. 30. and 33., and E. Long. 47. and 51 ; and
bounded on the N. by Luristan, E. by Fars, S. by the
Persian Gulf, and W. by Asiatic Turkey. It is about 290
miles in length from N.W. to S.E., and 140 in breadth.
The southern part of the province consists of vast sandy
plains and morasses wholly destitute of vegetation. The
shores of the gulf are in winter a swamp, and in summer a
parched desert. Farther inland are some rich alluvial tracts,
well adapted for cultivation. The N. and E. parts of the
province are mountainous, with many beautiful and fertile
valleys. The rivers Tigris and Euphrates form its western
boundary. The principal of its other rivers are the Kerah,
the Karun, and the Jerahi. Wheat, barley, rice, dates, in¬
digo, cotton, and tobacco are produced. The chief towns
are Shuster and Dizful.
K II Y
K
Khyrpoor KHYRPOOR, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
[| Scinde, consisting of a collection of mud hovels, with a few
Kiangsee. houses of better description scattered about. The popula-
‘V--'' tion is estimated at 15,000 souls. Khyrpoor is the princi¬
pal place of the district of the same name. When Scinde
was subjugated by the British, a large measure of favour
was extended to one of the Khyrpoor Ameers, Ali Murad,
on the ground of his early and consistent adherence to the
cause of the conquerors, and it was proposed to confirm him,
not only in his patrimonial lands, but also in others which
had passed into his possession by virtue of a treaty executed
in 1842, when he vanquished his brother and nephew, and
obtained certain cessions as the price of farther forbearance.
The extent of these cessions was open to question, but Ali
Murad having persuaded Sir Charles Napier to adopt that
view which best promoted his interest, was admitted to all
he claimed. Suspicion, however, was never altogether
lulled; and subsequent inquiry proved the Ameer’s claim to
rest on fraud and forgery. The treaty had been written,
according to Mohammedan custom, upon a leaf of the Ko¬
ran, and the extent of territory transferred being very small,
Ali Murad, by interpolating some words, contrived to con¬
vey to himself considerable districts, in place of small vil¬
lages. Fearing, however, that some curious eye might de¬
tect the interpolation, he subsequently removed the leaf,
and caused its place to be occupied by another, bearing re¬
cord to the like effect. This was established before a Bri¬
tish commission on the 5th January 1853, and on evidence
which could not be doubted. Only one result could rea¬
sonably follow, and Ali Murad was of necessity deprived
of his ill-gotten acquisitions, which were incorporated with
the rest of Scinde, as part of the British empire in India.
He was, however, permitted to retain the lands allotted to
him by his father, an act, not of justice, but of liberality.
Since his connection with the British government, Ali
Murad has abolished slavery within his territory. Khyr¬
poor is about 13 miles S.W. of Roree, the road from which
place is good. Lat. 27. 3., Long. 68. 48.
KI, or Key Islands, a group in the Indian Archipe¬
lago, between Lat. 5. 6., Long. 132. 133. The princi¬
pal islands are Great Ki, Little Ki, and Ki Watela. The
first is about 50 miles long, and rises into mountains covered
with forests. On the W. of Little Ki, which is level, is the
large harbour of Doola, where shipbuilding and some trade
with the Banda and Celebes Islands are carried on. The
principal exports are provisions and cattle. The inhabi¬
tants are mostly Mohammedans, and are said to be somewhat
civilized.
KIACHTI, or Kiachta, a town of Siberia, government
of Irkutsk, on the Kiachta, a small affluent of the Selenga,
180 miles S.E. of Irkutsk. Kiachti is situated close to the
Chinese frontier, and is the great emporium of trade be¬
tween Russia and China. It consists of an upper and lower
town ; the former contains the public offices, barracks, &c.
—the latter, about 2 miles farther S., is inhabited chiefly
by merchants. On the Chinese side, and within a mile of
the lower town, is the Chinese village of Mai-Maitchin with
which the chief traffic of Kiachti is carried on. A great
fair is held annually between the two places in December.
The Russians exchange furs, leather, broad cloths, coarse
linens, bullion, glass, cattle, &c., for tea, manufactured silks
and cottons, china-ware, rhubarb, toys, and other Chinese
produce. In 1843 the Russians imported through Kiachti,
102,700 chests of tea; and the value of woollen and cot¬
ton goods, leather and furs, received by the Chinese mer¬
chants in that year amounted to above L.677,200. This,
however, is about double the amount of trade in ordinary
years—the great increase being occasioned by the English
war with China. Pop. about 5000.
KIANGSEE, a province of China, to the N. of Canton,
surrounded on the E. and S. by mountains, and traversed
I E 79
by the Kan-Kiang, which, in the N of the province, forms Kiang-Su
the Po-yang-hu Lake. The valley of the Kan-Kiang is a
highly productive region. The porcelain of this province Kieff.
is of the first quality; it is manufactured on an immense
scale at King-te-ching, a large town to the N.E. of Lake
Poyang. Capital, Nan-Cang-foo. Pop. 33,000,000. Area,
72,000 square miles.
KIANG-SU, a maritime province of China, bounded E.
by the Yellow Sea, S.W., N.W., and N., by Tche-Kiang,
Nganhoei, Honan, and Shantung. Area, 44,500 square
miles. It is one of the most fertile provinces in China, and
possesses unusual facilities for commerce, being traversed by
the great rivers Hoang-ho, and Yang-tse-Kiang, and from
S.E. to N.W. by the Imperial Canal. The surface is
mostly level, and a great portion of the coast is protected
by dikes from the incursion of the sea. Marshes and lakes
are numerous ; of the latter, which abound in fish, the largest
are the Hong-tse-hu, the Kan-yu-hu, and the Tai-hu. The
chief products of the province are silk, cotton, tea, rice, &c~
of which large quantities are exported. The principal
cities are Nankin, Shang-hai, Yang-tchu-fu, and Su-tchu-fu.
Pop. above 38,000,000.
KIDDERMINSTER, a market-town and municipal and
parliamentary borough of Worcestershire, on the Stour, near
its junction with the Severn, 13 miles N.of Worcester. It
is irregularly built, and most of the houses are small, but the
streets are well paved and lighted. The best building ir
the town is the parish church, a fine old structure in the
perpendicular style, with a tower. There is a free grammar
school, with a revenue of about L.580, but indifferently at¬
tended. The total number of pupils at all the schools is
about 1000: there are three literary institutions. Kidder¬
minster has been celebrated for more than a century for its
carpets, in the manufacture of which extensive improve¬
ments have been introduced within the last few years.
Bombazeens, waistcoatings and damask, and silk goods are also
made here. There are some tanneries, breweries, &c. The
Stafford and Worcester Canal, and the Oxford, Worcester,
and Wolverhampton Railway pass by the town. It returns
one member to parliament. Constituency in 1856, 511.
Pop. 18,462. Kidderminster was at one time the property
of the poet Waller, and enjoyed for many years the pas¬
toral ministrations of Richard Baxter.
KIDDERPORE, in the British district, called the
Twenty-four Pergunnahs (Bengal Presidency), a small town
almost adjoining Calcutta, of which it may be regarded as
a suburb. It is described by Heber as a large village, in
the vicinity of which are several considerable houses inha¬
bited by Europeans, and considered to be remarkably dry
and salubrious. There is here a dockyard formerly belong¬
ing to Mr James Kyd, but now the property of government.
A factory has recently been erected, and thus the means
are concentrated within the dock establishment for the effi¬
cient repair of the government steamers. Distance from Fort
William, S.E. 4 miles. Lat. 22. 30, Long. 88.22.
KIDWELLY, a small but ancient seaport-town of
Caermarthenshire, South Wales, on the Gwendraeth-Vechan,
9 miles S. of Caermarthen. It has a fine old church and
Norman castle, both partially in ruins; the latter overlooks
the town from a rocky height on the W. of the river. The
trade of the place is trifling. Pop. of parish 1648, chiefly
employed in smelting iron and tin.
KIEFF, Kiev, Kieav, or Kiow, a government of Euro¬
pean Russia, bounded N. by Minsk, E. by Tchernigov and
Poltava, S. by Kherson, S.W. and W. by Podolia and Vol-
hynia; area 19,000 square miles. The general surface is
flat or undulating, with some low ranges parallel to the river
courses. The principal river is the Dnieper, which divides
the province from Tchernigov and Poltava about 250 miles
of its course. Its chief tributaries are the Pripetz, Testerev,
Irpen, Stugena, Ros, and Tiasmin. The climate is remark-
80 K I E
Kieff ably temperate, though the summer heat is often extreme.
II The population, amounting in 1850 to 1,638,000, are chiefly
Kiel- occupied in agriculture and cattle-breeding. The peasants
are mostly serfs. The vegetable productions include grain
of all kinds, hemp, flax, and tobacco. Excellent timber
grows extensively in the north. The cattle are large and of
^ood breed, and are fattened in great numbers for exporta¬
tion. The manufactures are unimportant, the most extensive
being that of beetroot sugar. Trade is chiefly in the hands
of the Jews, who are numerous.
Kieff, the capital of the above government, is pictur¬
esquely situate on several eminences on the right bank of
the Dnieper, 650 miles S. of St Petersburg. It consists of
three different towns—the Old Town, the Petscherskoi, or
New Fort, and the Podole, or Low Town—each separately
fortified, but all surrounded by a common intrenchment.
The old town is built on a steep hill, separated from the
Petscherskoi by a ravine. This was the ancient residence
of the grand dukes of Kieff, and contains the cathedral of
St Sophia, founded in 1037 by Jaroslav Vladimirowitch,
whose marble tomb is within the archiepiscopal palace, and
the convent of St Michael. The Petschersk, or citadel,
occupies a still higher eminence to the S. of the old town.
It is very strongly fortified, and contains a large arsenal,
the residences of the civil and military governors, and the
famous monastery of Petscherskoi, said to have been founded
by St Anthony in the ninth century. The chief object of
interest within the walls of the monastery is the church of
the Assumption, which is magnificently decorated internally,
and is surmounted by a belfry 304 feet high, surrounded
by seven turrets with gilt cupolas connected by gilded
chains. In the catacombs are preserved the bodies of up¬
wards of 100 Russian saints. This monastery is yearly
visited by thousands of pilgrims. The Podole, or LowTown,
which occupies the level between the hills and the river, is
the largest, but least picturesque portion of the city, and is
the residence of the middle classes and trading population.
It is regularly built, with wide streets interspersed with
trees, and contains an imperial palace, an ecclesiastical aca¬
demy (founded 1661, and very largely attended), and an
exchange, with a hall capable of accommodating 3000 per¬
sons. A magnificent suspension-bridge connects it with
the opposite bank of the Dnieper, which sopietimes over¬
flows the lower part of the town.
Kieff is the seat of the governor-general of Little Russia,
and of the Archbishop of Kieff and Galitz. The university
of St Vladimir, founded in 1833, has a large library, museum,
and observatory, and, in 1846, had about 80 professors and
600 students. The principal manufactures are earthenware
and leather. There is a large trade with Odessa and the
interior, and the great annual fair in January draws visitors
from all parts of Europe. Pop. about 50,000.
This city is of unknown antiquity. In the ninth century
it became the seat of the power founded by the Varangian
Rurik. Here Christianity first found a footing among the
Muscovite barbarians. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries
it was the capital of the empire. After many reverses, and
successive occupations by Poles, Lithuanians, and lartars,
it was finally ceded to Russia in 1686.
KIEL, a seaport of Denmark, capital of the duchy of
Holstein, is finely situated on a narrow peninsula surrounded
on three sides by the Kielerfiord, a lake-like arm of the
Baltic, 54 miles N. of Hamburg. It is well built and
walled, and the environs and wooded banks of the bay afford
numerous picturesque views of the surrounding country and
the sea. The principal public buildings are the Gliicksborg
palace—the church of St Nicholas, an ancient edifice with
a lofty tower—the university, and the convent church.
Kiel is the seat of the Schleswig-Holstein State Assembly ;
and has a university, founded in 1665, with a large library,
museum, botanic garden, and observatory. The excellence
K I L
of its harbour, which affords safe anchorage near the town Kil
for the largest ships, and its position in the line of com- _ |]
munication between the Baltic and German Ocean (by the Kl'dare,
Kiel Canal), have raised Kiel into commercial importance.
In a political point of view, as the only great military haven
on the S. coast of the Baltic, it is of still greater importance.
A railway communicates with Altona and Hamburg, with
branches to Rendsborg and Gliicksborg, and steamers ply
regularly to all tbe principal Baltic ports. The chief manu¬
factures are sugar, soap, tobacco, ironmongery, hats, &c.
Among the chief articles of trade are sprats and red herrings.
Pop., including the suburbs, about 15,000.
KIL, a geographical prefix, said to be derived from a
Dutch word, signifying a stream. It is, however, more
probably the corruption of a Celtic word, meaning a grave.
It occurs chiefly in Scotch and Irish names, as Kilcreggan,
Kilkenny.
KILBARCHAN, a small town of Renfrewshire, 11 miles
W. of Glasgow. Pop. 2467, principally employed in weav¬
ing tartans, &c., for Glasgow and Paisley.
KILBIRNIE, a small town of Ayrshire, on the Garnock,
17 miles S.W. of Glasgow. Pop. 3399, employed in cotton
spinning and weaving, flax-spinning, bleaching, rope-making,
and iron-smelting and founding.
KILCREGGAN, a watering-place on the Clyde, coast
of Argyleshire, between Gare Loch and Loch Long, 24 miles
W. of Glasgow.
KILDA, St (originally Hirt), the farthest west of the
Scottish Hebrides, is a small and rocky island in the Atlantic,
above 100 miles W. of the Butt of Lewis, in N. Lat. 57.
50., W. Long. 8. 35. It consists of an irregular mountain
ridge, about 3 miles long by 2 in breadth, and, with the
neighbouring islets, presents from the sea an outline singu¬
larly varied and picturesque. The highest point, Conachan,
is 1450 feet above the sea, and on its western side descends
almost perpendicularly to the water. With the exception
of a fine bay on the N.E. side, and a smaller opening on the
S.W., the coast of the island presents a nearly uninterrupted
front of lofty precipices, broken in some places into fantastic
peaks, in others hollowed into enormous caves. At the head
of the eastern bay, which is well sheltered by the rocky pro¬
montories on each side, is the small village, consisting of
about 30 houses, to which the population is confined. The
inhabitants, in number about 100, are a simple, kind, and
active race. They cultivate as much land as is requisite to
provide a moderate supply of barley and oats ; but their main
employment is the capture of the wild-fowls, which from
February to October cover the rocks in myriads. The
birds mostly caught are the solan goose, the fulmar (or
greater puffin), and the common puffin. Of these a supply
is salted for winter provision : the feathers, in which princi¬
pally the rent is paid, are preserved and exported once a-year.
The annual visit of the factor affords the only regular means
of communication with the rest of the world. Despite their
lonely condition, the dangers of their occupation, and their
frequent privations in respect of fuel and food, the inhabi¬
tants of St Kilda are much attached to their native rock,
and very few cases of migration have ever occurred. Most
of their infants die of a peculiar malady, which attacks them
generally on the eighth day after birth. They have enjoyed
since 1705 the services of a resident clergyman, who is at
once schoolmaster, pastor, and patriarch of the island. A
diminutive breed of ponies was at one time reared in con¬
siderable numbers; it is now all but extinct. The native
cows are small, but yield excellent milk; the sheep, which
number about 2000, are mostly of Danish breed, small, and
generally of a dun colour. The surrounding waters abound
with fish, but the inhabitants confine their exertions to dry
land. (See Martin’s St Kilda, and Wilson’s Voyage.)
KILDARE, an inland county in the province of Lein¬
ster, in Ireland, is bounded on the N. by the county of
KILDARE.
Kildare. Meath, on the E. by those of Dublin and Wicklow, on the
S. by that of Carlow, and on the W. by the King’s and
Queen’s counties and Westmeath. With the exception of
a small tract of hilly land, situated between Naas and Bless-
ington, on the eastern side of the county, Kildare presents
an unusally flat surface, few portions of which reach an
elevation of 300 feet above the level of the sea. This
county contains altogether about 52,000 acres of unculti¬
vated land, of which 44,000 acres consist of extensive flow
bogs, being a part of the Great Bog of Allen. It has been
well ascertained that bogs of this description are susceptible
of cultivation, both for corn and green crops, when per¬
fectly drained, and covered with clay and limestone gravel,
which occurs abundantly along the bog edges ; but it is im¬
possible, without great exertion, and the expenditure of
considerable capital, to coat the surface of the bog with
gravel at a greater distance from the edge than half an
English mile. It appears probable that not more than one-
third of those bogs are capable of being improved for culti¬
vation, but that the whole may be drained at a moderate
expense, and thereby rendered, to a certain degree, pro¬
fitable, not only for pasture, but for fuel. Including the
bogs and hilly pasture, this county contains about 16,000
acres capable of improvement for cultivation ; 31,000 acres
may be drained for coarse pasture; and 5000 acres which
would not repay the expense of draining. According to
the Ordnance Survey Kildare comprises a total area of
418,436 acres, of which 356,786 are arable, 51,854 uncul¬
tivated land, 8288 are in plantations, 490 occupied by towns
and villages, and 1017 under water. The annual value,
according to Griffith’s Valuation, is L.313,494.
Some writers, in the time of Ptolemy, assert that the
Eblani were the inhabitants of this county ; others, amongst
whom is Whitaker, make it the habitation of the Coriundi.
Afterwards it formed part of the territory of Cealan or Ga¬
len, which likewise extended over some parts of Wicklow
and Carlow. Its present name is derived from Chille or
Kill Dara, the forest or church of oaks, the country being
formerly covered with trees. The principal family in this
district, previously to the arrival of the English, was that
of the O’Kellys, whose residence was at the Moat of Ard-
scull, near Athy. On the death of Dermod M‘Murrough,
the last king of Leinster, which occurred shortly after the
settlement of the English, this county formed part of the
palatinate of Leinster, granted by Henry 11. to Strongbow.
When this extensive inheritance was distributed into five
portions, amongst the daughters of William, Earl Marshal,
who derived from Strongbow, by intermarriage, through
his only daughter, Kildare fell to the lot of Sybilla, the
fourth daughter, who married William de Ferrers, Earl of
Derby, from whom it descended by marriage to the family
of De Vesci, and thence by attainder to that of the Fitz¬
geralds or Geraldines. The principal families which held
under Strongbow and his descendants were those of De
Hereford, Fitzhenry, Phepoe, Pippard, D’Angulo or Nangle,
and Bermingham. The Fitzgeralds ultimately became
possessed of the greater portion. It was one of the twelve
counties into which King John, on his arrival as lord of
Ireland, divided that part of the island which acknowledged
the English jurisdiction, but was not finally separated from
the adjoining county of Dublin, to which it had been at¬
tached as a liberty, until the close of the reign of Edward
L, when it was empowered to have sheriffs and courts of
its own. The county is now divided into the fourteen ba¬
ronies of Carbery, Clane, Connell, Ikeathy, Kilcullen, Kil-
kea and Moone, North and South Naas, East and West
Narragh, East and W est Offaley, and North and South
Salt. Ihese baronies are subdivided into 116 parishes.
According to the ecclesiastical arrangements, the county
is partly in the diocese of Kildare, and partly in that of
Dublin. Kildare diocese extends also into the King’s and
VOL. XIII.
81
Queen’s counties. The bishopric was founded in the sixth Kildare,
century by St Conleth, who was buried near the great
altar of his own church. The bishop took precedence of
every other except Meath ; all the rest ranking according
to the dates of consecration. The episcopal income was
latterly extremely small, amounting only to L.520 a-year;
neither was there any episcopal residence, so that, in order
to supply the deficiency of Jiis revenue, the bishops of
Kildare held the deanery of Christ Church in commendam.
The city of Kildare is a small, poor place, wholly un¬
worthy of notice, except from the circumstance of being
the seat of the bishopric, and from the cathedral, and some
monastic remains still existing. In accordance with the
provisions of the Church Temporalities Act, on the decease
of the late bishop the see of Kildare was united to the
archbishopric of Dublin.
By much the greater part of the county is flat, inter¬
rupted only by a range of low hills in the centre, the most
northern of which is the Hill of Allen, and the southern
those of Dunmurry : the land on the eastern boundary, to¬
ward Dublin and Wicklow counties, gradually rises as it
approaches the adjoining mountain tracts. The Boyne
rises in a bog or marshy ground to the N. of Carbury, a
branch of the Great Bog of Allen. The Lesser Barrow
also rises in the Bog of Allen, and unites with the Greater
Barrow near Rathangan. The Grees and Lane are small
branches of this latter river, joining it near the southern
extremity of the county. The Barrow forms the western
boundary of the county, except in the neighbourhood of
Athy, where it becomes navigable, and is known by the
name of the Barrow Navigation. The Liffey enters the
county from the W. near Ballymore-Eustace ; and after
sweeping through it, at first in a western and then in a
northern direction, by Kilkullen Bridge, Clane, and Cel-
bridge, receiving in its course the Morrel and the Rye-
water, it quits the county at Leixlip. Numerous lesser
streams, rising in the more elevated tracts, fall into one or
other of these rivers. A great part of the Bog of Allen
lies in the northern part of the county. This bog is not
an interrupted morass, but is intersected in many places by
elevated tracts of firm ground, the largest of which, lying
in its southern part, has obtained the name of the Island
of Allen, in consequence of its being surrounded by an
unproductive and half fluid mass. To the S. of the town
of Kildare is a tract of undulating ground, covered with
fine sward, of a vivid green, uninterrupted by any plan¬
tation, and well known as the Curragh of Kildare. It
extends nearly five miles in a south-eastern direction, hav¬
ing an average breadth of a mile, and containing 8000
acres. It is wholly the property of the crown, and has
been long used principally as a sheep walk, for which it is
peculiarly adapted, from the quality of its herbage and the
dry elastic nature of its soil. The pasturage is held by the
farmers of the surrounding lands, who pay large rents for
the exclusive privilege of grazing sheep on it, in numbers
proportioned to the quantity of land without it limits. The
most celebrated race-course in Ireland is on the Curragh.
The softness and elasticity of the turf render it peculiarly
suitable for this sport. It is the chief race-course in Ireland,
and perhaps the finest in the empire. Races are held here
twice a-year, in April and September. During the late
war with Russia the Curragh was occupied by a camp, and
is now the quarters of a military division, consisting of a
cavalry and two infantry brigades. The climate of Kil¬
dare is moister than most other parts of the great lime¬
stone plain of Ireland. The soil of the county is generally
a rich heavy loam, on a bottom of limestone or limestone
gravel, except in some insulated spots in the hilly districts.
Copper ore is said to have been found in the central hills;
but, either from deficiency of quality or quantity, or from
a still more marked deficiency of fuel, none is now raised.
L
il
Kildare
82
KILDARE.
Kildare. The Hill of Allen, a steep conical elevation, rising to about
—V—^ feet in height, and situated on the S.W. of the culti¬
vated tract of land surrounded with bog and denominated
the Island of Allen, consists of a fine-grained gritstone of
which mill-stones are made.
The population was as follows, according to the autho¬
rities stated beneath, at the respective dates :—
1760 De Burgo  51,726
1772 Beaufort  56,000
1812 Parliamentary return  85,133
1821 Ditto  99,055
1831 Ditto 108,424
1841 Ditto 114,488
1851 Ditto  95,688
This population was represented in the Irish parliament
by ten members—two for the county, and two for each of
the boroughs of Athy, Kildare, Naas, and Harristown. All
these boroughs were deprived of the right of returning
members by the Act of Union ; and as no change has since
been made, the representation is at present confined to the
two county members.
The number of children receiving instruction in public
schools, according to returns made under parliamentary
authority in 1824-26, was 8857.
Of this number 1425 were of the Established church,
7276 were Catholics, 31 Dissenters; the religious persua¬
sion of the remaining 125 was unascertained. The num¬
ber of schools was 214, of which 25, containing 1623 pupils,
were maintained by grants of public money ; 29, con¬
taining 1707 pupils, by voluntary contributions ; the remain¬
ing 160 schools, containing 5527 pupils, were wholly sup¬
ported by the fees paid by the parents or guardians of those
receiving instruction.
In 1851 the number of schools in the county, and pupils
attending them, was ascertained by the Census Commis¬
sioners to have been as follows :—
Schools.
No. of
Schools.
No. of Pupils.
Males. Females. Total
Maynooth College.
National 
Church Education
Diocesan 
Endowed  
Private 
Boarding 
Parochial 
Free 
Military 
Workhouse 
Gaol 
Total.
1
50
12
1
5
44
3
12
8
1
3
1
141
505
1867
184
6
63
626
95
208
139
12
498
77
4280
2130
143
1
48
332
63
148
181
8
505
26
3585
505
3997
327
7
111
958
158
356
320
20
1003
103
7865
The lands are very unequally portioned out. There are
a few large estates. That of the Duke of Leinster ex¬
tends over nearly one-third of the county. Many farmers
hold large tracts; many others scarcely sufficient for the
sustenance of a family, there being about 7000 holdings or
less than 30 acres in extent. The general average of farms
is about 17 acres. The larger farms are w^ell cultivated
according to the most approved systems, though not with
all the neatness and precision which mark the operations
of the English agriculturists. The small farmers manage
their land in a slovenly manner, and with a persevering
attachment to the customs of their forefathers. Wheat
is grown in large quantities, the strong loam being well
adapted for it. The lands not subjected to the plough
are very rich, fattening grounds ; but when exhausted by in¬
judicious courses of cropping, the pasture is poor and light.
The crops grown on the land, and the extent of land un¬
der cultivation since 1847, is shown in the following table:—
Years.
Corn, Beans, and Pease.
Wheat.
Oats.
Barley,
Bere, Rye,
Beans, and
Pease.
Total.
Other Crops.
Potatoes.
Turnips.
Green
Crops.
Total.
Flax.
Meadow
and
Clover.
Total
extent
under
Crops.
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
1855
Acres.
27,284
28,124
26,020
22,737
17,098
13,339
13,658
18,381
20,698
Acres.
40,363
40,512
41,645
45,791
47,738
49,511
46,716
43,520
43,953
Acres.
4,654
5,109
6,840
8,196
9,937
9,420
8,852
7,767
6,251
Acres.
72,301
73,745
74.505
76,724
74,773
72,270
69,226
69,648
70,902
Acres.
5,570
14,260
11,729
12,158
11,149
10,749
10,715
13.109
14.110
Acres.
10,894
8,852
9,529
9;622
10,859
10,387
11,985
9.988
10,990
Acres.
1,898
905
1,886
2,534
3,610
3,111
2,995
2,053
1,907
Acres,
18,362
24,017
23,144
24,314
25,627
24,247
25.695
25,150
27,007
Acres.
29
17
21
23
47
17
28
6
9
Acres.
45,479
46,446
43,561
46,446
45.374
45,146
45,888
45,123
48,707
Acres.
136,171
144,225
141,231
147,507
145,821
141,680
140,837
139,947
146,625
The number of live stock in the county appears from the
following table:—
Houses, with the purposes for which they are kept—
1. Two years old and upwards— 1855. 1856.
Agricultural  8,570 9,110
Traffic and manufactures  366 1,006
Amusement or recreation  1,023 1,061
2. One year old, and under two years  1,801 2,260
3. Under one year  1,761 1,692
Total of horses  13,521 15,129
Cattle—
1. Milch cows  15,190 16,042
2. Other cattle—■
Two years old and upwards  34.249 36,452
One year old, and under two years  13,710 13,719
Under one year  11,331 9,571
74,480 75,784
Sheep—
1. One year old, and upwards— 1855. 1856.
Ewes   57,787 50,924
Tups and wethers  37,917 40,467
2. Under one year  31,910 37,798
Total of sheep 127,614 129,189
Pigs—
1. One year old and upwards  3,639 3,055
2. Under one year  12,354 9,057
Total of pigs  15,993 12,112
The dwellings of the middling farmers generally consist
of a long building of a single storey, the lower part formed
of stone and mortar, the upper of clay thatched with straw,
and divided in the inside into a kitchen and two sleeping
rooms, one at each end. In the front is a yard or bawe
enclosed at each side by the stables, barn, and cow-houses,
Total of cattle.
KILDARE.
Kildare, and used as a repository for all the manure collected from
the dwelling-house and offices, and from the feeding of the
cattle. The habitations of the labourers or cottiers are
very wretched, particularly those living in or near the edges
of the bogs. The cabin is sunk beneath the surface of the
soil, in order to diminish the quantity of wall to be built.
The roof, thatched with sods of turf pared off the surface
of the bog, is but a few feet above the ground, and assi¬
milates so closely with the appearance of the surrounding
fields as to be nearly imperceptible at a short distance, ex¬
cept from the smoke rising out of its openings, or the in¬
gress and egress of children or domestic animals through
the hole in the side intended for a door. The food of the
peasantry is potatoes, with some milk and butter occa¬
sionally. The use of flesh meat is little known, except on
a few high holidays. The fuel is universally turf, which
may be said to be the only thing the poor man here has in
plenty. The clothes of the peasantry are made of home-
manufactured frieze, or cheap cottons.
Manufactures can scarcely be said to exist here. That
of cotton was attempted, without success, at Prosperous,
near Clane, where the first cotton-mill in Ireland was
erected. An extensive woollen factory has been for several
years at work near Celbridge, and still continues to produce
large quantities of the coarser woollen cloths. Paper is also
manufactured in some places, and tanning is carried on to
a considerable extent. The county affords many fine sites
for water-mills. The beautiful falls of the Liffey, at the
Salmon-leap, near Leixlip, offer a perennial command of
water adequate to move very extensive machinery. Many
other falls are to be met with on the same river in its course
through the county. The locks of the canals also could
supply water for many lesser works. The Grand Canal
enters the county from the Dublin side, at Hazelhatch,
8 miles from the harbour at Portobello, and passes
through it in a south-western direction to Sallins, where
there is a short branch to the town of Naas. The main
trunk proceeds in a western direction to Lowtown, at which
place it divides into two branches; the one, proceeding
westward to the Shannon, near Banagher, quits the county
at Edenderry; the other, which takes a more southern di¬
rection, joins the Barrow at Monasterevan, the western bank
of which river it follows as far as Athy, where it ceases, the
river navigation from that point to the sea being deemed
sufficient for the purposes of inland navigation. The sum¬
mit-level, commencing at the distance of 7 miles from
Dublin, and extending 4 miles, is 264 feet above the level
of the sea at high water. The Royal Canal, which skirts
the northern boundary of Kildare, enters the county at
Leixlip, and proceeding by Mayncoth, Kilcock, and Clon-
curry, quits it for the county of Meath at the Boyne. Both
these carry to Dublin large quantities of turf, bricks, stone,
flags, slate, grain of every description, and potatoes.
The remains of antiquity in the county are numerous.
There are five round or pillar towers. That at Kildare is
said to be the most perfect in Ireland; it is 130 feet high.
At Taghadoe there is another 71 feet high. The third, at
Kilcullen, has only 40 feet standing. The fourth, at Ough-
terard, has suffered still more severely from the ravages of
time ; its height is but 25 feet. The fifth, which stands in
the churchyard at Castledermot, is used as a belfry, and by
a casual spectator might be mistaken for the trunk of a lofty
tree, in consequence of its being enveloped with a cover¬
ing of ivy from its base to its summit. Several of the up¬
right stones, supposed to be relics of the worship of Baal,
are also to be seen. One at Punch’s Town stands 20 feet
above the ground ; another, with a conical top, is at Harris-
town; two others, situated at Jigginstown, are known by
the name of the Long Stones ; another, called the Gobhlan,
is near the Hill of Carmen or Mullamast, where is also to
be seen a large rath, situate on the summit of a hill of some
83
elevation, near which are sixteen smaller raths or hillocks. Kildare.
These are said to have been the seats of the elders when
the assembly of the states of Southern Leinster, under the
name of Naasteighan, was held on this eminence. At a
later period it became more memorable from a tragedy
acted upon it by some of the English settlers, who, having
invited the neighbouring Irish chieftains to a conference
there, for the amicable settlement of their disputes as to
territorial boundaries, fell upon them unexpectedly, and
slaughtered them to a man. The pit into which the heads
of the victims of this murderous act of treachery were flung
is still shown ; and the place thence acquired its name of
Mullamast, or the Hill of Decapitation. The other raths
of most note are those of Ardscull, near Naas, where the
English, under Hammoh le Gros, were totally defeated by
the Scots, under Edward Bruce, in 1315 ; and that of Rhe-
ban, to the N. of the same town. Others are still to be seen
at Naas, Kilkea, Moone, Clane, and Lyons, and at Rath-
sallagh. The Abbey of Kildare is one of the oldest in
Ireland. It is said to have been founded by St Brigit, and
was the place where the sacred fire was kept, which, after
being extinguished by Henry de Loundres, Archbishop of
Dublin, in 1220, was again lighted and kept burning till
the Reformation. The ruins of the building in which it
was kept still exist. Castle Dermot had also three great
monasteries. A parliament w'as held in one of them in the
year 1499. Naas had an Augustinian and a Dominican
abbey. The site of the fine abbey of Monasterevan is oc¬
cupied by Moore Abbey, the residence of the Marquis of
Drogheda. Of that of St Woolstan’s, near Celbridge, no¬
thing now remains but two tow'ers and gateways. At old
Kilkullen, the site of the monastery is marked by some
curious stone crosses. The principal castles are those of
Kilkea, built by the seventh Earl of Kildare, lately restored,
and now the residence of the Marquis of Kildare ; those of
Athy and Castle Dermot were built by the eighth Earl of
Kildare. Timolin Castle was erected in the reign of King
John, by the Lord of Norragh. Rheban, on the Barrow,
gave the title of baron to the family of St Michael. The
castles of Narraghmore and Harristown also gave baronial
titles to their possessors. Amongst the modern seats the
most remarkable are—Carton, near the town of Maynooth
the princely residence of the Duke of Leinster; Castletown,
one of the largest and finest Italian mansions in Ireland, the
seat of the Conolly family ; Killadoon, that of Lord Leitrim,
in the same neighbourhood; Lyons, on the banks of the
canal, the splendid mansion and demesne of Lord Clon-
curry; Straffan, on the Liffey, between Celbridge and
Clane, the residence of Mr Barton ; Belan, near Timolin,
once the seat of the Earls of Aldborough ; and Palmerston,
the Earl of Mayo’s. At Jigginstown, near Naas, are still to
be seen the walls of a large mansion commenced by the
unfortunate Earl of Strafford, whilst lord-lieutenant under
Charles I., but never finished.
There is no large town in the county. The population
of neither of the assize towns amounts to 5000 souls. That
of Athy, the larger, was, in 1851, 3908 ; and of Naas, 3132
souls. The former of these towns is situate on the banks
of the Barrow, which is here crossed by a bridge, and owes
much of its small population to its being the point of con¬
nection between the still-water navigation of the Grand
Canal, which terminates here, and the river navigation of
the Barrow to Ross and Waterford. It was incorporated
by James L, under the care of a sovereign, two bailiffs, and
twelve burgesses. The assizes are held here once a-year;
and its old castle has been converted into a prison. Naas,
pleasantly situated on the Liffey, in the centre of a very
fertile and well-cultivated tract of country, and communi¬
cating with the main trunk of the Grand Canal by a con¬
necting branch, carries on a considerable retail trade. May¬
nooth is remarkable for several castellated ruins, built at
84 K I L
Kilimand- various times by members of the Fitzgerald family; and
jaro for being the site of the Roman Catholic college, founded
II for the education of the priesthood, and supported by an
v 1 enny. annuaj parliamentary grant. (h. s—R.)
KILIMANDJARO, the highest mountain in Africa
(with the doubtful exception of Kenia), is in the Djagga
country, W.N.W. from Mombaz, S. Lat. 3. 40., E. Long.
36., about 250 miles from the coast. It is crowned with
perpetual snow : estimated height, 20,000 feet. It was dis¬
covered in April 1848 by Dr Krapf, a missionary.
KILKENNY, an inland county, in the province of
Leinster, in Ireland, is bounded on the N. by the Queen’s
county, on the E. by the counties of Carlow and Wexford,
on the S. by the county of Waterford, and on the W. by
that of Tipperary. According to the Ordnance Survey,
the total area of the county is 509,732 acres; of which
470,102 are arable, 21,126 uncultivated land, 13,899 in
plantations, 1549 occupied by towns and villages, and 3056
are under water. Of the 21,000 acres of coarse pasture or
uncultivated land, it is calculated that about 7500 acres may
be improved for cultivation, 6000 for pasture by draining,
and 7500 acres may be considered as unimprovable.
According to Ptolemy, the county was inhabited by the
Brigantes and the Caucoi. It afterwards formed part of
the kingdom of Ossory, which was sometimes tributary to
Leinster, sometimes to Munster. After the arrival of the
English, it formed one of the counties into which King
John divided that portion of the island which recognised his
supremacy. At the termination of the sixteenth century
it was chiefly occupied by the Graces, the O’Brenans,
the Butlers, the O’Sheas, the Rooths, the Harpurs, the
Walshes of the mountains, the Shortals, and the Forstals.
It is now divided into the ten baronies of Callan, Crannagh,
Fassadinin, Galmoy, Gowran, Ida, Iverk, Kells, Knock-
topher, and Shillelogher; besides which, the county of the
city of Kilkenny forms a separate jurisdiction. These ba¬
ronies are subdivided into 140 parishes.
The parish of Burrow, forming an insulated portion sur¬
rounded by the Queen’s county, was made part of the
county of Kilkenny by an act of parliament, obtained through
the influence of the Duke of Ormond. His object was to
repress the outrages committed on his tenantry by the Fitz¬
patricks, who inhabited that district, and who, when tried
in the Queen’s county, which belonged to their own sept,
were always acquitted, but when tried in Kilkenny, the
Duke’s county, were sure to be convicted.
According to the ecclesiastical arrangements of the
country, Kilkenny is chiefly comprehended within the dio¬
cese of Ossory, which extends over 120 of its parishes; the
remainder are in the diocese of Leighlin. The see of Os¬
sory was first planted at Seikyran, near Birr, about the year
402; thence it was i*emoved to Aghaboe, in the Queen’s
county, about 1052; and finally to Kilkenny, in the latter
end of the reign of Henry II. Like Meath, it derives its
name, not from the seat of the episcopal see, but from that
of the district over which it extends. Besides nearly the
whole part of the county of Kilkenny, the diocese also com¬
prehends the entire barony of Upper Ossory, forming one-
third of the Queen’s county, and a small part of the King’s
county. The dean of the cathedral exercises a kind of
episcopal jurisdiction over the viears-choral, similar to that
of the dean of St Patrick’s, Dublin; and the archdeacon
formerly exercised an ordinary prescriptive jurisdiction over
the whole diocese. The annual value of the see was esti¬
mated at L.3859 by the parliamentary return made in 1833.
In conformity with the provisions of the Church Tempo¬
ralities Act, this diocese has been united to the dioceses of
Leighlin and Ferns.
The surface of the county is mostlv level in the central
baronies, but hilly in the northern, and still more so in the
south-eastern districts. Very little ground is unfit for tillage,
K I L
and that which is not productive of good grain throws up Kilkenny,
excellent herbage. The soil in the northern parts is chiefly
a mossy turf a few inches deep, lying over a bed of stiff
yellow or whitish clay. More southerly, the soil is light,
covering an argillaceous schistus. To the W. there is a
hungry clayey loam, over a bed of limestone. In general,
the nearer the limestone is to the surface, the poorer the
soil. A light soil covers all the vicinity of the city of Kil¬
kenny, exhibiting the appearance of slaty hills and gravelly
bottoms. Proceeding southwards, the fertility increases.
The angle of the River Suir, which forms the parish of
Portnascully, is the richest land in the county. The quan¬
tity of bog is inconsiderable, amounting altogether to 3500
acres; the largest tract is in the north-western extremity.
Marl has been found between two strata of black turf mould ;
three strata of bog have also been discovered, separated by
intervening beds of marl, oak, and fir; sallow and birch have
been found in the bogs. There are no loughs of any extent.
In the parish of Cloghmanta there are some temporary lakes,
produced by the water bursting up from the ground in No¬
vember, and subsiding in spring. They are here named
Loughans ; in Connaught they are called Turloughs. Ihe
climate is less humid than that of Dublin or Wicklow.
The principal rivers are the Nore, the Barrow, and the
Suir; all of which rise in the range of the Slieve Bloom
Mountains, and, taking a southern direction, discharge
themselves by a common mouth into the estuary at Water¬
ford. The Nore rises at the eastern base of the Devil’s
Bit Mountains, in the county of Tipperary, passes through
the middle of this county, and by the city of Kilkenny. It is
navigable for boats as far as Thomastown, and unites with the
Barrow about 2 miles above Ross, in the county of Wexford.
The salmon-peal, a fish resembling the salmon, is caught in
this river. The King’s River joins the Nore at Jerpoint, and
the Argula, near Innistioge. The Barrow forms the eastern
boundary of the country from near New Bridge to its junc¬
tion with the Suir, which latter river is its boundary to the S.
The Barrow is navigable for boats along the whole extent
of the borders of the county of Kilkenny ; and still farther,
to Athy, in Kildare county. The Suir is navigable for
sloops to Garrick, and for barges to Clonmel, in I ipperary.
The substrata of this county are granite, clay-slate, lime¬
stone, and sandstone. The granite hills form a very small
part, being merely the extension of the Wicklow group.
The rock is of various shades, but the best is of a light
yellow tint, finely grained, and compact; black mica is
found in it, together with specks of iron ore. In the western
part of the county there is an extensive slate quarry, highly
esteemed.
The collieries of Castlecomer, the most extensively worked
of any in Ireland, are situated near the confluence of the
small rivers Dinan, Dian, Bruckagh, and Cloghoge, which
join the Nore. They were discovered by accident, in work¬
ing for iron ore. The depth of the beds varies from 2 feet
6 inches to 3 feet 1 inch. The workings extend over a
tract of about 8 miles in length, and all the coal of the dis¬
trict is of that variety termed anthracite. It burns without
flame or smoke, but, on account of its sulphureous exhala¬
tion, is unfit for domestic use. The excellent qualities of
the Kilkenny coal for particular purposes occasion a great
demand for it. It is heavy, burning with little flame, like
charcoal in an ignited state, and throwing out a steady and
violent heat. It dries malt well, and is excellent for the
forge. The coal sill, or seat of the coal, which is some¬
times raised with it, is a soft, black, brittle shale, full of
shining impressions, exhibiting obscure traces of the stems of
gramineae. It enters into the composition of excellent cruci¬
bles, which resist the strongest heat, as the more they are ex¬
posed to the fire, the harder they become. Fire-bricks are
made from two parts of it and one part of clay. When ana¬
lyzed, 100 grains appeared to contain 61 per cent, of silex, 36
KILKENNY.
85
Kilkenny, of argil, the remaining 3 grains were carbon and calcareous
v-"-' earth, with an almost imperceptible quantity of iron, being
nearly identical in composition with pure Stourbridge clay
when dried. It seems peculiarly calculated for cementing
steel, and for potteries ; but it has not been applied to either
purpose, although materials for earthenware are to be found
in the neighbourhood, and iron-mines of the best quality oc¬
cur in upper strata of entire hills. Yellow ochre is found in
various places ; also pipe-clay of good quality. Manganese
is seen on the banks of the Barrow, and near Freshford, and
lead in small quantities between Innistioge and Ross; a
mine of the latter at Floodhall was worked for some time
with considerable profit. Iron has also been raised. Jasper
has been found near the extremity of the granite district, be¬
tween the Nore and Barrow. Limestone is the base of the
central part of the county ; but the quality varies much in
different places, all the varieties of it containing impressions
of shells or corallines. The most important limestone quarry
is that which produces the Kilkenny marble ; it lies about
half a mile from the city. The marble, when polished, pre¬
sents a black ground, curiously varied with madrepore,
bivalve, and other organic impressions, which appear more
strongly when exposed to the air; but that approaching
nearest to unmixed black is most esteemed. The blocks
when raised, are finished at a marble-mill at some distance,
remarkable for the ingenuity and simplicity of its mechan¬
ism. The marble is used for chimney-pieces all over the
county, and in some other parts of Ireland.
At Ballyspellan, in Galmoy barony, is a very celebrated
mineral spring. It is a chalybeate, and contains carbonic
acid gas, which soon evaporates on exposure to the air. Its
medicinal qualities have long been highly esteemed in the
neighbouring country. Chalybeate springs, but not of much
strength, exist in other places. This county also abounds
with springs of very pure transparent water, most of them
dedicated to some saint, whose patron-day is annually cele¬
brated on their verge.
The census of population, taken at different periods, pre¬
sents the following results :—
1760  De Burgo, 62,832
1792  Beaufort, 100,000
1812  Census, 134,664
1821  Ditto, 158,716
1831  Census, 169,945
1841 Ditto, 183,349
1851  Ditto, 138,779
Exclusive of 20,000 inhabitants in the city of Kilkenny.
The parliamentary returns of the number of children
receiving education in the public schools, in the years 1821,
and 1824-26, give the following results :—
Boys. Girl3. a3C-™d. Total.
1821   10,191 4420 ... 14,511
1824-26  12,398 7000 274 19,672
Out of the total number of children, according to the
latter of these returns, upwards of 18,000 were Catholics;
the Protestants amounting only to 1376, of which number
but 13 were dissenters. The number of schools maintained Kilkenny,
by public money was 19, in which 1515 pupils were in-
structed ; of those maintained by private subscriptions, the
number was the same, the pupils in them being 1281 : all
the other schools, 346 in number, in which 16,876 children
were instructed, were maintained wholly by the fees of the
pupils. The number of schools, and of pupils attending
them, in 1851 was ascertained to be—
Schools.
No. of
Schools.
No. of Children.
Males. Females. Total.
City of Kilkenny-
National 
Boarding 
Private  
Free  
Regimental  
Workhouse  
Gaol 
Total.
County of Kilkenny-
National 
Church Education 
Boarding 
Private 
Parochial 
Free   
Boarding, Charitable.
Workhouse 
Total.
3
4
12
1
1
2
2
25
91
11
2
68
15
7
1
4
199
231
135
250
129
526
101
1372
3347
130
26
1016
284
108
31
336
5278
54
17
155
216
3
203
12
660
2621
148
23
669
159
120
398
4138
285
152
405
216
132
729
113
2032
5968
278
49
1685
443
228
31
734
9416
The county returned 16 members to the Irish parliament
—2 for the county at large, 2 for the city of Kilkenny, 2
for the adjoining borough of Irishtown, and 2 each for the
boroughs of Callan, Gowran, Innistioge, Knocktopher, and
Thomastown. All these, except Kilkenny, were close
boroughs, the elective franchise being vested in the bur¬
gesses, whose number seldom exceeded 20, and who were
elected through the influence of the proprietor of the land.
Very little land in the county is unfit for tillage; the
central parts are peculiarly adapted for wheat, to the growth
of which the best ground, most of which has a limestone sub¬
stratum, is devoted. The more mountainous tracts are ex¬
clusively appropriated to oats or pasture. Wheat is sown
either on a fallow or after potatoes. Wheat here suffers
from what is called the red or yellow worm ; but as often
this disease appears only in dry seasons, when the crop is
better and more abundant, the evil is not extensive. Bar¬
ley is usually sown after wheat. The extent of land under
each description of crop, and the total extent in cultivation
since 1847, is stated in the agricultural returns collected
by the Irish government to have been as follows:—
Years.
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
1855
No. of
Holdings
above 1
Corn, Beans, and Pease.
18,147
17,386
17,035
16,700
15,123
14,510
14,053
13,955
Wheat.
Acres.
50,112
49,411
50,466
47,343
37,036
33,198
25,005
34,968
37,297
Oats.
Acres.
52,088
46,425
45,811
52,236
57,781
62,588
63,996
54,205
53,102
Barley,
Bere, Rye,
Beans, and
Pease.
Acres.
13,058
14,035
12,359
12,641
13,178
10,774
11,623
8,582
8,659
Total.
Acres.
115,258
109,871
108,636
112,220
107,995
106,560
100,624
97,755
99,058
Other Crops.
Potatoes.
Acres.
9,403
27,002
25,702
26,321
26,398
25,972
22,055
25,567
22,812
Turnips.
Acres.
10,083
6,335
9,175
11,613
11,413
9,934
13,126
11,270
12,689
Green
Crops.
Acres.
2588
1453
2686
3255
3790
4073
3560
3027
3196
Total.
Acres.
22,074
34,790
37,563
41,189
41,601
39,979
38,741
40,864
48,697
Flax.
Acres.
90
47
16
32
226
95
78
54
45
Meadow
and
Clover.
Acres.
43,082
42,893
39,613
42,482
45,020
45,462
44,485
44,241
47,437
Total ex¬
tent under
crops.
Acres.
180,504
187,601
185,828
195,923
194,842
192,096
183,928
181,914
185,237
KILKENNY.
86
Kilkenny. The use of green food for cattle is not so general as might
be desired. Many of the cattle graze out during the winter ;
some are housed from Christmas to April. I he only green
food used in winter is furze-tops pounded, on which the
cattle soon become sleek and fine skinned ; for this purpose
the large French furze is preferred. Little attention is paid
to improve the pasturages. The mountain pastures are left
in a state of nature, and the land produces little but heath.
Much land on the borders of the Nore and Suir is em¬
banked and used for meadowing. The most considerable
dairies are in the Walsh Mountains; a name supposed to
be derived from the family to which a large tract of land Kilkenny,
formerly belonged.
Few horses are bred in the county, most are brought in
from Munster to the fair of Callan, the most esteemed fair
for this description of stock. The common stock of black
cattle is a cross of the Irish breed on the long-horned Eng¬
lish. The Kerry cow is much in demand in dairies, for its
low price and quantity of milk. The breed of sheep has
improved very much. The number of holdings above one
acre, and the quantity of live stock in the county since 1847,
is shown in the following table:—
Year.
No. of
Holdings
above 1
acre.
Horses.
2 Years
old, and
upwards.
1 Year
old, and
under 2.
Under
lYear.
Mules,
Asses.
Cattle.
2 Years
old and
upw-ards.
1 Year
old, and
under 2
Under 1
Year.
Sheep.
1 Year
old and
upwards.
Under 1
Year.
Pigs.
1 Year
old, and
upwards.
Under 1
Year.
Goats.
Poultry.
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
18,147
17,386
17,035
16,700
15,123
14,510
14,053
13,955
17,318
16,068
15,424
14,957
14,075
13,677
13,628
13,576
1150
892
1089
998
965
1181
1490
1489
1077
1116
1115
1169
1229
1687
2097
683
671
687
733
702
636
619
3276
3287
3271
3355
3913
4056
4198
4354
46,675
43,278
45,314
44.207
46,082
50,336
55,963
54,263
13,298
12,906
13,746
13,765
15,038
17,188
16,349
16,276
13,137
12,303
13,938
14,398
17,158
21,464
20,428
34,748
29,823
26,045
26,512
31,070
42,175
52,038
62,360
15,072
10,584
9,825
12,955
14,600
19,747
30,752
36,814
20,129
12 278
15,469
14,794
17,895
17,483
14,951
14,099
18,055
19,257
24,446
30,969
35,066
30,594
35,932
46,696
4920
5200
5164
5958
7372
8876
9439
9807
196,695
202,387
186,193
197,955
212,892
241,176
251,343
252,268
Bees were more attended to formerly than now, yet the
soil and climate are well suited to them. The dry hills,
covered with heath and scented herbs, produce honey cele¬
brated for its flavour, and for the depth of its combs.
Within the last century, many parts of the county were
covered with woods. Now there are but few, not covering
more than 2000 acres. Attempts to raise plantations from
the seed have not been successful; the seeds in this mild
climate being liable to destruction from vermin. Orchards
are much neglected. There are some ozieries on the banks
of the Nore and Suir.
The woollen manufacture was introduced by the Earl of
Ormond in the early part of the fourteenth century. He
brought over workmen from Flanders, whose manufacture
is still to be seen in the castle of Kilkenny. James Duke
of Ormond went to great expense to introduce the linen
manufacture in the seventeenth century. Latterly an at¬
tempt was made to manufacture superfine broad cloths in
the neighbourhood of Kilkenny, but it soon failed. Friezes
and ratteens are still made ; the women spin the wool. The
manufacture of woollen cloth was succeeded by that of
blankets, which is still carried on. The linen trade, after
a continuance of 50 or 60 years, has so died away that not
a vestige of it now remains, be}Jond the making of coarse
linen and sacking for domestic use. Paper is manufactured
in several places. The principal part of the grain raised
in the county is sent to Dublin in the form of flour, malt,
and meal, the manufacturing of which is another source of
wealth.
The number of resident gentry is considerable. Amongst
the mansions remarkable for splendour or for architectural
beauty are—the castle of Kilkenny ; Mount Juliet, the seat
of the Earl of Garrick; Desart, an Italian structure, the
seat of the Earl of Desart; Kilfane, thatof Sir John Power,
Bart.; Flood Hall, the residence of the head of the Flood
family ; Besborough, the seat of the Earl of Besborough ;
and Woodstock, the seat of the Right Hon. Wm. Frederick
Tighe, which has the reputation of being one of the most
beautiful domains in the south of Ireland. The mansion is
large, and the woods very extensive, stretching for 2 miles
along the right bank of the River Nore, and reaching to
the summit of the bank, a height of 800 feet. The farm¬
houses are of stone, more generally cemented with clay than
with mortar, the offices usually forming an irregular yard
in front of the house. The people in the hilly parts, who
hold land at will, live in scattered villages. The usual food
of the peasantry is potatoes, to which milk and salt, are
generally added, and occasionally a herring. Turf is the
general fuel, except in the neighbourhood of the collieries,
where coal is burned, or else culm made up in balls with
one third of clay. The clothing of the peasantry is frieze,
ratteen, and flannel.
Amongst the remains of antiquity may be noticed a circle
formed of stones on the summit of Slieve Grian, “ The
Hill of the Sun,” called also Tory Hill, on one of which is
an inscription that has given rise to much controversy.
There is another circular group of stones on the Hill of
Cloghmanta, which signifies “The Rock of God.” The most
remarkable cromlech is at Kilmogue; its upper stone is
45 feet in circumference. The country people call it Lac-
han Schal, or “ The Great Altar Stone.” Near the Spa of
Ballyspellon is a large stone, formerly supported by others ;
it is called Clogh-bannagh, or “ The Stone of Blessing.”
Raths are numerous, particularly in Galmoy and near the
Nore. At Earlsrath are the remains of a very large fort
enclosed by a fosse. A moat near Rathbeath is pointed
out as the place where Heremon, son of Milesius, built his
palace and was buried. There are five pillar towers in the
county. One is in Kilkenny, close to, and almost forms
part of the cathedral; it is 100 feet high, and 48 feet in cir¬
cumference at the base: the others are at Tulloherin, Kil-
ree, Fertagh, and Aghaviller, of which last the lower part
only remains. All are in the vicinity of places of worship.
Besides the remains of monasteries in the city of Kilkenny,
there are vestiges of some others, once of great note, parti¬
cularly one at Jerpoint, about one mile from Thomastown,
and one of the most interesting ecclesiastical ruins in Ire¬
land, founded by Donough, King of Ossory, and affords a
fine example of the mixed Anglo-Norman and English
styles of architecture. Another at Graig was founded
under the auspices of the Earl of Pembroke in 1212, for
Cistercian monks, and is still a venerable and interesting ruin.
The Dominicans had abbeys at Rosbercon, founded in
1267, and at Thomastown, five beautiful pointed arches of
which still remain. The Carmelites had one at Kncckto-
pher, and there was a nunnery at Kilculliheen.
The number of castles is very great; most of them con¬
sist of a single square tower, which formed the keep. Graney
or Grandison Castle, in Iverk, is among the most cele¬
brated, as having been the residence of Margaret Fitzgerald,
K I L
K I L
Kilkenny, the great Countess of Ormond ; it is supposed to have been
v-*-'' built by the eighth Earl of Ormond, Lord-Deputy of Ire¬
land, in 1521, and was taken by the parliamentary forces,
under Colonel Axtel. From the towers and walls which re¬
main some idea can be formed of the importance of the
place when entire and garrisoned as a fortress. King John
built a castle at Tybrachny, where there are the remains of
a Danish town.
Kilkenny City is situate on the River Nore, which
divides it into two unequal portions, and nearly in the centre
of the county. Its name is generally derived from Kil¬
kenny, “ The Church or Cell of St Canicethough by some
it is traced from the words Coil-ken-ui, “ The Wooded Hill
near the River.” It formerly consisted of two separate juris¬
dictions,—the city of Kilkenny properly so called, and the
borough of Irishtown, separated from each other by the
small stream called the Breagh, a tributary of the Nore;
but by the provisions of the Municipal Reform Act the two
corporations were amalgamated. An English settlement
was formed here shortly after the landing of Strongbow; a
castle was also erected, and the seat of the see of Ossory
removed thither. William, Lord Marshal, who married
Strongbow’s daughter, granted the town a charter of incor¬
poration, which was confirmed by Gilbert, Earl of Clare.
Elizabeth and James I. confirmed and enlarged its privi¬
leges. From the Anglo-Norman invasion in 1170, to the
Parliamentary War in 1641, Kilkenny was one of the most
important inland towns in Ireland. It was frequently the re¬
sidence of the Lord-Lieutenant, and parliaments were some¬
times held in it; amongst others, that which passed the
celebrated statute of Kilkenny, which first notices the dis¬
tinction of English by blood, and English by birth. Dur¬
ing the wars of 1641, it was the place where the assembly
of the confederate Catholics held their sittings; the room
where they met is still shown. Cromwell afterwards took
the city on terms highly honourable to its defenders, and
subsequently held his high court of justice in it. The city is
irregular, but presents a cheerful and busy aspect; the
houses, built chiefly of stone, are large and i*espectable.
“ I found the city of Kilkenny,” says Inglis, “ a large, well-
built, beautifully situated, and very interesting town. In
fact, I scarcely know any town more interesting or more
picturesque.” The Nore, here a river of some breadth,
though not navigable, is crossed by two modern bridges.
On the two most elevated points of the united towns are
the castle and the cathedral, the most marked and orna¬
mental structures of both. The baronial castle, which is
full of historic associations, comprehends the remains of the
ancient fortress, combined with more modern buildings.
It was built by Strongbow in the twelfth century, pur¬
chased by James, third Earl of Ormond, in 1391 ; it has
ever since been the principal residence of the head of the
Butler family. In 1399 he entertained Richard II. in it
for fourteen days. King William dined here after the
battle of the Boyne. The buildings now form the sides of
a quadrangle, the large interior courtyard having been re¬
tained. Its principal apartments were the presence cham¬
ber, formed of a suite of rooms opening into one another,
in the farthest of which was an elevated seat for the lord of
the mansion; and the picture gallery, 150 feet in length,
chiefly furnished with family portraits. Several of the
rooms are hung with tapestry. The court-house is a large
and elegant modern building, erected on the site of Grace’s
old castle, where the assizes used to be held. The tholsel,
or city court, is also large, but unornamented; it contains
several apartments, one of which is used as a library. The
market, well stocked with provisions of every kind, is held
in one of the divisions of its inferior area. There are bar¬
racks both for cavalry and infantry. The county jail is at
a short distance from the city. The environs of the town
are very beautiful. The Duke’s Walk, or Mall, extends
upwards of a mile along the banks of the Nore. The cor¬
poration consists of a mayor and aldermen, and other subor¬
dinate officers, who have the management of an income,
arising from rents, of about L.2000 per annum. The cathe¬
dral of St Canice is an extensive pile, on a commanding
elevation, in Irishtown. It is cruciform, surmounted by a
small tower, and of greater dimensions than any similar
building in Ireland, except the cathedral of St Patrick in
Dublin. In the north transept is a chapel used as the
parish church, where also is a stone seat called the Chair of
St Kevin. The choir and chancel are fitted up in a style
of chaste simplicity. The aisle contains several sepulchral
monuments; amongst them that of Pierce, eighth Earl of
Ormond, and Margaret Fitzgerald, his wife. The burial-
ground of the cathedral is entered by a flight of marble
steps, and is planted with trees. The episcopal palace was
originally erected in the time of Edward III., and was
modernized and enlarged in 1735 ; it is now a commodious,
though not a splendid residence. The church of St Mary
is a spacious but plain structure. Several monastic institu¬
tions added much to the beauty and dignity of the city.
The most ancient was the preceptory of St John, founded
about 1211. The abbey church, remarkable for the sin¬
gular structure of its windows, which procured it the name
of “ The Lanthorn of Kilkenny,” has been converted into a
parochial church under its old name. The extensive and
noble ruins of the Dominican or Black Abbey, founded in
1225, have been repaired, and now form a Roman Catholic
place of worship. The ruins of the Franciscan Abbey,
situate on the banks of the Nore, are much admired.
The grammar school, generally called the College, was
founded by Pierce, Earl of Ormond, and re-endowed by the
Duke of Ormond in 1684. James II. erected it into a
royal college, but on his abdication it reverted to its former
state, and is now a respectable place of elementary instruc¬
tion, capable of accommodating eighty resident pupils. In
it Dean Swift, Congreve, Farquhar, and Bishop Berkeley,
acquired the rudiments of classical literature. Kilkenny has
also a seminary for the education of students intended for
the Roman Catholic priesthood. The city also contains
several Roman Catholic chapels, the county gaol and in¬
firmary, union workhouse, and district lunatic asylum. A
neat range of buildings, called St James’ Asylum, in the
suburbs, was endowed in 1803 by Mr James Switzer, for
the maintenance of twelve Protestant and eight Catholic
widows. The population of the county and city of Kil¬
kenny in 1851 was 19,973; of the city alone, 15,808. No
other place in the county, except Callan (2368), contains
more than 2000 inhabitants. (h. s—R.)
KILLALA, a small seaport of Ireland, county Mayo,
on a bay of the same name, 26 miles N.E. of Castlebar.
Pop. 1446. It was formerly the seat of a bishopric, founded
by St Patrick, united in 1607 to Achonry, and to Tuam in
1833. The cathedral, a small but venerable building, is
now used as the parish church ; near it is a remarkable
round towrer. A French force under General Humbert
landed here in 1798, and held the town for a short time.
KILLALOE, a market-town and bishop’s see of Ireland,
county Clare, 12 miles N.E. of Limerick. It is finely si¬
tuate, though poorly built, on the Shannon, which is crossed
by an old bridge of 19 arches, connecting the town with
the suburb of Ballina on the Tipperary side. The river is
navigable by large steamers from Killaloe to Leitrim (129
miles), and there are docks and quays here a little above
the bridge. Pop., including Ballina, 2230, chiefly employed
in marble mills, slate quarries, and in works connected with
the river navigation. The principal building in the town
is the cathedral, an old cruciform edifice with a tower ; near
it is the stone-roofed cell of St Lua, first Bishop of Killaloe;
and on a small island opposite the episcopal demesne, is
another chapel still more ancient. This town was long the
1!
8T
Killala
II
Killaloe.
^v—'
88 K I L
Killarney royal seat of the O’Briens; and at Kincora, on Lough Dearg,
II about a mile to the N., are pointed out some remains of the
Kilrush. residence of Brian Boru. At Killaloe, in 1691, General
^Sarsfield intercepted the artillery of William III. on its way
to Limerick. The diocese, which dates from the seventh
century, includes 70 benefices. The episcopal income is
L.3870.
KILLARNEY, a market-town of Ireland, county
Kerry, is beautifully situate, about a mile from the water,
on the eastern shore of the lower lake of Killarney, 44^
miles W.N.W. of Cork. It is for the most part well built
of stone, with clean regular streets; and during the sum¬
mer and autumn is greatly resorted to by tourists. Pop.
5964.
Killarney, Lakes of. See Kerry.
KILMALLOCK, a town of Ireland, county of Limerick,
on the Dublin and Cork Railway, 17 miles S. of Limerick.
It is supposed to derive its name from St Molach, who
founded an abbey here in the beginning of the seventh cen¬
tury. It became the chief town of the Desmonds, and
rose to great importance and splendour. Previously to the
Union it returned two members to the Irish parliament.
The present town is little more than an assemblage of ruins,
and has obtained the title of the Irish Baalbec. The an¬
cient houses, occupied at one time by the great families of
Limerick, are now the abodes of filth and wretchedness. Ex¬
ternally they are frequently little altered, and are generally
ornamented with battlements, stone mouldings, and arched
doorways. The Abbey church dedicated to St Peter and
St Paul, consists of choir, nave, transept, and belfry. The
choir is now used for Divine service. Of the Dominican
friary, founded in 1291, only the roofless church and part of
the cloisters remain. Two gates and part of the ancient
walls still remain. Pop. 1074.
KILMARNOCK, a flourishing market-town and parlia¬
mentary and municipal burgh of Scotland, Ayrshire, at the
confluence of the Kilmarnock Water and Irvine (over which
there are here seven bridges), 19 miles S.W’. of Glasgow by
rail. Its general appearance is highly respectable. The prin¬
cipal streets are well built and spacious, containing several
handsome public buildings. In the centre of the town is a
cross, and a statue of Sir James Shaw. Among the public in¬
stitutions are an excellent academy (with 360 pupils in 1851),
a library, three literary institutes (497 members in 1851),
with libraries and two reading-rooms. Kilmarnock was long
the principal seat of the blue bonnet and striped night-cap
manufacture. This is now quite surpassed in importance
by the manufacture of carpets and worsted shawls. Boots
and shoes, hosiery, machinery, &c., are also made to a con¬
siderable extent; and there are some large tanneries. The
town is situate in the midst of a highly cultivated district,
abounding in coal and freestone. A railway (the first pub¬
lic line opened in Scotland), connects it with the seaport of
Troon, 9^ miles distant. The burgh is governed by a pro¬
vost, 4 bailies, a treasurer, and 12 councillors, and returns
one member to parliament in conjunction with Port-Glas-
gow, Dumbarton, Renfrew, and Rutherglen : constituency
in 1856, 600, being about the half of the combined numbers.
It has two newspapers and several printing presses. LIere,
in 1786, was printed the first edition of the poems of Burns.
In the neighbourhood are the ruins of the castles of Dean
and Craufurdland.
KILOGRAMME, Kilolitre, and Kilometre. See
France, § Weights and Measures.
KILKENNY, a municipal and parliamentary borough
and seaport of Scotland, county of Fife, on the N.E. shore
of the Frith of Forth, 9 miles S. by W. of St Andrews. It
forms a contributory borough to St Andrews, but is other¬
wise a place of little importance. Pop. of borough (1851),
1862, chiefly engaged in fishing.
KILRUSH, a market-town and seaport of Ireland,
KIM
county Clare, pleasantly situate at the head of a small bay Kilsyth
on the N. side of the Shannon estuary, 36 miles W^. of Li- ||
merick. It is neatly built, with several good public Kimchi.
buildings ; has some linen and woollen manufactures ; and
exports considerable quantities of herring and other fish to
Limerick. Peats from the neighbouring bogs are also ex¬
ported in large quantities. The harbour, which is the first
above the mouth of the Shannon, is well sheltered except
from the S. wind. There is a good pier, and steamers ply
regularly to Limerick. Pop. 4471. In the Island of Scat-
tery, which protects the roadstead of Kilrush, are numerous
ecclesiastical antiquities, among which is a round tower 120
feet high.
KILSYTH, a parish and burgh of barony in the county
of Stirling, Scotland, interesting as the centre of a remark¬
able religious revival in 1742-3, and on a smaller scale in
1839. The town, 12 miles N.E. of Glasgow, is ill built,
and not remarkably clean. Pop. 3949, chiefly employed
in hand-loom weaving.
KILWINNING, a town and parish of Scotland, Ayr¬
shire, on the Garnock, 26 miles S.W. of Glasgow by rail.
The chief interest of the place is connected with its ruined
abbey, originally one of the richest in Scotland. It was
founded in 1107 by Hugh de Morville, Lord of Cunning¬
ham, and dedicated to St Winning, who lived on this spot
in the eighth century, whence the name. The monks were
of the Tyronensian order. The first Scottish mason-lodge
was founded here by a band of foreign brethren who came
to assist in the building of the abbey. Here also the prac¬
tice of archery has been kept up since the close of the fif¬
teenth century. Pop. 3265 ; the men principally employed
in hand-loom weaving and in the neighbouring coal and
iron mines ; many of the women in needlework. There is
railway communication with the port of Ardrossan, 5^
miles. Not far from the town is the magnificent residence
of the Earl of Eglinton.
KIMBOLTON, a small town of Huntingdonshire, 11
miles W.S.W. of Huntingdon, with an ancient castle, the
seat of the Dukes of Manchester, and residence of Catherine
of Aragon after her divorce from Llenry VIII.
KIMCHI, David, an illustrious Jewish rabbi, was born
at Narbonne about the end of the twelfth century, and died
in Provence in 1240. His father, Joseph Kimchi, and his
brother, Moses Kimchi, though decidedly inferior to him,
were men of great note in their day as Hebrew scholars and
commentators. Moses Kimchi is the author of the cele¬
brated Commentary on the Life of Ezra, incorporated in
the rabbinical bible of Venice, 1549; and of a Hehrexv
Grammar published in that city in 1624. David Kimchi,
however, has always been regarded by the Jews with a
much higher feeling of reverence than any other member
of his gifted house. Their respect for him falls little short
of superstition; and in matters of doubt or dispute his
authority is looked upon by them as final. In the fierce
controversy which broke out between the Jews of Spain and
those of France as to the opinions of Maimonides, he was
chosen to arbitrate between the disputants: and it was
entirely through his wisdom and knowledge that the con¬
troversy was brought to a close in such a way that both
parties were completely satisfied. His printed works, as
highly esteemed now as when they were first given to the
world, are,—a Hebrew Grammar entitled Michlol—i.e.,
“Perfection,” Venice, 1545 ; Leyden, 1631, &c.: a Lexicon
of Hebrew roots entitled Sepher Sgorasain, Naples, 1490;
Venice, 1592, &c. These works, which have been fre¬
quently reprinted, furnished Buxtorf with the materials of
his Lexicon and Thesaurus. The Grammar, in particular,
has served as a model for all the Hebrew Grammars that
have appeared since it was written. Kimchi wrote com¬
mentaries on almost all the books of the Old Testament.
Some of these have been often printed separately ; and a
KIN
KIN
K inburn collective edition of them was published at Gotha in 1713,
II in 3 vols. 4to. Kimchi was an obstinate Jew, and cherished
dinesMre an ™P^aca^'e anc^ furious hatred to the name of Christ,
which often breaks out in his most abstract speculations. A
catalogue raisonne of his works, which include a Talmudic
dictionary, is given in Wolfs Bibliotheca Hebraica, Ham¬
burg, ] 715-33.
KINBURN, a fortress of Russia, very strongly situate
on a small peninsula at the mouth of the Dnieper, on its W.
side. Opposite to it is the fortress of Oczakoff: the two
together entirely command the entrance of the river. Near
Kinburn in 1787 the Russians under Suwaroff gained a
signal victory over the Turks. On the 17th of October
1855, this fortress capitulated, after a heavy bombardment
of several hours, to a combined British and French force
under Admirals Stewart and Bruat.
KINCARDINE, a seaport and borough of barony,
Perthshire, on the left bank of the Frith of Forth, 21 miles
W.N.W. of Edinburgh. It is irregularly, but not ill built,
and has a good quay and harbour, affording anchorage to
ships of 300 to 400 tons. There is a considerable coasting
trade, chiefly in coals; and shipbuilding is carried on to some
extent. Pop. 2697.
KINCARDINESHIRE, or The Mearns, a maritime
county of Scotland, bounded N. and N.W. by Aberdeen¬
shire, S.W. and S. by Forfarshire, and E. by the German
Ocean. Its form is that of an isosceles triangle, with the
apex pointing N.E.; its greatest length from the mouth of the
N.Esk to thatof the Dee is 31 miles, breadth fromDunnottar
to Mount Battock, 22 miles; area, 243,200 acres. It may be
viewed as consisting of five natural divisions,—the Coast
side, Garvock, the How (or Hollow) o’ the Mearns, the
Grampians, and Deeside. The first of these is the most
productive portion of the county; the land S. of Stonehaven
renting at from L.2 to L.4 per acre. From the Esk to
Bervie the coast is for the most part low. From Bervie to
Stonehaven (about 12 miles) it presents an almost unbroken
range of perpendicular rock, from 100 to 250 feet high;
thence to Aberdeen it is interrupted by creeks and bays.
In this district are the towns of Bervie and Stonehaven, and
the small ports of St Cyrus, Johnshaven, Gourdon, Katter-
line, Cratoun, Skateravv, Portlethen, Findon (or Finnan,
whence ‘finnan-haddies ”), and Cove. The district of Gar¬
vock rises to an elevation of from 250 to 750 feet above the
sea, and is naturally bleak and unproductive, but the indus¬
try of the inhabitants has done much to reclaim it from ste¬
rility. Planting on a more extensive scale is still greatly to
be desiderated. The How o’ the Mearns is a continuation
of the valley of Strathmore, and takes its rise a few miles
W. of Stonehaven, extending S.W. for 16 miles, with an
average breadth of 6 miles. The lower portions of this fine
valley were originally marshes ; and ague was common
among the inhabitants. It has now entirely disappeared ;
the marshes having been thoroughly drained, and now yield¬
ing good crops of corn. The How is watered by numer¬
ous streams ; the largest are the Bervie, Luther, and Fearn,
—the first specially noted as a trouting stream. The gene¬
ral aspect of this district is highly flourishing, but the
absence of hedge-rows, and the gradual removal of plan¬
tations, never very numerous, are defects that need remedy.
Rising from this valley, and running parallel with it, is a
ridge of the Grampians, which intersects the county from
E. to W. This sterile region is about 8 miles in breadth,
and embraces the area of nearly 80,000 acres, almost en¬
tirely occupied as sheep-walks. The highest point is Mount
Battock (3500 feet), the summit of which forms the point of
contact of Aberdeenshire, Angus, and Kincardine. The
road from the How, over the steep romantic Cairn o’ Mount,
leads through Glen Dye into Deeside. This district be¬
gins with the valley of the Feugh, extends for about 10
miles on both banks of the Dee, and from the point where
VOL. XIII.
that river begins to divide the county from Aberdeenshire,
for about 13 miles on its right bank to the sea. The land
of this tract is not in general of a strong quality, but in moist
seasons produces good crops. It is here also to be lamented
that the plantations which adorn the face of the country are
rapidly disappearing.
Of the minerals in this county, the most useful is lime¬
stone, which used to be quarried near Laurencekirk. The
prevailing rock in the N. of the county is granite, and
on the coast gneiss. Porphyry, conglomerate, sandstone,
whinstone, &c., occur in great variety. The climate has
much improved within the last 40 years, principally owing,
no doubt, to the great improvements in drainage; but the
high bleak hills, which extend over so much of its surface,
must always exercise a chilling influence on the soil. High
winds are very prevalent, and do much injury to crops.
The improvements in agriculture during the present cen¬
tury have been very great. Among the number of those
specially entitled to record as improvers on a great scale,
are the late Mr Barclay Allardyce of Ury, and Mr M'Tier
of Durris. With these exceptions, and a few besides, most
of the improvements throughout the county are due to the
energy and skill of the tenantry. The county is well fur¬
nished with roads, and is traversed by the Scottish North-
Eastern and the Aberdeen and Deeside railways. Its
total acreage under tillage in 1856, was 100,889^ ; of
which there were—in wheat, 6080; barley, 7079; oats,
28,165; potatoes, 2893^ ; turnips, 16,853^; grass and hay,
37,915^. The total value of agricultural produce in 1855
was estimated at L.898,588 ; in 1807 it was estimated at
L.515,679. The number of occupants in 1856 was 1392 ;
of landowners, from 60 to 70, about half of whom have
rentals varying from L.1000 to above L.8000. The num¬
ber of resident proprietors is about 20. The valued rent
of land in 1674 was L.6243, 9s.; in 1815, L.94,86J ; in
1856, L. 158,789. The farms vary in size from 20 to 400
acres. The tendency to enlarging farms is making way, as
in other parts of Scotland, to the extinction of an industrious
and exemplary class of the population. Farm-steadings
have been greatly improved, but the accommodation for
farm-servants is still extremely defective. Improvement
in the breeding of stock has not been much stimulated by
any local associations for that purpose, the only agricul¬
tural society in the county being limited to the district of
Fettercairn, where, however, it has been of considerable
benefit. The total live-stock in 1856 was 61,399,—esti¬
mated value, L.414,000. The number of horses was 4206 ;
milch cows, 6568; total cattle, 26,449: sheep, 27,894.
Fifty years ago, the paupers were 1 in 50 of the popula¬
tion, the average sum for their support being L.l, 16s.;
in 1855 they were 1 in 26, costing each, on an average,
L.4, 10s.
There are few manufactures in the county; thatof woollens
is carried on at Stonehaven on a small scale. There are
flax spinning-mills at Bervie, distilleries at Glen Ury and
Fettercairn, and breweries at Stonehaven, Johnshaven,
and Laurencekirk. The salmon and white fisheries are
carried on to some extent along the coast. The county
town is Stonehaven, pleasantly situated on the sea-coast,
near the mouth of the Carron, 16 miles S. of Aberdeen.
It has a small harbour, but little trade. Pop. 3240. Bervie,
a small place of 878 inhabitants, is the only royal burgh in
the county. It received its charter from David II. Lau¬
rencekirk was long famous for the manufacture of wooden
snuff-boxes, in which it competes with Mauchline and
Cumnock. Of the old county town, Kincardine, not a ves¬
tige remains. The county returns one M.P. (constituency
920) ; and Bervie is a contributory burgh to Montrose. The
population of Kincardineshire in 1851 was 34,743. The
number of persons employed as servants and farm-workers
in 1856 was about 6000; 287 lived in “bothies.” There
M
89
Kincar- .
dineshire.
90 KIN
King, are numerous ancient cairns, and traces of Roman camps in
William. t}le county. Of old castles, the most remarkable is Dunnot-
tar, near Stonehaven, the old seat of the Keiths, Earls Mari-
schal. It stands on a high projecting rock, nearly surrounded
by the waves, and was at one time a place of great strength.
The Scottish Regalia were kept here in the time of the
Commonwealth, and here, in the reign of James II., a large
number of Nonconformist prisoners endured such atro¬
city of treatment as was hardly outmatched by the Black
Hole of Calcutta. On the Hill of Garvock is pointed out the
“ Sheriff’s Kettle,” where Melville, sheriff of the Mearns,
about 1420, was boiled in a cauldron by some of the neigh¬
bouring barons to whom he had become offensive. Of dis¬
tinguished men born in Kincardineshire were John of For-
doun the historian, George Wishart, Robert Barclay the
Quaker, Bishop Burnet, Dr John Arbuthnott, Dr James
Beattie, Dr Thomas Reid, and Lord Monboddo.
KING, William, D.D., author of a famous treatise on
the Origin of Evil, was born at Antrim in 1650. Taking
orders in 1674, he was, five years afterwards, promoted to
the chancellorship of St Patrick’s, Dublin. When the per¬
secution of the Anglican clergy began under James II.,
King, though a rigid Protestant, warmly inculcated the duty
of passive obedience. “ It was only,” in the words of Mac¬
aulay {Hist., vol. iii., p. 222), “ after he had been repeatedly
imprisoned by the government, to which he was devotedly
attached ; after he had been insulted and threatened in his
own choir by the soldiers ; after he had been interdicted
from burying in his own churchyard, and from preaching in
his own pulpit; after he had narrowly escaped with his life
from a musket-shot fired at him in the streets, that he be¬
gan to think the Whig theory of government less unreason¬
able and unchristian than it had once appeared to him.”
Adopting the principles of the revolution, he gave them his
earnest support; and his constancy was rewarded with the
deanery of St Patrick’s, and, three years later, with the see
of Derry. In 1702 he became Archbishop of Dublin, and
held that office till his death in 1729.
As an author, King ranks among the most learned and
able men of the Irish Church. After peace had been re¬
stored to Great Britain by William of Orange, he published
his State of the Protestants of Ireland under the late King
James’ Government, Lond., 4to; pronounced by Burnet to
be a “ history as truly as it is finely writ.” A far higher
effort, however, was his Discourse on the Inventions of Men
in the Worship of God, the object of which was to recon¬
cile the Presbyterians of Ireland to the Episcopal form of
church government. But the greatest of all his works was
his essay On the Origin of Evil, published in Latin at Dub¬
lin in 1702. In this essay, he advocated what is known as
the optimist view, which, with differences on subordinate
points, is that adopted by Augustin and Leibnitz. Accord¬
ing to this view, King, in common with these great thinkers,
attempts to reconcile the existence of evil within the govern¬
ment of a perfectly holy, good, and powerful being, by
treating it as the necessary result of creature limitation.
His work attracted great attention both at home and abroad.
Among its assailants were Leibnitz, who, while holding the
monoistic hypothesis, denied much of King’s reasoning and
many of his conclusions on minor points; and Bayle, the
last and greatest defender of the dualistic hypothesis. King
did not publish any reply to either of his assailants, but left
notes of a defence, which, after his death, were given to the
world by Edmund Law, Bishop of Carlisle, along with an
English version of the De origine Mali. Of his other works
may be mentioned his Discourse on Predestination, which
has been edited, and with valuable annotations, by Arch¬
bishop Whately. King’s personal character stood very high
through life ; and his correspondence with Swift shows him
to have been a man of fine wit and great general accom¬
plishment.
KIN
KINGS, Books of the, canonical books of the Old Kings,
Testament, embrace three portions of sacred history, viz., Books of
the reign of Solomon, the parallel histories of Judah and the
Israel in their divided state after his death, and the history II ,
of Judah till the beginning of the captivity. Originally they c0unty
formed one book, and were first divided by the Seventy, by i
whom they are classed as III. and IV. Kings. This ar-
rangement obtains in the Vulgate. The name of the book
gives a very inadequate idea of its contents, unless the theo¬
cratic position of the Jewish monarchs be borne in mind,
with all its anomalous relations to the prophetic power.
There was present in the nation an element to be found in
no other human society; and hence the peculiar lights and
shadows of the recorded history. To realize this, it is only
necessary to contrast the history of Jezebel in the land of the
theocracy, as given by the sacred penman of this book, with
that of her cousin Dido in the classic pages of Virgil. The
unity of the book has been denied by few. Jeremiah is the
only prophet who may be reasonably named as its author;
and it is certain there is throughout a considerable resem¬
blance to his style. In compiling the history the author refers
to certain works not admitted into the canon, and not now
extant. The nature of these books has occasioned con¬
siderable variety of opinion, but it seems probable that they
were authentic and official documents publicly known and
accessible to the nation. There are few commentaries on
Kings. The most satisfactory is that by K. F. Keil, Com-
mentar ilber die Bucher der Konige, 8vo, Moskau, 1846.
KING’S BENCH, Court of. See England, § Govern¬
ment and Laws.
KING’S COUNTY, an inland county of the province of
Leinster, in Ireland, is bounded on the N. by the county
of Westmeath, on the E. by the county of Kildare, on the
S. by the Queen’s county and Tipperary, and on the W.
by the counties of Tipperary, Galway, and Roscommon.
According to the Ordnance Survey, it comprises an area of
772 square miles, or 493,985 acres; of which 337,256 are
arable, 145,836 uncultivated, 8258 in plantations, 902 in
towns, and 1733 underwater.
In the earliest periods of Irish history this county formed
part of the territory of Hy-Falgia, and was also known by
the name of Hy-Laoighis, a denomination that compre¬
hended also the Queen’s county, Dublin, Kildare, and some
other districts. The southern part of it afterwards obtained
the name of Ely O’Carroll. It was also known by that of
the kingdom of Offaly, and was confiscated to the crown in
1557, in the reign of Philip and Mary, during the admini¬
stration of the Earl of Sussex, under the title of East and
West Glenmallery. This large tract of country was then
reduced into shire ground, and one portion was called the
Queen’s county, and the fort and town named Maryborough,
in honour of Queen Mary; the western district was called
the King’s county; and the fort of Dingan, in honour of King
Philip, was named Philipstown, and was originally the assize
town, but has been superseded in favour of the more impor¬
tant town of Tullamore. The principal clans were formerly
the O’Connors, the O’Carrolls, the M‘Egans, the O’De-
lanys, and the O’Meaghers. These chiefs were very
troublesome neighbours to the English Pale, and kept up
constant skirmishes with the royal forces. The forfeitures
consequent on the wars of 1641 and the revolution were ex¬
tensive in this county, and the principal families attainted
were the O’Carrolls, the Coghlans, the Geohegans, and the
Graces. The King’s county is now divided into the twelve
baronies of Ballyboy, Ballycowan, Ballybritt, Clonlisk,
Coolestown, Eglish, Garrycastle, Geashill, Kilcoursey,
Upper and Lower Philipstown, and Warrenstown. These
are again subdivided into fifty-one parishes.
According to former ecclesiastical arrangements of Ire¬
land, this county comprehended parts of the dioceses of
Kildare, Meath, Killaloe, Ossory, and Clonfert; but under
King’s
County.
KING’S COUNTY.
the new distribution of the dioceses it is comprehended in
those of Dublin, Meath, Killaloe, and Ferns.
The surface of the country is for the most part level and
uninteresting, the usual elevation being less than 300 feet
above the level of the sea. The great field of floetz lime¬
stone, that forms so much of the soil of Ireland, spreads
itself over all but its southern portion. Beds of foliated
limestone, of a greenish hue and a large granular texture,
adapted for various useful purposes, are found at Tullamore.
In the S.E. the Slieve Bloom Mountains extend in a direc¬
tion from N.E. to S.W. for 20 miles, forming the line of
demarcation between the King’s and Queen’s counties.
They are steep and craggy, and have but one opening by
which they can be crossed, called the Gap of Glandine.
They consist of a nucleus of clay, surrounded by sandstone,
with tracts of irreclaimable bog at their base. Pure white
clay, of a quartzose nature, is found in them. Croghan Hill,
about 3 miles N. of Philipstown, one of the most fertile and
elevated of the eminences in the northern extremity of the
county, rises above the surrounding level to the height of
about 500 feet, clothed with verdure to its summit. It is
composed of trap and flcetz limestone. On those parts of
its surface the basis of which is lime, the soil is extremely
barren ; whilst on the other parts it is peculiarly fertile,
producing, from time immemorial, good crops of oats and
potatoes, without manure. The difference is so marked, that
the line of junction of the two formations can be traced by
the verdure on the surface. Another elevation of the coun¬
try, but less remarkable than that of Croghan, is the Hill of
Cloghan, between the River Brosna and the Slieve Bloom
Mountains. Numerous and abundant springs gush from it
on all sides. The minerals found here are iron in small
quantities, manganese, ochre, chalk, and potters’ clay. The
only river that can strictly be considered as belonging to
the county is the Brosna, which rises in the county of West¬
meath, and discharges itself into the Shannon. This latter
river forms a considerable part of the western boundary of
the county. The Barrow is its boundary to the S.E., and
the Boyne skirts a small portion of its north-eastern extre¬
mity. The Lesser Brosna, also a branch of the Shannon,
divides the county from Tipperary. The only lake within
the county is Lough Pallas, of inconsiderable dimensions.
The divisional line which separates the Queen’s county
passes through the middle of Lough Annagh, the northern
portion of which is therefore considered as belonging to the
King’s county. It is of inconsiderable size, not covering
more than 315 acres.
The soil is in general either a deep moor or a shallow
gravelly loam ; the former is the more productive in dry
seasons, the latter in moist. Limestone is abundant in
most parts. The pastures, though not luxuriant, form good
sheep walks; that on the more mountainous tracts has
proved excellent for young cattle. In reclaimed bog, corn
crops are some weeks later in ripening than elsewhere, al¬
though the natural vegetation is earlier than in the upland
pastures. A considerable portion of the Great Bog of Allen
is in this county, which altogether contains about 146,000
acres, consisting either of flow bogs or coarse pasture land.
The extent of the bogs may amount to about 120,000
acres, of which about one-third is capable of improvement
for cultivation, by a system of perfect draining, follow ed by
a coating of from 3 to 4 inches of clayey gravel, which oc¬
curs abundantly near the edges of most of the bogs. On
the whole, including the elevated pastures, 45,000 acres are
susceptible of improvement for cultivation; 94,000 acres
might be drained, and 7000 acres are not improvable so as
to repay the outlay. The returns of the number of inha¬
bitants at various periods are as follow:—
1760 De Burgo, 45,618
1792 Beaufort, 74,500
1813 Census, 113,226
1821  „ 131,088
1831 Census,
1841  „
1851  „
Date. Boys.
1821.  5531
1824-26  5787
Girls. Sex unascertained. Total.
2601 ... 8,132
423 10,139
3929
Schools.
National  
Church education.
Endowed 
Boarding 
Private 
Parochial 
Free 
Regimental 
Mission 
Workhouse 
Gaol 
Total.
No. of
Schools.
60
18
1
4
57
15
4
1
3
3
1
167
No. of Children.
Males. Females. Total,
1880
278
23
96
692
266
77
35
76
564
3987
1863
358
18
25
601
223
89
38
94
669
54
4032
3743
636
41
121
1293
489
166
73
170
1233
54
8019
The crops usually raised are wheat, oats, barley, and
potatoes. Green crops are very general; rye-grass is much
encouraged for early feeding. Great attention is paid to
the rearing of horses, in consequence of which the county
can boast of a fine breed. The uplands and moors are
chiefly employed in feeding young cattle and sheep. The
wool of these latter is highly esteemed at Ballinasloe. In
the northern baronies there are many dairies. Lime, and
limestone gravel, either by itself or formed into a compost
with the gatherings of the farm refuse, constitute the gene¬
ral manure. The gravel burned in heaps, with the parings
of the moors, produces very heavy crops. The produce of
wheat on good lands averages twelve barrels of 20 stones per
Irish acre, and on some choice lands has amounted to seven¬
teen barrels. The crops grown, and the amount of land
in cultivation since 1847, according to the agricultural re¬
turns collected by the Irish government, was as follows:—
91
144,225 King’s
146,857 County.
112,030
The density of the population, which in 1841 was 190
persons to the square mile, had diminished in 1851 to 145
persons, being a decrease at the rate of 45 inhabitants on
each square mile.
The proportion of Protestants to Catholics is about one
to four ; the number of Dissenters is inconsiderable.
The county was represented in the Irish parliament by
six members—two for the county at large, and two for
each of the boroughs of Philipstown and Banagher. The
boroughs were deprived of the right of returning members
at the Union; and as no change has since been made, the
county is now represented by only two members.
The number of children receiving education in public
schools was, in—
Of the numbers stated in the latter return, 2064 were of
the Established Church, 7959 Roman Catholics, 22 Dis¬
senters, and 94 whose religious persuasion was not ascer¬
tained. The total number of schools was 254, thirty of
which, containing 1854 pupils, were supported by grants
of public money; 24, containing 1404 pupils, by volun¬
tary subscriptions ; and the remaining 200, containing 6881
pupils, were maintained by the fees of those instructed.
In 1851 the number of schools and of pupils attending them
was ascertained to be as follows ;—
92
KING’S COUNTY.
King’s
County.
Year.
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
1855
Corn, Beans, and Pease.
Wheat.
Acres.
24,881
23,251
23,523
20,410
14,192
13.100
13,942
17,767
18,502
Oats.
Acres.
41,020
35,646
36,209
38,787
39,868
41,791
37,383
33,174
32,489
Barley,
Bere, Rye,
Beans, and
Pease.
Acres.
9,120
9,164
11,519
11,471
13,042
10,674
8,345
6,335
5,636
Total.
Acres.
75,021
68,061
71,251
70,668
67,102
65,565
59,670
57,276
56,627
Other Crops.
Potatoes.
Acres.
6,560
20,001
14,356
17,907
15,293
16,621
17,897
21,038
21,725
Turnips.
Acres.
11,134
8,737
11,874
9,418
11,783
10,729
10,681
8,705
9,343
Green
Crops.
Acres.
2242
1178
2552
3236
5311
5056
3803
2666
2583
Total.
Acres.
19,936
29,916
28,782
30,561
32,387
32,406
32,381
32,409
33,651
Flax.
Acres.
123
101
57
79
264
320
197
214
254
Meadow
and
Clover.
Acres.
34,192
39,487
36,401
40,348
38,785
40,774
39.890
38,857
39,896
Total
extent of
land
under
Crops.
Acres.
129,272
137,565
136,491
141,656
138,538
139,065
132,138
128,756
130,428
King’s
County.
The number of Holdings, and the amount of the different descriptions of Live Stock in the County in the following
years were :—
Year.
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
No. of
Hold¬
ings.
14,840
14,370
12,838
11,923
11,331
10,649
10,460
10,674
Horses.
2 Years
old and
upwards.
1 Year
old and
under 2.
No. No.
13,405
11.766
10699
10,991
10,399
10,181
10.287
9,953
1009
1038
856
851
1101
1355
1611
Under
1 year
old.
No.
1416
1027
1096
943
1216
1418
1615
2005
Mules,
No.
898
839
817
860
838
839
842
Asses.
No.
4604
4408
4067
4212
4695
4782
4872
4765
Cattle.
2 Years
old and
upwards.
1 Year
old and
under 2.
No. No.
38,588
29,274
27,96')
29,804
30,039
29,628
31,195
36,252
10,711
11,644
10,882
11,038
12,326
13,543
11,757
Under
1 year.
No.
10,209
7,074
7,400
7,292
7,476
8,765
9,868
9,185
Sheep.
1 Year
old and
upwards.
No.
58,263
56,886
49,276
47,605
55,973
70,195
77,598
90,356
Under
1 year.
No.
24,351
17,599
16,160
20,947
22,257
27,660
39,360
48,388
Pigs.
1 Year
old and
upwards.
No.
7413
5028
5905
4688
5997
8095
5827
5483
Under
1 year.
No.
8,065
7,432
8,237
10,762
13,480
13,089
14,263
18,201
Goats.
No.
3210
3620
3461
4032
4667
6335
7006
7434
Poultry.
No.
160,696
159,039
141.554
158.554
162,296
196,012
192,089
198,548
There is every reason to suppose that the greater portion
of this county was once an uninterrupted forest. Wherever
the timber is protected it grows up to great size and beau¬
ty. The parts bordering upon Tipperary are richly wooded.
Alder is indigenous- The ash grown here is preferred to
any other by the Dublin workmen. The bogs furnish an
inexhaustible supply of fuel, not only from their own pecu¬
liar vegetation, but from the trunks and roots of trees
raised from them, which produce a quick and lively fire.
Notwithstanding the great prevalence of bog, the general
surface of the land is of sufficient elevation to afford great
facilities for conducting the superfluous moisture to the
rivers which intersect the country in all directions. The
fences are generally of white thorn, which thrives remark¬
ably well here.
The condition of the peasantry, though more comfort¬
able than in some other parts of Ireland, is, notwithstanding,
low in comparison with that of the English of the same
class. The houses are small and poor, mostly covered with
thatch, and seldom weatherproof. Earthen walls and straw
roofs are preferred by most, not only from habit, but as be¬
ing warmer than stone and slate. Fuel is everywhere plen¬
tiful, the bogs furnishing an inexhaustible supply of excel¬
lent quality. The food, in general, is potatoes and oatmeal.
The peasantry are industrious when excited by what they
deem adequate remuneration.
The only manufactures carried on are those of wool and
linen; but the quantities wrought are merely sufficient for
the home consumption. The Grand Canal, which crosses
the county from E. to W., affords a cheap and expeditious
mode of conveying its superabundant produce to other parts.
Breweries and distilleries absorb much of the grain raised
in the county.
Remains of antiquity of very remote date are frequent.
In the Slieve Bloom Mountains there is a large pyramid
of white stones, called the Temple of the Sun, or the
White Obelisk. Of Danish raths, which are numerous, the
most remarkable is that in Finglas parish. A chain of
moats, chiefly situated at the passes of the bogs, may be
traced throughout the county. At Clonmacnois are two
round towers and several stone crosses. This sequestered
spot was the site of several places of religious observance,
whence its name of the Seven Churches. The monastery
is said to have been founded by the O’Melagheins, princes of
Meath ; and the castle, the detached ruins of which form a
most picturesque object, to have been erected in 1214.
Clonmacnois was also a bishop’s see, which merged in that
of Meath in 1568. There were three religious houses at
Killeigh. Monasteroris Monastery, founded by one of the
Bermingham family, in the district called Thotmoy, was a
place of great repute. Durrow was also the site of an ex¬
tensive abbey. The remains of military antiquities are still
more numerous. Rathmore Castle, the area of which com¬
prehended tw'o acres, is looked upon as the oldest in the
county. At Banagher are the remains of a fortress which
commanded an important pass over the Shannon. Birr or
Parsonstown Castle, formerly the residence of the O’Car-
rols, having become tbe property of the Parsons family, is
now the residence of Lord Rosse, and is well known as con¬
taining the most powerful reflecting telescope in existence.
Cangor Castle, in Clonlisk barony, is noted for its defence
against the Irish, by whom it was ultimately taken and
burned, and its garrison put to the sword.
The population is mostly rural. The towns are few and
small. Philipstown, named in honour of Philip the second
of Spain, was formerly the capital of the county, but in con¬
sequence of its decayed state, the assizes were some years
ago transferred to the more important and central town of
Tullamore. The place was formerly the site of Dingan
Castle, the residence of the O’Conors, who were driven from
KIN
Kinghorn it in 1546 by Sir William Bellingham, and forced to fly to
II Connaught. The town was taken and burned by King
Kingston.^ james’s forces in 1690.
Parsonstown, formerly called Birr, has within a short
period risen from an obscure village to the rank of a popu¬
lous, well-built, and thriving town, second only to Tulla-
more in importance, and exceeding it in the number of in¬
habitants. The church is an elegant modern building of
the Gothic style. In the town is a low Doric pillar, sur¬
mounted by a statue of the Duke of Cumberland, who
commanded the English army during the Scotch rebellion
in 1745. About a mile from the town are the barracks,
capable of accommodating three regiments of infantry.
Tullamore, on the Grand Canal, now the principal and as¬
size town, owes its present improved condition to its situa¬
tion on the Grand Canal, on which it is the principal town.
From its central situation it has become a place of consi¬
derable business. It is also in some degree indebted for
its regular, modern, and respectable appearance, to a con¬
flagration which destroyed most of the mean and ruinous
huts of which it chiefly consisted before. Its principal
buildings are, the parish church, an elegant modern struc¬
ture, the county gaol and court-house. The number of
inhabitants in 1851 was 4928. No other town in the county,
except Parsonstown and Tullamore, contains so many as
2000 inhabitants. (h. s—R.)
KINGHORN, a small burgh of Scotland, in the county
of Fife, is situate on the Frith of Forth, on the line of the
Edinburgh, Perth, and Dundee Railway, and unites with
Kirkcaldy, Dysart, and Burntisland, in returning a mem¬
ber to parliament. It. is built on the slope of a hill, close
by the seashore, and is composed of old and weather-
stained houses, several of which are in ruins. The streets
are badly kept and irregular, and some of them steep
and narrow. Nearly all the population are employed in
two flax-spinning mills, turned partly by steam, and partly
by water supplied by Kinghorn Loch, a beautiful lake
about half a mile N. from the town, and covering about 20
imperial acres. The trade of the port is inconsiderable,
and its harbour at Pettycur, which was long the principal
ferry on the N. side of the Forth, is now the property of a
railway company, and is visited only by a few small ves¬
sels. The buildings worthy of note are an elegant school-
house, surrounded by a considerable area of play-ground,
and a handsome jail of Gothic structure, built upon the
site of the ancient chapel of St Leonard’s. There are
also a half-dilapidated parish church, and two dissenting
churches. Kinghorn received charters from Alexander
III., David II., James V., and James VI.; and till within
a few years ago was ruled by a provost, two bailies,
and several councillors: now it is governed by three
managers. In early Scottish history it was a place of im¬
portance. Here Macbeth is said to have routed the
Northmen, and near it stood Glammis Tower, a royal
hunting-seat, which Robert II. gave to his son-in-law,
Lyon, the ancestor of the Earls of Strathmore and King¬
horn. About a mile westward from the town is the preci¬
pice where Alexander III. was killed in 1285. Pop. of
burgh and parish (1851), 3030. Kinghorn unites with
Kirkcaldy, Burntisland, and Dysart, in sending one member
to the Imperial Parliament.
KINGSBRIDGE, a market-town of England, county
of Devon, at the head of an estuary of the English Chan¬
nel, 32 miles S.S.W. of Exeter. The harbour is accessi¬
ble to small vessels, by means of which some trade in corn,
malt, leather, &c., are carried on. Kingsbridge has a free
grammar school with three exhibitions at the universities.
Pop. (1851) 1679, chiefly maltsters and tanners. Myrtles,
orange trees, &c., grow here in the open air.
KINGSTON, the commercial capital of Jamaica, is si¬
tuate on the S. coast of the island, N. Lat. 17. 57., W.
KIN 93
Long. 76. 49., 16 miles N.E. by rail from Spanish Town. Kingston
It is built on a gentle slope ascending towards the Ligu- _ II
anea Plain. Beyond this is the lofty ridge of the Blue Kings*on‘
Mountains ; the country around is highly cultivated, and Thames
the whole aspect of the place, approached from its mag- y ^
nificent harbour, is not a little imposing as well as pictu¬
resque. A nearer view reveals a state of internal disorgani¬
zation and filth, pronounced by the unanimous testimony
of high authorities to be utterly disgraceful to a city so
wealthy and important. The streets are regular, the houses
built generally of brick, with verandahs, piazzas, &c., to
ward off the heat; but there is neither pavement nor sewer,
and in the May and October rains torrents sweep the streets,
sometimes undermining the houses ; the principal thorough¬
fares are ploughed like river courses, and heaped with stones,
rubbish, and filth; while starving dogs, swine, and carrion
crows wander about at will, enjoying an atmosphere tainted
with congenial odours. As a result of this extraordinary
neglect on the part of the city corporation, one-eighth of
the population was, in 1850, carried off in about six weeks
by cholera. The harbour is completely landlocked, the
long narrow reef, on the western extremity of which Port
Royal stands, forming a natural breakwater within which
there is anchorage for the largest ships. The entrance is
narrow and intricate, and is protracted by the Apostle’s
Battery on the left, and Fort Charles on the right. Fur¬
ther in is Fort Augusta, a place of considerable strength.
Kingston was founded immediately after the destruction of
Port Royal, the original capital of the island, by the great
earthquake in 1692. Port Royal is still, however, an inha¬
bited place, being the naval station for the island. It contains
an arsenal, and is well fortified. The principal exports
from Kingston are sugar, rum, coffee, pimento, and ginger,
the several quantities of which, for the nine months ending
July 5,1855, were 17,600 hhds, 10,558 puncheons, 4,528,110
lb, 4,673,323 lb. and 183,168 lb. The actual value of
taxable property in the parish of Kingston in 1851 was es¬
timated at L.700,000 ; the taxes, public and parochial,
amounted to L.19,413. Pop. in 1844 (last census) 32,943,
of whom 4253 were whites, the rest black or coloured. See
Jamaica.
Kingston, a flourishing town of Canada West, on the
N.E. shore of Lake Ontario, county of Frontenac, 177
miles E.N.E. of Toronto. It is substantially built, chiefly
of stone, and contains, among other public institutions, a
handsome market-house (containing town-hall, &c.), a Pres¬
byterian college, a mechanics’ institute, an hospital, &c.
Several weekly papers are published. The harbour, which
is sheltered by several islands, and protected by two bat¬
teries, affords good anchorage up to 3 fathoms. The trade
of the port is considerable, and increasing. The value of
imports in 1854 was L.276,397, of exports L.96,570, rank¬
ing it fifth among Canadian ports, their order being Mon¬
treal, Quebec, Toronto, Hamilton, Kingston. It is in the
line of the Grand Trunk Railway, and at the head of the
Rideau Canal and Cataraqui River, here crossed by a bridge
1800 feet long. On the opposite bank is Fort Henry.
As a military position Kingston commands the source of
the central St Lawrence ; and the neighbouring inlet of
Navy Bay is the principal naval station on the lake. Pop.
(1842) 11,585.
Kingston-upon-Thames, an ancient municipal borough
and market-town of England, county of Surrey, 10 miles
W. of London. It extends about a mile and a half along
the river, which is crossed by a fine stone bridge of five
arches, is somewhat irregularly built, an''1 contains, among
other buildings, a handsome town-hall, an ancient cruciform
church much altered, and a Queen Elizabeth grammar
school. Pop. 6279, chiefly employed in malting. King¬
ston was a place of some consequence in the days of the
Anglo-Saxons ; it returned representatives to parliament in
ii
94 KIN
Kingstown the reigns of Edward II. and III.; and a stone on which
II seven of the Anglo-Saxon kings are said to have been
shire8" crowned is still carefully preserved. Numerous inter-
v 8 ire‘ esting Roman antiquities have been dug up in the neigh-
~ bourhood.
KINGSTOWN, a seaport-town of Ireland, county of
Dublin, on the S. side of Dublin Ray, 6 miles E.S.E. from
Dublin, by railway. Its name was changed from Dunleary
to Kingstown in commemoration of the visit of George IV.
in 1821. Queen Victoria landed and embarked here in
August 1849. Dunleary was a small fishing village pre¬
vious to 1816, when its harbour-works were commenced,
an account of which will be found under Dublin County.
It is now a mail-packet station, and a place of extensive
trade, the returns of which, however, are included in those
for Dublin. It has daily steam communication with Holy-
head, Liverpool, Cork, &c. At the entrance to the har¬
bour there is a lighthouse on each pier—that on the E.
pier has a light revolving every half minute, and seen
9 miles off. An atmospheric railway, 2 miles in
length, connects Kingstown with Dalkey. Pop. (1851)
10,453.
KINNAIRD’S HEAD, a promontory on the E. coast
of Scotland, Aberdeenshire, about a mile N. of Fraser¬
burgh. An old castle here is now used as a lighthouse,
having a fixed light, 120 feet high, seen 16 miles off.
KINROSS, a town of Scotland, capital of Kinross-shire,
is situate in an open vale on the W. side of Lochleven,
28 miles N.W. from Edinburgh. The lower and older part
of the town has an irregular and antique appearance, but the
more recent portion is much improved. Among the public
buildings are the parish church, an elegant Gothic structure,
built in 1832, and the county-hall; Free church, and two
United Presbyterian churches, a savings bank, two libra¬
ries, and several charitable and benevolent institutions. On
the margin of the loch, in the immediate vicinity of the town,
is Kinross House, built for the residence of the Duke of York,
afterwards James VII., in the event of his being prevented
by the Exclusion Bill from succeeding to his brother. The
town is lighted with gas. The manufactures are noticed
under Kinross-shire. Pop. (1851) 2590.
Kinross-shire, a county in Scotland, bounded on the
N.E., E., and S., by the county of Fife, and on the N. and
W. by Perthshire, extends from E. to W. about 13 miles,
and about 12 from N. to S. It comprehends an area of 77
square miles, or 49,531 English acres, and is, therefore, one
of the smallest counties of Scotland.
Kinross-shire is the highest level ground in the peninsula
formed by the Forth and the Tay, which was formerly called
Ross, or the Promontory, and included the counties of Fife,
Kinross, and Clackmannan. From this county the waters
flow in every direction. The greater part of the soil is
dry, though there are still considerable tracts insufficiently
drained, and small portions here and there not drained at
all. The subsoil consists chiefly of gravel, though there is
also a considerable proportion of till. In regard to drainage
and general agricultural improvement, no district has made
greater advances within the last twenty years than Kinross-
shire. Large tracts of moss and muir have been brought
under cultivation; and the rental, which, in 1814, was only
L.14,541, 10s., now amounts to L.46,354, 7s. 2d. sterling.
There are several lakes in the county, the chief of which is
Lochleven, in the immediate vicinity of Kinross. This lake
was originally about 15 miles in circumference, and covered
an area of 4312 acres ; but by an extensive drainage, effected
by lowering the bed of the River Leven, and completed in
the year 1832, land to the extent of 1202 acres was recov¬
ered from the lake, and is now under cultivation. The lake
abounds in trout, pike, perch, and eels. There is a long-
established fishery (present rental, 200 guineas), the trout
being a distinct species, of very delicate flavour, and highly
KIN
prized in the London and other English markets, where Kinross-
they bring from Is. to 2s. 6d. per lb., according to the sea- shire,
son of the year. There are several islands in the lake, all Vs'*v“^
of which have been enlarged by the drainage. On one of
these, about 4 acres in extent, stands the castle of Loch¬
leven, celebrated as the prison of Mary Queen of Scots;
and another, called St Serf’s Island, extending to about 60
acres, contains the ruins of an ancient monastery, the seat
of a very early Culdee settlement, which occupied much
the same position in the east of Scotland as Icolmkill occu¬
pied in the west. Several streams flow into the lake, of
which the principal are the Gairney, the South Quiech and
the North Quiech; and the River Leven, the only stream of
any note in the district, issues from its eastern extremity,
and after passing through a considerable part of the county
of Fife, enters the Frith of Forth at the town of Leven.
The prevailing rocks are whinstone, sandstone, and lime¬
stone. Coal exists, and is wrought extensively, on the estate
of Blair-Adam, on the southern boundary of the county;
and it is believed that it exists also to the E. of Lochleven,
on the estate of Sir G. Graham Montgomery, Bart., who is
about to adopt the usual means with the view of discover¬
ing it.
Kinross-shire is divided into a number of small estates,
there being very few large proprietors in it. Only about ten
landowners hold of the crown ; the others hold of these free¬
holders, the lands having been feued out to them for the most
part about the end of the seventeenth and the beginning of
the eighteenth centuries; hence, over a considerable part of
the county, each individual farm is a separate property, culti¬
vated, in the majority of cases, by its owner. In 1811 the num¬
ber of freeholders was only 15. The valued rent is L20,250,
4s. 3d. Scots, and the real rent, as already stated, L.46,354,
7s. 2d. sterling. When the land is let to tenants, the leases
vary from 14 to 19 years, except in the neighbourhood of
the towns and villages, where they vary from 1 to 5 years;
and the rents are all paid in money, although, in a consider¬
able number of instances, a part of the rent varies with the
variations of the fiars. The size of the farms is from 100 to
500 acres. A fair proportion of them is in grass, for which
both the soil and climate are favourable; and inclosures,
either of stone-walls, or hedges, or wire-fences, are universal.
The principal crops are oats, barley, and wheat: wheat, both
spring and autumn, having of late years been extensively
sown, and found highly remunerative. Along the banks of
the Gairney, there are extensive meadows, some of which are
of Timothy grass, and let at from L.6 to L.8 an acre. Cleish
Hills, Benarty, the Bishop Hill, and that part of the Ochils
which belongs to the county, are pastured chiefly by sheep.
Cultivated grass-lands are pastured partly by cattle and partly
by sheep, a certain number of the latter being now kept by
every farmer, and, in most cases, a part of the turnip crop
being consumed by them on the field. The soil is pecu¬
liarly adapted to this mode of farming. The district is now
well wooded, 1000 acres at least having been planted within
the last 25 or 30 years; but the most extensive plantations
are on the estate of Blair-Adam, which is not merely finely
wooded, but has at least one-third added to its rental yearly
from the sale of wood: a revenue which will be perma¬
nent, as young trees are regularly planted on the removal
of the old.
Besides Kinross, the county town, and Milnathort, this
county contains a number of villages. At both these towns
several annual fairs are held, and a weekly grain market is
held on Wednesday in each. For nearly 20 years, the chief
manufactures have been tartan shawls and plaids, and similar
woollen fabrics — a branch of trade which has proved un¬
certain and fluctuating; and in consequence, linen and
cotton fabrics are now to some extent taking its place.
A large spinning-mill in Kinross employs a considerable
number of hands, and so also do the dyeing companies con-
KIN
K I O
95
Kinross- nected with the various factories in Kinross and Milnathort.
shire‘ t In all the parishes in the county, except Cleish, there is a
v legal assessment for the poor. In Cleish, the heritors still
assess themselves voluntarily to supplement what sum may
be required, in addition to the church-door collections, for
support of the poor.
Kinross-shire sends a member to Parliament along with
the county of Clackmannan. Both counties are under the
jurisdiction of one sheriff; and there is a resident sheriff-
substitute for each, the one at Kinross, and the other at
Alloa. Prior to the year 1807, Clackmannan was under
the jurisdiction of the sheriff of Stirlingshire, and Kinross
under that of the sheriff of Fife; but in the year just re¬
ferred to, this arrangement was altered by Act of Parliament,
and the counties of Kinross and Clackmannan were erected
into a separate sheriffdom, the first sheriff of which was the
late Lord Moncrieff.
By the Sheriff Court Act (1856), the counties of Linlith¬
gow, Clackmannan, and Kinross, are to be united into one
sheriffdom, as soon as a vacancy shall take place either in the
sheriffship of Linlithgow or of Clackmannan and Kinross.
The following table gives the population, &c., since
1811:—
Years.
Inhabited
Houses.
Males.
Females.
Total.
1811
1821
1831
1841
1851
1364
1419
1524
1812
1662
3466
3660
4519
4195
4305
3779
4102
4553
4568
4619
7245
7762
9072
8763
8924
The census for 1851 shows that 716 males, and 285
females, wTere farmers, agricultural labourers, or farm-ser¬
vants; 511 males, and 244 females, were employed in the
woollen cloth manufacture ; 148 males, and 108 females, in
the manufacture oflinen ; and 161 males, and 130 females,
in that of cotton. In 1851, there were 4 Established churches,
with 2992 sittings; 4 United Presbyterian churches, with
1762 sittings; and 6 Free churches, with 1371 sittings.
There were 23 day-schools—of whom 14, with 1033 scholars,
were public, and 9, with 389 scholars, private schools; Sab¬
bath-schools, 14, with 956 scholars.
Kinross-shire comprehends the parishes of Kinross, Or¬
well, Cleish, Portmoak, Tullibole (now united to Fossoway),
with part of Arngask, and part of Forgandenny. All these
parishes (except Forgandenny), together with the parishes
of Ballingry, Fossoway, and Muckart, are now in the pres¬
bytery of Kinross, and connected with the synod of Fife.
Originally the county of Kinross consisted of the two
parishes of Kinross and Orwell, with the exception of cer¬
tain lands which continued in connection with the shires
of Fife and Perth till the year 1685. Sir Robert Sibbald
states, that the disjunction of these two parishes from Fife,
and their formation into a separate county, took place in
the year 1426. But this is evidently a mistake; for the
Hegistrum Magni sigilli Regum Scotorum shows, beyond
all question, that Kinross must have existed as a separate
county long prior to 1426. We find there charters of
David II. and Robert II. (from 1366 to 1407) giving
grants of lands, described as lying “ infra vice comitatum
de Kynrosand the whole of the lands in question lie
within the parishes of Kinross and Orwell. In 1685, there
is an Act of parliament “ in favour of Sir William Bruce
of Kinross, Baronet, for enlarging the shire of Kinrossa
part of the preamble of which is this,—“ Considering the
smallness and extent of the sheriffdom of Kinross, and
jurisdiction thereof, to support and maintain the state and
rank of a distinct shire, as it is,” &c., &c. The act proceeds
to add to the county of Kinross the parishes of Portmoak,
Cleish, and Tullibole, in the shires of Fife and Perth, and Kinsale
those parts of the parishes of Kinross and Orwell which had ||
previously lain in those shires. At a later date, a part of Kl61eru
the parish of Arngask, and a part of the parish of Forgan-
denny, were added to the county of Kinross.
The table of the Agricultural Statistics of Scotland for
1856 gives the number of occupants in this county at 304,
and the total acreage under a rotation of crops, 33,783, as
follows (omitting fractions):—Wheat, 1770; barley, 2474;
oats, 7659; rye, 4; bere, 13 ; beans, 116; peas, 35 ; vetches
or tares, 247; turnips, 4346; potatoes, 1053; mangold, 2;
carrots, 7; cabbage, 11; flax, 15; turnip seed, 44; bare or
summer fallow, 168; grass and hay under rotation, 15,813.
The number of horses in 1856 were 1569; cattle, 8288;
sheep, 25,810; swine, 869. (w. P—s.)
KINSALE, a parliamentary and municipal borough and
seaport-town of Ireland, county of Cork, on the N.E. side
ot the estuary of the Bandon, about 3 miles from the sea, and
14 miles S. from Cork. The town is built principally on the
side of Compass Hill, and hence has a fine appearance when
viewed from the harbour; but on entering it, the streets
are found to be narrow and inconvenient, some of them
being so steep as not to admit carriages. The houses are
for the most part antiquated in appearance, some of them
having bay-windows and balconies after the Spanish fashion.
The harbour is excellent, having a depth of 14 feet of water
at the mouth at low ebb, and from 6 to 8 fathoms at a cable’s
length from the shore, with accommodation for 300 sail of
vessels. Its entrance is protected by Charles Fort, now
a barrack. Notwithstanding these advantages, the trade
of the port is very trifling, owing to its proximity to Cork.
rI he town is chiefly dependent on the fisheries, the pro¬
ceeds of which are said to average L.500 a week. The
fishing-boats of the port, called hookers, are generally of
from 15 to 20 tons. Lobsters and oysters are taken along
the shore. Kinsale is much resorted to in the summer sea¬
son for sea-bathing. Pop. (1851) 5506. (Thom’s Irish
Almanac).
KINTORE, an ancient royal and parliamentary burgh
of Scotland, Aberdeenshire, 12 miles N.W. of Aberdeen.
It contributes to Elgin in returning an M.P., and gives the
title of Earl to the younger branch of the Keith family.
Pop. 476.
KIN TYRE, or Cantyre, the “head of the
land”), a long peninsula in the S. of Argyleshire, constitu¬
ting one of the five principal natural divisions of that county.
It is about 40 miles in length, with an average breadth of
from 6 to 7, and is connected with the district of Knapdale
by the narrow isthmus of Tarbert. Kilbrennan Sound sepa¬
rates it on the E. from Arran. Its south-western extremity,
the Mull (Maol, a bluff) of Kintyre, is about 10 miles from
the Irish coast. Here, on the rocks called the Merchants,
is a lighthouse 297 feet above the sea level, with a fixed
light visible at 22 miles. The surface of this district is for
the most part rugged and hilly, but there is a fair propor¬
tion of good arable land. The principal harbours on the
coast are those of Campbelton, and Tarbert East and
West. Of antiquities in the district, Skipness Castle is the
most notable.
KIOGE, a small town of Denmark, on a bay of the same
name, in the island of Zealand, 24 miles S.W. of Copen¬
hagen. In the roadstead of Kioge, in 1676, a complete
victory was gained over the Swedes by the combined fleets
of Denmark and Holland.
KIOLEN, the northern portion of the great Scandinavian
mountain system, commencing to the N. of Trondhjem,
and extending to the North Cape. It is about twice as
long as the southern range, the Norrska Fiellen, but much
narrower and lower, and diminishes in elevation towards
the N. The culminating point is Sulitelma, near Lat. 67,
which is above 6000 feet high. See Norway.
96
Kiong-
Tchou
II
Kippis,
Andrew.
X I o
KIONG-TCHOU, the capital of the island of Hainan,
in China, is a well-built and walled city, with a population
estimated at from 100,000 to 200,000. It has an excellent
harbour and a large trade.
KIPPIS, Andrew, D.D., a learned and laborious com¬
piler of the’18th century, was born at Nottingham in 1725.
Sprung from a family which had given many ministers to
the Established Church, but had left it on the passing of
the Uniformity Act, he cast in his lot with the Dissenters.
On leaving the school of Sleaford, in Lincolnshire, he en¬
tered the theological academy at Northampton, then pre¬
sided over by the learned and pious Dr Doddridge. The
course extended over five years, and at the end of that
time he obtained a charge at Boston, in Lincolnshire, where
he remained from 1746 to 1750. Translated to Dorking,
in Surrey, he ministered there for three years, and in 1753
became pastor of the Presbyterian church of Long Ditch,
in Westminster. Among his predecessors in that charge
had been the famous Calamy and the learned Hughes.
Besides his ordinary professional duties, he took an active
part in the temporal affairs of the religious body to which
he belonged, managing the various trusts and funds with
much adroitness and success. In 1763, he was appointed
classical tutor in Coward’s Academy, a training college for
English dissenters, and held that office for upwards of twenty
yea*rs. When another institution of the same kind was
opened at Hackney, in 1786, he was made, very much against
his will, one of the tutors. In 1778 he became a Fellow of
the Antiquarian, and in the following year a Fellow of the
Royal Society. He died in 1795, in the seventy-first year
of his age. He enjoyed all his life, and very deservedly,
a high character for piety, active and unobtrusive benevo¬
lence, and all the personal virtues which endear a man to
his friends and to society.
Though actively engaged in professional life, Kippis was
one of the most voluminous writers of his day. He contri¬
buted largely to the GentlemavL s Magazine, and the Monthly
Review, at that time the leading periodicals of Great Britain,
and had “a main finger” in establishing the New Annual
Register, the object of which was to counterbalance the po¬
litical influence of the original work of that name. But he
established a more enduring claim on the regard of posterity
by his edition of the Biographia Britannica. He unfortu¬
nately did not live to complete the work he had begun,
which, besides, was on a scale far beyond the strength of
any one editor, however able. At the time of his death
he had only brought it down as far as “ Faust. Many new
lives were incorporated, written for the most part by the
editor himself, and extensive additions and corrections made
on the original text. The immense labour and leseaich
of the work, and the honest desire to reach the truth, inde¬
pendent of all party or personal leanings, have made it one
of the best books of its kind in existence. The plan, how¬
ever, is defective. Instead of fusing his corrections into
the original, he reprinted the text as it stood, and threw
his own corrections into the form of foot-notes, which often
gives the work the air of a long controversy, and swelled it
beyond all reasonable bounds. Ihe writing, though honest
and careful, and evidently the best that the writer had to give,
is often languid and tamely monotonous, and unrelieved
either by the graces of fancy and sentiment, or by any
novelty or depth of moral reflection. 1 he articles are also
conceived in a spirit of universal benevolence, which de¬
lights to dwell on the virtues of humanity, but shrinks from
boldly rebuking and denouncing its follies, its vices, and its
crimes. As a mere storehouse of facts, however, the work
possesses a genuine value, and has not yet been superseded.
Some of Kippis’s longer contributions, such as his “ Life ot
Captain Cook,” were reprinted separately. Lie also pub¬
lished a volume of sermons, and prepared a collected edi¬
tion of the works of Dr Nathaniel Lardner, to which he
KIR
prefixed a life of that distinguished theological scholar. He ^ir^y>
rendered a similar service to the good name of his old friend ^ iUianu
and teacher, Doddridge.
KIRBY, William, an eminent English naturalist, and
one of the earliest, and still the most popular of British en¬
tomologists, was born in 1759, at Witnesham, in Suffolk.
Sent first to the school of his native village, and afterwards
to the grammar school of Ipswich, he removed in due
course to Caius College, Cambridge, where he took his
bachelor’s degree in 1781. In the following year he en¬
tered the church, and was appointed to the curacy of Bar¬
ham, which office he held for fourteen years. Such time as
he could steal from his pastoral duties he devoted at this
period of his life to botany, of which he was an ardent
student. The rector of the parish adjoining his was
William Jones, well known as the author of a work on
the Trinity. Under the influence of this able contro¬
versialist, Kirby’s views of religion and politics became
fixed and confirmed. Pious, and sincerely evangelical in
his preaching, he was a strong supporter of government,
and was even induced to use his pen in counterworking the
spirit of free-thinking then reacting from France upon Eng¬
land. But he had little taste for controversy, and, retiring
from that field, he devoted himself wholly to his favourite
study of natural history. In a letter to a friend he describes
how his attention was first drawn to the science of entomo¬
logy. “ Observing, accidentally, one morning a very beau¬
tiful golden bug (the ‘ lady-bird,’ or 4 cow-lady, Coccinella,
22 punctata), creeping on the sill of my window, I took it
up to examine it, and finding that its wings were of a more
yellow hue than was common to my observations of these
animals before, I was anxious carefully to examine any
other of its peculiarities, and finding that it had twenty-two
beautiful clear black spots upon its back, my captured ani¬
mal was imprisoned in a bottle of gin for the purpose, as I
supposed, of killing him. On the following morning, anxious
to pursue my observation, I took it again from the gin and
laid it on the window-sill to dry, thinking it dead, but the
warmth of the sun very soon revived it; and hence com¬
menced my further pursuit of this branch of natural history.
Encouraged by some of the local naturalists to peisevere,
he made frequent entomological excursions, and greatly en¬
larged his knowledge of the science. When the Linmean
Society was founded in 1788 by Sir J. E. Smith, Kirby im¬
mediately became a member, and contributed many valu¬
able papers to its Transactions. The first separate work
by which he made his name widely known was his Mono-
graphia Apum Anglice, published at Ipswich, in 2 vols., in
1802. This, as the first scientific treatise on the bees of
England, brought him into notice with the leading entomo¬
logists, not only of his own country, but also of the Conti¬
nent ; and from this time he corresponded frequently with
Latreille, Fabricius, Illiger, Walckenaer, and other eminent
naturalists in France and Germany. In 1805 Kirby had
formed the acquaintance of Mr Spence, a scientific gentle¬
man of Hull, whose studies had lain very much in the same
direction as his own. Three years later the two fiiends
struck out between them the idea of popularizing the science
which both had pursued with so much pleasure and benefit
to themselves. The practical result of this idea was the
work known as Kirby and Spence's Introduction to Bnto-
mology, one of the most popular books of science that has
ever appeared in any tongue. The first volume was pub¬
lished in 1815 ; a second edition of it was called for in the
following year, and a third in 1817, when, also, was pub¬
lished volume ii., of which a second edition was required in
1818, and a third in 1822. The bad health of Mr Spence
interrupted the progress of the work for some years, and
the concluding volumes (iii. and iv.), did not see the light
till 1826. Seven editions (the last of them in 1856), prove
that its popularity continues undiminished. The form and
KIR
Kircheim style of the work were eminently calculated to ensu-e suc-
II ~ cess. A series of familiar letters, couched in easy and al-
Kircher. most g0SSjpin£r terms, is made the vehicle of strictly scien-
tific information on the structure, habits, uses and instincts
of the insect world. Of the fifty-one letteis comprised in
the series, thirteen were written solely by Kirby, and eight
by Spence, while the remaining thirty were produced con¬
jointly. The appendix was supplied by Kirby, and the pre¬
face by his collaborateur.
In 1830, Kirby, though then in his seventieth year, was
appointed to write one of the Bridgeivater Treatises. He
chose as Ins subject the Habits and Instincts of Animals,
with reference to Natural Theology. The wide range of
his theme drew him beyond his own proper province, and
led him into tracks with which he was less familiar. But
though his Treatise fell short of his earlier works in point
of scientific value, it was admitted to have admirably fulfilled
the purposes of the Bridgewater trust. The most important
of his other works was his description of the insects intro¬
duced in Sir John Richardson’s Fauna Boreali-Ameri¬
cana. A volume of sermons which he published in 1829,
met with no great success.
Kirby never obtained any preferment in the church com¬
mensurate with his deserts. For fourteen years he re¬
mained curate of Barham, and in 1796, on the death of the
rector of the parish, he was appointed his successor. He
held the living till his death, on the 4th July 1850. Be¬
fore he died, he had the satisfaction of seeing a knowledge
of his favourite science widely disseminated throughout
England, and numerous societies formed for its advance¬
ment. He was himself a member of most of the scientific
corporations in England, on the Continent, and in the
United States. A very detailed biography of him, by his
friend the Rev. John Freeman, M.A., was published in
London in 1852. The most valuable chapter in that work
is contributed by Mr Spence, and from it most of the
details of this notice have been taken. (See art. Ento¬
mology.)
KIRCHEIM, a town of Wurtemburg, circle o^ the
Danube, pleasantly situated on the Lauter, 30 miles N.W.
of Ulm. It is well built, and has an ancient castle. There
are manufactures of cotton and linen stuffs, strawplait, &c.,
and some trade in cattle, wool, and wine. Pop. 5256.
KIRCHER, Athanasius, a celebrated historian, philo-
loger, mathematician, and physical philosopher, was born
May 2, 1602, at Geysen, a small town near Fulde in Ger¬
many. His parents were humble, but respectable, and
exerted themselves to give him a good education. Having
finished his studies, he joined the society of the Jesuits,
where he found new means of satisfying his passion for
learning, and applied himself with equal ardour to almost
every department of knowledge. Being appointed to teach
philosophy, and afterwards the oriental languages, in the
college of Wurtzburg, he acquitted himself of this double
duty in the most satisfactory manner. When the Thirty
Years’ War broke out he retired into France, and settled in
the Jesuits’ College at Avignon, where he passed two years,
entirely occupied with the study of antiquities. It was
during his residence in this city that he became acquainted
with the learned Peiresc, who advised him to attempt to
decypher the Egyptian hieroglyphics, a task to which he
afterwards applied himself with great zeal, though, unfor¬
tunately, with but indifferent success. Appointed profes¬
sor of mathematics at Vienna, he was preparing to return
to Germany, when he received an order to repair to Rome,
whither he accordingly proceeded without delay. In 1637,
the pope charged him to accompany Cardinal Frederick of
Saxony to Malta, where he was received by the Knights of
St John with much distinction. He next visited Sicily and
the kingdom of Naples, and then proceeded to take posses¬
sion of the chair of mathematics in the Roman College, a
YOL. XIII.
KIR 97
situation which he filled for eight years, and only relin- Kirkcaldy,
ouished to apply himself to more congenial pursuits. In
I :s researches and experiments he received valuable aid
from many princes and nobles of Germany, Italy, and Spain;
and through their liberality was enabled to collect a splendid
museum of antiquities, which he left to the Roman College,
and has been frequently illustrated. He died at Rome,
Nov. 28, 1680, the same day on which Bernini and Gri¬
maldi expired.
Kircher was a man of wide and varied, but ill-digested
erudition, and a most voluminous writer. He had a vast
memory, and indefatigable perseverance; but was totally
devoid both of judgment and critical skill. He was like¬
wise credulous in an absurd degree; and from an idea that
he could solve any question, however difficult, he stated the
wildest fictions, and arrived at the most ridiculous conclu¬
sions with undoubting faith and self-complacency.
The works of Kircher are very numerous. A complete
list of them is given in Sepi’s account of his museum, pub¬
lished at Amsterdam in 1678.
Tbe most important of them are,—Ars Magnetica sive Conclu-
siones Experimentales de ejjectibus Magnetis, Wurtzburg, 1631, in 4to ;
Magnes sive de Arte magnetica Opus tripartitum, Rome, 1641, in 4to;
Ars magna Lucis et Umbrce in x. libros digesta, Rome, 1645, 1646,
in folio ; Diatribe de prodigiosis crucibus quce non pridem post ulti-
mum incendium Vesuvii montis Neapoli comparuerunt, R mie, 1681,
in 8vo; Scrutinium physicomedicum contagiosa; luis quce pestis dici-
tur, Rome, 1658, in 4to; Prodromus Oopticus sive AEgyptiacus, in
quo lingua; Copies sive AEgyptiacce, quondam Pharaonicce, origo, cetas,
&c. exhibentur, Rome, 1636, in 4to; Lingua AEgyptiaca restituta,
sive Institutiones grammaticales et Lexicon Copticum, Rome, 1644, in
4to ; CEdipus AEgyptiacus, hoc est universalis Hieroglyphicce veterum
Doctrines, temporum injuria abolitce, instauratio, Rome, 1652, in
folio; Lalium, id est nova et parallela Latii turn veteris turn novi
Dcscripiio, Amster., 1671, in folio.
Tne most valuable of those works of Kircher’s are those
relating to the Coptic and Egyptian tongues, which, though
now quite superseded, comprised all that was known on
these points in his day; and his Latium, which may even
now be consulted with profit for its maps and plans, and its
minute descriptions of many objects of great interest, such
as Hadrian’s Villa.
KIRKCALDY, a royal and parliamentary borough and
seaport in Fifeshire, about 12 miles N. from Edinburgh,
lying along the margin of a bay on the N. shore of the
Frith of Forth. It consists chiefly of one street, nearly
2 miles long (whence the name Lang toun), with smaller
streets and lanes opening into or running parallel with it.
To the W. of the royalty, but within the parliamentary
boundaries of the town, are the villages of Linktown, in the
parish of Abbotshall, and the village of West Bridge, in the
parish of Kinghorn.
In 1334 Kirkcaldy was mortified by King David II. to the
Abbey of Dunfermline, the commendator and monastery
of which sold it in 1540. On 5th February 1644 it re¬
ceived a charter of erection and novodamus as a royal
burgh from King Charles II., and in this charter he con¬
veyed the burgh to the bailies, councillors, and community,
along with the harbour and about 487 acres of land.
The government of the burgh is vested in a provost, two
bailies, a dean of guild, and sixteen councillors. There are
also still seven incorporated trades. In 1811 an act of parlia¬
ment was obtained for its improvement, and since that time
great changes have taken place on the exterior of the town.
The revenue, under the charge of the magistrates and
council, for 1855-56, amounted to L.700, 10s. lOd.; the
ordinary expenditure was L.530, 19s. 5d.; the nett debt,
L.535, 19s. 8d.
The port, situated near the E. end of the town, consists
of an outer and an inner harbour, both of which have been
of late deepened and improved. The depth of the water at
the entrance in spring tides is 15 feet. The management
N
98 KIR
Kirghiz, of the harbour is vested in commissioners, who pay L.oOO
' a-year for municipal purposes, and engage to clear oil the
debt of the town, amounting to L.11,086, 13s. lOd. ihe
harbour revenue for 1855-56 amounted to I;.lo94, 5s. lld.,^
the expenditure to L.1351, Os. 8d., leaving a surplus of
L.243, 5s. 3d. The nett debt of the commissioners is
L. 14,355, 15s. 3|d.
The Kirkcaldy custom-house includes under its superin¬
tendence all the ports from Aberdour on the W. to St
Andrews on the E. On 31st December 1855 the number ot
vessels belonging to these ports was ninety-eight, and their
tonnage 8646. The vessels employed in the foreign trade
for the year ending 5th January 1856 numbered—inwards,
135; and outwards, 285. The tonnage of those inwards
was 15,892; and outwards, 27,283. The number of ves¬
sels employed in the coasting trade during the same period
was 490 inwards, their tonnage 24,928 ; and outwards
1059, and their tonnage 54,262. The Kirkcaldy custom¬
house revenue for the year ending 5th January 1854 was
L.9060; 5th January 1855, L.7020; and 31st March 1856,
L.10,040.
Kirkcaldy is now the principal seat of the spinning
department of the linen trade in this county. The value
of goods manufactured in Kirkcaldy in 1815, when the
trade was depressed, was estimated at L.l25,981. It is
now considerably increased. There were, in 1836, ten
spinning-mills within the parliamentary limits of the burgh,
turning upwards of 4895 spindles, and within these limits
this trade is now greatly enlarged. There are also four
bleachfields connected with the town, four iron foundries,
and one coal-work near the towm, at which are raised up¬
wards of 15,000 tons of coal annually.
Among its commercial and literary institutions may be
mentioned the chamber of commerce (founded in 1825),
two public libraries, two news-rooms, &c.
Besides the public schools in the burgh, frequented by
about 300 scholars, the parochial school in Linktown for
the parish of Abbotshall, and adventure schools, which re¬
ceive about 700 scholars, there is a provision for gratuitous
education in schools founded by Mr Robert Philp, mer¬
chant in Kirkcaldy, who died in 1829, and left a sum of
money, now amounting to upwards of L.74,500, for their
support. The gross revenue of the charity for the year
ending in 1856 was L.2882, 2s. 4d. The scholars at pre¬
sent educated on this foundation number, in Pathhead, 280;
in Kirkcaldy, 100; in Linktown and Bridgetown, 180; and
in Kinghorn, 73.
The Sailor Guild, or Prime Gilt Box of Kirkcaldy, for
the relief of destitute sailors and their families, has existed
since 1590. Its average revenue amounts to L.l 10 yearly.
Dr Adam Smith, the author of the Wealth of Nations,
was born in Kirkcaldy, and his bust, along with that of Sir
Robert Peel, is placed in the town-hall.
Kirkcaldy unites with Dysart, Burntisland, and King-
horn in returning one M.P.; parliamentary constituency,
400. Pop. 10,475.
KIRGHIZ, Steppe of the, an extensive country of
Western Asia, comprising the northern part of Independent
Turkistan, and lying between N. Lat. 44. and 55., and E.
Long. 53. and 82. It is bounded on the N. by Russian
Siberia, E. by the Chinese Empire, S. by the khanats of
Khokan, Bokhara, and Khiva, and W. by the Ural and the
Caspian Sea.
The surface is not a mere flat plain, but is traversed
by numerous mountain chains, particularly in the W. and
N.W. There are a considerable number of rivers and lakes,
many of the latter being salt. The extremes of heat and
cold are very great; in summer the temperature often rises
to 112° Fahr.; while in winter it is frequently many degrees
below zero. The inhabitants are a nomadic race, almost
solely occupied in the rearing of sheep, goats, horses, and
K I R
camels, which constitute their principal wealth. They re- Kirkcud-
lieve the monotony of their life by hunting, and not unfre- bright-
quently by plundering caravans, or by attacking some neigh- ^ shire. ^
bouring tribe. They are divided into the Great, Little,
and Middle Hordes, which are again subdivided into nume¬
rous tribes, each having its own khan or chief. Pop. esti¬
mated at 2,260,000. See Asia.
KIRCUDBRIGHTSHIRE, a county in Scotland, situ¬
ate between N. Lat. 54. 43. and 55. 19., and W. Long. 3.
33. and 4. 34. from Greenwich, is bounded on the N. by the
shires of Dumfries and Ayr, on the E. and S. by the Solway
Frith and the Irish Sea, and on the W. by the county of Wig¬
town. It derives its name from Caer, a fort, the Anglo-
Saxons having erected a fort in honour of St Cuthbert, near
the site of the present Kirkcudbright (originally Caer Cuth¬
bert), the county town. It is in length from E. to W. about
48 miles: it varies in breadth from 30 to 40 miles; and it
contains 954 square miles, or 610,734 acres. This district
is commonly called the stewartry, not the shire, of Kirk¬
cudbright ; and its judge, whose powers and duties are the
same as those of a sheriff, is called a steward. The appel¬
lation of stewartry had its rise in the ancient tenure by
which it was held, and the subsequent forfeiture of its lords ;
but the distinction between stewartry and sheriffdom is in
this case purely nominal. Kirkcudbright is one of the two
counties comprehended under the general name of Gallo¬
way ; Wigtownshire, on the W., being the other.
About two-thirds of the surface is mountainous. A
range of mountains stretches along the whole northern
boundary, in the form of a vast amphitheatre, embracing
nearly half the county; on the boundary with Ayrshire they
are not much inferior in height to any in the South of Scot¬
land. There are also some considerable mountains on the
southern extremity, such as Criffel, 1831 feet in height;
Cairnsmore, 2597; and Cairnharrow, 1110. The high
lands are, for the most part, covered with heath, except on
a part of the northern boundary, where a narrow tract of
green hills runs out between the counties of Ayr and Dum¬
fries ; and many of them are wet and mossy. In the
middle of the district, the declivity is so gentle that the
River Dee, at 30 miles from its mouth, is only 150 feet
above the level of the sea; yet, even in the interior, there
is no great extent of level ground, the greater part of the
surface being occupied by rocky knolls, steep banks, and
hills of a moderate elevation. On the coast, also, hills rise
almost everywhere to the height of several hundred feet.
The district is studded with a great number of lakes, of
which there is one or more in almost every parish, though
few of them are considerable. As there is much full-grown
wood, the general appearance of the stewartry is that of a
varied, rich, and interesting county, on which much capital
and labour have been expended; and its natural beauties
are in many places very striking.
The soil of the lower grounds is, for the most part, of a
hazel colour, sometimes inclining to red, and seems to be
chiefly composed of argillaceous schist in a state of decom¬
position. It is seldom of any great depth, and the rock,
often rising above the surface, gives a rugged appearance
to much even of the arable land. This soil is, however, in
many instances possessed of great natural fertility, not soon
injured by wet seasons, and affords plentiful crops and fine
natural herbage. Clay is of no great extent, and found
chiefly on the banks of the rivers. The smooth round hills
accessible to the plough have, for the most part, a close
subsoil, here called till, and do not, therefore, admit of being
profitably cultivated but after an interval of several years’
pasturage. Tracts of moss, which once existed, have greatly
disappeared, having been converted into rich arable fields.
Much of the mountainous district is composed of granite.
According to the Agricultural Survey there are three
several districts of this rock, which occupy nearly a fourth
KIRKCUDBRIGHT.
Kirkcud- of the surface. Strata of argillaceous schistus prevail in
bright- the lower parts. Some of it is of a hard, compact grain,
shire. 0f a p]ue or grayish-brown colour, for the most part break-
ing irregularly, but often in parallel plates, of which coarse
slates have been made. With these are intermixed layers
of a softer argillaceous stone, which readily yields to the
weather, and is popularly known by the name of slate
band. These rocks, which also occupy a large part of the
district, are sometimes traversed by dykes of porphyry, and
also by granite. In the neighbourhood of Dumfries the
prevailing rock is sandstone. Limestone is found at Kirk-
bean, the only place in the county where it is wrought;
and there are also some promising indications of coal on
the estate of Arbigland, near Dumfries. In the parish of
Col vend, on the Solway Frith, there is a quarry which
affords millstones. Lead mines were wrought in Minni-
gaff and Anwoth for many years, but have been discon¬
tinued. Iron ore abounds, but, from the want of coal and
wood, it is of little value. On the estate of Cally, near
Gatehouse, copper has lately been discovered, but the yield
has not been remunerative.
The rivers are,—the Nith, which separates this county
from Dumfriesshire for about 12 miles on the N.E.; the
Urr, which flows S.E. by the village of Dalbeattie, and is
navigable 5 or 6 miles for small vessels; the Dee, the
largest river, which enters Loch Ken, a lake almost in the
centre of the county, about 8 miles in length, and in some
places a mile in breadth, and, giving its name to the river
(Ken), which issues from the lake, falls into the Solway
Frith about 5 miles below the town of Kirkcudbright. It
is navigable for 2 miles above this town for vessels of 200
tons. In spring-tides the water rises about 20 feet at Kirk¬
cudbright, where there is a well-sheltered natural harbour,
of easy access. For the last 7 or 8 miles of its course the
banks of the Dee are planted. St Mary’s Isle, near Kirk¬
cudbright, is a highly ornamented spot; and the Little Ross,
a beautiful island, is situated at its mouth. There are other
small islands, as those of Fleet, Knockbrex, and Heston,
scattered along the coast. The salmon fishery on this river
was rented, some years ago, at L.900. The Fleet is remark¬
able for the picturesque scenery on its banks; but as its
sti’eam is circuitous towards the end of its course, a canal
of about a mile in length has been cut, at the sole expense
of the late Mr Murray of Broughton, by means of which
the navigation to Gatehouse, about 4 miles from the sea,
has been rendered easy and shorter. The Cree, a more
considerable river, separates this county from Wigtonshire,
and flows into the bay of Wigton, whence it is navigable
to the small harbour of Carty, a little below Newton-
Stewart. The rivers are nearly equidistant from each other;
and the richly wooded valleys through which they flow,
combined with the intervening hills or eminences, impart a
character of variety and beauty to the county which is very
picturesque, and is seldom surpassed. The stewartry is
everywhere supplied with pure springs and rivulets. Chaly¬
beate springs are also numerous, one of which, Lochen-
breck, in the parish of Balmaghie, 7 miles from Gatehouse,
is said not to be inferior in medicinal virtues to any in the
kingdom.
The landed property is not divided into large estates.
The number of proprietors in 1854 was 413 ; of whom 180
had a valuation not exceeding L.50 Scots per annum; 66
not exceeding L.100; 65 not exceeding L.200; 55 not
exceeding L.500; 26 not exceeding L.1000; 14 not ex¬
ceeding L.2000 ; 3 not exceeding L.5000; 3 not exceed¬
ing L. 1 0,000 ; while there was only one (Murray of Brough¬
ton) above the last sum. The valued rent, which was taken
in 1642, is L.114,637, 2s. Scots; the real rent, in 1808,
was estimated at L.167,125 sterling; and in 1855 at
L.213,308, exclusive of the burghs of Kirkcudbright, New
Galloway, and Maxwellton. Many, of the smaller proprie-
99
tors cultivate their own estates. About half the county is Kirkcud-
held under deeds of entail, and no disentails have as yet bright-
taken place under the Act 11th and 12th Victoria. “ The v ^ ire^ y
condition of the peasantry, at a period not very remote, " v-*-
seems to have been much depressed, and the state of
husbandry rude and barbarous in the extreme.” (Smith’s
Survey.) Referring to the year 1720, John Maxwell of
Munshes observes that “the tenants in general lived very
meanly, on kail, groats, milk, graddon ground in querns
turned by the hand, and the grain dried in a pot, together
with a crock ewe now and then about Martinmas. They
were clothed very plainly, and their habitations were most
uncomfortable. Their general wear was of cloth made of
waulked plaiding, black and white w ool mixed, very coarse,
and the cloth rarely dyed. Their hose were made of white
plaiding cloth, sewed together, with single-soled shoes, and
a black or blue bonnet, none having hats but the lairds.
. . In 1725 potatoes were first introduced into this
stewartry by William Hyland, from Ireland, who carried
them on horses’ backs to Edinburgh, where he sold them by
pounds and ounces. During these times, when potatoes
were not generally used in this country, there was for the
most part a great want of food, bordering on famine; for
in the stewartry of Kirkcudbright there was not as much
corn produced as was necessary for supplying the inha¬
bitants. The produce of the country in general was gray
oats; and you might have travelled from Dumfries to
Kirkcudbright, which is 27 miles, without seeing any other
grain, except in a gentleman’s croft, which in general pro¬
duced here or bigg for one-third part, another third in white
oats, and the remaining third in gray oats. At that period
there was no wheat raised in the country; what was used
was brought from Teviot, and it was believed that the soil
would not produce wheat. In the year 1735 there was no
mill for grinding that sort of grain ; and the first flour-mill
that was constructed within these bounds was built at Clou-
den, in the parish of Irongray, some years after that date.”
(Murray’s Literary History of Galloivay, 2d edition, 1832,
pp. 337-9.) Yet it was in this county that the improve¬
ments of modern husbandry were adopted, at a time when
they were entirely unknown in the greater part of the king¬
dom. As early as the year 1750, Mr Craik of Arbigland
practised the drilling and horse-hoeing of the celebrated
Tull, which he ever afterwards continued to follow in the
culture of beans and turnips. He enclosed and drained his
estate, cleaned his fields by fallowing, applied calcareous
manures, introduced sown grasses into his course of crops,
and worked his plough with two horses. A few of the
other proprietors followed in his steps, but their efforts were
not seconded by the tenantry at large. It is only since the
end of last century that modern husbandry has made any
considerable progress, but it is now quite general. The
following is the proportion of crops, according to the agri¬
cultural statistics procured in 1856 by the Flighland Society.
The total acreage under rotation of crops was 120,792; of
which the constituent crops were,—wheat, 2441; barley,
1464 ; oats, 33,753 ; rye, 58 ; here, 55 ; beans, 503 ; pease,
2; tares, 84; turnips, 15,154; potatoes, 3112; mangold,
100 ; carrots, 46; cabbage, 10; rape, 153 ; flax, 9; turnip-
seed, 26; bare fallow, 287; grass and hay under rotation,
63,707. Total stock, 353,869—being, horses for agriculture,
5190; other horses, 793; milch cows, 9107; other cattle,
24,012; calves, 6731; sheep, 301,603; swine, 6433.
A great impetus has lately been communicated to agri¬
culture in this county by the regular and cheap communi¬
cation with Liverpool by means of steam navigation. The
farmers have thus a ready outlet for their disposable pro¬
duce, corn, cattle, and sheep, and receive cash payments.
Instead of being, as formerly, far from a market, and forced,
in consequence, to sell to corn-dealers, a class of men with
whom bankruptcy was anything but uncommon; the far-
100
KIRKCUDBRIGHT.
Kirkcud- mers are now, as it were, placed in the very vicinity of the
bright- best market, and are freed from all risk of non-payment. By
shire- these favourable circumstances, a spirit of improvement
and enterprise has been roused which has changed the
face and character of the county. Nothing, indeed, has
ever effected so important a change in the circumstances of
this county as the introduction of steam navigation. The
first steam-boat seen on its shores was in 1830 ; and there
are now six that ply regularly between it and the English
coast, particularly Whitehaven and Liverpool. Their decks
are covered with sheep and black cattle, whilst their holds
are filled with corn. Nor is this all. These vessels have
opened up channels of industry before unknown. Poultry,
eggs, and butter, by being sent to the ready market of
England, form a new and pretty productive source of
income. Salmon, instead of being sent, as formerly, round
to England by the expensive mail-carriage, is now trans¬
mitted thither by steam more directly, and at much less
expense ; whilst commodities required from England are
obtained under the most favourable circumstances. Rail¬
ways are about to be introduced. A bill has been got for
forming a line between Dumfries and Castle-Douglas, a
distance of 18 miles ; and application is to be made in the
ensuing session of parliament for a line from the latter
place to Portpatrick, a farther distance of 56 miles. This
railway accommodation, combined with the steam naviga¬
tion already referred to, will thoroughly open up this other¬
wise remote county, and connect it with the most import¬
ant marts of commerce.
Unlike other hilly tracts in Scotland, the land is almost
universally enclosed, chiefly with stone Avails, called Gal-
loivay Dykes. These dykes are built close, or double, as
it is called, for part of their height, and afterwards single,
the stones in the latter part being laid in such a manner
as to allow the passage of the light through the wrall. But
it is now becoming a common practice to build the whole
of the wrall double, and, after laying a course of stones that
project a little beyond its breadth on both sides, it is com¬
pleted by a coping of stones laid on edge, and closely pinned.
This county is chiefly celebrated for its cattle, which
form by far the most important part of its agricultural pro¬
duce. They are known in every part of Britain by the
name of Galloway cattle. Sheep are confined to the
mountainous districts, wdiere they are kept in great num¬
bers. They are of the heath or black-faced variety, with
coarse wool. A small, hardy, and active race of horses,
called Galloways, was formerly reared here and in Wig-
tonshire, the other division of Galloway ; but a larger breed
being required for the labours of modern husbandry, the old
race is very rarely to be found in a pure state. The name,
however, is frequently applied to horses below full size,
wherever they may have been reared.
The first road act for the stewarty of Kirkcudbright was
obtained in 1779. At that period there w^as scarcely any¬
thing that deserved the name, except the military road from
Dumfries to Portpatrick, which had been made about fifteen
years before; but at present very few districts are better
provided in this respect. The first good roads were made
on the estate of the Earl of Selkirk, under the direction of
his son Basil William Lord Daer, to whom this county
owes many other improvements. In 1796, by another act
of parliament, the assessments were allowed to be increased,
and tolls erected ; and soon afterwards a new road was
made from Dumfries to Castle-Douglas, a distance of 18
miles, through a hilly, broken country, Avith so much atten¬
tion to preserve the level, that it has seldom a rise of
more than one foot in forty, and much of it is nearly a per¬
fect level. All the principal roads made since have been
done Avith equal judgment. The turnpike roads extend to
nearly 300 miles; and the annual income obtained from
tolls amount to about L.3200. The district is also well
accommodated Avith bridges, of which the most consider- Kirkcud-
able is one over the Dee at Tongland, about 2 miles above bright-
Kirkcudbright, which has an arch of 110 feet span. It is shire,
built of sandstone, brought partly from Annan in Dumfries-
shire, and partly from the Isle of Arran. It Avas finished
in 1808, and cost upwards of L.7000.
Kirkcudbright, the county town, which A\7as erected into
a royal burgh in 1455, contained, in 1851 (including the
parish), a population of 3555. It is pleasantly situated on
the Dee, and is noted for the information and urbanity of
its inhabitants. Societies have been formed here for a
purpose rather unusual, namely, the building of houses, not
for sale, but for the use of the members who compose
them. Every member makes a small monthly payment
into a general fund, which is employed in erecting the
houses, and these, as they are finished, are assigned to the
members by lot, those to whom they fall paying five per
cent, on the money which their houses have cost in addi¬
tion to their monthly payments; and this arrangement con¬
tinues till all the members are supplied, and the societies
dissolved. New Galloway, which was erected into a royal
burgh in 1633, is situated at the head of Loch Ken, and
contains only about 400 inhabitants. The principal vil¬
lages are Creetown, at the mouth of the River Cree, on
the bay of WigtoAvn ; Gatehouse, 12 miles E. from the
former, on the River Fleet; and Castle-Douglas, formerly
called Carlinwark, an inland place, about 9 miles NE.
of Kirkcudbright. The others are Dalbeattie, on the
River Urr ; Keltonhill, noted for its cattle fairs in June and
November; and Maxwellton, on the Nith, which, though
in this county, belongs by its situation to the tOAvn of
Dumfries, from which it is separated only by the bridge
over that river. By the Reform Act, indeed, it is included
Avithin the parliamentary boundaries of that tOAvn. Previ¬
ously to the passing of the Poor-law Act in 1844, the poor
were supported solely by church collections, occasionally
supplemented by voluntary contributions, chiefly on the
part of the heritors. Legal assessments have now been in¬
troduced in every parish, except five ; and the number of
registered poor is 1549 ; that of casual poor, 712 ; total,
2261. The total expense for the former is L.8228 ; for the
latter L.440 ; making an aggregate of L.8668; a fraction
more, both as to number of paupers and amount of assess¬
ment, than the general average of Scotland. There is
a poorhouse combination, comprising 14 parishes."
The inhabitants of the stewartry have few traits of cha¬
racter peculiar to themselves. Living remote from the
capital, or any large tOAvn, they are a simple unsophisticated
people, feudal and superstitious in their sentiments. A
belief in witchcraft, and in the more popular superstitions,
obtained till recently. They think no character superior to
the minister or the laird. These peculiarities, however,
are beginning to give way. Education has attained a most
respectable footing; and the collision of sentiment which
the people experience by the intercourse now opened up
by the facilities of communication with strangers, has had
a most salutary and liberalizing influence. They are an
enterprising people. They send, on an average of the last
ten years, about thirty young men to the university yearly;
and the number of those who annually cross over to Eng¬
land to push their fortune, or emigrate either to our own
colonies or to foreign states, is extremely great. Of these,
not a feAv, after experiencing success in life, return to their
native country with a respectable competency ; and thus, by
their example, stimulate others to folloAv their steps. Of the
extent to which emigration from this county is carried, a
correct estimate may be framed from the fact that, though
the number of males bom is about five per cent, above that
of females, the latter in the stewartry exceed the former by
2674. A great number of Irish, of the lowest grade, are
settled here.
K I R
Kirkcud- Education, as mentioned above, is in an efficient state,
bright. Some of the schools are excellent; none of them are bad ;
k—and when a vacancy now takes place the utmost pains are
taken to get the best teacher to fill it. Several sums have
been bequeathed by individuals for the support of schools,
particularly in the parishes of Balmaclellan, Dairy, and
Borgue. In addition to the parish schools, there are many
voluntary seminaries, about 6^ per cent of the whole popu¬
lation being at school.
The people are distinguished for their religious character.
The Reformation began here at a peculiarly early date,
namely, the beginning of the fifteenth century {Literary His-
tory of Galloway, p. 61), and some of the most eminent
reformers and covenanters were connected with this county.
The persecution in the times of Charles I. and his son
Charles II. raged most hotly here. The graves of martyrs
are to be found, not only in almost every churchyard, but
even in many of the wildest moors. Presbyterianism still
continues predominant. In addition to twenty-eight parish
churches, there are three chapels of ease belonging to the
establishment; seven churches in connection with the
United Presbyterian Synod; thirteen Free Churches; one
belonging to the Reformed Presbyterian Synod (Camero-
nians) ; one Episcopalian place of worship, and four Roman
Catholic chapels.
The stewartry could boast of a greater number of mo¬
nasteries than any other county in Scotland. These were
Dundrennan, St Mary’s Isle, and Tongland, founded in the
twelfth century by Fergus, Lord of Galloway; Lincluden, by
his son Uchtred ; and Sweetheart, or New Abbey, founded
in the thirteenth century, by Dervorgille, daughter of Alan,
last Lord of Galloway, and mother of John Baliol, the com¬
petitor for the throne. Of Dundrennan, Lincluden. ami
New Abbey, the remains are comparatively entire ; while
the vest'ges of the other two have nearly disappeared.
The bishopric of Galloway {Candida Casa), both in Ca¬
tholic and in Protestant times, comprehended the stewartry
and Wigtonshire. It formed the most ancient see in Scot¬
land ; and in dignity was inferior only to the archbishopric
of St Andrew’s and Glasgow, t'h, in 1633, when Edinburgh
was erected into a bishopric, and obtained the preference
over Gal'oway. The bishops of Galloway were ex officio
deans of the chapel royal of Stirling.
Some eminent men have been connected with the stew¬
artry, as Thomas Gordon, the translator of Tacitus; Ro¬
bert Heron, author of a History of Scotland in six vols. ;
Dr Alexander Murray, the celebrated linguist; and Dr
Thomas Brown.
The occupations of the people are mainly agricultural,
as there are now, properly speaking, no manufactures; the
cotton mills at Gatehouse, though many years in operation,
having been discontinued. Exclusive of thejanded gentry,
there are fully two hundred capitalists not employed in any
business. The rest of the population are engaged in such re¬
tail trades and handicrafts as are needful to supply the pro¬
vincial demand. In the beginning of the present century
there was only one bank (then recently introduced) in the
county. Now there are no fewer than a dozen. At the
same date there were only four lawyers: now there are
fourteen, and one messenger-at-arms. The harbours in the
stewartry belong to the customs ports either of Dumfries
or Wigton; and the dues levied last year on ships, or on
goods carried in ships, were as follows:—Kirkcudbright,
L.340; Dalbeattie, L.28; Barlochan or Palnackie, L.25 ;
Gatehouse, L.20. It may be remarked, that a consider¬
able portion of the shipping trade of the stewartry (as also
of its banking business) centres in Dumfries. The chief
exports are grain, black cattle, sheep, and wool ; the prin¬
cipal imports are coal, lime, timber, and iron.
It has already been stated, that the mountainous districts
of the stewartry are composed of granite. A granite quarry
K I II
101
Years.
1811
1831
1851
Houses.
Inhabited.
6223
6441
7009
Not
Inhabited
196
146
225
Persons.
Males. Females.
15,788
18,869
20,223
17,896
21,621
22,898
Total of
Persons.
33,684
40,590
43,121
The stewartry sends one member to parliament, the con¬
stituency in 1855 amounting to 1277. In the election for
the burghs, Kirkcudbright (which contains 99 electors)
joins with Dumfries, Sanquhar, Annan, and Lochmaben;
and New Galloway (which contains 12 electors) with Wig-
ton, Stranraer, and Whithorn. (t. m.)
Kirkcudbright, the chief town of the shire of that
name, a royal and parliamentary burgh of Scotland, on the
left bank of the Dee, about 5 miles from its embouchure
in the Solway Frith. It is finely situated and well built;
and the harbour is excellent, with depth for the largest ves¬
sel. Steamers ply regularly to Liverpool, but the trade of
the town is small. Kirkcudbright unites with Dumfries,
&c., in returning one M.P. Pop. 2778.
KIBKB Y, a prefix to the names of several English towns
and parishes indicating the site of a church.
Kirkby-Lonsdale, a market-town of England, county of
Westmoreland, on the right bank of the Lune, 11 miles
S.E. of Kendal. It is well built of freestone, and has a fine
church, with a tower and peal of bells, and a free gram¬
mar school, with 6 exhibitions to Christ’s College, Cam¬
bridge. Pop. 1675. The Earl of Lonsdale takes his title
from this place.
KIRKHAM, a market-town of Lancashire, on the Pres¬
ton and Fleetwood Railway, 8 miles W.N.W. of Preston.
It is a place of considerable antiquity, and has a free gram¬
mar school of 1658. Pop. 2777, chiefly employed in sail¬
cloth, sacking, and cotton manufactures.
KIRKINTILLOCH, a burgh of barony, and market-
town of Dumbartonshire, on the Edinburgh and Glasgow
Railway, 7 miles N.N.E. of Glasgow. Pop. 6342, employed
in handloom weaving (chiefly lappets), calico printing,
bleaching, &c.
KIRK-KLISIE {The Forty Churches), a town of Euro¬
pean Turkey, province of Roumelia, on a slope at the foot
of the Balkan, 32 miles E.N.E. of Adrianople. It is a large
but poor place, with ruinous walls and citadel, narrow and
dirty streets, and abundant mosques. It is famous for the
manufacture of a sweetmeat “ composed of the inspissated
juice from boiled grapes, formed into rolls containing wal¬
nut kernels.”
KIRKOSWALD, a parish and village of Ayrshire, 11
miles S.W. of Ayr, containing the ruins of Crossraguel
was opened in 1830, on the estate of Cassencarrie, in the Kirkcud-
parish of Kirkmabreck, by the Liverpool Dock Company, bright
This is at present the most important work of the kind car¬
ried on in Scotland. About 300 workmen are daily em¬
ployed in it; machinery of a kind previously unknown in
Galloway has been introduced ; a railway has been con¬
structed connecting the quarry with Wigton Bay, a dis¬
tance of about half a mile; and a new harbour has been
built at the expense of the company, the vessels belonging
to which transport the stone from thence to Liverpool.
Besides defraying surface damage for the line of the rail¬
way, the company pay to the landlord a sum proportional
to the produce of the quarry; and thus a piece of land,
which was previously covered with rock or heath, and lite¬
rally worth nothing, certainly not twenty shillings, now
realizes an annual rent of about L.400.
Abstract of the Population at different times.
102 KIR
Kirkwall Abbey, and of Turnberry Castle, Colzean Castle and Coves,
. II and the farm of Shanter. Burns, for a few months, attended
ir tlle village school; in the churchyard are buried the proto-
Richard. of. Tam 0’ Shanter and Souter Johnny.
^ KIRKWALL, a royal and parliamentary burgh of Scot¬
land, the principal town in the Orkneys, is situated in the
S.E. side of a large and well-sheltered bay in the island of
Pomona. It consists mainly of one long, narrow, and some¬
what dirty, though venerable-looking street, most of the
houses being built in the old style, with solid walls, small
irregular windows, and gables facing the street. Another
street parallel to this is more modern in appearance. The
chief ornament of the town is the cathedral of St Magnus,
a stately cruciform building, 236 feet long by 56 in breadth,
and 71 in height. It was founded in 1138 by Earl Ronald,
and is early Norman in its most ancient part. The choir
was lengthened by Bishop Stewart in the reign of James
IV., and the nave by Bishop Reid in the reign of Queen
Mary. These additions are less purely Norman than the
old part. The choir has long been used as the parish
church ; and recently the building underwent a thorough
repair by order of Government. Near it are the ruins of
the Bishop’s palace, in which King Haco of Norway died
of a broken-heart, and of the Earl’s palace, built by the am¬
bitious Patrick Stewart, last feudal Earl of Orkney. Among
the other public buildings are a town-hall and assembly
rooms; there are two libraries, and a grammar school en¬
dowed by Bishop Reid. The port is chiefly frequented by
coasters and passing ships from Norway and the Baltic. The
principal exports are cattle and fish. Steamers ply regularly
to Leith. The burgh contributes with Wick in returning
one M.P.; constituency (1856) 109. Pop. (1851) 3541.
KIRRIEMUIR, a burgh of barony and market-town of
Scotland, Forfarshire, 5 miles N.W. of Forfar. It is well
built, and has five churches, several schools, two libraries,
&c. Pop. 3518, principally employed in the manufacture
of brown linen.
KIRWAN, Richard, an eminent chemical philosopher,
was born in the county of Galway in Ireland. The date
of bis birth is not known, but it probably fell within the
first quarter of the eighteenth century. At an early age
he was sent to the Jesuit college at St Omer, in the N.
of France, to be trained for the study either of law or
medicine. Before he left college, the death of his elder
brother put him in possession of the family estate. He
immediately gave up all thoughts of professional life, and
devoted himself heart and soul to his favourite sciences of
chemistry and geology. Removing to England in 1779,
he settled in London or its neighbourhood ; and being ad¬
mitted into the Royal Society, he read many valuable papers
before that body, for which, in 1781, he was rewarded with
the Copley Gold Medal. After an absence of ten years
he returned to Ireland in 1789, and was made President of
the Royal Irish Academy, and of the Dublin Society, and
published various essays from time to time on his own spe¬
cial branches of science, and also on logic and metaphysics.
He died in 1812, at a very advanced age, having for many
years been looked upon as the Nestor of English chemistry.
Though Kirwan devoted his whole life to scientific in¬
quiry, and was contemporary with Cavendish, Lavoisier,
Black, Scheele, Priestley, and the fathers of modern che¬
mistry, he did not advance the boundaries of the science
by any great discovery of his own. One of the earliest
of his works was his Essay on Phlogiston and the Com¬
position of Acids, in which he endeavoured to reconcile
the old chemistry with modern discoveries. He main¬
tained that hydrogen, or, as it was then called, inflamma¬
ble air, was the true phlogiston, and that every combusti¬
ble substance, and every metal, contained this inflammable
air as a constituent, and that combustion is just the com¬
bination of it with the vital air. At the same time, he ad-
K I S
mitted the truth of Lavoisier’s theory that, during com- Kisckineff
bustion, oxygen unites with the burning body; and he II
could not deny the experiment of the decomposition of te^ary
water, though, in point of fact, it was inconsistent with his
own theory of phlogiston. His book was then laid hold of by
the French chemists, as affording them an excellent oppor¬
tunity of showing the superiority of the new doctrines to
the old. It was translated into French, with a refutation at
the end of every chapter by Lavoisier, Guyton-Morveau,
Monge, Berthollet, Laplace, and others. These refuta¬
tions, though quite irrefragable, were so skilfully and cour¬
teously worded, that Kirwan, with a candour and liberality
unfortunately too rare, abandoned phlogiston and adopted
the theory of his opponents.
In 1794 Kirwan published his Elements of Mineralogy,
in 2 vols. 8vo, a work of great merit for its day, though
now quite superseded. His Geological Essays were less
successful; but his Essay on the Analysis of Mineral
Waters was useful, both for the number of analyses which
it contained, and for the method of procedure which it in¬
culcated. Kirwan was also the author of numerous papers
in the Transactions of the Royal Society and of the Royal
Irish Academy, on subjects connected with mineralogy and
meteorology as well as chemistry.
KISCHINEFF, or Kischenaw, a town of European
Russia, capital of Bessarabia, on the Byk, a tributary of the
Dniester, 49 miles N.W. of Odessa. It has been greatly
improved and enlarged since it came into the possession of
Russia (1812), and contains numerous churches and schools,
an ecclesiastical college, library, gardens, fountains, &c.
The trade, chiefly in agricultural produce and manufac¬
tures (woollens, leather, candles, soap, &c.), is considerable.
Pop. (1849) 42,613, consisting of Russians, Turks, Jews,
Greeks, Armenians, &c.
KISFALUDY, the name of two brothers of distin¬
guished fame in the history of Hungarian literature. San-
dor, or Alexander Kisfaludy, was born at Siimeg, in the
county of Szalad, in 1772, and died there in 1844. His
countrymen are unanimous in assigning to him the high¬
est place among the modern lyrists of Hungary.^ His
younger brother, Karoly or Charles, was born at Jete in
1788” and died in 1830, at the early age of 42. He attained
in tragedy a distinction similar to that which his brother
achieved in lyric poetry. See Hungary, § Literature.
KISHEN AGUR, a town of Hindustan, in the province
of Rajpootana, 13 miles N.E. from the city of Ajmeer. It
is the capital of a small but independent principality of the
same name. The rajah is of the Rhatore tribe. Kulliam
Singh Rajah, of Kishenagur, entered into a treaty in 1818
with the British government, acknowledging their supre¬
macy. Some years later serious disturbances occurred
within his dominions, which he was unable to quell; and
eventually, in 1832, he abdicated in favour of his son, and
retired within the British territories. I he town of Kishe¬
nagur is in N. Lat. 26. 33., E. Long. 74. 57.
KISHM, the largest of the islands in the Persian Gulf,
lies along the coast opposite the Straits of Ormuz, about
10 miles S.W. of Gombroon. It is between 50 and 60
miles long, with a breadth of 12 miles, sterile for the most
part, and in the S. hilly, but with considerable tracts of fer¬
tile land, producing wheat, rice, cotton, dates, grapes, &c.
Pop. about 5000, chiefly occupied in agriculture, rearing
cattle, fishing, and cotton-weaving. There are three small
towns in the island, the principal of which, Kishm, on the
E. side, is walled, and has a well-sheltered but shallow har¬
bour, much frequented by coasting vessels.
KISHTEWAR, a district of Hindustan, in the domi¬
nions of Gholab Singh, the ruler of Cashmere, situated
principally between N. Lat. 33. and 34. It is bounded on
the N.W. by the southern range of the Cashmere Hills.
The country is in general hilly and covered with wood, and
K I S
KIT
103
t
it,
llissingen but thinly inhabited. It is also very cold during the winter
II season, and presenting few temptations to invaders, has pro-
Kit-Cat- bably on that account retained its independence. It is in-
Clu^ j tersected by the River Chunaub, over which there are no
bridges; and at the village of Nausman, where it is 70
yards wide, it is crossed by means of a large basket slung
on a tight i*ope, which reaches from side to side, and along
which it is pulled. Kishtewar, the capital, which is the
residence of a Mohammedan chief, is situated close under
the southern range of the Cashmere Mountains. N. Lat.
33. 18., E. Long. 75. 46.
KISSINGEN, a well-built and pleasantly situated water¬
ing place of Bavaria, circle of Lower Franconia, on the Saale,
32 miles N. of Wurzburg. It has three saline springs (the
Rakoczy, Pandur, andMax-Brunnen), much recommended
for chronic diseases, gout, and stomach complaints. The
number of visitors annually is about 4000. Between 400,000
and 500,000 bottles of the water are exported. Pop. about
1500. A little farther up the valley are the government
salt works, supplied by Artesian wells, which have a regu¬
lar rise and fall. One of these is about 2000 feet deep,
and discharges, at intervals of three or four weeks (the dis¬
charge lasting about the same time), a column of water 80
feet high, at the rate of 100 cubic feet per minute. The
propelling force is a stratum of nearly pure carbonic acid
gas. The quantity of salt held in solution is from 26 to 27
per cent. The yearly product of these springs is about
1500 tons of the finest salt.
KISTNAH, or Krishnah, a celebrated river in the
S. of India, which has its source in the Western Ghauts,
not far from Sattarah, in the province of Bejapoor, which
is only 50 miles in a direct line from the western sea-coast.
It proceeds from hence in a south-easterly direction until
it reaches Merritch, when its bulk is greatly increased
by the junction of the River Wurna, formed by a variety
of streamlets that fall from the Ghauts. During its course
eastward it is joined by the Malpurba, Gutpurba, Beemah,
and Toombuddra rivers, and pours its prodigious volume of
waters, by various mouths, into the Bay of Bengal, at or a
little to the southward of Masulipatam, where it forms the
northern boundary of the Guntoor Circars. Its course, in¬
cluding its windings, may be estimated at 800 miles in
length. The Kistnah is subject to two periodical inunda¬
tions annually, the first and principal being caused by the
S.W. monsoon, and the other by the local rains brought
by the N.E. monsoon. In consequence of the rapid decli¬
vity of its waterway and rockiness of channel, this river
cannot be navigated, even by small craft. An extensive sys¬
tem of irrigation, in connection with this great stream, is
now in pi'ogress, and is estimated to cost L. 150,000. The
object is proposed to be effected by means of an embank¬
ment thrown across the river at the head of the Delta, and
by thus accumulating the waters, to extend the benefits of
irrigation to large portions of the districts of Masulipatam
and Guntoor. The term Krishnah signifies black, or dark-
blue, and is the name of the favourite deity of the Hindus,
an incarnation of the preserving power of Vishnu. This
river forms the boundary of the Deccan, according to the
best Mohammedan authors.
KIT-CAT-CLUB, a convivial association which came
into existence in London about the time of the Revolution.
From the Whig leanings of most of its members, it gra¬
dually assumed a political character. Addison, Steele,
Walpole, Marlborough, and others who belonged to it, were
the fast friends of the Hanoverian succession ; and it is prin¬
cipally through the portraits of these distinguished men, as
members of the club (| aimed by Sir Godfrey Kneller, him¬
self a member), that the fame of these reunions has been
handed down. It was held in Shire Lane, in the house of
Christopher (Kit) Cat, a pastry cook, who supplied them with
mutton pies. The club dissolved somewhere about 1720.
KITTO, John, the editor of the Pictorial Bible, and Kitto,
other works connected with Biblical literature, was born at John.
Plymouth, December 4, 1804. His father was a mason,
the son of a Cornish miner. In early life he bore a good
character, but fell into habits of intemperance, which soon
reduced his family to penury. John was his eldest child. He
was a puny infant; his muscular frame was feeble, and unfit¬
ted him for the active games of boyhood. An aged grand¬
mother, whose memory was charged with all the nursery
lore of her times, was his first instructor, and found in him
an apt and eager scholar. The only schooling he received
was of the most ordinary kind, and for a short period ; and
this was rendered less efficient by a change of masters, and
frequent headaches. Books, however, were a necessity of
his life, and the pangs of hunger were more endurable than
a scanty supply of mental food. When not twelve years
old he began to write tales, and framed the plot of a tra¬
gedy, which he enacted with some of his companions. In
his thirteenth year an event occurred which, though not
fatal to his life, seemed to blast all his prospects of literary
eminence or improvement. He had been accustomed to
help his father as a jobbing mason, and on February 17,
1817, when engaged in repairing the roof of a house, he
lost his footing, and fell from a height of 35 feet upon a
stone pavement. His limbs were not broken, but a per¬
manent injury was done to the skull, and the sense of hear¬
ing was totally destroyed. After eight months his general
health was restored, but with “ knowledge at one entrance
quite shut out,” a melancholy drawback, as it seemed, from
the value of all the rest. Unable any longer to assist his
father, he was allowed to occupy his time in whatever way
he felt inclined. One of the expedients he adopted to
raise a little fund for the purchase of books was that of
wading at low water in Plymouth harbour in quest of yarn
and old iron, by which he earned about threepence per
week. When disabled by an accident from this gainful
employment, he tried his hand at some rude drawings,
more gaudy than truthful, which he disposed of to the chil¬
dren in the neighbourhood. He also prepared coloured
labels in capital letters for the use of small shopkeepers or
persons who let lodgings. Thus two or three years passed
till he had nearly completed his fifteenth year. No re¬
source seemed left for him but the workhouse, into which
he was admitted November 15, 1819. The officers of the
place, who were intelligent, worthy men, encouraged
Kitto’s taste for literature, and relaxed the rules of the
workhouse in his favour. A journal which he began to
keep about this time is a most interesting document, mark¬
ing “ the growth of an individual mind,” and revealing the
elements of the strong character that was in due time to
be developed. After having learnt the art of making list
shoes, a shoemaker in Plymouth offered to take him as an
apprentice ; but he proved to be an overbearing and inhu¬
man tyrant on the small scale. Poor Kitto was goaded by
his insults almost to madness and suicide. An appeal was
made to the magistrates; his indentures were cancelled,
and he obtained an order for readmission into the work-
house. A gleam of light now fell on his prospects. He
attracted the notice of several literary and benevolent per¬
sons by some short essays, which were inserted in a local
journal. A small fund was raised for his temporary sup¬
port, and he was placed with Mr Burnard, the clerk of the
guardians, to board and lodge, with the privilege of spending
the day at the public library, where he prepared a small
volume of miscellanies, which was published by subscrip¬
tion. Shortly after, Mr Groves, a dentist at Exeter, but
who formerly resided in Plymouth, became acquainted with
his history and circumstances; this gentleman offered to
take him as gratuitous pupil, and to allow him a sum for
his personal expenses. In a short time he became so far
a proficient in dentistry, that, when his patron was preparing
104 K I T K L A
Ivitto, to go abroad on a Christian mission to Persia, Kitto thought
John. 0f entering on the practice of that art in his native place, or
engaging himself as an assistant to a London practitioner.
But by this time his religious convictions had been greatly
deepened, and he cherished a wish to be employed in con¬
nection with missionary undertakings. A vacancy occur¬
ring in the printing-office of the Church Missionary Socie¬
ty, Kitto was chosen to fill it. Here he remained, a short
interval excepted, for nearly two years, when he went to
the Society’s establishment at Malta. After being in that
island little more than six months, the hopes he had che¬
rished of a domestic union were suddenly crushed, and
brought on a severe illness—and this, in addition to some
points of disagreement between himself and the Society,
led to his return to England in the beginning of 1829,
when he accepted the office of tutor to Mr Groves’s two
sons. He accompanied Mr Groves to Bagdad, the pro¬
posed seat of his mission, by an overland route, passing
through St Petersburg, Moscow, and Astrakan. They
reached their destination in December 1829. During his
residence, within the short space of three years, he wit¬
nessed a siege, an inundation, the plague, and famine.
At Bagdad, however, and in the travels that preceded and
followed his sojourn there, he laid the foundation of his
future literary eminence, and acquired, by personal observa¬
tion, that knowledge of oriental life which fitted him for
the great work of illustrating the Sacred Scriptures.
After the ravages of the plague, the missionary estab¬
lishment was broken up. In September 1832 Kitto re¬
turned home by way of Teheraun, Tabreez, Trebizond,
and Constantinople. From the last named place he sailed
for England, and reached Stangate Creek exactly four
years after embarking at Gravesend for St Petersburg.
When in sight of his native shores, he exclaimed, “ Give
me a little house—a little wife—a little child—and a little
money in England, and I will seek no more, and wander
no more 1” On arriving in London he was introduced to
some members of the Society for the Diffusion of Use¬
ful Knowledge, and was thus brought into connection
with Mr Charles Knight. By this liberal-minded pub¬
lisher he was engaged to assist in the various serial pub¬
lications of the Society, and at last to prepare works of
which he was the sole author. Of the latter class the
most important were the Pictorial History of Palestine
and the Pictorial Bible, and the last-named work is that
on which his reputation is chiefly founded. Henceforward,
Kitto’s life was one of incessant labour. His working day
was generally sixteen hours long ; and though his deafness
excluded him from much social enjoyment, it was not with¬
out its advantages, in producing a concentrated and unbro¬
ken attention to his literary pursuits. The Cyclopccdia of
Biblical Literature, in which he obtained the co-operation
of forty scholars, British, American, and German, has su¬
perseded every previous work of the kind, and placed bibli¬
cal literature on a level with the advanced scholarship of
the present day.
His Daily Bible Illustrations, in eight small 8vo vo¬
lumes, is a worthy companion of the Pictorial Bible and
the Cyclopcedia. But with this his life’s work was done.
On the morning after he had finished it he was seized with
a slight paralytic stroke, and from that time was incapaci¬
tated for literary labour. Absolute rest alone afforded the
slightest chance of recovering health, or even prolonging
life. But his incessant toil had proved barely adequate to
meet the daily wants of a large family, even with the addi¬
tion of L. 100 per annum, granted in December 1850, from
the Royal Civil List. By the exertion of some of his
friends, a fund was raised to enable him to go abroad, and
to make some provision for his family in the event of his
decease. In the autumn of 1854 he and his family removed
to Canstatt, in Wiirtemburg. Within a few weeks after
their arrival his youngest child sickened and died, and was Kitzingen
soon followed by his eldest daughter, a young person of ^ [|
great promise. He bore these bereavements with exem- Klaproth,
plary resignation, but regarded them as premonitory of his
own approaching decease. On the 25th of November he von>
was seized with a fit, which speedily proved fatal. His re- v. ^ ^ /
mains were interred in the churchyard at Canstatt, near
those of his children. Besides the works already men¬
tioned, Dr Kitto wrote Uncle Oliver's Travels, 1838;
History of Palestine, 1843 ; Thoughts among Flowers,
1843 ; The Pictorial Sunday Booh, 1845 ; The Lost
Senses, Deafness and Blindness, 1845 ; Pictorial Life of
our Saviour ; and several smaller works. The Journal of
Sacred Literature was founded by him in 1848. (By-
land’s Memoirs of Kitto, Edin. 1856, and Eclectic Review,
May 1856.) (j. e. r.)
KITZINGEN, a town of Bavaria, circle of Lower Fran¬
conia, on the right bank of the Maine, which is here crossed
by a handsome bridge, connecting the town with the suburb
of Etwashausen, both of which are surrounded with walls
flanked by towers. It is generally well built, carries on an
active trade, and has manufactures of cotton, vinegar, gun¬
powder, and dye stuffs. Pop. 5170.
KIU SIU. See Japan.
KIZILERMAK. See Harys.
KIZLIER, a fortified town of Russia, government of
Caucasus, on the left bank of the Terek, about 60 miles
from its mouth, on the Caspian. It carries on a consider¬
able trade, being an entrepot for the traffic between Persia,
Astrakan, and the interior. Its exports comprise wine,
brandy, silk, ofl of sesame, &c. Pop. (1849) 11,200.
KLAGENFURT, a town of Austrian Illyria, capital of
the duchy of Carinthia, on the Gian, 40 miles N.N.W. of
Laybach. It is a dull, old-looking town, and was formerly
surrounded by walls and ditches, but these were destroyed
by the French in 1809, and their site is now occupied by
a promenade. The streets, however, are wide and regu¬
larly built, and there are five public squares, one of which
has a leaden statue of Maria Theresa. The town has
many handsome buildings, among which are the palaces of
the pnnce of Rosenberg and of the bishop of Gark, the
latter of which contains fine collections of paintings, statu¬
ary, and minerals. The Landhaus, or House of Assembly
for the estates of Cavinthia, was built as early as 1391.
The old castle, or burg, is an interesting building. One of
the churches is remarkable for its fine tower, commanding
an extensive view of the surrounding country. Klagenfurt
has a normal school, lycaeum, gymnasium, and other edu¬
cational institutions, two hospitals, lunatic asylum, theatre,
and public library of aboutj 45,000 volumes. It has also
the largest white-lead manufactory in the empire. The
principal of its other manufactures are woollen and silk
fabrics. It carries on an extensive transit trade. A canal
3 miles in length connects the town with Lake Worth. Pop.
14,200.
KLAPROTH, Julius Heinrich yon, one of the most
illustrious of modern orientalists, was the son of the famous
chemist, Martin Heinrich Klaproth, and was born at Berlin
in 1783. His father’s desire was to train him to his own
profession, but at a very early age his instincts led him to
study the eastern tongues, and in his zeal for them he
neglected everything else. So completely was he ab¬
sorbed in them, that, when he was called up for examination
by the master of the gymnasium, he failed to answer the
simplest questions, “You know nothing, then?” said his
examiner. “ Sir, I know Chinese,” was the imply. “ Chi¬
nese ! who taught you?” “ No one ; I learned it alone.”
He brought forward the most indubitable proofs of the
truth of his statement, and his father, vexed as he was to
see his pet scheme thwarted, agreed to let his son take
his own way. In 1801 he sent him to Halle, on the ex-
K L A P R 0 T H.
Klaproth, press condition that he would there master the classical
Julius languages. In a few months the young Klaproth ex-
HTnn1Ch hauste5 the resources of the place, and in 1802 removed to
. Dresden, publishing in that year the first number of his
Asiatisches Magazin. Among others who were amazed by
the erudition of the young philologer was the learned Count
John Potocki. By his interest Klaproth was admitted into
the service of Russia, and in 1804 was called to St Peters¬
burg, where he joined the Academy of Sciences as associate
for the languages of Asia. Next year, when it was deter¬
mined to send an embassy to Pekin, Klaproth was fixed
upon as the interpreter of the party before even the am¬
bassador was selected. The choice at last fell upon Golow-
kin, while Potocki was charged with the scientific part of
the expedition. These arrangements were still pending
when Klaproth set out alone to make observations in the
less known parts of the Russian empire. Passing by Cazan
and Perm, he crossed the Ural Mountains, reached Eka-
therinburg, followed the course of the Irtish from Tobolsk
to Omsk, crossed the great steppes to Tomsk, and thence
to Irkutsk, near the shores of the Lake Baikal, the rendez¬
vous of the embassy. His object in taking this circuitous
route was to visit the Finnish and Tartar tribes of Siberia,
and study their manners, languages, and ethnology. From
Kiachta they crossed Mongolia to the Chinese frontier, but
had only advanced a very short way into the country when
they learned that the emperor had refused to receive them.
Golowkin, a weak and haughty man, had declined to go
through the ordinary forms of the Chinese court ceremonial,
and his obstinacy defeated the whole purpose of the em¬
bassy. Feaving his companions to return home as they
chose, Klaproth spent some months in wandering among
the savage tribes of Southern Siberia, studying their lan¬
guages and customs. After an absence of twenty months
he returned to St Petersburg in the spring of 1807, and
communicated to the Academy the results, both scientific
and political, of his mission. So valuable were these con¬
sidered, that, in the same year, he was again despatched to
prosecute his inquiries in the Caucasus, and on his return
in 1809 he was loaded with honours and rewards by the
Russian government. He took rank among the nobility
by being made a knight of the order of Vladimir. The
emperor himself gave him the title of Aulic councillor, and
the academy waved its usual formalities in making him an
extraordinary member. Great as these distinctions were,
however, they fell short of what Klaproth seemed to regard
as his due ; and when the government secretly suppressed
his intended publication of his travels, he began to find his
stay in St Petersburg uncomfortable. Leaving the capital,
he retired to Wilna, and, at the request of the Prince Czar-
toriski, drew up the plan of a special course of the eastern
languages, in connection with the university of that city.
He also drew up a catalogue of the Chinese and Manchu
books in the library, and in 1811 went to Berlin for the
purpose of carrying it in person through the press. Here
he tendered his resignation to the Russian government,
though he knew that by so doing he forfeited all his honours,
privileges, and pensions. Strange rumours got afloat as to
the real reasons of this infatuated act. It was even whis¬
pered that some valuable manuscripts and foreign books
had disappeared from the library, and that Klaproth knew
more about them than he cared to tell. At all events, in
1812, his official connection with Russia closed for ever.
His first care now was to publish his travels in the Cau¬
casus ; and he retired to Warmbrunn, a small village on
the confines of Bohemia and Silesia, to continue his studies
in peace and quiet. When the greaf'continental wars again
broke out in 1813, even this nook became an unsafe re¬
treat, and Klaproth was obliged to fly. In his wanderings
he became acquainted with some of the generals of Napo¬
leon, and by them he was taught to admire the great em-
VOL. XIII.
105
peror. So great indeed was his admiration, that when Klaproth,
Napoleon was caged in Elba, Klaproth visited the island Julius
for the express purpose of beholding his idol. He was well IIeinrich
received, and promised a place under government by the v 'on’
imperial prisoner if he should ever regain his throne. The
promise was made in all sincerity; but during his second
reign of the “ Hundred Days” the emperor was too busy
to remember it, and Klaproth retired to Florence, where he
lived for a time in great straits. Returning to Paris in
1815, he there met his old friend Potocki, and by his ad¬
vice resolved to establish himself there as a litterateur.
By this means he obtained a scanty livelihood; but his
prospects were gloomy indeed, when he had the good for¬
tune to fall in with his countryman, William Von Hum¬
boldt. By this distinguished scholar, whose studies had
lain very much in the same direction with his own, Klap¬
roth was brought under the notice of the king of Prussia,
and nominated royal professor of the Asiatic languages and
literature, with a handsome salary. He was, besides, pre¬
sented with a large sum of money to defray the cost of
printing his works, and was allowed to remain in Paris so
long as he thought fit. Thus provided for, Klaproth prose¬
cuted his researches with renewed vigour, and it was after
this date (1816) that he produced nearly all the works on
which his fame depends. He had acquired at the Russian
court a love of pleasure and refined society, and such time
as he could now steal from his books and manuscripts was
spent in gratifying this taste. In the intellectual and social
excitements of Paris he was in his element, and he plunged
into both with an ardour far beyond his strength. In 1833
frequent palpitation of the heart seemed to indicate that dis¬
ease was sapping the centre of life. Symptoms of dropsy
next began to show themselves. He derived a little benefit
from a journey to Berlin in 1834, when he was received with
open arms by the king of Prussia and the scholars of that
country. On his return to Paris he again grew worse,
and his malady was aggravated by occasional fits of mental
alienation. All the medical skill of Paris was of no avail.
After great and protracted suffering, he died August 27,
1835. His remains were followed to the grave, in the
cemetery of Montemartre, by nearly all the learned and
scientific men then in Paris. Conspicuous among them
was Alexander Von Humboldt.
Since Klaproth’s death his fame has continued to rise,
and his works are now appreciated at their full value. His
merits as a philologer are very great; but his merits as a
linguist are greater still. It may be safely averred, that of
the great linguists of his day (and they were many), none
stood higher than he. His memory, both for comprehen¬
siveness and accuracy, was unrivalled, and served him so
well that most of his papers were written without other
aids than that of an occasional note. His versatility and
activity of mind were equally remarkable; and, though his
style was often careless and incorrect, the substance of his
writing was both clear and well arranged. In whatever he
wrote he aimed at accuracy above all things, and so into¬
lerant was he of errors, that, even when the mistake was
committed by a personal friend, he looked upon it as a duty
to expose the offender without mercy. To quackery and
charlatanism, especially in his own proper walk, he was an
implacable foe; and there never was any thing, in its own
way, more complete than his exposure of a Pretended
Translation of the Works of Confucius from the Original
Text, a literary imposition jrom the Works of Dr William
Schott. This pamphlet was written to expose the preten¬
sions of Schott, who had given out that, to understand the
text of Confucius, he had called in the aid of two learned
Chinese recently arrived in Germany. The persons in
question were indeed Chinamen, but the one had been a
cook and the other a mechanic near Canton. When Dr
Schott found them, they had been earning a scanty liveli-
o
106 K L A
Klaproth, hood by showing themselves for money in the various towns
Martin 0f Germany. The Prussian government had engaged them
Heinrich. to teach their native tongue at Halle. Klaproth proved
p,ey0nj a tloubt that the pretended version of Schott had
been taken, not from the original text, but from the English
translation of Marsham, published at Serampore-, the nume¬
rous inaccuracies of which had been exposed by the French
orientalist Remusat. The severity with which he punished
the impostors was great; but he often shewed a similar,
if not equal rigour, in cases where it was by no means so
well deserved. Indeed, the irascibility of his temper caused
him to be hardly less dreaded by his friends than by his
enemies.
Klaproth’s works are very numerous ; so numerous, that,
in his life, by his friend Eyries, in the BiograpJiie Uni-
verselle, the mere enumeration of them occupies ten pages.
Even this long list is far from exhausting them, and the
reader is referred for further particulars to the catalogue oi
them prepared in 1839 by M. Merlin, a Parisian book¬
seller. The great majority of them, however, it must be
remembered, are merely short essays, pamphlets, and re¬
view articles. The subjoined list contains the most im¬
portant of them:—
Asiatischcs Magazin, Weimar, 1802, 2 vols. 8vo, to which Klap¬
roth contributed the most important papers ; llcise in den Kauka-
ms, Hallo and Berlin, 1812-14, 2 vols. 8vo, to which two supple¬
ments were afterwards added, one on the languages of the country,
and another on the geography of the Eastern Caucasus; Abhand-
lung iibar die Sprache und Schrift der Uiguren, Paris, 1820, 8vo;
Archives de la Litterature, da VHistoire, ct de la Linguistique de
VAsie, St Petersburg, 1810, 4to ; Supplement an Dictionnaire Chinois
du Pere Basil de Glemona, Paris, 1819, fol.; Asia Polyglotta, Paris,
1823, 4to, in which the Asiatic nations are distributed according
to their idioms, which are divided into twenty-three classes ; Me-
moires relatifs d VAde contenants dcs recherches Ilistoriques, Geogra-
pldques, et Philologiques sur les Peuples de VOrient, Paris, 1826-28,
3 vols. 8vo, with maps and plates; Vocabulaire et Grammaire de la
Langue Georgienne, Paris, 1827, 8vo; Examen Critique des travaux
de M. Champollion jeune sur les Hieroglyph.es, Paris, 1832, 8vo;
Chrestomathie Mandchou, Paris, 1828, 8vo ; Notice d'une Mappe-
monde et (Pune Cosmagraphie Chinoises, Paris, 1833, 8vo; La lire d
M. le Baron A. de Humboldt sur I'origine de la Boussole, Paris, 1834,
in which he proves that the compass was in use among the Chinese
many centuries before it became known to the western world;
Tableau Historique, Geographique, Ethnographique, et Politique, du
Caucase et des provinces limitrophes entre la Russie et la Perse, Paris,
1828, 8vo, a work which has often been laid under contribution by
subsequent writers on that country. Among the many works which
Klaproth edited, may be mentioned Guldenstadt’s Travels in Geor¬
gia and Tmeritia, and his Description of the Caucasian countries ;
Timkowski’s Voyage a Pekin a travers la Mongolia en 1820 et 21,
Paris, 1827, 2 vols. 8vo; Count Potocki’s Travels in the Steppes of
Astracan and the Caucasus, and his New Voyage round the Euxine,
Paris, 1829, 2 vols. Svo; Orazio della Penna’s Brief Notice of the
Kingdom of Thibet, Paris, 1835 ; besides many other works bearing
chiefly upon Central Asia. His contributions to the periodical press
of France and Germany would fill many volumes. Many of these,
especially his papers in the Biographic Univtrselle, are in their way
almost unique, and of very great value.
Klapuoth, Martin Heinrich, a distinguished analy¬
tical chemist of Germany, was born at Wernegerode, in
Upper Saxony, December 1, 1743. Intended originally
for the church, he was sent to school to receive the prepa¬
ratory training. The harsh treatment he met with gave
him a distaste for study, and, bent on becoming an apothe¬
cary,he entered the public laboratory of Quedlinburg, where
he spent seven years, chiefly in. learning to manipulate.
He then removed to Hanover, where he spent two years
more in the public laboratory of the place. In 1770 he
went to Danzig, whence he was recalled to Berlin to assist
the famous Valentin Hose. On the death of that emi¬
nent chemist in the following year, Klaproth succeeded
him in his various offices. In 1787 he was made a mem¬
ber ot the Academy of Arts, and, in the following year, of
the Academy of Sciences. A few years later he became
K L A
professor of chemistry in the Royal Mining Institute, and Klarenza
assessor in the Supreme College of Medicine and Health. _ H
He died at Berlin, January 1, 1817. KlausthaL
The great value of Klaproth’s labours lay in the skill
with which he applied chemical analysis to minerals, chiefly
with a view to their proper classification. It was thus that
he discovered zircon in the jargon of Ceylon; that he de¬
monstrated the presence of potash in volcanic productions;
that he made known the sulphate of strontian ; that he found
potash in the leucite or white garnet; that he discovered
in red schorl a new metal, which lie named titanium, an¬
other in pechblende which he called uranium, and a third
in the ore of white gold, to which he gave the name of tel¬
lurium. He also made known the molybdate of lead, and
proved that the ore of red silver was a sulpburet of silver
and antimony. Such are the most important of M. Kla¬
proth’s labours, those, in fact, which entitle him to rank
amongst the most distinguished chemists of his age ; but
he published, besides, a considerable number of analyses of
fossil substances, which may be found in the Journal de
Physique, the Annales de Chimie, the Journal des Mines,
and other collections of this sort. He also prepared a mine-
ralogical system, which is mainly founded upon the consti¬
tuent principles of minerals. His Memoirs of Chemistry
have been collected and translated into French by Tas-
saert, Paris 1807, in two vols. Svo. Lastly, he composed,
in conjunction with Wolf, a Dictionary of Chemistry, in
four vols. Svo; a work which was translated into French
by Bouillon-Lagrange and Vagel. Klaproth greatly con¬
tributed to advance the science of mineralogy, and his re¬
searches have thrown much light on the system of Werner,
as well as on the classification of Hally. His discoveries,
and, above all, his particular means of analysis, have served
to guide several French chemists, who are indebted to him
for part, at least, of the fortunate results which have re¬
warded their researches.
KLARENZA, a village of the Morea, on a bay of the-
same name (the ancient Cyllene), about 15 miles from Zante.
It has the remains of a mediaeval fortress, from which the
name of the dukedom of Clarence wras long supposed to have
been derived, the title being said to have come with Queen
Philippa from the Hainault family, into which a daughter
of the house of Clarenza had married. Colonel Leake pro¬
nounces this opinion “ unfounded,” and says there can be
no question that Clarence was the district of Clare in Suf¬
folk. The title was first given by Edward III. to his son
Lionel in 1362.
KLAUSENBURG (in Hungarian, Colosvar), a royal
free town of Austria, the capital of Transylvania, on the
Szamos, 72 miles N.N.W. of Hermannstadt. It is situated
in the midst of a beautiful and fertile valley, surrounded by
mountains, and consists of an inner town (subdivided into
the old and the new), with walls, seats, and towers, and six
suburbs. It has a fine old Gothic cathedral, besides churches
and convents, an academical lyceum and library, Roman
Catholic gymnasium, a Reformed and a Unitarian college,
several hospitals, a theatre, public gardens, a ruined castle,
and numerous palaces of the nobility. The trade and
manufactures are unimportant. Pop. in 1846, 25,500, con¬
sisting of natives of Saxon descent, Hungarians, Germans,
Armenian Greeks, Jews, &c., all enjoying equal rights.
Klausenburg is supposed to occupy the site of the Claudia
or Claudiopolis of the Romans, upon which a Saxon colony
founded a new or enlarged city in 1178. King Matthias
Corvinus was born here.
KLAUSTHAL, the principal mining town of the Harz
district, Hanover, is situated on the top and sides of a bleak
hill, at an elevation of 1860 feet, 25 miles N.E. of Gottin¬
gen. A small stream, called the Zellerbach, over which
there is a bridge, divides it Horn the village of ZellerfeliL
It contains a mint, where the precious metals of the dis-
K L 0 K N I 107
Rolpstock trict are assayed and coined, a mining-school (for the
li free education of young miners, with a large collection of
Knares- nio(]e]s Gf machinery, &c., and a cabinet of minerals, a
v orouS • ^ gymnasium, &c. Pop. 9070; of Zellerfekl, 4176, chiefly
employed in, or in connection with, the mines, a few also in
manufactures of iron-ware, woollen cloths, yarn, See. The
neighbouring mines employ above 2000 workmen; one of
them, the Georg- Wilhelm, descends below the sea-level.
A subterranean canal, above 2^- miles long, conveys the ore
from some of the shafts, and they are all drained by a sub¬
terranean tunnel 6 miles long. The whole machinery of
the mines is moved by water-power, and all the streams of
the neighbourhood are carefully husbanded for this purpose.
KLOPSTOCK, Friedrich Gottlieb, was born July
2, 1724, at Quedlinburg in Prussian Saxony, and was edu¬
cated first at the gymnasium of that town, and afterwards
at the Schulpforte, near Naumburg. Here he paid great
attention to the ancient classics, and formed the resolution
of writing a great epic poem. The choice of a subject per¬
plexed him; but at this time the reign of the Emperor
Henry I., known as Henry the Fowler, seems to have at¬
tracted him most. In 1745 he studied theology at Jena,
and commenced in solitude the first canto of his Messiah.
In Leipzig, where he went next year, he formed an ac¬
quaintance with Cramer, Schlegel, Rabener, Zacharia, and
others, who were then publishing the J3remische Beitrage.
The first three cantos of the Messiah appeared in this perio¬
dical in 1748, and excited universal attention. They made
a still greater impression in Switzerland; and, when their
author visited that country in 1750, the people looked upon
him with a sort of veneration. In Denmark, too, they met
with a very favourable reception; and Klopstock was in¬
vited to Copenhagen by the minister Bernstorff, with a
small pension to finish the poem. Setting out in 1751, he
travelled through Brunswick and Hamburg, and in the
latter city made the acquaintance of Meta Moller, whom
he married in the summer of 1754. The steps by which
his acquaintance with this lady ripened into love are de¬
scribed with great beauty and simplicity in his well-known
letters, written, when she had become his wife, to Samuel
Richardson, and afterwards published in that novelist’s cor¬
respondence. Four years after his marriage he had the
misfortune to lose his wife, who died in childbed in 1758.
from 1759 to 1766 he resided alternately at Brunswick,
Quedlinburg, and Blankenberg, and afterwards at Copen¬
hagen. In 1764 he published his Hermann’s Schlacht
(Battle of Arminius), and sent it to the Emperor Joseph,
hut not with the success which, in his patriotic enthusiasm,
he had promised himself. After this he entered upon his
investigations into the German tongue. In 1771, after the
dismissal of Bernstorff, Klopstock left Copenhagen for Ham¬
burg, as secretary to the Danish legation, and counsellor of
the Margraviate of Baden. In Hamburg he finished the
Messiah. In 1792 he married a second time. His prin¬
cipal amusement in winter was skating; and he was more
than once in imminent danger of losing his life by it. He
died March 14, 1803. His body was buried with great
pomp and solemnity in the presence of thousands of spec¬
tators. A complete edition of his works was published at
Leipzig, in 12 vols. 4to, 1798—1817; and they have been
since reprinted in a 12mo form. The hundreth anniver¬
sary of his birth was celebrated at Quedlinburg and Al-
tona, July 2, 1824. A monument has been erected in his
honour in the former town. (For a critique on his style
and works, see Poetry.)
KNARESBOROUGH, a market-town and parliamen¬
tary burgh of Yorkshire, W. Riding, 18 miles W. by N. of
fork. It is finely situated on a rocky slope on the left
bank of the Nidd, which is crossed by two bridges, and is
well built, chiefly of stone, with good streets, and a spa¬
cious market-place. It contains a handsome old Gothic
church, a free grammar school, and a literary institute, with Kneller
a small library. Its manufactures of cotton and linen have Jl
greatly declined. The borough has returned two members v Knight-
to parliament since 1553; constituency (1856) 252. Pop. /"*■'
(1851) 5536. Knaresborough Castle, now in ruins, was
founded in 1170 by Serlo de Burgh; it was a fortress
of great strength. On the opposite bank of the river is
the “Dropping Well,” a petrifying spring. Further down
the valley are several objects of antiquarian interest, among
them is St Robert’s Cave, the scene of the murder by Eu¬
gene Aram, who was a schoolmaster in the town.
KNELLER, Sir Godfrey, a celebrated portrait painter,
was born at Lubeck in 1648. He studied first in the
school of Rembrandt, and on the death of that great mas¬
ter became a pupil of Ferdinand Bole. In due time he
set out for Italy to perfect himself in his art. At Rome,
and more especially at Venice, he gained himself a con¬
siderable name, both by his historical pieces and portraits.
During the latter part of Ins stay he had more commissions
than he could execute. Leaving Venice, he settled for a
time at Hamburg, where he became even more popular
than he had been in Italy. On the invitation of the Duke
of Monmouth he crossed over to England, and was intro¬
duced to Charles II. The “ merry monarch” was so
pleased with him that he sat to him for his portrait several
times. On the death of Sir Peter Lely he found himself
without a rival in England. Appointed court painter by
Charles II., he held that office under James II., William
III., Anne, and George I. The last named king made
him a baronet, the Emperor Leopold I. created him a
knight of the Roman empire, and he received similar com-
pliments from other European princes. Till the last his
industry continued unabated; and as he was frugal, even
to avarice, he was able to amass a very large fortune. He
died in 1723, in his seventy-sixth year.
Kneller’s fame, great as it was in his own day, has not
very successfully stood the test of time. His colour, always
brilliant, is deficient in truthfulness ; and a strong manner¬
ism is conspicuous in many of his pictures. From a habit
which he had of lengthening the oval of all his heads, there
is a kind of monotony throughout his portraits. Though,
on the whole, he was quite unequal to his predecessor Lely,
many of his separate pieces rival his, both in loftiness of
conception and force of colouring. Kneller’s works are
confined almost entirely to England, not more than one or
two specimens having ever found their way abroad. Dr
VVaagen, in his Art Treasures of Great Britain, gives a
list of his best works, with the galleries in which they
hang. See Painting.
KNIGHT, Richard Payne, author of an essay on the
Principles of Taste, and a distinguished patron of art and
learning in England, was born at Wormsley Grange, in
Hereford, in 1750. From an early age he devoted him¬
self to the study of Greek literature and antiquities. On
his father’s death he succeeded to a princely fortune, of
which he devoted a large proportion to the purchase of an¬
tiques, especially Greek coins and bronzes. He continued
collecting till his death, in 1824, and bequeathed his mag¬
nificent cabinet (valued at L.50,000) to the British Museum.
Of his numerous works, the most generally interesting is
his Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of Taste, which,
though severely reviewed by the periodical press, and espe¬
cially by the Edinburgh Review, passed through several
editions. He maintained that the most important, and,
indeed, the only considerable part of beauty, depended upon
association, though he insisted that there is a beauty in¬
dependent of association, prior to it and more original and
fundamental—the primitive and natural beauty of colours
and sounds. (See art. Beauty.) His other works were—
An Account of the Remains of the Worship of Priapus
lately existing at hernia, in the Kingdom of Naples; an
108 K N I
Knights. Analytical Essay on the Greek Alphabet, 4to, Lond. 1 /91 ;
^ •m- ^ ^ and three poems, The Landscape, 1 < 94 ; The Progress of
Civil Society, 1796 ; and the Romance of Alfred, in 1823.
He also contributed to the Edinburgh and other reviews.
His prose works all exhibit learning and acuteness, which,
if bestowed on subjects other than whims and hobbies, might
have made him a lasting name among the scholars of Great
K N I
Britain. His poems have not the slightest shadow of a Knighton
claim to that title. There was probably no kind of compo-
sition for which their author was not better fitted than poetry.
KNIGHTON, a small market-town, municipal and ^ '
parliamentary borough of Radnorshire, picturesquely situated
on the Teme, 8| miles N.N.E.of the county town, to which
it is a contributory borough. Pop. 1388.
KNIGHTS AND KNIGHTHOOD.
In the days of the Roman Empire, the exercise of
arms was a profession. In the contusion which followed
on the breaking up of that vast dominion, the profes¬
sion of arms became an inheritance. The lord of land
had to defend what he held from other lords who co¬
veted it. As Christian civilization and social law prevailed,
the profession of arms once more became a mere exercise.
In the rude transition state of society, every man with pro¬
perty to lose, was necessarily a man-at-arms, ready to de¬
fend it; they who were less wealthily endowed assumed
arms and sold their services. The sons of a noble family
had, indeed, choice of but two vocations—they naturally
went to the camp or the cloister; sometimes they com¬
menced with the first, and, when weary of their calling,
sought retirement in the latter. The Christian knight was
a grand idea; but he was often only an idea, too seldom a
realization ; his professions were, with very rare exceptions,
better than his practice,—and even Bayard, eminent for his
religious zeal, does not seem to have been a truer knight
than /Eneas, whose most resplendent title was drawn from
his piety.
Apart from Christianity, the knight (in his character
of warrior) may be said to have existed in all times. He
who gave the first challenge to a duel,—the youthful
David, who summoned and slew the gigantic Philistine, was
moved by one of the most exciting impulses of chivalry—
the defence of a good cause, and the reputation arising from
exercising such defence with success. I he virtues, and
even the errors, of the Grecian leaders,—their valour, their
obedience, their love for, rather than devotion to, woman,
their zeal for the gods, their defiance of temptation, their
consequent vices, their repentance, and the idea that trium¬
phant bravery was a compensation for all backslidings,—
these were characteristics not merely of a heathen but also
of a Christian chivalry. In Odin’s Walhalla it was the brave
alone who sat at the permanent board, and drank wine out
of the skulls of their craven enemies. The spirit of no
coward ever glided among the groves of Elysium. The
Christian knight who quailed was deemed the rejected of
heaven, unless reconciliation could be effected beneath the
cowl. Undaunted courage was the first qualification of a
knight; to have a heart touched by love divine, and affected
not less readily by human love, was perhaps his second ;
these, with truthfulness, charity, and a rigid sense and prac¬
tice of justice, were expected of him. I hey were found in
the few rather than in the many. Even in the Holy Land,
when St Louis led the zealous host which left France and
sailed across the deep to the harmony of religious chants,
sung by the very sailors as they trimmed their sails,—even
under the view of that sepulchre which they had come to
rescue from the infidel, and around the royal tent itself,
the camp of the Christian knights was too often a scene of
wild debauchery. The priest was indeed there to reprove,
and to urge to a better course of life ; and the knights pro¬
bably repented as frequently as they offended. The sys¬
tem to which they had bound themselves was good, but
they were continually infringing the rules of the system.
The exceptions were many, it may be hoped, but the
knights cannot, as a body, be said to have been firmly
“ mounted on their principles.” So excellent, however, was
the principle, that a perfect knight was a character of almost
superhuman grandeur. It has been said, it is true, that
only in the system of Christian chivalry were its followers
taught to refine the rudenesses of society by a tender reve¬
rence for woman, and by assaulting to the death those who
would offend her, or put her honour in peril. But, in jus¬
tice to the old Germans, it must be confessed, that when
the too gallant Romans attacked the tribes who rallied
round the valiant Herman, the honour of the German women
was the jewel most highly prized by the tribes. On the
other hand, Walter Scott has illustrated the most romanti¬
cally chivalrous period in England—that of king Arthur—
by introducing three knights, of whom he significantly says—
“ There were two who loved their neighbours’ wives,
And one who loved his own.”
It must be remembered, however, that it was not till long
after the establishment of Christianity that a religious cha¬
racter was given to knighthood. It has been sagely sug¬
gested that, as a system, it owes its morality to feudalism,
which demanded from its champions truth, obedience, and
bravery. The author of the Letters on Chivalry and Ro¬
mance, published anonymously nearly a century ago, but
well known to be from the pen of Bishop Hurd, states that
chivalry, as a military order, conferred by investiture, and
with certain oaths and ceremonies, sprung immediately out
of the feudal constitution. When the lords of land, already
referred to, were not in a state of war, the martial ardour
of themselves and followers was kept up by jousts and tour¬
naments. Knights, otherwise unemployed, rode leisurely
from court to court, challenging the most famous wielders
of sword or battle-axe in each city through which they
passed. When the feudal policy generally prevailed through¬
out a great part of Europe, first the military, and then the
religious, system of chivalry grew up as its natural conse¬
quence. Its effects went, however, much farther than this,
it inspired not only the men, but it induced even female
warriors to be moved by a passion for arms, to wander in
quest of stirring adventure, to strive for the honours of
knighthood and the rewards of valour, and to win fame in
any way that spotless knight could win it. The romances
illustrative of chivalry, and which tell us of handsome pages
following their master to the field, falling in his defence,
and being discovered to be love-lorn damsels, at least have
no doubt a wide foundation on fact. The wife of Robert
the Norman fought at his side, not under cover of his shield,
like the young chief of the clan Quhele under that of Tor-
quil, but “shoulder to shoulder,” leaving him, only to rally
the fugitives and lead them once more to the field. The
Crusades saw many a female knight incased in steel, and
valiantly doing knightly duty ; and the poet of the Crusades
has made use of the fact in order to brighten some of the
most lively incidents of his marvellous tale.
In the state of feudalism, when society seemed antago¬
nistic, one portion against the other, and combatants often
fought, not with respect to the justice of the quarrel, but
with reference to the guerdon to be got by fighting, the
horrors of war were many and terrible. It was the interest
KNIGHTS AND KNIGHTHOOD.
109
Knights
and
Knight¬
hood.
of all to temper them by generosity, justice, and acts of
mercy. The example was good for the friend of to-day
who might be a foe on the morrow ; and thereby the present
, foe was the more readily converted into friend, comrade, or
partizan. When the piping time of peace had arrived there
was still occupation for the knight, in addition to joust or
tournament. I he captives of the last, or of any fray, who
had not reappeared, were to be sought out and recovered ;
and the going in quest of adventures for the benefit of
these or of any other distressed individuals, was of the very
essence of chivalry, and the great glory of knighthood.
Another end in view was the instruction and edification of
the young knight by travelling. He sojourned on his way
at many a court, from that of king to that of baron. Each
of the latter held court, inferior, indeed, to that of the sove¬
reign, but only in numbers, not in such refinement as was
consistent with stately ceremony. Hence, he learnt cour¬
tesy, or practised what he had previously learned. The
courteous knight derived that qualifying name from the
practice of the manners which prevailed, or ought to have
prevailed, in the courts of king or noble; for
“ Of court, it seems, men courtesie doe call,
For that it there most useth to abound.”
The authority of Spencer, however, has been met by that
of Milton to show that such practice did not hold good in
later times; for courtesy, as Milton understood it, was then
sooner found in lonely sheds,
With smokey rafters than in tapestried halls
And courts of princes, where it first was named,
And yet is most pretended.”
These last words, however, will serve to show that the
practice had not died out in the great poet’s time. He,
however, saw in such practice only a pretence, and he pre¬
ferred the honest rough manner of the rigid republicans to
the most polished style of the most courtly of the cavaliers.
1 o be faithful to the courteous knight was the religion
of his mistress. She was, or was taught to be, as true in
devotion as he was strong and ready to protect. He being
of the bravest, merited the distinction of being the favourite
servant of her whom he hailed as the “most fair.” But it
must be confessed, that this reciprocity of tenderness and
service must have existed, and did naturally exist, in all
states of society where women looked to men for protection,
and where they knew that, if they themselves lacked faith,
they would not, in their great need, find a defender.
If chivalry itself enjoined “love for the ladies,” the
church added to the injunction the necessity, also, of love
towards God. It w;as held that he who felt the one must
be inspired by the other; and possessing both, his happi¬
ness was secured here and hereafter. He who despised
the one would be deserted of the other. There were
knights who fell into the pow'er of the Saracens, and who
changed their religion. Ihese were branded as “recreant
knights, who had abandoned their God and proved false to
their ladies. I he double faith was impressed upon the very
pages; and when the young ladies of the family whipped
the latter for some peccadillo, the fair scourger would
taunt him with lacking a heart that would never know how'
to be true to a lady. After the whipping at such hands,
the embryo knight would be laid hold of by the chaplain, and
giavely informed that he who could not gain the respect of
WaS likdy deserve an affection more divine.
When young Jacques de Lelaing entered the first list in
the career of his thirty tournaments, he declared that no
opponent could possibly unhorse him, unless God forgot to
guard, and his lady to pray for him.
The Gothic system of chivalry has by some been looked
upon as a reproduction of the heroic system. This fact
has been already alluded to. In Greece, especially, has
the similarity been detected by some writers. The nume¬
rous petty and independent governments there bear a Knights
resemblance to those of feudal times. In each system, the ^ail<i
sword was the instrument of honour. The readers of Thu-
cydides will not fail to remember that, at the very com- v
mencement of his history, he tells us at what period the
Athenians began to leave off wearing the sword as a com¬
mon appendage to the dress. When this change of fashion
was effected, he recognised the extinction of a primitive
sort of feudality. Times of violence had gone by ; and as
the wearing of the sword commonly only led to bloody
quarrels, and kept up a race of ruffians, it ceased to be
fashionable, because it ceased to be the distinctive sign of
a courteous gentleman. It is curious that Beau Nash
ordered the disuse of the swrord as an appendage to the
dress in the Bath Rooms, over which he ruled supreme, for
the very reason adduced so many years before, with respect
to the Athenians, by Thucydides. Ceasing to be a mark of no¬
bility, noble and gentle ungirded’the weapon from their loins.
But there were many things similar, besides the extinc¬
tion of the two sorts of chivalry, in the surrender of their
common emblem—the sword. The Abbe Banier has
shown us, in his great unveiling of the mysteries of classical
stories, that the gods, monsters, and other heroes of legend
and poetry, were but men, described after an exaggerated
and distorted fashion, just as we know that the giants and
savages of the romances of chivalry were only greater or
less feudal lords of a more or less dread character. As for
the hapless virgins delivered by cruel parents to old dragons,
from whom they are rescued by enterprising knights,—they
are but maidens compelled to wed against their will, and
who are carried off from their ill-matching mates just as
young Lochinvar carried off the lady—too happy to fly with
him—from the Forsters, the Fenwicks, and the Musgroves
of Netherby. In many of these cases the heroes work
under the irresistible power of enchantment. The greatest
charm that impelled either classic or Gothic knight was
that which acted on him from his lady’s eyes. Occasion¬
ally, these charms were of too great a potentiality ; but if
ill results ensued, there was a happy method of getting out
of the difficulty. Semele ascribed the paternity of her joy¬
ous son to the much-calumniated Jupiter: in later times,
when it was obvious that anxious ingenuity could not find
profit by plagiarizing such an idea, many a foundling was
brought into a baronial hall, and reared to knighthood
under the designation of being “ fairy-born.”
The courtesies of knighthood are among the best parts
of the institution which has descended to us. They have
existed among brave men since the time that Tubal Cain
welded the first blade. Stern, but courteous, are the
heroes of the Iliad: as stern, though less courteous, was
Bayard, who was not averse to dealing an unfair blow, if it
secured to him an advantage; and more courteous, yet
perhaps even more stern, were those great captains of
modern times who met at Fontenoy, and who almost
deferred the battle till the next day, each being anxiously
polite in requesting his adversary to commence the exter¬
minating fire. It was the courtesy of chivalry that inspired
Crillon to send vegetables to the scurvy-infected Elliot,
whom he was besieging in Gibraltar ; and, to come down
to the last example, it was perhaps an unnecessary cour¬
tesy which inspired Sir Edward Lyons, when our own
men were lying half-famished in the trenches before
Sebastopol, to send a fat buck to the hostile admiral
within the city. Still, courtesy between knights engaged
in hostilities has ever received an universal and approv¬
ing acknowledgment. When George II. sent the Gar¬
ter to Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, the great victor
at Minden, his investiture took place in front of the whole
army. I he French General, De Broglie, learning the
nature of the ceremony, generously hastened to do honour
to valour by the exercise of which the French had grievously
110 KNIGHTS AND
Knights suffered. He, too, drew up his men within sight of the
and spectacle, and then saluted the new knight, whose skill and
Knight- enrage pad been rewarded by George II. De Broglie
hood' y dined in the evening in Ferdinand’s tent, the guest of his
great adversary. On the following day they were as fierce
enemies as ever.
The alleged fact, that the courtesy of Christian knights
towards women was always of a more refined nature than
that of the ancient heroes, has been accounted for on the
ground of the difference of civil condition in the two.
Under the feudal system, the ladies could hold fiefs, and
hence, it has been suggested, the respect paid by chevaliers
to dames so privileged. This is judging knightly gallantry
by a very debased standard. It would simply prove that
chivalry respected only a wealthy virtue, and that Christian
knights, like common adventurers, had regard only for rich
heiresses. The truth is, that the Christian system raised
the condition of woman, and made of her a companion for
man. The heroes of classical times did not sit at meat with
the heroines. Under chivalry it was the greatest sign
of friendship for a knight and fair companion to eat oft'
the same plate. In such case it was understood that the
two were unmarried. We have instances in romance of
married ladies expostulating with their jealous lords, and
giving warrant of their own reserved bearing by protesting
that never, since their espousal, had they eaten off the
same plate with any knight, rave their respective husbands.
No doubt the courtesy of which we were before speaking
degenerated in many cases into mere formality ; and often
it was practised simply because it was the fashion. Louis
XIV., for instance, was so scrupulously polite towards wo¬
men, that he would not pass the lowest female servant in
his palace without lifting his hand to his plumed hat. The
multitude of courtiers followed the fashion thus royally set;
and woman became an object of adoration. But this mere
empty fashion lacked the Christian and chivalrous senti¬
ment ; and the very Knights of the Holy Ghost were ever
ready to degrade the fair object which they professed to
worship.
It must be confessed, however, that this was a period
posterior to that of the so-called Gothic Knights, by which
chivalry is usually judged. In the romantic descriptions of
the feudal period something must be allowed for the ima¬
gination of the romancers. Still, checking them by history,
and remembering the influences most powerful at the period
in question, it cannot be denied that it abounds with proofs
of ennobling love and triumphs of exalted friendship. These
were the more renowned at the time, because of their rarity
in the ages immediately preceding, and among the rude
contemporaries from whom such instances of truthful affec¬
tion and friendship exacted admiration. The pyramid of
praise raised in honour of the virtue of Lucretia and the
continence of Scipio is a satire upon the manners of the
women and of the leaders of armies of the two periods.
The eulogy awarded to faithful knights is an unsatisfactory
proof of the general condition of the times and of the so¬
ciety in which they lived. It was a part of their mission to
reform both; and hence the praise which has been showered
on their vocation, and the respect paid to the virtues, in
the practice of which they set so bright an example. That
some knights failed either to fulfil the vocation to which
they had bound themselves, and to practise the virtues
which were held to be inseparable from the knightly cha¬
racter, is only a proof that chivalry was not above poor hu¬
man nature and its many errors. In Germany, perhaps,
the system was carried out more completely than in any
other country, and it is precisely there that the phrase, “ Er
will Ritter an mir werden,”—He wants to play the knight
over me,—implied an inclination to oppress and do wrong on
.he part of the Ritter or knight. Our own early poets were
^cute observers of the defects of chivalry; but because they
K N I GII T II GOD.
satirised these, they did not, therefore, believe that chivalry Knights
itself had been founded on a wrong principle. If Chaucer apd
raises a laugh by Sir Topaz, he makes amends by exacting
respect for Cambuscan.
Bacon, in speaking of knighthood as a military dignity,
remarks, that u there be now, for martial encouragement,
some degrees and orders of chivalry, which are neverthe¬
less conferred promiscuously upon soldiers and no soldiers.”
The rules by which the conferring of chivalry was regulated
were, from very early times, irregularly observed. Bacon’s
words, “ martial encouragement,” have, perhaps, especial
reference to these innovations. In the early feudal period,
men who had borne themselves nobly in battle received not
“ martial encouragement,” so much as “ martial reward;”
and they were dubbed knights, that
“ By their light
Might all the chivalry of England move,
To do brave acts.”
In process of time, however, martial encouragement often
took place of martial reward ; and we frequently hear of
men being made knights previous to a battle, in order to
inspire them with indomitable resolution in the coming
fight. The spurs were thus significative of a stimulant;
and he to whose heels they were affixed before the battle
felt, that if he had not to win, he had at least to prove that
he deserved those appendages to, as well as symbols of,
chivalry.
In certain cases this rule was no doubt found effective.
At all events, it rested on a better principle than that of
later times, which affixes stars of knighthood on the breasts
of men with nothing to recommend them save brute
courage, but whose incompetency and indifference have
been more fatal to their heroically patient followers than
the arms or valour of their adversaries. Bacon states, that
the honours of chivalry were conferred promiscuously upon
soldiers and no soldiers. The first civilian in England, or,
to describe him more correctly, the first tradesman in Eng¬
land, who was a recipient of these honours, was that Sir
William Walworth, Lord Mayor of London, who won the
distinction by slaying, in presence of the king, that unlucky
Wat Tyler, whose insurrectionary spirit had not been ex¬
cited without something like reasonable cause. Sir Wil¬
liam was a tradesman; but he drew profit also from less
honourable sources than those of trade; and the houses
along the river side, of which he was the proprietor, brought
him a revenue less cleanly earned than that which Vespasian
derived from his celebrated tax. The popular error, which
describes the sword in the shield of arms of the city of
London as one placed there in memory of the knight’s-
service rendered by Sir William in Smithfield, does rank in¬
justice to St Paul. The sword in the shield is the sword
of the great apostle; and had the first tradesman-knight in
England been moved as readily by the apostolic principle,
as he was to use the sword, he would perhaps have been
a less wealthy man, but he would have been none the less
worthy a knight. In Bacon’s own time there was a “ no
soldier” who attained the dignity of knight for better ser¬
vice rendered to the community than that which Walworth
had rendered to the king. The individual in question was
Spielman. His great service was in erecting a paper-mill,
the first ever seen in England. This general service re¬
ceived the great reward of knighthood at the hands of Eliza¬
beth. The same guerdon was given by her father for
service profitable only to his own royal person. As an in¬
stance may be cited the proctor Tregonnel. This astute
lawyer had been employed in the affair of the divorce be¬
tween Henry and Katherine of Aragon ; and his ability
had been exercised to such speedy and desired purpose,
that the enfranchised monarch, free to marry again, made
a knight and a pensioner of the proctor whose zeal had
mainly helped, and certainly hastened, the completion of the
KNIGHTS AND KNIGHTHOOD.
Ill
Knights
and
Knight¬
hood.
cherished object of the king. On the other hand, Charles
I. conferred the honour of knighthood on a Scottish eccle¬
siastic ; but the reason for such act has not been ascertained.
The fact, however, remains undisputed, that, at his corona¬
tion, Charles raised to the dignity of a knight William Mur¬
ray, the minister of Abdy, in Scotland. Local antiquarians
may, perhaps, be able to discover for what service rendered
the warlike dignity of chivalry was conferred upon this
steward of the mysteries of the Prince of Peace.
Among our doughtiest old knights, not those of ballads,
but of history, Sir Hugh Calvely of Calvely is famous, in a
double sense, for it was said of him, that he could feed like
two, and fight like ten. He was as successful in love as in
the lists; for he espoused the widowed Queen of Aragon,
and the royal Aragonese arms were quartered on Sir
Hugh’s tomb towards the end of the fourteenth century.
He was not the only knight or man-at-arms who wedded
with a queen,—Sir William de Albini espoused the widow of
Henry I.; the relict of King John was successfully wooed
by the chivalrous Count de Marche; after the death of
Henry V., his lair Katherine joined hands with gallant
Owen Tudor; and Katherine Parr forgot Henry VIII.
after she became the bride of the faithless Seymour.
Let us now consider some of the forms of knighthood,
and their origin:—“And he (Pharaoh) took his ring from
his own hand, and gave it into his (Joseph’s) hand ; and he
put upon him a robe of silk, and put a chain of gold about
his neck.” In these words, they who think a remote
origin adds respectability to a system affect to discern that
Pharaoh conferred the dignity of knighthood on the son of
Jacob. This was, however, but an ordinary act of royal
favour, and it made Joseph no member of any companion¬
ship. Among the ancient Germans, a spear and a shield
were placed in the hands of each new young member of
the republic; but they symbolized only a common citizen¬
ship, and were not marks of any distinction. The equestrian
order in Rome was a privileged body, at first swift horse¬
men, and subsequently judges, but it was not a brother¬
hood of knights. We have long since given up the Order
of Constantine, the alleged origin of which rested on the
authority of a conveniently discovered statue, which as little
proved that Constantine founded the “ Golden Knights,” as
that statue which represented Augustus, with outstretched
hands, imploring Nemesis, proved that the implorer was
Belisarius begging by the wayside. There are some w'ho
traced the Order of Constantine to Isaac Comnenus; and
if he really founded any order so named, it was probably at
the suggestion of those monks whose influence was often
potential from behind the throne. The German Catti
were distinguished among the tribes generally, by certain
manners, fashions, and vows, which bound them to one
another, and laid them under obligation to achieve certain
feats of arms. In this respect there is some similarity be¬
tween the Catti and the chivalry of later times; and to
this tribe, thus singular in its customs,—customs which are
familiar to us by the descriptions of Tacitus,—may, perhaps,
be ascribed the honour of having originated observances
which were adopted by chivalry. But chivalry had organi¬
zations unknown to this remote and doubtful ancestry, and
traces of this organization are not to be found earlier than
the period of the Crusades. There were knights, rather
than orders of knighthood, indeed, previous to this period;
but the machinery of a great company, if we may be allowed
such a phrase, was not known till warriors were possessed
with a desire to rescue the sepulchre of our Lord from
the keeping of the infidel. Nearly a thousand years have
elapsed since this desire first agitated society; and the infidel
still keeps watch over the Holy Tomb. As far as this ob¬
ject was concerned, therefore, chivalry w7as only temporarily
successful; but, as w’e have elsewhere hinted, knighthood
had other ends in view, besides that which regarded the
enfranchising of Jerusalem from the slavery in which it was Knights
held by the sons of Sarah. The first company was both and
spiritually and temporally minded. Its object was the
extension of Christianity, the destruction of unbelievers, , 1001'
and the protection of those who made pilgrimages to the
Holy Land. With the zeal sprang up imposition. A man
who had vowed to repair to the East, either as a protector
or a pilgrim, received substantial help, if he needed it, from
all the religiously-minded who chose, however, to remain at
home. One consequence was, that the castle-gate and humble
homesteads were infested by idle mendicants, who begged
for alms to help them on their pretended way. So general
was this imposition, that the name of saunterer was given
to the greatest idlers of the day—those who lived on the
charity which they claimed as pilgrims on their road to the
Saincte Terre, or Holy Land. The Knights of St John,
and also the Templars, originated in a religious feeling of
the most praiseworthy kind. Prosperity and superstition
ruined both orders, and the sepulchre was once more sur¬
rendered to the keeping of the Saracen.
It is after this first “breakup” that we find scattered
companies of knights in various parts of Europe, who, sword
in hand, converted such communities as had not yet merged
from heathenism, and who, by right of that sword, took pos¬
session of the lands of the people whom they thus converted.
The exclusively temporal orders did not confine them¬
selves, like the exclusively religious knights of St John and
of the Temple, to the extension of the Christian faith, and
the protection of those who professed it. Their object was
to foster valour and all moral virtues, to increase the glory
of particular nations, and to maintain unity among certain
princely houses. The Knightsof the Round Table,—an order
which poets have founded for King Arthur in the year 51,
are the types of such brotherhoods. Of all such orders
known to have existed the statutes are true manuals of
morality and vade rnecums of those desiring to be virtuous.
The object of each founder, whether ghostly or military,
seems to have been to have made true Christians, as far as
his knowledge lay, of the brethren. If these failed, the
fault lay in their not acting up to the instructions of the
founder. In no two orders are the statutes precisely the
same; they differ respecting elective qualification, condi¬
tion, and object. Some have been but of small account;
companionship in others has been eagerly sought by sove¬
reigns themselves ; and mighty rulers of great nations have
found pride and satisfaction in suspending the collar of a
knight round the neck of their newly-born heir. In most of
them, nobility of blood was an essential qualification. This
was especially so in the Order of the Holy Ghost. When
Catinat became Marshal of France, Louis XIV. announced
to him the royal intention of admitting him into the exclu¬
sive brotherhood. Catinat was an honest man, but he said
he was not half gentleman enough. He was well content
to remain disqualified by his birth, for an honour which he
had won, if desert only were in question. The makers of
pedigrees offered to furnish the modest warrior with hosts
of noble ancestors, but Catinat declared that he would not
be pressed into greatness by a visionary crowd of noble
nonentities. “I would not purchase this very great honour,”
said Catinat, “at the cost of the smallest lie.”
The Order of St Louis was expressly founded, in 1693,
for the admission of well-deserving men, who had served
the king faithfully for ten years. The order was, however,
flung to any who would stoop for it; and so many were
willing to do this, that Knights of St Louis were created by
hundreds. People remarked of this order, as had been
done in reference to that of St Michael, founded and abased
by Henry III., that the star of the saint was to be seen upon
every ass in the streets. The feeling of contempt for the
Order of St Michael is exemplified in the case of the man
who purchased the mantle and collar of a deceased knight,
112
KNIGHTS AND KNIGHTHOOD.
Knights and therewith decorated his mule. Our own James I. made
an<l knighthood almost as common, particularly in the early por-
Knight- tion of his reign in England. Indeed, he never then drew his
hood; y sword unless to dub a knight; and he was for ever laying
the weapon, in the way of honour, on individuals more or
less willing to endure the infliction.
While some orders have fallen to decay, or altogether dis¬
appeared, new companionships have been created, or old
ones revived. On some occasions the sovereign of the
order has set but an indifferent example of gallantry to his
knights. Louis XV., for instance, marred the effect of a
grand installation of the Knights of the Holy Ghost, by pre¬
viously informing the foreign ambassadors that it was not
his intention, if they attended the ceremony, to salute them.
The ambassadors accordingly absented themselves, and the
show lost thereby half its brilliancy.
Roman Catholic sovereigns can found orders without
papal sanction, as the German princes could without the
imperial consent; but the approval of pope or emperor was
considered as giving an additional lustre to the order. Per¬
haps the most unusual, if not the most irregular circum¬
stance connected with the dignity of knighthood, is the fact
of three ladies having, at different times, been created
Knights of Malta. The first was the Neapolitan Princess
von llosella, in 1723 ; the second was a princess of Wur-
temberg, twelve years later; and the third was Nelson’s
Lady Hamilton, knighted by the Czar. In all these cases
the honour was conferred with the sanction of the grand
master; and gallant deputies, clad in full costume, first
dubbed the ladies knights, and then invested them with
the insignia of their newly-acquired rank. But many of
the ceremonies of this order were inconsistent. After elec¬
tion, a knight was bound to cat his penitence feast, and ac¬
cordingly he sat down to bread and salt, these being the
only things which the order bound itself to provide for him.
But this feast concluded, one more substantial and magni¬
ficent followed; and at every health the brazen mouths of
the artillery boomed forth their loud hurrah !
To receive the insignia of knighthood from the hand of
a sovereign has been usually deemed the highest honour;
but there is one instance at least of an individual preferring
to take the dignity from the hand and sword of a less noble
person. Frederick, landgrave of Thuringen, in 1338, was
at the court of our King Edward, who offered to create
him knight. “I will only accept such honour,” said Fre¬
deric, “ at the hands of a man who has never turned away
from an enemy.” The king promised to sanction the per¬
formance of the office by such a deputy, if he could be
found ; and this was done in the person of one of Frederick’s
own officers. This rude story, however, seems to us to be
rather apocryphal.
We have spoken of the knights being enrolled in various
orders; we may add, that there was a class division also.
Knights were of two classes, the Equites Aurati, who re¬
ceived the honour at the hands of emperors or kings, and
whose Latin title was derived from the golden spurs fastened
to their heels ; and the Milites, who were dubbed by other
knights of renown, or by ecclesiastics of great dignity.
Many a civilian was decorated with the golden spurs, but
the Miles, who was stricken knight by a knight of great
reputation, was more highly honoured. Even kings were
proud of such distinction at the hands of their subjects.
Francis I. of France was made chevalier by the hand and
sword of Bayard ; and in England, among other instances,
may be mentioned Edward IV., knighted by the Earl of
Devonshire ; Henry VIE by the Earl of Arundel; and Ed¬
ward VI. by the Duke of Somerset. The Miles made
oath that he despised death, and would be the protector of
widows and orphans whenever appealed to. It was the
Miles who figured in the lists in which he sometimes fought
without revealing his name, whereby his honour was safe
in case of a defeat. Such a knight was ordinarily of noble Knights
blood, or had shown by his deeds that a noble spirit in- and
spired him. He was usually followed by armiger and Knight-
scutifer, who looked to his spear, shield, arms, and armour h°011-
generally, and who stood by him in the fight, to help him
in or out of the melee.
For valuable services rendered, these knights frequently
received land from their lord, and this land was held on
condition of further service being rendered whenever the
holder of it was called upon by the lord. In process of
time this method of recompensing past, and purchasing
future services, was accounted as being of too costly a na¬
ture ; and the different orders of knighthood are said by
some writers to have arisen partly out of the difficulty of
otherwise fitly rewarding military service.
From the earliest times the sovereign, especially, looked
for support from such service. Such an one, it is believed,
was that incredulous nobleman who disbelieved the pro¬
phecy of Elisha, and who was trodden to death at the
city-gate, because of his want of faith. He is described as
“ one of the lords on whose hand the king leaned” (2d
Kings, chap. 7). The Hebrew word for this honoured per¬
sonage is derived from one which signifies “ three but in¬
terpretations vary as to whether the word signified one of
those knights, if we may here use the name, who fought in
a chariot where there was room for three to fight; or who
went into battle with three war horses; or, finally, that he
was third in order after the king. However this may be,
it was on such a champion that the king is said to have
leaned; and, in more recent times, the sword was girt to
the side, and the spurs put to the heels of him on whom
the king knew he could lean with security of unfailing sup¬
port. In more recent times, the spurs have been the em¬
blem and stimulus of chivalry. It is therefore singular,
that although a knight’s spurs were almost invariably first
attached to his heels in chapel, church, or cathedral, he
could not afterwards wear them within the sacred precincts,
except he paid a fine to the choristers. One result of this
custom was, that the choristers became less careful of their
duty than of looking out for, and demanding money from,
all persons who entered the holy edifice wearing spurs. This
evil was sought to be remedied by an enactment, or rather
a rule, that if the chorister applying for the fine were chal¬
lenged to say his gamut, and failed, the wearer of the spurs
should be exempt from all impost. The late Duke of Cum¬
berland once entered the metropolitan cathedral w ith rowels
in his boots. He was immediately beset by the choristers
for the usual fine, but he, rather ungenerously and irregu¬
larly, evaded the impost by pleading that he certainly had
a right to wear spurs in a cathedral, inasmuch as that it was
under the roof of such an edifice that they had been first
put on. The late Duke of Wellington, on a similar oc¬
casion, conducted himself in a w'ay highly characteristic.
He entered the chapel-royal booted and spurred. A young
chorister approached him, and boldly demanded spur-money.
The duke immediately challenged the boy to repeat his
gamut, the boy failed in the attempt, and his grace passed
laughingly on, impost-free. A warrior of far less note, the
Earl of Cardigan, being similarly accoutred, on entering the
chapel-royal, was similarly appealed to by the choristers,
but the applicants wrere unceremoniously thrust aside by
the accomplished leader of the lost brigade.
In the old days, the sw ord played an important part in
the creation of a knight. After the candidate for chivalry
had confessed, and spent a night in church in prayer and
fasting, he appeared before the priest for consecration.
During the “ office” he placed his sword upon the altar.
When the priest had finished reading the gospel, he took
the weapon, blessed it, and then, with benison on the war¬
rior, laid the blade on the neck of the knight, who was not,
however, accounted a knight complete until he had re-
KNIGHTS AND
Knights' ceived the sacrament, and vowed obedience to the faith.
and In later times, the church ceremony was not a necessary,
Knight- though still an approved form for the knight to go through.
WHe was a true chevalier if he received the accolade, the
sword on the neck, the box on the ear, and the spurs to his
heels, from the hand of his prince, or prince’s deputy.
If there were knights who kept up the reputation of their
country, and their own renown abroad, by the sword, there
were some who, in time of peace, employed themselves
usefully at home with the pen. The Litre du Chevalier
de la Tour Landry exhibits to us not a mere literary
knight, but one who did for the young ladies of his time
what Mrs Chapone did for her young contemporaries at a
later period. The book was originally written for the bene¬
fit of the good knight’s two daughters, and it abounds in
maxims, counsels, and illustrative lessons,—the object of all
which is the better training of “ damosels,” both physically
and morally, than had hitherto been their lot. It is singu¬
lar to find a man from the camp lecturing his fair readers
on deportment, seriousness of mind, daily behaviour, and
religious feelings. The lecturer is by no means nice of
phrase, nor delicate of allusion, in pursuing his theme ; and
he occasionally puts his conclusions in such antagonism
with his premises as may have produced hilarity in many
a hall, even in his own days.
The married knights had often good reason for anxiety
touching their daughters, and also their wives, during their
absence on distant expeditions. They had some resource,
however, in the benevolence and gallantry of richer men of
their own class. Sir Thomas Berkeley, in the reign of
Richard II., left L.100 for the use of poorer knights de¬
sirous of proceeding to the Holy Land. Those married
knights who repaired thither, or to foreign wars, and who
had not castles of their own wherein to leave, or which
were not strong enough to protect, their wives, entered into
singular agreements with respect to the ladies in question.
Thus, in Surtees’s Durham, mention is made of an inden¬
ture in the Treasury there, to the effect that “ Sir William
Cluxton is minded to go to the wars in France, Sir Thomas
Surteys has agreed to receive the Dame Elizabeth, wife of
Sir William, into his house of Dinsdale, for the space of
one year, to be well and honourably entertained, with her
waiting-maid and page (being of decent and sober beha¬
viour), and for this Sir William covenants to pay ten marks.”
This indenture is dated “ At Sudberge, April 1416;” and
there are others of a similar nature extant.
Fulke of Anjou, however indifferently he may have
treated his wife while at home, was a rigid disciplinarian of
his son, the celebrated Geoffrey. He so subdued this boy’s
proud spirit, that Geoffrey, after being compelled to carry
a heavy saddle many miles, laid it reverently at his father’s
feet when bidden to do so. Fulke foretold that such un¬
murmuring obedience would make a good knight of him.
Nor did Fulke spare himself. When in the Holy Land, he
bound two of his servants by oath to do whatever he com¬
manded. In accordance with the oath, they dragged him
naked, in sight of the infidels, into the holy sepulchre.
There, while one held his neck in a withe, the other scourged
him with a rod on his bare back; and the knight cried the
while upon God to have mei’cy upon him, “ perfidious and
runnigate” as he was.
The law had great regard that a knight should never
suffer “ let or hindrance.” We find an instance of this in
the case of Sir Franco Tyas. Sir Franco had a squire,
named William Lepton, and “ Will” owed a small sum for
mercery, to one German, who being unable to get his
money, levied a distress, and seized the squire’s horse.
The knight immediately brought an action against German,
whose seizure of the horse was described as being “ ad de-
decus et damnum praedicti Franco,” as his squire was there¬
by prevented from attending on him. Sir Franco recovered
vol. xm.
KNIGHTHOOD.
from the unlucky mercer 100s.; and as money was worth
twenty times more in the days of the Edwards than it is
now, that sum represented L.100 of the coin of current
value. Something, too, may have depended on the exact
rank of Lepton. The armiger, or spear-bearer always
ranked before the scutifer, or shield-bearer.
Some knights, took to horse for other purposes than
tilting or crusading. Taylor, the water-poet, has cele¬
brated one of this sort, of the times of Edward II., and also
the fate which righteously befell him and his companions.
“ Sir Gosselin Denville, with two hundred more,
In friar’s weeds, robbed, and were hanged.”
Sir Gosselin and his followers therefore formed a less joy¬
ous, but perhaps a not much less respectable company than
the troop headed by Sir Roger de Mortimer (cirr. 1280).
Sir Roger left London for the grand jousting and tourney
at Kenilworth, attended by 100 knights, and as many ladies,
who preceded them all along the road, carolling gay bal¬
lads as they went.
Despite the courage with which these chivalrous soldiers
fronted death, they incurred no reproach by doing their
very utmost to avoid it. This was especially the case with
the German knights, who thought it not unseemly to wear
the Noth Hemd, or “ shirt of need,” which was supposed to
render the wearer proof from all wounds. There was much
ceremony used in the making of this garment, on which
were embroidered figures of very frightful aspect, worked
in by fair hands, with the intention of terrifying any anta¬
gonist bold enough to encounter the knight who wore this
shirt, or tunic rather, over his armour.
In the encounters which took place between respective
knights, the laws of chivalry were not always respected.
We read frequently of adversaries assailing each other with
“ foul” strokes ; and the most renowned of these warriors
is not free from this charge. Where death ensued, it was
sometimes customary to slaughter the dead knight’s horse
at his master’s grave, and fling the carcase in, upon the ca¬
valier’s corpse. This ceremony was observed as recently
as the last century in Germany; and we have a trace of
it in our own country in the steed which is led to the grave’s
side at the funerals of cavalry soldiers. Among English
knights who have sprung from low estate to be at once the
flower and mirror of chivalry, Sir Robert Knowles bears a
brilliant reputation. In the wars of France, under Edward
III., he was so renowned as a destroyer of cities, that the
standing fragments of ruined houses were called Knowles’s
Mitres. Sir John Hawkwood was of as low birth as
Knowles; and at first of even lower vocation, for Hawk-
wood was originally a tailor. He turned soldier, was
knighted for his valour by Edward III., became a celebrated
“ soldier of fortune” in Italy, and is not yet forgotten in
the city of Florence. Hawkwood was noted for the I'eadi-
ness with which he extricated himself from apparently in¬
superable difficulties. This was one of the happiest qualities
of a knight, and it distinguished Sir Richard Edgecumbe,
who escaped from the pursuers, despatched after him by
Richard HI., in a manner very closely resembling that by
which Rob Roy Macgregor got clear oft', after being un¬
buckled by Ewan of Brigglands.
The ransom of knights was always a criterion of their
value. In some cases this seems to have been signifi¬
cantly small. Thus, Queen Elizabeth gave two mastiffs for
a noble knight’s ransom. The history of Birmingham, too,
presents us with a curious incident connected with the sub¬
ject of ransom-money. When Prince Rupert took ven¬
geance on the republican town which refused to wield
a blade for the royalists, he captured many hard-fighting
denizens of the place ; and these ransomed themselves at q.
shilling, eightpence, and even twopence a piece. In thp
great fight at Evesham the Birmingham smiths followed the
F
113
Knights
and
Knight¬
hood.
114 KNIGHTS AND
Knights banner of their lord of the manor, and showed by their va-
„a.n<j lour how worthy they were oi chivalric honours,
hood Perhaps knighthood was never more fairly won than when
v , John Copeland captured the gallant King David Bruce at
the battle of Neville’s Cross. The value of the service was
proved by Edward’s estimation of it; for he not only knighted
the captor of a king, but granted him an annuity of L.500
per annum. Commercial men, however, have gained the
highly-prized honour for services of a different sort, indeed,
but of higher social value. We may cite as an instance,
Stephen Brown, the Newcastle grocer, who became Lord
Mayor of London in 1438. It was a year in which the
horrors of famine were aggravated by the cruel covetous¬
ness of the forestallers. The mayor privately despatched
ships to Dantzic, which returned so heavily laden with rye,
that the price of grain fell immediately, and the famishing
people were fed at a reasonable rate. Fuller says of this
knight that “ he was one of the first merchants who, in
want of corn, showed the Londoners the way to the Barn¬
door, I mean into Spruce-land.” The very name of Brown,
however, would have been considered a disgrace to chivalry
by Spanish knights, who had a decent horror of monosylla¬
bles. Thus, when the plague prevailed in London, in the
reign of Elizabeth, the Queen placed the Spanish ambassa¬
dor under the hospitable guardianship of Sir John Cutts.
The ambassador was rejoiced to profit by the refuge af¬
forded him in the mansion of a bountiful housekeeper, but
he expressed his disgust at being lodged with a knight with
a monosyllabic surname! The custom of conferring the
honours of chivalry on men of low degree was not confined
to England. Pitscottie informs us that the Earl of Mar,
who owed his title and spurs to James III. of Scotland, was
originally a mason ; but Cochrane, the name of the indivi¬
dual thus ennobled, seems to have been, at least, an archi¬
tect. If James III. gave signal honour to the arts in the
person of Cochrane, Henry VIII. as much distinguished
science, in its legal view, by raising a sergeant-at-law to the
dignity of chivalry. A curious result followed. All the
sergeants took a corporate view of the matter, and declared
that the entire learned brotherhood had been elevated by
the honour conferred upon one member of it. Accordingly,
since the period in question, the learned sergeants have
claimed equality of rank with knights-bachelors, and they
decline to “ go below” them.
Although the monarchs of Great Britain and Ireland
have frequently rewarded great desert, so far as it can be
poorly rewarded by the now barren, yet not unenviable, dis¬
tinction of chivalry, the rule by which such recompense is
regulated is incredibly absurd. We do not speak now
of that more simple “knighting” which tacks “Sir” to a
sheriff’s name for carrying to court a congratulatory ad¬
dress. We allude to the coveted distinction of the civil
K.C.B. A man may be an unparalleled benefactor to his
country, but unless he be in the government service, in
some way bearing the Queen’s commission, he cannot pos¬
sibly be a Knight Companion of the Bath. It is an error to
suppose that the “ civil ” dignity is open to the meritorious
generally. If the aspirant, however deserving, be not in
the actual service of the government, he may be “knighted,”
but he cannot be a K.C.B. The injustice of this rule is
equalled ordy by its absurdity. Almost as absurd is the
latest incident that has been put on record with respect to
chivalric decorations. The Emperor of the French con¬
ferred on several British subjects, who had distinguished
themselves in the great competition at the Paris Universal
Exhibition, the Order of the Legion of Honour. No fo¬
reign order can be worn by an English subject, but with
the sanction of the sovereign, and in this case the sanction
has been withheld. Thus, we neither distinguish our really
great men at home, nor allow them to be distinguished
abroad. Queen Anne once thought of an order of Minerva
KNIGHTHOOD.
for the reward of great literary merit. The symbol was Knights
to be a silver owl, and therewith the matter was laughed and
at and forgotten. Let us hope that under Queen Victoria Kmght-
we may have an order of merit for knights of a more use- v hood‘ ,
ful character than those of old, whose merits, however, v'"-'
were properly recognised in rewarding service most useful
in its day.
At a not very remote period it was customary to ad¬
dress the clergy by the knightly title of “ Sir.” This title
was, however, originally employed to distinguish the Bache¬
lor of Arts, who was called “ Dominus,” from the Master of
Arts, whose proper appellation was “ Magister.” For a
long time, however, the chivalrous prefix was conferred on
all the clergy indifferently ; and “ Sir ” equally distinguished
knight and cleric. It was used, however, not as in chivalry,
with the Christian name of the dignified person, but with
his surname.
This custom existed throughout England, and it was
observed also in the Isle of Man, but with some exceptional
clauses. Thus, in the ancient island, the prefix of the
knightly title of “ Sir” was only allowed to native minis¬
ters, “ unless,” says an old history of the island, “ they be
parsons of the parishes, which are but few (most of the
parsonages being impropriated to the Lord of the Isle or
the Bishop), as thus, Sir Thomas Parr, minister of Kirk
Malow. But if they have the title of parson, then they are
only called Mr, as Mr Robert Parr, parson of St Mary of
Bellaugh.”
The word “ Sir,” as we have previously observed, stood
for Dominus, Sieur, Sire, or Seigneur Richard II., in his
Act of Abdication, is styled “ Mon Sire Richard.” The
monosyllable which adorns knighthood is said to have a very
remote origin, and a very extensive circulation in all coun¬
tries and languages. It is found in the Hebrew, “ Sar,”
lord or prince, and “ Sarah,” a noble lady. In the Egyptian
“ Serapis,” we have the Lord Apis; and it has been even
suggested that the Saracens are not so called because of
any connection with “ Sarah,” but as “ Ser-agarenorum,”
lords of flocks; and, finally, as the Muscovites refuse to
trace the word Czar to Caesar, some etymologists are in¬
clined to believe that the former word is only a form of the
knightly “ Sir,” or lord. But we leave the consideration of
this matter to the etymologists. Whatever may be the
origin of the word, few who bore the title conducted them¬
selves ill in the field or at the tournament. On occasions of
very serious encounters, either in the battle or the lists, great
attention was paid to the condition of the armour. This
was considered of such great importance that, as painters
of old used to mix their own colours, so knights of old were
wont to forge their own armour. When the Duke of Bur¬
gundy was about to meet in mortal combat the great Duke
Humphrey, the former lit his armourer’s furnaces within
his Castle of Hesdin, and forged with his own ducal hands
every plate of the defences behind which he hoped to get
through the encounter, if not unstained, at least as nearly
unscathed as might be.
We will now proceed to briefly notice the history of the
principal orders of knighthood, whose names are familiar to
\xs, and the deeds of many of whose members have been
subjects for the historian, the poet, and, when he would
question the uses of chivalry, the philosopher, and states¬
man also.
Charity may be said to have been the foundress of the Knights of
Knights of St John of Jerusalem, a.d. 1043. The suffer- St John,
ings of poor and wounded crusaders touched some kind
hearts; a hospital was raised, and the male nurses of the
patients became the Knights of St John. They were at
first mere “ Hospitallers Brothers of St John the Baptist
of Jerusalem,” were incorporated by the Pope, wore the
habit of St Augustine, and were bound accordingly to po¬
verty, chastity, and obedience. They had to make fre-
KNIGHTS AND KNIGHTHOOD.
115
Knights
and
Knight¬
hood.
The Tem¬
plars.
quent journeys, and they had need of arms for self-defence.
They were permitted to carry weapons, and gradually they
grew into a great military order, bound to smite the infidel
, wherever encountered, and to defend the Holy Sepulchre
and its cause. Candidates for admission presented them¬
selves from all countries ; and rich donations reached them
from all Christian kingdoms. Ultimately, they were classed
into seven languages or divisions. Three belonged to France,
under the titles of France, Provence, and Auvergne. The
other languages were Italy, Germany, Arragon, and England.
The last was abolished at the Reformation, and replaced by
what was called the Anglo-Bavarian.
The seven classes were subdivided into three divisions,
—L<»£, The knights of justice, the governing body, of which
every man was noble, from which the grand-master was
elected, and whose members shared the lion’s portion
among them. ‘Id, The priests of the order, with the
Bishop of Malta and the prior of the conventual church
of St John at their head. There were true samples of a
“ working clergy ” in this class, particularly in the chap¬
lains on board the knights’ galleys, ‘id, The servans d’armes,
the fighting squires who followed the knights in all ex¬
peditions, and did the work of active troopers. They
were required to be “ respectable,” and none were admitted
who had ever demeaned himself by engaging in trade, or
even exercising any art. A worthless fellow of legitimate
[respectable] birth might put on armour and serve in this
class, but Pythagoras himself would have been black-balled
had he been a candidate for admission. All classes voted at
the election of grand-master.
Originally, the knights of the first class were not exclu¬
sively noble, but when the plebeians threatened, by con¬
tinual increase, to outnumber the aristocrats, the latter
looked to their interests in time, and so arranged, that not
only was the admission of a candidate of low degree im¬
possible, but none could enter who failed to prove a nobi¬
lity of many centuries’ standing.
When the order, after passing from the Floly Land to
Rhodes, ultimately settled in Malta, many alterations took
place. A knight was not required to ride before he was
of age ; but during his novitiate it was necessary that he
should serve in three or four caravans, or naval expedi¬
tions, against the infidels. Among the celebrated men who
so served, were the two Counts Konigsmark. The
younger of whom will ever be remembered in connection
with the story of Sophia Dorothea, the consort of George I.
The knights of whom we have briefly treated held their
own in Malta till 1798, when Bonaparte extinguished them;
but they still shiver on in a refuge said to have been granted
them in Russia, where they are neither ornamental to the
Muscovite system nor useful to mankind.
The Templars, or Knights-Templars, were distinguished
for being at once a military and a spiritual body, which took
its rise at Jerusalem about the year 1118. Nine Christian
knights there resident devoted themselves to the service of
God,as Cononiei Regulares ; and to the three ordinary vows of
chivalry they added a fourth—namely, that they would pro¬
tect all pilgrims on their way to the Holy City. King Bald¬
win assigned them a house near the “ Temple of Solomon,”
from which they took the name of Templars ; and the
poverty of an order which existed on the alms of the com¬
passionate was illustrated in the device which showed two
knights riding on one horse. They soon became renowned
for their intrepidity, an excellence which was sharpened
all the more by the fact, that if a Templar allowed him¬
self to be taken, his order would offer no ransom-money
to the avaricious infidel, nor would purchase his freedom by
anything more costly than the gift of a sword or dagger.
The great St Bernard is said to have been the author of
the statutes framed at Troyes, in Champagne, in 1128, for
the regulation of the order. Ten years' later, Pope Eu-
genius III. gave the knights permission to wear the red
cross on their white cloaks.
From this period they began to increase in wealth and
numbers. Even kings enrolled themselves in their com¬
pany ; and in every powerful nation in Europe, there were
numerous “ commanderies,” enjoying more ample revenues
than the crown itself. The increase in their wealth is
proved by their purchase of the island of Cyprus from
Richard I. for the sum of 35,000 silver marks. But with
wealth they acquired a taste for luxury; thence came many
vices, and one of them, which is generally the source of
several that are worse, was alluded to in the popular pro¬
verb, “he tipples like a Templar.” They became oppres¬
sors rather than protectors, especially in the Holy Land,
renounced obedience to the Patriarch of Jerusalem, and
waged war even against Christian sovereigns. They were
the opponents rather than the allies of Frederick II., in the
celebrated crusade of which that German monarch was
the head, and the partial failure of which was among the
least of the treacheries of the Templars. At length, for
the greater crimes of a few, the whole order in France
fell a sacrifice to the vengeance, hatred, and, it may safely
be added, the cupidity of Philip the Fair. It was to France
that the majority of the knights repaired after the loss of
the Holy Land; and Philip had little difficulty in captur¬
ing the whole on one and the same day. His hatred against
them was of long standing. When King Louis besieged
Damascus, the Templars were under his banner, but just as
the assault was about to be made, they placed themselves
between the Christian army and the besieged infidels. With
the latter they negotiated, offering to secure good terms
for them on condition- -that they should deliver to the
knights three basketsful of money. The Templars com¬
pelled Louis to agree to the conditions which the order
proposed, and when they were signed, the cunning Da¬
mascenes sent to the knights the number of baskets agreed
upon, full to the brim of copper money.
On whatever amount of truth this tradition may rest, it
is certain that Philip strove energetically to obtain the
approval of Rome and the French University respecting
the step he had taken in seizing upon the persons and pro¬
perty of the Templars. But the church and the schools
desired the jurisdiction of a temporal governor over a
spiritual body ; and Pope Clement V. sent ecclesiastical
commissioners into France to watch over the possessions,
and bodies of the religious cavaliers. In the hands of these
commissioners Philip placed several of the knights, and
these, on being taken into the presence of the Pope, at
Poictiers, accused themselves and the order of crimes at
which the most hardened nature shudders, and of absurdi¬
ties at which the dullest nature must laugh. Moved by
this confession, or pretended confession, Clement surren¬
dered the order to the mercy or vengeance of Philip,
providing, however, that the wealth of the knights should
be devoted to the furtherance of the Christian cause in the
Holy Land. The Templars, despite some traitors among
them, made a noble stand against their enemies, but they
were fore-doomed as well as pre-judged, and ultimately
the order was annihilated, by the delivery of the mem¬
bers to continual captivity or to a cruel death, and the
king and the Pope divided the wealth of the order between
them.
The military knights of Prussia, those against whom the Teutonic
Polish astronomer Copernicus so successfully contended, Knights,
not by force of arms, indeed, but of argument and truth,
were probably a far less innocent society than the Tem¬
plars. The Teutonic Knights not only knew how to acquire
wealth, but also how to retain it.
Among the religious orders, that of the Teutonic Knights
is assuredly not the least famous, nor was it the least in¬
fluential. The order arose out of the misery which reigned
Knights
and
Knight¬
hood.
116
KNIGHTS AND KNIGHTHOOD.
Knights
and
Knight¬
hood.
among the besiegers at the celebrated siege of Acre, at the
close of the twelfth century. The sufferings of the Chris¬
tian soldiers excited the compassion of certain German
merchants. These erected tent-hospitals, and rendered
other services to the unhappy warriors of such value that
the German princes enrolled the princely merchants in an
order of knighthood, named the Teutonic Knights of St
Mary of Jerusalem. This order had the especial sanction
and pati-onage of Pope Celestine III. None could be ad¬
mitted into it but men of noble birth; and, probably, the
merchants who were the original members of the order
were ennobled before they were enrolled. Their eques¬
trian garment was a white mantle with a black cross, and
this, with bread and water, constituted all the reward sought
for by men who vowed to remain pure in body and mind,
poor in purse, and to carry succour to Christians wherever it
was most needed. The vow, however, was strangely con¬
strued in succeeding years. At the opening of the thir¬
teenth century the order was powerful and rich, and carried
on a bloody war in defence of the infant church of Prus¬
sia, under the sanction of the Pope and crusade-preaching
saints. The order, after withdrawing from Palestine, con¬
quered Prussia, Livonia, Courland, and other territories,
which they swept of their pagan proprietors by means of
fire and sword. Innocent III. was especially fierce against
the Livonian pagans; and the Teutonic Knights who carried
out his terrible behests gained glory or martyrdom by slay¬
ing or being slain.
It must be acknowledged that the Lithuanian heathens
were not excessively tender-hearted. When thay caught
a knight, they immolated him in a fashion of barbaric splen¬
dour and stupendous cruelty. Voight describes one of
these executions, on the person of the knight Margerard
Von Raschan. The latter had been captured when bleed¬
ing from a score of wounds. His captors bound him up¬
right on his horse, and burnt both alive — knight and
steed.
Pious princes, and gentlemen of the sword who desired
to see service, flocked to the banner of the order from all
European nations. Our Henry IV., when only Earl of
Derby, went over to Dantzic in 1390, with three hundred
followers, and fought in the ranks of these formidable che¬
valiers.
The knights and their paid men-at-arms became in time
nearly as cruel as, and far more wealthy than, the pagans
whom they had destroyed, plundered, or converted. Pope
after pope exhorted them to remember their vows, but all
in vain. They chose rather to increase their possessions
than defend the faithful. In some respects they may be
said to have done both. But they became absolute masters
of Prussia especially, their administration of which was of
mingled good and evil—mercilessness and humanity. Their
great apologist, Voight, insists upon eulogizing their spirit
of toleration, which appears to have consisted in only slay¬
ing those of the enemy who could not be convinced that the
new religion was superior to the old.
The romances abound in illustrations ol the view in
which these chevaliers looked upon the principle of honour.
But reality is not less prolific of instances than romance.
We will name one.
Prussia was infested by a band of gentlemen bandits, un¬
der the command of a squire named Arnold. No less
desirable a prisoner than the Duke of Gueldres fell into
their hands. To rescue so noble a cavalier, the Grand
Master of the Teutonic order, with an overwhelming force,
set out to storm the stronghold of the adventurers. Ar¬
nold did not await his coming. He first, however, visited
his prisoner, made him acquainted with the condition of
things, informed him whither he was about to retreat, and,
bidding him tarry in the castle if he preferred doing so, took
from him his promise to surrender at a certain time or place,
or send his ransom. The duke was rescued, but no en¬
treaties nor representations could induce him to remain at
large, after he knew that Arnold had again a roof over his
head. He then surrendered himself, and remained a pri¬
soner until his friends ransomed him. This illustration,
Knights
and
Knight¬
hood.
however, is somewhat unsatisfactory; for if a knight, by
breaking a promise, was dishonoured, how was it that so
chivalric a body as the Teutonic order repeatedly and ear¬
nestly urged the duke to break the faith which he had
pledged to Arnold ?
Of more recently created orders, those of the Golden Recent
Fleece and the Garter may be said to have been the most Orders,
famous, as they have also been the most enduring. The
French orders of St Louis and the Holy Ghost threatened
to eclipse all other confraternities, but these orders, with¬
out having been suppressed, have ceased to exist. The
insignia may occasionally be seen on the breast of some
ancient “ legitimist” of illustrious birth, but since the fall
of the Bourbons no new members have been officially
created. At Frohsdorf, perhaps,—where the so-called
Henri V. “ bides his time,”—a faithful servant may occa¬
sionally be authorized to wear the august symbols, as
they are worn by their exiled master; but these are not
knights acknowledged by France; and their creation is not
counter to our assertion, that the orders may be said ra¬
ther to have ceased to exist than to have been officially
suppressed.
Of the other two confraternities named, w-e will give pre¬
cedence to that of the Golden Fleece. This brotherhood
was renowned for its courtesy, and it may be fittingly
treated with as much of that commodity here as we can
show it, by giving it precedence in our pages.
The Golden Fleece (Aureum Vellus; Toison (V Or) has The Goldgn
a classical origin. When Athamas of Thebes, in obedience Fleece,
to the oracle, was about to sacrifice his son Phryxus and
his daughter Llelle, they were rescued by their defunct mo¬
ther Nephele, who had been metamorphosed into a cloud,
and who gave to her children a ram with a golden fleece,
on which they were to cross the seas, and find safety in
Asia. Helle fell off by the way, and gave her name to the
sea in which she perished—the Hellespont. Phryxus,
more fortunate, crossed the Black Sea in safety, and landed
at Colchis, a part of what is now called Mingrelia. There
he slew the ram, and hung up the fleece, a thank-offering,
in the Temple of Mars. The golden wool became an ob¬
ject of universal cupidity ; but it was watched by a fiery
dragon, whose vigilance was not overcome till the Thessa¬
lian Jason came, armed with cunning, and carried off the
prize to Greece. In such wise have the poets sung of what
is supposed by more matter-of-fact persons to have .been a
matter of gold-yielding mines in Colchis, and of the sheep¬
skin “ cradles” in which the lucky finders washed the au¬
riferous earth.
When Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, was about
to marry Isabella of Portugal, in 1430, he resolved to cele¬
brate the auspicious event by founding an order under the
patronage of St Andrew. He had a pious desire to further
the extension of the Church and the Christian religion in
the East, and particularly in the Mingrelian region, where
the Golden Fleece had once hung, and St Andrew, accord¬
ing to tradition, had preached. But the Duke’s fleece was
to carry the Northern Church and the Romish religion
more safely than the ram had borne Phryxus and Helle.
This is the most reasonable of the many origins given to
the renowned order. We are bound, however, to add, that
it has been the most laughed at. Old Favina ridiculed it;
and laborious Zedler, while he ridicules ancient Favina,
agrees with him in ridiculing the account of the origin of
the name and object of the order. Favina thinks that the
Fleece of the valiant Grecian was in the mind of the valiant
Duke when he founded the grand order of chivalry. Other
KNIGHTS AND
Knights explanations are not lacking. Thus, Philip loved a damsel
and of low degree, who was so little addicted to luxuries that
Kmght- s]le covered her toilet-table with a fleece, and the sight set
hood. iaUghing a whole bevy of courtiers who once followed the
Duke into her room. Philip swore an oath that he would
make every noble in Christendom proud to wear this fleece,
which he made the sign of an order founded in honour of
this “light o’ love” lady. Some old chroniclers denounce
this as a disgraceful story, and tell a worse, touching a lady
still less scrupulous than the last, and whom Philip cele¬
brated because of her infidelity. Others, again, come back
to the Colchian theory, by asserting that the Duke took the
vow of knighthood on a pheasant, a bird which originally
came from the banks of the River Phasis, in the vicinity of
Colchis. After all, there is a forgotten, but a common-
sense and an ingenious origin ascribed to this order, and
which may serve also to show how it came to be men¬
tioned in connection with Jason and the Golden Fleece.
In July 1430, such a harvest was reaped throughout Flan¬
ders, and the prospects of the remainder of the year were
rendered so secure thereby, that the Duke, out of pure gra¬
titude, constituted the knightly brotherhood ; and as he
perceived that the word Jason contained the initials of the
names of the five months to come, July, August, Septem¬
ber, October, and November, he was reminded of the
fleece, and took it for a symbol. This is too ingenious a
story to be omitted in an account of the origin of the
order.
The object of the founder was expressed in an inscrip¬
tion on his coffin :—
“ Pour maintenir 1’eglise, qui est de Dieu Maison,
J’ay mis sus le noble ordre qu’on nomme la Toison.”
Philip fixed the number of knights at thirty—all noble,
and without reproach. They were bound by statutes, laid
down at considerable length, and ninety-four in number.
The knights were required to be without blemish; but this
did not apply physically, for among the thirty original
knights we find Baldwin de Launoy, Lord of Molembair,
surnamed “ the Stammerer.” On the occasion of the first
chapter Philip created only two dozen knights; and we
may notice among them John de Villiers, the ancestor of
the English plenipotentiary (Lord Clarendon) at the late
peace conferences of Paris. To this descendant of the
old De Villiers the Emperor of the French ofl'ered the
grand cross of a chevalier of the Legion of Honour, which
was respectfully declined, on the ground of its being un¬
usual—perhaps illegal—for English ministers to receive
orders of knighthood from foreign sovereigns. It was not
till the accession of Duke Charles that an English king was
invested with the insignia of the order, in the person of
Edward IV., who was created Knight of the Golden
Fleece at the chapter held in Bruges in the year 1467. At
the death of Charles, the Netherlands fell into the posses¬
sion of Maximilian of Austria, the husband of Charles’s
only child. The order passed to the Spanish crown with
that portion of the Flemish inheritance of Charles V., Em¬
peror of Germany, which was made over to his second son
Philip, King of Spain; and the Fleece of Jason and of
Burgundy is now stabled in the Spanish capital.
Of English orders, the most highly prized, if not the most
illustrious, is that of the Garter, which we now proceed to
notice.
Order of 1 he Order of the Garter has a properly chivalrous
the Garter, foundation. It springs from a double gallantry—from arms
as well as love. In the days of the Crusades, when Richard
Cceur de Lion was our King, there was a body of noble
fighting men in the Holy Land, who were distinguished by
a blue leathern thong, worn round the left knee.' The sym¬
bol was not that of a recognised order, but the wearers of
it were doubtless “ brothers in arms ” after the strictest
K N I GII T H 0 0 D. 117
manner, and were probably therewith the personal friends Knights
or companions of the king. and
1 ° Knight-
“ Round Ormond’s knee thou ty’st the mystic String, hood.
That makes the Knight Companion to the King.”
In 1343 the symbol of the thong was converted into the
garter by Edward III. That monarch, having heard of the
surpassing beauty of the Countess of Salisbury, celebrated
a tournament in her honour at Windsor. The lady accom¬
panied her lord to this rough festival reluctantly, and in
very simple attire. All around her was a blaze" of gold,
jewellery, and beauty: she alone shone with the last only,
and therein excelled all other ladies present. The king
was, to use an old phrase, “stricken” with her charms, and
he seems to have paid her that audacious homage which
princes then could pay with impunity. But the Countess
of Salisbury was as honest as she was fair, and had no in¬
tention, as Froissart remarks, to obey the king “in any¬
thing evil that might tend to the dishonour of her dear
lord.” The king persecuted the noble countess with his
suit, whereby he outraged some of the strictest rules of
chivalry. Divested of its romantic features, the narrative
of the foundation of the garter would seemingly resolve
itself to this—that the feast given by the king, who had
great curiosity to see this lady, was annually repeated in
honour of her, or in memory of her womanly virtues.
Froissart calls the feast to which Edward originally invited
the countess a “ convocation of the order.” Some organi¬
zation, therefore, existed previous to the appearance of the
lady at Windsor. The first regular chapter, however,
was not held till St George’s day, in the year 1344. At
this first chapter Queen Philippa was present, wearing
the robes of the order. Some authors, however, describe
the chapter of 1349 as the first regular chapter of the
order.
The presence of the knights at the feasts held on the
anniversary of the day of their patron, Saint George, was
very strictly enforced. If a knight allowed two festivals
to pass without being present he was fined in a jewel,
which he deposited on the altar in the chapel. For every
succeeding year’s absence the knight who so offended paid
the forfeiture of two jewels. It was imperative on every
knight to wear the garter in public, and on all occasions.
Fie was equally strictly bound to wear the “sanguine
mantle” from the eve of, to the morrow after St George’s
day. Though a knight was mulcted in a jewel for being
absent from the annual feast, he had only to pay a silver
penny for not being present at prayers, in St George’s Cha¬
pel, whenever he was in the vicinity of Windsor. His own
soul was otherwise well cared for ; and whenever a mem¬
ber of the order died, the surviving members subscribed
their gold pieces for a certain number of masses for his
rescue from purgatory. It was the privilege, too, of any
knight who incurred the penalty of death, to die only by de¬
capitation. The rules of the order also enjoined especial
forms of degradation for any member who should be guilty
of cowardice. Such a crime was held to be almost im¬
possible ; at least as long as the heart of St George stood
in its golden shrine above the altar of the chapel. This
relic was brought to England by the Emperor Sigismund.
St Ambrose tells us that when St George was dying, he
bequeathed his trunk to the infidel—counting upon their
conversion, in consequence. His heart he left as a legacy
to the Christians. He must have had a prophetic vision,
indeed, if it be true, as Anstis tells us, that the saint be¬
queathed his heart, not to Christians generally, “ but to
Englishmen alone ; and not to every part of England, but
only to his own Windsor ; which, on this account, must
have been more pleasing to the sovereigns and all other the
knights of this most illustrious order.” The Emperor Si¬
gismund brought to England, not only this treasure, ac-
118
Knights
and
Knight¬
hood.
KNIGHTS AND KNIGHTHOOD.
counted so precious, but a portion of the skull of the saint
also. He presented the same to the invincible Henry V.;
and, till the time of the Reformation, the relic was an object
of great veneration on the part of the Knights of the Gar-
ter, who had a particular reverence for their great patron,
St George.
The rules and constitution of the order form a document
of very great length; but there is nothing new in them touch¬
ing the qualifications for chivalry. Piety, charity, truth,
fidelity to Heaven and the fair, is the sum of all. It was,
moreover, distinctly laid down that no person could be
elected unless he were without reproach; but this rigid
rule has been more frequently infringed than any other.
In the wars of the Roses, knights were made or unmade
with very little ceremony. If the chapter was full, the tri¬
umphant faction beheaded a few of the antagonistic party,
in order to create vacancies for the conquerors. Not that
there was always great desire to reach the honours of com¬
panionship. There are frequent instances of foreign sove¬
reigns declining to accept the honour offered to them.
Some hesitated, fearing that the fees might be heavier than
they cared to pay. Occasionally we meet with princes who
have accepted the dignity, but who forfeit it, because
they neglect to appear, within a prescribed time, to take
possession of their stalls.
The installation almost invariably took place at Windsor,
but it was not there that the chapters were always held.
A century after the order was founded, we hear of a grave
king, Henry VI., holding a chapter in a very gay locality,
—the Lion Inn at Brentford. In this jovial resort were
elected two knights, Sir Thomas Hastings and Sir Alonzo
D’Almade, on whom the king conferred a handsome gold cup.
This hostelrie was not the last place of its sort in which
companionship in a first order of knighthood has been con¬
ferred. When Louis XVIII. w^as in London, on his way
to his recently recovered throne in France, he was visited
at Grillion’s Hotel, Albemarle Street, by the Prince Regent.
The French monarch improvised on the instant a chapter
of the Holy Ghost—and taking the insignia from his own
neck, he placed them round that of the prince, with the
remark—“ Of all I once possessed this alone is left to
me ; and I give it willingly to the most generous of princes.”
The new chevalier of the Holy Ghost returned the com¬
pliment, the same evening, by buckling round the knee of
Louis the jewelled garter. “ I am the first King of France
who has worn this decoration since the days of Henry IV.”
His Majesty, in thus speaking, was not strictly correct, for
Louis XIV. had worn the order. But the Grand Mon-
arque received it from the hands of the uncrowned James
II., at St Germains ; and the “ late King James,” as the
English journals used to call him from the time of his de¬
thronement, was held as having no right to confer an honour
which could spring only from the reigning sovereign of
England.
With regard to insignia, it may be noticed here that the
“George” and “collar” were added to the garter in the
time of Henry VII. So particular was this king in ob¬
serving the rules of the order, and so earnest in his venera¬
tion of the patron saint, that, to encourage the royal knight,
the Cardinal of Rouen presented him with a portion of a
leg bone of St George. The bone was solemnly exhibited
at one of those gorgeous chapters which Henry loved to
hold in cathedrals ;—the chapter in question was held in
the old metropolitan church of St Paul. The monarch
was so gratified with the cardinal’s gift that he erected, at
his own expense, a solid silver image of St George on the
altar of his chapel at Windsor, and ordered that it should
remain and receive homage there, “at all solemn feasts,”
—“ while the world shall endure.”
That general remodeller of many things, Henry VIII.,
entirely recast the statutes of the “ noble order.” It
was found that the rules which bound the men of one time
could not be rendered obligatory on the men of a later
period. One of the new rules may have been useful wdien
made ; at all events, it deserves to be recorded. Origi-
nally it was not necessary that an individual should be a
peer in order to gain admission into the order. Merit of
some sort, the more distinguished the better, was the first
qualification. In Henry’s time there were several members
of the order who were below the rank of peers. To these,
indiscriminately, he granted permission to wear dresses
made of woollen cloth manufactured in foreign countries.
This was a movement in the direction of tree trade; but
the benefit of it was confined solely to the knights and
peers : the common people were compelled to deck them¬
selves, as before, in home-made productions. It is from
Henry’s time that date the regulations whereby men of
high merit, yet of inferior social degree, are debarred from
companionship. The king, very characteristically, broke
his own rule, by giving the garter to Thomas Cromwell.
In the reign of Edward VI., under whom much of the re¬
ligious ceremony at installations was abolished, Lord
Paget was ejected from the order on the ground of origi¬
nal lack of noble blood ; but he was reinstated by Mary.
There was, certainly, no lack of noble spirit under this
queen. In proof of this may be cited an incident which
followed the reception of her husband Philip in the order.
The obsequious heralds, in honour of the occasion, were
proceeding to take down the arms of England, in the cha¬
pel, and to substitute the shield of Spain ; but some stout
old English lords opposed the attempt, and with such vigour,
that it was not persevered in. It w'as a rule of the order,
that if a member plotted or rebelled against the sovereign,
he thereby incurred forfeiture of his knightly degree, as far
as it was connected with the order of the garter. It is very
remarkable, however, that even after Philip had despatched
the Armada against this country, he was not deprived of
the garter, nor was his banner taken down. The conduct
of Elizabeth, with regard to the two great enemies of the
Protestant faith was remarkable. She retained Philip on
the roll of knights, and she sent the garter to Charles IX.
It is strange, fond as this queen was of magnificent dis¬
plays, that she was the first sovereign of the order who dis¬
couraged the anniversary banquets. Her treatment of the
newly-elected knights was also characteristic of the woman.
Their election was not reckoned valid till it had received
her sanction ; and this she frequently withheld to the latest
moment, finding pleasure in keeping the candidate for a
highly-coveted honour in painful suspense.
Down to the reign of James I., the “ride” of a knight
to Windsor, to be installed, was among the most magni¬
ficent, as well as popular spectacles of the period. 1 he
outlay for “bravery,” as the incidental finery was called,
was often enormous. James forbade much of it, under
peril of a pecuniary mulct. He prohibited the giving of
“ livery coats, for saving charge, and avoiding emulation.”
This prohibition, however, he turned in some degree to his
own profit, for his Majesty ordained, as an improvement on
the old custom, that all companions, at their installation,
should present a piece of plate, of the value of L.20 at least,
“ for the use of the altar in St George’s Chapel,” and, of
course, for the adornment of the royal banqueting-room in
the castle. The sumptuary law of James would seem to have
been inoperative; for never were there more splendid caval¬
cades of knights from London to Windsor than in the early
period of the reign of Charles; but, also, never were there
more dismal chapters held (sometimes only three or four
knights obeying a sovereign summons) than when the times
became agitated through the obstinacy of the king and the
resolution of the popular party and their leaders. The
“ George” of this sovereign displayed his gallantry; for it
bore, on the under side, the portrait of his wife, Henrietta
Knights
and
Knight¬
hood.
KNIGHTS AND
Knights Maria. This famous jewel, cut in an onyx, and surrounded
ap*1 by twenty-one table diamonds, in guise of a garter, was
K]iood worn’ subsequently, by the worthless Lauzun, and is now in
^ j the possession of the Duke of Wellington, who inherits it
^ from the late duke. Cromwell did not touch the garter, but
he dubbed half-a-score knights; and “ Oliver’s Knights”
were unjustly made the buffoons of the stage, long after the
Restoration. Charles II. did not wait for that Restoration
before he created Knights of the Garter. He made seve¬
ral during his period of exile; and the first two on whom he
conferred the dignity, on recovering “his own again,” had
well earned the distinction,—they were Monk and Monta¬
gue ; and they were among the last who received the gar¬
ter before they had been raised to the dignity of the
peerage. James II. would have restored the ancient reli¬
gious ceremonial if he had had time. On the other hand,
under the grave William, the custom by which a knight
was expected to celebrate his newly-gained dignity by a
splendid banquet was renewed. In the newspapers of this
period frequent mention is made of these feasts. As a
sample, may be noticed the installation-banquet of Lord
Portland, in March 1697. It is described as being of ex¬
treme splendour, and the fare was, certainly, equally abun¬
dant. The friends of Bentinck sat down with him to “ three
oxen, eighteen calves, twenty-five sheep, and a vast quan¬
tity of fowl.” The journalist, however, has forgotten to
inform his readers of the number of the guests. While
Anne and George I. were creating Knights of the Garter at
home, the Stuart king did not fail to exercise the same
right at St Germains, or wherever the court happened to
be, for the time. It is said that George II. changed the
colour of the riband, from dark to light, or garter-blue, in
order to distinguish the genuine Knights of the Garter from
those created by the Pretender, who retained the original
colour. Under this same king, not only were the splendid
banquets revived, but the popular curiosity concerning
them seems to have been of a very exciting character.
Thus, in 1752, on the anniversary of the birthday of the
young prince, who was afterwards George III., there was
an installation of knights at Windsor, followed by a dinner
and ball. In connection with the banquet, Sylvanus Urban
tells us that “ the populace attempted several times to force
their way into the hall, where the knights were at dinner,
against the guards ; on which some were cut and wounded,
and the guards fired several times on them, with powder,
to deter them, but without effect, till they had orders to
load with ball, which made them desist.”
Under George III. there were more irregular elections in the
order than under any other king. Junius detected and ex¬
posed the illegality of the election of Earl Gower; and George
III. abolished the statute of Edward, confining the number of
companions to twenty-five, in order that he might admit all
his sons. This bad example authorized George IV. to in¬
fringe the statute still more, by admitting foreign sovereigns
to companionship, without any regard to the regulation by
statute. The royal founder would now hardly recognise
his own order, so different are, in many respects, its rules
from those by which it was governed in the early days of
its grandeur. Changes of manners, mutability of human
fashion, and necessary modifications of religious ceremonials,
authorize, in a very great degree, the statutes which are now
in force. Many of the old ones, indeed, could not in these
days be acted upon. No knight would accept the honour,
on condition of always wearing the habit; and it would
hardly be edifying to observe the whole chapter on their
knees, as in the days of Henry V., before the supposed
heart, and fragments of the skull and leg bone, of St George
of Cappadocia. °
In connection with the sovereign of the Order of the
Garter we may notice, that after George, Prince Recent,
had bound the Garter round the knee of Louis XVIIL, he
KNIGHTHOOD. 119
expressed his own sense of the absurdity of English kings Knights
retaining among their titles that of “King of France.” and
From the accession, therefore, of George IV. this title was
dropped, and there disappeared from the coronation cere- 00 ' J
monial those two knights who were, for the nonce, con-
verted into dukes of Aquitaine and Normandy, and who
were supposed to have repaired to the foot of the throne of
the new king, in order to do homage for those provinces.
Churchill alludes to this folly in his “ Ghost,” when he
speaks of peers
“ ‘ Who walk,’ nobility forgot,
With shoulders fitter for a knot
Than robes of honour. For whose sake
Heralds, in form were forc'd to make,—
To make, because they could not find,
Great predecessors to their mind.
Could she (‘ Satire’) not (though ’tis doubtful since,
Whether he plumber is, or prince),
Tell of a simple knight’s advance
To be a doughty peer of France ?
Tell how he did a dukedom gain,
And Robinson was Aquitaine.”
The Order of the Bath has its peculiarly legendary tra- Order of
dition, which must be noticed, although it need not, neces- the Bath,
sarily, be credited. Henry IV., it is said, was surprised in
his bath by two widows who had a feud, and who requested
him to pronounce judgment between them. From these
litigants the modest monarch made his escape by springing
from the bath, and he founded the order in memory of the
circumstance. It was the rule of all knighthood that the
candidate for chivalry should bathe the night previous to
the celebration of the solemnity at which he was to be
created a knight. The order, which took its name pecu¬
liarly from an observance which was common to all orders,
was founded at the close of the fourteenth century. The
shield of the order bore three golden crowns in a field azure,
with the inscription, Tria in unum. One of the most bril¬
liant assemblies of the order was at the coronation of
Charles II.; and in former times a Knight of the Bath was
seldom created save at extraordinary seasons, such as the
birth of an heir apparent, a royal marriage, or a coronation.
The Order of the Bath, which some writers describe as a
simple order of Knights Bachelors, fell into disuse. It was
revived, however, in 1725, in the reign of George I., when
the Duke of Montague is spoken of under the title of
“ Grand Master.” When Walpole i'e-established this com¬
panionship, for the sake partly of rewarding or of purchas¬
ing political service, a few persons affected to make light
of the honour, but when the minister declared that the Bath
was a necessary preliminary to the Garter, the former rose
in estimation, and the insignia became objects of a laudable
ambition.
The old constitution of the Order of the Bath remained
in force until the period immediately following the battle
of Waterloo, when the Bath was divided into three classes,
for the purpose of rewarding the various claimants of dis¬
tinction. These are the Grand Cross, Knights Com¬
manders, and Knights Companions. The first two rank
above ordinary Knights Bachelors.
Ireland had no order of knighthood till the year 1783, Order of St
when that of St Patrick was instituted by George III. In Patrick.
1815, George IV. established the Guelphic order of Han¬
over. The decoration was at first conferred almost ex¬
clusively on Englishmen, but the Guelphic order having
gone with the kingdom of Hanover, apart from England,
the star is now seldom seen but on continental members.
The ancient Order of the Thistle dates at least from Order of
the times of Robert II., whose coins bore the cross and the Thistle,
impress of St Andrew. The badge of the Thistle, how¬
ever, was not worn before the reign of James III. It was
said that these emblems were not connected with any dis¬
tinct order of knighthood previous to the reign of James V.
120
Knights
and
Knight¬
hood.
KNIGHTS AND KNIGHTHOOD.
Order of
the Gen net,
Subsequently this chivalric companionship was suppressed
by the Reformers, and it was not till the reign ot James
VII. (II. of England) that the thistle and chivalry again
bloomed'together. The order is accessible to peers only.
“ A commoner,” says a recent writer, “ may have conferred
more honour and service on his country than all the Scot¬
tish peers put together, but no amount of merit could procure
him admission into the Order of the Thistle.” Nevertheless,
three commoners did once belong to it; but their peculiar
merit was that they were heirs-presumptive to dukedoms.
The first order of chivalry known in France was that of
the Gennet, a species of fouine, or “ wood-martin,” once
well-known and valued for its beautiful fur. When Charles
of Aquitaine had defeated the Moors at Tours, in the year
726, he found in the camp which the invaders left behind
them a large number, alive and dead, of those once valued,
but now almost forgotten animals. In memory of the
battle which he gained by the aid of “St Martin of
the war,” he built a church to the Saint, and found¬
ed the order of the Gennet, or “ Wood-Martin,” in his
honour. The founder received, in return, the designa¬
tion of the Martel, or “ Hammer of the Saracens.” The
order consisted of sixteen knights, and it was held in high
regard by the Carlovingian kings, but became extinct after
the accession of the Capetian race, when King Robert
founded the Order of the Star, out of homage to the Virgin
Mary, the star of the Sea. Although the Gennet was
the first order or brotherhood known in France, it had not
been unusual to reward that sort of valour, which was con¬
sidered the peculiar distinction of a knight, in individuals.
Thus, we read of Chilperic bestowing the bauldric, or
girdle, as a reward for great courage. This bauldric is
termed the “ royal gift,” a king alone having the privilege
to bestow this jewelled girdle, which, by its mounting, dif¬
fered from the plain gold girdles worn by such nobles as
cared to put them round their loins. Although this order
was instituted especially in honour of the Virgin, it became
remarkable for the good eating and drinking of the compa¬
nionship more than anything else. They had promised to
be vigilant, but the insignia of the star and collar were given
to the Chevaliers of the Watch, and the knights caroused
while their deputies kept ward. Sumptuous, and even pro¬
fligate, as some of those banquets were, we find that young
princes wTaited at the table,—that is, if they had not been
knighted ; for it was a rule that no son, not of the order of
chivalry, could sit down at the same table with a sire
who was a belted knight.
French Or- There was a French Order of the Thistle, which was,
der of the during a considerable period, of much celebrity. It was
Thistle. founded by Louis IL, Duke of Bourbon, in 1463. The
order was instituted on the duke’s wedding-day, out of
gratitude to the Virgin, who had endowed his highness
with a bride of great beauty, to whom he behaved, as those
mirrors of chivalry, the Guises, did to their wives, very
“ cavalierly.” It was thought sufficient if a man were only
exquisitely polite to the wife whom he shamelessly betrayed.
When the merit of Louis XV. was noticed in a funeral
oration, the reverend speaker said of that sovereign ot the
Order of the Holy Ghost, that however he may have lacked
fidelity to his spouse, he never uttered a cross word to her.
The knights of the French Order of the Thistle were
twenty-six in number. On the gold chain which they wore
round the neck were interwoven links so fashioned and dis¬
posed as to form the word Esperance. From the chain
was suspended an oval-shaped ornament of gold, in the
centre of which, above a half-moon, stood the Virgin, sur¬
rounded by rays, and crowned with a coronet of twelve stars.
From this oval hung a thistle blossom. The dress and
the statutes of this order bore a close resemblance to those
of the knights of the Order of the Garter.
The ^French Order of the Thistle was patronized, not
Knights
and
Knight¬
hood.
by St Andrew, but by our Lady. On the other hand,
Russia has an order of St Andrew, which has no connec¬
tion with the Thistle. The Muscovite order was founded by
the Czar, Peter Alexiewitz, in the year 1698. It was at first ^
conferred only on those who had borne themselves bravely S'"*'
against the Turks. Subsequently, they who had distin-Russian
guished themselves in the Swedish wars were admitted ; ^
and finally, it was given indiscriminately to great soldiers
and civilians of merit at home ; and it often served to dis¬
tinguish the officers in foreign courts who were in the in¬
terest of Russia. The knights carry a “ St Andrew’s cross,”
with the figure of the Apostle, with a smaller cross be¬
neath, and above, an ornament rather complicated, but in
which may be defined the double-headed eagle. A por¬
tion of the inscription of the original crosses stated, very
characteristically, that the order was founded by “ Peter,
possessor and autocrat of Russia.”
We have already incidentally noticed the French Order French ()r-
of St Michael, which long since fell into disuse, through Jer of St
its honours being rendered too common and too cheap. 1C ae '
King Henry III. abolished the Order of St Michael,
which had fallen into contempt, and created in its stead
that of the Holy Ghost. The intention was good, but it
failed of its end. It soon became overcrowded. One rule
was, that no one could gain admission who could not show
certain proofs of his nobility. This proved no safeguard.
Candidates for admission forged papers without scruple,
or produced whole cart-loads ot titles from Italy, which
the examiners passed without reading. The Marshal de
Biron, in submitting his papers to the king, observed that
his titles were set out therein, but that he had a bet¬
ter one at the point of his sword. One gentleman who
could not prove his nobility, did as good, by presenting the
king with a couple of puppies ; and, as these were of a
breed of dogs much prized by the monarch, he very ap¬
propriately clapped a collar on the neck ot the donor
The Order of St Louis was founded, or perhaps restored, Order of Si
on an ancient foundation, by Louis XIV. In process of Louis,
time it became even more common than that ot St Michael
had been; and it was no unusual thing to see the diminu¬
tive cross of the order tacked to the button-hole of indi¬
viduals who were hardly honest enough to pay for the coat
on which sparkled the decoration.
The Legion of Honour has taken place of all the French Legion of
orders, but it is, in truth, less a chivalrous body than a vast Honour,
crowd of scattered members, who are not companions, in the
knightly sense of the word, but who wear the cross in testi¬
mony of some particular merit—now, that of gaining vic¬
tory on a stricken field, anon for a new fashion in very
humble matters of dress. It is worn by monarchs and man-
milliners ; the classes being different, but the members of
them being all alike legionaries.
We may here notice a few of those orders which have jjisceiiane-
been remarkable for their singularity. Among them were ous Orders,
the Knights of the Holy Ampulla, who were knights only
for a day, and who carried the Sancta Ampulla, or holy
chrysm, at the coronation ot the kings of France. In con¬
trast with these ephemeral knights may be noticed the
Ladies of the Axe. This was a Spanish order, founded by
Raymond Berengarius, count of Barcelona, at Tortosa, in
1148, in honour of those stout-hearted Aragonese ladies
who beat back the Moors in a siege. The weapon which
they wielded so effectually at the siege of Tortosa was figured
on their cap and mantle. The members had several privi¬
leges. They took precedence, in all public ceremonies, of
the men (a privilege which does not give satisfactory war¬
rant of the general gallantry of Spain); they became, as
widows, exempt from all taxes, and they inherited all jewel¬
lery and female ornaments, without partition of value with
any of their brothers.
The Moors had, before this, given rise to an order oi
KNIGHTS AND
Knights chivalry—that of the Knights of the Oak. In the eighth
and century, Garcia, king of Navarre, was about to withdraw
Knight- from before a large Moorish force, when he beheld a cross
hoo<^ t in an oak; believing this to be a sign from heaven, he
charged victoriously, and, at the conclusion of a sanguinary
conflict, founded that chivalry of the oak, the members of
which were remarkable for their superstition and daring
courage.
It was a different motive that created the “ Order of the
Brotherhood opposed to Cursing and Swearing,” or vitanda-
rum exsecrationum scurrilitatisque cohibendce causa Vima-
rice socice. This order was established at the close of the
sixteenth century, by the Saxon dukes William and John,
at Weimar. At this period hard drinking and unseemly
language were prevalent in Germany; with great profes¬
sion of piety, nevertheless, on the part of those whose prac¬
tice was so discreditable. Licentiousness of speech was
such a characteristic of table manners, that we read of ban¬
quets at which he who presided rang a bell fixed beneath
the board, and when this sound was heard, the blasphem¬
ing guests were bound to bridle their profane tongues, and
observe greater cleanliness of expression. It would seem
that the noble-born who were distinguished for their purity
were raised to companionship in this order, the symbol of
which was a gold medal suspended from the neck.
Some orders have been founded on an error, as, for ex¬
ample, that of the Order of the Girdle of Hope, by Charles
VI. of France, who, having lost his way when hunting, and
found the right path again, attributed his good fortune to
“ our Lady,” and founded this order in her honour. Charles,
however, was held by the theological heralds to have thereby
done considerable wrong to St Hubert, who, if he had not sole
sovereignty over woods and chases, yet was of such conse¬
quence, that no one wandering in their labyrinths could
escape without his sanction and aid. George William of
Leignitz, when he founded the Order of the Golden Stag,
in 1672, in honour of a brilliant day, for which the duke
was grateful to St Hubert, much better understood, ac¬
cording to the ideas of the time, where his gratitude was
due.
There was more of marked singularity in the old Vene¬
tian Order of the Boot, which was founded in 1400, by the
Duke Michael Steno, for the encouragement of youths in
warlike exercises both by sea and land. The members of
this order wore an embroidered boot, decked with precious
stones, on either the right or left leg indifferently. The
absurdity consisted in there being but one boot for each
knight, but Michael Steno no more thought a pair of boots
necessary for his chevalier than Edward did a couple of
garters for his “ companions” at Windsor.
The Emperor Sigismund of Germany is one of the few
potentates who founded an order which died with the founder.
On his return from the Council of Kostnitz in Hungary, in
1418, he founded the knightly brotherhood of the Over¬
thrown Dragon. The members wore, suspended from a
chain round the neck, the figure, in gold, of a dragon, over¬
thrown, and with his wings flapping, crushed, and helpless.
There were many who rightly read in this terrible hiero¬
glyphic the stern resolution of the imperial grand-master and
knights to pursue to the death John Huss, Jerome of
Prague, and their followers.
St Michael was the patron of more than one order in
Spain, founded out of gratitude for succour against the ir¬
religious, particularly the Moors, or to invoke such succour.
Ihe Brothers of St Michael’s Wing, with their device of
Quis ut Dens, did good knight-service against the Moors,
and rendered acceptable help to all sorely-pressed Chris¬
tians in the bloody days of the fierce contests between the
two antagonistic peoples.
Some princes have founded orders for the furtherance of
friendship, but they seem to have been rather pleasant ea-
VOL. xm.
KNIGHTHOOD. 121
prices than anything more serious. So, Elizabeth Christina, Knights
Empress of Germany, founded, in the last century, at
Vienna, the Order of Love for Your Neighbour. As the
order was open to both knights and ladies, and as either ^ 00 ' ,
lady or knight wearing the order could bestow the insignia ”
once on a very dear friend, the wits had much to remark
touching such regulations. These were subsequently mo¬
dified ; but the order, with its agreeable legend of “ Amore
Proximi,” was the desired object of many an aspirant. It
was not the first of its class which arose, as fighting began
to be a little less common than in days of old, and Christian
people had more leisure to cultivate friendly relations.
There was a still more singular order, confined to knights
only, and which is said to have peculiarly belonged to the
house of Montmorency. The tradition relates, that after a
feud, in which the King, Louis, sided with the Abbot of St
Dennis against Bouchard Barberotte de Montmorency,
first baron of France, a reconciliation having been estab¬
lished, Montmorency appeared before his sovereign with
a company of knights, all of whom wore a thong (Hirsch-
Geweihes), from which was suspended the figure of a
dog. This was supposed to be a tacit assertion of their
fidelity towards the king. The knightly brotherhood not
only flourished, if the old chroniclers speak truly, but
Montmorency is said to have founded a second, that of the
Cock, and to have subsequently amalgamated the two. Of
the order, however, either of Dog or Cock, very little is
known, and that little is very doubtful. We suspect that
the orders attributed to the house of Montmorency are as
truly legendary as that of the Waning Moon, which ro¬
mancers ascribe to St Louis in 1269 ; and which, it is added,
though it ceased with his demise, was temporarily renewed
by Charles of Anjou, when he obtained possession of Si¬
cily. This order, we are told, was founded in opposition to
the infidel Order of the Crescent, founded by Soliman II.
Perhaps the most remarkable fact connected with the lat¬
ter is, that the famous Christian painter, Gentilis Bellino,
was a member of the order. At such a period, this showred
more liberal toleration on the part of the Turkish sovereign
than was exhibited by the King of France, in 1665, with re¬
spect to the Star of St Michael. Originally that order had
been founded in opposition to the Garter and the Golden
T leece, but it was given to the most worthless, or sold to
them, when foolish purchasers could be found. Even from
an order so degraded as this, the king ejected all Pro¬
testants, and declared them incapable of wearing the bril¬
liant insignia. Of a plainly-dressed Protestant of those days,
standing in the midst of a glittering crowd of Knights of St
Michael, might have been said what was said of Viscount
Castlereagh, when he stood, the only man in a plain dress
coat, amid the gilded and embroidered members of the
Congress of Vienna, “ Ma foi, il est tres distingue !”
The history of comic companionships would require Comic
a separate, and not a very brief article. These, indeed, Compa-
were not knightly orders, but societies founded in imitation n'onshil,s
of them, and with mirthful, though not always useless, ends
in view. Of these we can only notice the principal; and
first among them stands the Order of Fools, or Company of
Simpletons, founded by Adolph Count of Cleves in 1381,
for three dozen knights, who were bound by ordinances, the
originals of which still exist in Germany. The “ decora¬
tion” consisted of a small fantastic figure of a court fool,
holding fruit in his hand, as a sign of the affection which
the court’s knightly fools were expected to bear the one to
the other. They met in solemn assembly on the first
Sunday after Michaelmas, and separated the Sunday fol¬
lowing. From this meeting no member dared be absent,
unless incapacitated by grievous illness, or engaged in
business at a distance of six days’ journey from Cleves.
There were fines for non-attendance, and for not wear¬
ing the symbol of the Fool, but these were given to
Q
122
knights and knighthood.
Knights
and
Knight¬
hood.
the poor, after being rigorously exacted by the king and
council annually elected to preside over the 01 der. It any
members died between the anniversary meetings, it was the
first business of the community to proceed to the cathedral
' and celebrate a mass in their honour, with abundance of
prayer to rescue them from purgatory. The least foolish
part of the ceremonial used by this “Company of Fools”
was in their brotherly reconciliations. If two members
happened to be at feud, they presented themselves before
the king and council, during the grand assembly, on an
appointed day, and embraced each other, before the sun
went down. As peacemakers and charitable persons the
noble members of this companionship were not such fools
as they pretended to be. At a time when the soldier’s vo¬
cation was the only one greatly honoured—when there was
little equality among men, and compassion for the suffering
was by no means general—it was no folly which moved the
court to form a companionship in which every member was
equal, the rulers being only nominally superior to their fel¬
lows, and the object of which was to reconcile the estranged,
and to relieve the poor.
The “ Dijon Infantry,” or the “ Mother of Fools,” was a
society early formed on the model of that of Cleves, and
re-formed, in the fifteenth century, by Philip the Good,
Duke of Burgundy. There was, however, no limit, whe-
ther with respect to number or quality of the members.
These amounted to several hundreds, and among them
were princes, bishops, dignitaries of parliament, artists, and
tradesmen. The rules and the formulas of reception
were in very rough rhymes. One object in view was.to
forget worldly cares over very sumptuous banquets, and
another was to censure the views and criticise the sayings
and doings of society generally. The order of the “ Mo¬
ther of Fools” met yearly about carnival time ; and, in the
dresses of labourers in vineyards, the members rode through
the town, singing satirical songs as they went, and attract-
;ng universal attention in their green, red, and yellow cos¬
tume, with bells on their two-pointed and tri-colouied caps,
the marotte, or stick with a zany’s head upon it, in their
hands, and the sublime “ Mother of Fools” leading the joy¬
ous and very mixed company. The officers were numer¬
ous, and over all waved the sacred banner, with the unde¬
niable device, “ Stultorum infinitus est numerus.” This
banner was protected by a guard of sixty knights; and the
august person of the “ Mater Stultorum” was surrounded
by fifty chevaliers, selected from among the most skilful
artists of the city. The processions were at once magnifi¬
cent and burlesque ; and the power acquired by the children
of “ La Mere Folie” was extraordinary. If a citizen
offended a member of the order, he was summoned to an¬
swer the charge made in presence of the Mother, who was,
of course, a man. If a citizen declined to appear, he in¬
curred a fine. If he refused to pay the penalty, six officials
were sent to compel him to obedience. I hese took up their
quarters in a neighbouring town, where they lived at his
cost, while they levied a distress on his goods, and sold
them to the highest bidder, the law giving them this stiange
authority, and refusing to interfere in behalf of the recusant
burgher. Such an order was likely to fall into lamentable
excesses; and, as a consequence of these, the order was sup¬
pressed in 1630, though twenty years later the then surviv¬
ing members were allowed to ride in procession, in order
to carry up some compliment to the authorities. Ihe last
“ Mother of Fools” was Philippe des Champs, procurator
of parliament, and syndic of the states of Burgundy.
During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the “ So-
cietas Cornardorum,” or Order of Hornbearers, flourished
at Evreux and Rouen, under the auspices of the parlia¬
ments of Paris and Rouen. As the members of the order
bore a hare’s tail in the front of their caps, and wore a fox’s
brush round their necks, their proper appellation may have
been “ Societas Caudinadorum,” or Order of Tail-Bearers.
The objects of the order were originally like those of the Dijon
Infantry and the Mother of Fools ; but these were forgot¬
ten, and, in the interest of morality, it became necessary to ^
abolish the “ Cornardi.” The sole merit of this comic chi¬
valry consists in the additions made by them to the stock
of macaronic poetry, in which form they lashed vices in
churchmen and people which they were not ashamed to
practise themselves.
The “ Kingdom of the Bazoche” was the high-sounding
title of an order of French law-students, founded when the
parliament of Paris was first established in that capital, and
deriving its name from the Greek word (3at,av, which im¬
plies that sort of loquacity in which a lawyer does not
always say what he thinks, but boldly pledges his conscience
for the truth of an assertion, and deems the honour of the
bar to be satisfied by calling it a “ mere formula.” This
order, which had much to do with comic literature, was
founded in 1303, and was suppressed in 1476, with all its
plays, mysteries, recitations, and roystering festivals. Its
constitution was on the knightly principle, and the grand¬
master was styled king. This title was not an uncommon
one for the chief of any community. The company of
mercers (in France) had their king. One of the stewards
of the royal household bore the name in derision, perhaps
of his office, that of a sort of provost over the lower ser¬
vants of both sexes. At this day, too, Belfast has, not its
“ mayor,” but its “ sovereign.” In more recent times the
Order (or Regiment) of the Calotte in France was one of
those companies which, for a while, tilted with points of
satire against the follies and vices of mankind, as the knights
used to do, more seriously, against the oppressors of the
weak and the enemies of the faith.
But it is time to close this imperfect record ; and we per¬
haps cannot do so more appropriately than by giving a chro¬
nological list of some of the principal orders under which
chivalry has been most distinguished.
RELIGIOUS AND EQUESTRIAN-CHAPTER ORDERS.
1. St John of Jerusalem, subsequently Knights of Rhodes
and of Malta a.d. 1043
2. The Knights Templars  1118
3. The Teutonic Order  1191
4. The Order of St Joachim  1755
PAPAL ORDERS.
About a dozen are ascribed to the popes at various
times, but these seem to have been mere guilds. The sole
exception is in the Order of the Golden Spur (1559), of which
Gall ini the ballet-master was made a knight by Pius VI.
Lord Kenyon refused, in a court of law, to take his testi¬
mony as that of “ Sir John Gallinibut Coke had previously
settled that a knight, by whomsoever created, remained a
knight, all law to the contrary notwithstanding.
THE CHIEF IMPERIAL ORDERS.
1. St Constantine, originally of the Greek Empire, sub¬
sequently Neapolitan  a.d. 313
2. St Andrew (and St Catherine) of Russia 
3. St George of Russia  1782
4. St Alexander Newskoi  1700
5. Maria Theresa (Austria)  1757
6. St Stephen of Hungary  1764
7. St Vladimir  1782
To these may perhaps be added, the Turkish Crescent, the
Persian Lion and Sun, and the Legion of Honour (1802),
which is not a military order exclusively, the cross being
often conferred, as a medal is given to distinguish the
wearer, without admitting him to knightly privileges. This
order was founded by Napoleon I.
Knights
and
Knight¬
hood.
K N 0
Knolles. CHIEF ROYAL ORDERS.
Round Table, England  a.d. 528
The Avis  1147
Calatrava         1158
Alcantara         1170
St James of Compostella     1175
White Elephant of Denmark  1190
Dannebrog  1219
Montera    1317
Christ of Portugal  1319
White Eagle of Poland  1325
Seraphim     1334
Garter  1343
Bath     1399
Annunciation of Savoy  1355
St Maurice of Savoy  1454
St Michael of Prance  1469
The Sword         1525
The Thistle 809, revived   1540
Holy Ghost  1578
St Lazarus    1607
Generosity of Prussia  1685
St Louis of France  1693
Black Eagle of Prussia   1701
Fidelity       1732
St Januarius  1738
Military Merit  1740
Polar Star    1748
Military Merit (France)  1769
St Stanislaus     1765
Immaculate Conception, or Charles III. of Spain,
founded on the old “ Oak of Navarre”    1771
Vasa  1772
St Patrick   1783
St Ferdinand and Merit, Sicily  1800
Iron Crown, for Italy only  1805
Leopold ..;     1831
Saviour, Greece     1833
PRINCELY AND DUCAL ORDERS.
The orders of St Mark and of the Golden Stole of Ve¬
nice, date from the earlier times of the Doges; added to
these are—
The Golden Fleece   a.d. 1430
St Stephen of Tuscany  1561
Sincerity, or the lied Eagle of Bayreuth, subse¬
quently the Red Eagle of Prussia  1705
Fidelity of Baden Durlach  1716
White Falcon of Saxe Weimar  1732
St Anne of Holstein (now Russia)  1735
The Chase of Wurtemberg    1719
Happy Alliance (Saxe Hildburgerhausen).  1749
K N O
St Charles of Wurtemberg 
Military Bravery, Hesse Cassel.... ....
Golden Lion, do.  
Military Merit, Wurtemberg 
ELECTORAL AND ARCHIEPISCOPAL ORDERS.
St Hubert of Juliers a.d. 1744
St Rupert of Salzburg  1701
St George of Bavaria   1729
St Henry of Saxony   1736
The Palatine Lion  1763
ORDERS FOR LADIES.
Amaranth, Sweden...   a.d. 1645
Slaves to Virtue (Austria)  1662
Neighbourly Love, do   
Starry Cross, Austria  1688
St Catherine, Russia  1714
St Ubrica, Sweden  1734
The Death’s Head    1756
St Elizabeth, Palatine   1766
Maria Therese (Spain)    1792
Spain has been most prolific in orders of chivalry, which
have lived for a while, and then made way for others; the
principal have been the Lily of Navarre, in the eleventh
century; St Saviour in the twelfth century; the Holy Ro¬
sary of Toledo, and St George and Alfame in the thirteenth.
In the following century were founded the orders of the
Dove, the Croce della Scania, and the Scarf. The Lily of
Aragon, in the fifteenth century, rivalled the renown of the
ancient Oak of Navarre (722); and Spanish gallantry crea¬
ted the orders of St James, Calatrava, and Mercy, for the
enrolment of ladies only.
With this list we dismiss the subject of Knights and
Knighthood, quoting herewith the lines of Spencer, who,
showing what knight should be, by what Sir Calidore was,
says,—
“ Nor was there knight, nor was there lady found.
In Fairy Court, but him did dear embrace,
For his fair usage and conditions sound,
The which, in all men’s liking, gained place ;
And, with the greatest, purchased greatest grace,
Which he could wisely use, and well apply,
To please the best, and th’ evil to embase;
For he loathed leasing and base flattery,
And loo-ed simple truth and stedfast honesty.”
(j. D R—N.)
A.D.1759
  1769
  1785
  1799
KNOLLES, Richard, the author of a famous History of
the Turks, was born in Northamptonshire about the middle
of the sixteenth century ; he studied at Oxford, and became
master of the free school of Sandwich in Kent, where he
died in 1610. He was the author of a Latin-Greek Hebrew
Grammar, and of some minor works bearing chiefly on Ori¬
ental history. On his General History of the Turks he spent
twelve years of his life. On the strength of this book
Johnson, in a number of the Rambler, assigned to Knolles
the first place among English historians. “ His style,” says
the great critic, “ though somewhat obscured by time, and
sometimes vitiated by false taste, is pure, nervous, elevated,
and clear.” The verdict of Johnson is confirmed by Hal-
lam; but a perusal of the work will satisfy most modern
readers that these flattering criticisms are completely over¬
charged. There is a strong smack of ill-natured truth in
the remarks of Walpole, who said that, as a history, the
work was a tissue of fables, and, as a piece of style, one of
the most wearisome books in the world, with weak sen¬
tences of a page long. Several continuations of the work
have been published, the best being by Paul Ricaut, folio,
London, 1680 ; but as a history it is now entirely super¬
seded.
KNOX, John, the great reformer of Scotland, was born
at the village of Gifford in Haddingtonshire in the year
1505. His father is said, though perhaps without founda¬
tion, to have been descended from the family of Ranfurly,
in the county of Renfrew. The name of his mother was
Sinclair ; and some of his letters, written in seasons of
danger, were subscribed John Sinclair. Whatever might
be the lineage or the situation of the father, the son was
enabled to obtain the benefit of a liberal education, such as
his native country could then afford. After having been
instructed in the Latin language at Haddington School, he
was, in the year 1521, sent to the University of Glasgow,
where philosophy and divinity were taught by John Mair,
a celebrated schoolman. The Greek and Hebrew languages
were not then publicly taught in Scotland; but the former
of these he acquired when he was yet in the vigour of life,
and the latter during the period of his continental exile. It
is not sufficiently ascertained that he took a degree ; but if
it be correctly stated that he publicly taught philosophy in
this university, and afterwards at St Andrews, we are per¬
haps, to infer that he was a master of arts.
He soon felt himself dissatisfied with the dry and barren
speculations of scholastic philosophy and scholastic theology.
124 K N
Knox. Not contented with the extracts “ from ancient authors which
he found in the writings of the scholastic divines and canon¬
ists, he resolved to have recourse to the original works. In
them he found a method of investigating and communicat¬
ing truth to which he had hitherto been a stranger, and the
simplicity of which recommended itself to his mind in spite
of the prejudices of education and the pride of superior at¬
tainments in his own favourite art. Among the fathers of
the Christian Church, Jerome and Augustine attracted his
particular attention. By the writings of the former, he was
led to the Scriptures as the only pure fountain of divine
truth, and instructed in the utility of studying them in the
original languages. In the works of the latter, he found re¬
ligious sentiments very opposite to those taught in the Ro¬
mish Church, who, while she retained his name as a saint
in her calendar, had banished his doctrine, as heretical, from
her pulpits. From this time he renounced the study of
scholastic theology ; and although not yet completely eman¬
cipated from superstition, his mind was fitted for improving
the means which Providence had prepared for leading
him to a fuller and more comprehensive view of the system
of evangelical religion.” (M'Crie’s Life of Knox, vol. i., p.
41, 5th edit.)
During the persecution which followed the spread of the
reformed faith in Scotland, Knox was engaged in teach¬
ing philosophy in the university of St Andrews, though it
does not clearly appear that he held the office of a regent
or professor. Many persons of his acquaintance had em¬
braced the reformed doctrines; but he did not openly pro¬
fess himself a Protestant till the year 1542. As he began to
recommend to his pupils a more rational and edifying method
of study, he excited some suspicions of heresy ; but when
he proceeded so far as to expose certain corruptions of the
church, he speedily found it necessary to change his place
of residence. Having retired to the south of Scotland, and
there avowed his adherence to the cause of reformation, he
was declared a heretic, was degraded from his orders, and
was even in danger of his life from the hand of the assassin,
had he not found shelter under the roof of Douglas of
Longniddry, a staunch Protestant like himself. Here he
was retained in the capacity of a domestic tutor; and, as
occasion offered, preached openly in the Protestant interest
to the inhabitants of the surrounding district.
In 1546, when the martyrdom of George Wishart had
been avenged by the murder of Beaton, Knox, though he
had borne no hand in the cardinal’s death, was one of the
many unconcerned in it who took refuge in the Castle of
St Andrews. During the siege of that stronghold by the
royalist party under the regent Arran, Knox was persuaded
to officiate as one of the chajdains of the garrison, and, by
his labours among the citizens of the town, confirmed the
waverers, besides gaining many new converts to the refor¬
mation. For more than a year the Protestants held their
ground in St Andrews, till strong reinforcements from
France enabled the besiegers to invest the place by sea and
land. After a vigorous resistance they were compelled to
accept terms of capitulation from Leo Strozzi, the com¬
mander of the foreign auxiliaries. It was stipulated that
their lives should be spared, that they should be removed
to France, and that such of them as declined entering into
the French service should be conveyed to any other coun¬
try except Scotland. Knox, sharing the fate of his com¬
panions, was conveyed on board one of the French ships to
Rouen ; but the terms of the capitulation were grossly vio¬
lated, and, at the instigation of the pope and the Scottish
clergy, the captives were treated as prisoners of war. The
leaders were committed to close custody in Rouen, Cher¬
bourg, Brest, and Mont Sc Michael; while Knox and
some others were sent on boa* d the galleys, and, after being
loaded with chains, were compelled to labour at the oar.
Here they were subjected to many other indignities; but,
O X.
in spite of every hardship and every threat, not one of their Knox;
number could be impelled to renounce his faith. During
the ensuing winter, the galley in which he was confined lay
in the River Loire ; and, in the summer of 1548, it sailed for
Scotland, and cruised off the east coast, for the purpose of
intercepting English vessels. The hardships to which he
was now subjected produced a very serious effect upon his
health: he was seized with a violent fever, and no hope
was entertained of his recovery. He however regained
his strength, and during his captivity had sufficient energy
of mind to compose more than one religious treatise. His
treatise on prayer, written during this season of affliction,
was afterwards published. After a captivity of nineteen
months, he was restored to liberty in February 1549. Of
the circumstances which led to this event various accounts
have been given; but, according to Dr M‘Crie, “it is more
than probable that he owed his deliverance to the com¬
parative indifference with which he and his brethren were
now regarded by the French court, who, having procured
the consent of the parliament of Scotland to the marriage
of Queen Mary to the dauphin, and obtained possession of
her person, felt no longer any inclination to revenge the
quarrels of the Scottish clergy.”
Knox immediately directed his course to England, where
his merits and his sufferings were neither unknown nor un¬
regarded. Soon after he made his appearance in London,
he received an appointment to officiate at Berwick, where
he began to preach with his characteristic fervour and zeal.
He exposed the errors of popery with an unsparing hand,
and his labours seem to have been attended with no incon¬
siderable success. The tendency of his zeal was not, how¬
ever, calculated to recommend him to the bishop of the
diocese, Dr Tonstall, who was strongly attached to the old
faith. Having been accused of asserting that the sacrifice
of the mass is idolatrous, the preacher was cited to appear
at Newcastle on the 4th of April 1550, before the Bishop
of Durham, and to give an account of his doctrine. In
presence of a great audience, Knox entered into a full de¬
fence of his opinions, and with the utmost boldness pro¬
ceeded to demonstrate that the mass is a superstitious and
idolatrous substitute for the genuine sacrament of the
Lord’s supper. The bishop did not venture to inflict any
ecclesiastical censure; and the fame of the obnoxious
preacher was extended by this attempt to restrain the bold¬
ness of his attacks on the errors of Romanism. Having
remained at Berwick till the close of the year, he was after¬
wards removed to Newcastle, and in December 1551 was
appointed one of King Edward’s chaplains in ordinary,
with an annual salary of L.40, which at that period was
no mean provision. In the course of this year, the Book
of Common Prayer was subjected to a revisal, of which it
stood in considerable need ; and Knox having been con¬
sulted, among other divines, was chiefly instrumental in
procuring a material alteration in the communion service,
which at first was too favourable to the doctrine of the
real presence. One vestige of this doctrine is still pre¬
served in the kneeling posture of the communicants, which
manifestly derives its origin from the popish adoration of
the host.
The freedom of his discourses in the pulpit gave offence
to various individuals, and among others to the Duke of
Northumberland, warden-general of the northern marches ;
and having been accused of high misdemeanours, he was
cited to appear before the privy council, which at that
period possessed an extensive and ill-defined jurisdiction.
But the malice of his enemies was completely foiled. Knox
was fully cleared from every imputation of blame; and
having been employed to preach at court, he made so fa¬
vourable an impression on the young king that he expressed
his anxiety to promote him in the church. It was resolved
by the council that during the following year he should
preacli in London and the southern counties. Having re¬
turned for a short time to Newcastle, he accordingly re¬
paired to the metropolis in the beginning of April 1553.
Archbishop Cranmer had previously been directed by the
council to present him to the rectory of All-Hallows; but
Knox declared that in the existing state of the church he
could not conscientiously accept of any preferment. He
was again summoned before the council, where he gave an
unreserved explanation of his sentiments on that subject.
Nor could the promise of much higher promotion induce
him to disregard the admonitions of a scrupulous conscience:
the king, with the advice of his council, made him an offer
of a bishopric ; but instead of availing himself of so favour¬
able an avenue to worldly honours, he declared the office of
a bishop, as exercised in the English Church, to be destitute
of divine authority. It is sufficiently evident that he con¬
sidered that establishment as but imperfectly reformed from
the errors of popery ; and that, in his estimation, the new
prelacy, retaining all the proud trappings, as well as the po¬
litical character, of the old, was very widely removed from
the simplicity of an evangelical church. The premature
death of the king, on the 6th of July 1553, was fatal to the
further progress of reformation, and a cloud of spiritual
darkness again overshadowed the land.
During his residence at Berwick, Knox had formed a
lasting attachment to Majory Bowes. Her father was
Richard, the youngest son of Sir Ralph Bowes of Streat-
lam ; her mother was Elizabeth, a daughter and coheiress
of Sir Roger Aske of Aske. The match was cordially ap¬
proved by the mother of the young lady, but having been
opposed by her father, it was not concluded till after a con¬
siderable interval. After the king’s death, he had some in¬
tention of settling at Berwick, or in the immediate neigh¬
bourhood ; but he soon discovered that he could not safely
reside in a kingdom ruled by so bigoted and cruel a sove¬
reign as Mary soon showed herself to be. He therefore
sailed for France, and landed at Dieppe on the 20th of
January 1554. Having lingered there till the last day of
February, he pursued his solitary way through France, and
arrived in Switzerland ; but in the beginning of the ensuing
month of May he retraced his steps to Dieppe, with the
view of obtaining intelligence from his friends in England.
At that period the intercourse between different countries
was slow and precarious; nor was this the only occasion on
which he returned to the same place for the same purpose.
While he continued to reside on the Continent, he received
remittances from his friends in Scotland as well as in Eng¬
land, but his means of life were neither certain nor ample.
Geneva became for some time the chief place of his abode,
and here his exile was cheered by the friendship of Calvin.
The two reformers had embraced the same opinions with
respect to the leading doctrines of the Christian faith, and
in their personal character they exhibited several conspi¬
cuous points of resemblance. In their notions of ecclesias¬
tical polity they preserved the same agreement; and the
authority of Knox, supported by that of Calvin, has con¬
tributed to establish in this country a simple mode of dis¬
cipline and worship, to which our ancestors adhered with
unconquerable resolution, and in support of which many of
them were found ready and willing to shed their blood.
The leisure which he enjoyed at Geneva was profitably
spent in study, to which he devoted himself “ with all the
ardour of youth, although his age now bordered upon fifty.
It seems to have been at this time that he made himself
master of the Hebrew language, which he had no oppor¬
tunity of acquiring in early life.” Many pious and learned
men had now been driven from England by the cruelty of
Queen Mary, and most of them sought refuge in the Pro¬
testant states of Germany and Switzerland. Those who
resorted to the imperial city of Frankfort were allowed the
joint occupancy oi a place of worship; and it was unani¬
mously resolved to discontinue the use of the surplice, the
litany, the audible responses, and some other superfluities
which might rather excite the surprise than the approbation
of their foreign brethren. Having determined to elect three
pastors, they sent a letter of invitation to Knox, subscribed
by twenty-one of their number, at the head of whom stands
John Bale, the exiled Bishop of Ossory. It was not without
some degree of reluctance that he consented to leave his
retreat at Geneva; he however repaired to Frankfort in the
month of November 1554, and entered upon the duties of
his new charge, but his connection with this congregation
proved a source of great uneasiness and mortification. Vari¬
ous dissensions, which arose among its members, were chiefly
occasioned by a difference of opinion as to the propriety of
adhering to the English service ; and those dissensions were
greatly fomented by Dr Cox, who had been preceptor to
King Edward, and who afterwards became Bishop of Ely.
In the progress of the controversy Knox appears to have
acted with dignity and moderation, but the upholders of
the liturgy w^ere not easily diverted from their purpose.
When all other expedients failed, tw o of their number, with
the approbation of others, sought a private interview with
the magistrates, and accused him of treason against the
Emperor Charles, his son Philip, and his aunt the Queen
of England. This extraordinary charge was founded upon
certain passages in his tract published in 1554, under the
title of A Faythfull Admonition unto the Professours of
Cods Truthe in England. Of the futility of such an ac¬
cusation the magistrates were sufficiently aware; but they
nevertheless deemed it advisable for him to withdraw from
Frankfort, and he availed himself of the suggestion which
they conveyed to him. On the evening of the 25th of
March 1555, he delivered a farewell discourse to about fifty
members of the congregation; and on the following day
they accompanied him several miles on his journey. He
immediately returned to Geneva, and he experienced a
cordial welcome from Calvin. There he continued till the
mouth of August, when he again proceeded to Dieppe;
and having embarked in a vessel bound for Britain, he
landed near the eastern border of the two kingdoms about
the end of autumn. On reaching Berwick, he found his
wife and mother living in comfortable circumstances. With
them he remained for some time, and afterwards pursued
his journey to Edinburgh, where he took up his abode with
a citizen named John Syme, to whose house the friends of
reformation repaired as soon as they were aware of Knox’s
arrival.
Notwithstanding the rigour of the penal laws, the vo¬
taries of the Protestant cause were not entirely extirpated
or dispersed. The Queen Dowager, Mary of Lorraine, hav¬
ing succeeded in her attempt to supplant the Earl of Arran,
had been appointed regent on the 10th of April 1554. She
was sufficiently disposed to continue the corruptions of the
church, but several prudential considerations restrained her
from pursuing more violent measures. Some of the Protest¬
ants who were driven from England by the atrocities of Queen
Mary were permitted to live in Scotland without molestation,
and even to meet, though with some degree of privacy, for
the purpose of worshipping God according to the dictates of
their own conscience. A comparatively small number of
the population had as yet openly renounced the Romish
creed; and of those who were most inclined to the Pro¬
testant doctrines very few had ventured to discontinue their
attendance at mass. Knox was deservedly scandalized at
this want of firmness and consistency: a meeting, attended
by William Maitland of Lethington, and other leaders of
the party, was held for the avowed purpose of discussing
the lawfulness of such compliances; and Knox succeeded
in his attempt to convince them that all participation in the
worship of the Romish Church was to be avoided by those
who were convinced of her gross errors. Nor were his ex-
126 K. N
Knox, ertions confined to the metropolis. He accompanied John
Erskine of Dun to his seat in the neighbourhood of Mon¬
trose ; and during a visit of a month he preached every day,
being* attended by the principal persons of the adjacent dis¬
trict. On his return to the south, we find him residing at
Calder House, the seat of Sir James Sandilands, afterwards
Lord Torphichen, an early, zealous, and consistent friend
of the Reformation. In the hall of this baron, who was
preceptor in Scotland of the Knights of St John of Jerusa¬
lem, he preached and administered the communion. Here
his ministrations were attended by several persons of dis¬
tinction ; and among these were Archibald Lord Lome,
afterwards Earl of Argyle, John Lord Erskine, afterwards
Earl of Mar, and James Stewart, Prior of St Andrews, af¬
terwards Earl of Moray, all of whom received religious im¬
pressions, which influenced the future course of their lives.
Early in the subsequent year, 1556, he was accompanied to
the district of Kyle by Lockhart of Dunbar, and Campbell
of Kineancleuch. This division of Ayrshire had been the
principal seat of the Lollards in Scotland, and it then con¬
tained many friends of the purer religion. They were not,
therefore, unprepared for his reception: he preached not
only in the town of Ayr, but. likewise in the houses of Bar,
Kineancleuch, Carnell, Ochiltree, and Gadgirth, and in
several of these places the holy communion was now dis¬
pensed. Before Easter, he paid a visit to Finlayston, the
residence of Alexander Earl of Glencairn, one of the most
strenuous friends of the Reformation. In this baronial castle
he also preached and administered the sacrament. Return¬
ing to Calder House, he next determined to visit his friends
in the north; and during his second residence at Dun he
was emboldened to preach in a more public manner. Many
gentlemen of that vicinity made an open profession of the
reformed faith ; and, in order to strengthen their cause, they
entered into a solemn engagement to renounce the commu¬
nion of the Popish Church, and, to the utmost of their abi¬
lity, to promote the pure preaching of the gospel. “ This,”
says Dr M‘Crie, “ seems to have been the first of those reli¬
gious bonds or covenants by which the confederation of the
Protestants in Scotland was so frequently ratified.”
As he now began to preach more openly, the ecclesiastics
felt a natural alarm for the safety of a tottering church; and
the friars testified their zeal by urging the bishops to pro¬
ceed with rigour against such an offender. He was accord¬
ingly cited to appear before an assembly of the clergy, to
be held at Edinburgh in Blackfriars Church, on the 15th
of May; but when they found that he did not shrink from
this discussion, and that he was supported by some persons
of influence, they sought a pretext for superseding the cita¬
tion on the ground of its informality. On the very day
which had been appointed for his appearance he preached
in the Bishop of Dunkeld’s house to a much larger auditory
than had previously attended him in Edinburgh ; and dur¬
ing the ensuing ten days he regularly preached twice a-day
in the same place, without being exposed to any molestation.
About this penod the Earl Marischal attended one of his
evening discourses; and it may be regarded as a proof of
his favourable impression, that he united with the Earl of
Glencairn in an earnest request that Knox would address
to the Queen Regent such a letter as might induce her to
extend her protection to the Protestant preachers. A letter
was accordingly addressed to her, and it was delivered by
the Earl of Glencairn ; but it does not appear to have pro¬
duced any change in her sentiments. This letter he after¬
wards published, with some additions. In the meantime,
he received from the English congregation at Geneva an
invitation to become one of their pastors. He readily lis¬
tened to their call, and made arrangements for removing
thither, accompanied by his wife, as well as by her mother,
who had now lost her husband. He embarked them on
board a vessel bound for Dieppe, and paid another visit
O X.
to the several places where he had disseminated the truth Knox,
of the Gospel. He visited the Earl of Argyle at Castle
Campbell, and there he repeatedly preached to such an
auditory as could be assembled. Having thus made no
inconsiderable progress in preparing his countrymen for a
more general reception of the reformed doctrines, he took
his leave in the month of July 1556, and joining his family
at Dieppe, he again directed his course to Geneva. His
colleague in his new office was Christopher Goodman, B.D.,
an Englishman, who afterwards became a clergyman of the
Church of Scotland. Their congregation chiefly consisted
of the exiles who had withdrawn from Frankfort in conse¬
quence of the dissensions already mentioned. The two
pastors lived together on terms of the greatest cordiality.
Knox likewise enjoyed the friendship of Calvin and Beza;
and the two years which he spent in this vocation are de¬
scribed as the most tranquil of his public life. At this pe¬
riod was published a directory for worship and discipline,
frequently described as the Order of Geneva; but it had
been composed at Frankfort by Knox, Whittingham, Fox,
Gilby, and T. Cole. The same directory was afterwards
adopted by the Reformed Church of Scotland.
When the Scottish clergy were apprised of his having
quitted the kingdom, they renewed the citation for his ap¬
pearance ; and those who had no inclination to encounter
such a disputant now found themselves at liberty to pro¬
ceed against him as a contumacious heretic. He was ac¬
cordingly condemned to suffer death by fire; and as the
sentence could not be executed on his person, it was exe¬
cuted on his effigy, which was in due form committed to
the flames at the cross of Edinburgh. From this sentence
he prepared an appeal, which was afterwards printed under
the title of The Appellation of John Knoxe from the cruell
and most unjust sentence pronounced against him by the
false Bishoppes and Clergie of Scotland. In the course of
the year which followed his return to Geneva, two citizens
of Edinburgh, James Syme and James Baron, were the
bearers of an invitation for him to resume his evangelical
labours in his native country. They were furnished with
credentials from the Earl of Glencairn, and the Lords Erskine,
Lome, and James Stewart. After consulting Calvin and the
other ministers of Geneva, he determined to devote himself
to this honourable and dangerous service ; and he again
pursued his way to Dieppe, where he arrived in October
1557. He had, however, the mortification of receiving
letters which entirely disconcerted his plan ; for he was
informed that some of the Protestants already repented of
the invitation which had been sent to him, and that the
great body of them seemed to waver in their purpose. He
lost no time in addressing a letter to the noblemen who had
subscribed the credentials; and it may easily be supposed
that he did not fail to upbraid them for their want of firm¬
ness and consistency. In a similar strain, he likewise wrote
to Erskine of Dun, Wishart of Pittarow, and to some other
individuals of the Protestant party. He lingered in France
to await the course of events; and as he was familiarly ac¬
quainted with the French tongue, his talents as a preacher
were not in the meantime unemployed. About this period
he paid a visit to Lyon, and he is known to have preached
at Rochelle. A Protestant congregation had recently been
formed at Dieppe; and he was now elected one of its pas¬
tors, being associated with Delaporte. So successful were
their exertions, that some of the principal persons of the
town were induced to renounce Popery, and a general im¬
provement began to be produced in the morals of the inha¬
bitants. Discouraged by the aspect of affairs in Scotland,
he at length determined to revisit Geneva, where he again
made his appearance in the beginning of the year 1558.
It was at this period that some of the most learned members
of his congregation were engaged in preparing an English
version of the Bible, and he is said to have had some share
KNOX.
Knox, in the undertaking. The New Testament was printed at
—Geneva in 1557, and the entire Bible in 1560. This ver¬
sion, commonly called the Geneva Bible, is allowed by com¬
petent judges to possess great merit; and in the opinion of
Dr Geddes it is generally superior to the version executed
under the authority of King James. Of the former ver¬
sion, says Dr M‘Crie, it is evident that his translators made
great use ; “ and if they had followed it still more, the ver¬
sion which they have given us would, upon the whole, have
been improved.”
In the course of the year 1558 Knox published three
different works. One of these was the Appellation. An¬
other, which has also been mentioned in a former page, was
The Copie of a Lettre delivered to the Ladie Marie Re¬
gent of Scotland. The third and most remarkable of these
tracts bears the title of The First Blast of the Trumpet
against the Monstrous Regiment of Wemen. This anony¬
mous work, directed against the political government of
females, attracted a very considerable degree of attention.
It was speedily answered by John Aylmer, who in due time
became Bishop of London. The doctrine of Knox as to
the inexpediency of female rule was afterwards contro¬
verted by David Chalmers of Ormond, and by John Les¬
ley, Bishop of Ross. Whatever opinion may be formed of
his theory, it must at least be admitted that, either in Eng¬
land or Scotland, he had seen nothing to reconcile him to
the practice; and, in one of those countries, the regimen
of a woman might with too much justice be termed mon¬
strous. His literary labours were interrupted by the re¬
newal of an invitation from the Scottish Protestants; and,
at the beginning of the year 1559, he bade a final adieu to
Geneva, having previously been presented with the free¬
dom of the city. Leaving his family behind, he once
more proceeded to Dieppe, where he arrived in the month
of March; and, having ascertained that he would not be
permitted to pass through England, he embarked for Leith
on the 22d of April, and was safely landed on the 2d of the
following month.
The Popish Church of Scotland w^as now approaching its
crisis, which the presence of Knox had no small tendency
to hasten. The queen regent, who for some time thought
it necessary to dissemble her real sentiments, had lately
evinced a fixed resolution to oppose the Reformation with
all the weight of her authority; and Walter Mill had been
brought to the stake by Hamilton, the profligate archbishop
of St Andrews. The death of the English queen (17th
Nov. 1558) produced considerable Influence on the affairs
of the neighbouring states, and the queen regent was pre¬
pared to adopt the most violent measures. Several of the
preachers, Willock, Harlow, Methven, and Christison, were
cited to appear at Stirling before the High Court of Justi¬
ciary on the 10th of May, that is, eight days after Knox’s
return ; and very soon after his arrival had been announced
to Mary he was proclaimed a rebel and an outlaw. The
four preachers were outlawed for non-appearance, and a
fine was levied on their sureties. After remaining a single
day in the metropolis, he hastened to Dundee, where the
chief Protestants of Angus and Mearns were then as¬
sembled. They proceeded to Perth, and there he preached
a sermon against the idolatry of the mass and of image-
worship. After the conclusion of the service a riot was
casually excited among the common people; and, before it
was terminated, the monasteries of the Dominican and
Franciscan friars, with that of the Carthusian monks, were
totally demolished. The queen, who was probably glad of
such a pretext, collected a considerable army, and advanced
upon Perth; but she found the Protestants so well pre¬
pared for resistance that she did not hazard an attack.
She proposed and ratified terms of accommodation, which
she speedily showed a strong disposition to disregard. In
order to ascertain the strength of their party, and to conso-
127
lidate its union, they formed a religious bond or covenant, Knox,
which received many signatures in different parts of the
kingdom. From this period they began to be distinguished by
the name of the Congregation; and their noble leaders were
commonly described as the Lords of the Congregation.
On his return from Perth, Knox preached at Anstruther
and Craill. Disregarding the admonitions of his friends,
and the threats of the archbishop, he next preached in the
cathedral of St Andrews, having selected the appropriate
subject of our Saviour’s driving the profane traders from
the holy temple. On the three ensuing days he lifted up
his warning voice in the same place; and so signal was the
success which attended his efforts, that the magistrates and
the inhabitants resolved to establish the reformed worship
in that city, the pictures and images were removed from
the churches, and, on the 14th of June, the monasteries
were defaced. Fie reached the capital in the end of the
same month: on the day of his arrival he preached in St
Giles’s, and on the following day in the Abbey church.
On the 7th of July, the body of the Protestant inhabitants
of Edinburgh elected him as their minister. His wife joined
him from Geneva; and her mother likewise came to end
her days in Scotland. But he was soon disturbed in his
new functions, in consequence of the military occupation
of the city by the troops of the queen regent. He now
made an extensive circuit in the southern and eastern dis¬
tricts of the kingdom, visiting Kelso, Jedburgh, Dumfries,
Ayr, Stirling, Perth, Brechin, Montrose, Dundee, and St
Andrews; nor can we doubt that the impressions produced
by such a missionary were great and beneficial. After this
period he was deeply engaged in the political as well as the
ecclesiastical transactions of the Congregation ; and the
vigour of his talents, with the decision of his character, was
conspicuously displayed in the steps which led to the
establishment of the reformed religion. Knox, as well as
Willock, concurred in advising the suspension of Mary
from the office of regent. For the space of twelve months
the kingdom was a prey to a civil war, in which French and
English troops supported their respective allies. The con¬
test, which had not been marked by many of the usual
atrocities of intestine warfare, terminated in the month of
July 1560. Parliament soon afterwards assembled; and in
the course of a few days the reformed religion was estab¬
lished by the authority of the legislature.
Knox, after officiating for several months in St Andrews,
had returned to Edinburgh at the end of April, and conti¬
nued to exercise his functions during the siege of Leith.
Before the close of the year, he was visited with a severe
domestic affliction in the loss of his wife, who left two chil¬
dren of tender years. The young queen returned from
France on the 21st of August 1561. Not many days after
her arrival she sent for the reformer, of whose powerful
influence she must have been fully aware; but neither this
nor any of their subsequent interviews produced the effects
which she seems to have anticipated. Such topics as Mary
introduced h j discussed with undaunted freedom, though
it cannot witn justice be affirmed that he treated her with
incivility. She certainly did not overawe him with her
royal presence, or render him less disposed to use his ut¬
most endeavour in destroying the fabric of ancient super¬
stition.
At this period the metropolis of Scotland contained only
one parish church. Knox was at first assisted by a reader,
named John Cairns. It was then his regular practice to
preach twice every Sunday, and thrice on other days of the
week; but in 1563, John Craig, minister of Canongate, was
appointed his colleague. In 1562, he had for three suc¬
cessive days been engaged at Maybole in a public disputa¬
tion with Quintin Kennedy, abbot of Crossraguel; and, in
the course of the following year, an account of it was
printed at Edinburgh, under this title: Heir followeth the
Coppie of the Ressoning which was hetuix the Abbote of
Crosraguell and John Knox. Another learned Catholic,
Ninian Winzet, addressed to him a Buhe of fourscoir thre
Questionis, to which it was his intention to publish an
answer, though he seems to have been prevented by his
other avocations, which were sufficiently numerous. After
this period he incurred the hot indignation of the queen
for having, in one of his public discourses, animadverted
with great freedom on her intended marriage. During one
of their interviews she wept bitter tears of anger; and
some modern historians have been not a little scandalized
at his want of gallantry. In the month of December 1563,
he was summoned before the Privy Council on a charge of
high treason, for having written a circular letter to the
Protestant gentlemen in reference to the trial of two per¬
sons who had been indicted for a riot in the chapel royal.
Of this charge he was fully acquitted, to the great disap¬
pointment of Mary and the Popish party.
After having continued a widower for more than three
years, he married Margaret Stewart, daughter of the good
Lord Ochiltree. This marriage took place in March 1564,
when he had attained the age of fifty-nine. The noble
family with which he thus became connected was descend¬
ed from Robert Duke of Albany, second son of King Ro¬
bert the Second. Knox was again brought before the
Privy Council, for having, in a sermon preached in St
Giles’s on the 19th of August 1565, used certain expres¬
sions, or rather quoted certain texts, which gave great
offence to the king, who was present, and applied them to
himself. He was for a short time prohibited from preach¬
ing. Early in the following year, Mary subscribed the
Catholic league for the extirpation of the Protestants; and
if she had not been controlled by several prudential con¬
siderations, she seemed sufficiently prepared to adopt ex¬
treme measures. When she returned from Dunbar, soon
after the death of Rizzio, he retired from Edinburgh, and
sought refuge in Kyle ; nor does he appear to have resumed
his pastoral care till after the final overthrow of her autho¬
rity. Towards the close of the year he prepared to visit
England, where his two sons were residing with some of
their mother’s relations, for the purpose of receiving their
education. He appears to have returned home soon after
the queen had plunged herself into ruin by her marriage
with Bothwell. He was a member of the General As¬
sembly convened at Edinburgh on the 25th of June 1567 ;
and he preached a sermon at the coronation of the young
king, which took place at Stirling on the 29th of the en¬
suing month. The assassination of the Regent Moray,
and the civil troubles which ensued, depressed his mind
and affected his health; in October 1570 he felt a stroke of
apoplexy, which, however, was of so mitigated a kind that
he was able to appear in the pulpit; but his strength was
greatly impaired by his unceasing exertions, and he never
recovered any considerable degree of vigour. Before the
end of that year the freedom of his animadversions in the
pulpit gave such deep offence to Kircaldy, governor of the
castle, that at length he found it expedient to change his
habitation. He quitted the metropolis on the 5th of May
1571, and retired to St Andrews, the scene of his early
labours. Here, in the following year, he published A?i
Answer to a Letter of a Jesuit named Tyrie. In a state
of great debility he returned to Edinburgh towards the end
of August 1572 ; and on the 24th of November he closed
his most laborious and most honourable career, after hav¬
ing attained the age of sixty-seven He left two sons by
the first, and three daughters by the second marriage.
Both his sons studied at St John’s College, Cambridge, and
both of them became fellows. Nathaniel, the elder of the
two, took the degree of A.M., and died in the year 1580.
Eleazar, the younger son, proceeded B.D., and was one of
the preachers of the university. Having been collated to
the vicarage of Clacton-Magna, he died in 1591, and was
buried in the college chapel. The three daughters, named
Martha, Margaret, and Elizabeth, were married to three
clergymen, James Fleming, Zachary Pont, and John
Welsh. The widow of Knox became the wife of Sir An¬
drew Ker of Fadounside, who is described as a strenuous
supporter of the Reformation.
The vigorous and ardent mind of Knox was lodged in a
diminutive and feeble body, which had been wasted by
various hardships, and by intense mental exertion. His
natural talents were improved by no mean attainments of
learning, and he was eminently distinguished by an impe¬
tuous and impressive eloquence, which gave him a great
ascendancy among his countrymen. That he was a man
of fervent and habitual piety, will not be disputed by any
one whose prejudices do not prevent him from forming a
correct estimate of his character. From an early period
of his life he devoted his entire energies to the best of all
causes; and, in the hand of Providence, he was the great
instrument which rescued his countrymen from the fangs
of papal tyranny and superstition; nor is any other name
entitled to be mentioned with equal honour in the annals of
Scottish history. Of civil as well as ecclesiastical tyranny
he was a decided enemy; and his writings contain some
hold speculations on the subject of government. No man
was more upright in his intentions, or more disinterested
in his motives. That the impetuosity of his character occa¬
sionally impelled him beyond the bounds of moderation
may be fully admitted without any diminution of the re-
pect due to his name ; he was placed in a situation which
required great energy and decision ; and a person chiefly
distinguished by the gentler virtues would have been very
indifferently qualified to encounter the boisterous elements
with which he was destined to contend. It is not to be
concealed that he was not exempted from that spirit of into¬
lerance which, in a greater or less degree, belonged at that
period to every sect and denomination of Christians. He
was as little disposed to tolerate the mass as the mass-
priests were to tolerate those whom they termed heretics.
The principles of mutual toleration were little understood
or relished; and almost every one who possessed the
power, betrayed the inclination of imposing, by very un¬
gentle means, his own creed upon his neighbours.
Beside the works which have already been mentioned,
he composed various others, which are accurately enume¬
rated by his biographer. “His practical treatises, ’ says
Dr M‘Crie, are among the least known, but most valuable,
of his writings. In depth of religious feeling, and in power
of utterance, they are superior to any works of the same
kind which appeared in that age. I he thoughts are often
original, and always expressed in a style of originality,
possessing great dignity and strength, without affectation
or extravagance.” The work by which he is best known
as an author is The Historic of the Reformation of Re-
ligioun within the Realm of Scotland. So early as the
year 1586, an octavo edition of it, to the extent of twelve
hundred copies, was undertaken in England by Vautrollier,
a well-known printer ; but when ready, or nearly ready, for
publication, it was seized by the command of Archbishop
Whitgift. Some imperfect copies, all of them wanting the
beginning and the end, have however survived this visita¬
tion of the Protestant inquisitor. An edition was after¬
wards published by David Buchanan, who has taken very
unwarrantable liberties with the text. Lond. 1644. fol.;
Edin. 1644, 4to. He has suppressed various passages, and
interpolated others ; and the fifth book, which has not been
found in any manuscript, is perhaps his sole composition.
A genuine edition, “ taken from the original manuscript in
the university library of Glasgow,” was at length published
by Matthew Crawford, professor of ecclesiastical history
in the university of Edinburgh. Edin. 1732. fol. A col-
K N U
Knutsford lective edition of his works has been edited by David Lain°-,
II in 4 vols. 8vo, Edin. ] 846-55. (d I) °
Koniah^ KNUTSFORD, an ancient market-town of Cheshire,
Y ^ so called, it is said, after Canute the Dane, who forded with
his army the stream which passes through the town. Pop.
3127; partly employed in silk and cotton handloom weaving.
KODIAK, or Kadyak, a large island of Russian Ame¬
rica, to the N.E. of the Aleutian group, among which it is
sometimes included. It is separated from the mainland of
Aliaska by the Straits of Cheligoff, and is about 100 miles
long by 50 in breadth. The general surface is very moun¬
tainous, and in the interior thickly wooded ; the valleys are
well watered, and the soil and climate are superior to those
of the neighbouring islands. The coast, which abounds in
whales, seals, &c., is indented by numerous bays ; in the N.
is the harbour and station of St Paul, the principal fur
depot of these islands.
KOLOMNA, a town in the Russian province of Moscow,
on the River Kolomenka, at its junction with the Moskwa,
66 miles S.S.E. of Moscow. It carries on an active trade
between Moscow and the neighbouring country, and has
manufactures of linen, cotton, silk, and woollen stuffs, lea¬
ther, tallow, &c. Pop. (1850) 12,598.
KOMORN, or Comorn, a royal free city of Hungary,
capital of a cognominal county, is situate on a point of land
formed by the junction of the Waag with the Danube, and
constituting the eastern extremity of the island of Schutt.
The fortress of Comorn, founded by Mathias Corvinus in
the fifteenth century, has been rebuilt and strengthened
since 1805, and is now one of the strongest in Europe. It
has never been taken ; and in 1848-9 it successfully resisted
all the efforts of the Austrian army. The town itself is
irregularly built, and the streets are narrow and dark. It
has four Roman Catholic churches, one Greek, one Lu¬
theran, and one Reformed church, a Jewish synagogue, a
Roman Catholic and a Protestant gymnasium, and two thea¬
tres. Komorn is a steam-packet station, and carries on an
extensive trade in grain, wine, timber, and fish. Pop.
(1851)19,113. l
KONGSBERG, a mining-town of Norway, stift of Ag-
gerhuus, on the Louven-Elf, 43 miles W.S^W. of Chris¬
tiania. It is the seat of a mining directory, and has a min¬
ing school, a royal manufactory of firearms, and government
powder-mills. The silver mines in the vicinity, discovered
in 1623, are the most important in the kingdom. Pop.
about 4000.
KONIAH, or Koniyeh (the ancient Iconium), a city of
Asia Minor, capital of the pashalic of Karamania, in a wide
plain, about 300 miles S.E. from Constantinople. N. Lat.
36. 54., E. Long. 32. 40. It is surrounded by walls, which
are flanked with towers, and by a wide fosse. The walls,
about 2 miles in circumference, were built by the Sel-
jukee sultans, in the thirteenth century, of materials taken
from more ancient edifices. The figures in alto relievo
ornamenting the gates are said by Kinneir to be among
the finest in Turkey. Koniah now presents little to the
eye of the traveller but the ruins of its former greatness.
The numerous monuments in the Saracenic architecture
fully attest that under the Seljukee sultans it had been a
town of great celebrity and sanctity, as well as a seat of
learning. There are remains of upwards #of twenty me-
dreschs, or colleges, a number nearly equal to that of Bagh¬
dad. In the modern part of the town the houses are low,
and are mostly built of sun-dried bricks and wood. There
are several bazaars, mosques, colleges, public baths,
<inci khans, and two Armenian churches. Among the
mosques the finest is that of Sultan Selim, built on the
model of that of St Sophia at Constantinople. There is
here the tomb of a Moslem saint, held in the highest vene-
tation all over I urkey. The manufactures are in a very
anguishing state, and are confined to carpets and morocco
VOL. XIII.
K 0 N 129
leather. Pop. about 30,000. Ibrahim Pasha completely Roniggratz
defeated the Turks here on 21st December 1821. See II
Iconium. Konigs-
KONIGGRATZ, a fortified town of Bohemia, capital v ber^' y
of a cognominal circle on the Elbe, at the mouth of the v-*-
Adler, and 64 miles E.N.E. of Prague. It is the seat of a
bishop, and has an elegant cathedral, Jesuit’s college, epis¬
copal seminary, gymnasium, orphan asylum, large barracks,
and theatre. The chief manufacture is woollen cloth. Pop.
about _ 9000.
KONIGSBERG, a city and seaport of Prussia, capital
of the government of the same name, and of the province
E* Puissia, is situated on both banks, and on an island in
the centre of the Pregel, about 4 miles from its mouth. It
is divided, exclusive of suburbs, into three parts, origi¬
nally distinct towns, each with its own magistrates; the
Altstadt, or old town, the Lbbenicht, both on the N. side
of the river, and the Kneiphof, on the island. The two
former occupy an elevated site, consisting of seven low
hills ; the latter is built on piles, the island being swampy.
Seven wooden bridges connect the various parts of the
city. It is strongly fortified, and since 1843 the fortifica¬
tions have been greatly increased. The general aspect of the
city from a distance is sufficiently imposing, but a nearer
view reveals the irregularity and meanness of the streets and
the paucity of fine public buildings. The most interest¬
ing of the latter is the cathedral, in the Kneiphof, a fine
Gothic building of the fourteenth century, containing the
monument of Margrave Albert, and the tombs of many
leutonic knights. 1 he palace (Schloss), an ungainly but
venerable pile, founded in 1257 by King Ottocar of Bo¬
hemia, afterwards the residence of the Teutonic grand¬
masters, and in the present century of Frederick William
III. and his queen, when driven by Napoleon from Berlin,
is now used as the government house. In the palace
church the first Fi'ederick placed the Prussian crown on his
own head ; the walls are covered with the names of men who
fell in the war of 1813. Above it is the Muscovite Flail,
300 feet long, 60 broad, and 19 in height, without pillars
or ornament. Near the cathedral is the Albertine Uni¬
versity, founded in 1554 by Margrave Albert, having about
50 lecturers and above 300 students ; connected with it
is a library of about 50,000 volumes, a museum, a bota¬
nic garden, and observatory. There are two theological
academies, three gymnasia, and a public library of 160,000
volumes. In the Konigsgarten, or Parade, is a fine eques¬
trian statue of Frederick William III., in bronze, by Kiss.
The trade of Kiinigsberg, which has declined in the present
century, is chiefly in corn, hemp, flax, linseed, tallow, &c.
Amber was formerly an important article of trade ; it is still
exported in small quantities. There is not depth of water for
large vessels nearer than Pillau, at the mouth of the Fri-
sches-Haff, a flourishing place of 4000 inhabitants, about
24 miles from Konigsberg. A large proportion of the trade
is with Britain. The principal manufactures are woollens,
silks, leather, soap, refined sugar, sailcloth, iron and steel
ware, &c.; there are also extensive breweries, distilleries,
and building yards.
Konigsberg ranks third among Prussian cities, being
preceded only by Berlin and Breslau. Its foundation is
due to the Teutonic Knights, who erected a fort here in
1225. It joined the Hanseatic League in 1365, and was,
fiom 145/ to 1528, the residence of the Teutonic grand¬
master. In 1657 it came into the possession of the Elector
of Bradenburg, who made it his capital. The Russians
occupied it from 1758 to 1764, and the French in 1807,
when it suffered greatly. Of distinguished natives of the
town the most celebrated was the metaphysician Kant,
who nevei wandeied 20 miles from the city during a life
of eighty years. His house, No. 3 Prinzessin Strasse, is
still shown; his tomb is in a porch outside the cathe-
li
130 K O N
Konigstein dral. In Latin the town is called Regiomontum, or Mons
I! Regius.
Koraes. KONIGSTEIN, a small town of Saxony, on the Elbe,
^ 17 miles S.E. of Dresden. Above it, at an elevation of 779
feet from the river, towers the hitherto unimpregnable for-
tress of Kbnigstein, the retreat, in all cases of extreme danger,
of the Saxon monarchs and their treasures. Its strength is
due mainly to its lofty and isolated position, the nearest height
being 3000 yards distant, as well as to the solid and pre¬
cipitous nature of the surrounding rock on which it stands.
The gateway is high up the cliff, and is approached by a
slanting way cut through the rock, and by a wooden draw¬
bridge. Two years’ provisions for 1200 men are always
kept stored, in time of war, in vast casemates hollowed out
of the rock. There is an inexhaustible supply of water
from a well bored in the rock to the depth of several hun¬
dred feet, and the plot of land that surrounds the fortress
produces some corn and vegetables, and pasturage for one or
two cows. The last occasion on which this place became
an asylum for distressed loyalty was in 1849, when the king
lived here three months. Packing-boxes are kept always
ready for conveying the most valued treasures of Dresden
to Kbnigstein in case of danger.
KOOM, a town of Persia, province of Irak-Ajemi, an ex¬
tensive plain 60 miles S. by W. of Teheraun. It was built by
the Saracens, about the beginning of the ninth century, upon
the site, as D’Anville supposes, of the ancient Choana. It
afterwards became one of the finest cities in Persia, and was
long celebrated for the manufacture of silks. It was taken,
and all but completely destroyed, by the Afghans, on their in¬
vasion of Persia in 1722. Part of it has since been rebuilt,
but it still has the appearance of a vast ruin. There is a
very beautiful college, with a celebrated mosque and sanc¬
tuary, erected to the memory of Fatima, the daughter of
Imam Reza, and containing the tombs of Sofi I. and Shah
Abbas II. Pop. about 8000.
KOONDOOZ, a khanat of Independent Turkistan,
lying between N. Lat. 35. 38., E. Long. 68. 72., and
having N. the territories of Hissar, Durwaz, &c., E. the
Bolor Mountains, S. Afghanistan, and W. Bokhara, ihe
greater part of the surface is mountainous, but a consi¬
derable portion of it is also marshy, so that in many parts
the roads are obliged to be constructed on piles of wood.
The marshy parts produce excellent crops of rice, while
wheat and barley are largely cultivated in the drier tracts.
Fruits are abundant, as are also generally all the neces¬
saries of life. Silk is an important product. The climate,
however, is very unhealthy, arising partly from the marshy
character of the surface, and partly from the great variety
of temperature. The heat in summer is frequently exces¬
sive, while in winter the snow lies for three months in the
year. The indigenous inhabitants are Tanjiks, but the
khan and his dominant party are Usbeks. An active trade
is carried on with the Chinese province of Yarkad, and
with Bokhara. Slaves constitute a large article of export
from Koondooz.
Koondooz, the capital of the above khanat, is situated
in a wide valley near the confluence of two rivers, about N.
Lat. 36. 48., E. Long. 69. 20. It is a wretched place, of
some 500 mud hovels. It has a fortress, surrounded by a
mud wall and dry ditch, and a citadel, the winter residence
of the khan.
KORAES, Diamantes, or, as he himself used to write
his name in French, Diamant Coray, the greatest philo-
loger of modern Greece, and one of the best Greek scho¬
lars of his age, was born at Smyrna, April 27, 1748.
At a wretched school in his native town, where, as he him¬
self says, the birch and the cane were the only things much
in vogue, he picked up a little Greek, French, and Italian.
His father, himself a merchant, intended him for commerce,
and in 1772 sent him to Amsterdam, to establish there a
K 0 R
branch of his own business. He remained in Holland for Koraes.
six years. On his return home, at the end of that period,
he was shocked at the general prostration of Greece and
the Greeks under the misgovernment of the Turks. He
determined to leave his country, and, in 1782, fixing upon
Montpelier in France as his residence, he plunged into the
study of medicine. Immediately after graduation in 1788
he repaired to Paris, where he watched with intense inte¬
rest the progress of the revolution, and. dared to hope that
his own enslaved country might also be roused to assert its
ancient freedom. The design of his writings during many
years was to kindle the torch of freedom in Greece itself.
To do this three things were needed: to teach the Greeks
their own political condition, and bring it under the notice
of the other nations ; to revive the thoughts and language of
their own ancient classics; and to improve the common
speech, by purging it of the solecisms which had crept into
it in the course of ages. In his own person he united the
three functions of political writer, editor of the old Greek
classics, and legislator of the modern Greek tongue. The
first work by which he made himself widely known was his
edition of the Characters of Theophrastus, with a transla¬
tion into French by himsellj and some valuable notes and
discussions. The work was dedicated to the free Greeks
of the Ionian Sea, and the expense of it was defrayed by a
rich Greek merchant of Leghorn. The next of his Greek-
French works was his edition of Hippocrates’ essay on Cli¬
mate, Water, and Locality, which work w'as immediately
translated into German and Spanish, and to which, in 1810,
the Institute of France awarded the prize of 5000 francs.
In 1802 Coray published a translation into modern Greek
of Beccaria’s treatise Dei Delitti e delle Pene (On Crimes
and Punishments), which he dedicated to the newly consti¬
tuted republic of the seven Ionian Islands. He followed it
up next year with his Memoire sur Vetat actuel de la Civi¬
lisation dans la Grece, which he published both in French
and modern Greek. His aim in doing so was to familiarize
the Europeans of the west with the social and moral con¬
dition of Greece, and to point out to the Greeks the true
means of raising themselves in the scale of nations by a
sound system of education. At the instance of Napoleon,
Coray undertook, along with Laporte du Theil and Gosse-
lin, a new translation of Strabo’s Geography. To this im¬
portant work Coray contributed the third, fourth, seventii,
eighth, twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth books,
and the great body of the appended notes. About this
time he contributed important matter, in the form of anno¬
tations to Levesque’s Thucydides, to Larcher’s Herodotus,
and to Schweighauser’s Athenceus. In 1804 he conceived
the idea of a “ Hellenic Library,” which should embrace
those Greek classics whose works were adapted to the
actual condition of the country. The first two volumes
contained the complete works of Isocrates. The next six
volumes were devoted to Plutarch; and these were fol¬
lowed by Strabo in four volumes. The Strabo of this
“ Library” contains the best text of that author that
has yet been given to the w'orld. During these latter
years Coray contributed largely to the columns of the
Logios Hermes (Scientific Mercury), a Greek journal
founded and published at Vienna by Anthimus Gazi. In
1821 the Greek revolution broke out, to the great surprise
and even alarm of Coray, who thought the movement pre¬
mature, and had not looked for it till thirty years later.
However, he hailed the dawn of his country’s freedom by
publishing an edition of Aristotle’s Politics, and, in the fol¬
lowing year, the Nicomachean Ethics of the same author.
His remaining contributions to the Bibliotheca Hellenica
were the Memorabilia of Xenophon, the Gorgias of Plato,
and the speech of the orator Lycurgus Against Leocrates.
Nine less elaborate volumes, w'hich he called Parerga,
were afterwards added to the Bibliotheca by way of supple-
K O R
Kordofan. ment. His subsequent works were editions of the first four
books of the Iliad, of the Asteia of Hierocles, and of
the Pastoral Letters of St Paul, and three volumes of
Atakta, or Miscellanies. He died at Paris, April 6, 1833,
having nearly completed his eighty-filth year, and having
lived long enough to see the independence of his country
established and secured on a proper basis.
As a scholar Coray rendered essential service to the
literature of ancient Greece, both by giving a powerful im¬
pulse to the study of it, and by the large number of happy
restorations which he made in the corrupt texts of all the au¬
thors edited by him. It has been objected to him, not with¬
out reason, that he relied too much on his faculty ol critical
restoration, and sometimes ignored extant manuscripts of
undoubted authenticity. He rendered a no less signal ser¬
vice to the modern Greek, by fixing the rules of ortho¬
graphy and construction. One set of writers, whom he
called “ the macaronic,” with Neophytus Doukas at their
head, wished to revive the classic forms. lo the great
mass of the people their works written on this principle
were a sealed book. On the other side, Cathartzi, Chris-
topoulos, and their faction, wrote the modern Greek exactly
as it was spoken, and thus prevented it from attaining
any literary perfection. Coray took a middle course. He
banished all foreign, and especially all Turkish words, and
substituted for them words drawn from the literary lan¬
guage, to which he gave modern terminations or forms.
The syntax he reconstructed as nearly as possible on the
classic model, steering clear of the foreign idioms which
had gradually crept in, and avoiding at the same time the
affectation of a too severe purism. Time has consolidated
Coray’s system, and, with some trifling modifications, it is
now in general use in Greece.
KORDOFAN, a country of Africa, bounded N. and W.
by Nubia and Darfur, E. by Senaar. Mountains and forests
to the S. separate it from regions little explored. The
general surface is flat, the chief exceptions being in the N.
and S., and there is no perennial stream but the Bahr-el-
Abiad, which divides it from Senaar. The extremes of
temperature are great; the heat in the dry season reaching
122° Fahr. in the shade, while the cold of the nights is
severe. During the rainy season, which lasts from April to
September, the face of the earth undergoes that rapid and
striking change characteristic of tropical countries, the
scorched and brown line of the plains gives place to a lively
green, and the soil, which seemed hopelessly baked and
lifeless, gives forth grass and corn, fruits and flowers. The
principal grains cultivated are durrha and sesamum. Among
the natural productions, one of the most valuable is the
Acacia, producing the finest species of gum-arabic. Among
the wild animals are the elephant, rhinoceros, lion, leopard,
giraffe, hyaena, antelope, ostrich, &c. The wandering Be¬
douins rear excellent horses, as well as camels and cows;
sheep and goats are bred in great numbers in the hilly
country of the south. The inhabitants are chiefly of three
races,—negroes, the indigenous race, Arabs so called, and
emigrants from Dongola. The last have most of the trade
in their hands, and, together with the Arabs, bear no
good character for honesty ; the aborigines are a simple and
hospitable people. The only manufacture carried to any
degree of excellence is the tanning of sheepskins. Iron
is also wrought to some extent. The most important ex¬
port is gum-arabic, of which there is a government mono-
poly, as well as of hides and senna. Cattle, sheepskins,
ivory, gold and silver, ostrich eggs and feathers, &c., are
also exported. The capital of the country is Obeid, a
straggling mud-built place, of about 50CO inhabitants.
Kordofan was subdued by Mohammed Ali, viceroy of
Egypt, in 1820. It had for some time been subject to Dar¬
fur, and previously to Senaar. Before the Egyptian conquest,
Obeid is said to have been a place of considerable trade.
K 0 S 131
KORNER, Theodor, the Tyrtaeus of Germany, was Korner
born at Dresden in 1791. When a child, he was sickly J!
and feeble, but as he grew up, his whole nature seemed to Kosemsko.
undergo a complete change. He began to study with v ^
intense ardour, devoting himself to history, the physical
sciences, and above all to poetry. His father, a man of
good station and fortune, enjoyed the personal friend
ship of Goethe and Schiller. Till his seventeenth year the
young Korner had been educated at home. He was then
sent to the mining school of Freiberg, and in due time was
transferred to the university first of Leipzic, and afterwards
of Berlin. In both of these cities he distinguished himself
by his enthusiasm for the independence of Germany, and his
efforts to rouse his countrymen to throw off the iron yoke
of Napoleon. His zeal outran his prudence, and his father
judged right to send him for a time to Vienna, where such
doctrines might be taught with greater safety. Here he
began to write for the theatre. His first two plays, “ Die
Braut” {The Bride), and “Der Griine Domino” (The Green
Domino), were completely successful, but were altogether
eclipsed by the brilliant triumph of “Rosamonde,” “Toni,”
and above all of “ Zriny.” When the disastrous issue
of Napoleon’s Russian campaign restored the prospects of
freedom to Germany, Korner volunteered as a private into
the Prussian light-horse of Liitzow. At the affair of Kit-
zen, he fought with distinguished valour against the French.
Severely wounded in the battle, he crawled during the night
into a wood, where he was found next morning by some
peasants, who took care of him till he was quite recovered.
When he rejoined his corps he was presented with a com¬
mission as the reward of his valour. In the constant skir¬
mishes between the French and German troops he exposed
his person in the most reckless and daring fashion. At last,
on the 26th August 1813, he met the death he had so often
seemed to court in vain, being killed by a shot near the
village of Wobbelin in Mecklenburg. Fie was buried where
he fell, at the foot of an oak-tree by the wayside, and his
name was carved in the bark. An iron monument now
marks the spot.
Kbrner, at the time of his death, had not completed his
twenty-second year, and, in forming an estimate of his poetry,
this fact must alwTays be borne in mind. One thought
breathes through all his works,—the freedom and indepen¬
dence of the German fatherland, to be wrought out at what¬
ever cost of treasure and blood. Intense hatred to the
French, the oppressors of his country, breathes in every
line of Kbrner’s lyrics, and these are the poems on which
his fame chiefly rests. These lyrics, most of which were
written in the camp, were collected into a volume under
the title of “ Leier und Schwert” {Lyre and Sword).
The best of them, the “ Schwert-lied” {Song of the Sword)
was written on the field of battle only an hour before he
fell. His dramas, though they contain many really power¬
ful scenes, and even some well-drawn characters, are ill-
sustained. Many deep thoughts happily expressed, and
the general outline of the plots, seem to indicate that, had
his life been spared, he might have attained eminence
as a dramatist. As it is, his fame will rest mainly on the
short pieces which he threw off in the white-heat of a tem¬
porary passion.
KOROTSCHA, a town of Russia, government of
Koursk, on a small river of its own name, 70 miles S.E. of
Koursk. It has a saltpetre manufactory; and carries on a
large trade in apples, for which the district is famous. Pop.
(1849) 4236.
KOSCIUSKO, Thaddeus, a Polish general, celebrated
for his lofty patriotism, was descended of a noble but not
opulent family, in the province of Lithuania, and born
in 1756. He was educated at Warsaw, and was after¬
wards sent, at the expense of the state, to finish his studies
at Paris. After an absence of several years he returned
h
132 K O S
Kosciusko, home, and became a captain in the Polish army. An un-
fortunate attachment made it necessary for him to go abroad
for a time, and he proceeded to North America, served as
adjutant to General Washington in the War oflndependence,
was decorated with the order of Cincinnatus, and returned
to his own country, where he lived in retirement until 1789.
About this period he was promoted to the rank of general-
major by the Diet, which was then making vain efforts to
restrain the influence of foreign powers. Kosciusko was at
that time little known ; but in 1792 the affair of Dubienka,
where with 4000 men he defended for six hours a post at¬
tacked by 15,000 Russians, gained him much reputation.
He served with equal distinction, during the whole cam¬
paign of that year, under the young Poniatowski; but the
weakness of Stanislaus rendered fruitless the most generous
efforts to maintain the independence of his country. He
submitted to the conditions which were imposed upon him
by Russia, and under the appearance of a treaty of peace,
signed the ruin of Poland. Many of the best officers of the
Polish army, Kosciusko in the number, resigned in indigna¬
tion, and retired to various parts of Germany. When the
revolution broke out in Poland in 1794 he was appointed
generalissimo of the insurgent patriots, and invested with
dictatorial power. Hastily organizing a corps of 5000 men,
he marched at their head against the Russians, who were
advancing upon Cracow with greatly superior numbers.
Destitute of cavalry and artillery, he met the enemy at
Wraclawice, and, after a combat of four hours, completely
defeated them. This first success produced a general rising ;
Warsaw was delivered from the presence of the Russians;
and Kosciusko soon saw himself at the head of an army of
50,000 men, including about 25,000 regular troops. With
this comparatively small force the Polish general-in-chief
had to make head at once against the Russians and the
Prussians. Frederick William II., who had just failed in
his contest with the French, appeared desirous to avenge
himself for this affront on the Poles ; and, at the beginning
of 1794, he marched against Warsaw, at the head of 40,000
men. Kosciusko, who, upon this point, could not oppose to
him more than 15,000 men, had nevertheless the courage
to attack him at Szezekocin, on the 8th of June 1794 ; but
after a murderous combat, in which he had two horses
killed under him, he was obliged to retire to the entrenched
camp that covered the capital, where, for two months, he
resisted the reiterated assaults of the enemy. At the same
time he contrived to keep in order a furious populace, prone
to give way to the greatest excesses. Scarcely had he been
delivered from the Prussians, in consequence of the diver¬
sion which the insurrection of Great Poland operated in his
favour, when Kosciusko saw advancing against him the
Russian armies under Suaroff and Fersen. It was in vain
that he attempted to prevent the junction of these two
armies. On the 4 th of October, being attacked at Macijowice
by very superior forces, he held his ground during the whole
day; but at length he sank down pierced with wounds,
exclaiming, as he fell, Finis Polonice.. As soon as he was
sufficiently recovered, he was sent to St Petersburg, where
he remained a prisoner of state for two years, and was only
liberated on the accession of the Emperor Paul. He im¬
mediately set out for England, and thence for America,
where he passed several years amongst his old companions
in arms. In 1798 be returned to France, where he was
received with much distinction, and learned that a great
number of his countrymen had enlisted under the banners of
the new republic. Those who served in the army of Italy
sent him the sabre of John Sobieski, which had been found
in the Casa di Loretto. From this time he lived either at Paris
or at a country-house which he had purchased near Fon¬
tainebleau. When Napoleon was about to invade Poland in
1807, he wished to avail himself of the name of Kosciusko, in
the hope of thereby inducing the people of that country to
4*
K O S
revolt against the Russians. But the Polish general had too Kosfeld
much knowledge and experience not to divine the object for , II
which recourse had been had to him, and positively refused. Ko8troma.
The address, signed with his name, which appeared in the
Moniteur in 1806, was a forgery, and was everywhere ac¬
cepted as such, though it was not till eight years later that
Kosciusko was able to give it a public and formal denial.
When the Russians penetrated into Champagne in 1814,
they learned with surprise that their ancient enemy was
living peaceably there. All those who had an opportunity
of visiting his retreat testified their regard for him in the
strongest manner; and the Emperor Alexander himself had
a long interview with the veteran patriot. Nothing could
induce Kosciusko to return to his native country. In 1815
he made a tour in Italy, and afterwards established himself
at Soleure in Switzerland, where he devoted himself chiefly
to agricultural pursuits. His death, which took place on
the 16th of October 1817, was occasioned immediately by
an accidental fall from his horse. On the news of his de¬
mise, the whole of Europe resounded with his praises;
amongst all nations, and in every country, justice was equally
rendered to the brave soldier and the true patriot, who,
without any other object than the independence and welfare
of his country, had exposed himself to the greatest perils,
and the most painful sacrifices. His remains were interred
in the cathedral at Cracow, between those of John Sobieski
and of Joseph Poniatowski. See Poland. (j. b—e.)
KOSFELD, Koesfeld, or Coesfeld, a town of Prussia,
capital of a cognomina! circle in the government of Munster,
on the Berkel, 20 miles W. of Munster. It is surrounded
by old walls, and has a castle, with some manufactures of
linen and woollen goods. Pop. (1849) 3607.
KOSLIN, or Coslin, a town of Prussia, capital of a
cognominal government in the province of Pomerania, on
the Niesenbecke, about 4 miles from its mouth, in the Ja-
mund lagoon, which communicates with the Baltic. The
town was rebuilt on a regular plan, after its destruction by
fire in 1718, by Frederick William L, to whom a statue has
been erected by the citizens in the market-place. Koslin
is the seat of the superior courts of the government, and has
a gymnasium, normal school, a society for the promotion of
agriculture, &c. Chief manufactures, linens, woollens, ho¬
siery, and leather. On the Gollenberg, a little to the E. of
the town, is a monument to those Pomeranians who fell in
the campaigns of 1813-15. Pop. (1849) 8813.
KOSTER, Laurenz, for whom some claim the inven¬
tion of printing. See Printing.
KOSTROMA, a government of European Russia, lying
between N. Eat. 57. and 59., and E. Long. 40. and 48.; and
bounded on the N. by the government of Vologda, W. by
Jaraslavl, S. by Vladimir and Nijegorod, and E. by Viatka.
Area 31,378 square miles. The surface is in general flat,
but the soil is not very fertile, being in the N. marshy, while
in the S. it is clayey and sandy. The principal rivers are
the Volga, and its affluents the Unsha and Vetluga. The
climate is severe, but not unhealthy ; winter is long and
severe, while summer is short and frequently misty. The
principal grain crop is rye, but the quantity grown is not
equal to the consumption. Large quantities of flax and
hemp are produced. The forests are extensive and valu¬
able, principally the property of the crown. The rearing
of cattle is little attended to ; but the fisheries in the lakes
and rivers are actively carried on. Various manufactures
are also actively prosecuted in the government, particularly
of linen and woollen goods, Russia leather, and brandy.
Pop. (1851) 1,020,628.
Kostroma, the capital of the above government, is situ¬
ated at the confluence of the Kostroma and Volga, 228
miles N.E. from Moscow. A wall of earth which surrounded
the town has been converted into a promenade. The ca¬
thedral is a very handsome building. There is a large bell
iii
[
Kottbus.
K 0 S
Koszegh foundry, several tanneries and manufactures of linens, soap,
tallow, &c. Pop. (1S54) 13,490.
KOSZEGH, or Guns, a town of Hungary, situated on
^ the slope of a valley, 57 miles S.E. of Vienna. It has an
old castle, several upper schools, considerable woollen manu¬
factures, and extensive trade in wine and fruits. It held
out nobly in 1532 against the besieging army of the great
Suliman. Pop. 8000.
KOTA, in Hindustan, a raj, or native state of Rajpoo-
tana, situated between Lat. 24. 30. and 25. 50., Long. 75.
35., and 76. 56. Its area may be estimated at 4339 square
miles. The later history of this petty state is somewhat
extraordinary. About the year 1771, on the death of a
rajah named Goman Singh, the entire powers of the go¬
vernment passed into the hands of a chieftain named Zalim
Singh, in the character of regent; the departed rajah hav¬
ing nominated him to this office during the minority of the
heir, Omed Singh, then only ten years of age. In 1817 a
treaty was concluded between the British government and
the state of Kotah, which confirmed the succession to the
principality to the son of Omed Singh, but vested the en¬
tire administration of affairs in Zalim Singh, by whom it had
been so long exercised, and after him in his eldest son,
Madhoo Singh and his heirs. It was thus proposed to per¬
petuate the extraordinary state of things which had acci¬
dentally arisen out of the commanding talents of Zalim
Singh and the supine indifference of Omed Singh. The
results which might have been anticipated followed. The
rajah Omed Singh died in 1819, and the dissatisfaction of
his successor soon became apparent. In 1824 Salim Singh
died. His son Madhoo seems to have inherited no portion
of the abilities of his father ; and the incongruity of a titular
prince, and a servant invested with sovereign power, was
now rendered more glaring by the fact, that the latter was
an incompetent administrator. To get rid of a system so
anomalous, unpopular, and inconvenient, it was proposed
by the British government that Madhoo Singh should re¬
sign his pretensions to the administration, and receive in
compensation part of the territory to be formed into a new
principality, and held by him independent of the rajah of
Kota. The proposal was at first objected to. At a later
period, however, it was revived, and the difficulties in the
way of carrying it out surmounted. The more southern
part of Kota was assigned to the descendant of Zalim Singh
as a separate principality, and the remainder was allotted to
the representative of the ancient rajahs of Kota. Kota,
the capital of the territory of the same name, is in Lat 25.
10., Long. 75. 52.
KO I HEN, or Cothen, a town of Germany, capital of the
duchy of Anhalt-Kothen, on the Ziethe, and on the Berlin-
Bernburg, and Magdeburg-Leipzig railways, 40 miles N.E.
of Leipzig. It consists of an old and new town, and is well
and regularly built. Among its public buildings are the
old ducal palace, where the states hold their sittings, and
which has a small collection of pictures, a collection of coins,
and a good library; the new ducal palace ; the prince’s pa¬
lace; a Lutheran, a Reformed, and a Roman Catholic church,
and a Jewish synagogue. It has an institution for noble
ladies, founded by Princess Gisela Agnes in 1711, a high
school, normal school, and theatre. There are manufactures
of linen and woollen stuffs, and some trade in corn and
wool. Pop. 6200.
KOT PBUS, a town in the Prussian province of Bran¬
denburg, and government of Frankfort, on the Spree, 42
miles S. by W. of Frankfort. It consists of a walled town
and several suburbs, and has an old castle with 4 towers, 4
churches, a gymnasium, orphan asylum, 2 hospitals, and
a public library. Manufactures of linen and woollen stuffs,
leather, beer, brandy, and paper. It is the capital of a cog-
nominal circle, and the seat of various courts. Pon 08491
8978. 1 ' ’
KOT
133
KOTZEBUE, Augustus Friedrich Ferdinand Von’ Kotzebue,
a prolific German dramatist and miscellaneous writer, was
born on the 3d of May 1761, at Weimar, where his father
was a counsellor of legation. He early evinced a propen¬
sity to poetry, and, whilst yet a boy, the representation of a
play which he witnessed inspired in him such a love of
the drama as determined his future destiny. He received the
rudiments of his education at his native place, and when
he was about sixteen years of age he entered the Univer¬
sity of Jena. Here he remained for one year; but certain
family circumstances occurred which induced him to re¬
move to Duisburg, where he studied for a short time at
the university, and returned to Jena in the year 1779.
He was destined for the profession of the law, but the mas¬
ter-passion predominated ; and in gratifying his love of the
drama, as well as of literature in general, he consumed no
inconsiderable portion of his time. If at this period he did
not display great talent, he at least evinced wonderful versa¬
tility. Tragedy, comedy, ballads, essays, and other species
of literary composition, flowed rapidly from his prolific pen.
Their merits, however, he himself confesses in his autobio¬
graphy, were exceedingly equivocal, although some of his
plays were acted with applause. In his nineteenth year,
he dosed his studies at Jena by taking the character of an
opponent at a doctor’s degree. Soon afterwards he re¬
turned to his native place, where he diligently applied
himself to the Pandects, and was admitted as advocate.
But his addresses to the muses were still as assiduously
paid as ever; and in the ardour of his desire for distinc¬
tion he tried his skill in almost every species of composi¬
tion, imitating, as caprice or admiration predominated, all
the great writers of Germany, Schiller, Goethe, Wieland,
Hermes, and others.
In 1781, on the invitation, it is said, of the Prussian
ambassador, Kotzebue went to St Petersburg, where he
obtained a situation under Yon Bawr, general of engineers.
The latter became his warm friend, and recommended him
to the empress, who, on the death of Bawr, which occurred
about two years afterwards, nominated him a counsellor.
Flis imperial patroness first placed him in a judicial situa¬
tion at Revel, and finally appointed him president of Es-
thonia, on which occasion he was ennobled. His literary
ambition kept pace with his growing fortunes, and drama
succeeded drama from his pen, with great, if not increasing
rapidity. In 1790, on a journey to Pyrmont, he published
his Doctor Bahrdt with the Iron Forehead, under the name
of Knigge ; a work which created a considerable sensation
at the time of its appearance, but by which he lowered
himself not a little in public estimation. Dismissed from
the imperial service, he retired for a time to an estate
w'hich he possessed at some distance from Narva; but, in
1797, he returned to Weimar, with a pension of 1000
guilders. Three years afterwards, he was induced to pay
a short visit to Russia; but he had scarcely crossed the
frontiers of the empire when he was arrested by order of
Paul I. and sent to Siberia. This treatment of Kotzebue
is said to have originated in a suspicion of the autocrat
that he was the author of some political pamphlets, in
which the emperor was personally attacked ; but the exile
was kept entirely ignorant of the cause of his banishment.
He was, however, shortly afterwards recalled, and, as he
informs us himself, well received by the emperor, who con¬
fided to his direction the theatre of St Petersburg.
After the death of Paul I. Kotzebue returned to Wei¬
mar, and in 1802 was admited a member of the Academy
of Sciences at Berlin. Some disputes which he had with
Goethe and the Schlegels induced him to remove to Paris,
where the French literati flattered his love of adulation by
the attentions which they paid him. It is not much to his
credit that he repaid their kindness by the publication of
a calumnious work entitled Mg Recollections of Paris.
134
Kotzebue.
K O T
The Italians were treated in the same spirit of illiberality in
his Recollections of Rome and Naples. About the end of
1803 he commenced, in conjunction with Merakel, a jour¬
nal entitled Der Freymuthige, “ The Free-hearted,” in which
Napoleon was virulently attacked. In 1806 he went again
to Russia, and lived from 1807 on his estate in Esthonia,
never ceasing to write against the imperial usurper of France.
Literature and politics continued to engage the pen of
Kotzebue until 1813, when, as counsellor of state, he fol¬
lowed the Russian head-quarters during the campaign of
that year ; and, in order more effectually to excite the nations
against Napoleon, he published in Berlin the Russian-
German National Gazette ( Volksblati). After the affairs
of Europe were decided by the victory of Waterloo, he
went to St Petersburg; but was, in 1817, commissioned by
the Emperor Alexander to return to his own country, and
to report upon the state of literature and public opinion,
for which he was to receive a salary of 15,000 roubles. He
who had exerted himself so much in favour of Russia, some¬
times, it is affirmed, at the expense of his native country,
was not likely to be warmly welcomed on his return home.
From the first he was looked upon as a spy ; and the zeal
which he displayed in his new employment soon confirmed
this opinion, and prepared the way for his destruction. He
established a literary weekly paper, in which judgment was
passed on the publications of the day, and political opinions
advanced at once dishonourable and obnoxious to Ger¬
many, then awakening from its torpor, and heated with the
expectation of concessions on the part of its rulers, and by
delusive anticipations of representative systems. In his
journal Kotzebue steadily ridiculed every attempt to form
liberal institutions ; and not only was every species of po¬
litical amelioration opposed, but a marked enmity to the
liberty of the press was exhibited. A private communica¬
tion of his to the Emperor of Russia, which had been ob¬
tained it matters not how, was published in a German
paper, and republished throughout the country ; and its
appearance excited a strong feeling of hostility and indig¬
nation against the author. Shielded as he was by the
power of the autocrat, he found it necessary to quit Wei¬
mar for Mannheim, where his literary and diplomatic la¬
bours were resumed with increased activity. Unfortu¬
nately for him, he began to point his pen more directly
against the wild dreams of liberty which were seething in
the minds of the great mass of the students at the German
universities. A spark of dangerous enthusiasm caught the
heated brain of a young fanatic named Sand, who thought
that he had done a deed of heroic virtue when, on the 23d
March 1819, he deliberately murdered the advocate ol
tyranny and despotism. The murderer immediately gave
himself up to justice, and suffered on the scaffold. Kotze¬
bue, though the contemporary of Goethe and Schiller, was
the most popular German author of his day. His fame
was gained by his dramas, amounting to about a hundred
in number. The best of them are “ Die Indianer in Eng¬
land” {The Indians in England)-, “ Menschenhass und
Reue” {Misanthropy and Repentance), which, under the
name of “ The Stranger,” still keeps the stage in this
country; “Die beiden Klingsberg” {The two Klingsbergs),
which has not yet been translated into English, but which
Goethe pronounced the best of all Kotzebue’s plays ; “ Der
Strassenrauber aus Kindersliebe,” else known as Lovers'
Vows ; “ Die Spanier in Peru,” adapted by Sheridan into
English, under the title of Pizzaro, and still a stock-piece in
the theatres; “ Benyowski;” and the “ Virgin of the Sun.”
Koursk.
K O U
tenderness, sentiment carried to the extreme of maudlin, Koul; Khan
and bursts of passion, which even the votaries of the “ lite¬
rature extravagante” of France would disclaim as over- ^
done. The freshness, or at least the strangeness of his
plays, raised him at once to the height of popularity. He
dazzled there like a meteor, and for as short a time ; and
then vanished into the darkness. Kotzebue attempted his¬
tory, and wrote an extremely bad History of the German
Empire, and an equally bad Early History of Prussia.
At the time of his assassination he was in his fifty-ninth
year. He had been three times married, and left behind
him thirteen children. One of these children, Otto Von
Kotzebue, became a captain in the Russian navy, and pub¬
lished an account of a voyage which he made round the
world in 1824-26.
KOULI KHAN. See Nadir Shah.
KOURLAND, Kurland, or Courland, one of the
Baltic provinces of Russia, lying between N. Lat. 56.
57. 30., and E. Long. 21. 27., and bounded on the N.
by Livonia and the Gulf of Riga, W. by the Baltic, S. by
Wilna and Prussia, and E. by Vitebsk; area 10,324 square
miles. Along the coasts the surface is flat, with numerous
marshes and sandy heaths, but in the interior it is generally
undulating. A range of hills runs parallel with the Duna,
and sends off ramifications in various directions over the
country. The elevations nowhere exceed 500 ft. in height.
The principal river is the Duna, which flows along its E.
and part of its N. boundary ; the principal of the others are
the Aa and Vindau. There are numerous lakes and marshes,
which render the climate damp and foggy. About two-
fifths of the surface is covered with forests, chiefly of pine,
fir, birch, alder, oak, and elm. The soil is light and sandy,
requiring much manure to render it productive. It is most
fertile towards Livonia. The principal occupation of the
inhabitants is agriculture, which is in a higher state of per¬
fection here than in any of the neighbouring provinces.
Rye, barley, and oats, are the principal grain crops; flax
and hemp are also extensively cultivated, and some tobacco
is raised. The rearing of cattle is little attended to, and
the breeds are inferior. The manufactures are insignificant,
with, perhaps, the exception of brandy. The exports, which
are considerable, are chiefly corn, flax, hem}), salted meat,
and skins. Konrland belonged to Poland^ till 1795, when
it came into the possession of Russia. The inhabitants
still enjoy many of their own peculiar rights. Pop. (1851)
539,270).
KOURSK, a government of European Russia, N., W., S.,
d E., by Orlov, Tchernigov, Poltawa, Kharkov, and Vo¬
lts greatest length, E. and W,, is 170 miles, breadth
150; area 17,318 square miles. Pop. (1851) 1,665,215.
The general surface is undulating, there is comparatively
little wood, and the only considerable rivers are the Sem,
a tributary of the Desna, flowing to the W.; and the Donetz,
which rises in the S. of the province. The soil is singularly
rich, needing no manure ; the climate mild, and so dry, that
corn is never housed, the grain itself being heaped in pits
underground. The agriculture is very primitive; and though
the breed of horses is good, oxen alone are employed in the
fields. Among the chief crops are wheat, barley, rye, oats,
millet, pease, flax, hemp, and tobacco; garden fruits and
vegetables are grown in great abundance. I he principal
minerals are iron, limestone, and saltpetre: fuel is very
scarce. Koursk is one of the most populous, as well as fer¬
tile provinces of Russia; of the towns besides the capital,
the largest are Bielgorod, Karotcha, Putiwl, and Soudja;
and
ronej.
These plays are of very different degrees of merit; but it the face of the country is thickly sti ewn with villages. With
nmv be said that, except perhaps “ The two Klingsbergs, ’ small exception, the universal employment is us anti).
" ' ‘ cattle, sheep, and swine, are bred in great numbers, as also
are bees.
Koursk, the capital of the government, is built on a tribu¬
tary of the Sem, 500 miles S. of Moscow. It is a large
not one of them has any permanent value. Koztebue was
in truth not so much a dramatist as a playwright. His
great object was to startle his audience. The machinery
he employed was pathos worked up to a harrowing pitch of
K 0 Z
Kozloos place, with narrow and dirty streets, and no remarkable
II . buildings. It is the residence of the civil and military go-
Kremmtz. vernorSj an(} Gf the Archbishop of Koursk and Bielgorod,
~ and has a considerable trade with St Petersburg and Mos¬
cow, exporting cattle, leather, tallow, wax, honey, &c. Pop.
(1849) 30,469. A great annual fair is held at a village in
the neighbourhood.
KOZLOOS, or Eupatorta. See Crimea.
KRAIN, or Carniola. See Austria.
KRANTZ, Albert, a celebrated German chronicler, was
born at Hamburg about the middle of the fifteenth century.
Having finished his studies, he travelled through Western
and Southern Europe ; and returning to Germany, he gradu¬
ated at Rostock, and finally became rector of the university
of that city. Being recalled to Hamburg, he was provided
with a canonry in the cathedral, and divided his time be¬
tween preaching and teaching theology. Elected syndic of
Hamburg in 1489, he took part in the assembly of Wismar,
where the interests of the Hanseatic towns were discussed.
He was deputed to proceed to France in 1497 to conclude a
treaty, and to England in 1499 to solicit assistance against
the pirates who then infested the North Sea. In these dif¬
ferent missions he evinced so much prudence, sagacity, and
integrity, that John King of Denmark, and Frederick Duke
of Holstein, chose him, in 1500, to terminate the dispute
which had arisen between them on the subject of the pro¬
vince of Ditmarsen. Krantz, having been named dean of
his chapter in 1508, laboured with great zeal to remedy the
disorders which had been introduced into ecclesiastical dis¬
cipline ; but it is only by a forced interpretation of some
passages in his works that Wolf, and after him Bayle, have
endeavoured to make him be considered as one of the pre¬
cursors of Luther. Krantz was witness to the first attacks
of that reformer upon the Church of Rome, and warmly
condemned them. He died Dec. 7, 1517. Krantz was
a very learned man; and the historical works which he left
behind him are useful, notwithstanding the errors by which
they are disfigured. Some critics have accused him of pla¬
giarism and of bad faith; but he has found numerous apo¬
logists, amongst whom may be mentioned Cisner,who places
him in the first rank among the writers of his age for truth¬
fulness, as well as elegance of style and clearness of method.
His principal works are, his Chronica Regnorum Aquilo-
narium, Danice,Suecice,Norragice, Strasburg, 1546, in folio;
Saxonia, sive de Saxonicce Gentis vetusta origine, longin-
quis expeditionibus susceptis, fyc., libri xii., Cologne, 1520,
in folio; Vandalia, sive Historia de Vandalorum vera ori-
gine, varus gentibus, crebris e patria migrationibus, &c.,
Cologne, 1519, in folio; Metropolis, sive Historia Ecclesi-
astica Saxonies, Basil, 1548, in folio; and some other works
of little importance. (j, b—e.)
KRASNOE, a Russian village, 30 miles S.W. of Smo¬
lensk, near which the French, in the retreat of 1812, lost,
during three successive days, 25,000 men, several thousand
prisoners, and twenty-five pieces of cannon.
Krasnoe-Selo, a small town of Russia, 18 miles S.S.E.
of St Petersburg. There is an imperial palace here, and in
summer troops from the capital are often encamped in the
neighbourhood.
Kra.snoe-Yarsk, a town of Siberia, capital of the govern¬
ment of Yenisei, on the river of that name, 290 miles E.S.E.
of Tomsk. It is situated in the midst of a very fertile dis¬
trict, and has a considerable trade in agricultural produce
and Chinese goods. There is a large leather and coach
manufactory, in which convicts are employed. Pop. 6472.
KREMENTSCHUK (“ The City of Fire-stones”), a
town of Russia, government of Poltava, on the Dnieper, 70
miles S.W. of Poltava. It has a considerable trade, and
manufactures of sugar, liqueurs, soap, saltpetre, &c. Pop.
17,074.
KREMNI1Z, a royal mining-town of Hungary, county
K U R 135
of Bacs, 88 miles E.N.E. of Presburg. It is situated in a Krems
deep and gloomy valley, and contains an old fort, a mint , II
and mining directory, a gymnasium and other schools, with ^urdistan-
some manufactures of vitriol, paper, earthenware, and ver-
milion. To the mint of Kremnitz properly belongs the
coinage of all the gold and silver of Hungary. The neigh¬
bouring mines yield annually about 180 lbs. troy of gold,
and 11,000 lbs. of silver, besides copper, lead, and cobalt.
I he richest veins, which are now nearly exhausted, belong
to private companies. Pop. about 6000.
KREMS, a town of Lower Austria, in a picturesque
valley at the confluence of the Krems with the Danube,
37 miles W.N.W. of Vienna. It has a Piarist convent,
gymnasium, theatre, &c., and manufactures of mustard and
gunpowder. Pop. 6537.
KREUTH, a small but fashionable watering-place of
Bavaria, about 40 miles S. of Munich. Its situation is
highly romantic, at an elevation of 3000 feet, hemmed in
by mountains wooded to the summit. The waters are sul¬
phureous ; goats’ whey and an infusion of mountain herbs
are also much used medicinally.
KREUZNACH, a town of Rhenish Prussia, on the
Nahe, 40 miles S.S.E. of Coblentz. It is picturesquely si¬
tuated in a fertile district, irregularly built, with many old
houses ; and has manufactures of woollens, leather, tobacco,
soap, &c. In the neighbourhood are extensive salt-works,
and the saline springs attract a considerable number of
visitors. Pop. (1846) 9383. This place was stormed by
Gustavus Adolphus in 1632.
KRONSTADT. See Cron start.
KROTOSZYN, a town of Prussia, province of Posen,
on the Silesian frontier, 55 miles S.E. of Posen. Pop.
(1846) 8049, employed in manufactures of woollen and
linen, leather, tobacco, brandy, &c.
KRUMHORN, an old musical instrument of the cornet
kind. Organ-builders, corrupting the name into Cremona,
have wrongly applied this to one of their reed-pipe regis¬
ters.
KUBAN, or Kouba, a river of Russia. See Caucasus.
KULM, a village of Bohemia, at the foot of the Nollen-
dorf Pass in the Erzgebirge, about 2 miles N. of Topliz.
An obstinate and decisive battle was fought here, August
30, 1813, between the French under Vandamme and the
allied forces under Count Colloredo Mansfield, ending in the
utter rout of the former. Three monuments commemorate
the victory.
KUR (the ancient Cyrus), the principal river of Geor¬
gia, Western Asia, rises in a branch of the Caucasian
Mountains, a little to the N.W. of Kars, about N. Lat.4L,
E. Long. 42. 30. It has a northerly course through the
'Turkish dominions, and to within about 60 miles of Tiflis,
when it turns suddenly in a S.E. direction, and, after pass¬
ing that city, empties itself by several mouths into the
Caspian. It receives the waters of the Araxes about 70
miles from its mouth, and becomes navigable for small ves¬
sels. Its length is estimated at about 520 miles.
KURDISTAN, or Koordistan, an extensive tract of
country in Western Asia, belonging partly to Persia and
partly to Turkey, and comprising a large part of the high
table-land which stretches southwards from Armenia to the
basin of the Tigris. The name signifies the “ Land of the
Kurds or Koords;” and as that people have spread on all
sides from the original cradle of their race, the name is
often loosely applied to a greater extent of country than is
strictly correct. Kurdistan proper lies between N. Lat.
34. and 39., and E. Long. 42. and 47. Its area may be
computed at between 40,000 and 50,000 square miles.
The northern and southern portions of Kurdistan present
completely distinct geographical features. The first is al¬
most wholly occupied by mountain ranges running nearly
parallel from N.W. to b.E. I he Soli chain stretching from
136 K U R
Kurdistan. t|ie cjty ot Jezireh, near the Tigris, right across the country
t0 the Persian frontier. It is low at first, not rising higher
than 1000 feet. In the middle of its course, where it takes
the name of El Khair, it reaches the height of 3000 feet,
and continues to rise till it reaches the confines of Persia.
Between this ridge and the Armenian frontier is the lofty
plateau of Ali-Bagh, varying from 4000 to 7000 feet in
height, and intersected at rare intervals with valleys. Du¬
ring the scorching heats of summer the shepherds drive
their flocks from the low grounds to this table-land, which
affords a scanty pasturage. Between the El Khair Moun¬
tains and the Persian boundary the mountains rise higher,
and the valleys, though still very narrow, become deeper.
Some of the peaks attain a great height; the highest, Ja-
war-Tagh, is said to be nearly 13,000 feet above the sea.
The southern portion of Khurdistan possesses large tracts
of low and level lands. Three ranges of low hills diversify
the surface, but only on the side of Persia can it be consi¬
dered mountainous. These ranges are Kara-Tagh on the
N.E.; Ali Tagh in the centre ; and the Hamrin Hills on
the S.W. The principal rivers in Khurdistan are the Zab-
Ala or Great Zab, the Zab-Asfal or Lesser Zab, and the
Diyalah. The first of these, rising in the Ali-Bagh, drains
a great part of Northern Khurdistan, and, flowing past the
Kara-Tagh, falls into the Tigris, a little way below Mosul.
The Zab-Asfal rises on the borders of Southern Khurdis¬
tan and Persia, and, flowing in a course nearly parallel
with the Great Zab, joins the Tigris about 50 miles fur¬
ther down. The Diyalah falls into the Tigris about 30
miles above Baghdad.
The climate of Khurdistan ranges between the extremes
of heat and cold. In summer the heat is intense, especially
in the S. In winter, the cold in Northern Kurdistan is
quite unendurable. On many of the mountain-tops snow
remains for six months of the year. The plains produce
in abundance the ordinary cereals and vegetables of Eu¬
rope ; and the finest fruits grow in profusion in the orchards.
Melons, cucumbers, and other gourds, in especial attain an
immense size. In the low grounds near the Tigris, tobacco,
cotton, rice, and millet are raised in large quantities, chiefly
for exportation. The sides of the lower mountains are co¬
vered with forests of oak, walnut, and other hardwood
trees. Immense quantities of gall-nuts are gathered, and
form a valuable article of commerce. Another important
article is the manna found in large quantities on the leaves
of the dwarf oak, tamarisk, and other shrubs. Bears, wild
boars, goats, and deer abound in the forests, but birds, ex¬
cept partridges and quails, are scarce. Bees are numerous,
and their honey is eagerly sought after for purposes of trade.
Of domestic animals the horse is the most valuable. It is
used solely for riding, and is in great request for the Turk¬
ish and Persian cavalry. The ox is the chief beast of bur¬
den, a very few camels only being used. I he sheep are
very numerous, and their fleeces yield wool of very fine
quality. Minerals are scarce. Some iron and sulphur are
found* in Northern Kurdistan, and there are numerous salt-
springs in the S. Naphtha and petroleum are also abun¬
dant. Korkuk in Northern Kurdistan is the chief centre ot
commerce, which is carried on mainly with Baghdad and
Persia by means of caravans.
The Kurds were known to the ancients under the name
of Carduchi. (See Carduchi.) They were originally
subject to the Persians; but after the era of Alexander
were incorporated with Syria. In the third century B.C.
they were dissevered from that kingdom by the Parthians,
and, on the destruction of the new Persian kingdom, passed
to the caliphate of Baghdad. In 1258 Kurdistan was con¬
quered by the Moguls, and, 130 years later, by the Tartars,
under Tamerlane. In the beginning of the sixth century
Kurdistan once more became subject to Persia. They con¬
tinued faithful to their new masters for about a century, but
K U E
being oppressed by them, revolted and attached themselves Kurile
to the Turkish sultans. At the present day about three- Islands
fourths of the country are subject to the Porte, and are j^urr| ^
comprised within the eyalets of Baghdad, Mosul, and Van. v rrac ee-
The remaining fourth belongs to Persia, and forms the pro- ’
vince of Kurdistan, of which the capital is Kermanshah.
The number of Kurds in Kurdistan and the adjoining
countries is estimated at from 2,000,000 to 2,500,000.
Most of them are Mohammedans ; but a good many Nes-
torian Christians are found among them.
KURILE ISLANDS, a chain of islands in the Pacific
Ocean, extending from the Kamtschatka southward to the
larger islands that form the Japanese empire. They are
twenty-five in number, and are claimed by Russia, with the
exception of the three southernmost, which belong to Ja¬
pan. They are all of volcanic origin, and contain a num¬
ber of active volcanoes. The surface is very irregular,
some of the elevations rising to the height of nearly 6000
feet. The coasts are abrupt and difficult of access, and the
seas are subject to violent and sudden tempests. The cli¬
mate is severe and foggy. Agriculture is not attended to,
except on those islands which belong to Japan. The in¬
habitants employ themselves in fishing and the chase, the
produce of which they dispose of to American, Dutch,
Russian, and Japanese traders. Area estimated at about
3000 square miles.
KURNUL, in Hindustan, a British district in the Pre¬
sidency of Madras, bounded on the N. by the River Kist-
nah, on the E. and S. by Cuddapah, and on the W. by
Bellary, containing an area of 2643 square miles, with a
population of 273,190. Towards the close of the year
1838, while the British were planning the expedition for
the restoration of Shah Shujah to the throne of Cabul,
information reached them that military preparations upon an
extensive scale had been carried on for some time by the
Nawaub of Kurnul. An investigation follow'ed, the result
of which left no doubt that the Nawaub w as one of the
originators of a wide-spread Mussulman conspiracy for the
subversion of British rule in India; its development merely
awaiting a fitting opportunity, which it was anticipated
events in the N.W. would afford. Recourse to arms be¬
came necessary. No difficulty was experienced in ob¬
taining possession of the capital, but the Nawaub, with
several of his followers, withdrew from the place. A
force was despatched in pursuit, which, after a sharp en¬
counter, succeeded in securing the person of the Nawaub,
as well as several other prisoners. An immense quantity
of warlike stores was found in the town. No satisfactory
explanation could be given for the accumulation of so vast
a quantity of the materiel of war, or for the systematic dis¬
guise and concealment under which it had taken place; and
as the obvious conclusion was, that the Nawaub’s proceed¬
ings were connected with plans for the subversion of the
paramount power, it was justly thought that the chief had
been guilty of a breach of allegiance, and his territory was
annexed to the British dominions. The Nawaub was
shortly after assassinated by one of his Mohammedan fol-
lowrers.
KURRACHEE, in Hindustan, is a sea-port of Sinde,
situate on the western coast of that country. At the en¬
trance of the harbour is a bar, having one fathom and a
quarter of water when the tide is out, and consequently
cannot be safely crossed by ships the draught of which ex¬
ceeds 16 feet. It is stated, however, that from the be¬
ginning of September to the end of May vessels of 800
tons can always enter the harbour at high water, while the
roads outside the bar are perfectly sale during the same
period for vessels of any size. The town is distant 3 miles
from the landing-place when the tide is out, but it has been
rendered easy of access by the formation of a mole and
road. In 1853 the town and suburbs contained a popula-
K U S
Kussier tion of 22,000 souls. Kurrachee is the safest port of India.
P In a commercial point of view, it has been defined the gate
Kiister. Gf central Asia, and is likely to become to India what
^ Liverpool is to England. This town is about to be con¬
nected with the River Indus, probably at or near Hydra-
bad, by means of the Sinde Railway, and with Europe, by
means of the electric telegraph and the Euphrates Valley
Railway. Eat. 24. 51., Long. 67. 2.
KUSSIER, a Turkish musical instrument, consisting
of five strings, stretched over a skin that covers a kind ol
basin.
KUSTENDJI, or Kostendje (the ancient Constan-
tiana), a fortified sea-port town of European Turkey, Bul¬
garia, on the Black Sea, at the E. extremity of 1 rajan s
Wall, 40 miles E. of Kassova. It has some trade in corn,
but the harbour is exposed, and not suited for large vessels.
Pop. about 5000.
KtTSTER, Ludolf, one of the best scholars and most
learned men of his age, was born in 16*0 at Blomberg in
Westphalia. After studying at Berlin, he became, while
still a very young man, tutor to the sons of the Count Von
Schwerin, prime-minister of Prussia, and afterwards tra¬
velled through England, France, and Holland. In all
these countries he formed friendships among the most emi¬
nent scholars of the day. As an author he first became
known in 1696 by his Historia Critica Homeri, which was
reprinted in 1785 by Wolff in his History of Homer and his
Writings. Settling at Utrecht for a few years, he read
lectures there publicly, and contributed to Gronovius’
Thesaurus of Greek Antiquity, and to Graevius’ Thesaurus
of Roman Antiquities. He also set on foot a Latin perio¬
dical, under the title of Bibliotheca Librorum Novorum
Collecta a L. Neocoro. Neocorus was the Greek equivalent
for Kiister, which means sexton, and had been given to him
playfully by Graevius, in accordance with a practice com¬
mon in that age. In 1700 he passed over to England, in¬
tent on bringing out a new edition of Suidas. In five
years he had completed his task, which appeared at Cam¬
bridge in 1705 in 3 vols. folio. This work gave him a
high rank among critical scholars, and he worthily main¬
tained it by his edition of lamblichus’ Life of Pythagoras,
Amsterdam, 1707, and, above all, by his splendid edition
of Aristophanes, published in the same town in 1710. Dur¬
ing his residence in that city, his Suidas was revievved in a
very ill-natured spirit by his old friend Gronovius. Kiister
replied in his Diatribe Anti-Gronoviana, and silenced his
critic, whose remarks had been dictated chiefly by a spirit
of splenetic jealousy. To his Diatribe he appended a
learned essay on the “ ses grave” of the Romans; and an¬
other, no less learned, on the verb “ cerno,” which he gave
out as a specimen of new Thesaurus of the Latin tongue
on which he had been engaged for some years. These
dissertations involved him in an obstinate controversy with
Perizonius, which, to the surprise of all, was carried on with
perfect gentleness and moderation on both sides. Re¬
moving to Paris in 1713, Kiister became a member of
the Academy of Inscriptions, and received from Louis
XIV. a pension of 2000 livres. Unfortunately he did not
live long to enjoy his new honours, as he died in Paris in
1716. Though he was an admirable Latin scholar, it was
K U Y 137
chiefly as a Hellenist that Kiister was conspicuous among KQstrin
the great scholars of his age. Greek was his favourite ^ II
study, and he attained a mastery over that tongue such as Kuyp*
was equalled by few, if any, of his contemporaries.
KtlSTRIN, a fortified town of Prussia, province of
Brandenburg, at the junction of the Wartha with the Oder,
which is here crossed by a bridge 875 feet in length, 16
miles N. of Frankfort. The town is surrounded by lakes
and marshes, which greatly add to its strength. It con¬
tains a castle in which Frederick the Great was confined by
his father. The manufactures comprised woollens, hosiery,
leather, starch, brandy, and bear. Kiistrin was taken by
the French in 1806. Pop. (1849) 8310.
KUTAIAH, or Kutaya (the ancient Cotyceum), a town
of Asiatic Turkey, pashalic of Anatolia, at the foot of the
Pursak Mountains, and on the river of that name, 180
miles N.E. of Smyrna. N. Lat. 39. 25., E. Long. 29. 45.
The town is large and populous, and has numerous mos¬
ques, public baths, fountains, and khans. On a projecting
point of a hill, rising above the town, is an ancient castle.
'The surrounding country is well watered and fertile, pro¬
ducing grain, cotton, gall-nuts, and fruits, which, with wool
and goats’ hair are important articles of trade. Kutaiah is
noted as the centre of that tract where the famous Turkey
carpets are manufactured.
KUTTENBERG, a mining-town of Bohemia, circle of
Czaslau, 38 miles E.S.E. of Prague, on the railway be¬
tween that city and Vienna. The inhabitants are chiefly
dependent on the mines, which have been long worked,
and yield silver, copper, lead, arsenic, and zinc, but are
much less productive than formerly. Some cotton and
woollen stuffs are manufactured, and starch is made. The
parish church is a fine Gothic edifice. Pop. (including
suburbs) about 10,000.
KUYP, or Cuyp, Albert, one of the best landscape
painters of the Dutch school, was born at Dort in 1606. Of
his personal history nothing else, not even the date of his
death, is known. His father, Jacob Gerutze Kuyp, was him¬
self a distinguished painter ; and though Albert Kuyp adopt¬
ed a very different manner, and attempted a wider range of
subject, it was in his father’s studio that he received his
art training. For a very long time he was extremely ill-
appreciated in his own country, and was scarcely known
abroad even by name. England was the first country to
discover and rightly value his merits, which are now uni¬
versally acknowledged. The numerous specimens of his
art in all the leading English galleries, private as well as
public, show how great a favourite he is in that country.
According to Waagen : “ In loftiness of conception, know¬
ledge of aerial perspective, with the greatest glow and
warmth of the serene atmosphere, Kuyp stands unrivalled,
and may justly be called the Dutch Claude. In the im-
pasto, the breadth and freedom of execution, he greatly
resembles Rembrandt.” It is no doubt on his landscapes
that Kuyp’s fame chiefly rests, yet his cattle groups and
(though perhaps in a less degree) his sea pieces, are in their
several ways equally excellent. Dr Waagen, in his Art-
Treasures of Great Britain, criticizes specially the nume¬
rous masterpieces of Kuyp which he found in the various
public and private collections.
YOL. XIII
s
138
L T A semi-vowel or liquid, forming the twelfth let*
II _ ter of the alphabet. It is derived from the old
Labadie. jqe^rew lamed, or Greek lambda. In the ancient Greek,
the Celtic, and the Etruscan alphabets, the letter is formed
by two straight lines making an angle with each other, but
sometimes placed horizontally, and sometimes vertically.
The Brazilian and Japanese alphabets are said not to pos¬
sess the letter at all. It is sounded by intercepting the
breath between the tip of the tongue and the fore part of
the palate, with the mouth open, and makes a sweet sound,
with something of an aspiration ; hence the Britons and
Spaniards usually doubled it, or added an h to it, in the
beginning of words, as in llan, or lhan, a temple, sounding
nearly like /?. Amongst the lonians the letters r and l
were frequently interchanged. The Romans often put l
for r in words taken from the Greek, as the Italians have
done in words taken from the Latins, e. g.,—balathro from
barathron, and pelegrino from peregrinus. In the deriva¬
tive languages of more modern times we find l of the origi¬
nal language disappearing in numerous instances, and its
place supplied by other letters. Of these may be men¬
tioned d, i, n, u. For example, admiral (English) from
ahnirante (Spanish), piaga (Italian) from plaga (Latin),
Bologna (Italian) from Bononia (Latin), and autre
(French) from alter (Latin.) In French, ll after ai, ei, oui,
as in travailler, &c., is pronounced nearly the same as our y.
The same remark applies to the Italian gl before i, as in
egli. In Spanish, ll is liquid, as in. the foregoing case, and,
as in the Welsh, maybe placed at the beginning of a word,
e.g.>—llaneros. In English words of one syllable it is
doubled at the end, as tell, bell, knell; but in words of
more syllables than one it is single at the end, as evil, ge¬
neral, constitutional. It is placed after most of the con¬
sonants in the beginning of words and syllables, as black,
glare, adle, eagle, but before none. Its sound is clear in
Abel, but obscure in able, and the like.
As a numeral letter, L denotes 50; and with a dash
over it thus, L, 5000. Used as an abbreviation, this let¬
ter stands for Lucius. (See Abbreviations.) La is the
syllable by which Guido denotes the last sound of each
hexachord. If it begins in C, it answers to our A ; if in
G, to E ; and if in F, to D.
LA ALAND, or Lolland, an island of Denmark, in
the Baltic, between N. Lat. 54. 38. and 54. 58., E. Long.
10. 56. and 11. 50 It is about 60 miles in length from
E. to W., by about 20 in breadth, and has an area of 462
square miles. The surface is low and flat, and in many
parts marshy. The principal lake, that of Marieboe, near
the centre of the island, is about 5 miles in length. The
soil consists chiefly of a heavy loam, and produces abundant
crops of corn, flax, hops, potatoes, &c. Woods of excellent
timber occur in the island. Pop. about 55,000.
LABADIE, Jean, the founder of the sect of the Laba-
dists, was born in 1610, at Bourg, in Guienne, and was
educated at the Jesuit college of Bordeaux. Expelled
from the Catholic church for the gross profligacy of his
life, he joined the Protestants, and settling at Montauban,
preached for eight years there with great success. His
immoralities again threw him upon the world, and he
sought an asylum first at Orange and afterwards at Geneva.
The assumed austerity and sanctity of his life gained him
many followers, and when, in 1666, he exchanged Geneva
for Middleburg, the number of his devotees was greatly
increased. Refusing to acknowledge the synod of Dort, Labarum
he was formally deposed ; and retiring to a little village II.
near Amsterdam, he set up a printing press, and published a erius •
many works of a half insane, half mystical import. His
besetting sin again drove him forth from this retreat, and
taking refuge in Altona, he died there in 1674, at the age
of sixty-four.
According to their own declaration in their “ Confession,”
the Labadists did not entirely abandon the reformed cause,
but still continued to hold the symbolical books. They
were a sect of ascetic mystics, who wished reform of life
rather than of doctrine. From their belief in the nature of
church-membership they were compelled to form an iso¬
lated class, and naturally fell into the practice of having
property in common. They rejected infant-baptism, and
the observance of holy days. Although not guilty of the
immoral practices often imputed to them, they fell to pieces
in the first half of the 18th century. Hund, Pauli, and
Calovius wrote against them. (See Ilistoire de la vie de
J. de Labadie, Hague, 1670.)
LABARUM, a military standard of the Roman em¬
pire. It consisted of a long lance, ci'ossed at right angles
near the top by a staff, from which hung a small flag or
streamer of purple cloth inwrought with gold and pre¬
cious stones, and bearing the effigy of the emperor. Con¬
stantine the Great, when he embraced Christianity, sub¬
stituted for that device a crown, a cross, and the initial
letters of the name Jesus Christus, and made it the im¬
perial standard. (Prudent, in Symmach. 1. 466 ; Niceph.
H. E. vii. 37.)
LABEO, C. Antistius, a celebrated lawyer of the age
of Augustus and Tiberius, was son of Antistius Labeo,
who formed one of the conspiracy against Csesar, and after
the unsuccessful battle of Philippi caused himself to be
put to death by one of his own slaves. His son seems to
have inherited all the independent principles of the father,
and to have expressed at times his opinions respecting the
measures of Augustus with such freedom, that it was
thought by his friends that he was subject to fits of insa¬
nity. (Hor. Sat.\. 3, 82; Suet, 54.) Some say that he
was offered the consulship by Augustus, but that he re¬
fused the honour, lest he should be suspected of having
sold his independence to the emperor. Others say that he
was a candidate for the consulship, and that Augustus
caused M. Ateius Capito to be elected in preference to
him. (Tacit. Ann. iii. 75.) He had applied himself more
particularly to the study of law, and left many works, of
which scarcely anything remains except the title; eight
books on Probabilities, of which Julius Paulus made an
abridgement; a work in forty-two books, entitled Poste¬
rior es, because it appeared after his death. Of these two
works fragments are to be found in the Pandects of Justi¬
nian. The latter is abridged by Jabolenus, who flourished
under Trajan. (Gell. xiii. 10.) His other works are,—
Commentaries on the Twelve Tables, and on the Edicts
of the Praetor and Curile Ediles ; a Treatise on the Praetor
TJrbanus and Peregrinus ; a Treatise on Pontifical Law, in
fifteen books. It is disputed whether some other works
mentioned by St Augustin belong to this Labeo, or to an¬
other of the same name. (See Opuscula varia of Bynker-
shock, Leyd. 1719; De Vita, Moribus, et Studiis Labeonis
et Capiionis, Utreght, 1692.) (c. t. r.)
LABERIUS, Decimus, a Roman knight, who was par-
LAB
La BcA'de ticularly distinguished as a writer of mimi, that is, farces in
the language of the common people, and lor their amuse-
Labrador. ment. The exact period of his birth is unknown, but he
died B.c. 43, a few months after the murder of Caesar.
Having caused some annoyance to the dictator by the
freedom of his language, he was ordered by him to appear
on the stage as an actor in one of his own plays, when he
had reached the age of sixty. The prologue which he pro¬
nounced on this occasion is preserved by Macrobius (Stat.
ii. 7), and is so beautiful that it makes us regret that more
of his writings have not come down to us. When he had
finished, he proceeded towards the places assigned to the
knights ; but his appearance on the stage had deprived
him of all the privileges enjoyed by that order, and no one
was willing to make way for him. Cicero, observing his
embarrassment, said, in allusion to the number of new
senators admitted by Caesar, “ Recepissem te nisi anguste
sederemupon which Laberius sarcastically replied,
“ Mirum si anguste sedes qui soles duabus sellis sedere,”
thereby reproaching Cicero with his versatility of conduct.
We have the titles of forty of his pieces (see Fabricius Bib-
lioth. Lat. i., p. 477), but only a few fragments of them
have been preserved. They have been published by Ste-
phanus, Paris, 1564; and are also found in the Catalecta
veterum Poetarum by Scaliger, and in the Epigrammata
vetera, Lyons, 1596. (c. T. it.)
LA BORDE, Jean Benjamin de, author of the great
Essai sur la Musique Ancienne et Moderne, was born at
Paris in 1734. His family was immensely wealth}'. In¬
stead of entering upon active life, as it had been intended
that he should, he attached himself to the court, and be¬
came premier valet de chambre of Louis XV. He became
a great favourite with that prince, and more than once
brought himself to the verge of ruin by sharing in his costly
pleasures. All the time that he could steal from his court
duties was gladly devoted to music and the fine arts, of
which he was passionately fond, and in which (especially
music) he was deeply versed. On the death of Louis XV.
La Borde became one of the farmers-general, and the
immense revenues of his office enabled him to repair the
fortunes he had squandered in his youth. He married,
lived quietly, and spent all his spare time in study. One
of the first fruits of his labours was his Essay on Music, in
4 vols. 4to., 1780. Next year he published a kind of con¬
tinuation of this work under the title of Memoire sur les
proportions Music ales, le genre Enharmonique des Grecs
et celui des Modernes. He brought out in a very splendid
style several other works bearing on history, chronology,
and geography. But these are for the most part mere
compilations. In writing his Essay, La Borde derived
valuable aid from the Abbe Roussier. The best part of
the Ancient History of Music is his, and the sections
assigned to the theory of the art among the Greeks are
wholly so. Though somewhat unequal, and quite wanting
in unity of design, the Essai contains a mass of informa¬
tion so carefully collected and so ably sifted as to be still
on many points a final authority.
When the Revolution broke out, La Borde, like all the
officials of his class, was obliged to^ flee for his life. He
retired into Normandy, where he lived for some time W'ith-
out being recognised. An unlucky accident discovered his
retreat. Lie was seized, taken to Paris, and there thrown
into prison. He might have escaped had he acted pru¬
dently, but he insisted on being tried without delay. His
trial resulted in his condemnation, and he perished on the
scaffold on the 22d July 1794.
LABRADOR, a large peninsula of North America,
nearly of a triangular shape, extending from N. Lat. 50. to
63., and from W. Long. 56. to 79. It is bounded on the
S. by Canada and the Gulf of St Lawrence, E. by the At¬
lantic Ocean, N. by Hudson’s Straits, and W. by Hudson’s
LAB 139
Bay. Labrador is thus detached from the arctic lands, but Labrador,
is nevertheless a country as frozen, desolate, and barren, as Vs—v-**-'
those to the W. of Hudson’s Bay. The coast along that
spacious inland sea is called East Main, and the climate
there is peculiarly rigorous. The whole surface of Labra¬
dor, indeed, is as sterile and naked as any part of the
globe. The prevailing features are rocks, swamps, and
water ; and vegetation appears as the last effort of expiring
nature. Small scraggy poplars, stunted firs, creeping birch,
and dwarf willows, thinly scattered in the southern parts,
constitute the whole of the trees; herbs and grass are also
in sheltered places to be met with; but in the most north¬
erly parts only varieties of moss and lichens are to be found.
The whole of the interior, from the aspect of what has been
explored, and from the reports of the Esquimaux and other
Indians, seems to be broken up with rivers, lakes, and rocks.
The prevailing rock contiguous to the sea-shore of Labra¬
dor is gneiss. On this, at L’Anse a Loup, the most fertile
part of the country, a bed of old red sandstone, about 200
feet thick, is superimposed, and extends about half a mile
inland. Here also, as on other parts of the coast, the ap¬
pearances of the cliffs and of the land near them, and the
rolled masses inland, which have evidently been exposed to
the action of the sea, seem to prove that the latter has con¬
siderably receded. The sandstone is generally red and
white in alternate strips, and presents a remarkable mural
front to the sea. Near the surface it is strongly marked
with iron. I he whole of the rock is composed of white
quartz and yellow felspar; and the grains, though generally
as fine as oatmeal, are occasionally coarser, even to the ex¬
tent of half an inch in diameter. Over the red sandstone
is a thin stratum of red compact felspar, containing vege¬
table impressions, and also horizontal. Above this are va¬
rieties ot secondary limestone, arranged in parallel strata
several feet thick and full of shells. ' Detached masses of
primitive limestone are also found ; and, a few miles from
the shore, the secondary formations generally disappeared,
leaving gneiss and mica slate on the surface. N. of Cape
Charles, on the Labrador coast, the land falls back to the
westward, and the shore changes its character, becoming
shoal, and running off in flats ; whereas to the southward it
is bold and abrupt. The prevailing rock, however, is still
gneiss, containing numerous veins of granite, from a few
inches to many feet in thickness, the constituent parts being-
mica, quartz, and felspar. The diameter and dip of the
gneiss rock is here, as elsewhere on the coast, to the north¬
west, and at an angle of nearly 65°. It is coarse and dark,
hornblende taking the place of mica, and frequently very
light-grayish felspar forming the chief constituent. Where
this occurs, the face of the hill has a remarkably spotted ap¬
pearance. On one of the islands which here skirt the coast
a large bed of primitive greenstone was found, forming a
range of hills resting on the gneiss, and appearing to have
the same direction. On the western part of these islands
also the gneiss gives place to mica slate, this commencing
beyond the above-mentioned range of greenstone, which
appears to mark the line of demarcation between them.
The mica slate then predominates through all the islands
and shores examined to the westward of this point, viz. to
the Mealy Mountains, in Sandwich Bay, a distance of about
35 miles. In some places crystals of garnet are very abun¬
dant in it, and in others considerable beds of granite are
found, of a confused appearance, and in which quartz and
felspar predominate. The Mealy Mountains are the
highest land on this coast, and are computed to be about
] 484 feet in height, covered nearly to the top with wood,
notwithstanding the severity of the climate. They are of
mica slate, with a dark, fine-grained formation of the same,
resembling basalt, at their base. The general rock is
coarse-grained. At the foot ol these mountains are also
found beds eight and ten feet thick, and large rolled masses
140 L A B R
Labrador, of a remarkable conglomerate rock, of which the basis is
composed of grains of mica, quartz, and felspar; and the
imbedded masses are large rounded pebbles of quartz, mica
slate, felspar, hornblende, granite, and gneiss. The whole
is very hard, eliciting sparks of fire under the stroke of
the hammer. The imbedded fragments are all water-
worn. On the island of St Paul is found the beautiful
mineral Labrador felspar, associated with hyperstene, horn¬
blende, and magnetic iron.
The general aspect of different parts of the Labrador
coast has been described by the Moravian missionaries,
from whom we learn that Nullatarlok Bay, in N. Lat. 59.,
is surrounded by high mountains, which are covered with
moss, alder, birch, and various shrubs and plants, the val¬
leys in July being grassy and enamelled with a great va¬
riety of flowers. The rocks are slaty, easily splitting into
plates of from four to eight feet square. At Nachvak Bay
the sea was clear of ice in the middle of July, and the mag¬
nificent mountains around afforded to the missionaries a
most enchanting prospect. Oppernavik, lying between N.
Lat. 60. and 61., is not far distant from Cape Chudleigh,
where the coast, which was hitherto N., now trends to the
S.S.W., embosoming a spacious expanse of water called
Ungava Bay. The River Kangerluksoak, in N. Lat. 58. 57.,
is about 140 miles S.S.W.of Cape Chudleigh. The estu¬
ary of the Koksoak lies in N. Lat. 58. 36., at the distance
of about 650 miles from the Moravian station Okkak, and
is as broad as the Thames at Gravesend. Up the river
there is a bay surrounded on all sides by gently rising
ground, well wooded with trees of moderate size. For
about half a mile a fine slope extends, bounded on each
extremity by a hill. The Moravians describe the land as
A D O R.
level and dry, watered by rivulets issuing from the woods, Labrador,
in which were found various European plants and flowers, ✓
different kinds of shrubs, such as junipers, currants, and the
like, and grass and trees in abundance. The missionaries
were informed that, further W., no wood grows along the
coast. The soil at L’Anse a Loup is rich, and it is much
the most eligible part of Labrador for settlers. Corn will
not ripen, but serves for green food; and potatoes, cab¬
bages, lettuce, spinach, and early Dutch turnips, do well.
There is generally much rain on the whole coast, but now
the temperature would appear to be more equable than it
was some fifty years age, if we may trust to the correctness
of the reports of navigators. The current always sets
to the southward along the coast. The tides rise six feet
to the northward, and about four to the southward. The
prevailing winds are from W.S.W. to N.W.
On the coast of Labrador the winter is extremely severe,
the thermometer often falling thirty degrees below the
freezing point; and although the houses of the Moravian
missionaries are heated by large cast-iron stoves, the win¬
dows and walls are all the winter covered with ice, and the
bed-clothes freeze to the walls. Rum is frozen in the air
as rapidly as water, and rectified spirits soon become thick
like oil. From December to June the sea is completely
frozen over ; and so intense is the cold during the winter
months, that travelling is sometimes attended with the most
painful consequences. The summer months, again, are
extremely hot along the coast, the thermometer rising to
eighty-six degrees of Fahrenheit, when swarms of musqui-
toes infest the air.
The mean monthly temperatures at the three northern
missionary stations are as follows :—
Stations.
Hebron, N. Lat. 58-^
Okkak ... 57-30
Nain ... 56-30
Jan.
Feb.
5-24
215
0-95
531
1-95
3-51
March.
4-52
8-25
7-52
April.
16-83
290
29-97
May.
33-01
38-25
36-23
June.
36-61
44-65
42-53
July.
43-57
51-65
50-18
Aug.
49- 10
52-0
50- 99
Sept.
38-84
44-45
44-98
Oct.
29-43
31-15
33-98
Nov.
23-58
22-4
26-51
Dec.
5- 18
8-45
6- 51
Year.
22-52
27-86
27-82
The climate, however, is not insalubrious ; and, notwith¬
standing all its disadvantages, Labrador is of considerable
importance to Great Britain. No country is better pro¬
vided with large, convenient, and safe harbours, or supplied
with better water; and vast multitudes of all those kinds
of fish common to the arctic seas abound on the coast.
Flerrings are very fine and plentiful in August, but there
is no weather to cure any kind of fish after the tenth of
September. The rivers are frequented by salmon and sea
trout; and pike, barbel, eels, river trout, and the like, are
likewise found in them. On the numerous islands which
are scattered along the E. coast multitudes of eider-ducks
and other water-fowl breed. Those of large size have deer,
foxes, and hares upon them. On the continent the wild
animals are principally bears, wolves, foxes, and otters;
beavers and deer are not numerous, but their furs are re¬
markably close and beautiful. The birds of the country
are the white-tailed eagle, falcons, hawks, and owls of vari¬
ous kinds; raven, white grouse, ptarmigan, spruce-game,
whistling curlew, gray plover, various kinds of sand-pipers
and other waders ; geese, ducks of various sorts, shags, gulls,
divers, and some few species of small birds. During the
short summer insects are very numerous, especially in
swampy places. In winter they exist in a state of torpidity,
from which they are aroused by the solar heat or artificial
warmth. The phenomenon of the aurora borealis is uncom¬
monly brilliant in this region, and exercises a very marked
influence over the compass.
The exports of Labrador are cod, herring, pickled
salmon, fresh salmon (preserved in tin cases), seal-skins,
cod and seal oil, furs, and feathers. During the fishing
season, from 280 to 300 schooners proceed from Newfound¬
land to the different fishing stations on the coast, where
about 20,000 persons are employed for the season. About
one-third of these vessels make two voyages, loaded with
dry fish, back to Newfoundland, during the summer; and
several merchant vessels preceed from Labrador with their
cargoes direct to Europe, leaving generally full cargoes for
the fishing vessels to carry to Newfoundland. A consider¬
able part of the fish of the second voyage is in a green or
pickled state, and dried afterwards at Newfoundland. From
100 to 120 vessels come from Nova Scotia and New Bruns¬
wick. The principal part of their cargoes goes home in a
green state. From 16,000 to 18,000 seals are taken at
Labrador in the beginning of winter and spring. They
are of a very large size, and the winter residents on the
coast are said to feast and fatten on their flesh, which,
hen young, they account excellent eating.
No accurate account of the trade of Labrador can be
obtained, as there are no custom-houses or public officers
in the country ; but the following estimate is probably as
close an approximation as can be made to the annual value
of the exports :—
In Newfoundland vessels L.240,000
... Nova Scotia   96,000
... American   96,000
... Canadian     29,000
... Vessels owned or chartered by English or
Jersey houses  96,000
L.557,000
Some, however, estimate the total exports at L.800,000.
The salmon fisheries average annually about 30,000 tierces,
not more than 200 of which find their way to Newfound-
LAB
La Bruyere land. The herring fishery is carried on by fishermen from
|| _ Nova Scotia, Canada, Newfoundland, and the United
Labyrinth. States, and are shipped directly from the coast to a market.
Of the seal-oil, seal-skins, furs, and feathers, only a very
small portion finds its way to Newfoundland. Merchants
and traders on the coast buy them in exchange for their
goods, being less bulky and more valuable than fish. The
imports of Labrador have been estimated by the authorities
of Newfoundland at L. 120,000.
One-third of the resident inhabitants are British servants,
who take charge of the property left, and likewise employ
themselves, in the spring and fall, catching seals. The
other two-thirds live constantly at Labrador, and act in
the capacity of furriers and seal-catchers on their own ac¬
count, but chiefly as the former during the winter ; in sum¬
mer all are engaged in the fisheries. Half of these indivi¬
duals are Jerseymen and Canadians, most of whom have
families. There are six or seven English houses, and four
or five Jersey houses, established at Labrador, unconnected
with Newfoundland, who export their oil and fish directly
to Europe.
The Labrador fishery has, since 1814, increased more
than sixfold, principally in consequence of our fishermen
being driven from the grounds now occupied by the French.
This vast country, equal in square miles to France,
Spain, and Germany, has not a resident population ex¬
ceeding 5000 inhabitants, including the natives and Mo¬
ravians. The latter, an excellent and truly Christian peo¬
ple, have several settlements on this stern, inhospitable
shore; and nothing but the purest spirit of religion and
philanthropy could induce them to remain, and zealously
labour to enlighten the miserable and disgusting native
population. The principal station is at Nain, on the N.
shore, where a ship annually arrives from London in July,
laden with provisions and other necessaries. At Nain there
are four missionaries, at Okkak four missionaries, at He¬
bron three missionaries, and at Hopedale three missionaries.
The total number of brethren was twenty-eight in 1852 ;
and there were 1326 Esquimaux converts to Christianity.
These Moravians came from Greenland about the middle
of the last century, in the prosecution of their pious under¬
taking to enlighten the heathen. Their habits and mode
of life are simple and quiet, corresponding to their isolated
condition. Their trade is wholly with the Esquimaux,
with whom they barter coarse cloths, powder, shot, guns,
and edge-tools, for furs, oils, and other articles, the produce
of the country. The Esquimaux, the most filthy and dis¬
gusting tribe yet discovered on the shores of America, are
thinly scattered along the coast of Labrador. The great¬
est number of them in any one place appears to be at In-
vutoke Inlet, or Esquimaux Bay, on the Atlantic coast of
Labrador, where there are about 250. (For a description
of the Esquimaux, see the article Greenland.) The Ca¬
nadians and others residing at Labrador employ these peo¬
ple in catching fish, and the like. Labrador belongs to the
government of Newfoundland. During summer there is a
court held, from which appeals are made to the supreme
court of St John’s. An armed vessel visits, and continues
generally along the coast, during the greater part of the
fishing season. (a. p.)
LA BRUYERE, see Bruyere, Jean de la.
LABUAN, a small island in the Malay Archipelago,
belonging to Britain, and lying off the N.W. of Borneo,
about 30 miles N. of the town of that name, in N. Lat. 5.
22., E. Long. 115. 10. It is about 10 miles in length by
5 in breadth. (See Borneo.) In 1854 the population (ex¬
clusive of military) was 1150 ; revenue, L.3535 ; expendi¬
ture, L.4307; vessels entered, 555; tonnage, 8682: cleared,
30; tonnage, 8114 : value of principal imports, L.23,742 ;
exports, L.15,382 : coal sold, 6805 tons.
LABYRINTH, an intricate structure, with numerous
LAC Ml
winding passages so involved and perplexing as to make Lac
exit or entrance without a clue almost impossible. Three II
great labyrinths are mentioned by ancient writers. The Ijacca(iives
earliest and by far the most famous was that at Arsinoe,
near the Lake Moeris, in Egypt. It is described by He¬
rodotus and Pliny as having 3000 rooms, of which one-
half were under ground. It was extant in the time of
Pliny; but its ruins, if they still exist, have not yet been
identified. According to Herodotus, it was used as a
burial place for the kings and sacred crocodiles of
Egypt. Another labyrinth, frequently alluded to in the
classics, was that near Cnossus, in Crete. Tradition de¬
scribes it as built by King Minos, on the model of the
Egyptian one, but on a much smaller scale. The same
legends make it the abode or prison of the Minotaur.
None of the writers who mention this labyrinth describe
it from personal inspection. No remains of it have ever
been found, and it is probable that the tradition had merely
in view one of the large natural caverns that abound in
Crete. A third labyrinth is mentioned in the isle of Lem¬
nos, similar in plan to that of the Lake Moeris. It is said
to have been completed about the middle of the eighth cen¬
tury b.c. Remains of it were extant in the days of Pliny.
Some have set it down as a temple of the Cabiri, but to
what uses it was really put is unknown. Only one struc¬
ture of this kind is known to have existed in Italy, the
labyrinthine tomb of Porsena, near Clusium. See Clusium.
LAC, a resinous substance formed on various trees in
the East Indies by the punctures of an insect (CocrnsZacca),
the exuding juice being formed into cells for its eggs. The
resin encrusts the branches in grains; these branches,
when gathered, are exported under the name of stick-lac ;
but when the grains are gathered, the colouring matter
extracted, and the grains formed into flat cakes, the name
of seed-lac is given, the granular appearance being still
preserved ; when the seed-lac has been melted up and
formed into masses, it is called lump-lac or button-lac;
when the seed-lac is further purified by melting over a
charcoal fire, straining through bags of fine linen, and
drying in thin layers on smooth surfaces of wood, it forms
shell-lac. known as orange or ruby, according to the colour.
The colouring matter of lac is used as a red dye on wool,
but is inferior to cochineal. The chief use of lac in Europe
is for making sealing-wax, and as a basis for spirit var¬
nishes, and the so-called French polish. Shell-lac is com¬
monly used for the purpose, but as the palest variety con¬
tains colouring matter, it cannot be employed for varnish¬
ing works of a light colour. It also contains a little wax,
and other matters not soluble in spirits of wine, or pyrolig¬
neous spirit, which is commonly used for the purpose, the
effect of which is to make the varnish cloudy ; this is unim¬
portant in varnishing dark coloured works, and may be
avoided by making the solution without heat, and decanting
the clear portions from the insoluble.
The best stick-lac comes from Siam, that of Assam
ranks next, while that of Bengal is inferior. The colour¬
ing matter is obtained by pouring warm water on the stick-
lac. The colour is made into square cakes, and sold under
the name of lac-dye, lac-lake, or cake-lake. 4’here are
various methods of bleaching lac, by means of chlorine,
animal charcoal, &c. Lac gives the name to, and enters
into the composition of, various lackers. See Dyeing, iv..
§§ 1, 4 ; Lacker; and Varnishes. (c. t.)
LA CAILLE. See Caille, Louis Nicholas de la.
LACCADIVES, an archipelago of low islands lying off
the western coast of India, between 8° and 13° N. Lat.
There are nineteen considerable ones ; but as most of them
are surrounded with reefs and steep rocks, with a great
depth of water close to them, the approach to them is’very
dangerous. Between these islands there are many channels,
through which ships from India, bound to Persia or Arabia!
142 LAC LAC
Lace. frequently sail. The safest of these is called Mamale, or
the Nine-degree Channel, which runs between the islands
of Seuhilipar and Kalpenny. The largest of these islands
is about 7 miles in length and in breadth. Most of
them are inhabited by a race of Mohammedans called Mo-
plays. They do not yield grain, but produce an infinite
quantity of cocoa-nuts, from the husks of which they form
the coir cables, which are more elastic and durable than
hemp, as the sea-water, instead of rotting, preserves them.
These islands are well supplied with fish, and carry on a
trade with the small shells called cowries, which pass as coin
all over India and most of Africa. Most of these islands are
under the uncontrolled management of the beebee of Can-
nanore, subject to the payment of an annual tribute to the
British government. A proposal has been made to the bee-
bee to transfer them to the British, in consideration of a pe¬
cuniary equivalent. They were discovered by Vasco de Gama
in 1499, but have since been little frequented by Europeans.
LACE, from lacinia, the guard hem or fringe of a gar¬
ment, is a plain or ornamented network, consisting of threads
of gold, silver, silk, flax, or cotton, tastefully interwoven so
as to form a beautiful texture. This delicate fabric appears
to have claims to high antiquity, but its origin is involved
in considerable obscurity. That it was worn by Grecian
females is certain, and the derivation of the word lace affords
presumptive evidence that it was also in use amongst the
Romans. In Venice, and the neighbouring states of Italy,
it was very early worn ; and Mary of Medicis is supposed
to have been the first who introduced its use into France;
but as early as 1483 it was included in a list of articles pro¬
hibited from importation into England. Hence it had been
made in this country prior to the period above mentioned;
and this prohibition, like many other subsequent acts, was
for the protection and encouragement of home manufac¬
tures. But pins, which are indispensable in the process of
fine lace-making, were unknown till long afterwards ; so that
it is probable the fabric made was neither very fine in tex¬
ture nor produced to any great extent. It is uncertain by
whom the manufacture of lace was originally introduced
into this country. About the middle of the seventeenth
century the lace trade was flourishing in Buckingham¬
shire ; and so greatly had it advanced in England, that, by
a royal ordonnance in France, passed in 1660, a mark was
established upon the thread lace imported from this coun¬
try and from Flanders, and upon point lace from Genoa,
Venice, and other countries.
Pillow, or Thread Lace, is made by placing a perforated
pattern on a hard stuffed pillow, and the thread required is
wound upon bobbins with a groove in the upper part for
retaining the thread; while, to form the meshes, pins are
stuck in the cushions, and threads woven or twisted round
them, the pattern showing the points of insertion for the
pins, and also the direction for the gimp, which is inter¬
woven with the fine threads of the fabric to form the pat¬
tern. At the commencement of the work the bobbins are
arranged on one side of the cushion, and are brought to
the front side, two pairs at a time, and twisted together.
The woman holds one pair of bobbins in each hand, and
twists them three times over each other to form the sides
of the mesh, the adjacent bobbins of each pair are next in¬
terchanged, so as to cross these threads over one another to
form the bottom of the next. Supposing the four bobbins
to be marked 1, 2, 3, 4,—No. 1 is twisted round 2, and
No. 3 round 4; these, in order to cross 2 and 3, are inter¬
changed, so that 1 and 3 and 2 and 4 come together, and
at the next twist these pairs of threads will be combined.
As the meshes or half-meshes are formed, they are secured
by pins. 1 hese four bobbins are now put on one side of
the cushion ; two more pairs are brought forward, twisted
and crossed as before, and these operations are repeated
until a row of meshes is formed of the required breadth,
when the bobbins are worked over again to form another Lace,
row. From 48 to 60 bobbins are required for every inch of »
breadth. Pillow or thread lace, formerly employed a large
number of women and children in the counties of Bedford,
Buckingham, Northampton, and Oxford, but the demand
for this kind of white thread lace failed, and black lace took
its place. Honiton lace differs from pillow lace in having
the pattern made separately. The ornaments were for¬
merly confined to simple sprigs and borders ; but the fa¬
brics now produced show extreme delicacy of execution,
with beauty and taste in design : flouncings, shawls, scarfs,
handkerchiefs, berthes, &c., now vary in price from 10 to
200 guineas. The Honiton lace district extends about 30
miles along the coast of Devonshire, and about 12 miles
inland. In 18ol from 7000 to 8000 persons were employed
in the manufacture.
British point, tambour, and Limerick laces are chiefly
imitation, and are produced in shawls, scarfs, dresses,
court trains, flouncings, lappets, &c. British point is
made chiefly in the neighbourhood of London, tambour
chiefly at Islington, Coggleshall, and Nottingham, while
Limerick lace is peculiar to Ireland. Black laces now oc¬
cupy a considerable portion of the attention of the trade.
The most celebrated laces have been classed as,—1.
Brussels, the most valuable. There are two kinds : Brus¬
sels ground, having a hexagon mesh, formed by platting
and twisting four threads of flax to a perpendicular line of
mesh : Brussels wire ground, made of silk ; meshes partly
straight and partly arched. The pattern is worked sepa¬
rately, and set on by the needle. 2. Mechlin : a hexagonal
mesh, formed of three flax threads twisted and platted to a
perpendicular line or pillar. The pattern is worked in
the net. 3. Valenciennes: an irregular hexagon, formed of
two threads, partly twisted and platted at the top of the
mesh. The pattern is worked in the net similar to Mech¬
lin lace. 4. Lisle: a diamond mesh, formed of two threads
platted to a pillar, o. Alen^on, called blond: hexagon, of
two threads, twisted similar to Buckingham lace; con¬
sidered the most inferior of any made on the cushion. 6.
Alencon pomt: formed of two threads to a pillar, with oc¬
tagonal and square meshes alternately.
In the manufacture of lace France takes the lead ; and
it is calculated that the production of lace by hand gives
employment in that country to upwards of 200,000 females
of all ages. It is all made with bobbins upon a small pil¬
low, except at Alencon, where the needle only is employed.
The materials used are hand-spun linen thread, cotton,
wool, silk, and gold and silver thread. Point d’Alenqon
is the only lace made with pure linen hand-spun thread ;
this thread is worth from L.100 to L.120 per pound.
White lace is now chiefly made with cotton thread, Nos.
120 to 320. The principal seats of the manufacture are,—
Caen and Bayeux, Chantilly and its neighbourhood, Lille,
Arras, Mirecourt, Puy, Bailleul, and Alencon. Each of
these districts has its own peculiar style; and although the
lace may be made in the same way, and with the same ma¬
terial, in all these districts except the last, yet each is easily
recognised. Silk blond originated at Caen, and was so
called from being made of undyed silk of a nankeen colour :
the finest white or the finest black silk is now employed.
Caen and Bayeux excel all other places in the production
of piece goods, and manufacture shawls, robes, mantles,
&c., more extensively than any other districts in the world.
By means of a stitch called rucroe, the women of the de¬
partment of Calvados join several parts into one piece so
cleverly as to defy detection, even with a magnifying glass.
Most of the improvements and novelties in lace-making
originate at Mirecourt; it produces the same kind of lace
as Lille and Arras, viz., clear Inundation, fonds clair, and
■A^o fonds de champs, in white thread, also a lace resembling
the Honiton called guipure. ]
Lace.
L A
Flowers are also made, and sewed upon the extremely fine
net called Brussels net, closely resembling the Belgian fabric.
The whitest and cheapest French lace is produced at Bayeux.
Belgium is the great rival of France in the manufacture of
laces, the chief varieties of which are known as Brussels,
Mechlin, Valenciennes, and Grammont. Brussels produces
two descriptions of lace, known as point a Vaiguille, and
Brussels plait, the one made entirely with the needle and the
other on the pillow. The finest kind is made of very fine
flax thread, and some of cotton: it is remarkably soft and clear,
but very costly. Mechlin laces are made at Malines, Ant¬
werp, &c. They are made in one piece on the pillow, and
the flowers are surrounded by a plait thread, which designs
the outline, and has the effect of embroidery. Valenciennes
laces are made chiefly at Ypres, Menin, Courtrai, Bruges,
Ghent, Alost, and their respective neighbourhoods, each
town having its characteristic peculiarities by which its pro¬
ductions are identified. Ypres produces laces of the finest
square grounds, varying in price from 6d. to L.50 the
English vard.1
It is natural to suppose that attempts would be made
to lessen the cost of production of so beautiful and costly
an article as lace. It was not, however, until machinery
had been largely introduced for the purpose of manu¬
facturing textile fabrics that lace machinery can be said
to have been successfully employed. About the year
1768 a framework-knitter of Nottingham employed the
common stocking-frame in the manufacture of lace, and
about the same time another person of the same place in¬
troduced a pin machine for making single-press point-net
in imitation of the Brussels ground. Various machines
were from time to time introduced, all of which, except the
warp machine, have been superseded by the bobbin-net
machine, so called from the circumstance that the thread
that makes the lace is partly supplied from bobbins and
partly from a warp. The first successful machine of this
kind was made and patented by John Heathcote in 1809,
the principle of which was to pass the bobbins from front
to back, and from back to front, while a lateral motion was
imparted to the warp-threads, thus causing one series of
threads to wrap round the other. The first machine was
so complicated, that sixty motions were required to com¬
plete one hole, an effect that can now be produced with
six. The cost of production has also more than propor¬
tionally decreased ; for in 181o one square yard of the pro¬
duce was worth 30s., and can now be purchased for 3d.
Up to the year 1831 plain net and quillings were the chief
produce of the bobbin-net machine ; but about this time me¬
thods were introduced to purl and bullet-hole the edges of
narrow laces, finishing them afterwards, with a gimp thread,
with the needle. The machines used were known as the
Leavers, named after the original constructor; the pusher
machine, so called from having independent pushers to propel
the bobbins and carriages from front to back, instead of pul¬
ling or hooking them ; the circular machine, so called from
the bolts or combs on which the carriages pass being made
circular instead of straight; the traverse-ivarp machine, so
called from the warp traversing instead of the carriages.
About the year 1839 the Jacquard apparatus was success¬
fully applied to a pusher machine ; and since 1841, when a
plan was discovered for applying the Jacquard to the guide-
bars, scarcely a machine has been worked without the orna¬
ments being applied by means of cards. New sources of
manufacture soon developed themselves, such as flounces,
scarfs, shawls, window-curtains, &c. Lace goods are now
manufactured for all parts of the world, and" lace-designers
—greatly assisted by the Government School of Design at
Nottingham—have proved themselves adequate to the de-
C E,
143
mands of a diverse and greatly extending trade. At the
time of the Great Exhibition the articles manufactured by
the bobbin-net machines consisted of—\st, Black silk piece-
net ornamented, shawls, scarfs, flounces, trimming-laces,
blonds in white and colours, some finished on the ma¬
chines, others ornamented partly by machinery, and after¬
wards embroidered by hand. Such goods are exported
annually to the value of upwards of L.lo0,000, and they
are lower in cost by from 75 to 90 per cent, than the class
of hand-made articles which they represent. 2d, Cotton
edgings, laces, insertions, linen laces, in imitation of white
pillow lace, muslin edging and laces, fancy-piece net, spotted
net, plain net, in imitation of the costly Valenciennes lace.
3(7, Curtains in imitation of the Swiss bed-covers and blinds.
4th, Silk and cotton goods, plain net Mechlin grounds,
blond, Brussels or extra twist.
In the year 1851 there were 3200 bobbin-net machines in
operation at Nottingham, representing, with the subsidiary
trades, a total capital of L.2,965,945; the total number of
hands employed, 133,015 ; and the annual amount of busi¬
ness returns was estimated at L.2,300,000.
Before proceeding to notice the construction of the bob-
bin-net machine, it may be useful to remark, that a piece of
lace (figs. 1 and 2) consists of a series of nearly parallel
Lace.
warp-threads, lying in one direction, with a weft-thread
twisting once round each warp-thread until it reaches the
outer one, and then making two turns, and proceeding to
the other border in a reverse direction. The double twist
and the return of the weft-threads forms the selvage. This
twisting and interlacing of the warp and wTeft produce re¬
gular six-sided meshes. It will be seen from the figures that
the fabric is formed by the union of three sets of threads,
the one forming the warp proceeding in a waving line (fig.
2) from the top to the bottom ; the second set proceeds to
the right, the third to the left, the two latter being weft-
threads, which cross obliquely in the centre between every
two meshes, one set of weft-threads drawing the warp to
the right, and the other to the left. When the warp-
threads have been laced twelve times by the weft, the lat¬
ter is moved sideways through one interval of the warp. In
ordinary weaving the threads of the warp are alternately
raised or depressed for the passage of the weft; but in lace¬
making the warp-threads are shifted sideways to the next
pair, to which they are united by the weft-threads, which also
work in pairs, each entwining two individual threads at once.
The thread for the warp is wound upon a roller, and for
the weft upon small bobbins. Fig. 3 represents one of the
bobbins B, mounted in its carriage c, and shown detached
in section at B'. It consists of a couple of thin brass disks,
with a square hole in the centre, and rivetted together with
a smaller disk between, so as to leave a circular groove for
the reception of the thread. From one to two hundred bob¬
bins are spitted upon a square spindle, and mounted in a
frame; the thread is conducted from a drum through the
slits of a brass plate, and a thread being attached to each
bobbin, the spindle is turned round, when the drum re¬
volves and delivers its thread. About 100 yards of thread
1 Further details of the statistics of lace will be found in the “Jury Iteport of the Great Exhibition of 1851 class xix and some
remarks cn lace design in the “ Supplementary Report on Design.” ’ v 0
are wound on each bobbin, which quantity is indicated by
a band moving round a dial-plate in connection with the re¬
volving apparatus. As many as 1200 bobbins may be re¬
quired for one machine. Each bobbin is inserted in a small
iron frame or bobbin-carriage, in which it is held by a spring
s (fig. 3), and the thread t passes out through an eye at the
top; on gently pulling this thread the bobbin turns round.
The working parts of the machine are shown in a verti¬
cal section or end view (fig. 4), in which A is the thread-
beam containing the
warp, and B a similar
roller for receiving the
finished work. Between
these two rollers the
warp-threads are ex¬
tended vertically, and
they are strained over
guide-bars, a, a, from
which the threads pass
through the eyes of
needles, n ; each guide-
bar has a shagging or
slightly shifting motion
to the right and to the
left, to allow the bob¬
bins to pass to the right
or to the left of the
warp - threads as often
as is necessary to pro¬
duce the twist. The
bobbins are arranged in
a double line in two
rows, c c (fig. 4), on each
side of the warp-threads,
and the bobbin - car¬
riages are supported be¬
tween the teeth of a
comb, CC (fig. 4), shown
separately in fig. 3, each bobbin-carriage having a groove
for the reception of the teeth of the comb. It will be seen
from fig. 4 that there is a comb on each side of the work,
and the free ends of the teeth in the opposite combs are so
near to each other that there is only sufficient space for the
proper motions of the warp-threads between them, so that
the carriages, in passing across through the intervals of the
warp, reach the back bolts before they have entirely quitted
the front ones. The bobbin-carriages are alternately driven
from one comb to the other by two bars, b, b, and when one
of the lines of carriages is pushed nearly across the intervals
of the warp, the foremost of the catches projecting below the
comb comes in contact with a plate c?, attached to a revolv¬
ing shaft, and this pushes it quite through. The beam to
which the combs are attached has a short sidelong motion,
by which the relative position of the opposite combs is
changed by one interval or tooth, so as to transfer the car¬
riages to the next adjoining teeth, by which means all the
carriages make a succession of side steps to the right in one
comb, and to the left in the other, whereby the bobbins Lace,
cross each other, and again twist round the vertical warp-
threads, so as to form the meshes of a net. When the bob¬
bins have moved several times round the warp-threads, a
point-bar shown on the left, a little above b (fig. 4), contain¬
ing a row of pointed needles, falls between the warp and
weft threads, and carries up the interlacements of the latter
to form a new line of holes or meshes in the lace. Here it
remains while the other point-bar makes a similar movement
to form a second line of meshes, so that the working of the
machine consists of a repetition of twisting, crossing, taking
up the meshes, and winding the finished lace on the roller B.
Bobbin-net lace owes much of its beauty to the quality of
the threads, and the correct shape of the meshes. By in¬
creasing the number of warp-threads within a given space
the meshes are reduced in size, and finer lace is formed.
There may be from 700 to 1200 and upwards of warp-
threads in a piece one yard wide. The fineness, or gauge
or points, as it is called, depends on the number of slits in
the combs, and hence on the number of bobbins in an inch ;
thus, gauge nine points indicates nine openings in 1 inch of
the comb. The length of work counted vertically, and con¬
taining 240 holes or meshes, is called a rack. A circular-
bolt machine may produce about 360 i-acks per week. Bob-
bin-net is made up in pieces of from 20 to 30, or more, yards
in length, and of variable breadth. Narrow quillings are
worked together in a number of breadths, united by threads,
which are afterwards drawn out. In well made lace the
meshes are slightly elongated in the direction of the selvage.
Ornaments, consisting of separate flowers, sprigs, &c., are
worked in by a Jacquard apparatus attached to the frame; but
as the ornaments are all necessarily connected by the thread
of gimp which forms them, the connected thread is after¬
wards cut out with scissors, by children employed for the
purpose. Where the machine produces only plain net, the
pattern is worked in by hand, the lace-runner being guided
by a lithographic pattern placed under the net. When the
embroidery is complete, it is examined, defective parts are
marked by tying the lace in a knot, and these are restored
by a distinct set of women called lace-menders. The net
is gassed before being embroidered; bleaching or dying is
performed afterwards; dressing, rolling, pressing, ticketing,
and making up, resemble the processes described under Ca¬
lendering.
In addition to the bobbin-net machine for making lace,
there is also the warp-machine, invented about the year
1775. It was suggested by the stocking-frame, in which
only one thread is required, whilst in the warp-frame there
is a thread to each needle. The first articles made by it
were silk stockings, with blue and white zig-zag stripes, or
Vandykes, as they were called, from the name of one of the
four claimants to the invention of the warp-frame, the other
three being Englishmen. About 1784, a Nottingham
mechanic greatly improved the warp-frame by the applica¬
tion of the rotatory motion, and the cam wheels to move
the guide-bars, still known as Daivson’s wheels. The im¬
proved frames produced officers’ sashes, purses, braces, and
other elastic textile fabrics, the manufacture of some of
which still continues. In 1796 a new fabric was produced
from the warp, and employed for sailors’jackets, pantaloons,
and the article known as Berlin, so much used for making
gloves. Warp-machines were the first to produce orna¬
mental patterns on lace, such as spots, bullet-holes, &c.,
which had been previously embroidered or tamboured by
hand. The bobbin-net machine, invented in 1809, soon be¬
came a formidable rival of the warp, and influenced its
fortunes in various ways, until 1839, when the Jacquard
apparatus was applied to it, and so much increased its capa¬
bilities as to introduce into the warp-lace trade of Notting¬
ham a new class of products of elaborate design, such as
shawls, scarfs, mits, falls, laces, &c. Of late years, the
Fig. 4.
LAC
Lace, twist-machine has been employed on similar goods, and has
—v-**' to a great extent superseded the warp. Great improve¬
ments have also been introduced in the English methods of
dressing lace, especially in silk goods. Many new kinds of
elastic fabrics, in gloves, in silk, and other materials, have
been introduced. Velvet, and velvet in combination with
lace, have also been produced at the warp-frame. At the
time of the Great Exhibition there were about 1400 warp-
frames in operation, namely about 600 in Leicestershire,
about 400 in Derbyshire, and about the same number in
Nottinghamshire. 1 he employment in the various branches
was estimated as follows:—150 machines engaged in the
production of blond, and other silk laces; 150 in cotton
tattings, 550 in Leicester hoisery, &c., 100 in lace gloves
and mits, 150 in woollen cloth, hosiery, purses, and various
fabrics for gloves, &c. The first machines were about 16
inches in width; they are now, in the Nottingham trade,
from 90 to 150 inches in width, and in the Leicester
hosiery trade, from 44 to 72 inches. The number of per¬
sons employed in the warp trade in 1851 was estimated at
10,000, and the capital invested at L.360,000, making a re¬
turn per annum of L.700,000. In the Great Exhibition
was exhibited a power machine, capable of producing (work¬
ing 12 hours per day) 800 racks per week, which, when
dressed, would be equal to about 1200 square yards. A
yard of 4-quarter white silk blond, which in 1830 cost 2s.,
can now be had for 6d.
Gold and silver lace} The textile fabric known as gold
or silver lace consists of warp threads of silk, or of a mixture
of silk and cotton, while the weft or shoot is a silk thread
covered with silver, or with silver gilt, as the case may be.
The production of this thread is a remarkable illustration of
the extensibility of gold, and of the ductility of silver. The
silver preferred by the wire-drawers is that which has been
separated from argentiferous galena, this being less brittle
than the silver obtained from purer sources. From 400 to
500 ounces are cast into an ingot about 2 inches in dia¬
meter, and from 20 to 24 inches in length. This is made
red-hot in a charcoal fire, and hammered until sufficiently
reduced to pass through the first hole of the draw-plate, the
hammering increasing the tenacity and elasticity of the
metal. After the bar has been reduced by passing through
10 or 12 holes, it is planed, in order to remove any imper¬
fections from the surface which would interfere with the
perfect gilding; the blemishes are readily detected by the
reflection of a sheet of foolscap paper slightly arched, and
placed over the bar. The bar is now gilt, by placing on it
a number of gold leaves, varying from 10 to 30, according
to the richness of the wire required, the higher qualities
being used for military purposes, and pearls and bullions
for embroidering, while the lower qualities are used for
liveries, the ends of muslins, and for skein threads exported
to India and China. The gold leaves are placed in a row,
side by side, nearly the length of the bar, on a piece of
cartridge paper: the bar is then gently placed on the leaves,
pressed close, and the edges of the leaves raised up until
the silver is entirely covered. The bar is next enveloped
in paper tied tightly round with cord, and placed in a char¬
coal fire, where it is left until it becomes of a bright red
heat, the paper not burning but becoming red with the
metal, when it slowly consumes, after which the bar is with¬
drawn. While still red-hot it is burnished with a blood¬
stone or with South Sea axe-stone, for the purpose of unit¬
ing the gold and the silver perfectly. When cold the sur¬
face is covered with wax, and the bar is drawn into wire
through graduated steel dies, and, after one or two anneal¬
ings, finished by drawing through perforated rubies, so fine,
that from an ounce of metal a wire a mile and a quarter in
1 Fuller details on this subject will be found in the Journal of the
“ Thread or Fibre Gilding.”
VOL. XIII.
LAC 145
length is produced. At this point the wire has not so rich Lacedte-
and deep a shade of yellow as is required, but this is given mou
by winding the wire round a copper cylinder, with the addi- Jl
tion of a small portion of wax, and filling the cavity of the Jac 6'
cylinder with red-hot charcoal made from birchwood, the
effect of which is to deepen the colour and render it per¬
manent. 1 he next process is to flatten the wire by pass¬
ing it between a couple of steel rollers, one of ten, and the
other of four inches in diameter, made of the finest steel,
and of exquisite polish. They are manufactured in Rhenish
Prussia, at a cost of L.120 for a single pair of rollers. The
flattened wire is wound on small bobbins, which are placed
in the centre of circular rings, attached to a bar, over a
spinning frame. On the front of the frame are bobbins of
silk, the threads of which pass through the centre of the
ring to which the reel of wire is fixed. The whole is set
in motion, and while the thread is being twisted, the ring
with the wire revolves round the thread in the opposite
direction. In this way from 30 to 40 threads are covered
at once, the result being a resplendent flexible gold thread,
adapted to the purposes of lace-making, embroidery, &c.
Of this thread, although gold only appears, probably nine-
tenths of its bulk is silk, while of the remaining ^th only
^th part is gold.
It is highly probable that the process of electro-gilding
will greatly simplify some of the above processes, but the
plans hitherto adopted for the purpose have not been suc¬
cessful. Mr A. Hock has contrived a mechanical process
for the gilding of fibres. I he silk used for the purpose
must be of good quality, free from knotty nibs and rough
places. The gum must be boiled out, and the silk be dyed
of a light orange tint. It is then wound on bobbins, from
which it is passed through a trough containing a glutinous
transparent liquid. It is now passed over a reel attached
to an endless screw or threaded spindle, arranged so as to
lay the silk in close coils on a brass cylinder. Gold leaf is
then applied to the silk until the entire surface of the roller
is covered. The roller is then turned round, and a bur¬
nisher of wood covered with cloth or wash-leather is applied:
this presses the leaf close to the silk, and separates it between
the windings, thus gilding the thread, which may be of as
fine a quality as desired. If the entire thread is to be gilded,
it is wound on another cylinder, so as to expose the ungilt
part of the thread, and the process is repeated. It is next
wound on reels, dried, and then transferred to boards or
planchettes, and is ready for the market. The thread is of
the natural colour of the gold leaf; it is light, and perfectly
flexible. Fabrics made of this gilded silk are much lighter
than those produced with the ordinary gold thread, (c. t.I
LACEDAEMON. See Sparta.
LACEPEDE, Bernard - Germain - Etienne de la
Ville-sur-Illon, Comte de, an eminent French naturalist,
was born December 26, 1756, at Agen, the chief town of the
department of Lot-et-Garonne, in the S. of France. His fa¬
ther, the Comte de la Ville, lieutenant-general of the Sene-
chaussee at Agen, gave him the name of Lacepede, in honour
of a rich relative who had made him his heir. The family is
admitted by Cuvier, in his Eloge Historique on Lacepede,
to have been one of the most ancient and honourable in
the province. At an early age the future naturalist lost his
mother, but his education was conducted with the most
anxious care by his father. Pains were taken that all his
early impressions should be of good; and for a long time
he did not know what a bad book or a bad man was.° “ At
the age of thirteen,” he writes in his Memoirs, “ I still be¬
lieved that all poets were like Racine or Corneille, all histo¬
rians like Bossuet, all moralists like Fenelon.” In his soli¬
tude at the Castle of Lacepede he read largely the best
Society of Arts, No. 178, in the Report of Mr F. Bennoch’s paper on
T
146 LAC LAC
Lac6p&de. French authors, and learned to observe and reflect. One
s-—0f the first books put into his hands was Buffon’s Natural
History, which he read and re-read till he knew it nearly
by heart. BufFon became his model, and his time was
henceforth cheerfully given to the study of natural history
and philosophy in all their branches. Music was the only
amusement he allowed himself. He was passionately fond
of it, and besides playing admirably the piano and the organ,
he composed with no mean skill and success. The only
two operas he ever wrote were highly praised by Gluck,
though neither of them was ever brought on the stage.
Lacepede’s first experiments were on electricity, and one
of these had very nearly proved fatal to him. The results,
when communicated to BufFon, drew forth so encouraging
an answer from the old man that his correspondent imme¬
diately set off to Paris to see him. In the capital he fell in
with a German prince, who offered him a colonelcy in the
imperial army. He closed with the offer, but never joined,
or even saw, his regiment, though he wore its uniform, and
called himself its colonel. He made his debut in author¬
ship in 1781 by his Essai sur VElectricite, which he fol¬
lowed up, two years later, by his Physique Generate et
Particuliere. Both of these works were written on the
same principles as Buffon’s Natural History, though their
subjects manifestly called for a very different mode of treat¬
ment. Their author became convinced of his mistake
when it was too late, but obviated its bad consequences by
buying up and destroying every copy of both works on
which he could lay his hands. Charmed with the devoted
attachment of his young friend, BufFon appointed him in
1785 sub-demonstrator in the Jardin du Uoi; and as his
own strength was now beginning to decay, proposed that
he should continue the Histoire Naturelle. Lacepede ac¬
cepted the proposal, and continued his researches with
renewed zeal under the eye of his friend and teacher. In
1788 he published, as a continuation of BufFon, his His¬
toire Naturelle, Generate et Particuliere, des Quadrupedes
Ovipares; and in thefollowing year another volume On Ser¬
pents. “ This work,” says Cuvier, “ by the interest of the
facts embodied in it, and in a strictly scientific point of view,
presents incontestable advantages over the immortal work
of which it is the continuation.” No .races are visible of
that antipathy to method and a precise nomenclature which
marks BufFon’s part of the work. Lacepede established
classes, orders, genera, characterized clearly subdivisions,
and enumerated and named with care the species that strictly
belong to each. But with all the method of Linnmus, he
is as little philosophical as he, forming his groups entirely
upon external characters, and disregarding internal struc¬
ture and anatomical relations altogether. When the French
Revolution broke out, Lacepede, though by birth an aristo¬
crat, was at first favourable to it. He was tw'ice president
of the Parisian Electoral Assembly, and in 1791 became a
deputy of the Legislative Assembly. He never attained any
eminence, how'ever, either as a speaker or as a politician
When the course of events seemed to bring his life into
danger, he lost the little courage he had, and fled from
Paris altogether, only returning thither when the death of
Robespierre had put an end to the Reign of Terror. When
the Jardin du Roi was re-organized as the Jardin des
Plants, he wras appointed to the chair set apart for the his¬
tory of fishes and reptiles. In 1796 he was chosen into
the Institute of France, and two years later gave to the
world his Hstoire Naturelle des Poissons, of which the
fifth volume appeared in 1803. This treatise was un¬
doubtedly the greatest in that branch of science till it was
driven out of the field by the much more comprehensive
and philosophic work of Cuvier and Valenciennes. Lace¬
pede’s work was founded on the lists of fishes drawn up by
Gosselin and Bonaterre, and included the specimens added
to the royal collection before the war, as well as those in
the cabinet of the Stadtholder, brought to Paris after the Lachesia
conquest of Holland. Further than this it can scarcely be ||
said to have enlarged the limits of the science at all. His baehmann
work is consequently very incomplete, but it should be re-
membered that the comparative anatomy of fishes was in
his day very little studied, and, from the political state of
the country, the difficulty of procuring new specimens
greater than it had ever been before or has been since.
In society Lacepede was easy, polite, and anxious to agree
with every body. He carried the same spirit into his
scientific researches, listened believingly to the lies of
travellers, and took for gospel everything that had been
written by previous inquirers. Hence the complete ab¬
sence of searching criticism, and the gross mistakes which,
with a little care, he might easily have avoided. In 1814 ap¬
peared his Histoire Naturelle, Generate et Particuliere, des
Cetaces, the last and best of his separate works, though
open to the same objections as have been already raised
against his Natural History of Fishes. From this time,
till his death, his public duties took up so much of his
time that, except an occasional article in the Annales du
Museum, he made no further contribution to science. In
1799 he became a senator ; in 1801 he was made president
of the senate, and two years later grand chancellor of the
Legion of Honour. In 1804 he was created a minister of
state, and at the Restoration a peer of France. During
the Hundred Days he again took office under Napoleon,
as grand master of the university. He died at Epinay,
October 6, 1825, in the seventieth year of his age.
With many of the qualities of a good naturalist, Lacepede
wanted many that were indispensable. Many of his scien¬
tific errors are directly traceable to defects in his per¬
sonal character. He was pre-eminently wanting in inde¬
pendence of character. Like the vicar of Bray, he cared
little who sat on the throne of his country, if he retained
his offices. “ It is now six-and-twenty years,” he wrote,
“ since the Revolution broke out, and during all that stormy
period, thanks to Providence, I have never once failed of
the obedience due to the laws and the established govern¬
ment.” Every government in succession accepted and
trusted him, because he accepted it. Indeed, he never
contented himself with recognising each in its turn, but
went out of his way to welcome it with the most servile
adulations. In allusion to his fawning habits, and to the
nature of his studies, he was nicknamed by his contempo¬
raries “ the Prince of Reptiles.” But though he cringed
abundantly to the men in power, he was kind and gentle
to those of station lower than his own. He did a great
deal of good in a very unostentatious manner, and spent
the whole of his private fortune in charities. More than
once he was only saved from serious embarrassments by
the generosity of Napoleon. So popular had his liberality
made him, that his death was mourned as a public calamity.
LACHESIS. See Parcas.
LACHMANN, Karl, a distinguished critic and philo-
loger, was born at Brunswick, 4th March 1 793. His love
of literature displayed itself during his early education at
his native town, and only became more deeply rooted as he
advanced to the scientific study of languages at the univer¬
sities of Leipzig and Gottingen. It was at Gottingen,
under G. F. Benecke, with whom he was afterwards as¬
sociated in literary labour, that his attention was first di¬
rected to the early literature of Germany and northern Eu¬
rope. During 1815 he served in the Prussian volunteer
corps against Napoleon, and in the following year was ap¬
pointed teacher in the Frederic Gymnasium of Konigs-
berg, whence he was speedily promoted to a professorship
in the university. In 1827, he was elevated to a chair in
the university of Berlin, and he continued to discharge
the duties of his office till his death in 1851. On the
Continent he is perhaps best known as a careful editor of
LAC
LAC
147
Lachryma- the classics, and a masterly critic both of classical and Teu-
tory tonic antiquity ; but in England his fame rests almost ex-
Lacker cIusiveI-v on ,lis e<J‘tions of the New Testament and Vul-
v aC 6[', gate- These last were published, the smaller edition drawn
^"trom what he styles oriental sources alone, in 1842; the
larger, embracing both eastern and vvestern authorities, in
18o0. His critical scheme is expounded by himself in the
fatudiGTi und hr dike n for 1830. I he text is peculiar,
being compiled on a clear and definite, although too me¬
chanical plan, and may be defined as the most historically
attested reproduction, without by any means being the
best representation, of the original. With mathematical
precision he follows the authorities of the first four centu¬
ries, to which he attaches a value somewhat arbitrary ; and
it is inconsistent with his plan to avail himself of internal
evidence, even in removing what is a blunder by confession.
His labours have thus only a partial utility ; and Tischen-
dorf has successfully pointed out various passages in which
Tachmann has deviated from the mechanism of his plan.
1 he East fails to furnish fragments of sufficient antiquity
with which to construct one-half of the New Testament,
and gaps so large and important must be filled up from
occidental sources, that the attempt, by mere scissor-work
upon old MSS. to reconstruct an oriental New Testament
of the first four centuries, must be dismissed as impracti¬
cable. Lachmann himself, in the preface, takes care to
warn his readers, that where the margins are free from the
debris oi' various readings there is the feeblest evidence that
the clear tracings of the text are original sculpture.
In the criticism of ancient literature, Lachmann’s greatest
works are his Essays On the Nibelungen Lied, and On
Homer. Many valuable essays on other subjects are hid
m the periodicals of the day. His editions of the classics
embrace Catullus, Tibullus, Propertius, Terence, Babrius,
Avianus, and Cains. His other works are, The Sugalnblio-
tkek of Scandinavian Antiquity (trans.), 1816; Essay
On the Original, form of the Poem of the Nibelungen
Calamities, 1816; Selection from the Poets of the 13th
Century, 1820; The Nibelungen Lied (edited), 1826 and
1840; Hartmann’s Iwain (ed.), 1827; The Poems of
Walter von der Vogeliceide (ed.), 1827 ; Songs of Wolfram
von Eschenbach (ed.), 1833; Hartmann’s Gregor von
Stein (ed.), 1838; Shakspeare’s Sonnets (trans.j, 1820;
Macbeth (trans.), 1829; Lessing’s Collected Works (ed.)
1838 to 1840, &c., &c.
LACHRYMATORY, the name applied to small bottles
often found in the tombs of the ancients, and so called be¬
cause supposed to contain the tears of the deceased’s friends.
These phials are made of glass or earthenware, with a long
neck, and the mouth formed, as was thought, to receive
the eye-ball. The figure of one or two eyes has some¬
times been found impressed upon them. It is more pro¬
bable, however, that they contain aromatic balsam or such
liquids as were used for preserving the dead, as no mention
is made of preserving the tears of mourners or friends. On
a marble bas-relief in the Capitol, representing the obse¬
quies of Meleager, a female appears approaching the funeral
pile, and in her hand is a phial closely resembling the so-
called lachrymatories.
LACKER, or Lacquer, is a varnish used on certain works
in wood or metal. A hard-wood lacker may be made with
2 lb. shell-lac, to 1 gall, spirit of wine. A pale lacker for
brass may be made with ^ lb. of the best pale shell-lac to
1 gall, of spirit, with agitation for six hours without heat.
After standing for some time, the clear liquor is to be de¬
canted off. I he lacker may be tinted yellow with tur¬
meric, Cape aloes, saffron, or gamboge ; for a red tint,
arnotto and dragon’s-blood are employed. A pale gold-
coloured lacker may be made with 8 oz. of shell-lac, 2 oz.
of sandarac, 8 oz. of turmeric, 2 oz. of arnotto, and £ oz. of
dragon’s-blood to 1 gall, of spirit of wine. Mr A. Ross
uses pyro-acetic ether to dissolve the shell-lac and the gam- La Conda-
boge, by which means only the purely resinous portions mine
are taken up, the gummy matters, which are soluble in the II
water of the spirit of wine, being rejected. The clear I-‘aconia*
liquor is decanted, and is diluted for use with spirit of
wine. The green lacker used for bronze works is pro¬
duced by the addition of turmeric and gamboge. .
In lackering brass and other metals it is necessary that
they should be chemically clean ; and it is usual to raise the
articles to nearly the temperature of boiling water, in order
that the lacker may flow more readily, and the spirit eva¬
porate quickly, in which case the lacker attaches itself more
firmly to the metal, and a more brilliant effect is produced.
A hot-plate, or lacquering furnace, is described under Fur¬
nace. For further details, see Varnishes; also, 3d vol. of
Holtzapffel’s Mechanical Manipulation. (c. t.)
LA CONDAMINE. See Condamine, Charles Marie
de la.
LACONIA, or, as it was often called, Laconica or La¬
cedaemon, a country of ancient Greece, was bounded on the
N. by Arcadia and Argolis, W. by Messenia and the Mes-
senian Gulf, and S. and E. by the Mediterranean. Its ex¬
treme length from the Arcadian frontier to Cape Taenarum
is nearly 80 miles; its greatest breadth is about 50 miles.
The total area is computed at 1896 square miles. Two
great mountain ranges, traversing the whole country from
N. to S. parallel to each other, occupy by far the larger
portion of the surface. The eastern range, rising in the dis¬
trict of Thyreatis and terminating in Cape Malea, was called
Parnon ; the western, an offshoot of the great mountain
system of Arcadia, and ending in Cape Taenarum or Mata-
pan, was called Taygetus. The former of these is not so
much a continuous range as a series of mountains, some¬
times isolated and sometimes in groups. The height spe¬
cially known as Parnon (now called Malevo) touched the
confines of Argolis and Arcadia. Its elevation is now as¬
certained to be 6355 feet. The eastern slope of this range
sinks down gradually into the plain, and sends off spurs of
hills and gentle rising grounds towards the sea. Its western
declivity is much more bold and precipitous. Proceeding
southwards, the highest peaks of Parnon are known under
the special names of Barbosthenes, Olympus, Ossa, Thor-
nax, and Menelaion. None of these, however, is remark¬
able either for height or picturesqueness of outline. In the
southern half of the chain, the most remarkable group is
that of Zarax, of which the highest point is about 3500 feet
above the sea. In striking contrast to Parnon is Taygetus,
whose splendid masses are as much admired in modern as
in ancient times. The classics, both Greek and Roman,
abound in allusions to its height, its imposing outline, and
the savage grandeur of its scenery. Among modern tra¬
vellers, Colonel Mure admits, “ that, whether from its real
height, from the grandeur of its outline, or the abruptness
of its rise from the plain, it created in his mind a stronger
impression of bulk and loftiness than any mountain he had
seen in Greece, or perhaps in any other part of Europe.”
The highest peak of Taygetus, which reached an elevation
of 7902 feet, overhung the city of Sparta. In antiquity it
was called Taletum, and was sacred to the sun. Its modern
name is St Elias. Five miles S. of it was Evoras, now called
Paximadhi, the highest point of the range after Taletum.
From this point diverges, in a nearly parallel line, a range
of lower hills called Lycobuni, or Wolf’s Mountain, which
form the southern boundary of the Spartan plain. The
southern extremity of the Taygetus, terminating in Cape
Taenarum, was the country of the Maniates, who retained
their independence after the rest of Greece had been sub¬
dued by the Turks. Taygetus was held sacred to Diana,
probably from the fact that its great pine-forests harboured
immense quantities of game, and were the favourite hunt¬
ing-ground of the Spartan youth. It was rich in marble,
148 LAC
Laconia, green porphyry, and iron, all (especially the latter) of excel-
v—v/w ]ent quality, and extensively used by the Romans as well
as the Greeks. The country enclosed between the great
ranges of Parnon and Taygetus was the basin of the Euro-
tas, now the Basili-potamo. This river, rising on the fron¬
tier of Arcadia, flows in a nearly due south course into the
Laconic Gulf, opposite the island of Cythera. The upper
part of its course is through a deep and narrow valley, which,
a little way below the capital, expands into what was known
as the Spartan plain. At CEnoe the valley again contracts,
but farther down it widens out into the maritime plain, or
plain of Helos (as it was called, from the town of Helos on
the shore), and escapes through marshes and sandbanks into
the sea. (See Eurotas.) The general aspect of Laconia
was well described by Euripides, who called it “ hollow,
begirt with mountains, rugged, and difficult of access to an
enemy.” There were, in fact, only two ways (both of them
very difficult) by which Laconia could be invaded. One of
these led from Southern Arcadia, by Stenyclarus, into the
upper valley of the Eurotas. The other lay through a pass
of Parnon formed by the valley of the small river GSnus.
Both of these passes debouched upon the Spartan plain
close to the capital. On the west the great mass of Tay¬
getus presented an insurmountable rampart against a foe.
The sea-board was devoid of harbours, and the navigation
of the Laconian Gulf was so difficult that no ships could
approach the shore. The entrance to the gulf was guarded,
moreover, by the island of Cythera, and by the naval sta¬
tion of Gythium on the opposite coast. The soil of Laconia
cannot vie with the rich lands of the Messenian plain.
Euripides describes it as “ possessing much arable land, but
difficult to work.” This account agrees with that of Colonel
Leake, who says that the soil is in general a poor mixture
of white clay and stones, difficult to plough, and better
suited to olives than corn. The olives of the Spartan plain
are at this day preferred to those of Athens ; while the silk
grown there is the best in Greece. The climate, except
on the sea-coast, where the swamps engender the malaria,
is excellent, and the inhabitants are taller, healthier, and
stronger than any of the other Greeks. Though there are no
traces of any volcanic action in the country, it has suffered
severely at different times from earthquakes. The most ter¬
rible of these was that of b.c. 464, in which enormous masses
of rock were rolled down from the top of Taygetus. The
city of Sparta was laid in ruins, five houses only remaining un¬
injured, and more than twenty thousand citizens were killed.
Laconia, which at one time, according to Strabo, con¬
tained a hundred cities, had in his day no more than thirty,
and of these few but the capital were of any importance.
In the Spartan plain the most prominent besides Sparta
were Amyclce and Pharis, both on rising grounds near the
Eurotas, and not far from each other. The most ancient of
these was Amyclae, the old residence of the Achaean kings,
and memorable for its numerous and splendid temples.
One of these, that of Apollo, was noted as the most sump¬
tuous building in Laconia. Messapece, Brysece, and Har-
pleia, were mere villages. In the upper valley of the Eu¬
rotas were Pellana, the frontier fortress, Belemina, Tripolis,
AEgys, which latter, with its territory, belonged at one time
to Arcadia, but at an early period was incorporated with
Laconia, and Sellasia, a fortified town commanding the
valley of the (Enus. In Southern Laconia, besides Gy¬
thium, the naval arsenal of the Spartans, were Crocece, with
famous quarries of marble and porphyry, Helos (see Helos),
Asopus or Cyparissia, Nymphceum, Side, and Epidaurus
Limera. The most important of these will be found de¬
scribed under their respective heads. Few of them were
other than mere villages.
The original inhabitants of Laconia are said to have been
the Leleges, whose first king, Lelex, was succeeded at his
death by his son Myles, and he in turn by his son Eurotas,
LAC
who gave his name to the river that flowed through the Laconicism
Spartan plain. His daughter Sparta, married Lacedaemon 1!
son of Jupiter and Taygeta, and the dynasty founded by Lactho-
them kept the throne till a short time before the Trojan
War, when Menelaus, having married Helen, the daughter
of Tyndareus, the last monarch of the old line, became king
of the country. Tisamenus, the grandson of Menelaus, was
reigning at Sparta when the Dorians invaded and conquered
the Peloponnese, under their kings Procles and Eurysthenes.
The conquerors divided Laconia into six districts, to each
of which they appointed a chief magistrate with the title of
King. It was not, however, till about the middle of the eighth
century b.c. that the Spartan Dorians obtained undisputed
possession of the whole of Laconia. They had no sooner done
so, than they cast a covetous eye on the richer plains of their
Messenian kinsmen and neighbours. It was not difficult to
pick a quarrel with a people hardly less warlike than them¬
selves. The first Messenian war broke out in b.c. 743, and
lasted till b.c. 754; the second, beginning in b.c. 685, and
ending in b.c. 668, terminated in the complete subjugation
of Messenia. The conquered country was absorbed in that of
the victors, and its name does not again occur in history till its
independence was restored by Epaminondas. The frontier
lands of Laconia on the north, comprising the upper valleys
of the Eurotas and Ginus, and the districts of Sciritis, Be-
leminatis, &c., originally belonged to Arcadia. They were
finally annexed by the Spartans about b.c. 600, who, how¬
ever, were never able to push their conquests any further
in this direction. For the remaining history of Laconia,
see Greece, Sparta, &c., &c.
LACONICISM is the name given to a short pithy mode
of expression, regarded as characteristic of the natives of
Laconia. We have many historical instances of its use
among that people amounting even to affectation. Thus,
when Philip of Macedon wrote that, “ If he entered their
territory, he would destroy all before him with fire and
sword,” they simply returned for answer,—“ If” The fa¬
mous letter of Caesar to the senate, “ Veni, vidi, vici” is an
example of the laconic style, which is still preserved in ar¬
morial devices, monumental inscriptions, proverbs, &c., &c.
LACTANTIUS, Lucius Ccelius Firmianus, was,
according to the common account, born at Firmium in
Italy about the middle of the third century. After he had
studied at Sicca Venerea in Africa, under Arnobius the
celebrated teacher of rhetoric, at the request of Diocle¬
tian he settled, about a.d. 301, at Nicomedia, in Bithy-
nia, and there opened a school for Latin eloquence. Being,
however, unsuccessful as a teacher, he abandoned his fa¬
vourite study of rhetoric, and became author by profession.
His conversion to Christianity about this period was probably
the chief cause of the extreme poverty under which he
struggled, even after the accession of Constantine, when
lie was summoned to Gaul to act as tutor to Crispus,
the eldest son of the Emperor. Lactantius died at Treves
about a.d. 325.
The theological works of Lactantius, still extant, are,—
Divinarum Institutionum libri vii., containing an expo¬
sure of the error and absurdity of pagan idolatry and phi¬
losophy, and a vindication of the truth and purity of Chris¬
tianity ; He Ira Dei, written against the Epicureans in
support of the doctrine of rewards and punishments; He
Opijicio Dei ; and De Mortibus Persecutorum.
As a Latin prose-writer, Lactantius is second only to the
writers of the Augustan age; and of all who have imitated
the graceful and energetic eloquence of Cicero he has
been the most successful. In theology he is more rhetorical
than logical, fonder of the dogmas of heathen philosophy
than of the doctrines of the gospel, and therefore very un¬
safe as a teacher of Christianity.
LACTHO, a province of India beyond the Ganges,
tributary to the sovereign of Cochin-China. It is bounded
LAD
LAD
Ladak. S. by Lars, N. and E. by Tungquin, and W. by China. This
- * territory has been but imperfectly explored by Europeans ;
but it is described by the Tungquinese as mountainous,
rocky, covered with jungle, and destitute of navigable
rivers, with a singularly pestilential air, and water very
unwholesome, though the climate is cooler than that of
Tungquin. The interior is inhabited by numerous tribes,
little better than savage, governed by hereditary chiefs,
and perpetually at war with each other. Salt is imported
into this country from Tungquin ; also salt-fish, oil, and
some silk stuffs for the chiefs. The exports to Tungquin
are chiefly buffaloes and cotton. Shells and cowries form
the medium of exchange. According to information de¬
rived from the Tungquinese, this province contains many
extraordinary natural caverns, which appear to have served
the natives as temples. One cavern is described as a
mile across, perforating a mountain, and another as being
entered underground in a boat.
LADAK, or Middle Tibet, a very elevated and rugged
country of central Asia, N. of the Punjab, and lying between
N. Lat. 32. 25. and 35. 10., and E. Long. 75. 30. and 79. 10.
It is bounded N. by the Karakoram Mountains, which sepa¬
rate it from the Chinese territoryof Kotan,E. and S.E. by the
Chinese districts of Rudok and Chumurti; on the S. it
includes the districts of Lahul and Spiti, now attached to
British India; and on the W. it is separated from Kash¬
mir by the western Himalaya chain, and from Balti by an
imaginary line drawn from the mouth of the Dras to the
sources of the Nubra. Its greatest length from N.W. to
S.E. is 240 miles, and its greatest breadth 190; but, from
the irregularity of its outline, its entire area is little more
than 30,000 square miles. The territory of Ladak is one of
the most elevated regions of the globe. The great valley
of the Indus traverses the country through its entire
length from S.E. to N.W. On each side of the valley are
several parallel ranges of mountains, some of which are cal¬
culated to rise to the enormous height of above 29,000
feet. These determine the course of the rivers, and fur¬
nish a system of divisions for the country. These divisions
are,—1, at Nubra, on the Shayok ; 2, Ladak Proper, on the
Indus; 3, Zanskar, on the Zanskar River ; 4, Rukchu,
along the lakes of Tshomo Riri and Tsho-Kar ; 5, Purik,
and Suru, and Dras, on the different branches of the
Dras River ; 6, Spiti, on the Spiti River; and 7, Lahul,
on the Chandra and Bhaga, or head waters of the Chenab.
The first five are subject to Gholab Singh, and the two
last belong to the East India Company.
The following table gives the area and mean elevation
of the inhabited parts of the different districts :—
Area in
Square Miles.
Nubra  9216
Ladak  3950
Zanskar  3080
ttukchu  5580
Purik, Suru, Dras  4200
  2312
babul    1872
30.220
Mean Height.
12,763
11,500
13,154
15,634
11,196
12,986
11,063
12,613
The great river of Ladak is the Indus. Its principal
affluent is the Shayok, which rises in the Karakoram Moun¬
tains in N. Lat. 35, E. Long. 78. Its course for about
150 miles is generally in a S.E. direction, when it turns
suddenly to the N.W., and continues a W.N.W. course to
its junction with the Indus at Keris. Its length is about
400 miles. I he Zanskar, a dark and turbulent torrent,
falls into the Indus at Nyimo, 25 miles below Le, after
a noitheily course of 210 miles. About 25 miles above
its mouth it receives the Sum-gal, which has a N.N.W.
course of 110 miles. At Moral, 125 miles below Le, the
Indus receives on the left the Dras, which is about 85
miles in length. There are also numerous lakes, the prin¬
cipal of which is Pankong, a long narrow sheet of ex¬
tremely salt water, not less than 85 miles in length, with
an average breadth of 3 miles. The great mountain ranges
are generally of primary formation—granite, gneiss, and
mica-slate. Lead, copper, and iron ores have been disco¬
vered ; and gold is found in the sand of several of the
rivers. Sulphur, soda, and borax are obtained in certain parts.
I he climate of Ladak is characterized by great extremes
of heat and cold, and by excessive dryness. In the elevated
district of Rukchu it freezes almost every night dur¬
ing summer, but the noon-day sun is several degrees
hotter than in most parts of India. The quantity of
rain and snow that falls is, owing to the great lack of
moisture in the atmosphere, exceedingly small. In the
more elevated districts of Rukchu, Nubra, Zanskar, and
Ladak Proper, it rains, or rather drizzles, for an hour or
two, three or four times in a year. Snow falls much oftener,
but not in any quantity, and in Ladak and Rudok it is never
more than six inches deep. This aridity of climate renders
artificial irrigation necessary in cultivation, and hence the
cultivated land is only to be found along the courses of the
rivers and streams. The waters of the smaller streams are
arrested by dams, and conducted with great skill from field
to field, and from terrace to terrace. The grain crops are
wheat, barley, and buckwheat. The esculent vegetables
are carrots, turnips, onions, cabbages, and radishes. Car-
raway, mustard, linseed, and tobacco, are cultivated to a
small extent. The timber trees are few and unimportant.
The most common are poplars and willows, which are plant¬
ed round every village. Less common are the pencil
cedar, the Elaagnus Moorcroftii, and a kind of tamarisk.
The fruit trees are the apple, apricot, walnut, mulberry,
and vine. The rhubarb of medicine grows in great profu¬
sion, and of the finest quality.
The wild animals are numerous. The elevated plains of
the Indus, and the lofty table-lands of Rukchu, abound with
the horse, marmot, and hare, while the snowy mountains
and rugged glens teem with many varieties of the wild goat,
sheep, and deer. Other wild animals are the leopard, bear,
wolf, fox, ounce, lynx, jackal, and weasel. The domestic
quadrupeds are horses, yaks, cows, asses, goats, and dogs.
The goat furnishes the fine wool of which the fine Kash¬
mir shawls are made. Birds are not numerous. The
chakor is a bird resembling a partridge, but of the size of a
guinea hen. The eagle, kite, and raven, are common, as
are also smaller birds, as the sparrow, linnet, redbreast, and
lark. Waterfowl abound on the lakes. The rivers teem
with fish, which the superstition of the natives does not
allow them to molest.
rI he manufactures of Ladak are few, rude, and unim¬
portant, being chiefly coarse woollens for home consump¬
tion. The country furnishes few articles of trade, almost
the only exports being wool, borax, sulphur, and dried
fruits. The transit trade, however, is very large, owing to
its position between Kashmir and India on the S. and
S.W., and the Chinese provinces of Yarkand, Kotan, and
Kashgar, on the N. and N.E.
Ladak is inhabited by a peculiar race of people, con¬
sidered in features and language to bear a considerable
resemblance to the Chinese. The population is estimated
at 168,000.
The professed religion is Lamaism. The deity is
worshipped in the character of a trinity, but adoration
is paid to a great number of inferior beings, repre¬
sented by a variety of curious idols. Among the social
institutions of the country the most remarkable is the svs-
tem of polygamy that prevails among the poorer classes.* A
family of brothers has only one wife in common, who will
thus not unfrequently have three or four husbands. The
system, however, is strictly confined to brothers. The
149
Ladak.
i
150 LAD
Ladoga rich, as in all eastern countries, have generally several
!! wives. Previous to the conquest of the country by the
v Lady- j Sikhs, the government was a simple despotism, administered
by the Rajah, according to the direction of the influential
Lamas. Gholab Singh invaded the country in 1835, and
annexed it to the dominions of Ids master Runjeet Singh.
He now retains the acquisition as a portion of the princi¬
pality which was assigned to him by the British after the
conquest of the Punjab. (See Cunningham’s Ladakh)
LADOGA, a lake in Russia, the largest in Europe, lies
between the governments of Viborg on the N. and W.,
Petersburg on the S., and Olonetz on the E. Its greatest
length is about 130 miles, breadth above 70. The coast is
generally low, much indented, and abounding in dangerous
reefs. The depth in some places reaches about 150 fathoms,
in others it is insufficient for safe navigation. Storms are
frequent, and the influx of many considerable streams pro¬
duces strong currents. The chief rivers entering the lake
are the Swir (or Sveer) from the E., bearing the waters of
Lake Onega; the Volkhoff on the S.; those of Lake Ilmen
and the Saima on the N., draining the reticulation of waters
of that name. It empties itself on the S.W., by the Neva,
into the Gulf of Finland. There are numerous islands
scattered along the north-western shore, several of them
inhabited. The principal towns on the coast are Kexholm,
Schlusselburg, and Novaia Ladoga. A canal executed
in the reign of Peter the Great connects the two latter,
forming a direct communication between the Neva and
Volkhoff.
LADRONE, or Marianne Islands (so called respec¬
tively from the thievish habits of the natives, and in honour
of Queen Mary Anne of Spain), a group in the N. Pacific
Ocean, between Lat. 13. and 21., Long. 144 and 146.
They are about twenty in number, of volcanic origin, irre¬
gular and picturesque in outline, and clothed with luxuriant
vegetation. The intervening straits abound in shoals and
currents, and there are few good harbours. The heat of
the climate is somewhat tempered by the trade-winds.
Among the vegetable products are sugar, rice, Indian
corn, tobacco, cotton, indigo, &c. Of wild animals, the
most numerous are swine, sometimes of large size ; cattle,
horses, asses, mules, and llamas, have been introduced by
the Spaniards. The principal island is Guajtan, or St
John, the most southerly of the group. It is about 80 miles
in circumference, and has a good fortified harbour, some
miles to the S. of St Ygnacio de Agana, the seat of govern¬
ment. The aboriginal inhabitants, an active and athletic
race, have gradually given place to a mixed population,
descended of colonists from Mexico and the Philippine
Isles. This group was discovered in 1521 by Magellan ;
but no settlement was made in them for about 150 years,
when the widow of Philip IV. sent out a body of mission¬
aries to convert the natives. They were visited in 1742 by
Anson, who spent some time on the island of Tinian, where
he discovered architectural remains, indicating a consider¬
able progress in the arts of civilization.
There are two other small island groups of this name,
the one on the coast of China, at the mouth of the bay of
Canton, a great stronghold of pirates, the other off the coast
of Guatemala.
LADY, a word of Saxon origin, generally supposed to
signify loaf-giver, the first part of the word klaf, a loaf,
being ^preserved in the Saxon klaford, a lord. In ancient
times it was the practice of the lady the manor to distri¬
bute bread to the poor with her own hands at stated times,
looke, however, derives the term from the verb hlijian,
to raise, and thus regards it as denoting a person raised to
equality with her lord. Both derivations are honourable to
our Saxon ancestors. As a title it belongs to the daughters
, peers above the rank of a viscount, but is extended
by courtesy to the wives of knights.
L A E
LADY-Day an immoveable feast celebrated on the 25th Laelius
of March, or the annunciation of the Holy Virgin. II
LAS LI US Sapiens, C., was the son of C. Laelius Nepos, vLaennec
and distinguished by his love of philosophy in an age when v_1*'
war still continued to be regarded as the only employment
worthy ot a Roman. He was the pupil of Diogenes the
Stoic, and afterwards of Pansetius. (Cic. Fin. ii. 8.) He
was the intimate friend and companion of Scipio Africanus
the younger, and attended him in his expedition into Africa
when he took Carthage, b. c. 146. (Appian. Pun. 126.)
lie was then employed as praetor in Lusitania, where he
obtained considerable advantages over Viriathus. (Cic. Off.
ii. 11.) He was elected consul along with Servilius Caepio
(b. c. 140) ; but notwithstanding the able manner in which
he discharged the duties of the office, he did not succeed
in being re-elected, a circumstance which Cicero laments
in most feeling language. (Tusc. v. 19.) Laelius spent
much of his time in the country, devoting himself partly to
rural occupations, and party to study. The mildness of his
disposition, and the equanimity of his temper, are noticed
by Horace, when he speaks of mitis sapientia Lcelii (Sat.
ii. 1). He was the intimate friend of Pacuvius and Terence ;
and it is said that he and Scipio assisted the latter in the
composition of some of his plays. It was no doubt his
friendship with Scipio that induced Cicero to place the
name of Laelius at the head of his beautiful essay On Friend¬
ship. The interlocutors are Laelius himself, and his two
sons-in-law, C. Fannins and Q. Mucius Scaevola.
LAENNEC, Rene Theophile Hyacimtiie, the dis¬
coverer of mediate auscultation, was born at Quimper, in
Lower Brittany, February 17, 1781. After going through
the usual course at the chief school in the department of
the Loire Inferieure, he began the study of medicine under
the care of his paternal uncle, a distinguished physician at
Nantes. In 1799 he acted for a short time as assistant
surgeon in the military hospitals then established in that
city. Removing to Paris in the following year, he attached
himself to the clinical school in the great hospital of La
Charite, at that time under the direction of the celebrated
Corvisart. Among his fellow-students were Double and
Bayle. Even thus early he began to make himself known
by his occasional essays and pamphlets, and by his contri¬
butions to the Journal de Medecine. He graduated in
1804. In the same year he became editor of the Journal
de Medecine, and continued to enrich its pages with many
learned and original papers, chiefly on morbid pathology,
till bad health compelled him to resign his office. His in¬
tention at this time was to have published a complete work
of morbid anatomy, on which he had lectured publicly for
some sessions at Paris. Fie did not live to carry out his
plan; but portions of the work were published as separate
articles in the Dictionnaire des Sciences Medicates. Mean¬
while his practice was keeping pace with his widening fame;
and in 1816 he was appointed chief physician to the Hopital
Necker, the duties of which he undertook with his usual
zeal and activity, and in which he was speedily rewarded
for all his labours by his great discovery. For two years
after the idea first dawned upon him he devoted himself
with astonishing perseverance to perfecting the new system
of diagnosis which he founded on it. By June in 1818 he
had advanced so far as to read a memoir before the Academy
of Sciences, containing the outline of his method, and in
the September of the following year he published his re¬
markable work, under the title olDe VAuscultation Mediate,
ou Traite du diagnostic des Maladies des Poumons et du
Cceur, fonde principalement surce nouveau moyen d'explo¬
ration. The profession, especially the elder members of it,
received the work with distrust; and but for the admirable
descriptions of diseases contained in it, and giving it a value
independent altogether of the system of diagnostics, his dis¬
covery might have fallen into temporary oblivion. Fortun-
L A F
Larstry. ately, however, Laennec had many zealous friends amon^ his
gones own students, who diffused a knowledge of the new method
Lafayette. n0L°nl>' in other countries of Europe.
v m j Meanwhile, the labour involved both in observing and
redacting the results of his observations had very nearly
proved fatal to Laennec. He was physically very small and
puny, and his intense application had now broken his health
both of mind and body. Relinquishing his valuable prac¬
tice, and all his appointments, he retired to a country-house
of his own near his birth-place. He was not long of re¬
covering his health and spirits, but he was very unwilling
to return to Paris. However, in the autumn of 1821 he
did return, and besides renewing his duties at the Necker
Hospital, became private physician to the Duchess of Berri,
and piofessor of medicine in the College of France. When
the college was reconstituted in the following year, he
was appointed to the chair of clinical medicine. His health
again began to give way, and the art which he had himself
discovered warned him that he was falling a prey to pul¬
monary consumption. After seeing through the press the
second edition of his great work, he again retired to his
native town. At first he seemed to benefit by the change;
but the disease had gone too far to be arrested, and he
died August 13, 1826, in the forty-fifth year of his age.
Though it was as the inventor of the stethoscope that
Laennec became known in his own day, and wished to be
known by posterity, that invention is not his only or his
greatest title to posthumous fame. Its invention was in-
diiectly invaluable, as it led Laennec to make diseases of
the chest his special study. 1 hese pathological inquiries of
his yielded results more beneficial to mankind than any dis¬
covery in modern medicine, except vaccination. Diseases
of the chest, which before Laennec s time had been very little
understood, are now diagnosed by mediate or immediate aus¬
cultation with an accuracy as faultless as those which show
themselves on the surface of the skin. Though he had a
large and lucrative practice, Laennec does not seem to have
been highly esteemed as a physician, and the therapeutical
portions of his work are the least satisfactory. It was as a
pathologist that he was distinguished above most of his
contemporaries.
His great work has been translated into most of the
European tongues. The English translation, by Dr John
Forbes of Chichester, is preceded by a life of Laennec, com¬
piled from two biographies by Kergaradec and Bayle.
LA2S 1 BYGONES, a fabulous race of giants, whose
name is often found in the Greek myths. They are first
mentioned in the Odyssy, where they are described as a
pastoral people, governed by a king called Lamus. Homer
assigns them no site, but tradition placed them in the island
of Sicily. 1 heir exact locality in that island varied with
the fancy of the writer. The current story is that they
dwelt near Leontini, and that from this circumstance the
rich plains adjoining that city came to be called the Campi
Laestrygonii. I he version most popular at Rome was that
they lived on the Latian coast around Formiae, which was
represented as their capital.
LAFAYETTE, Gilbert Mother, was born at Cha-
vagnac, in Auvergne, Sept. 6, 1757, and educated at the
1 arisian College of Louis le Grand. At the age of 20, and
only three years after his marriage with the granddaughter
of the Due de Noailles, he left France to assist the Ameri¬
cans in the war of independence; and fought as a volun¬
teer at Brandywine. Shortly after, equipping 2000 infantry
at his own expense, he signalised himself at the capture
o New Yoik. On the close of the war he returned to
I’ranee; in 1787 became a member of the Notables; and,
during the revolution of 1789 sat in the National As-
sembiy where he proposed the famous “ Declaration of
K'ghts. Having been appointed commander-in-chief of
the National Guards, he was present at the attack upon Ver-
L A G 151
sailles, and saved the lives of the royal family. In 1790, Lafayette
after organizing the Club of Feuillons, and defending the ||
king from popular fury, he retired to his estates. In the Lagosta.
war of the coalition, in 1792, he was one of the three major-
generals in command ; but losing his popularity on account
of his moderate opinions, he was compelled to flee from
Fiance, and fell into the hands of the Austrians, who ini-
prisoned him at Olmiitz. He was liberated along with the
other prisoners in 1797. During the ascendency of Bona-
parte, Lafayette declined all public offices until the em-
peioi s return from Elba, when he accepted a seat in the
House of Representatives. J his body, at his instigation, at¬
tempted to continue sitting after the disaster at Waterloo,
but was dissolved by military force, and Lafayette returned
to his retirement. He visited the United States in 1824.
In 1830 he.commanded the National Guards, and was in¬
strumental in raising Louis Philippe to the throne. He
died in 1834.
LAFAYETTE, a town of the United States of North
America, capital of Tippencanoe county, Indiana, on the
left bank of the Wabash River, 66 miles N.W. of Indiana¬
polis, and 123 miles S.E. of Chicago. It stands on a rising
ground, which slopes gradually to the water side, and affords
extensive views of the surrounding country. Its chief trade
consists in cast-iron, paper, and pork, the prosperity of
^afayette is greatly owing to its easy communication with
the Mississippi valley and the lakes of Michigan and Erie.
1 li£ \\ abash and Erie Canal passes through the town, while
by rail it is connected with Indianapolis, Lake Michigan,
&c. Pop. (1854) about 8000.
LAGONEGRO, the capital of a district of the same
name, in the province of Basilicata, kingdom of Naples, is
situate at the head of a narrow glen, everhun<r by the
heights of Monte Cocuzzo, Monte del Papa, and Monte
oinno. Close beside the town is a battle-field where Reg-
nier, one of Joseph Bonaparte’s generals, defeated a detach¬
ment of the Neapolitans. Pop. 5000.
LAGO MAGGIORE, or Lake of Locarno (Lacus
Yerbanus), a lake in the north of Italy, touching Lombardy,
I iedmont, and the Swiss canton of Ticino. Average
breadth 2 miles, length 40 miles. Its basin in some places
is of the depth of 438 fathoms, and is fed by the Toce on
the W., the Ticino on the N.E., and the Fresa on the E.
I he chief islands are the Borromean. Merchant-vessels
engaged in the timber trade traverse its waters ; and steam-
packets ply regularly between Magadino and Sesto Calende.
ihe lake abounds in fish, and its shores in fine marble
quarries.
LAGOON (Lacuna, a ditch), the name given to numer¬
ous creeks extending along the Adriatic in the government
of Venice. In some places they are deep, but generally so
shallow as to cause noxious and offensive exhalations. The
lagoons are studded with islets, on sixty of which Venice is
built. See Venice.
LAGOS, a seaport-town of Portugal, province of Al¬
garve, about 20 miles E. of Cape St Vincent. Pop. about
7000, mostly engaged in the tunny and sardine fishery.
In the Bay of Lagos, August 18, 1759, a signal victory was
won by Admiral Boscawen over the French Toulon fleet
under De la Clue.
Lagos, a country of Western Africa, between Dahomey
and Benin. The capital, Lagos, a place of considerable
population, was long one of the principal ports of the slave-
trade. In November 1851, a small British force attacking
the place was repulsed with loss ; about a month later a
better organized assault resulted in the reduction of the
town and the capture of 57 guns. A treaty securing the
abolition of the slave-trade, and other important benefits
was concluded soon after.
LAGOSTA (the ancient Lastobon or Ladestris), an
is and in the Adriatic, oft the coast of Dalmatia, belon"in«-
/ O O
152 LAG
Lagrange, to Austria, 63 miles W.N.W. from Ragusa. Its length from
v ' E. to W. is 6 miles, and its breadth 3 miles. Its coast is
guarded by steep cliffs, indented by several well-sheltered
creeks, while its interior is very mountainous. It is sur¬
rounded by a number of smaller islands, the principal of
which are, the group called the Lagostini on the E., and the
Island of Marciara on the W. Its north side is the vil¬
lage of Lagosta. The soil produces wine and oil, but only
for home consumption. Pop. 1200.
LAGRANGE, Joseph Louis, a mathematician and as¬
tronomer of the first rank, born at Turin on the 25th of
January 1736, was the son of Joseph Louis Lagrange,
treasurer at war, and Maria Theresa Gros, only daughter
of a rich physician at Cambiano.
He was the eldest of eleven children, but nine of them
died young. His family was of French extraction on both
sides; and his French biographers have dwelt with plea¬
sure on the minute particulars of their emigration, in order
the more fully to authenticate their own claim to the honour
of calling him their natural as well as adopted countryman.
It was his great-grandfather that first settled at Turin, in
the service of Emmanuel II., who married him to a Roman
lady of the family of Conti. They had at one time acquired
considerable affluence, but his father had ruined himself by
his expenses and speculations; and Lagrange used fre¬
quently to observe, that he owed his own success in life to
his fathers misfortunes, since, if he had been rich, he should
never have applied to the mathematics as a profession. The
classics were at first his favourite study at the college of
Turin; he began his scientific education with reading the
works of the ancient geometricians, and at first preferred
their methods of investigation to the more modern analysis;
but being convinced, as it is said, by a paper of Halley in
the Philosophical Transactions, of the superiority of the
algebraical mode of representation, he applied with re¬
doubled ardour, at the age of seventeen, to the study of the
later improvements in the methods of investigation ; and
in his subsequent works he abandoned, wherever it was
practicable, all geometrical considerations, and seems to have
valued himself on having produced a complete system of
mechanics, free from the incumbrance of any diagram what¬
ever. When he was only nineteen, he was made professor
of geometry in the Royal School of Artillery, but not before
he had exhibited, in his first publication, a specimen of the
improvements which he was throughout his life to contri¬
bute to the mathematical sciences.
The friendships which he formed with his pupils, most of
whom were his seniors, led to the establishment of a society
which afterwards received the sanction of the royal autho¬
rity, and to the publication of their memoirs, in which La¬
grange not only took the most active part as a contributor
of original papers, but also by materially assisting in the
demonstrations of Foncenex, and promoting the researches
of Cigna and Saluces. Foncenex was soon rewarded by
being placed at the head of the maritime establishment
which the king was then forming; and Lagrange received
in a short time a still more flattering remuneration, in the
panegyrics which were liberally bestowed on him by his
great rivals, Euler and D’Alembert; the former procured
him, in 1759, the compliment of being made a foreign mem¬
ber of the Academy of Berlin, having become well acquainted
with his merits by an epistolary intercourse, which began
as early as the year 1754, when Lagrange communicated
to him his first ideas of the solution of isoperimetrical pro¬
blems, which Euler had the delicacy to allow him time to
complete, before the publication of his own further researches
on the subject.
In 1764 he obtained a prize from the Academy of Sci¬
ences at Paris, for a memoir on the difficult subject of the
libration of the moon, having treated it by an original me¬
thod, derived from the principle of virtual velocities, which
LAG
he afterwards applied so successfully to other branches of Lagrange,
mechanics. Soon after this time he found an agreeable
relief from the monotony and retirement of his life at Turin,
in accompanying his friend the Marquis Caraccioli, who
was appointed ambassador at the court of London, as far
as Paris, where he had the delight of becoming personally
acquainted with a number of the most distinguished ma¬
thematicians of the age, who were capable of appreciating
his merits, especially with Clairaut, D’Alembert, Condor-
cet, Fontaine, Nollet, and the Abbe Marie ; but indisposi¬
tion prevented his going on to England, as he had intended,
and he returned to Turin after a short stay in France. A
second prize, on the subject of the satellites of Jupiter,
was awarded him in 1766; and the same tribute was again
paid to his merit on three subsequent occasions. It was
in this year that he was invited to Berlin, as a successor to
Euler in the place of mathematical director of the aca¬
demy, Euler having been induced to remove to Peters¬
burg, by a better prospect of providing for his numerous
family. The appointment of president of the academy,
held by Maupertuis, had been given but in part to Euler ;
the whole was offered to D’Alembert, who declined it;
but both he and Euler united in recommending Lagrange
as the fittest person for the situation. It was, however,
with some difficulty that he obtained his sovereign’s leave
to quit Turin; and the favour was at last granted to
him partly in pique, on account of the terms of the invi¬
tation, which expressed the desire of the “ greatest king
in Europe” to have the greatest mathematician at his
court.
At Berlin he pursued his career of study in tranquillity
and without interruption, upon a competent income of
about L.300 a-year, with the advantage of such demon¬
strations of the royal protection as were still more import¬
ant than income to his rank in society. The king seems
to have preferred him to Euler, as more tolerant in his
opinions, though by no means joining in all the innova¬
tions of the day, and rather avoiding every discussion re¬
lating to them, as well as any great familiarity with his
patron. He was made, in 1772, one of the eight foreign
associates of the Parisian academy. He is said to have
married more for the sake of complying with the universal
custom of his friends and colleagues at Berlin, than for
any desire of female society; and he invited a relation of
his own from Turin, who became his first wife ; but she
was soon after carried off’ by a lingering disease. He was
about this time very closely employed on his greatest and
best work, the Mecanique Anahjtique; but it was with
some difficulty that the Abbe Marie found a bookseller at
Paris, who agreed to undertake its publication, and only
upon condition of engaging himself to divide the loss, in
case of failure in the sale. He also procured the valuable
assistance of Mr Legendre as a corrector of the press.
Upon the death of Frederic in 1786, Lagrange no longer
felt the same interest in remaining at Berlin, though he
was not treated by the new court with any thing like
disrespect. While the ministers of Naples, Sardinia, and
Tuscany, were making him offers on behalf of their respec¬
tive sovereigns, Mirabeau persuaded the French ambassa¬
dor at Berlin to recommend M. de Vergennes to invite
him to Paris; but it was in reality through M. de Bre-
teuil’s interest, and at the suggestion of the Abbe Marie,
that he was ultimately induced to settle there in 1787,
having received a grant of an income equal to that which
he had enjoyed at Berlin, under the name of a veteran
pensioner of the academy, with a vote in its deliberations.
He was kindly received by Marie Antoinette, on account
of his connection with Germany ; and, until the Revolu¬
tion, he had the use of apartments in the Louvre.
It was at this period of his life, when his success had
been the most gratifying, and his fame had become per-
LAGRANGE.
153
Lagrange, fectly established, that he appeared to suffer under a degree
-v/—of melancholy or apathy which was absolutely morbid.
He confessed that all his enthusiasm was extinguished, and
that he no longer felt the least relish for mathematical
researches. He had not even the curiosity for two years
to open the printed volume of his Mechanics, which he had
never seen except in manuscript. It is a consolation to
think that this annihilation of his energies was only partial
and temporary. He amused himself in the meantime
with metaphysics, “ with the history of religions” and of
languages, and with medical and botanical, and especially
chemical studies ; and the alarms and agitations of the
Revolution, which soon followed, instead of overwhelming
his broken spirit, seem to have roused his dormant powers,
and to have revived his satisfied ambition, exciting him to
new labours and new triumphs.
In 1791 his name appeared on the list of the foreign
members of the Royal Society of London. Mr Maurice
has asserted, that all the scientific bodies of Europe, except
the Royal Society, received him with open arms; if the
remark was intended as a censure of that society, it is right
that its injustice should not pass unnoticed.
Notwithstanding the public embarrassments which at¬
tended the Revolution, Lagrange’s pension was confirmed by
the National Assembly, upon the proposition of M. Duse-
jour, in the most flattering manner; and when the depre¬
ciation of the currency materially reduced its amount, he
received a partial indemnification, by being appointed a
member of a committee for examining useful inventions,
and afterwards a director of the mint, in conjunction with
Berthollet and Monge ; but this employment he found too
laborious, and resigned it six months afterwards. He was
greatly interested at this period in the establishment of
the new system of weights and measures ; he was so vio¬
lently bent on decimation, that he scarcely forgave Borda
for having made a measure of a quarter of a metre ; and he
thought so little of the advantage of integral subdivisions,
that he sometimes declared he should have preferred the
number eleven to twelve, for the very reason that it ad¬
mitted no subdivision at all, and caused all lesser quanti¬
ties to be expressed in units comparable to each other only.
This opinion seems, however, to have been advanced ra¬
ther as an exaggerated objection to the introduction of
twelve, which was suggested by some more ardent innova¬
tors, than as seriously attributing a real advantage to the
employment of a prime number.
When the academies were suppressed, the Jacobins pu¬
rified the commission of weights and measures bv striking
out the names of many of its most distinguished members,
while they retained that of Lagrange, probably because he
was of no political party whatever, and had always been
particularly cautious in expressing his sentiments of the
events of the day. In October ] 793, however, a decree
was passed, which ordered all persons not born in France
to leave the country. Guyton, who was a member of the
Committee of Public Safety, advised him to claim an exemp¬
tion from its operation, by a requisition of that committee,
on the pretext of his being employed in preparing a report
on Dr Hutton’s Treatise on Gunnery; and he actually re¬
ceived an injunction from the committee, requiring his
utay, “ in order to complete the calculations which he had
undertaken respecting the theory of projectiles.” He was
attempting to reunite the experiments of Dr Hutton with
a more correct theory than had before been applied to
them; but he published nothing of importance on the
subject. After the murder of Bailly and Lavoisier, he had
agreed to return to Berlin, and to resume his former situ¬
ation there ; and he was on the point of obtaining a pass-
nort, and even a public mission from Herault de Sechelles.
But the establishment, first of the Normal School, in which
he was a professor, and then of the Ecole Poly technique,
VOL. XIII.
induced him to remain at Paris, and again directed his ac- Lagrange,
tivity into its ancient channels. In the Normal Schools
the masters were mixed with their pupils, in order that
the facilities of conversation might produce a develop¬
ment of the subjects discussed in the most elementary
manner that was possible; but the conversation was by no
means supported in the form of incessant questions and
answers; Lagrange’s explanations were often interrupted
by moments of silence, in which his inventive faculties
were deeply engaged in reflection, and the whole of his
powers were concentrated on a new train of ideas. It was
amidst these discussions that the Theory of Analytical
Functions originated, a work certainly not destitute of the
marks of great mathematical talent, but which, when con¬
sidered as a substitute for the method of fluxions and its
kindred doctrines, resembles very much the suggested in¬
troduction of an undecimal in preference to a duodecimal
scale of notation, with which the author had before amused
him self.
Upon the re-establishment of the Institute, Lagrange
was made one of the original members; and he was the
first on the list of the Board of Longitude, which was then
first instituted at Paris. He received about this time a
compliment highly grateful both to his love of fame and
to his filial affection, in the person of his father, then past
ninety, and continuing to reside at Turin. By the direc¬
tion of Talleyrand, who was minister for foreign affairs,
the commissary of the directory of Piedmont, attended by
the generals of the French army, and several other per¬
sons of distinction, went in procession to congratulate this
venerable person on the merits of his son, whom he had
not seen for more than thirty years, whom they declared
“ to have done honour to mankind by the brilliancy of his
genius, and whom Piedmont was proud to have produced,
and France to possess as a citizen.” The old man lived
to the age of ninety-five, and was sincerely regretted by
his son.
Under the consular and imperial government, Lagrange
was made a senator, a grand officer of the legion of honour,
a count of the empire, and a knight grand cross of the
order of reunion, in addition to the personal marks of
friendship and intimacy which Bonaparte habitually con¬
ferred upon him at the meetings of the Institute, and on
other occasions.
He applied with so much zeal to the republication of the
first part of his Mechanics in 1811, and of his Analytical
Functions in 1813, that his health is supposed to have suf¬
fered from the fatigue ; which, in conjunction with a predis¬
position, not uncommon in advanced life, may very possi¬
bly have been the immediate cause of a fit that attacked
him in the beginning of the latter year. In the month of
March he was subject to frequent returns of fainting, ac¬
companied by some fever. On the 8th of April he had a
last conversation with Lacepede, Monge, and Chaptal, all
the parties being aware that it was to be the last. He felt
the approach of death, but he declared that it was in that
form neither painful nor even disagreeable. He spoke
with proper gratitude of the favours he had received from
Bonaparte, who afterwards provided very liberally for his
widow and his brother. The interview lasted more than
two hours; and though his memory often failed him with
respect to names and dates, yet his language was correct
and energetic. He survived this effort only two days, and
died on the morning of the 10th April 1813. He was
buried at the Pantheon, or the church of St Genevieve,
and his friends Lacepede and Laplace paid the last honours
to his memory in a funeral oration.
Lagrange was habitually of delicate health, and extremely
temperate in his diet and mode of life, limiting his food al¬
most entirely to vegetables, and taking his exercise very
punctually in the open air. At the age of fifty-six he mar-
154
LAGRANGE.
Lagrange. rje[] t|ie young and handsome Madlle. Lemonnier, who ap-
pears to have felt the splendour of his celebrity and the
goodness of his heart, as affording much more than a com¬
pensation for the great inequality of their ages. He was
deeply sensible of her affectionate attachment, which he con¬
sidered as the greatest happiness of his life, and on account
of which alone he regretted its termination. He had no
children, and he was perfectly contented to be without them.
In the midst of the most brilliant societies he was generally
absorbed in his own reflections ; and especially when there
wras music, in which he delighted, not so much for any ex¬
quisite pleasure that he received from it, as because, after
the first three or four bars, it regularly lulled him into a
train of abstract thought, and he heard no more of the per¬
formance, except as a sort of accompaniment assisting the
march of his most difficult investigations, which he thus
pursued with comfort and convenience. He was less fond
of the theatre, from which he often returned without know¬
ing what piece had been represented. His manner in con¬
versation was gentle and timid ; he was more in the habit
of interrogating than of giving his opinion, and his favour¬
ite expression was, “ I don’t know ” . . . . He was not,
however, easily induced to change his sentiments when
they were once fixed, having generally adopted them upon
mature consideration. As a writer, whenever any contro¬
versy occurred, he was always calm in defending himself,
and respectful in speaking of his antagonists. Notwith¬
standing that his person was striking and characteristic, as
well as pleasing, he would never consent to have his por¬
trait painted, thinking it unworthy of a man of intellectual
excellence to wish to be remembered for the external form
of his features. But a sketch of him was once obtained
by stealth at a sitting of the Institute, and a mask of his
face was taken after his death. His works bear witness,
that for fifty-four years he occupied either the first or
very nearly the first place among all the mathematicians
of his age and of all ages. “ Of all the inventors,” says
Laplace, “ who have the most contributed to the advance¬
ment of human knowledge, Newton and Lagrange appear
to me to have possessed in the highest degree that happy
tact, which enabled them to distinguish general principles
among a multitude of objects enveloping them, and which
is the true characteristic of scientific genius. This tact,
in Lagrange, was united with a singular elegance in the
method of explaining the foundations of the most abstract
truths of analysis.” Lagrange was a great admirer of
Euler, who perhaps excelled him in the adroitness with
which he employed the most refined artifices of calcula¬
tion, though his views and methods were less original and
less powerful. D’Alembert was highly esteemed by La¬
grange, as a man of abundant ingenuity and talent, though
less accurate in his conclusions, and in his modes of rea¬
soning, than either Euler or Newton. Newton he envied
almost as much as he admired, for having found a sys¬
tem of the world in existence, and the principles of its mo¬
dification not yet understood ; but when it is remembered
that the places of the heavenly bodies are now ascertained
to seconds more nearly than they were to minutes during
the life of Newton, it cannot be thought that Newton left
too little for his successors to accomplish.
1. His first publication, at the age of eighteen, was a Letter to
C. J. Fagnano, 23d June 1754. It contains series for fluxions and
fluents of different orders, somewhat resembling the binomial the¬
orem of Newton.
2. The series of his papers in the Miscellanies of Turin is continued
from 1759 to 1785. The first is on Maxima and Minima, Mite. Taur,
i., 1759, p. 18. It is founded on the principles laid down by Mac-
laurin, and is illustrated by the case of the successive transmission
of an impulse through a series of elastic bodies, comprehending the
combination of a number of variable quantities. 3. On an Equation
of Finite Differences, and on the Theory of recurring Series, p. 33.
The equation is resolved by an exponential integral, and the sum of
the series is obtained by the principles of fluxions; the same mode
of calculation is also applied to the laws of chance. 4. Researches Lagrange
on the Nature and Propagation of Sound : end of the volume. The
investigations of Taylor and of Newton were true and correct as
particular solutions only of the problems of chords and of undula¬
tions, though mistaken for general solutions, and as such success¬
fully combated by Cramer, whose reasoning, though certainly too
far extended, is here approved by Lagrange. Daniel Bernoulli
very successfully defended them both, not only as particular solu¬
tions, but as capable of being rendered universal by proper modi¬
fications and combinations. Euler had proposed a more general
construction for the case of chords ; D’Alembert insisted that this
method required a limitation to figures exempt from angles and
from abrupt changes of curvature, and Lagrange is inclined to
admit his exceptions. But after all, the question is merely a meta¬
physical refinement, since no abrupt changes can ever occur in the
actual form of a chord ; and a chord affording a harmonic of unli¬
mited acuteness will approach without limit to a mathematical
angle. The author begins, in this essay, with considering the mo¬
tions of a finite number of bodies, and then proceeds to the affec¬
tions of a fluid, which he reduces to the same equations as.are appli¬
cable to the motions of chords, and these he integrates in D’Alem¬
bert’s manner. He lastly examines the phenomena of the grave
harmonics observed by Tartini, and explains them very satisfac¬
torily from the analogy of the beats of discordant sounds. 5. New
Researches on Sound, Misc. Taur. ii. 1760-1, p. 11. The same sub¬
ject is here continued, and extended to the divergence of sound,
which had before been examined by Euler. The author now admits
that there is no inconsistency in the demonstration of Newton and
Cramer, which deduce the same velocity from different laws of the
supposed motion, since the velocity is really uniform in all cases.
The oscillations of a heavy chain are computed, and some remarks
are made in conclusion respecting the sounds of flutes. 6. On the
Maxima and Minima of Indefinite Integrals, p. 173. This essay
contains the foundation of the method of independent variations,
which has excited so much attention, for the universality of its
application and the utility of its results. It was received with dis¬
tinguished applause by Euler, as fulfilling his own wishes for the
extension of a similar method; and it was Euler who more fully
explained its principles, and gave it the name of the method of
variations, which has since been generally applied to it. In fact,
however, the foundation of the method had long before been laid
by Leibnitz, under the name of differentiation from curve to curve ;
and he had proved that the process of integration, with respect to
one kind of variation, might be applied to the differentials or
fluxions taken in another manner, without the necessity of first
obtaining the fluent: and Euler had employed this consideration
in treating of the geometrical properties of curves affording max¬
ima or minima; but his method is less simple and less general than
that of Lagrange, who first pointed out the universality of the prin¬
ciple, that the variation of the fluxion is equal to the fluxion of the
variation, and showed its utility in many cases of such integrations,
as leave the expression concerned still a fluxion of another kind ;
and in the mechanical application of the method, he made the
fluxion of the ordinate of a vibrating chord represent its inclina¬
tion to the axis at any given time, whilst its variation indicated its
velocity or its change of place in successive intervals of time, and
the fluxion of a revolving solid to relate to the magnitude of its
different parts, whilst its variation depended on its rotatory velo¬
city. The steps of the method are generally simple and easily under¬
stood, at least they may and ought to be rendered so; but the merit
of the invention is not the less because it admits of a very ready
application, and because it might have occurred to a less distin¬
guished mathematician ; as indeed something nearly resembling it
seems to have been employed by Fontaine in 1734, under the name
of the fluxio-differential calculus, in the investigation of a tauto-
chronous curve. 7. It was particularly in demonstrating the law
which is called the law of the least action, that Lagrange completed
the theory of variations, where Euler had felt its deficiency; and
the Application of the Method to several Mechanical Problems con¬
stitutes the second part of the Memoir, p. 106. The author takes
occasion also to correct an error of D’Alembert, who had imagined
that there was no necessity that the different strata of a given den¬
sity, in a body like the earth, supposed to be in a state of fluidity,
should all be level, which, however, is here shown to be a necessary
consequence of D’Alembert’s own equations. 8. Addition to the
Memoir on Sound, p. 323; admitting the difficulty raised by D’Al¬
embert respecting the continuity of the figure of a chord, and ac¬
knowledging that the initial figure must not be supposed angular;
while, in fact, as M. Fourier has lately demonstrated, and as had
been remarked many years ago in this country, an infinite series
of harmonic curves may approach infinitely near to two right lines
meeting in an angle. 9. Problems relating to the Integral Cal¬
culus, Misc. Taur. iii., 1762-5, p. 179: a miscellaneous paper, con¬
taining remarks on the resolution of equations, containing fluxions
LAGRANGE.
155
Lagrange, of different orders; on some cases of the motions of fluids • on the
vibrations of chords; on the properties of small oscillations in
general; on loaded threads; on central forces ; and on the theory
of Jupiter and Saturn. 10. An Arithmetical Problem, Misc. Taur.
iv., 1766-9, p. 44. ihis paper, dated at Berlin, contains a complete
resolution of all equations of the second degree, having whole num¬
bers for their roots : a problem, like most of those of Fermat, of
more curiosity than utility, but well calculated to exercise the
powers of minds like those of Euler, Lagrange, Legendre, and Gauss.
The question which is the particular subject of this paper was pro¬
posed as a challenge by Fermat, to his contemporaries in England,
and correctly answered by Wallis, though without a very satisfac¬
tory demonstration. 11. Integration of an Equation, p. 98 : a case
in which the whole equation is integrable, though its parts, even
when properly separated, are incapable of perfect integration.
12. On the Method of Variations, p. 163: in answer to Fontaine,
and to Le Seur and Jacquier, who had attacked him in their In¬
tegral Calculus. 13. On the Motion of a Body attracted by two
fixed Centres, p. 188-216, including the effects of different sup¬
posed laws of attraction. 14. On the Figure of Columns, p. 123.
This memoir contains an attempt to demonstrate that the cone is a
more advantageous figure for the strength of a column than any
conoid, and the cylinder than any cone. But the calculations are
founded on the erroneous supposition that the column must bend
before it breaks; and, even upon this hypothesis, it appears pos¬
sible to assign a stronger form than a cylinder, since the summit
and the base of the cylinder must certainly contain some useless
matter. 15. On the Mean of a number of Observations, p. 167: show¬
ing the advantage of taking the mean from the theory of probabi¬
lities. 16. On the Impulse of Fluids, Misc. Taur., 1784-5, i., p. 75.
The author observes, that this impulse will be measured by a column
of twice the height due to the velocity when the whole impulse of
the jet is received by an obstacle, but of the simple height when a
limited surface is exposed to the force of a larger stream. 17. On
the Integration of some Irrational Fluxions, ii., p. 218 : involving
the square root of an expression ascending to the fourth power of
the variable quantity.
18. Some of the later of these papers are subsequent in date to
those which are found in the Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin ; but
the order of enumeration is of little consequence. The first com¬
munication of Lagrange to the Academy, of which he was made di¬
rector, is on Tautochronous Curves, Mem. Berl, 1765, p. 364. The
paper is dated 1767; and it contains a completion of Fontaine’s
investigation of the subject. 19. On the expected Transit of Venus,
1766, p. 265. The author has here analytically investigated the curves
of immersion and emersion for the different parts of the earth. But,
as Mr Delambre observes, in order to arrive at the very easy and
tolerably accurate solution previously given by Delille and Lalande,
he is obliged to employ in succession several elaborate expedients]
founded on some very subtle principles, accompanied by various
transformations of his ordinates, while by a trigonometrical calcu-
culation of a few lines we may obtain a more complete formula,
comprehending even the terms which he has neglected, and which,
although very small, are not absolutely insensible. At the same
time, he has certainly applied his formula to the calculation of
the parallax of the sun in a very convenient manner, which had
accidentally escaped both Delille and Lalande, though it follows
readily from the trigonometrical calculation. 20. On Indetermi¬
nate Problems of the Second Degree, 1767, p. 165. This is the
first of a numerous series of papers relating to this difficult branch
of analysis, which, notwithstanding its perfect inutility, has af¬
forded sufficient scope for the exertion of talent, to give celebrity
to the names of Diophantus and Fermat among the most ingenious
of mathematicians. 21. On Numerical Equations, p. 311. This
subject was also much cultivated by the author at a subsequent
period : he here finds an equation for the differences of the roots,
and exhibits the result in the form of a continued fraction. 22.
Continuation of the Memoir on Numerical Equations, 1768, p. 111.
The method of continued fractions is still further improved. 23.
On the Resolution of Indeterminate Problems in whole Numbers,
p. 181. 24. On the Resolution of Literal Equations by Series,
p. 251. The contents of these memoirs have been principally
merged in the author’s later productions. 25. On the Force of
Springs, 1769, p. 167. It is demonstrated in this interesting
paper, that the force of a hair-spring approaches to the law of a
circular pendulum, the more nearly as its length is greater. 26.
On Keplers Problem, p. 204: an application of the methods ex¬
plained in the last volume, especially of a very elegant formula for
the reversion of series. 27. On Elimination, p. 303: a refined and
general method of exterminating a quantity from an equation,
which, however, is somewhat intricate, even in the simplest cases.
28. Remarks on Isochronous Curves, 1770, p. 97 : chiefly in answer
to Fontaine, who had attacked him, and who had claimed the in¬
vention of the test of integrability of an expression containing
several variable quantities. Lagrange observes, that he might Lagrange,
very possibly have rediscovered it, but that it was published by ■ , '
Nicolas Bernoulli in 1720 : by Fontaine not till 1738. 29. On
Arithmetical Theorems, p. 123 ; relating to the decomposition of
a number into squares. 30. On the Resolution of Equations, p.
134. 31. On a Theorem respecting Prime Numbers, 1771, p.
125. A demonstration of the property of prime numbers discovered
by Mr Wilson, and published by Waring ; and of some other theo¬
rems of Waring. 32. On Equations, p. 138 : in continuation. 33.
On a New Mode of Differentiation and Integration, 1772, p. 185.
The novelty consists in considering the characteristic of a fluxion
as a quantity multiplying the letter to which it is prefixed, and
inferring by induction that the result of the combinations obtained
will in general remain unaltered by the supposition. The grounds
of this method have been of late more fully explained by Arbogast
and others. The results are here applied to interpolations, and to
differences of various orders. 34. On the Form of Imaginary
Roots, p. 222 : in general reducible to A + V — 1 B. 35. On
Astronomical Refractions, p. 259 : without any practical applica¬
tions. 36. On Equations of Partial Differences, p. 353 ; especi¬
ally on finding multipliers to make them integrable. 37. On undis¬
turbed Rotation, 1773, p. 85 : a more direct method of investiga¬
tion than that of Euler or D’Alembert, but without any new results.
38. On the Attraction of Elliptic Spheroids, p. 121. The author
observes, that Maclaurin’s prize essay is a masterpiece of geometry,
comparable to the best works of Archimedes, though D’Alembert
had once doubted of the accuracy of some of his propositions.
Thomas Simpson’s was the first analytical solution of the problem,
but it was indirect, and depending on series only. In this paper the
method of demonstration only is varied. Legendre and Laplace
subsequently continued the inquiry. “ But Mr Ivory,” says De¬
lambre, “has lately shown us that a very simple consideration
may in some cases supersede a multitude of calculations, and even
afford us theorems to which the most prolix computations could
scarcely have conducted us.” 39. On Triangular Pyramids, p.
149 : an analytical determination of the content, and of the figures
that may be inscribed in the pyramids, when their six sides are
given. 40. Arithmetical Researches, p. 265 : on the integral roots,
in equations of the second degree. 41. On Particular Integrals]
1774, p. 197. Laplace had already pointed out the occasional oc¬
currence of integrals not included in the general and direct ex¬
pression obtained by the usual modes of integration. Such values
are here deduced from the variation of the quantities originally
considered as constant, which often affords us an equation of a dif
ferent form, and leads to values not comprehended in the regulai
expression of the integral, 42. On the Motions of the Nodes of the
Planetary Orbits, p. 276. Euler, Lalande, and Bailly had found
some expressions for the temporary change of position of the nodes :
the equations are here integrated, and the total changes deter¬
mined. 43. On Recurring Series varying in two ways, or on Par¬
tial Finite Differences, 1775, p. 183 : with an application to the
theory of chances, upon Laplace’s principles. 44. On Spheroids,
p.273: a demonstration of Maclaurin’s theorem (Fluxions, art!
653) concerning the attraction of a compressed spheroid or an
amygdaloid; derived from the formulae contained in the former
papers. 45. Arithmetical Researches continued, p. 323 : demon¬
strating some theorems of Fermat with which Euler had not suc¬
ceeded ; yet leaving others still unattempted. 46. On the Mean
Motions of the Planets, 1776, p. 199 : showing that all their changes
are periodical. Laplace had detected an error in the author’s rea¬
soning when he attributed secular equations to the motions of Ju¬
piter and Saturn, the expressions containing the terms in question
being compensated by others which he had neglected. 47. Cases
of Spherical Trigonometry solved by Series, p. 214 : without any
apparent advantage. 48. On Integration by continued Fractions,
p. 236 : gives an example of the binomial theorem converted into
a continued fraction, which, however, exhibits no particular ele¬
gance nor simplicity. 49. On the Number of Imaginary Roots of
Equations, 1777, p. 111. Harriot was the father of the doctrine
of equations. Newton made great improvements in it, but his rule
remains imperfect with regard to the higher equations, even with
the additions of Maclaurin and Campbell. In the present paper
the theorem of Waring is demonstrated, without any material at¬
tempt to extend it. 50. On the Diophantine Analysis, p. 140. It
is remarked that Fermat left all his propositions undemonstrated
except this theorem, that the sum of two biquadrate numbers car
never be a square. 51. On Escapements, p. 173 : an investigation
of the best forms of pallets for the dead beat and the recoilino
scapements. 52. On determining the Orbits of Comets by three
observations, 1778, p. 111-124. The first part of this memoir is
historical and critical, and the author allows due credit to the in¬
genuity of Newton’s method : his own does not appear to have been
of any practical utility. 53. On the Theory of Telescopes p 163 -
comparing the general theorems of Cotes and Euler, and applying
156
LAGRANGE.
Lagrange, the method of recurring series to their demonstration ; with a rule
for determining the magnitude of the field. 54. On the Expression
of the Time in a Conic Section, p. 181 : after Lambert, who deter¬
mines it from the chord of the arc described, the sum of the re¬
volving radii, and the great axis : the theorem is here analytically
demonstrated. 55. On Particular Integrals, 1779, p. 121: examples
from some mechanical curves. 56. On Geographical Projections
for Maps, p, 161-186. The methods here proposed for the con¬
struction of maps have been found too intricate for adoption. 57.
On the Theory of the Libration of the Moon, 1780, p. 203. In the
prize essay on the moon’s libration, the author had made the first
application of the method of variations : the investigation is here
continued; and it is observed that the moon cannot be of homoge¬
neous matter, nor its form such as would atford equilibrium to a
fluid covering it, since the effects of the ellipticity, so determined,
would be much less perceptible than they are. 58. Report on a
Quadrature of the Circle, Hist. Ac. Berl. 1781, p. 17. This paper
only requires to be noticed as a specimen of the author’s condescen¬
sion. 59. Theory of the Motion of Fluids, Mem., p. 151: an appli¬
cation of D’Alembert’s principles to the phenomena of running
fluids, and to the motion of waves; but founded on an arbitrary
assumption with respect to the depth affected by the waves. 60.
On the Secular Variations of the Elements of the Planets, p. 199.
The theory of perturbations is here examined by two methods,
either comprehending the general form of the orbit, or regarding
the local effects only. 61. Report on a Mode of finding the Form
of the Earth, Hist. 1732, p. 35 : a proposal of no value whatever.
62. On the Secular Variations of the Planets, Mem., p. 169 : a con¬
tinuation of the former memoir, with all the details of the appli¬
cation, and a determination of the change of the place of the eclip¬
tic, together with a determination of the permanency of the general
arrangement of the system, depending on the exemption of the mean
distances from all variations not periodical, while the other elements
are liable to greater alterations. 63. On the Periodical Variations
of the Planetary Motions, 1783, p. 161: a sequel to the memoirs
on the secular variations. 64. Additions respecting the Secular
Variations, p. 191: completing the examination, and extending it to
the case of Jupiter and Saturn, which had before been investigated
by Laplace. 65. On the Correction of the Errors of Astronomical
Approximations, p. 224. The errors here considered arise from
the employment of the powers of the arcs described in the equations
concerned, these arcs increasing without limit; they may be avoided
by means of approximations founded on the supposition of the va¬
riation of the elements. Laplace had before employed a method
still more refined. 66. On a Particular Mode of Approximation,
279 : resembling that which Briggs employed for making loga¬
rithms. 67. On a New Property of the Centre of Gravity, p. 290 :
relating to the mutual distances of the bodies. 68. A direct and
general Determination of the Motion of a Comet, p. 296. In this
third memoir the problem is reduced to equations of the eighth or
seventh degree. 69. Theory of the Periodical Variations of the
Planetary Motions, 1784, p. 187: continuation of the memoir of
the preceding year, containing the independent variations of the
eccentricities and inclinations for the six principal planets; with
a numerical application of the formulae demonstrated in the first
part. 70. On the Integration of Equations of Linear Partial Dif¬
ferences, 1785, p. 174 : entering into further details of the method
laid down in a former paper, which is here applied to the problem
of trajectories, a problem once proposed by Leibnitz as a trial of
strength to Newton, who was not fully aware of the nature of the
difficulty intended to be combated: it was, however, solved in
England by Taylor, though indirectly. Nicolas Bernoulli and
Hermann gave a more complete solution, and Euler added still
more to the generality of the investigation. The author observes
that the problem is a mere curiosity ; there is, however, one case
in which a trajectory of the kind here considered is actually appli¬
cable to a natural phenomenon of common occurrence, which is
that of a wave diverging from a point in a gradually shelving
shore ; for the figure or direction of the collateral parts of such a
wave may be shown to be the orthogonal trajectory cutting an in¬
finite number of cycloids beginning at the given point. 71. On
the Motion of the Aphelia of the Planets, 1786, i.; a geometrical
investigation, in the manner of Newton, intended as an appendix
to the Principia. 72. On the Theory of Sound and Waves. This
paper is also intended to complete the demonstrations contained in
the same work. The volume in which both these interesting me¬
moirs appear seems to have been published out of the regular
order, from some circumstances connected with the death of Fre¬
derick ; and it is wanting in many of the British libraries. 73.
Note accompanying a Memoir of Duval le Roi, 1786-7, p. 253. On
the Secular Equations of the Georgian Planet. 74. On a Question
relating to Annuities, 1792-3, p. 235 : the case of an annuity sup¬
posed to commence after a death, and to cease at a given age. 75.
Additions to former Memoirs, p. 247 : on recurring series (n. 43 j
on elliptic spheroids (n. 38): on interpolations, in Mouton’s manner, Lagrange
comprehending the inequality of the distances of the observations; i
on the secular equation of the moon (n. 64.) After Laplace’s great v
discovery of the cause of the secular acceleration, Lagrange found
that it might have been easily deduced from his own calculations,
almost in the same form, if he had not accidentally neglected the
application, from having assured himself, in 1783, that the results
of a similar computation were nearly insensible in the case of
Jupiter and Saturn. It was in 1787 that the discovery of Laplace
was announced. The acceleration here computed is 10"-5 for the
first century after 1800. Mayer found it 9", from a comparison of
observations. 76. On a general Law of Optics, 1803, Math. p. 3.
a demonstration of the foundation of the method long used by
English opticians for determining the magnifying powers of tele¬
scopes of all kinds, which form an image of the object-glass beyond
the eye-glass, by measuring the diameter of that image. The
author hazards, in this paper, the very singular assertion, that the
illumination of the object must be the same in all telescopes whatever,
notwithstanding the common opinion, that it depends on the mag¬
nitude of the object-glass ; and his reasoning would be correct if
the pupil of the eye were always less than the image of the object-
glass in question ; since, as he observes, the density of the light in
this image is always inversely as the magnifying power ; but he
forgets to consider that the illumination on the retina, when the
whole pencil is taken in, is in the joint ratio of the density and the
extent; a consideration which justifies the common opinion on this
subject, and shows that a most profound mathematician may be griev¬
ously mistaken in his conclusions, if he proceeds to calculate upon
erroneous grounds. It deserves, however, to be remembered, that
the brightness of any given angular portion of a magnified image
must always be somewhat less than that of an equal portion of the
object seen by the naked eye ; because it can be no greater if the
pencil fills the pupil, and will be less in proportion as the pencil
is smaller than the pupil, besides the unavoidable loss of light at the
refracting surfaces.
77. The later works of Lagrange have principally been pub¬
lished at Paris, and most of them in the various collections of the
academy. The earliest of these are the prize memoirs ; and, first,
the Essay on the Libration of the Moon, which obtained the prize
in 1764, Ac. Par. Prix. ix., 1772. It is in this memoir that the
method of variations was first practically applied to a mechanical
problem. 78. On the Inequalities of the Satellites of Jupiter,
in 1776 ; including the consideration of their mutual perturbations,
and consequently a case of the problem of six bodies. The
author never resumed the subject, but its investigation was com¬
pleted by Laplace. 79. A New Method of solving the Problem
of Three Bodies, in 1772. 80. On the Secular Equation of the
Moon, in 1774, M. Sav. Etr. vii. for 1773 : an unsuccessful attempt,
with conjectures respecting the existence of a resisting medium,
and even doubts of the accuracy of the foundation of Halley’s dis¬
covery. 81. A prize memoir, On the Perturbation of Comets pass¬
ing near Planets, M. Sav. Etr. x., Par. 1785, p. 65 : finding the
path directly, without regard to the conic sections, and employing
three different modes of computation for the different parts of the
orbit. 82. On forming Tables by observations only, Mem. Ac. Par.
1772, i., p. 513. The method of recurring series is principally
employed, and the author observes, that the problem is more use¬
ful than difficult, giving an experimental example in the equa¬
tion of time, for which he obtains, from the results of the tables,
an expression very near the truth. Delambre remarks that this
is only a continuance of the system adopted by Ptolemy and the
other ancient astronomers, showing what we might have done in
a circuitous manner by pure mathematics if Newton and the laws
of gravity had not existed; and he thinks the paper only valuable
as a specimen of Lagrange’s talent for overcoming difficulties
which he might more easily have avoided. 83. On the Nodes and
Inclinations of the Planetary Orbits, 1774, p. 97 : with details of
the calculations for all the planets. 84. On the Variation of the
Elements of the Planets, Mem. Math. Inst. 1808, p. 1. The object
of this paper is to show, as Poisson had done before, that all the
changes of the system are periodical. The method is more general,
but less simple, than that of Laplace, who first discovered the
principle by induction. The lunar acceleration is given as an
example. M. Poisson has extended his calculations to quantities
of the second order, which do not enter into Lagrange's investi¬
gations. 85. On the Variation of Independent Quantities in
general in Mechanical Problems, p. 257. The author observes,
that many of the modern improvements of mathematics depend
on doing away the distinction between constant and variable quan¬
tities, which was so valuable when it was first enforced by Descartes.
86. A second Memoir on the Variation of Independent Quan¬
tities, 1809, p. 343: simplifying the general application of the
doctrine.
87. Lectures on Arithmetic and Algebra, Seances des Eoolzs
A G
L A H
157
Lagrange. Normales, A ear III., 1794-95. The first lecture relates to the
v r J elements of arithmetic, the second to the lower orders of equa¬
tions, and the third to the higher. All these lectures, under the
name of “ conversations, were taken down in short-hand by some
of the students, and afterwards corrected by the professors.
> 88. An Essay on Political Arithmetic, Iloederer, Collection de
divers Ouvrages, Paris, Year IV., 1795-96.
89. In the Journal de l Ecole Polytechnique, we find an Essay
on Numerical Analysis, and on the Transformation of Fractions,
vol. ii., 1798, p. 95. It contains the elementary theory of conti¬
nued fractions, and the mode of reducing them. 90. On the
1 rinciple of \ irtual Velocities, p. 115 ; chiefly relating to pul¬
leys. 91. On the Object of the Theory of Analytical Functions,
vi., 1800, p. 232: a detailed explanation of the grounds of the
theory laid down in the separate publication on this subject. 92.
Analysis of Spherical Triangles, p. 270: giving all their essential
properties in a concise form. 93. Lectures on the Calculus of
l unctions, xii., 1804 : published also separately in 8vo ; a commen¬
tary on the theory of functions, and a supplement to it, contained
in twenty lectures. 94. Two more Lectures, xiv., 1808 ; at the end,
chiefly relating to the method of variations. 95. On a Difficulty
respecting the Attraction of Spheroids, viii., xv.; remarks
which may serve as a commentary on a jjassage of the Mecanique
Celeste.
96. On the Origin of Comets, Connoissance des Terns, 1814. 97.
On the Calculation of Eclipses, as affected by Parallax, 1817 ; from
the Berlin Almanac for 1782. This memoir, as Delambre ob¬
serves, is singularly attractive to a person previously unacquainted
with the methods which are employed; but though the formulas
first introduced are direct and rigorously accurate, the whole
investigation ends in an approximation which wants both these
properties.
98. The most important of all the w'orks of Lagrange are those
which have appeared in separate volumes; and among these we
may reckon his Additions d VAlgebre d'Euler, 8vo, Lyons, 1774,
vol. ii.; German, 1796; English, 1797. They relate chiefly to con¬
tinued fractions and to indeterminate problems, and constitute the
most valuable part of the whole wmrk, which, in its abridged form
at least, is far inferior to Maclaurin’s Algebra. 99. Mecanique
Analytique, 4to, Par. 1788, 2d edit., vol. i., 1811; vol. ii. by Prony,
Lacroix, and Binet, 1815. This work exhibits a uniform and ele¬
gant system of mechanical problems, deduced from the simple
principle of virtual velocities, w'hich was well known to former
authors, but never so extensively applied. It has been remarked,
that many parts of it may be read with advantage, even by those
wTio are not competent to enter into any of the computations, ex¬
hibiting such a history of the progress of the science as could only
have been sketched by a master. The new edition, begun at the
age of seventy-five, comprehends all the improvements contained
in the author’s later memoirs on various subjects. 100. Theorie
des Fonctions Analytiques, 4to, Par. 1797, 1813. The abstract theory
of analytical functions has been very fashionable among modern
mathematicians; but the improvements which it contains are
chiefly of a metaphysical nature, if they can with propriety be
called improvements. The notation is less simple than that which
is in common use, and has been abandoned by the author in some
republications of the works in whicli he had at first employed it.
rlhe calculations, too, are often more intricate than others which
afford the same conclusions. 101. Resolution des Equations Nume-
riques, 4to, Par. 1798, 1808. The refined and abstruse speculations
contained in this volume are more calculated to promote the ad¬
vancement of the abstract science of quantity, than to be applied,
as the title would seem to denote, to the purposes of numerical
computation. The methods investigated are in general laborious
and complicated, though instructive, and capable of extensive ap¬
plication ; and for equations of which all the roots are real, the
author himself recommends M. Sudan’s method, as preferable to
his own. The second edition contains a number of very interesting
notes, which are full of ingenuity and novelty.
The author of so immense a series of laborious investigations
must certainly have been a most extraordinary man. He had ac¬
quired the character of an illustrious mathematician almost in his
boyish years ; and he continued to apply the force of his powerful
mind, for more than half a century, to the almost uninterrupted pur¬
suit of his favourite sciences. It seems, however, that his earliest
were also his greatest successes ; and all that followed was as little
as could well be expected from a continued employment of the
means which he possessed at the beginning; for, in fact, the whole
taken together appears to bear a stronger character of great indus¬
try than of great sagacity or talent.
“ It was formerly usual,” says Delambre, “ for mathematicians
to inquire, in every investigation, for some general considerations,
which might be capable of simplifying it, or of reducing it to a
problem already resolved, and to endeavour by these means either
to abridge the calculation, or sometimes to supersede it altogether. Laguna
But since the discovery of the infinitesimal calculus, the facility
and universality of this method, which often renders the possession Lahore,
of anti talent in the calculator wholly unnecessary, has made it more V — ^ >
usual for mathematicians to direct their chief attention to the per¬
fection of this all-powerful instrument. But at the present day,
when researches of this kind appear to be completely exhausted by
the labours of Euler, Lagrange, and other industrious contem¬
poraries, it might perhaps be more advisable to return to the an¬
cient method, and to follow the example of [Newton, surely, and of]
Daniel Bernoulli, who, as Condorcet observes, was entitled to the
praise of moderation in the introduction of his calculations. La¬
grange was in the habit of employing his sublime talents in a dif¬
ferent manner. He liked to make everything dependent on his
analysis, though, in some instances, he united both methods in the
highest degree, as his invention of the calculus of variations bears
witness. His reducing the theory of sound to that of the vibration
of chords, is a specimen of a very ingenious simplification ; as well
as his mode of computing the planetary motion by the variation of
the elements of their orbits, which is also applicable to all other
cases of the operation of small disturbing forces. But it must be
confessed, on the other hand, that he has sometimes created diffi¬
culties where none existed, by applying his profound and ingenious
methods to the solution of elementary problems, which may be ob¬
tained from a construction of the simplest kind ; and the powerful
agents which he employs, on many trifling occasions, remind us
only of the man in the fable, who came to borrow the club of Her¬
cules, and the thunder of Jupiter, for the purpose of destroying a
flea ;” or of the modern mathematician who, without any fable, or
any figure of rhetoric, proposed to adjust a standard measure by
placing it at a distance and viewing it with a good telescope. The
habit of relying too confidently on calculation, and too little on
common sense, will perhaps account for the mistakes of Lagrange
which have been already noticed, respecting the forms of columns,
and the illumination of optical instruments ; nor are they the only
instances of the kind which may be produced from the modern his¬
tory of the sciences. It seems, indeed, as if mathematical learning
were the euthanasia of physical talent; and, unless Great Britain
can succeed in stemming the torrent, and in checking the useless
accumulation of weighty materials, the fabric of science will sink
in a few ages under its own insupportable bulk. A splendid ex¬
ample has already been displayed by the author of the article At¬
traction ; and, to do justice to our neighbours, it must be allowed
that they have received the boon with due gratitude, and acknow¬
ledged it by merited applause :—“ All the analytical difficulties of
the problem,” say Legendre and Delamb^e (Mem. Inst. 1812),
vanish at once before this method; and a theory, which before
required the most abstruse analysis, may now be explained, in its
whole extent, by considerations perfectly elementary.” It is in¬
deed only when a subject is so simplified that the investigation can
be considered as complete, since we are never so sure that we under¬
stand the process of nature as when we can trace at once in our
minds all the steps by which that process is conducted. It is not
without some reason that a similar disposition to revel in the lux¬
ury of mathematical sports has been sometimes objected to in La¬
place, a man of equal analytical acquirements with Lagrange, but
possessed, apparently, of greater sagacity, and certainly more suc¬
cessful in his application of mathematics to physical researches,
although he also seems, on some occasions, to have suffered his ha¬
bits of abstract reasoning to lead away his attention from the true
conditions of the problem, particularly in his first supplement re¬
specting capillary attraction, which concludes with an equation so
erroneous that he has been obliged to abandon it in silence. (See
the article Cohesion.) Another instance of ill-applied computa¬
tion has been noticed in the article Chromatics ; when Laplace
attempted to deduce the laws of extraordinary refraction from the
principle of the minimum of action, he seems to have forgotten
that the demonstration of that principle, in his own great "work,
rests expressly on a condition which is here wanting, that “ the
forces concerned must be functions of the distances,” and of course
independent of the directions. These imperfections, however, do not
deserve to be noticed as materially affecting the general merits either
of Lagrange or of Laplace, but they may be considered as accidents
which ought to warn us against relying too implicitly on authority,
however high, when it appears to militate against clear, simple
reasoning, and sound common sense. 1
(Delambre, Mem. Inst. 1812, ii.; Journal de VEmpire, 28th April
1813; Virez et Potel, Precis Historique, Paris, 1813, in 4to • Cos-
sali Elogio, Padua, in 8vo, 1813; Maurice in Biographic Universelle,
xxiii. Paris, in 8vo, 1819.) 'T y ^
LAGLNA, the capital of leneriffe. See Canary
Islands.
LAHORE, in Hindustan, a city, the capital of the Pun-
V
4
158 L A I
Laigle jab, situate about a mile from the eastern bank^ ot the
f River Ravee. It is surrounded by a brick wall, formerly
Laing. 25 feet high, but which has been lowered by order of the
British government since the annexation of the Punjab to
their dominions. The streets of Lahore are narrow, but
contain many lofty houses, inclosed within extensive dead
walls. It is still a place of considerable size, with a good
bazaar ; but it is not inhabited by wealthy people. On ac¬
count of the frequent sackings it has sustained, they have
migrated for safety to Amritsir. The palace was originally
founded by Acbar, and enlarged by his successors. Across the
Ravee, at Shah Durra, about 2 miles N. of Lahore, stands the
celebrated mausoleum of Jehangeer, within a wall of nearly
600 yards square. It is a magnificent building, 66 paces
on each side, and still in very good condition. To the
southward of this, in the open plain, is to be seen the tomb
of Noor Jehan Begum, a building 36 paces square. In
1812 Runjeet Singh was building a very thick wall and
rampart round the city, with a deep, broad ditch. The
palace has also been surrounded by a deep and broad ditch,
the whole faced with brick, and the earth thrown inwards,
so as to form a broad rampart, with bastions at intervals.
Judging from the ruins in the neighbourhood ot the city,
Lahore must have greatly fallen from its ancient grandeur,
yet the domes and minarets of the mosques, the lofty walls
of the fort, the splendid mausoleum of Jehangeer, and the
numberless inferior tombs and temples that surround the
town, still render it an object of curiosity and admiration.
Lahore was taken by Sultan Baber, a.d. 1520, and was for
some time the seat of the Mogul government. Since that
period it has undergone many revolutions, and was for a
considerable time possessed by the Abdalli Afghans of Ca¬
bal, by whom it is named Sikrei. In 1799 Runjeet Singh
was by Zeeman Shah invested with the government of La¬
hore, and shortly afterwards this adventurer extended his
power over the whole of the Punjab. When, after the
death of Runjeet Singh, the enormities committed by those
who grasped his power compelled the English to put an
end to his dynasty, Lahore, with the rest ot the country,
became British. The events connected with its subjuga¬
tion are related in the historical sketch of the Punjab. Ihe
city of Lahore is in Lat. 31. 36., Long. 74. 21.
LAIGLE, or L’Aigle (the ancient Aquila), a town in
France, department Orne, is situated on the sloping sides
of two hills, on the River Rille, 80 miles W.S.W. from Paris.
Its chief manufactures are cutlery, hardware, leather, paper,
cotton, and linen. It has a large trade in corn, w'ood, and
cider, together with needles and pins. I he town is well
built, but contains few buildings worthy of note, except the
large church of St Martin’s, and an old chateau built of
brick, and surrounded by tall and beautiful lime trees. In
the vicinity is the mineral well of St Santin. Pop. 5678.
LAING, Malcolm, a sagacious historian, or rather his¬
torical critic, was born in 1763, at his paternal estate in Ork¬
ney, and educated at the grammar school of Kirkwall. Re¬
moving to Edinburgh, he studied law at the university, ana
took a leading part in the debates of the Speculative So¬
ciety, a literary club with which the early lives of Scott,
Jeffrey, Brougham, Mackintosh, and many other eminent
men, were long associated. In 1784 he passed advocate,
but failed to work himself into practice. He only distin¬
guished himself at the baron one occasion, when he under¬
took the defence of Joseph Gerrald on his trial for sedition
in 1794. He first made himself a name in letters by finish¬
ing and carrying through the press the last volume of
Henry’s History of Great Britain, left incomplete by
the author’s death. Henry had been a staunch conserva¬
tive. Laing was an equally staunch liberal. Each w rote
from the stand-point of his own party, and the principles
and views of politics in the last volume of the history are
at signal variance with those of the other parts of the work.
L A K
Dr Parr used to speak in terms of the highest praise in re- Lairesse
gard to that part of the narrative which treats of the con- ||
duct and treatment of Perkin Warbeck. •I^eoft^e
In 1800 he published his History of Scotland from the js^n
Union of the Crowns, on the Accession of James VI. to the K Aa
Throne of England, to the Union of the Kingdoms in the "* v_*"
reign of Queen Anne. Two preliminary dissertations ac¬
companied this work, one on the Gowry Conspiracy, and
another directed against the authenticity of the poems of
Ossian. In 1804 a second edition of the “History” wfas called
for ; and the author seized the occasion to add a third essay,
On the Participation of Mary Queen of Scots in the Mur¬
der of Darnley. Laing’s only other contribution to history
was his edition of the Historic and Life of King James the
Sext, published in 1804 from a copy of the original manu¬
script, from which Crawfurd of Drumsoy, historiographer to
Queen Anne, had compiled his Memoirs of the Affairs of
Scotland. These “ Memoirs” had been written in the inte¬
rest of Mary Queen of Scots, and professed to be based on
a MS. history of the times. Laing discovered the original
manuscript, and proved, wuth his usual acuteness, that
Crawfurd had so garbled and mutilated it as to have com¬
mitted “ one of the grossest literary forgeries that had ever
been employed to pervert the genuine history ot Scotland.”
In 1805 Laing married Margaret Carnegie of Craigo, ia
Forfarshire. Two years later he entered parliament as
member for Orkney, but bad health drove him back into
private life after a single session. Retiring to his native
place, he recovered a little, and spent the remainder of his
life in agricultural pursuits. His death took place some-
wdiat suddenly in November 1818. To Mr Laing, as a
historian, belongs the undoubted merit ot having cleared
away much rubbish, removed many prejudices, refuted nu¬
merous and grave errors, detected not a few impostures,
and generally placed both the character and events ot that
portion of our national history of which he treats in a
clearer and more satisfactory light than he found them.
Although he had many enemies, few dared to reproach him
with a disregard of truth. His sagacity and acuteness led
him instinctively to results, the most of which have been
confirmed by more recent investigation.
LAIRESSE, Gerard, a celebrated Flemish painter,
was born at Liege in 1640. He learned his art from his
father, himself a painter of some note, and at the age of
fifteen received commissions both for portraits and histori¬
cal pieces from the Electors of Cologne and Brandenburg.
He painted with great rapidity, and earned large sums of
money, but extravagance and dissipation ran away with his
gains, and he retired to Utrecht. While living there in
great poverty, two of his pictures fell into the hands of
Gerard Vylenburg, a famous dealer of Amsterdam. By
his advice Lairesse removed to that city, and his paintings
always found there a ready and lucrative sale. At the age
of fifty he had the misfortune to lose his eye-sight, and he
then began to lecture on the principles of drawing and
painting to the artists and students who crowded to hear
him. After his death, which took place in 1711, in his
seventy-second year, the notes of these lectures were re¬
dacted by the Society of Painters at Amsterdam into that
famous treatise on the art of painting which passes under
his name. Lairesse’s drawing is marked by grace and
ease. His colouring, deficient perhaps in vigour, is cor¬
rect, natural, and well-blended. He excelled in subjects
drawn from the ancient mythology, especially bacchanalian
scenes. These enabled him to display his knowledge of
classic costume and architecture, in which he w'as deeply
l0<irri0cl« '
LAKE OF THE THOUSAND ISLES, in British
North America, is a creek on the N.E. side of Lake On¬
tario, and forms the commencement of the River St Law¬
rence. Extending in a N.E. direction from Kingston, it is
ni
L A L
L A L
159
Lake of the 40 miles in length; its greatest breadth is lo miles. The
Woods islands with which it is studded amount to about 1700.
Lalande Wolfe Is,antl» tlie largest, is 10 miles in length, by 6 miles
v 'j in breadth.
Lake of the Woods, in British North America, form¬
ing, along with the Winnipeg River, a junction between
Lake Winnipeg and Lake Superior. N. Lat. 49., W.
Long. 95. Its length is about 60 miles, and its circum¬
ference 300 miles. It is studded with beautiful wooded
islands, and its shores are very deeply indented. Its prin¬
cipal feeder is the Rainy River, issuing from Rainy Lake,
and its principal outlet is the Winnipeg River, falling into
Winnipeg Lake.
LALANDE, Joseph Jerome Lefrancais de, a most
zealous and accomplished astronomer, born at Bourg en
Bresse, on the 11th of July 1732, was the son of Peter Le¬
francais, and Marianne Mouchinet, his wife.
His parents were in easy circumstances, and his educa¬
tion being somewhat too indulgent, the natural quickness
and impetuosity of his temper was too little restrained.
His earliest taste, like that of most other children, seems
to have, been for romantic tales ; and he was fond of mak¬
ing little stories with such materials as he possessed, but
their subject was chiefly religious. He was in the habit of
living much with the Jesuits, and he imbibed from them a
predilection for the pulpit. At the age of ten he used to
amuse himself with making sermons, and preaching them to
a select congregation. The comet of 1744, however, with
its long tail, took more forcible possession of his imagina¬
tion, and he watched it with the most unremitting atten¬
tion. Having been sent to Lyons to continue his studies
under the Jesuits there, he acquired a taste for poetry and
eloquence, and was then inclined to devote himself to lite¬
rature and to the bar, but an eclipse of the sun recalled his
attention to astronomy. His parents wished him to follow
the profession of the law, and with that view sent him
to Paris, but he accidentally lodged in a hotel where De¬
lisle had established an observatory, and this circumstance
led him to become acquainted with that professor, and to
attend his lectures. These lectures were by no means
popular ; and the want of a more numerous audience made
it easy for the professor to accommodate his instructions to
the fixed attention and rapid progress of his new pupil,
who became singularly attached to his master, and to all
the methods which he employed. Lalande attended, how¬
ever, at the same time, the physico-mathematical lectures
of Lemonnier, who was more in credit as a teacher, and
who also took great pains for his improvement.
In the mean time he had completed his legal studies, and
at the age of eighteen he was called to the bar as an advo¬
cate. His family was anxious for his return to Bourg, but
just at that time Lemonnier obtained leave to nominate
him as a substitute for himself on an astronomical mission
to Berlin, where he was to make observations on the lunar
parallax, corresponding with those which Lacaille was sent
to the Cape to obtain. He was favourably received by
Maupertuis, who introduced him to Frederick and his court;
and was made a member of the Academy of Sciences at
Berlin when he was about nineteen.
He remained a year in that city, observing at night, and
passing his mornings in the study of the integral calculus,
under Euler’s directions, and his evenings in the society of
Voltaire, Maupertuis, D’Argens, and other men of talents.
It was not likely that his intercourse with such persons
would confirm the principles which he had imbibed from
the Jesuits ; his moral conduct, however, does not appear
to have been influenced by his change of sentiments. After
his return to Bourg, he pleaded a few causes to oblige his
friends, but the success of his operations at Berlin obtained
him speedily a place in the Academy of Sciences at Paris ;
fbi, in 1753, before he was twenty-one, he was chosen to
fill up a vacancy in the department of astronomy, which
had been open for some years. He soon afterwards offended
his friend Lemonnier, by rejecting too harshly an unfounded
objection of that astronomer to Ins method of computing
the effect of the earth’s ellipticity on the lunar parallax,
which differed from Euler’s formula. Lacaille, who drew
up the report of a committee appointed on the occasion, de¬
cided in Lalande’s favour; but Lemonnier remained dis¬
satisfied, and would not see him for twenty years. He had
some similar discussions, at a later period, with Dusejour,
who wras a little too severe in criticizing some of his ap¬
proximations, as if they had been intended to be rigidly
accurate, but their personal friendship remained unaltered.
For more than fifty years he continued to be a constant
and voluminous contributor to the Memoirs of the Parisian
Academy, as well as to other scientific collections. Flis
investigations were always judiciously directed to the ad¬
vancement of astronomy, but they can scarcely ever be
said to have exhibited any marked features of talent, or of
address, beyond what might be expected from the industry
of a man of good ordinary abilities, confining himself almost
entirely to one subject. He was always anxious to call the
public attention to astronomy as a science and to himself
as an individual. Thus, on occasion of the transits of Venus
in 1761 and 1769, he addressed a circular letter to most of
the governments of Europe, on the importance of obtaining
a multiplicity of collateral observations, and he received in
reply several invitations from sovereigns whose countries
were more favourably situated for the purpose than France,
to come and make the observations in person. He thought
it unnecessary, however, to leave Paris on the occasion.
He contented himself with being the first to announce to
the public the result of the most satisfactory comparisons,
and his countrymen seemed to give him almost the whole
credit of everything that had been done by others in con¬
formity with his suggestions. He was much mortified,
however, in not receiving from Father Hell an account of
the observations made at Wardhuus ; and he was afterwards
greatly inclined to dispute their accuracy, because Hell made
the parallax smaller than he did by |th of a second, whilst
the mean of both results, which is 8 ‘6, agrees extremely
well with the most modern computations; but, in the end,
he did justice to the importance of Hell’s observations.
He was constantly in the habit of passing a few months
every year with his family in the country, and he occasion¬
ally amused himself, in the course of these visits, with
mineralogical excursions, and with chemical studies. He
delivered, about the year 1758, an oration before a public
assembly at Lyons, on the advantage of monarchy above
every other form of government; he even adhered to a
similar opinion, and expressed it openly, in times when
nothing but his celebrity as a man devoted exclusively to
science, could have made it safe for him to declare it.
After having published the astronomical tables of Hal¬
ley, he felt the necessity of a new collection, and deter¬
mined to begin with those of Mercury, which he found the
most imperfect. He pursued, for this purpose, a regular
course of observations at the Palais Royal, where he used
to go before sunrise in the winter mornings to see the
planet in tne twilight. Having occasion to refer to the
observations recorded by Ptolemy, he found it necessary
to refresh his acquaintance with the Greek language, which
he had in some measure neglected. But, with all his la¬
bour and diligence, his tables of Mercury exhibited, in
1786, an error of forty minutes in the time of a transit.
The circumstance mortified him extremely, but it led to a
revision of the tables, and he afterwards succeeded in mak¬
ing them much more perfect. It must be recollected that,
in the time of Hevelius, a transit was anxiously expected
for four whole days before it occurred.
Fie next undertook to improve the tables of Mars and
Lalande.
160 L A L A
Lalande. Venus. His tables of these planets were, on the whole,
' less accurate than those of Mercury, though more exempt
from great occasional errors. He had computed their per¬
turbations in the Memoirs of the Academy, but he never
thought it worth while to compare his formulas with ob¬
servation. The irregularities of Jupiter and Saturn were
much more discouraging ; he was obliged to confine him¬
self, in discussing them, to the most modern observations,
and he did not appear sufficiently to appreciate the empiri¬
cal equations of Lambert, though they greatly diminished
the errors of Halley’s tables.
When Maraldi had given up the management of the
Connaissance des Terns, Lalande and Pingre were candi¬
dates for the appointment. Lalande succeeded in obtain¬
ing it, but he had the modesty to confess that the work
would have been more accurately performed by Pingre, if
his connection with the church had not, according to the
rules of the Academy, incapacitated him for the situation.
He made the work, however, much more popular, as a mis¬
cellaneous publication, than Pingre was likelv to have done ;
and he was less prejudiced than Pingre in the choice of his
tables. He remained editor of the work from 1760 to
1775; it was conducted by Jeaurat from 1776 to 1787,
and from 1788 to 1793 by Mechain. Lalande then under¬
took it once more, Mechain being engaged in some mea¬
surements with Delambre, and the Academy having been
abolished, and its members dispersed.
Lalande had been disposed to call in question the asser¬
tion of Newton and Voltaire, that no comet could possibly
come in contact with the earth, and he had proved that
the effect of perturbations at least rendered their reason¬
ings somewhat inconclusive. A short memoir on the sub¬
ject, which was to have been read at a public sitting of
the Academy, was accidentally omitted, as not very impor¬
tant, from the pressure of other business. This circum¬
stance alarmed the sensibility of the public of Paris, who
fancied that Lalande had foretold some dreadful catastrophe
which the government was afraid to announce ; and when
the memoir was published, they insisted that its contents
had been modified, to lessen the alarm. Dusejour made
some objections to the author’s reasoning, but the whole
affair was soon forgotten.
A memoir on the length of the year wras honoured with
a prize by the academy at Copenhagen. Delambre, how¬
ever, thinks the determination not so good as the earlier
one of Lacaille, though much better than Mayer’s, which
was more commonly adopted. Lalande took great pains
also with the subject of the sun’s rotation, employing in his
computations of the places of the spots an easy approxima¬
tion, instead of Dusejour’s more laborious methods ; but
being careful to compare with each other the most distant
observations of the same spot, b rom the existence of this
rotation he thought it reasonable to infer that the sun had
also most probably a progressive motion, which would natu¬
rally be produced by any single impulse capable of oc¬
casioning a rotation. He had some discussions with Dr
Maskelyne respecting the mode of computing the equation
of time, in which Maskelyne appears to have had the ad¬
vantage.
In the year 1762, Delisle resigned in his favour the pro¬
fessorship of astronomy in the College de France, which
he kept for nearly forty-six years. He allowed the most
attentive of his pupils to board with him at a cheap rate,
doing his utmost on all occasions to promote their success
in their studies and in life. Thus he brought forward
Mechain and Dagelet, and afterwards his own nephew,
wdio completed, with so much diligence and accuracy, the
Description of the Heavens, which he had himself project¬
ed, and which had been begun by Dagelet before his un¬
fortunate expedition. He was made a fellow of the Royal
Society of London in 1763.
N I) E.
His health was generally good, though his constitution Lalande.
was delicate. He had an attack of jaundice in 1767, which
was attributed to intense application, but he completely
recovered from its effects by an attention to diet, and by
the use of horse exercise. He then intended to leave all
his property to the Academy, but he afterwards gave up
his family estates to his relations, and lived on his appoint¬
ments only, refraining from all kinds of luxuries, in order
to be the more able to do acts of liberality to his friends,
whom he always sought to oblige in the most delicate
manner, and often without making his services known. He
had a pension from Russia in the time of the Empress
Catherine ; it was suspended by Paul, but restored in 1805
by Alexander.
He was not particularly successful as an observer, but
used to refer to the works of his contemporaries, Bradley
and Lacaille, though not exactly, according to the expres¬
sion of one of his biographers, “ as Ptolemy had done to
those of Hipparchus for Hipparchus must have been dead
two centuries before Ptolemy wfas born. On tbe occasion
of the disappearance of the ring of Saturn in 1774, he went
to Beziers, in order to profit by the superior serenity of the
air there, the climate of that country being supposed to be
the best in France ; but his observations were less valuable
than others made at Paris and in London.
In the year 1798 he undertook an astronomical expedi¬
tion to Gotha. He had once meditated an aerostatical
voyage there; but his companion took care that their dan¬
gers should terminate in the Bois de Boulogne. He was
received with much interest at Gotha by an assembly of
astronomers that was collected from different parts of Ger¬
many. The object of the congress was perhaps not un¬
mixed with personal vanity ; but it had no political design
to promote, unless the general adoption of the new French
measures could be considered as a political object. Lalande
was by no means a revolutionist; he was sufficiently free
from any prejudices of education; but he openly condemned
the political opinions of the day; and, in 1792, he even ex¬
posed himself to great personal danger in order to save the
life of Dupont de" Nemours, after the 10th of August; and
he was equally useful to some of the clergy, whom he con¬
cealed in the "buildings of the Observatory at Mazarin Col¬
lege, making them pass for astronomers. He had also the
courage to publish accounts of Lavoisier and Bailly a short
time after their deaths.
The attentions of the German astronomers gave him
sincere pleasure. He was at all times extremely sensible
to compliments, and even to flattery, though very regardless
of satire. He used to call himself a sponge for praise and
an oil-cloth for censure. He professedly believed himself
endowed with all the virtues, modesty not excepted. He
was so fond of notoriety, that he once undertook to exhibit
the variations of the light of Algol to the public of Paris on
the Pont Neuf; but the police interfered, thinking it right
to prevent a disorderly assemblage.
Though Lalande can only be classed in the second rank
as an inventive astronomer, or a mathematician, he cer-
tainly,stands in the first as a professor and a popular waiter.
His methods of calculation have in most instances been
already superseded by others more convenient or more
exact; those which related to particular phenomena for want
of sufficient precision, and those which were more general
for want of being readily applicable, without continual repe¬
tition, to a sufficient number of concurring observations. It
has been observed, that he may perhaps have been often
too zealous in the pursuit of his favourite objects ; but that,
if he had possessed more circumspection, and less vivacity
of character, he would have been more exempt from criti¬
cism, yet would have rendered less important services to
science and to mankind.
His last illness was of a consumptive nature, and he
\
L A L A N D E.
161
Lalande.
seems to have accelerated its termination by attempting too
much to harden himself. He died on the 4th of April 1807,
nearly seventy-five years old, and in the perfect possession
of his faculties. His last words, when he dismissed his at¬
tendants to rest, were, “ I have need of nothing more;” and
in a few minutes he was dead. Had he survived a few
hours, he would have received a letter from Dr Olbers, an¬
nouncing the discovery of a new planet, for which that dis¬
tinguished astronomer afterwards received the fourth prize
medal from the institution founded by Lalande in 1802,
for the most important astronomical discovery made in the
course of the year
Of his voluminous and diversified publications, a simple
enumeration of the subjects will perhaps be thought suf¬
ficient. The more important only of them will be criti¬
cised :—
1. We find, in the Memoirs of the Parisian Academy of Sciences
for 1751, an account of his Observations at Berlin, which also ap¬
pears in the Memoirs of Berlin for 1749, and a Latin translation in
the Acta Eruditorum for August 1752. 2, 3. 1752-53, An Essay
on the Lunar Parallax. 4. 1754, A Transit of Mercury. 5. Ele¬
ments of Mars. 6. 1755, Longitude of Berlin. 7. Lunar Eclipse.
8. 1756, Transit of Mercury. 9. Lunar Parallax continued. 10.
1757, Observations at the Luxembourg. 11. Transit of Venus.
12. Secular Equations and Mean Motions. 13. A Gnomonical Pro¬
blem. 14. Meridian Altitudes. 15. 1758, Perturbations of Mars
by Jupiter. 16. Motions of the Planetary Nodes. 17. Change of
Latitudes of the Stars. 18. 1759, Comet of 1682 and 1759. 19.
1760, Sun’s Diameter. 20. Perturbation of Venus by the Earth.
21. Eclipse of 1760. 22. 1761, Solar Parallax. 23. Interpola¬
tion. 24. Transit of Venus Observed. 25. Solar Parallax. 26.
Transit Computed. 27. Observed at Tobolsk. 28. In Denmark.
29. Compasses and the Variation. 30. Perturbation of Mars by
the Earth. 31. Planetary Nodes. 32. 1762, Equation of Time.
33. Obliquity of the Ecliptic. 34. Horary Motion in Transits.
35. Nodes of Jupiter’s Satellites. 36. Diameter of Venus. 37.
Comet of 1762. 38. 1763, Eclipses of Jupiter’s Satellites. 39.
Solar Eclipses for a Spheroid. 40. Triangles, Rectilinear and
Spherical. 41. 1764, Transit of 1769. 42. Lunar Libration. 43.
1765, Motion of Saturn. 44. Eclipses of Jupiter’s Satellites. 45.
The Third Satellite. 46, 47. 1766, Theory of Mercury. 50.
1768, Opposition of Jupiter. 51. Transit of 1769. 52. Orbit of
Saturn. 53. 1769, Lunar Observations. 54. Comet of 1769. 55.
Transit of Venus. 56. A Solar Eclipse. 57. Transit of Venus.
58, 59, 60. Comparisons of Observations. 61. 1770, Solar Paral¬
lax. 62. Sun’s Diameter. 63. Appearances in the Transit. 64.
Chappe’s Observation. 65. 1771, Theory of Mercury. 66. As¬
tronomical Observations. 67. Solar Parallax. 68. 1772, Transit
of Venus. 69. Tides. 70. 1773, Comets. 71. Saturn’s Rings.
72. 1774, An Opposition of Saturn. 73. Saturn’s Rings. 74.
Disappearance of the Ring, at Beziers. 75. 1775, Opposition of
Mars. 76. Elements of Mars. 77. Same Latitudes and Longi¬
tudes. 78. Opposition of J upiter and Saturn. 79. An Eclipse of
Saturn. 80. 1776, Spots and Rotation of the Sun. 81. 1777, Obser¬
vations at Paris and Madrid. 82. An Observation of Mercury. 83.
Longitude of Padua. 84. The Solar Spots, continued. 85. 1779,
Third Satellite of Jupiter. 86. Theory of Venus. 87. Herschel.
88, 1780, Obliquity of the Ecliptic. 89. Precession of the Equi¬
noxes. 90. Fourth Satellite of Jupiter. 91. 1782, Duration of
the Year. 92. A Transit of Mercury. 93. 1783, An Eclipse of
the Sun. 94. Inclination of the Orbits. 95. 1784, Elements of
Jupiter. 96. Ellipticity of the Earth. 97. 1785, Motion of Ve¬
nus. 98. 1786, Secular Equations of the Sun and Moon. 99. Mass
of Venus. 100. Equation of Mars. 101. Mars in Quadrature.
102. Orbit of Saturn. 103. Theory of Mercury, fifth Memoir.
104. Satellites of Jupiter. 105. Fifth of Saturn. 106. 1787,
Fernel’s Measurement. 107. Herschel’s. 108. Jupiter’s Third
Satellite. 109. Conjunction of Venus. 110. Motion of Saturn.
111. Inclination of Saturn. 112. Answer to L6monnier on Lunar
Observations. 113. Solar Eclipses of 1787. 114. Eclipse of 1666.
115. Caspian Sea. 116. 1787, Eclipse of 1765. 117. 1788,
Eclipses applied to Longitudes. 118. Conjunction of Venus.
119. Lunar Parallax, fourth Memoir. 120. Moon’s Diameter.
121. Jupiter’s Fourth Satellite. 122. Satellites of Saturn. 123.
Light of Algol. 124. Height of the Seine. 125. 1789, Epacts.
126. Observations of 8000 Stars, first Part. 127. Motion of Venus.
128. Astronomical Observations. 129. Observation of Mercury.
130. Tides. 131. Catalogue of Stars, second Part. 132. 1790,
Disappearance of Saturn’s Ring. 133. Interior of Africa. 134.
Mem. Inst. i. 1798, Orbit of Mercury. 135. ii. 1797, Occupations
VOL. XIII.
of Aldebaran. 136. Solar Eclipse of 1706. 137. Solar Eclipse of Lalande.
1748. 138. v. 1803, Zodiac at Strasburg. 139. Eclipses calculated.
140. Opposition of Mars. 141, 142. Motion of Venus. 143. Mo¬
tion of Mercury. 144. vi. 1806, A Transit of Mercury.
145. The earliest of his separate publications appear to have
been two little volumes, intended for provincial circulation only,
entitled Etrennes Historiques, 24mo, Par. 1755-56. 146. Another
little article of his miscellaneous works was a Discours qui a rem-
porte le Prix de 1’Academic de Marseille en 1757, Mars. 1757.
The subject was the spirit of justice, as tending to the glory and
the stability of a government. 147. We have then Three Letters
on Platina, Jour, des Sav. 1758, Jan. Jun.; 1760, Feb. 148. Letter
on a new Sun Dial, Jour. Sav. June 1758, ii. 439; the lines being
invisible when the sun does not shine.
149. Tables Astronomiques de Halley, 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1759.
Containing several new tables, and an elaborate history of the
comet of 1759, of which the author had computed the perturbations,
according to the theory of Clairaut. 150. Connaissance des Terns,
16 vols. 8vo, Par. 1760-1775 ; 14 vols. 1794-1807. This work
contains, besides the Ephemeris, an important selection of the most
useful astronomical papers. On one occasion, for temporary rea¬
sons, these papers were published in a separate volume. 151. Expo¬
sition du Calcul Astronomique, 8vo, Paris, 1762; a companion to
the Almanac.
152. Oraison funebre de Maurice Comte de Saxe, 8vo, Par. 1760.
153. Art du Papetier, fol. Par. 1761. 154. Parcheminier, 1762.
155. Cartonnier, 1764. 156. Chamoiseur, 1764. 157. Tanneur,
1764. 158. Megissier, 1765. 159. Maroquinier, 1766. 160.
Hengroyeur, 1766. 161. Corroyeur, 1767.
163. Letter on Delisle’s Calculations, Journ. Sav. Apr. 1761.
164, 165. In the 52d volume of the Philosophical Transactions for
1761 and 1762, we find several papers of Lalande; two on the
transit of Venus ; 166. One on Norwood’s Measurement of the
Earth; 167. An Account of a Comet; and, 168. An Account of
Occupations of the Fixed Stars by the Moon. 169. In the Trans¬
actions for 1769, another paper on the Transit of Venus.
170. Discours sur la Douceur, 1763. This essay was intended
as a sort of exercise for the author’s own moral improvement; and
he made it a rule to read it over every year, in order to assist him
in commanding his temper. He may possibly have derived some
little advantage from the practice, but he never acquired enough
of self-command to refrain from wounding the feelings of another
by any pointed remark that might suddenly occur to him.
171. Astronomic, 2 vols. 4to, Paris, 1764; 3 vols. 1771, 1792; vol.
iv. 1780, not reprinted. This compilation far excelled in utility all
former works of the kind, and will always be considered as exhibit¬
ing the most perfect picture of the science, such as it existed from
1760 to 1790, with all the details of practice and computation.
Lemonnier called it, with some truth, the great newspaper of as¬
tronomy. The Treatise on the Tides, which constitutes the fourth
volume, is chiefly a collection of observations, not sufficient even
for the basis of a complete theory : an abstract of it may be found
in the Mem. Acad. Dijon, ii. 1774. 172. Figure du Passage de
Venus de 1769. Paris, 1764 ; together with an explanatory memoir.
173. On the Equation of Time, Recueil pour les Astronomes, 1765.
174. He undertook the mathematical department of the Journal
des Savans, from 1766. 175. On the Coins of Piedmont, Journ. Sav.
Dec. 1767. 176. Voyage d’un Franfois en Italie, 8 vols. 12mo:
a correct guide and faithful repertory for travellers, containing
some scientific information, besides maps of the principal cities.
177. Dissertation sur la Cause de 1’Elevation des Liqueurs dans les
Tubes capillaires, 8vo, Par. 1778. 178. A Dictionary of Astronomy,
in the Encyclopedic d’ Yverdun, 56 vols. 4to, 1770-6. 179. Abr6ge
d’Astronomie, 8vo, Par. 1773,1795; translated in to various languages.
180. Notes on the Mondes Primitifs of Fontenelle, 24mo, Paris ; often
reprinted. 181. Notes on Bouguer’s Traite de Navigation. 182.
Memoire sur le Passage de Venus, 4to, Par. 1773 ; with a life of Dr
Bevis. 183. Reflexions sur les Cometes qui peuvent approcher de
la terre, 8vo, Par. 1773. 184. Lettre a Cassini sur 1’Anneau de Sa-
turne, 8vo, Toulouse, 1773; a violent attack, which was speedily
suppressed by the author. 185. Ephemerides, 3 vols., vii. viii. ix.
Paris, 1774, 1792. This was a continuation of Lacaille’s computa¬
tions, containing also some detached articles of importance ; for in¬
stance, Hampstead’s Catalogue, in the eighth volume. 186. A Ce¬
lestial twelve-inch Globe, Paris, 1775.
187. The astronomical articles in the Supplement of the Old
Encyclopedic, about 1776; those of D’Alembert, in the body of the
work, having been little more than extracts from Lemonnier. 188.
To the Encyclopedie Methodique Lalande contributed a Dictionary
of Astronomy, making about one-third of the Mathematiques, 3
vols, 4to. They were principally extracted from his own astrono¬
my ; and the article Cadran, which is very elaborate, was originally
intended for a fifth volume of that work.
189. Traits des Cannaux de Navigation, fol. Paris, 1778. This
X
162 LAM
Lamarck, volume is principally descriptive, especially of the Canal of Lan-
v j guedoc. 190. Letter on the Variation of the Compass, as con-
nected with the Temperature of the Earth, Journ. Sav. 1780, Sept.
191 Lefons d’Astronomic de Lacaille, 8vo, Par. 1780 ; with some
Notes. 192. Astronomic, in Bibliotheque des Dames, 12mo, Par.
1786,1795.
193. Letter on the name of the planet Herschel, Journ. Sav.
1789 ; objecting to “ Uranus.” 194. Description d’une Machine de
M. Ramsden, 4to, Paris, 1790 ; the dividing engine, translated. 195.
Account of nine Lalandes, Journ. Sav. Nov. 1791. 196. Journey
to Manheim in 1791, Journ. Sav. 1791. 197. On the Zodiac at
Strashurg, Journ. Sav. 1791.
198. Abrege de Navigation, 4to, Paris, 1793, with a full catalogue
of works relating to the subject, and many useful tables. 199. A
Journey to Mount Blanc, performed in 1796, Mag. Encycl. ii. iv.,
433. 200. Ilistoire Celeste Franfaise, i. 4. Par. 1801; containing
the catalogue of stars begun by Dagelet, and continued by Michel
Lefra^ais Lalande, the nephew of the editor. 201. Continuation of
Montucla's Histoire des Mathematiques, 2 vo\s. 4to, Par. 1802; making
the third and fourth of that elaborate work, but not equally well di¬
gested and discussed with the original part. 202. Tables de Loga-
rithmes, 18mo, Par. 1802. 203. Four Memoirs on Ceres, Journ. Phys.
1802. 204. Some articles in the Necrologie des Hommes Celebres. He
wrote, at different times, Accounts of the Lives of Vicq d’Azyr,
Delisle, Commerson, Verron, Me. Lepaute,and Dubocage; and he had
undertaken a life of Bucholz, a short time before he died. Com¬
merson had complimented him by making a genus Lalandia, trans¬
gressing in his favour the classical canon of the botanists, to re¬
serve such honours for the reward of merit in their own department.
205. Bibliographie Astronomique, 4to, Paris, 1803; with a history
of the Progress of Astronomy from 1781 to 1802. This useful
volume was printed at the public expense, under the auspices of
Franjois de Neufchateau. The author possessed a very extensive
collection of astronomical books, and it has been regretted that he
did not insert a more complete account of some of the most rare;
but the work is already sufficiently voluminous. Some other pro¬
ductions are attributed to him in the Dictionnaire des Anonymes;
but they would probably have added little to his fame had they
been acknowledged.
(Delambre, Mem. Inst, viii., 1807. H.P. 30; and Biographic
Universelle, xxiii., 8vo, Paris, 1819. Ma. C. de Salm, Magas
Encycl. 1810, ii., p. 288; including a sketch by himself, written
in 1804.) (t- y.)
LAMARCK, Jean - Baptiste Pierre Antoine de
Monnet, Chevalier de, the celebrated French naturalist,
was born of a noble family, at Bazentin, in Picardy, in 1744.
Destined by his father for the church, he received the ele¬
ments of his education in the Jesuits’ College at Amiens,
where he was distinguished by his abilities and ardent thirst
for knowledge; but at the early age of seventeen he re¬
linquished all thoughts of an ecclesiastical career, entered
the army, and was attached to the division of the Due de
Broglie, during his contest with Prince Ferdinand of Bruns¬
wick, in Westphalia. The young Lamarck exhibited great
courage, and received a severe wound in battle; but, on
account of impaired health, he was soon compelled to retire
from the service.
He then commenced the study of medicine at Paris;
but the bent of his mind was to the physical sciences, and
he made considerable proficiency in natural philosophy and
botany. His first publication was entitled liecherches sur
les Causes des Principaux Fails Physiques, in which he pro¬
pounded theories of heat and electricity, which were more
fully developed in his subsequent publication, Memoires de
Physique et de VHistoire Naturelle, but which would have
been forgotten had it not contained the germ of his specu¬
lations on animal life. In 1778 he sent to the Academie
des Sciences some ingenious observations On the For¬
mation of Clouds ; and in the same year he was appointed,
through the friendship of Button, assistant to Dauben-
ton, in the Cabinet du Jardin du Roi, and was sent, with
the son of his patron, into Germany and Holland, to collect
rare specimens of plants for the royal collection. More for¬
tunate than his companion, Lamarck survived the horrors
of the Revolution, in which the young Button fell a victim
to the butcheries of Robespierre.
In 1780 Lamarck produced his Flore Franqaise, and
LAM
undertook to furnish the article Botanique for the Encyclo- Lamarck.
pidie Methodique. The first volume of that article ap- v t- .
peared in 1783, and a second in 1786 ; but the Revolution
put a stop to his progress in the work, which reached no
farther than gor in the alphabetic arrangement.
It does not appear when he first directed his attention to
zoology, but he must have made considerable progress in
that science before the Revolution, for in 1793 lie was ap¬
pointed one of the conservators of the superb museum of
natural history at Paris, and the care of the inverteorate
animals was confided to him. In 1794 he began to give lec¬
tures on that branch of zoology, and continued to do so until
1818, when age, and the failure of his sight, rendered him
incapable of that duty, and he resigned his office to La-
treille, Cuvier’s assistant in the entomological department
of the Kegne Animal.
The first result of Lamarck’s researches in his depart¬
ment of the museum appeared in a volume termed Systeme
des Animaux sans Vertebres, published in 1801, which may
be considered as the forerunner of his great work on this
subject, one of the most valuable treatises which has ever
appeared on this difficult branch of natural history.
In 1809 he produced his Philosophic Zoologique, in two
volumes, containing much that is exceedingly valuable;
but we here find stated fully the extravagant hypothesis,
broached in his Recherches, of the progressive development
of animal functions, and the production of new organs, by
the exertion of the will of the individual. This opinion
is best given in his own words: “ La production d’un nou-
vel organe dans un corps animal, resulte d’un nouveau be¬
som survenu, qui continue de se faire sentir, et d’un nou¬
veau mouvement que ce besoin fait naitre et entretient.”
“ Tout ce qui a ete acquis, trace ou change, dans 1’organi-
sation des individus pendant le cours de leur vie, est con¬
serve par la generation, et transmis aux nouveaux individus
qui proviennent de ceux qui ont eprouves ces changements.”
The example which he adduces to support this strange
doctrine is that of a molluscous gasteropod. A snail, for
instance, as it draws itself along, he imagines to feel the
want of organs for examining the bodies it encounters, and
therefore makes efforts with some of its anterior parts to
touch those opposing bodies, by which exertion of its will,
constantly operating, portions of nervous and other animal
fluids must be determined towards its head ; such reiterated
efforts will in time, he says, cause two or more tentacula to
spring from its head; “ and this, without doubt, has hap¬
pened to all races of gasteropods, in which necessity has in¬
duced the habit of touching bodies w ith some part of their
head!!” Were this view to be received as the cause of
changes in animal organization, the different species and
genera, and even classes of animals, would long ago have
been undistinguishable by diversity of organs; and the
same laws, applied to the higher animals, would lead to the
belief that terrestrial creatures may have derived their
origin from the desire of aquatic animals to enjoy atmo¬
spheric existence ; and even man himself might have passed,
by long-continued appetence, from the form of a fish, or
may hereafter obtain the wings of a bird!
The work on which the fame of Lamarck justly rests is
his admirable Histoire Naturelle des Animaux sans Ver¬
tebres, which successively appeared, in seven volumes 8vo,
between the years 1815 and 1822. In this work he has
founded his classification more on differences in anatomical
structure than any of his predecessors in the same branches
of zoology, and has therefore succeeded in a more perfect
distribution of invertebrate animals. He divides the whole
animal kingdom into three primary groups, which he deno¬
minates the Apathetic, the Sensible, the Intelligent. In
the first he includes the classes—1. Infusoria, 2. Polyparia,
3. Radiaria, 4. Vermes; in the second, 5. Insecta, 6. Arach-
nidae, 7. Crustacea, 8. Annelidae, 9. Cirripeda, 10. Mol-
LAM
Lamas, lusca; in the third he includes, 11. Pisces, 12. Reptilia,
13. Aves, 14. Mammifera. The two first groups compre¬
hend those treated of in this work, and his divisions are in
general very judicious, though we must object to his term
apathetic as applied to his first group.
The doctrine of appetence is again stated in the intro¬
duction to this work ; and, to support his views on this sub¬
ject, he maintains that the animals of former geological
epochs were less perfect in their structure than their exist¬
ing congeners; but surely the curious forms of fishes de¬
scribed by M. Agassiz as occurring in the oldest strata con¬
taining vertebrate remains are as perfect as those of any ex¬
isting species; and the elaborate sculpture on the dermal
plates of the extinct genera pamphractus, cephalaspis, or
asterolepis, or the mechanical contrivance by which the
armour of the pterichthps, or the scales of ganoid and cte¬
noid fishes of the former world are fitted to their bodies, or
the groovings on the remarkable remains termed ichthyo-
durolites, do not exhibit any mark of less perfect workman¬
ship than we find in the existing creation.
Nor can we subscribe to his ideas regarding some of the
apathetic animals (as he terms them). The infusoria he
represents as destitute of a mouth or a digestive apparatus,
and as nourished merely by imbibition through pores on
their bodies, as wholly without a will, and as moving only
by the action of external forces on their irritability. But
the researches of Ehrenberg have proved that infusoria are
more numerous, and more complex in their organization,
than had been before imagined. In Ehrenberg’s first class,
polygastrica, he has described 552 species; and in the
second, rotatoria, 170; or in all 722 well ascertained
species. In the first class he has ingeniously proved
the existence of a very complicated digestive apparatus,
especially in the genera vorticella, epistylis, and opercu-
laria, and in one of these no less than 120 stomachs or ven¬
tricular appendages; while in the class rotatoria he has
detected eyes in 150 species. Ehrenberg has shown that
they swallow food with avidity, and evidently make choice
of certain aliment in preference to another, which is certainly
an act of volition, while some of their movements are evi¬
dently produced by their will. In describing the medusaria,
a tribe of radiate animals, Lamarck asserts that they are des¬
titute of control over their own movements, “ being without
the possibility of directing them.” This, however, we have
ascertained to be incorrect, by experiments made purposely
to ascertain this point. On a calm day, on the Clyde, oppo¬
site to the Cumbraes, we anchored a boat where medu¬
saria, especially Ephyra simplex and Cyanea cyclonota
abounded, and saw them repeatedly change the line of
their progression, when slightly tapped on the apex of their
umbrella with a fishing-rod. The motion was sometimes
downwards, sometimes upwards, or horizontal; and we
succeeded even in thus causing them to stem the gently
flowing current of a commencing flood-tide by the contrac¬
tions of the edges of their disks.
Notwithstanding these objections to some of the hypo¬
thetic views of this able philosopher, we consider that this
great work of Lamarck has most materially contributed to
the advancement of zoology. He will ever be considered
as one of our great luminaries on the Invertebrata, espe¬
cially in the five classes of what he terms the sensible ani¬
mals ; and the second edition of it, with the notes of Des-
hayes and Milne-Edwards, of 1835-45, is the best existing
manual of tbe general subject in any language.
Lamarck’s last scientific labour was his Memoires sur les
Coquilles, in the Annales du Museum, a very valuable trea¬
tise on shells, in which he was assisted by Valenciennes and
his daughter Mademoiselle Lamarck.
M, Lamarck died at Paris in 1829, in the eighty-sixth
year of his age. (x. s. t.)
LAMAS, or Buddhist priests of Tibet. See Tibet.
LAM 163
LAMB, Charles, an original and delightful English Lamb,
essayist and humourist, was born in London on the 10th of Charles.
February 1775. His parents were poor, but stamped with
nature’s nobility. His father filled the situation of servant
and humble companion to one of the benchers of the Inner
Temple, and he obtained for his son Charles, the youngest
of three children, a presentation to Christ’s Hospital, or the
Blue-Coat School. At this ancient and munificent endow¬
ment, which maintains, in the heart of the metropolis, 1000
boys, clad in the old costume of its founder, Edward VI.,
Lamb remained from his seventh to his fifteenth year. He
had the good fortune to have for a schoolfellow the cele¬
brated Samuel Taylor Coleridge ; and the influence of Cole¬
ridge on his younger and more timid associate was great
and lasting. A close and tender friendship was formed
between them, literary enthusiasm was communicated, and
an object or example of successful study and lofty ambition
was constantly present to Lamb’s imagination. On quitting
school, Charles was condemned to the labours of the desk.
From 1792 to 1825 he officiated as one of the clerks in the
accountant’s office of the East India Company. His ap¬
pointment was small at first, but gradually increased in
value and importance, and he finally retired with a pension
equal to two-thirds of his salary, or with the liberal allow¬
ance of L.450 per annum. During his thirty-three years
of uncongenial toil and confinement Lamb never forgot
literature. His evenings were devoted to a few favourite
authors—the old dramatists, and other quaint or grave
sources of “ English undefiled,”—to an occasional visit to
the theatres, when tragedy was represented by a Kemble,
Siddons, or Kean, and the comic muse found joyous ex¬
pression in Banister, Munden, or Liston ; to correspond¬
ence with Coleridge; and to efforts, for many years slow
and hesitating, at original composition. A sad calamity
seemed to blight all Ins prospects in the very morning of
life. There was insanity in his family, and, on the 22d of
September 1796, his sister Mary Lamb, “worn down to a
state of extreme nervous misery by attention to needlework
by day, and to her mother by night,” broke out into frenzy,
and with a knife pierced her mother to the heart. Charles
was at hand to snatch the knife from her grasp, and the un¬
happy and unconscious author of the fatal deed was placed
in an asylum. Reason was gradually restored; and in a
few months after the death of their aged father, Charles en¬
gaged to take care of his sister for life, and she took up her
abode with him. His income at this time did not exceed
L.100 a-year; he had to abandon all hopes of marriage,
though then only twenty-two years of age ; and there was
the fearful and constant apprehension of the recurrence of
his sister’s malady. In fact, the malady did frequently recur
throughout her after life. Mary Lamb knew, on each occa¬
sion, when the attack was approaching; and Charles, ob¬
taining leave of absence from the office, as if for a day’s
pleasure, might be seen escorting his sister, botli in tears,
to the accustomed asylum in the neighbourhood of London.
No more melancholy incident, and no nobler sacrifice, is
recorded in literary history. To us it is more deeply
affecting than the madness of Tasso, or the wild delirium
of Scott.
Lamb’s first appearance as an author was made in 1797,
when he contributed some pieces to a small volume, con¬
sisting chiefly of poems, by Coleridge and Lloyd. Next
year he published a prose tale, Rosamund Gray; and in
1799 he was associated with Coleridge and Southey in the
publication of a volume of fugitive poetry, entitled The
Annual Anthology, which was ridiculed by Canning in the
Anti-Jacobin Magazine:—
“ And ye five other wandering bards, that move
In sweet accord of harmony and love,
Coleridge and Southey, Lloyd, and Lamb, & Co.,
Tune all your mystic harps to praise Lepaux 1”
164 LAM
Lamb, Qf the French democrat Lepaux, Lamb had not even
Charles. iiearj tiie name before, and he was the least mystic of
writers, either in prose or verse. But he was associated
with Coleridge and Southey ; and the youthful Canning, in
his witty malice and anti-Jacobin zeal, was not disposed to
make nice distinctions. Lamb’s next literary venture fared
no better, though the assault was this time made by a Whig
critic. In 1801 appeared his John Woodvil, a slight dra¬
matic piece, written in the style of the elder Elizabethan
dramatists, and containing some genuine poetry and happy
delineation of the gentler passions, but deficient alike in
vigour, in plot, and character. The play was seized upon
by Jeffrey in the Edinburgh Review, and held up, in a
strain of ridicule, as a specimen of the rudest condition of
the drama, the work of “ a man of the age of Thespis.”
The dramatic spirit, however, was not quenched in Lamb.
His next effort was a farce, named Mr H., the point of
which consisted in the hero’s anxiety to conceal his name,
“ Hogsflesh,”—a plot so trivial, and so disappointing to the
audience, who had yawned through the first act, imagining
some great or witty disclosure was to follow, that the piece
was sealed with instant and irrevocable condemnation.
Lamb made no farther attempt in the difficult walk of the
drama, in which many greater spirits have failed, but he
bore the disaster with rare equanimity and good humour.
Lie laughed it off among his friends, corresponded largely
v/ith a few choice early associates, instituted Wednesday
evening suppers, at which shone many bright and subtle
intellects, and at length struck into new and successful
fields of literary exertion. In 1807 appeared Tales founded,
on the Plays of Skahspeare, written by Charles and Mary
Lamb ; and in 1808 two volumes of Specimens of the Dra¬
matic Poets, with short but felicitous notes. Mary Lamb,
in 1809, published a little tale, Mrs Leicester's School, and
Poetry for Children. The establishment of the London
Magazine, in 1820, formed a great era in the history of
Charles Lamb. Many of his friends were connected with
the new periodical, and he was stimulated to the production
of a series of essays, signed Elia, which rose into instant
popularity, and may be said to form the chief corner-stone
in the small but classic temple of his fame. His curious
reading and research—the shrewd observation, fancies,
and conceptions of his whole life—were poured into these
monthly essays, with many scenes drawn from his past
career—its mirthful and mournful experiences. The style
is quamtly elaborated, cut into short sentences, the gro¬
tesque mingling with the pathetic, and much practical wis¬
dom with a dash of antic folly. In some of the essays,
topics of humble and domestic life are set off with lively
illustrations, fine satire, or graceful description ; others are
devoted to criticism, and remarks are thrown out at once
original and profound. Perhaps nothing so suggestive or
striking in this department of literature had appeared since
the days of Steele and Addison. Lamb wrought on a
limited canvas, but his combinations and colouring were
unique and exquisite. In adding, from time to time, to the
number of these essays, gratifying his friends occasionally
with a fragment of prose, a letter, or a copy of album
verses. Lamb’s future days were spent. He was easy—
nay, opulent—in his circumstances, and his reputation was
daily extending. The unfortunate malady of his sister,
however, broke in painfully on his lettered ease and com¬
fort. It continued to increase, with shorter intervals of
relief, and Lamb removed to the quiet of the country, re¬
siding successively at Islington, Enfield, and Edmonton.
He had little enjoyment at any time in such suburban re¬
treats ; he would have preferred London to all the charms
of Arcadia and the golden age ; and he frequently stole in
to the Great Babel, to listen to Its welcome roar, and pass
a festive evening with his friends; this only, however,
when Mary was well, and she often accompanied him.
L A M
They lived on at Edmonton until Lamb was overtaken by Lamb
an attack of erysipelas, induced by an accidental fall while William
walking on the London road, and in a few days the disease ||
proved fatal. He died on the 27th of December 1834. Lambert,
His sister survived till 1847. The sudden death of one so John,
widely known, admired, and beloved as Charles Lamb, fell
on the public, as well as on his own attached circle, with all
the poignancy of a personal calamity and private grief. His
memory wanted no tribute that affection could bestow, and
Wordsworth commemorated, in simple and solemn verse, the
virtues and genius, and the fraternal devotion, “ passing the
love of woman,” of his early friend. His letters were col¬
lected, and his life written, by one of his executors, Sir Tho¬
mas Noon Talfourd, and another friend. Mr Edward Moxon,
the publisher, has given to the world several complete edi¬
tions of his works. (r. C—s.)
Lamb, William, Lord Melbourne, was born in London
in 1779. Having received his university education, first
at Trinity College, Cambridge, and afterwards at Glasgow,
he entered as a student at Lincoln’s-Inn in 1797, and was
called to the bar in 1804. In the following year he mar¬
ried Lady Caroline Ponsonby, who afterwards became cele¬
brated for her literary talents. In 1805 he entered the
Llouse of Commons, and joining the opposition, then led
by Fox, he supported that side, without earning any cele¬
brity, during 20 years. On the death of his father in 1828,
he succeeded to the title of Viscount Melbourne, entered
the House of Lords ; and in 1830 became home-secretary,
under the administration of Lord Grey. This office he filled
till 1834 ; and in the following year was raised to the Pre¬
miership, which he held with great ability till 1841. He died
in 1848, in his seventieth year. Possessing no eloquence,
and little practical sagacity, Lord Melbourne owed the
strength of his government mainly to his personal tact, frank¬
ness, and ingenuity ; and his premiership is marked by no
great event in the political history of the kingdom, the main
energies of his party being spent in clinging to office after
the reality of its power was gone.
LAMBALLE, a town of France, department of Cotes-
du-Nord, on the Gouessant, 12 miles E. by S. of St Brieuc.
It is surrounded by old walls; and has manufactures of
woollen, linen, leather, See., and some trade in agricultural
produce. Pop. about 4500.
LAMBERT, John, was born September 7, 1619, in the
parish of Kirkby-Malhamdale, in the West Riding ot York¬
shire, at Calton Hall, the seat of a family of which he was
the representative, and which traced its descent from a
daughter of the Conqueror. That his father died when he
was thirteen years of age, that he married, when in his twenty
first year, a daughter of Sir William Lister, his neigh¬
bour, and that he studied the law in an inn of court, but
never pursued it as a profession, is all that we find recorded
of his early years. When the civil war broke out, he com¬
menced his military career as captain in the parliamentary
forces under Fairfax. In the following year we find him
bearing the rank of colonel ; and the earliest exploits in
which he is known to have distinguished himself were—a
sally from Hull on the 11th of October 1643, by which he
obliged Lord Newcastle to raise the siege ; an engagement
at Bradford on the 5th of March 1644, wherein he defeated
Colonel Bellasis ; and the pursuit of this officer and his
troops to Selby, which, being joined by Lord Fairfax, he
stormed and took on the 11th of April. The siege of
York by the combined forces of Lords Fairfax, Man¬
chester, and Leven ensued; and on the 2d of July, the
eventful fight of Marston Moor, in which, along with Sir
Thomas Fairfax, he had command of the parliamentary
cavalry. The siege of York was recommenced by the
victorious army, and Lambert was sent in to a parley
with the governor, which ended in the surrender of that
city. In January 1645, he was appointed commissary-
L A M BERT.
Lambert, general of the northern army; twice in that year beat the
John, royalists at Keighley and Ferrybridge; and the garrisons
of Scarborough, Pomfret, Sandal], Sherborne, Bolton, and
Skipton, surrendered to the parliament. In the commence¬
ment of 1646 we find him engaged under Fairfax in the
west, in subduing the last remnants of the royalist forces in
that quarter : we find him at the sieges of Dartmouth, of
Truro, and of Exeter, which surrendered, the first on the
20th of January, the second on the 14th of March, and the
last on the 9th of April ; after which he marched with the
army to the siege of Oxford, and was one of the commis¬
sioners who negotiated the surrender of that important city,
of which he was appointed governor. He was afterwards made
one of a select council of five (his colleagues being Crom¬
well, Ireton, Fleetwood, and Whiteloeke), to consult on the
disposal of the parliamentary forces for the reduction of the
few garrisons which still maintained the authority of the king.
In the struggles for ascendancy between the parliament
and the army, in 1647, Lambert brought his legal know¬
ledge and training to bear in advocating the cause of the
latter. He was one of the commissioners who, on the 2d
of July, attended at High Wycombe, to treat with com¬
missioners from the parliament, and prepared the proposals
for the settlement of the kingdom, which they submitted to
the parliamentary commissioners at Colnbrooke, on the 3d
of August. After delivering these proposals, Lambert was
sent into Yorkshire as major-general of the four northern
counties. In 1648 he defeated Langdale and Musgrave
near Carlisle; and afterwards, along with Cromwell, the com¬
bined Scottish and royalist troops, numerically more than
twice as powerful as the parliamentary forces. He then fol¬
lowed Cromwell into Scotland, and after a short stay at
Edinburgh marched back into England to reduce Pomfret,
a strong fortress which the royalists had seized anew. Be¬
fore this place he arrived in December 1648, and here he
remained till after the trial and execution of Charles; events
in which he bore no part, and of which we have no evidence
of his having approved. Pomfret surrendered soon after¬
wards ; and the parliament, on receiving this intelligence in
March 1649, voted thanks to him, and a grant of lands out
of the demesnes of Pomfret, of the value of L.300 a-year.
When Cromwell became generalissimo of the parliamentary
forces Lambert was at the same time made second in com¬
mand ; and the two generals, in June 1650, marched to¬
wards Scotland, where Charles II., who had been acknow¬
ledged in that portion of his dominions, was at the head of
a large army. In a gallant but indecisive action near Mus¬
selburgh he was wounded, his horse killed, and himself for
a while in the hands of the enemy, but was rescued by his
troops. At the battle of Dunbar he led the van, and in
the July of 1651 defeated above 4000 of the king’s troops
at North Ferry, and obtained minor successes in the course
of the same month at Inchgarvey and Burntisland. When
Charles, after these actions, embraced the bold resolution
of marching upon London, Lambert hastened in pursuit,
engaged the royal army at Warrington, joined Cromwell
at Warwick, and, on the 3d September, took part in the
battle of Worcester, where the hopes of the royalists were
for a time completely overthrown. After the engagement,
parliament voted “ that lands of inheritance in Scotland, to
the yearly value of L.1000 sterling, be settled upon Major-
general Lambert and his heirs, for his great and eminent
services for this commonwealth.” In the winter of this year,
he was made a commissioner, together with Monk, Vane,
St John, and four others, for the settlement of affairs in
Scotland, where he remained a very short time, being, on
the death of Ireton, appointed by the parliament, in January
1652, to succeed him as lord-deputy of Ireland. But the
term of this office was limited to six months, and Lambert,
filled with displeasure against the parliament, declined the
proffered post. •
In the events which led to the assumption of the supreme
power by Cromwell as lord-protector, he took a leading part;
and in the new parliament, taking his seat as member for
the West Riding of Yorkshire, consistently carried out his
political views. He vehemently opposed the idea of invest¬
ing Cromwell with the title of king; and though the offer
of that title was carried in parliament, his opposition, and
the murmurs of the army, with which he had much influ¬
ence, induced Cromwell to decline it. When the lord-
protector accepted all the other attributes of royalty, on his
second inauguration, May 12, 1657, Lambert, in disgust,
refused to take the oath of fidelity to the protector; gave
up his commissions, which brought him a yearly income of
L.6000, and retired on a pension of L.2000. On the acces¬
sion of Richard Cromwell, and the meeting of a new parlia-
liament in January 1659, he was elected for Aldborough
and Pomfret, and took his seat for the latter. The next
twenty months were the most active period of his life. He
became the life of the extreme republican and independent
party, known as the “ Fifth Monarchy men ;” and it was
chiefly by his efforts that Richard Cromwell was deposed.
But his party felt that it was dangerous to attempt to go¬
vern without some semblance of civil administration ; so the
members of the long parliament, excluded by Cromwell in
1653, were invited to assemble ; and this remnant, ridiculed
under the name of “ the Rump,” met as a parliament on
the 7th of May. Order was for a while restored ; but the
royalists were encouraged, by the state of the country, to
make a bold effort for the restoration of Charles. Lambert
was commissioned to suppress the insurrection, which he did
easily and effectually at Nantwich. His influence with the
army now made him an object of dread and suspicion to the
parliament. On a rash motion of Hazlerig, that he should
be sent to the Tower, he instantly dissolved the house, as
Cromwell had done before ; and the chief power again re¬
verted to the small but formidable faction of which Lam¬
bert was the soul. Meanwhile, Monk commenced his cele¬
brated march from Scotland, with the intention of restoring
the power of the parliament. Lambert set out to meet him
at the head of 7000 men, but in his absence the power of
his party began to crumble away; the Rump resumed its
authority, and one of its first acts was to disband Lambert’s
forces, and order him to return to his own house. Deser¬
tion had thinned his ranks ; to resist was useless ; he obeyed,
and being thought too dangerous and powerful to remain
at liberty, was soon afterwards committed to the Tower.
In April, when Monk had almost withdrawn the mask, and
appeared as the restorer of monarchy, the republicans again
turned their eyes towards Lambert. Apprized of their
wishes, he escaped from the Tower, and hastened into War¬
wickshire, where, on the 13th of April, he placed himself at
the head of six troops of horse, and several companies of foot.
He was met near Daventry, on the 21st, by an equal force,
under the command of Ingoldsby. His soldiers refused
to fight; and he was captured and again committed to
prison.
After the restoration of Charles II., Lambert, though not
a regicide, was excepted out of the bill of indemnity. Fie
was tried along with Sir Harry Vane, found guilty, and
condemned to death ; but his punishment was commuted
to imprisonment for life in the island of Guernsey. He
remained in that island till his death, which occurred about
thirty years afterwards. The favourite pursuits of his later
years were botany and painting. It does not appear that
he devoted any part of it to literature, or left any record
of the great events in which he had been engaged.
(See Whittaker’s History of Craven; May’s History of the
Parliament; Whitelock’s Memorials ; Ludlow’s Memoirs;
Clarendon’s History qf the Rebellion, and Life of Himself;
Rush worth’s Collections ; State Trials.) (t. h. l.)
Lambert, Johann Heinrich, a natural and moral philoso-
165
Lambert,
Johann
Heinrich.
166 LAMBERT.
Lambert, plier of great talent and originality, born on the 29th of
V—-*' August 1728, at Miilhausen, in Upper Alsace, was the son
of a French refugee in a very humble station, and one of a
numerous family.
His early studies were only assisted by the instruction
he obtained at a small free school in his native town. His
father, who was a tailor, could scarcely even afford him
leisure from mechanical labour. He was obliged to read
and write in the night; and, in order to procure candles,
he made little drawings for sale, while he was watching the
cradle of his infant sisters. Having learned to write a good
hand, he obtained some employment as a copying clerk in
the chancery of the town, which he gave up when he was
only fifteen, upon being appointed book-keeper at some
iron-works in the neighbourhood. At seventeen he be¬
came secretary to a Doctor Iselin, who was the editor of a
newspaper at Bale, and who became his firm friend through
life. He had now time to render himself familiar with the
works of Wolf, Locke, and Malebranche, to which he Avas
in a great measure indebted for the correct logical method
that he ever afterwards followed in his researches ; having,
however, confirmed and improved it by the study of the
mathematics, to which he devoted himself with great zeal,
and which, after all, constitutes the best practical school of
genuine logic.
In 1748, he removed to Coire, having been recom¬
mended by Iselin, as private tutor to the family of the
president, Count Peter de Salis, whom he undertook to
instruct in history and religion, as well as in languages and
science. The library of his patron was extensive ; he pro¬
fited by it in all its departments ; and his residence at the
house of an accomplished statesmen, frequented as it was
by the best-informed persons of different countries, and
with different pursuits, could not but greatly contribute to
the extension of his knowledge, and the improvement of
his taste. He even amused himself with some poetical
exercises in various languages, which must, at least, have
been of advantage to his style in prose. He felt the im¬
portance of his literary and scientific pursuits to himself
and to the world; and in 1752 he determined to keep a
journal of all his studies, which he continued throughout
his life. He began to publish a variety of fugitive pieces,
on different subjects, in the neAvspapers and in other perio¬
dical works of the day, some of which attracted the notice
of his learned countrymen; and, in 1754, he was made a
member of the Physico-Medical Society, then lately estab¬
lished at Bale, to the Transactions of which he contributed
many interesting papers. In 1756 he went to Gottingen
with two of his pupils, and in 1757, to Utrecht. The next
year the party returned to Coire, by way of Paris, Mar¬
seilles, and Turin. At Paris he paid a visit to D’Alem¬
bert, who does not appear at that time to have appreciated
his merit very highly, though he afterwards rendered him
some services with the King of Prussia; but he became
more intimately acquainted with Messier the astronomer.
In 1759 he quitted the family of the Count de Salis,
and went to settle at Augsburg, having a small salary as
a member of the Electoral Academy of Bavaria. From
1761 to 1763 he was again at Coire and in its neighbour¬
hood, being employed in fixing the boundaries between
the country of the Orisons and the Milanese territory.
Towards the end of 1763, having had some disputes with
the Bavarian academicians, he went to Leipzig, and the
next year to Berlin, where he was made a member of the
Royal Academy of Sciences, and where he continued to
reside during the remainder of his life, receiving many
marks of favour from the discriminating liberality of Fre¬
derick : thus, in the year 1770, he was made superior coun¬
sellor of the Board of Works, with an additional salary.
Fie contributed a number of valuable memoirs to the col¬
lection of the Academy ; and in 1774 he undertook the di¬
rection of the Astronomical Almanac, for which he tvas Lambert,
admirably qualified. He was also a constant writer in the ^
journal published by Nicolai, under the title of the Univer¬
sal German Library; and he kept up a very extensive
correspondence on various subjects of literature and science.
He \A'as regularly in the habit of writing or reading from
five in the morning till tAvelve, and again from two till mid¬
night ; a degree of application unquestionably far beyond
that which would have been best calculated for producing
the maximum of valuable effect. Perhaps, if he was paid
for Avriting by the ream, he may have earned as much from
the booksellers as he would have done by a more judicious
economy of his powers ; but a nervous system, attenuated
by the daily study of seventeen hours, covdd never have
been capable of being employed in any very elevated flights
of genius, or in the invention of any sublime or exquisite
novelties, either in science or in literature; and it is only
wonderful that he did anything so well, as almost to form
an exception to this general remark. He was indeed sup¬
posed to have injured his health by continued application,
and he died consumptive, on the 25th September 1777, at
the age of forty-nine. He had never been married. His
person Avas of the middle size, Avith an interesting and ex¬
pressive countenance ; he was animated and lively in con¬
versation, and liked discussion, but not disputation. He
had no literary quarrels ; and his criticisms were not offen¬
sive, even Avhen they ceased to be flattering. His morals
were strictly correct, but his manners were not altogether
in unison Avith those of the society to which his talents had
elevated him. He is said to have been timid, awkAvard,
slovenly, and fond of low company ; but upright, patient,
unostentatious, and compassionate; essentially modest, but
as ready to assert his OAvn merits as to admit his defects.
He had a happy facility in managing the instruments of
computation, especially in the arrangement of converging
series; and he had a peculiar talent for expressing the re¬
sults of observation by an analytical formula, having first
thrown them into the form of a geometrical diagram to as¬
sist his invention ; a process which he employed with re¬
gard to the probabilities of life in London, and to the in¬
equalities of Jupiter and Saturn. In short, after Euler,
Lagrange, D’Alembert, and Daniel Bernoulli, there are
few mathematicians and natural philosophers of any age
Avho can be put in competition with him, and still fewer
Avho benefited the public by so many diversified labours.
It Avould be hopeless to attempt to pursue his indefatigable pen
through all its wanderings: and a complete catalogue of his works
would be as useless as it is unattainable. A man who wrote so in¬
cessantly must have written many things which were destined to
oblivion from their first production. It will be sufficient to men¬
tion the most remarkable of his works, without any very strict re¬
gard to the priority of their publication.
1. In the Acta Helvetica of the Society of Bdle, ii. 1752, we find
an Essay on the Force and Measurement of Heat, a subject which
the author resumed in the latter part of his life. 2. A General
Series, somewhat resembling Taylor’s, Act. Hel. iii. 1758. 3. Me¬
teorological Observations, ibid. 4. He also published a paper on
the Vibration of Chords, in the same collection.
5. Les Proprietes les plus Remarquables de la Route de la Lu
miere par les Airs, et en general par plusieurs milieux Refringents,
Hague, 1759, in 8vo ; German by Templehof, Berl. 1773. This
work does credit to the ingenuity and mathematical abilities of the
author, though its results may be obtained in a simpler manner by
some methods more recently invented.
6. La Perspective Libre, Zurich, 1759, 8vo; another edition in
German. The second German edition, 2 vols. 8vo, Zurich, 1773,
contains some additional matter, especially a system of geometry,
depending, as it is said, upon the ruler alone, without any other in¬
strument. Such a system must, however, have been extremely
limited in its application, much more so than Mascheroni’s Qeo-
metria del Compasso.
7. Photornetria, sive de Mensura et Gradibus Luminis, Colorum,
et Umbrae, Augsb. 1760, 8vo. This original and interesting volume
includes and supersedes the greater part of Bouguer’s experimental
determinations. It contains the important discovery, that a lumi-
LAMBERT.
167
Lambert, nous surface emits its light with equal intensity in all directions;
together with some improvements in the theory of twilight, and an
investigation of the comparative light of the sun and moon, and
stars and planets.
8. Insigniores Orbit® Cometarum Proprietates, Augsb. 1761,
8vo. We here find the elegant theorem for expressing the relation
of the area of a sector to the sides of the triangle inscribed in it.
This theorem had been demonstrated with respect to the parabola
by Euler in 1740 : but Lambert first extended it to the other conic
sections, and he certainly re-invented the whole, without being
aware of what Euler had done. It may be found, together with a
concise demonstration, and a further account of this work, in the
translation of Gibers’ Essay on Comets, published in the Journal of
the lloyal Institution.
9. Cosmologische Briefe, Augsb. 1761, Svo. A French transla¬
tion of these Letters on the Universe appeared in the Journal Heb
vetique of Neuchdtel, 1763-4 ; an extract was published by Merian,
with the title of Systeme du Monde, Bouillon, 1770, Berlin, 1784,
in Svo; and a translation by Darquier appeared at Amsterdam,
1801, in Svo. The whole work is written in a popular style, and
adapted to the taste of general readers. The author’s favourite
idea was to make the sun a sort of planet, revolving round some
other great body; and he supports the opinion by an argument
derived from the supposed insufficiency of the laws of gravity, as
relating to the solar system, for explaining some of the inequali¬
ties of the motions of Jupiter and Saturn, which have, however,
since been reduced to the general analogy by Lagrange and La¬
place.
10. Zusatze zum Traite de Nivellement Von Picard, 12th
August 1761, explaining some improvements on Picard’s level,
executed by Brander, an ingenious artist, whom Lambert also as¬
sisted in the improvement of Gunter’s sliding rule. 11. He pub¬
lished an explanation of this scale, entitled Logarithmische llechen*
stabe, 12th August 1761.
12. llemarks on Incommensurable Quantities, Mem. Ac. Berl.
1761. A demonstration of the incommensurability of the circum¬
ference of a circle to its diameter, which has been adopted by Le¬
gendre in his Geometry. It depends on the method of reducing a
fraction to its lowest terms, as laid down by Euclid, and on the
properties of continual fractions; an expression is obtained for a
tangent in terms of the arc from the quotient of the series for
the sine and cosine, and the continual fraction thus obtained is
proved to be infinite. It is also shown that the ratio of the arc to
its tangent can never be expressed by any finite quadratic surds.
13. On the Specific Gravity of Salt, and of its Solutions, M. Berl.
1762.
14. Novum Organum, Leipzig, 1763, in German, two vols. Svo.
An attempt to restore and improve the Aristotelian method of
syllogism, in which the author is allowed to have displayed much
ingenuity, though its success was greatly limited, on the one hand,
by the sober good sense of the empirical reasoners of the school of
Bacon and Locke, and on the other, by the wild enthusiasm of the
German innovators, who were beginning to be intoxicated with
the high-sounding phrases and exaggerated pretensions of the
disciples of Kant. A manuscript Latin translation of the work, by
Pfleiderer, was once in the possession of the late Lord Stanhope.
15. A paper on Trigonometry appears in the Nova Acta Erudi-
torum for 1763. 16. In the Berlin Memoirs for the same year, we
find an Essay on Acoustic Instruments, investigating the best
forms for hearing-trumpets. 17. Remarks on the Properties of
Equations of all Degrees. 18. On Divisors of Equations, which
may be found without solving them. 19. On some Measurements
relating to the Intellectual World; that is, on probabilities and
expectations.
20. Beytriige zur Mathematik, Berlin, 1765, 1770, 1772, in four
vols. Svo : a collection of essays on every department of mathema¬
tical science. The first volume contains llemarks on Trigonometry
and on the Certainty of Observations: on the Divisors of Numbers,
and on Annuities ; the second, Tables of the Moon : an Essay on
Dialling, and on Geographical Projections, with the Elements of
Tetragonometry, a subject which was afterwards resumed by the
younger Mayer ; in the third volume there is an Essay on Interpo¬
lation, llemarks on Celestial Maps, with other articles.
21. Description of a Table of Eclipses, Berl. 1765, with the
easiest mode of computing them. 22. In the Memoirs of the Aca¬
demy of Berlin for 1765, we have a paper on Projectiles, including
the effect of resistance. 23. In those of the Bavarian Academy
for the same year, some remarks on the Improvement of Terres¬
trial Measurements; and, 24. Meteorological Observations. 25.
In the Nov. Acta Erud. for 1765, An attempt to employ Calcula¬
tion in the Moral Sciences. 26. On the Magnet, Ac. Berl. 1766.
27. Another paper on Magnetic Currents. 28. A Magnetic Chart
was published separately the same year. 29. Remarks on the
General Outline of the Ocean, Ac. Berl. 1767. 30. A General
Solution of the Problem of Three Bodies by means of Series, thid.
31. Notes on Richer’s Philosophical Algebra, 1767.
32. Remarks on the Velocity of Sound, M. Ac. Berl. 1768 ; an
unsuccessful attempt to reconcile the theory with observation. It
was reserved for Laplace, by a single happy suggestion, to remove
the whole difficulty. 33. On Photometry, as applied to Painting,
ibid. 34. Trigonometrical Observations, ibid.
35. De Topicis Schediasma, 1768. 36. Remarks on the Divisors
of Numbers, Nov. Act. Erud. 1769. 37. Anmerkungen fiber die
Branderschen Micrometern, Augsb. 1769. Brander’s micrometers
W'ere of glass.
38. Experiments on Hygrometry, M. Acad. Berl. 1769; relating
to evaporation, and to the indications of hygrometers, especially
those of catgut.
39. Supplementa Tabularum Logarithmicarum, Svo, Berl. 1770;
with a valuable introduction in German, on the abridgment of com¬
putations.
40. Anmerkungen fiber die kraft des Schiesspulvers, Svo, Berl.
1770. In this investigation of the force of fired gunpowder, the
author attacks several points in the theory of Robins, published a
few years before.
41. Hygrometrie, 4to, Augsb. 1770.
42. On Directors for the Light of Lamps, M. Acad. Bcrl. 1770.
43. On Ink and Paper, ibid. 44. Analytical Observations, ibid.;
relating to the general theorem resembling Taylor’s, which vras
further discussed by Euler, and modified by Lagrange. 45. On
Taxeometry, or the Measurement of Order, ibid.; considered as
comparable in degree, and expressible by numbers.
46. Architectonik, 2 vols. Svo, Riga, 1771; a logical and metaphy¬
sical treatise on the most simple bases of philosophical and mathe¬
matical knowledge, written in 1763. The last part, which relates
to magnitude, is the most approved ; but the whole work was never
much read, being partly superseded by the more ostentatious no¬
velties of the day.
47. In the Berlin Memoirs for 1771, we find papers on Meteoro¬
logy. 48. On the Atmospheric Influence of the Moon. 49. On
Achromatic Telescopes of one kind of Glass only. 50. On the Ap¬
parent Paths of Comets. 51. On the Grounds of Superstitious
Belief, as compared with Probability.
52. Ueber das Farbenpyramide, 8vo, Berl. 1772; a description
of a pyramid of wax, intended for the illustration of all the possible
varieties of combination of the primitive colours.
53. Astronomisches Jahrbuch, Berl. 1774-9, in Svo; an accurate
and extensive ephemeris, with many original communications an¬
nexed to it.
54. In the M. A. Berl. 1772, a paper on Friction; supposed to
follow the law of the resistance of fluids, with some remarks on that
resistance. The opinion of the uniformity of the force of friction,
which wras even at that time general, was somewhat too hastily re¬
jected by the author ; but his computations may still be of use in
some cases. 55. On the Fluidity of Sand; as resisting motion.
56. On Ilygrometry; continued. 57. On the Density of the Air,
with respect to sound and to refraction.
58. M. A. Berl. 1773: A Balistic Scale, for determining the
paths of projectiles in the atmosphere. 59. Physical Observations,
relating to Meteorology and to Optics. 60. On the Satellite of
Venus ; affording a remarkable instance of misapplied labour and
ingenuity. 61. A Second Essay on Taxeometry. 62. A Note on
the Inequalities of Jupiter and Saturn; intended to confirm the
principles advanced in the Cosmological Letters. The detail was
reserved for a subsequent volume.
63. M. A. Berl. \77±'. On the Temperament of Musical Instru¬
ments. 64. On the Aerial Perspective. 65. Report on a Bed¬
stead for Sick Persons.
66. M. A. Berl. 1775: On the Elasticity of the Air. 67. On
Wind-mills, and on the Force of the Wind. 68. On the Sounds of
Flutes ; an elaborate comparison of the various tones of a flute,
with the theory of Daniel Bernoulli for determining the sounds of
compound organ-pipes.
69. M. A. Berl. 1776: On the Strength of Men employed in
Labour. 70. On Imperfect Fluids. •
71. M. A. Berl. 1777 : On the Elasticity of the Air.
72. M.A. Berl. 1779: Two Memoirs on the Inequalities of Ju¬
piter and Saturn.
73. Pyrometrie, 4to, Berl. 1779; a posthumous work, upon a sub¬
ject which had long occupied the author’s attention; with a Preface
by Karsten, and a Biographical Memoir by Eberhard.
74. A Paper on Annuities, Leipz. Magaz. 1780.
75. Deutscher Gelehrter Briefwechsei, Berl. 1781-7, in 5 vols.
Svo; published by John Bernoulli, and consisting principally ol
the author's correspondence with Holland, Kant, Karsten, Segner,
Basedow, Scheibel, and Brander. The contents are more fully de¬
scribed by Lalande. Bibl. Astr. p. 584.
76. M. A. Berl. 1783: On Friction.
Lambert.
168 LAM
Lambourn 77. Logische und Philosopbische Abhandlungen, Berl. 1787, in
2 vols. 8vo. Edited by J. Bernoulli.
Lamen- 78. On the Theory of Parallel Lines, Hinderb. Arch, der Math. i.
nais. (Bernoulli in Nouvelks Litteraires, 8vo, Berl. 1777 ; Eberhard in
y ; Pyrornetrie Briefwechsel, iii., Phil. Mag. May 1804 ; Aikin’s General
Biography, vi. 4to, Lond. 1807 ; Servois in Biographic Universelle,
xxiii., 8vo, Par. 1819.) (t. y.)
LAMBOURN (Chipping), a market-town of England,
county of Berks, on a small tributary of the Kennet, 7
miles N.N.W. from Hungerford. The chief buildings are
the parish church, an ancient cruciform edifice, a Wesleyan
chapel, and several alms-houses. Pop. of parish (1851)
2577.
LAMEGO (the ancient Lameca, Lamacum), a town of
Portugal, province of Beira-Alta, near the Douro, 46
miles E. from Oporto. It was the residence of the Moorish
court till 1038, when it was captured and occupied by Fer¬
dinand the Great of Castile. Here also the famous cortes
of Portugal are supposed to have been held in 1143 or 1144.
It is surrounded by a wall, and has a cathedral, founded by
Count Henry, father of the first king of Portugal, about
the middle of the fourteenth century ; a church called Al-
macave, a college, a bishop’s palace, a nunnery, three
monasteries, and two hospitals. It is an episcopal city; and
though of great note in former times, is now somewhat un¬
interesting. Pop. 9000.
LAMENNAIS, Felicite Robert, Abbe de, was the
son of a wealthy shipowner, and born at St Malo in 1782.
In the social troubles of the time, his education was ne¬
glected ; but, learning the rudiments of Latin from his
brother, he picked up the remainder as best he could, and
with marvellous rapidity. At the house of an uncle, whi¬
ther he was sent when about twelve years of age, he read
philosophy and romance at will, until his mind, deepening
in emotional and religious fervour, recoiled from all mer¬
cantile pursuits. In 1807 he became teacher of mathema¬
tics in the college of his native town, where his family had
considerable influence. His first work, Reflexions sur
VEtat de lEglise en France, pendant /e 18 Siecle (pub.
1808), was mainly directed against the philosophy which
he had so eagerly explored and devoured in his youth, and
the baneful effects of which were felt everywhere in the
religion of his country. Lamennais took the tonsure
in 1811, but he was not ordained priest till 1816, having
been banished during the Hundred Days for a violent pam¬
phlet written against Napoleon I., and been compelled to
earn his bread as usher in a school near London. His
greatest work, the Essai sur VIndifference en Matiere de
Religion, was published soon after his return to France,
and procured him the offer of a cardinal’s hat from Pope
Leo XII. It was his last service of faith to the Church of
Rome. His love of civil liberty hurried him soon after
into conflict with it, and his next volume, touching the re¬
lation of religion to civil and political order, subjected the
“ Second Bossuet” to a fine from the Cour Correctionelle.
This did not, however, deter him from pushing on to a so¬
lution of the problem, always a favourite one with the laity
of France, how civil liberty can consist with religious des¬
potism. A journal, called L'Avenir, was started to en¬
force his views, and for its vigorous and intrepid think¬
ing, as well as its pure and eloquent style, it soon became a
favourite with the democracy of the capital. With every one
who had agitated the same question before, Lamennais was
found to have rushed from the idolatry of absolute power to
the idolatry of absolute individual independence. The com¬
plete separation of the temporal from the spiritual power
he proclaimed as the only resting-place for his faith ; uni¬
versal suffrage as the only guarantee of his freedom. An
encyclical letter from the Pope in September 1832, scat¬
tered the coterie of his admirers, who chose to be catholic
rather than liberal; and the journal was allowed to drop,
towards the close of that year. In 1834 he published his
LAM
Paroles dun Croyant, which was condemned almost im- Lamia
mediately after by Gregory XVI. Undeterred, Lamen- ||
nais continued his labours, and while the liberal party in Lammas,
the church contented themselves with enforcing the claims
of science and the freedom of literature in the milder pages
of the Universite Catholique, his pen was busy in the
cause of revolution, with all the ardour of a man who felt
that the bridge was broken down behind him. On his
deathbed he resisted all the efforts used to make him retract,
and chose to die unreconciled to the church (February
27, 1854). At his own request, no religious rites were
performed at his grave. Certain papers, which he earnestly
desired to be published, were detained by his relatives in
their zeal for the church, but have recently been handed
over to the person named for their publication. The spirit
of Lamennais’ philosophy is essentially ecclesiastical. He
followed the path which M. de Maistre had opened up,
stepping on a prostrate philosophy in the hope of substi¬
tuting faith for knowledge, and authority for investigation.
In the church of all ages, he finds the one great channel
through which God has communicated truth to his crea¬
tures. To justify a retreat into this last sanctuary of phi¬
losophic despair, it is necessary to make good a thorough
philosophic scepticism. This he makes a show of doing on
philosophical grounds, but in reality wielding only a pas¬
sionate misanthrophy and mysticism, which can gain only
the broken and dispirited in the pursuit of knowledge.
Like all who have laboured in the same path, Lamennais
seems to have been unconscious of the circle in which he
was whirled, and blind to the principle, that philosophically
to establish universal scepticism is equally valid to establish
a scepticism against scepticism, as to establish a scepticism
against philosophy itself. Having abandoned a criterion of
truth for the individual, his only resort is to seek it in the
race; and in the history of the human family there is but
one unchanging element of truth,—one school of verity
where doubt does not enter,—viz., the church. With the
patriarchs, the palladium of truth was deposited, and the
sacred treasure has been preserved by the Jews, to become,
under the Christian dispensation, the exclusive property of
the Catholic priesthood. The popedom is the living centre
of universal consent. Although this is really a theology, it
has been by Lamennais beautifully arrayed in the philo¬
sophic dress. This is the only secret of its influence. La¬
mennais may be said to have furnished the most powerful
refutation of his scheme, when he advocated the independ¬
ence of the clergy, and died a martyr to the truth of his
own personal convictions. In his political struggles his
philosophy vanished, and passed into the hands of De
Bonald, Ballanche, and others of the same school, who have
sought to seize on some primeval faith, and disentangle it
from the doubts and questionings of a personal philosophy.
His published works not already mentioned are—Les
Affaires de Rome, 1836 ; Le Livre du Peuple, 1837 ; Le
Pays et la Gouvernement, 1840; De la Religion, 1841; Le
Guide du Premier Age, 1846 ; Une Voix de Prison, 1846 ;
Les Conseils de VAbbe Lamennais au Peuple, 1849 ; and
Esquisse d'une Philosophic, 4 vols. 1840-46. The Paroles
d’un Croyant have been translated into English.
LAMIA, or Zeitun, a town of Greece, capital of the
government of Phthitis, is situate near the head of the
Gulf of Volo, not far from the Turkish frontier. It is gene¬
rally well built, and is said to bear a considerable resem¬
blance to Athens. It has a citadel, barracks, and military
hospital. Pop. about 4000.
LAMMAS, a festival held on the first day of August.
Some suppose it to have derived its name from the practice
of bringing a live lamb on that day to high mass, but this
seems a mere local custom peculiar to York. Others re¬
gard it as equivalent to loaf-mass, or harvest offering of
bread from new corn. A balder meaning is attached to it
i
LAM
.Lam mer- by Johnson, who makes it a corruption of Latter math, or
moor Hills second-mowing. The proverb “ at latter Lammas? like
Lamn tlle Roman ad GrcBcas calendas, is a euphemism for 'never.
LAMMERMOOR HILLS, a range of hills stretching
from the S.E. extremity of Edinburghshire, through the
counties of Haddington and Berwick, and terminating in
the cliffs round St Abb’s Head. The principal summits
attain an elevation of nearly 1600 feet. The upland dis¬
tricts are used for pasturing sheep, but the cultivated tracts
ascend pretty high along the lower slopes. See Hadding¬
tonshire, &c.
LA MO rTE-FOUQUfi, Friedrich-Heinrich-Karl,
Baron De, one of the modern poets of the romantic
school, was born at Brandenburg, 12th Feb. 1777. His
ancestors, who had been driven from France by the revo¬
cation of the Edict of Nantes, belonged to one of the most
ancient families in Normandy; and his grandfather (Henri
August Baron de Lamotte Fouque), was a general in the
Prussian service, had fought in the Seven Years’War, was
wounded and taken prisoner at Landshut, and throughout
the whole of his career enjoyed the intimacy and friendship
of Frederic the Second. Entering the Prussian army at a
very early age, the youthful Fouque served as a lieutenant
of cavalry in several campaigns; but at the peace of Basle
retired to the country, and devoted himself to literature.
About this time he published, under his assumed name of
Pellegrinus, atranslation oftheiYMmaw^aofCervantes, seve¬
ral dramas, the romance ofAlwin, and Die Historie desEdeln
Ritters Galmy, und einer Sehonen Herzogin aus Bretagne.
Hitherto he had been an imitator of Cervantes and Spanish
writers ; but now the Scandinavian literature, a taste for
which had been revived in Germany, won his admiration ;
and in 1809 he published, under his own name, the poem
of Sigurd der Schlangentddter, in which the chivalry of the
old northern romances is successfully copied both in spirit
and life. In 1813, there appeared his masterpiece, Undine*,
a wild and supernatural tale, original in its conception, and
told with great descriptive power and exquisite tenderness
of emotion. It has been translated into all the languages
of Europe. The same year summoned him from his studies
to defend his country against the French. He fought va¬
liantly in several battles, rose to the rank of captain, and,
when attacked by ill health, retired with the title of major’
at the time when the allied armies were about to cross the
Rhine, tie fixed his abode at Nennhausen, the property
of his second wife Caroline, who was herself a popular
novelist. In 1814 appeared his Corona, an epic poem;
and in the following year Die Fahrten Thiodolfs; Der Zau-
LAM
herring ; and Sdngers Liehe. After he had produced, in
1821, Der Verfolgte, and the romance of Bertrand du
Guesclin, and in 1828, Der Sangerkrieg auf der Wart-
burg, he relapsed into comparative inactivity, during which
he seems to have passed from an admiration of the mytho¬
logy and chivalry of olden times to an extravagant esteem
for their feudal government. His next work, Die Welt-
reiche, a poem published in 1835, showed that his former
fascinating vivacity was considerably subdued, and that his
thoughts, now growing grave and stern, were also becoming
narrowed to the sentiments and feelings of a class. The
quaintness of his style remained to give a charming bril¬
liancy to the current of his thoughts, but failed to reconcile
the public to his political opinions. His Zeitung fur den
Deutschen Adel (Paper for the German nobility), printed in
1841, tended only to diminish his popularity. Fouque died
at Berlin, in January 23, 1843, before the publication of his
last work, Ahfall und Busse, oder der Seelenspiegel (Apos-
tacy and Repentance, or the Soul’s Mirror).
Lamotte-Fouque must ever be regarded as the most
successful writer of the romantic school, which numbers
amongst its disciples fleck, Novalis, Hoffmann, Brentano,
and Arnim. His mysterious knights, gnomes, and fairies,
with their world of enchanted forests and talking trees, are
described with a wonderful facility of poetic artifice ; but at
the same time he always wraps a deep and true moral in
the disguise of supernatural imagery. His romances have
also this distinguishing characteristic, that they are more
purely romances than the works of most writers of the same
school, and the gay visions which he depicts float at a safer
distance above the realities of common life. Although it
has recently become the fashion in Germany very much to
underrate Fouque’s merits, later writers, such as Vilmar
(Geschichte der deutschen National-Literatur 1856), regard
him with higher favour. They hold him to be at least en¬
titled to the merit of a skilful renaissance from the heroic
poems of the twelfth century. His poetical works, how¬
ever, are not so successful, as the themes are generally
placed in a region much too high for his genius.
Besides the works above-mentioned, Fouque published
Vaterlandische Sckauspiele, 1811; A/tsachsische Bilder-
saal, 1818; Lebensbeschreibwig des Generals Henri Aug.
Baron de la Motte Fouque, 1824; Geschichte der Jungfrau
von Orleans, 1826; General von Riichel, 1828; Erzhh-
lungen und Novellen, 1833; Von der Liebeslehre, 1837;
Goethe und Einer seiner Bewundrer, 1840 ; Selbstbiogra-
phie, 1840 ; Ausgewahlte Werhe, 1841 ; Der Pappenheimer
Curassier, 1842.
169
Lamp.
LAMP.
A LAMP is a contrivance for producing light by the com¬
bustion of such materials as are fluid at common tempera¬
tures, such as most of the fixed oils; the solid fats being
made into candles. The kind of oil used for burning in
lamps varies, in different parts of the world, with the sources
of supply. Whale oil is used in Great Britain, but seal
oil, fish oil, and oils obtained from seeds by pressure are
also largely consumed. In Paris the oils of rape-seed, and
of poppy-seed are used ; and in the S. of France, and in
Italy, an inferior kind of olive oil, and also the oil of the
earth-nut are employed. In the latter country a lamp oil
is expressed from grape-stones. In Piedmont walnut oil
is common ; oil of sesamum-seed is burnt on the eastern
and southern coasts of the Mediterranean ; while in tropical
countries cocoa-nut oil, which is solid in the climate of
Great Britain, is generally used. In China, the Camellia
oleifera is cultivated for the sake of the oil obtained from
its seeds, also a shrub, Croton sebiferum, the fruit of which
VOL. XIII.
yields a useful oil. In consequence of the deficient supply
of tallow during the late war with Russia, inquiries have
been set on foot in various parts of the world as to the seeds
and other vegetable products from which oil may be ob¬
tained, and the result of these inquiries has already shown
that many oil-yielding substances, not before known in
commerce, exist. The export of oils from the East Indies,
especially, gingelly, has greatly increased. Pistachio-nut
oil is becoming common, as is also ground-nut oil from
Africa. All these oils are used for burning in lamps.
Before a combustible can be made available for the pur¬
poses of artificial illumination, it must be decomposed in so
regulated a manner that its hydrogen may furnish a steady
flame, and its carbon the requisite amount of illumination ;
for which purpose the oil or fatty substance, whether in lamps
or candles, must first be made fluid and then gaseous, the
gaseous portion, resulting from the decompositio.n, by heat,
ol the fluid, filling the interior of the flame, combining
r
170
LAMP.
Lamp, with the oxygen of the surrounding air, and becoming dis-
sipated as products of combustion, after having diffused
both light and heat around. In a candle the combustible
matter is rendered fluid by the heat of the flame, which
forms the tallow just below it into a very perfect cup, which
it keeps filled with liquid fat, and this is raised by the capil¬
lary attraction of the wick into the flame, where the che¬
mical changes take place which result in the production of
light and heat. In a lamp a similar action goes on, only
the fluid combustible matter is contained in a separate re¬
servoir, the position of which must be such as to cast as
little shadow as possible. The simplest form of lamp con¬
sists of a thin layer of oil upon a quantity of water contained
in a glass vessel, in which is floated a small brass cup, con¬
taining a glass tube, fitted by means of cork. The oil
rises up the tube above the level on the outside, but when
flame is applied to the top of the tube, the oil takes fire
and burns with a small feeble flame: the fluid within the
tube is depressed by the heat, and the pressure of the oil
on the outside tends to overcome the depression, thereby
maintaining the oil at the required height. If the tube
exceed a capillary bore, the oil will not burn. In some
cases, a waxed wick about an inch long is passed through
the centre of a compound disk of cork and card, and this,
with the cork undermost, is placed upon the oil floating on
water in the glass vessel. This lamp, which gives a faint
light, is called a vielleuse, and is sometimes used in France in
bedrooms. Not more complex than this simple contrivance
is the arrangementof the antique lamp (figs. 1, 2), which, with
Fig. i.
Fig. 2.
great artistic beauty of form, does not claim a higher con¬
struction than the lamp of many rude nations.1 It consists
of a vessel, open or closed, with a wick rising through a
hole in the beak ; and as combustion can only take place on
the outside of the flame, more carbon is likely to be libe¬
rated from the oil than the oxygen in contact with the
flame can consume, hence such a lamp is always liable
to smoke. In the old kitchen lamp the beak is removed a
considerable distance from the reservoir, so as to diminish
the shadow cast by the flame, and thus increase its illumi¬
nating power. Until the year 1789 (when Ami Argand
invented the lamp which continues to bear his name) lamps
were dull, smoky, ill-constructed articles, soiling every¬
thing around them, and filling the air with a nauseous
odour.
The Argand lamp has undergone many improvements
since the date of its invention. A common form of this
lamp is represented in fig. 3, where A is the reservoir,
which is air-tight at top, and has the neck immersed in oil,
so that oil flows out of it only when the external air is ad¬
mitted to ascend through the neck; it contains a short
column of liquid, from the top of which the pressure of
the atmosphere is excluded, and therefore the column is
sustained by the weight of the atmosphere pressing on Lamp,
its base, on the same principle as a bird-cage fountain.
Oil is introduced into the reservoir A by taking it off
and holding it with the neck uppermost. The sliding tube
Fig. 3.
Q is pushed so as to cover the hole t, and the oil is poured
in by a hole at the bottom, which at other times is closed
by a screw-nut; when this is done, the reservoir A is re¬
placed in F, and secured by screwing it round. When the
lamp is to be lighted, the hole t is opened by depressing the
sliding tube by its handle Z, and the oil will flow out of A
till it rise in F, and in the annular cavity that contains the
wick, to the level of the top of the hole t. When the oil
in F is lowered by the burning of the lamp, so that the sur¬
face of the oil in F is below the upper part of the hole, then
a bubble of air ascends into A, and a similar quantity of oil
descends into F, till the surface of the oil rises again to cover
the upper part of the hole. It sometimes happens that the
air in A is heated by the warmth of the room, and then too
great a quantity of oil descends into F, in consequence of
the expansion of the hot air in the upper part of A, so that
the oil not being all consumed in the wick, falls down
through the tube g, and may even run over from the cup P.
This is an inconvenience attending the use of oil reservoirs
of this construction. When the lamp is not burning, the
hole t is closed by drawing up the sliding tube Q ; the lamp
may then be inclined, without making the oil descend from
the reservoir. The cylindrical part, where the flame is pro¬
duced, is composed of three tubes d,f, g. The tube g is
soldered to the bottom of the tube d, just above o, and the
interval between the outer surface of the tube g and the
inner surface of the tube d, is an annular cylindrical cavity
closed at bottom, containing the cylindrical cotton wick im¬
mersed in oil. The wick is fixed to the wick tube ki, which
is capable of being moved spirally; within the annular cavity
is also the tube/, which is capable of being moved round,
and serves to elevate and depress the wick. P is a cup
that screws on the bottom of the tube d, and serves to re¬
ceive the superfluous oil that drops down from the wick
1 These figures are copied from the originals in the British Museum.
LAMP.
m
Lamp, along the inner surface of the tube g. The air enters
v'—through the holes o, o, and passes up through the tube g to
maintain the combustion in the interior of the circular flame.
The air which maintains the combustion on the exterior
part of the wick enters through the holes m, with which
rn is perforated. When the air in the chimney is rare¬
fied by the heat of the flame, the column of the atmosphere,
of which the chimney is the base, becomes lighter than the
surrounding columns ; and the surrounding columns, press¬
ing with their excess of weight, enter the lower part of the
chimney, and pass upward, with a rapid current, to re¬
store the equilibrium between the adjacent columns of the
atmosphere.
In some lamps, above the orifice of the tube g, and nearly
at the height of the top of the flame, there is placed a cir¬
cular plate of metal, of the same diameter as the tube : this
has the effect of turning the current of air into that part
of the flame where smoke would otherwise be produced.
The same effect is obtained by the contraction of the
cylindrical glass chimney at RG. See Gas-Light. The
oil flows from the reservoir A and F through N, and oc¬
cupies the cavity between the exterior surface of the tube
g, and the inner surface of the tube d. The oil rises in
the annular cylindrical cavity between these two tubes to
the level of the opening t. The part ki is a short tube,
which receives the circular wick, and slides freely on the
tube g. The tube g has a hollow spiral groove on its exte¬
rior surface, into which enters a pin connected with the
wick-tube ki. The wick-tube has also a catch, which works
in a perpendicular slit in the tube f; and, by turning the
tube /, the wick-tube will be raised or lowered, for which
purpose a ring, or stage, rn, fits on the tube d, and receives
the glass chimney RG; a wire S is attached to the tube /,
and is bent over the edge of the tube d, and descends along
the outside thereof. The part rn, that supports the glass
chimney, is connected, by four other wires, with the ring q,
which surrounds the tube d, and is capable of being moved
round. When rn is turned round, it carries round along
with it the ring q, the ware S, and the tube f, and thereby
produces the elevation and depression of the wick.
In the most simple construction of Argand lamps, the
surface of oil in the oil-reservoir is nearly on a level with the
flame, because the capillary attraction of the wick can only
raise the oil a little above the surface of the reservoir. The
surface of the reservoir also is considerable, that the lamp
may burn for a sufficient length of time before it has con¬
sumed so much oil as to reduce the level of the oil below
the reach of the action of the capillary attraction of the
wick. Mechanists have contrived lamps of various forms,
with the view of removing the inconvenience of the shadow
of the reservoir, which cannot be got rid of in the common
lamp with one lateral beak.
In what is called the Astral lamp, the oil vessel is of a
flat annular shape, so that a tolerably large supply of oil
may occupy only a small depth. The vessel surrounds the
burner at the distance of a few inches, and is supported by
two curved tubes, one of which conveys the oil to the
wick. The shadow of this oil vessel, though small, is cast
all around, and the two supporting tubes also cast their
shadows on the table, but when the lamp is hung from the
ceiling, the shadow of the oil-vessel may fall so as not to
be inconvenient. In the Sinumbra lamp (sine umbra, or
without shadow), the shadow is greatly reduced by making
the circular oil-vessel in such a way that its three surfaces
meet in the form of a flat wedge, the sharp edge being
directed towards the flame. The position of the flame,
with respect to the oil-vessel, is such that two tangents
drawn from the apex and base of the flame oo (fig. 4),
meet a few inches behind it in a point, beyond which there
is no shadow; and even within the space of the shadow the
ground-glass shade which rests upon the oil-vessel, breaks
up the shadow by its diffusion of the light: f represents Lamp.
Fig. 4.
In order to get rid of the shadow, lamps have been con¬
structed in which the oil-vessel is placed in the foot or
pedestal, and the oil is raised to the wick by various inge¬
nious contrivances. In Girardts lamp the oil is raised by
the compression of air somewhat
after the manner of water in a
fire-engine, or as in Hero’s foun¬
tain, where the pressure exerted
in one vessel is transferred to
another distant vessel by means
of the compressed air. In Keids
Hydrostatic lamp, the oil is raised
and supported by a column of
salt and water, sufficiently dense
to support a column of oil fds of
its own height. Instead of the
solution of salt, other heavy li¬
quids, such as syrup, honey, mer¬
cury, or a solution of sulphate of
zinc may be used. The zinc so¬
lution is 1*57 times denser than
oil, hence a column 10 inches
high, will support a column of oil
15*7 inches high. The zinc co¬
lumn is fed from a reservoir, so
as to maintain the oil at the pro¬
per level. Such lamps are sub¬
ject to the great inconvenience
of not being portable; indeed
a very slight motion causes the
fluids to oscillate and extinguish
the flame. The principle of such
lamps will be better understood
by the following description of Mr
Barton’s lamp, in which T (fig. 5)
is the oil-reservoir, from which
the oil passes upwards to the
wicks a, a, a. The oil-reservoir
is open at bottom, at h. This is
preferable to the mode of mak¬
ing the reservoir with a perfo¬
rated bottom that screws off’ for
the purpose of cleaning it. The
fluid B, in which the oil-reser¬
voir is immersed, is a solution of
salt in water. This liquid is contained in a vessel RMO,
which can be unscrewed at O, for the purpose of taking
out the oil-vessel. N and Y are two floats fixed to the oil-
reservoir and its tube. The column of the solution of salt,
ch, presses against the oil at the open bottom of the reser¬
voir, and maintains a column of oil in the tube to the
height e; to this point e the wick descends, and raises the
oil to the flame by the capillary attraction of its fibres.
The specific gravities of the oil and the solution of salt
172
Lamp.
LAMP.
must be inversely as the heights ch and he; that is, the
specific gravity of" the solution of salt must be made to bear
to the specific gravity of the oil the same proportion that
the perpendicular height eh, bears to the perpendicular
height ch. As the oil is consumed, the salt water enters
the^hole at the bottom of the oil-vessel; the surface of the
water at c sinks, and the oil-reservoir, with the tube and
wicks attached to it, sink also. The upper part of the
vessel R should be of a capacity a little less than the ca¬
pacity of the oil-reservoir, so that, when the water has
displaced the oil, and filled the oil-reservoir, the float Y
may be at the bottom of the enlarged part of the water-
vessel R. To prepare the lamp, the exterior vessel is filled
with the solution of salt by the opening at l; the solution
passes into the oil-vessel by the open bottom h, and the oil-
vessel rests on the bottom of the exterior vessel. T he oil
is then poured in through the tube e. The oil passes into
the oil-reservoir, expels the water, and floats the oil-reser¬
voir, raising the surface of the water in R.
Attempts have been made to get rid of the leading ob¬
jection to hydrostatic lamps by placing a pumping apparatus
in the oil reservoir in the pedestal, but as the pump has to
be worked occasionally by hand, this is an objection. In
CarceVs Clock-work or Mechanical Lamp, the oil is raised
by clock-work in such quantity as to exceed that consumed
during the time of burning, the excess constantly flowing
back into the reservoir over the outside of the burner, thereby
keeping the metal work cool, and thus preventing the forma¬
tion of carbon on the outside of the burner : the wick must
be raised higher than in ordinary lamps. Modifications of
this lamp have been introduced, in which the clockwork is
replaced by a descending weight, such as a piston in a cylin¬
der, or by causing a spring to act upon a piston. In such
examples it has been found difficult to regulate the supply
of oil to the wick. In Meyer's Elliptic Lamp, a leathern
piston or valve is worked by a rack and pinion, the oil being
contained in a cylindrical vessel in the toot. So long as the
piston is above the bottom of the oil-vessel, it is pressed
by a spiral spring, attached to the top of the lamp ; be¬
tween the coils of this spring, and passing air-tight through
the piston, is a tube, terminating in a funnel-shaped mouth
in the oil-vessel, and covered with a perforated dish for strain¬
ing the oil. The oil is pressed up this tube to the burner,
near which is a fine silver tube, surrounded by a cup of
wire gauze, of tinned copper, for straining the oil from
solid particles. This tube, which is only ■gV'h *nch *n ^n-
ternal diameter, regulates the flow of the oil, and its length
and bore are so proportioned to the force of the spring, as
to bring up enough oil to feed the flame, together with a
surplus quantity which overflows, and keeps the metal parts
of the wick cool. The lamp is supplied with oil at a point
above the spiral spring, and flowing down, it occupies a
position above the piston. By winding up the rack-work
with a key, the piston is lifted to the top of the oil-vessel;
the ascension tube, with the burner attached, is next pushed
dowm through the piston, whereby the oil occupies a posi¬
tion below the piston, which is forced down by the spring,
and thus raises the oil. Such a lamp will yield a good
light for eight or ten hours, and will allow of the combus¬
tion of crude vegetable oils.
In Parker's Economic ox Hot-oil Lamp, the oil-vessel is
situated above the flame, for the double purpose of throwing
the shadow in an unobjectionable direction, and also for over¬
coming the consistency of crude whale oil, which requires
to be made fluid by heat before it can be burned in com¬
mon lamps. Fig 6 illustrates the construction of this lamp.
R is the oil-vessel, consisting of a double cylinder of metal,
surrounding the upper part of the chimney M, from which
the oil descends by the arm A, to the burner. This arm
has at its lower part a slide-valve D, worked by a trigger
TC, on raising which the supply of oil can be cut off, and
the oil-vessel removed for filling. The valve allows the
oil to be introduced, care being taken to fill the reservoi
completely, since any air left in it
would expand by heat, and cause
the oil to overflow. The glass chim¬
ney G rests on three points, which
can be raised or lowered by a
rack and pinion, by which means
the flame is regulated, not by the
motion of the wick, as in ordinary
lamps.
The facility with which volatile oils
are decomposed and give off their car¬
bon, renders them in general unfit for
burning in lamps, but where such oils
are plentiful, they may be brought
into use by being mixed with other
substances, which diminish the percen¬
tage of carbon. Thus, in some parts of
Germany, oil of turpentine is mixed
with strong spirit of wine; such a
mixture is burnt in a lamp of pecu¬
liar construction, consisting of a large
oval reservoir, into which the burner
fits tightly, and descends nearly to Fig. 6.
the bottom. The burner consists of a wide metal tube
passing down another tube, which surrounds a loose cotton
wick. At the top of the burner tube is a narrower tube,
terminating in a knob, and just below the knob is a ring of
small holes. A small cup surrounds the burner-tube, in
which a small quantity of spirit of wine is burnt prepara¬
tory to using the lamp, and the heat thus excited causes
a portion of the spirit mixture to issue from the ring of
holes, in the form of an inflammable vapour, which being
ignited, a crown of flames is formed, surrounding the metal
knob, the heat of which continues the vaporization, and the
lamp burns in this way without requiring further attention.
The light thus produced is brilliant, but expensive. Lamps
have been prepared in Great Britain for burning various
preparations of hydro-carbon, alcohol, pyroxylic spirit,
&c. Lamps without wicks have been formed for the com¬
bustion of naphtha, resembling in principle the German
lamp above described. Camphine has also been much in
request. This substance is prepared by distilling oil of
turpentine over chloride of calcium, so as to get rid ol
water ; it then contains 88'46 per cent, of carbon, the re¬
mainder being hydrogen, so that it is a powerful illuminat¬
ing body. From the readiness, however, with which it is
decomposed, considerable care is required in adjusting the
supply of air ; if there be not sufficient oxygen, large flakes
of unconsumed soot escape into the room, and unless the
camphine be carefully prepared, it is apt to give off an
odour which produces headache. Under proper manage¬
ment, the camphine lamp yields a white and brilliant light.
During the late war, the managing directors of Price’s
Patent Candle Company contrived a kind of lamp stove,
which they call the Crimean Army Stove or Camp Lan¬
tern, and which was adapted for baking, for boiling, and
for warming a tent. Its dimensions are 17 inches in
height, 19 inches across the handles, and 15 inches from
back to front, the weight being about 30 lb. It consists
of a square sheet-iron box, with a door and latch, a cover
for the same, a baking pan, with a cover, two lamps, each
with six wicks, trimmed with cocoa-nut oil, and there is
also a loose grating. The directions are as follows :—For
baking: Let the baking pan, with cover, rest upon the top
ledges, put the cover on the stove, then place the two
lamps upon the bottom grating, light the 12 wicks, and
shut the door ; in less than half an hour the stove will be
at a proper baking heat. N.B.—By covering the top of
the stove with a coat, blanket, or sack, you will get up the
Lamp.
LAM
Lamp heat sooner, and bake more rapidly ; be careful that the
Black baking pan has on its own cover, as well as that belonging
II to the stove. For boiling : Remove the baking pan, and
dus**' let the Ioose grating to cari7 tlie sauce-pan rest upon the
a , middle shelf; on the bottom grating place one or both of
the lamps, according to the rapidity with which you want
to boil. For warming a tent: Remove the baking pan,
LAMP-BLACK, a variety of carbon or charcoal in a
state of minute division, prepared chiefly from the impure
resin and other refuse left after the distillation of turpentine.
These secondary products are burnt in iron pots, or in a
furnace, with a supply of air inadequate to their complete
combustion, and the dense smoke thus produced is passed
into chambers lined with sheep skin, or with sacking, upon
which the soot or lamp-black forms a deposit. It is swept
off from time to time, and sold without any further prepara¬
tion. In this state, however, it contains salts of ammonia,
and certain resinous and bituminous matters, all of which
may be driven off by heating the crude lamp-black to red¬
ness in a close vessel. Thus purified, the lamp-black is
almost entirely pure carbon, and when heated in the air it
will burn away with scarcely any residue. Lamp-black was
formerly prepared by burning lamps fed with crude refuse
oils, in a close chamber, and collecting the soot from the
smoky flames in the manner above mentioned, whence the
origin of the name lamp-black. The theory of its formation
is simple : if a compound of hydrogen and carbon be raised
to a temperature sufficient to convert it into an inflammable
vapour, and enough oxygen be introduced to combine with
the hydrogen only, water will be formed, and the carbon be
deposited.
The chief demand for lamp-black is in the manufacture of
black paint and printer’s ink, for which it is often prepared
by burning coal-tar. A coarse lamp-black, used in paying
ships, &c., is also prepared from some kinds of coal. (c. t.)
LAMPADEPHORIA, i.e., the torch-bearing, or the
torch-race, an Athenian ceremony at the festivals of the
fire-gods Prometheus, Vulcan, and Minerva, in which the
runners carried lighted torches, sheltered by shields, from
the joint altar of these gods in the outer Ceramicus to the
Acropolis. After the battle of Marathon, it was introduced
into the festivals of Pan ; and in the time of Socrates, into
those of Artemis, on which occasion horses were first used.
The art seems to have consisted in carrying a lighted torch
from the starting-place to the goal without letting it go out.
Several chains of runners were stationed along the race¬
course, which was about half a mile in length. The first
runner in each chain passed the lamp to the second, he in
his turn to the third, and so on. That chain which was the
first to pass the still burning torch to its destination was
declared victorious. The ceremony was most probably in¬
tended to symbolize the theft of the fire from the chariot of
the sun by Prometheus, and to commemorate the benefits
which have accrued to mankind from his crime.
LAMPEDUSA (the ancient Pelagia or Lopadusa),
an island in the Mediterranean, belonging to the kingdom
of the Two Sicilies, and lying midway between Malta and
the Tunis coast, in N. Lat. 35. 29. 12., E. Long. 12. 35. 12.
It is 7 miles in length from E. to W., by scarcely 1 in
breadth. The interior is level, and abounds in dwarf olives
and other similar shrubs, which are cut down and exported
to Malta and Tripoli for firewood. But the shore is high
and precipitous, except on the S.E. side, where it is low,
and indented by a number of small bays. Wild goats are
found in great flocks; and caves are numerous both on the
sea-shore and in the interior. This island was made a state
prison by the king of Naples in 1843. As dependencies, it
has the islands Lampione and Linosa.
LAN 173
and upon the bottom grating place one of the lamps, then Lampeter
put the cover on the stove. II
Lamps for special purposes are described in other parts ^ Lanark.^
of this work, such as the Miner's Safety Lamp, under “"
Coal; the Lighthouse T^amp, under Lighthouse; (he Fur¬
nace Lamp, as used by the scientific chemist; the Spirit
Lamp ; the Locatelli Lamp, and some others. (c. T.)
LAMPETER, a market-town and parliamentary borough
of Wales, in Cardiganshire, near the Teify, 29 miles E. by
N. from Cardigan. The college of St David’s, a handsome
quadrangular building, founded in 1822 by Bishop Burgess,
is intended for theological students who could not bear the
expense of attending Oxford or Cambridge. It accommo¬
dates about seventy students, and has an annual income of
L.3000. Pop. (1851) 907.
LAMPRIDIUS, ASlius, one of the writers of the Au-
gustan History, who lived at the beginning of the fourth
century, during the reigns of Diocletian and Constantins,
to whom he dedicates his work. The Augustan History is
composed by six different authors, and contains a series of
biographical sketches of the Roman emperors, from Hadrian
to Cams and his sons (117-285, a.d.) These authors were
•Alims Spartianus, Vulcatius Gallicanus, Trebellius Pollio,
Flavius Vopiscus, /Elius Lampridius, and Julius Capitolinus.
Lampridius wrote the four lives of Commodus, Diadumenus,
Heliogabalus, and Alexander Severus. He seems to have
been more attentive to the accuracy of his facts than to the
beauty of his style. It is supposed by Vossius {He Hist.
L,at. ii. 7), and by Fabricius {Biblioth. Lat. iii. 6), that
Lampridius and Spartianus are the same writer; but this
opinion has been ably refuted by Demoulines. (See Moller,
Hiss, de AEl. Lampridio, Altorf, 1688; Casaubon, ad.
Spart. Adrian?)
LAMPSACUS, or Lampsacum, a celebrated Greek
colony of Asia Minor, on the shore of the Hellespont, not
far from the spot where the strait begins to widen out into
the Propontis. It was colonized by settlers from the Ionian
cities of Phoccea and Miletus, but it had already been long
in existence under the name of Pityusa. It had an excel¬
lent harbour, and soon became a great commercial mart.
During the Ionian revolt, it passed into the hands of the
Persians, but even during the period of their supremacy it
continued to be governed by a native tyrannus. In 479,
after the battle of Mycale, it allied itself with Athens, and
continued faithful till near the close of that century, when,
on the occasion of the Athenian disasters in Sicily, it re¬
volted. The Athenians, however, reduced it again with
ease. Like most of the other Greek cities in Asia, it sub¬
mitted to Alexander the Great. At a later period it opened
its gates to the Romans, when they reached it on their way
to the conquest of Syria. Under the Romans it long con¬
tinued to thrive. Lampsacus was the chief seat of the
worship of Priapus, who is said to have been born there of
Aphrodite. It gave birth to several distinguished men,
among whom may be mentioned Anaximenes the orator,
Metrodorus the Epicurean philosopher, and Charon the
historian. A small village called Lamsaki stands near the
site of the ancient town, of which not a trace is now to be
seen.
LANARK, a royal and parliamentary burgh of Scotland,
capital of Lanarkshire, is situated on an eminence near the
N. bank of the Clyde, 25 miles S.E. from Glasgow. The
town, declining and deserted at the beginning of this cen¬
tury, has been revived since the introduction of hand-loom
weaving among the inhabitants, the majority of whom are
employed by the Glasgow cotton manufacturers. Lanark
joins with Airdrie, Linlithgow, Hamilton, and Falkirk, in
returning a member to Parliament From a very early
174 LAN
Lanark, date it was a place of importance. Here Kenneth held a
•N'®w council in 978 ; Wallace killed Heselrig in 1297 ; and the
Lanark- Covenanters issued their proclamation in 1682. The re¬
shire. mains of two Roman camps are distinctly traced in the
^ r neighbourhood. Pop. 5008.
Lanark, Nerv, a manufacturing village, is situated on
the N. bank of the Clyde, about a mile from the town of
Lanark. It was founded by David Dale in 1783, and was
afterwards improved by his son-in-law, Robert Owen the
socialist, who tried to introduce his scheme of communist
life into the manufactory. The inhabitants are exclusively
engaged in cotton-spinning. Pop. about 1600.
LANARKSHIRE, or Clydesdale, is one of the largest,
most populous, and most important of the counties of Scot¬
land. It is situated between N. Lat. 55. 18. and 55. 56.,
and W. Long. 3. 24. and 4. 23. It is bounded N. by the
counties of Dumbarton and Stirling, S. by Dumfriesshire, E.
by the counties of Edinburgh, Linlithgow, and Peebles,
and W. by those of Ayr and Renfrew. Its extreme length
from S.E. to N.W. is about 54 miles, its greatest breadth
from E. to W. being 33. It contains an area of about 986
square miles, or about 631,719 imperial acres. In early
times Lanarkshire formed a portion of the Roman province
ot Valentia, and afterwards of the British kingdom of
Strathclyde. A part of the neighbouring county of Ken-
frew was formerly included in this district, but during the
reign of Robert III. it was disjoined, and formed into a
separate jurisdiction in favour of his eldest son James. At
that time Lanark was divided into two wards, the over and
nether ; the burgh of Lanark being the chief town and seat
of justice of the former, and the burgh of Rutherglen of
the latter. These divisions continued till the last century,
when they were formed into three wards, and this division
exists even to the present day. The upper, of which La¬
nark is the chief town, and which contains about two-thirds
of the whole area of the county, is, on the E., S., and
S.W., chiefly mountainous; the middle, which has the
town of Hamilton in the centre, stretches along the W.,
and N.; and the lower contains the city of Glasgow, and a
small tract around it.
This extensive district presents great variety of surface.
In its upper, or southern portion, it is hilly and mountain¬
ous, the principal mountains being the lofty Lowthers,
which, on an average, rise to 2450 feet above the level of
the sea, the highest peak being 3100 feet. The heights of
the other mountains are—Culterfell, 2454 ; Tintock, 2317 ;
and Cairntable, 1944. Leadhills, a village on the southern
extremity of the county, is, at its S.W. end, 1323 feet
above the level of the sea, being the highest inhabited
ground in Scotland. In proceeding along the banks of
the Clyde, N. from Tintock, the face of the country sof¬
tens down to gentle elevations and depressions, and for
12 miles the river winds slowly through fertile houghs.
The middle ward is much less elevated, few of the heights
being much more than 700 feet above sea-level, the town
of Hamilton being only about 80 ; yet there are no plains
of any extent, except along the banks of the Clyde, and a
considerable part of the surface is covered with moss, in
many places to a great depth. Of the lower ward, the
greater portion is a well inhabited district, particularly
the banks of the Clyde, which are thickly planted with
villas and villages, dependent on, or connected with, the
city of Glasgow.
I he principal river, being the third in size, but, in a com¬
mercial point of view, the greatest in Scotland, is the
Clyde, from which the county is frequently called Clydes¬
dale. It has its rise among the wastes of the mountains
which separate Lanarkshire from Dumfriesshire, about 1400
feet above the level of the sea, and near to the sources of
the Tweed and Annan. Issuing from its almost imper¬
ceptible source, about the head of the Dear Water, it flows
LAN
onward in a N.W. direction, and after receiving several Lanark-
streamlets, assumes the name of the Clyde. Passing shire,
through a lonely and pastoral country, and thereafter skirt-
ing the ruined castle and little village of Crawfurd, it gra¬
dually increases in size until it reaches Bonniton, the
first of the famous Falls of the Clyde. Here the banks
slope gently downwards, and are ornamented with lofty
trees and leafy brushwood. Before reaching the fall the
channel has become broad, and the course of the river un¬
interrupted and tranquil, but here the stream tumbles over
a height of 27 feet, and descends into a glen in a broad
and unbroken sheet. From this point the banks become
precipitous, and are beautified with wood. The bed of the
river becomes rugged, and its waters roll turbulently along,
until they reach the magnificent fall of Corra, where they
at once dash over a precipice of 85 feet in height, falling
into the deep abyss of the linn. The scenery in the neigh¬
bourhood of this cataract is of the boldest and most roman¬
tic description. Hurrying on through a deep ravine, the
river reaches a third but smaller fall, called Dundaff Linn,
and passing a singular piece of rock called Wallace’s Chair,
where it is said the Scottish patriot once found a temporary
concealment, and skirting New Lanark, with its extensive
cotton-mills, and passing the county town of Lanark, it at
length receives the waters of the Mouse, which, dashing
and foaming from the split rocks of Cartland Crags, adds
to the volume of the stream, and contributes, at the preci¬
pice of Stonebyres, to form the fourth, and perhaps the
most striking fall of the Clyde. Near to the junction of
the Nethan with the Clyde are the ruins of Draffin or
Craignethan Castle, generally considered as the Tillietud-
lem of Sir Walter Scott. In this castle the beautiful and
unfortunate Mary Queen of Scots, found a temporary asylum,
after her escape from Lochleven Castle. The Clyde, hav¬
ing again received the Avon, and having passed the ruins of
Cadzow, sweeps through the richly-wooded AaM^/^of Hamil¬
ton, extending to upwards ofT410 acres, in the centre of which
stands the ducal palace of that name, one of the most magnifi¬
cent and classical edifices in Scotland. Lower down, the
Clyde is spanned by the Bridge of Bothwell, celebrated for
the deadly conflict which took place in 1679 between the
king’s troops and the Covenanters, and passes the ruins of
Blantyre priory, founded in the thirteenth century, and of
Bothwell Castle. At Glasgow its commercial importance
commences. There the Clyde becomes navigable for ves¬
sels of more than 1000 tons burden, and drawing fully 19
feet water. See Glasgow.
The soil of Lanarkshire is of great variety, but the moorish
and mountainous predominate. The upper ward consists,
to a great extent, of moorland and pasture. In the lower
valleys of this ward, however, wheat is sometimes grown,
but the cereals best adapted for this lofty district are oats
and barley. Potatoes are widely cultivated, while of late
years turnip husbandry has been much increased. In the
middle ward the land under tillage is chiefly from 250 to
300 feet above the level of the sea. It is generally clay,
but along the banks of the Clyde and its tributaries there
are considerable tracts of an alluvial description. It is in this
ward where the orchards of Lanarkshire are placed, which
seem to have been a characteristic of this portion of Scot¬
land since the days of the venerable Bede. During the
French war, when excluded from the continental supply,
the yearly average derived from their fruit was little short
of L.8000; but since the increased facilities for continental
communication, many of the Lanarkshire orchards have
been now as much devoted to the rearing of gooseberry and
currant bushes for the Glasgow market as to the cultiva¬
tion of apples, pears, or plums, which are subjected to
foreign competition. The lower ward, particularly along
the banks of the Clyde, is a fertile and highly cultivated
district. From the vicinity of Glasgow, the farmers are
LANARKSHIRE.
175
Lanark¬
shire.
here stimulated to the highest efforts of agricultural im¬
provement. Of late years much land has been reclaimed,
and draining has been everywhere prosecuted with great
vigour, while the plantation of trees in exposed situations
has also contributed to ameliorate the climate. As the
greatest portion of the county slopes towards the W., the
breezes of the Atlantic exert a powerful influence on the
climate. For about two-thirds of the year the wind blows
fiom the S.W. and W. Frosts are never of long dura¬
tion, and long-lying snow is rare. In general the atmo¬
sphere is humid, and the harvest, at least in the uplands,
is generafly late. 1 he range of the thermometer is from
11 to 85°. The mean maximum and minimum at Glas¬
gow for 1851 to 1854 was 47‘1, while the mean quantity
of rain that fell each year was 37-22 inches.
From the peculiarity of the soil, and the humidity of the
climate, great attention is paid to the rearing of stock, and to
the produce of the dairy. The fact is, milk cows and dairy
produce are two of the chief objects of attention in the
upper ward, and particularly in the parishes of Carnwath
and Lesmahagow, where the best cheeses are made, being
equal to the first quality of Dunlop. The Ayrshire breed
of cattle has hitherto been most prized, but the Lanark¬
shire newly improved breed, crossed by the Ayrshire
cow and short-horned bull, or vice versa, has been found
superior. The draught horses of this county are justly
celebrated. They are generally bred in the upper ward,
and are supposed to have originated from some Flanders or
Holstein horses brought over in the seventeenth century
by one of the dukes of Hamilton.
The following are the agricultural statistics of the county
in ] 856, omitting fractions:—
Number of occupants  2 978
Total acreage under a rotation crop   209^541
Acres.
Wheat  8.978
Barley  1,787
Oats   54,’803
%e  56
Bere  299
Beans  4,010
Pease  317
Vetches or Tares  1,688
Turnips  11,443
Potatoes  8,733
Mangold  114
Horses for agricultural purposes above 3 vears
old    5,765
R°- do. under 3 years 1,506
All other horses  1 399
Carrots 
Cabbages  
Rape 
Flax 
Turnip Seed  
Other root crops 
Bare or Summer Fal¬
low  1,073
Grass and Hay under
rotation  115,202
Acres.
46
251
2
540
61
132
Milk cows  3!,309
Other cattle  20 740
Caives 9,’373
— 8,670
Sheep of all ages, for breeding  89 859
Oo. do. for feeding  20,313
  66,817
61,422
Lambs 
.. . —  176,989
Swine   6,998
Total stock  254,079
Irrespective of the city of Glasgow and the burgh of
Lanark, there are the burghs of Hamilton, Airdrie, and
Rutherglen, with which may be classed the populous vil¬
lages of Strathaven, Biggar, Blantyre, Bothwell, Wishaw,
Coatbridge, Carnwath, Carluke, Douglas, Lesmahagow,
Leadhills, ^iew Lanark, Cambuslang, and Stonehouse.
Fhe cotton manufactures, the iron-works, and minin<r (five
employment to the generality of their inhabitants. & ^
1 he lakes or lochs within the bounds of Lanarkshire are
few and small. Of these are the Bishop’s Loch between
the parishes of Cadder and Old Monkland, the Black Loch
in New Monkland, Johnston Loch in Cadder, Long Loch
near Lanark, Cran Loch in the parish of Dunsyre, and
Hogganfield and Frankfield Lochs in the Barony parish of Lanark-
Glasgow. The most extensive sheet of water in the county shire,
is the Flill Reservoir, for supplying the Forth and Clyde and
Monkland Canals, and which covers an extent of 307 acres.
The geological structure of Lanarkshire is very varied.
The central and western districts are occupied by an ex¬
tensive and rich coalfield, a part of the great carboniferous
band traversing Scotland from sea to sea, in a direction
from S.W. to N.E. The middle portion of this formation
in the Monklands and adjoining parishes is of fresh water
origin, and without limestone, but contains the best coal
seams, with blackband and other ironstones. Towards the
borders on all sides a lower marine series, with encrinal
and coralline limestones, crops out. It also contains many
valuable coal seams and ironstone, and a few interpolated
beds of estuary or fresh water origin. The line of junction
between this lower series and the old red sandstone passes
across the upper ward, in the vicinity of the Falls of the
Clyde, Lanark, and Carstairs. The old red also bounds
the fields on the N. and W. in the counties of Dumbarton
and Renfrew. The boundaries on the E. and W. are
chiefly formed of nearly continuous ranges of trap hills,
separating the Lanark fields on the one hand from those
ot Linlithgow, and on the other hand from those of Ayr.
I rap rocks also rise through, and disturb the strata of the
interior in many places, and numerous whin dykes intersect
the area, affecting generally a N. and S. direction. These,
like the other erupted masses, usually alter the strata passed
through, converting coal into coke, clay into jasper, and
highly indurating the shales and sandstones. In the highest
and most southern portion of the county, viz., at Leadhills,
there are veins of lead from a few inches to fifteen, and
from this silver, to the extent of six to twelve oz. in the
ton, has been extracted. Gold also is found among the
mountains, imbedded in quartz, or washed down into the
sides of rivulets. Gold was first discovered here in the
reign of James III., from which a number of coins, known
by the name of unicorns, was coined. In the reign of
James V. 300 persons were employed searching for this
metal, and it is said that gold to the extent of L. 100,000
was collected. In 1854, the lead obtained at Leadhills
amounted to 216 tons, from which 170 tons of pure lead
was obtained. In the valuable paper by Mr Hunt, “On the
Mining Industries of the United Kingdom,” he states that
L.20,000 were expended at Leadhills to obtain less than
L.5000 of gold.
It is on the mineral wealth of the county that its pros¬
perity chiefly depends. In 1854 there were 153 collieries,
employing 15,580 persons, and 13 ironworks, having 72
furnaces in blast, and 16 out of blast, and employing 3649
iron-miners, and about 1000 men in the management and
working of the furnaces. In the manufacture of malleable
iron, it may be stated that, up to 1842, the production did
not exceed 35,000 tons, whereas in 1854 it reached
122,400, the number of men employed in this branch
being about 4000. The amount of yearly wages paid to
the persons employed in the iron and coal works through¬
out Lanarkshire amounted, in 1854, to about L.1,352,400.
While these departments of industry give so much em¬
ployment to the population of Lanarkshire, the various
cotton, flax, silk, and woollen factories within its bounds
tend still more to give work and wages to the people.
In 1850 there were 85 cotton-spinning factories, having
864,088 spindles, and 18,811 power looms, employing 5013
males and 1 /,4o0 females \ 8 woollen factories, having
8765 spindles, and employing 115 males and 372 fe¬
males ; one worsted factory, having 96 spindles, and em¬
ploying 225 males and 78 females; four flax factories,
having 21,044 spindles, and employing 321 males and
808 females; and four silk factories, having 24,402
spindles, and employing 85 males and 418 females. The
176 LAN
Lanark- grand total being 102 factories, 918,395 spindles, 18,811
shire. power looms, and 24,885 persons employed. These last
n—figures show that those working in factories are 4-7 per
cent, of the population of Lanarkshire in 1851. Since
1850 there has been a considerable increase of cotton
manufactories within the county, some very extensive new
factories having been lately erected, although a few also
have unfortunately been consumed by fire. The progress of
cotton-spinning may be exampled from the fact that there
were only 44 cotton mills in 1831, having 640,188 spindles.
Lanarkshire is well supplied with roads, canals, and rail¬
ways. The great road from Glasgow to Carlisle and London
intersects the whole county, and in every direction it is
traversed by roads in the best state of repair. In addition
to the great and increasing navigation of the Clyde, the
Forth and Clyde Canal connects it with both friths. The
LAN
Monkland Canal brings down the mineral riches of that Lancashire,
district to Glasgow, and the Ardrossan Canal connects
Glasgow with Paisley and Johnston. Nowhere in Scot¬
land are more railways to be found. The Caledonian links
it with England and the north; the South-Western with
Ayrshire and Dumfries ; the Hamilton with Glasgow and
that burgh ; the Dumbartonshire with the Vale of Leven,
Helensburgh, and the Highlands ; and the Wishaw and
Coltness with the coal and iron fields of Wilsontown and
Shotts.
In population, no county in Scotland has increased so
rapidly as Lanarkshire. In 1801 it amounted to 146,699 ;
in 1811, to 191,752; in 1821, to 244,387; in 1831, to
316,819; in 1851, to 532,114. The following table gives
a vidimus of the population at the last and previous census
in the three different wards of the county.
Years.
Upper Ward.
Males.
Middle Ward.
Males.
Lower Ward.
Females.
Total.
1851
1841
19,570
17,756
20,702
19,078
61,411
50,451
57,620
46,321
176,713
143,290
196,098
157,203
257,694
211,497
274,420
222,602
532,114
434,099
Increase.
1814
1624
10,960
11,299
33,423
38,895
46,197
51,818
98,015
From the above table it will be observed that the total
increase upon the whole county, including the city of Glas¬
gow, from 1841 to 1851, was no less than 98,015, the in¬
creasebeing particularly observable in the manufacturing and
mining districts, the rate of increase over the whole county
being nearly 2-25 per cent, on the entire population of the
county, and the rate on the city of Glasgow being 23-62
per cent. In the upper ward, the excess of females in
1851 was 1132 ; in the middle ward, the excess of males
over females was 3791 ; and in the lower ward, the excess
of females over males was 19,385 ; while the excess of fe¬
males, which chiefly obtains in Glasgow, was, over the
whole county, 16,726. From the great increase of mining
operations in the middle ward, and of shipbuilding, en¬
gineering, and iron-works around Glasgow, attracting thither
hosts of workmen, since the last census was taken, the pre¬
sent population (1856) cannot be less than 600,000. As
the last Government census only gives the number of
houses, and not, as formerly, of distinct dwelling-houses, it
is impossible to state the precise number of inhabited
houses, as these are understood in Scotland, that is to say,
the houses, whether in flats or otherwise occupied, each by
a distinct family. As the number of separate occupiers or
families was found in 1851 to be 103,106, this figure may
be taken as a near approximation to the number of dis¬
tinct occupied houses within the whole county. In 1841,
these amounted to only 81,576.
The county of Lanark returns one M.P., the constitu¬
ency being in 1856 only 3126. Were the Registration of
Voters Act in burghs extended to counties, the constitu¬
ency would probably be trebled. The city of Glasgow
sends two members, with a constituency of (in 1856)
18,168 ; and the royal burghs of Lanark and Rutherglen,
and the towns of Hamilton and Airdrie, have a share in
the election of two other members ; Lanark, Hamilton, and
Airdrie being joined with Linlithgow and Falkirk; while
Rutherglen is linked with Kilmarnock, Renfrew, Dumbar¬
ton, and Port-Glasgow. Lanarkshire contains 55 parishes,
of which 11 belong to the Presbytery of Lanark, 14 to
that of Hamilton, and 21 to that of Glasgow, all in the
Synod of Glasgow and Ayr, and 9 to the Presbytery of
Biggar, in the Synod of Lothian and Tweeddale. Of cler¬
gymen, there are 95 belonging to the Establishment, 60
to the Free Church, 59 to the United Presbyterians, with
a fair proportion of Episcopalians, Baptists, Independents,
Roman Catholics, &c. For its judicial management the
county has one principal sheriff and six substitutes, the
principal and three substitutes being resident in Glasgow,
the other three being resident in Lanark, Hamilton, and
Airdrie. There are four prisons within the county, viz.,
at Glasgow, Hamilton, Lanark, and Airdrie. The follow¬
ing is the daily average number of criminal prisoners con¬
fined in each of these during the last four years :—
Year.
Glasgow.
Total.
1852- 53
1853- 54
1854- 55
1855- 56
22
13
13
23
71
37
34
34
34
139
19
30
34
33
580
574
547
461
658
651
628
551
116
2162
2488
It will be observed from the above table that, in spite of
an ever increasing population, there has been for four years
past an annual, diminution of criminal prisoners within the
jails of Lanarkshire.
The valued rent of Lanarkshire in 1674 was L.162,131
Scots, the valued rent in 1855-56, was as follows:—
City of Glasgow, including Railways and Canals, £1,336,475
County landward portion, do. do. 917,970
Hamilton, Burgh of do. do. 19,682
Airdrie do. do. do. 23,848
Rutherglen do, do. do. 11,581
Lanark do, do. do. 8,043
£2,317,599
(j. s—G.)
LANCASHIRE, a county of England, embracing the
larger part of the largest coal-field in Europe, and contain¬
ing upon its surface the larger share of the most numerous
manufacturing population in the world.
It is alike distinguished in a commercial and in a histori¬
cal sense. As a palatinate it gave sovereigns to the throne,
and as the seat of manufactures it is the recipient of a
moiety of the commerce of the kingdom. For purposes of
trade it is admirably situate, being for nearly 70 miles washed
on the W. by the Irish Sea, and having at the extreme S. the
port of the Mersey, which gives admittance to the largest
vessels. The figure of the county is extremely irregular. In¬
cluding the large indentations of the estuaries of the Mersey
LANCASHIRE.
Rivers
Mountains.
Lancashire, and the Ribble, and the Bay of Morecambe, in the county,
v—the western part presents a tolerably straight line, and the
outline of the whole county is estimated at 342 miles, the
area being 1765 square miles, or 1,129,600 acres, hardly
more than 900,000 of which are available for purposes of
agriculture.
The county is well watered, although the only port of
magnitude is that on the Mersey. Those of Preston, Fleet-
wood, and Lancaster are neither large nor much frequented.
The principal rivers are, the Mersey, the llibble, the Ir-
well, the Douglas, the Wyer, the Ken, the Leven, the
Duddon, and the Lune. 1 he smaller streams are numer¬
ous, but more remarkable for rendering the scenery pic¬
turesque than for any commercial or manufacturing purpose.
The Mersey rises in the hills of Yorkshire, passes by the
town of Stockport, enters the Irish Sea at Liverpool, and
separates Cheshire from Lancashire. It is navigable up to
Warrington, but is merely so far an inlet of the sea. At
Flixton it receives the Irwell, which originates in the moors
of Yorkshire, and passes by Bolton and Manchester. The
Ribble intersects the whole county, and is received into a
large arm of the sea a little below Preston. It is navigable
to very near that town. The Douglas has its source in the
hills around the Rivington Pike, passes by Wigan, and, after
receiving some smaller brooks, empties itself into the es¬
tuary of the Ribble. The largest river in the N. of the
county is the Lune, which, flowing from the hills of West¬
moreland, enters Kirby Lonsdale, is augmented by the Greta
and the Wenning, and after pursuing a south-westerly
course, becomes navigable 2 miles below Lancaster. The
Wyer rises in the moors between Lancashire and Yorkshire,
and flows into the W yer W ater near Poulton.
The only piece of water approaching the dimensions of a
lake is at Conistone, situated near Furness, parallel to Win¬
dermere Lake, a large portion of which is also in Lancashire.
The principal hills in this county are the “ Fells.” The
highest is Conistone Fell, in Furness, a part of which is
called “ Grey Friar,” or “ Old Man,” and is stated to be 2577
feet above the level of the sea. Pendle Hill, above Cli-
theroe, is 1803 feet; Bleasdale Forest, 1709 feet; and Ri¬
vington Pike, 1545 feet high. The other hills are Caton
Moor, Woolfell Crag, Padiham Heights, Longridge Fell,
Go Hill, Bollinga Hill, Whittle Hills, Cubbear Hill, Ha¬
milton Hill, Cartmell hells, Wharton Crag, Gragrith Fell,
and Blackstone Edge, which separates Yorkshire from Lan¬
cashire. The greater portion of these hills are compara¬
tively barren.
As the greater portion of Southern Lancashire lies low,
the progress of cultivation was in several places interrupted
by mosses, bearing a close resemblance to the bogs of Ire¬
land. Many of these have been drained, and the process
is still going on. The largest mosses were Chat, Pilling,
Frafford, Risley, Ashton, Road, BickerstafF, Rainford, Mar-
ton, St Michael’s, Catforth, and Hough. Many of these
have almost ceased to exist, and even Chat Moss, the largest,
is now being rapidly encroached upon by agricultural en¬
terprise. Some of these mosses, from time to time, have
exhibited the phenomenon known in Ireland by the term
“ moving bog.” In 1033, Hough Moss moved from its
ancient site, and did considerable damage. In the same cen-
tury, Chat Moss presented a similar eruption. In 1744
Pilling Moss rose to a surprising height, passed to the ad¬
joining ground, covering nearly 100 acres of land, just as in
1771, Solvyay Moss, in Scotland, floated away upon the lower
lands. Pilling Moss has since been reclaimed.
Anciently there were several forests, principally at Myers-
cough, Fullwood, Bleasdale, W yersdale, and Quernmoor,
situate in the northern part of the county, and these be¬
longed to the duchy of Lancaster. 1 he forests have now
all disappeared, but the land appertains to the crown, and
contributes to the income of the duchy.
VOL. XIII.
177
\ flosses
!orests
The soil is very unequal, and the progress of agriculture, Lancashire,
until very recently, was remarkably slow. An agricultural
society has existed for about two-thirds of a century, but it Soil and
is only now that landowners are encouraging their tenants climate,
to drain and adopt a scientific system of a rotation of crops.
In general the farms are small, and the overflow of opu¬
lent people on the environs of towns renders husbandry
more fanciful than profitable. The demands for villa pro¬
perty drive back the farmers, and leave only a moderate
quantity available for market-gardening. The climate, too,
is humid in consequence of the proximity of the sea and the
obstructive high lands which rise in the N. of the county.
The rain fall is heavy; in mountain districts, according to
Mr Miller, the fall of rain increases in quantity from the
valley upwards; but the greatest rain fall is found at an
elevation of 1000 feet. In the district of Rivington Pike,
Mr Hawksly has found, at elevations varying from 430 feet
to 1800 feet, the fall of rain to be 56b inches, and the quan-
tity flowing off the ground 44 inches, leaving 12J inches
for evaporation and absorption. On the lower ground the
fall varies from 30 to 40 inches.
Archaeology has recently dug evidence out of tumuli of History,
a tolerable British civilization prior to the arrival of the
Romans. According to such dubious proofs as the records
afford, the S. of Lancashire was inhabited by a people
who bore the name of Setantii or Segantii, interpreted to
mean “ dwellers in the country of water,” and their capital,
it is alleged, stood on the Ribble. The northern part of
the county, in common with Yorkshire and Cumberland,
was peopled by the Brigantes, and their name occurs most
frequently in the Roman annals, because with them most
of their wars were waged. Recent writers contend that the
Gauls and the Saxons were for centuries confined to the
E. of England, and that the people of the N. were de¬
rived from Scandinavia. The dialect, not yet extinct, of
certain parts of the county, would seem to give some slight
support to this opinion: thus a scythe is called a liar, the
pure Icelandic word for that instrument.
The Romans established stations at Manchester (Man-
cunium), Warrington (Veratinum), Ribchester (Rerigo-
niuvi), Colne (Culunium), Blackrode {Coccium), Lancaster
{Ad Alaunam), and Overborough {Bremetoniacuni). These
they connected by a network of roads, some five feet wide,
and others much wider. They diverged from Blackroad,
and embraced all the southern stations then running di¬
rectly to Chester and York. Four of these roads still remain
two from N. to S., and two from E. to W. During their
dominion in Britain, Lancashire and Yorkshire were called
Maxima Ccesariensis, or Britannia Superior. Under the
domination of the heptarchy Lancashire formed part of the
kingdom of Northumberland. This arrangement existed
from 547 to 926. After the introduction of Christianity, the
churches became numerous in Lancashire, as in the other
Saxon provinces; and near to each church was erected a
castle. Twelve of these castles,—Walley, Walton, Child-
wall and Winwick, Blackstone, Tephton, Standish and Pen-
wrortham, Wigan, Rochdale, Middleton and Bury, were
erected at the S. of the Ribble. In the N., as the religious
houses were larger, we may infer more local opulence.
The political divisions of the county resembled those of
the Teutonic people everywhere, and probably were like
those which prevailed previous to the arrival of the Romans,
for that people seldom interfered with the local arrangements
of the countries they conquered. Lancashire was divided
into six hundreds ; the four northern, Lonsdale, Amounder-
ness, Blackburn, and Leyland, constitute the northern divi¬
sion ; while the south division consisted of Salford and West
Derby.
I revious to the Norman conquest this county was dis¬
tinguished as^ an honour, on which lordships and manors
depended. I he lands of such honours were granted by
178 L A N C A
Lancashire, the kings in fee to noblemen, who were hound to keep
. r honour courts; inferior to these courts were manor courts
and wapentakes.
The Norman conquest produced a great change. In the
Doomsday Book, or Census Book, of William the Conqueror,
the name of Lancashire does not appear; and the lands be¬
tween the Mersey and the Kibble were then of so little
value, that they are set down at L.120.
The barons of the honour of Lancashire were changed,
and Roger de Poictou placed his barons in Liverpool, Wid-
ness, Warrington, Newton, Stockport, and in different pas¬
sages from Rochdale, along the hills of Clitheroe, at Horn¬
by, on the River Wyer, Furness, Pen worth an, on the Ribble,
and at the various points throughout the county, holding
himself the Castle of Lancaster. The land between the
Ribble and the Mersey subsequently came into possession
of William Earl of Ferrars, who took the title of Earl of
Derby, and was made chief lord of the whole county. His
successors held the office until 1265, when the then Earl of
Derby forfeited his title and his lands, by having taken
part with Simon de Montford. Henry III. gave these pos¬
sessions, with the honour of Lancaster, to his youngest son,
Edmund Crouchback, who was created the first Earl of
Lancaster. In 1253 this earl was invested with the do¬
minion of Sicily and Apulia, and had the title of King of
Sicily. From this incident date some of the most remark¬
able events in English history. Edmund was enriched by
grants and possessions, and in that way was laid the foun¬
dation of the greatness which identified, for so many years,
the house of Lancaster with the throne. The earls of Lan¬
caster henceforth lived in royal state. Edward HI. created
Henry Plantagenet the first Duke of Lancaster, and the
daughter of the first duke married John of Gaunt, the
fourth son of Edward HI., who, on the death of his father,
was created Duke of Lancaster. His son, Henry IV.,
decreed by act of parliament, that the revenues and titles
should remain to him and his heirs for ever a distinct and
separate inheritance of the crown. John of Gaunt, by his
great influence and great deeds, succeeded in advancing
the county to the dignity of a palatinate. In addition to
Chester and Lancaster, Pembroke and Durham were pa¬
latines, but the jurisdiction was taken away by Henry
VIII. from Pembrokeshire, and in the reign of George IV.
from Cheshire. The Duke of Lancaster had jura regalia
within the county, subject only to the king’s general su¬
periority. He had a court of chancery and a court of
common pleas; appointed judges, magistrates, and law
officers ; pardoned treasons, murders, and felonies; and all
writs and judicial proceedings were issued in his name, the
king’s writs being of no force within the county. Henry
VIII., however, greatly diminished these privileges. He
took away the power of appointing judges and magistrates,
and denied to the duke the privilege of pardoning felons,
ordering that all writs should run in the king’s name, but
to be witnessed in the name of the duke. When the crown
obtained possession of the palatinate, a duchy court was
established, in which all questions of revenue and counsel
affecting the duchy’s possessions were to be heard and de¬
cided. The court was originally held in the duchy office
in Westminster, but it is now permanently fixed at Lan-
caster-place, Waterloo Bridge, London. The court, as a
court of equity for cases arising within the county, sat at
Preston, but its operations were, for a long time, merely
nominal. This arose from the fact of the six cursitors in
the court at Preston retaining all the costs and fees. At¬
torneys, therefore, declined to frequent the court, preferring
the higher court, where the law was considered to be much
better administered. Within the last few years, however,
the powers of the court have been considerably enlarged,
and a registrar, holding offices in Liverpool and Manchester,
enables local solicitors to transact much of their business
SHIRE.
within the county. The principal court is still at Preston, Lancashire,
but the vice-chancellor attends at every assize in Liver-
pool to transact the business of his office, which of late has
considerably increased. At Lancaster a receiver attends
annually to transact the pecuniary business of the duchy.
The chancellorship of the duchy is a ministerial office,
without ostensible duties attached.
The forest laws existed in the Saxon time, and the chief
men of the forests were endowed with extraordinary powers.
They continued to be exercised until a comparatively re¬
cent period. They fell, however, into disuse, and were
ultimately abolished by the wars of the houses of York and
Lancaster, but the records of its proceedings are extremely
meagre. In 1588 the chancellor’s fee was L.288, 16s. 4d.,
and the sum paid to all the officers in salaries was L.641,
3s. 4d. Some years ago the revenue of the duchy was esti¬
mated at L.14,000; the disbursements, L.l 1,741 ; remain¬
ing in custody of the receiver, L.2258. In 1830 Sir Henry
Parnell obtained a select committee to inquire into the
civil list. The object was to separate the proper expenses
of the crown from other charges mixed up with them ; but
the result was unproductive of anything more than a no¬
minal alteration. William IV. retained the revenues of the
duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall. That of Lancaster is
permanently annexed to the crown, but that of Cornwall
belongs to the crown only when there is no Prince of Wales.
Until recently, no return was ever laid before parliament.
The gross income of the duchy of Lancaster enjoyed by
the crown in 1843 was L.33,037; but the sum paid to the
keeper of Her Majesty’s privy purse was only L.13,000; the
difference is exhausted in the payment of officers, and in
charges paid by the woods and forests. The duchy has
considerable possessions out of Lancashire. From the crea¬
tion of Lancashire into a palatinate the history ot the
county merges into that of the kingdom; for the wars ot
the Roses, and the Rebellion of 1745, are of general, rather
than of local interest.
From a very early period Lancashire was remarkable Manufac*
for the production of cloth. Manchester, in the sixteenth ture.
century, was a market for woollen fabrics ; around it were
settled numerous weavers, and these were supplied with
yarn from the midland counties, from Scotland, but par
ticularly from Ireland. In 1650 they were distinguished
for their manufacturing industry, and in 1720 Manchester
had a reputation for enterprise and wealth. The great im¬
pediment, however, was the scarcity of cotton yarn. In
1769, however, Arkwright made known his first discovery ;
discoveries and improvements followed, and Lancashire
may now be said to monopolize the most of the cotton
manufacture of the kingdom. Silk manufactures were not
introduced before 1819, but is now an extensive trade.
Since 1851 the population has greatly increased, and so
has the cotton trade. In the article Cotton all the facts
will be found ; but the following return of the export of cot¬
ton manufactures for the first six months of 1854, 1855,
and 1856, will show that the increase continues:—
1854. Quantity. Value.
Cotton manufactures  862,242,082 yards ... £12,395,1/0
Ditto yarns  70,908,290 1b. ... £3,255,035
1855. Quantity. Value.
Cotton manufactures  964,868,662 yards ... £12,840,203
Ditto yarns  77,653,787 1b. ... £3,295,770
1856. Quantity. Value.
Cotton manufactures  1,002,400,985 yards ... £14,032,602
Ditto yarns...  84,467,782 1b. ... £3,643,5/5
Mr James Heywood in 1838 published a map of the Coal-field.
Lancashire coal-field. It commences within 5 miles of
Liverpool at Tarbock, and runs to Colne, 45 miles; its
greatest width is 30 miles, and the bed forms a figure like
the beak of an eagle, the bill towards Liverpool. In the 8.
it is surrounded by red sandstone, and in the N. by grit-
LANCASHIRE.
179
Lancashire, stone. It keeps at a distance of about 5 miles from the
River Mersey, and touches it only at Stockport. The coal¬
field extends into Cheshire and N. Wales, and is separated
only by a brief interval from the coal-field of Yorkshire.
Mr Dickinson, inspector of coal mines, enumerates the
number of collieries in Lancashire, Cheshire, and North
Wales as follows :—
334 are in Lancashire,
28 ... Cheshire,
5 ... Anglesea,
30 ... Flintshire, and
26 ... Denbighshire.
Total......423
“ The number,” he says, “ of working pits or shafts, exclu¬
sive of those used solely for air, is 879, besides 60 additional
winnings by levels and inclined planes called ‘ day-eyes,’
making a total of 939 separate winnings, whereby coal is
now being worked. The pits are of various depths up to
520 yards. Shafts of greater depth are proposed ; but at
present 520 yards is the greatest depth of any working pit.
Deeper coals have been worked by inclined planes from the
bottom of shafts, and workings are now going on in this way
at about 600 yards below the surface. 679 of the pits are
in Lancashire; 50 in Cheshire; and 150 in North Wales.
Their average depth is 115 yards; those of Lancashire
being 118 yards; Cheshire 123 yards; and North Wales
97 yards. The united depth of the working pits being up¬
wards of 57 miles.
“ The number of persons employed in and about the
collieries in 1852 amounted to 38,800; of whom 31,950
were employed underground, and 6850 on the surface;
viz.:—
Above ground. Below ground. Total employed.
In Lancashire  5370 25,530 30,900
... Cheshire  560 2,140 2,700
... North Wales  920 4,280 5,200
Total  6850 31,950 38,800
Tons.
Quantity raised in Lancashire in 1852  8,255,000
Cheshire   715,000
North Wales   953,000
Total produce of the district   9,923,000
The consumption of Manchester is estimated at two
million tons a year, but it is understood that the cost of car¬
riage forbids coal being brought into that city from a greater
distance than 12 miles.
The export of coal from Great Britain in 1855 was
4,568,235 tons, and of this quantity only 331,623 tons were
from Lancashire.
Minerals. A not very old author, West, describes the iron mines at
Whitrigs, near Ulverstone, as the greatest in the kingdom,
but, with the cessation of wood-fuel, iron ceased to be worked
in the county. “In Lancashire,” says Mr Binney, F.G.S.,
in the Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society
of Manchester, “ many beds of cannel run into blackband,
in a similar manner to what often takes place in Scotland.
However, it is in the upper coal-field that the most valuable
ores occur. Above tbe four-feet mine at Patricroft, and
extending under Chat Moss, is a bed of the carbonate of pro¬
toxide ot iron, about 2 feet 6 inches in thickness. This was
found in sinking the shafts of Messrs Lancaster and Co.’s at
Patricroft, not far from the Liverpool and Manchester Rail-
way. On analysis, the ore yielded about 72 per cent, of
carbonate of iron, and the gentleman, a medical man, who
analysed it, told me that it was pure enough to be used for
medicinal purposes. Above the three-quarters mine at
Bradford, and over the main limestone at Ardwick, are
beds of blackband of 12 and 6 inches, respectively, in thick¬
ness, the representatives, beyond all doubt, of the red stone
of the pottery coal-field, as their geological position, and Lancashire
the fossils they contain, are exactly the same. Some of the
above beds of ironstone only want thoroughly investigating
to make them worthy of attention.
“ In the middle coal-field are many argillacious and
blackband ores fully as rich as those wrought in other
places, and so situated that they could be calcined together
with great advantage. Amongst the former are those of
Clifton and St Helens, and doubtless many other places
in the same position; and amongst the latter the black
stone above the cannel mine at Wigan, and several impure
cannels and blackbands in that neighbourhood and about
Dixon Fold. Below the four-feet coal at Rendleton a
carbonaceous blackband was found in sinking Mr Fitz¬
gerald’s pit, about four feet in thickness.
“ The vast deposits of haematite found in the N. of Lanca¬
shire, in the hundred of Furness, occur in great clefts of the
carboniferous limestone. These, no doubt, from their great
purity, being but little mixed with foreign matters, had their
origin from volcanic sources, on or near the spot where they
are now found. Some of them, probably, may have come up
through the bottom of the clefts in which they occur; and
others, from a short distance, have flowed with water into
their present positions.”
The population of the county was, in Popula-
1801  671,486 j 1841 1,667,054 tion-
1821 1,052,948 | 1851 2,031,236
In fifty years the increase is 201 per cent. Of the
2,031,236 persons, 1,852,103 reside in towns, thus reducing
the rural population to 179,133 persons. Of the entire
population, 290,948 were engaged in the manufacture of
cotton, 85,732 were domestic servants, 38,798 were occu¬
pied in farm labour, and 29,793 were employed in the manu¬
facture of silk.
The population about Manchester is most dense, for
within ten miles of the city are the great manufacturing
towns of Bolton, Bury, Rochdale, Oldham, Ashton, and
Stockport, with a multitude of minor places, all more or less
engaged in manufactures.
In 1800 the common roads were much complained of; but Canals,
nearly fifty years before the people of Liverpool projected
the Sankey canal, for the purpose of bringing coal from
near St Helens to Liverpool. It was not quite 10 miles
long. The Duke of Bridgewater soon after projected his
first canal; it was subsequently united to the Staffordshire
Canal, or Grand Trunk Navigation, and joined Liverpool
to Bristol and Hull. The Leeds and Liverpool Canal was
commenced in 1770, and ultimately, by a circuitous route
of 130 miles, joins Liverpool and Leeds. In addition to
these canals there are the Lancaster Canal, the Manchester
Canal, the Manchester and Oldham Canal, the Rochdale
Canal, and the Ulverstone Canal.
By railways nearly all canals have been converted into Railways,
merely auxiliary means of transit. The first railroad on
which locomotives were used was opened in 1830, between
Liverpool and Manchester. Lancashire is now traversed
by a multitude of iron roads; one from S. to N. bisects
the county, three cross it, at intervals from each other,
and these are connected with each other by twelve union
lines.
In a manufacturing and trading population like that of Social
Lancashire pauperism is always considerable, sometimes state,
large. Employment is not always constant, and “strikes,”
or “ turn-outs,” frequently interfere with the resources of the
working classes. Comparatively, however, the poor rates
press less heavily in this than in the majority of other coun¬
ties. The cost per head on population in 1801 was 4s. 4d.
in Lancashire; in the other counties it ranged from 4s. 8d.
to 16s. In 1821 it was 4s. 8d. in Lancashire, and in other
counties it was as high as 1 7s. 6d. In 1841 it was 3s. 6d.
in Lancashire, as high as 10s. in Bucks, and the lowest was
180 LAN
Lancaster. 3s. 9d. in Monmouthshire. The cost per head in the prin-
cipal poor-law unions in England and Wales was 4s. 3id. in
1854, and 4s. ll^d. in 1855.
Religion Religious zeaf exhibited itself ardently after the intro-
and educa- duction of Christianity, and wherever there was a castle in
tion- Lancashire there was a church. The religious houses,
however, were not very numerous, but we find three very
distinguished ones: one in Furness, one in Cockersand,
and one in Wahaley. Originally the N. of Lancashire
appertained to the see of York, but before the Norman in¬
vasion it had been annexed to the province of Canterbury
and the diocese of Lichfield, and continued so until the
sixteenth century. An alteration then took place, and a
large portion of South Lancashire was included in the
diocese of Chester. In 1835, however, ecclesiastical com¬
missioners were appointed to consider the state of the
Established Church, with reference to ecclesiastical duties
and revenues. These commissioners recommended the
formation of two new sees in the province of York; videlicet,
one at Manchester, and the other at Ripon. Subsequently
they recommended that the deanery of Furness and Cart-
mel should be added to the diocese of Carlisle, but that the
deaneries of Amounderness, Blackburn, Leyland, Man¬
chester, and Warrington, then forming part of the diocese
of Chester, should be included in the diocese of Manchester.
In 1836, with some slight alteration, this proposition re¬
ceived the sanction of the law. The income of the Bishop
of Manchester is not to be less than L.4000, nor more than
L.5000 per year.
The Reformation seems to have encountered more oppo¬
sition in Lancashire than in any other county. The prin¬
cipal Catholic families adhered to their own church, and of
course sustained the Catholic population dependent upon
them. In the reigns of Elizabeth and Mary, penal laws
were intended to apply particularly to this county, and the
sufferings they entailed are told with great minuteness by
the Catholic historians. In the reign of Charles L, the
Lancashire Catholics were ardent loyalists, and they were
not less attached to the cause of his sons. The gunpowder
plot, however, brought down upon them the vengeance of
the law, and their sufferings at that time were most severe.
Persecution, however, seldom makes converts, and the
largest Catholic population in England is still found in
Lancashire, augmented constantly by immigration from
Ireland.
The creeds of the people of Lancashire seem to have
been affected by other circumstances, for it has been found
that dissent is most extensive where manufactures prevail.
Thus, at the census in 1851, there belonged to the Estab¬
lished Church in Lancashire 529 places of worship, con¬
taining 389,546 sittings; of all other denominations, 1098
places of worship, containing 423,789 sittings. The num¬
ber present in the Established Church on the Sunday on
which the census were taken was 222,810; of Protestant
dissenters, 227,634; Roman Catholics, 104,302. The
total attendance was 554,746, a little more than one-fourth
of the population.
The Scottish Presbyterians had 22 places of worship;
Independents, 170; Baptists, 100; Wesleyan Methodists,
521; Calvinistic Methodists, 19. This will indicate, to
some extent, the comparative proportion of dissenters.
In 1851 there were 3014 day schools in Lancashire,
having 215,847 scholars. The number of Sunday schools
was 1524, and the number of scholars, 323,173. (w. J.w.)
LANCASTER, a municipal and parliamentary borough
and seaport-town of England, capital of Lancashire, on the
left bank of the Lune, about 7 miles from its mouth in Lan¬
caster Bay. The town stands on the slope of a hill, on the
summit of which is a fine old castle originally built in the
eleventh century, but rebuilt in the reign of Edward III.,
by John of Gaunt, and now used as the county gaol. The
LAN
county courts attached to this building are chiefly of a mo- Lancaster
dern date, and are very commodious. On the north side II
of the castle stands St Mary’s Church, an edifice in the Lancaster,
later English style, containing carved stalls, screen, and mo-
numents. Though the town is finely situated, the streets are
generally narrow, ill-paved, and inconvenient. The houses
are generally well built, the material being obtained from the
freestone quarries in the vicinity. Among the public build¬
ings are a town-hall, lunatic asylum, theatre, assembly-
rooms, public baths, custom-house, several alms-houses,
and a free grammar school. The Lune is here crossed by
a handsome stone bridge of five arches. The river is na¬
vigable for vessels of 300 tons up to the town. About half
a mile N.E. of the town the Lancaster Canal is conducted
over the Lune by means of a noble aqueduct erected by
Rennie at a coast of LAS,000. The Lancaster and Pres¬
ton Junction Railway, forming a portion of the great north¬
western line stretching from London to Carlisle, Glasgow,
and Edinburgh, passes through the town. Manufactures of
cotton, silk, linen, and sailcloth ; cabinet-making and uphol¬
stery and ship-building ; marble-polishing works and iron
foundries are carried on. On 31st December 1855, 88
sailing vessels of 8996 tons, and 9 steamers of 1148 tons,
were registered as belonging to the port. During that year
1719 vessels of 127,443 tons entered, and 780 vessels of
78,475 tons left the port in the coasting trade; while 13
vessels of 3709 tons entered, and 8 vessels of 2751 tons left
in the colonial and foreign trade. Lancaster is governed
by a mayor, 6 aldermen, and 18 councillors; and returns
two’members to parliament. Pop. of parliamentary borough
(1851), 16,168; municipal borough, 14,604.
Lancaster, a town of the United States of North Ame¬
rica, capital of Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, is situate
near the right bank of Conestoga Creek, an affluent of the
Susquehanna, 70 miles W. of Philadelphia by railway. It
is one of the oldest towns of the state, and was capital of
Pennsylvania from 1799 to 1812, when the government was
transferred to Harrisburg, the present capital. Its streets
are regularly laid out, and the houses are substantial and
commodious edifices, mostly of brick. The chief public
buildings are—the county prison, the new court-house, an
elegant edifice in the Grecian style, and Fulton Hall, for
public meetings and assemblies. Franklin College, which was
founded here in 1787, but afterwards declined, has been re¬
cently united with Marshall College of Mercersburg, and a
building called Franklin and Marshall College has been
erected.
The cotton manufacture is carried on with much success
here, as well as that of rifles, carriages, and threshing ma¬
chines. The population is, for the most part, of Ger¬
man origin. Lancaster is well supplied with churches and
schools, and public libraries. It has 16 churches, 5 being
Lutheran and German Reformed, 2 Roman Catholic, 2
Presbyterian, 2 Methodist, and the rest belonging to smaller
sects. Lancaster was founded in 1730, and incorporated
as a city in 1818. Pop. (1840) 8417; (1850) 12,369;
(1854) about 14,000.
Lancaster, a town of the United States of North Ame¬
rica, capital of Fairfield county, Ohio, is situate on both
sides of the Hocking River, an affluent of the Ohio, 30
miles S.E. of Columbus. It stands in a beautiful and fer¬
tile valley, through which the Hocking and Ohio Canal
passes. The town is well built, and contains several churches,
while it is connected by railway and canal with the principal
towns of the district. In the neighbourhood is a natural
pyramid of sandstone. Lancaster was founded in 1800.
Pop. (1850) 3480 ; (1854) about 5000.
LANCASTER, Sir James, an English seaman of the
Elizabethan era, noted as the commander of the first expe¬
dition sent out by the East India Company in 1600-1603; be¬
sides accomplishing all that he was sent out to do, he opened
LAN
Lancaster, commercial negotiations between his employers and some
Joseph 0f tile petty princes Gf Java and Sumatra. During his
Landen voyage he Earned enough about the north-west passage to
^ r Jy feel assured of its practicability. When he reached home
he urged the matter so strongly that expeditions were sent
out under Weymouth, Hudson, and other experienced na¬
vigators. 1 he secret was not destined to be unriddled for
two centuries and a half later ; but Baffin, one of those who
advanced farthest N., gave the name of Lancaster Sound
to a strait which has now been found to communicate with
the Arctic Ocean. Had the explorers pushed their way
through this sound they would have solved the mystery of
the north-west passage. Lancaster’s services were acknow¬
ledged with the title of knighthood. Lie died in 1620.
The history of his discoveries is given in vol. iii. of Hak¬
luyt’s I oyages, and vol. i. of Purchas’ Pilgrims.
Lancastek, Joseph, an educational reformer of much
note, was the son of a retired private in the Foot Guards, and
was born at London in 1778. When a mere lad he opened
a school, on the principle of mutual instruction, for poor chil¬
dren, in the wretched purlieus of Southwark. Before he
was twenty-three he had more than 300 pupils, who, ac¬
cording to his system, were taught for almost nothing. His
pamphlet on the Amelioration of Education had an im¬
mense success, and brought him under the notice of the
Duke of Bedford, and finally of George HI., whose en¬
couragement gave a great impulse to the establishment of
Lancasterian schools throughout the country. Extending
his views, Lancaster set out in 1807 on a tour through the
chief towns of England and Scotland. He was a devoted
member of the Society of Friends; and the Anglican clergy,
finding that he admitted children of every sect into his
schools, began to cry out that the church was in danger,
and opposed him with all their might. Lancaster was im¬
prudent ; his imprudence resulted in his ruin in Great Bri¬
tain, and in 1818 he set off to try his fortunes in the new
world. He was at first well received, but his zeal again
outran his judgment, and in 1829 he emigrated to Canada.
The Canadian parliament awarded him some small grants,
with a view to giving his experiments fair play. lil luck
again attended him, and he was only saved from great dis¬
tress by some kind friends, who purchased a small annuity
for him. Retiring to New York, he died there in very re¬
duced circumstances, October 24, 1838. Lancaster was
the author of several small elementary text-books and pam¬
phlets, in which he advocated his views of education. What¬
ever be the value of Lancaster’s system of instruction, it
must cheerfully be confessed that his labours gave a power¬
ful stimulus to the education of the lower classes in Eng¬
land, where numerous schools on his plan still exist.
LANCASTER SOUND. See Polar Seas.
LANCIANO (the ancient Axanum), a town of Naples,
province of Abruzzo-Citra, 6 miles from the Adriatic, and 13
miles S.E. from Chieti. Its commerce, though once exten¬
sive, is now comparatively small. The chief buildings are,
the archbishop’s palace, cathedral, and several of the parish
churches and convents. It has an ecclesiastical seminary,
and some other schools. Pop. 14,250.
LANDAU, a fortified town of Germany, in Rhenish
Bavaria, is situated on the Queich, distant 18 miles N.W.
from Carlsruhe. Its chief manufactures are, linens, wool¬
lens, tobacco, oil, and fire-arms. The houses are well built
and commodious, and arranged in regular streets ; while the
buildings specially noticeable are, an arsenal, some military
establishments, a Roman Catholic church, two Protestant
churches, and Latin, agricultural, and industrial schools.
From the fifteenth century it has been an object of contest
in every great European war; and from 1680 to 1815 it
was generally held by the French.
LANDEN, John, a distinguished mathematician of the
eighteenth century, the English D’Alembert, as he is called
LAN 181
by the French, was born at Peakirk in Northamptonshire in Lander
1719, and died in 1790. The most of his time was spent II
in the pursuits of active life, but he early showed strong bandes.
talent for mathematical study, which he eagerly cultivated at
his leisure hours. In 1762 he was appointed agent to Earl
Fitzwilliam, and held that office till within two years of his
death. Beyond these facts nothing is known of his private
history, which seems to have been more than usually un¬
eventful. He lived a very retired life, and saw little or
nothing of society. When he did mingle in it, his dogma¬
tism and pugnacity caused him to be generally shunned.
He first made himself known as a mathematician in 1744,
by his essays in the Ladies' Diary for that year. Besides
his separate works, he communicated to the Royal Society
at different times valuable papers on the most difficult parts
of mathematical and physical science, all of them distin¬
guished by depth and powerful ingenuit)-. One of the
most memorable of his achievements was a new form of the
fluxionary calculus, which he published in 1758, under the
title of Residual Analysis. The plan proposed, though
inelegant and needlessly complex, may be deemed on the
whole an improvement on the method of ultimate ratios.
To confer more consequence on his innovation, he contrived
likewise a set of symbols and applied his algorithm to the
solution of different problems ; but it never attained any
currency, and soon fell into oblivion.
Landen’s works, not included in the Transactions of the
Royal Society, are, a volume of Mathematical Lucubra¬
tions, 1755; the Residual Analysis, 1764; two volumes
of Memoirs ; and some tracts on Converging Series.
LANDER, Richard, a distinguished African traveller,
was born in Cornwall in 1804. He was brought up as a
printer, but abandoned that trade to enter the service of Cap¬
tain Clapperton, whom he accompanied on his second journey
to Africa in 1822. This expedition was attended with im¬
portant results. (See Clapperton.) Returning to England
in 1829, Lander submitted to government a plan for explor¬
ing the course of the Niger, which was accepted. He solved
the great problem of the course of that river, by tracing it
down from Yaouri, above Boussa, to its mouth in the Bight
of Benin, and returned to England in 1831, after an absence
of a year and a half. In the following year he again set out
with his brother, with the view of tracing it up to Timbuc-
too. The expedition proved a total failure. Richard Lan¬
der was killed in an encounter with the natives, and his
brother perished from the effects of the climate. (See
Africa.
LANDERNEAU, a seaport-town of France, depart¬
ment of Finistere, in the valley of the Landerneau or Elorn,
13 miles N.E. from Brest. The chief articles of its com¬
merce are, linen goods and thread, glazed hats, leather, mi¬
litary equipments, honey, Dutch cheese, wax, corn, and
horses. Vessels of 400 tons burthen can enter its harbour,
and about 700 are said to visit it yearly. Pop. 5113.
LANDES, Les (The Heaths), a maritime department in
the S.W. of France, part of the old province of Gascogne, is
bounded on the N. by the department of Gironde, E. by
Lot-et-Garonne and Gers, S. by Basses-Pyrenees, and W.
by the Bay of Biscay. It extends from N. Lat. 43. 28. to
44. 38., and from E. Long. 0. 7. to 1. 33. W. The Adour,
flowing westward, divides it into two unequal portions. The
northern abounds in pine-woods, furze, and brushwood.
Numerous lagoons lie along the coast, and shifting sands are
everywhere in the interior. Of the entire area, consisting of
2,303,400 acres, a sixth is arable, a third under wood, and a
half sterile. Buffalos and wild horses are found in the
Landes, and ill-favoured sheep are tended by shepherds, who
stalk over the sand and prickly shrubs on stilts. The soil is
a dull gray sand, and its only crops are a few scattered patches
of maize and barley. The southern portion, called Chalosse,
is traversed by offsets of the Pyrenees, watered by the af-
182
LAN
LAN
Landgrave fluents of the Adour, and is of considerable^ fertility, pro-
11 ducing corn, wine, and fruit in abundance. The climate of
Landon. Lan(jes js milcl, but unhealthy, especially along the coast.
Its natural products are, timber, coal, iron-ore, stone, and mar¬
ble. Rosin, pitch, and tar, glass, porcelain, earthenware,
paper, and leather are manufactured. Its principal rivers are
the Leyre, Adour, and Gave-de-Pau. It is divided into three
arrondissements, Dax, Mont de Marsan, and St Sever; into
28 cantons, and 333 communes. Pop. (1851) 302,196.
Mont de Marsan is the chief town.
LANDGRAVE (land, earth ; and grciff, a count), a
name given to those counts of Germany who claimed to take
their rank from a large province or territory. The title was
originally given to the four princes of Thuringia, Hesse, Al¬
sace, and Leuchtenberg; but there are other landgraves,
who are not princes, but counts of the empire.
LANDON, LyETiTiA Elizabeth (Mrs Maclean), well
known for the pleasing, and at one time highly popular
poetry, which she wrote under her initials, L. E. L., was
born in 1802, at Chelsea, near London. Till her four¬
teenth year her time was spent almost equally between town
and country, but in 1815 she settled, with her father’s fa¬
mily, at Brompton. A near neighbour in that suburb was
Mr Jerdan, the editor of the Literary Gazette. Some small
pieces which she submitted to him were inserted in that
journal. These were followed by others of a higher strain,
and in a short time it became the fashion to admire the
verses of L. E. L. Just as she was emerging into popu¬
larity, her father died, in very straitened circumstances.
The duty of supporting his family fell upon her, and litera¬
ture, with which she had at first only coquetted, now became
the liusiness of her life. Besides occasional pieces in verse,
she contributed largely and regularly in prose to the Lite¬
rary Gazette, chiefly critical notices of novels, and books of
poetry and travels. Her intimate connection with that
journal and its editor seemed to countenance a false and
cruel scandal, which gave the most exquisite pain to its vic¬
tim. In 1821 Miss Landon published her first consider¬
able work, under the title of The Fate of Adelaide, a
Swiss Romantic Tale, and other Poems. She speedily fol¬
lowed it up with the Improvisatrice, the Troubadour,
the Golden Violet, the Venetian Bracelet, and a good
many other efforts equally long. At the same time, there
was hardly a journal of any note in which she did not scat¬
ter some of the waifs and strays of her fancy. In 1831, and
the six following years, she edited Fishers Scrap-Book, an
annual which, under her care, reached a rare standard of ex¬
cellence as well as popularity. She also found time to write
three novels, Ethel Churchill, Francesca Carrara, and
Romance and Reality. In 1838 Miss Landon was mar¬
ried to Mr Maclean, governor of Cape Coast Castle. Ex¬
cept in so far as her health was delicate, her married life
was a happy and peaceful one. She had long suffered
■f' severely from a complication of nervous diseases, and was
in the habit of relieving her pain with small doses of prus¬
sic acid. One day, October 15, 1839, she was found dead
in her room, holding in her hand a phial of her usual medi-
■* cine. She had accidentally taken an overdose, and death
had been instantaneous. The circumstances of the case
gave rise to vague and cruel suspicions, now known to have
^ * been utterly groundless.
L. E. L.’s poetical works show her to have possessed a
rich fancy, a fine vein of sentimental melancholy, and ex¬
cellent power of expressing romantic emotion. She de¬
lighted to choose her subjects from the old romance, and
to treat them romantically. This, in probably a greater
degree than their poetical quality, was the secret of their
success. Had she been in circumstances to concentrate
her powers, she might have earned for herself a niche in
the English temple of fame; but, like Mrs Hemans, she
wasted her strength in a rapid succession of small efforts,
which served their time, and then were forgotten. HadLamlsberg
she lived she might perhaps have fulfilled the promise of II
high genius held out by her youthful effusions. Lanfranc.
In 1841 Mr Laman Blanchard published the Life and
Literary Remains of L. E. L. From this work it is evi¬
dent that her life was in the main a painful one; yet it is
also asserted that the melancholy of her verses is in com¬
plete contrast to the vivacity and playfulness of her man¬
ners in private life.
LANDSBERG, a town of Prussia, province of Bran¬
denburg, and capital of a cognominal circle, situate on the
Wartha, 37 miles N.E. from Frankfort. It has a small
shipping trade; and its manufactures comprise chiefly
woollen and linen cloths, hosiery, leather, and paper. It is
fortified, and contains several handsome buildings. Pop.
(1849) 12,630.
LANDSEER, John, Associate Engraver of the Royal
Academy, was born at Lincoln in 1769. His engravings
for Bovvyer’s History of England and other works first
brought him into notice, and he gained a considerable repu¬
tation from a course of lectures on engraving, delivered
before the Royal Institution in 1806. These wrere after¬
wards published. After having accepted the appointment
of Associate Engraver of the Academy in the hope of being
elevated to the full privileges of membership, he found that
his hopes wrere vain, and devoted himself more steadily to
literary aims in connection with his profession. Two art
periodicals, started under his management, ultimately proved
failures, the second being swamped by the Art-Union
Journal. His Sabcean Researches (1823) were published
in continuation of lectures on engraved hieroglyphics, deli¬
vered at the Royal Institution. In 1834 he published his
Descriptive, Explanatory, and Critical Catalogue of the
Earliest Pictures in the National Gallery, a work full of
amusing gossip, although not free from blunders, and cer¬
tainly destitute of any claim to be regarded as an authority
in matters of art criticism. He is perhaps best known as
the engraver of Dogs of Mount St Bernard, painted by his
son, Sir Edwin Landseer. He died in 1852, leaving two
sons, Thomas and Charles, besides the painter already men¬
tioned.
LAND’S END (the ancient Bolerium), a granite crag,
the most westerly point in Cornwall, England; N. Lat. 50.
4., W. Long. 5. 44.; 266 miles S.VV. from London. About
a mile W. is the lighthouse of Longships, having a fixed
light 88 feet above high water.
LANDSHUT, a town of Lower Bavaria, on the Isar,
39 miles N.E. from Munich. The staple of its commerce
is corn, cattle, and wool. Besides numerous mills, distil¬
leries,, and breweries, it has manufactures of woollen cloth,
leather, starch, tobacco, paper, hosiery, cards, copper-ware,
and surgical instruments. Though now on the decline,
Landshut was once of great importance. The Castle of
Trausnitz, on a hill overlooking the town, was for three
years the prison of Frederick of Austria, and during the
thirteenth century the residence of the dukes of Bavaria.
The removal of the University of Ingolstadt thither, in
1800,gave the town a fresh importance; but its withdrawal
to Munich, in 1826, hastened its decline. Pop. 9800.
LANFRANC, Archbishop of Canterbury, and one of
the most learned men of the eleventh century, was born at
Pavia in 1005. His father was one of the chief magis¬
trates of that city, then the capital of Lombardy. After
going through the usual course of study at Bologna, Lan¬
franc retuimed to his native town, practised there for a
time as an advocate, and opened a school of law. He taught
with great success, but the field was too narrow for his am¬
bitious views, and he accordingly removed to Avranches,
in Normandy, where his class-rooms were soon filled to
overflowing. An accident changed the plan of his life, and
induced him to enter the church. Entering the Abbey of
L A N
L A N
183
Langeland. Bee as a monk, he rose in the course of three years to be
prior. He next established a theological school, which,
under his management, became one of the most famous of
Western Europe. It was the centre of a new scientific
life, which, instead of pursuing the beaten track of church
tradition and practical theology, started on a course more
dialectical and speculative. Still holding, however, the
principle of Augustin, that the sole business of reason was
to unfold and defend the data of church tradition, this new
dialectical tendency could not fall into collision with the
faith of the church. It did, however, come into conflict
with a freer tendency of inquiry which had set in, and, under
Gotteschalk and Berengar, was turning the tide of specula¬
tion to doctrinal controversies. His famous controversy with
Berengar, the Archdeacon of Angers, on the subject of the
Eucharist, belongs to this period of his life. The dispute
originated in a letter which Berengar wrote to him on the
subject, in somewhat free-spoken terms, expressing his
doubts of the common orthodoxy, but claiming only to be
a heretic with Augustin, Ambrose, and Jerome. Lanfranc
was then absent at Rome, and the letter became public at
the Pontifical Court. Accordingly, in a hasty dread of any
stain of heresy, he allowed Berengar to be condemned un¬
heard. Berengar was, however, afterwards cited to Rome,
and in the fear of death, recanted. Lanfranc, in after-cor¬
respondence, sought to overbear him by a sense of shame,
accusing him of perjury ; but Berengar held his ground, and
still continued to preach his own views. In the voluminous
correspondence which passed between them, it seems abun¬
dantly evident that Berengar was borne down by passion and
power, to which considerable scientific acumen and theolo¬
gical learning gaveakeener point and force. Eanfranc’s name
was now well established, and he was admitted to the most se-
cretcounsels of William the Bastard of Normandy, who made
him abbot of the new monastery of St Stephen, at Caen.
When William became King of England, he gave him the
see of Canterbury; and whenever affairs called him back
to the continent Lanfranc carried on the government in
his absence. After the Conqueror’s death, his son William
Rufus entrusted to his care the political as well as the eccle¬
siastical interests of the state, and he was practically King
of England till his death, which took place in 1089, after
he had completed his eighty-third year. His political career
forms part of the history of England, and historians are una¬
nimous in praising his wisdom, forethought, and integrity.
In his diocese he did much good by establishing schools,
rebuilding the cathedral, which had been destroyed by fire,
and vindicating for his see the primacy of all England.
The most important of his works are his Letters, his Com*
menlarius in Epistolas B. Pauli, and his Libellus de cor-
pore et sanguine Domini, contra Berengarium. These works
display the learning with which their author has been always
accredited, along with great force and terseness of reason¬
ing, and great clearness and precision of thought. The
style is simple and nervous, and interests the reader in the
subject-matter. The best editions of Lanfranc are those of'
Luc, D’Achery, in 1 vol. fob, Paris, 1648; and Dr Giles,
in 2 volsi 8vo, Oxford, 1844;
LANGELAND, an island of Denmark, in the Fiihnen
group and bailiwick of Svendborg, is situate between Laa-
land on the E., and Fiihnen on the W., and stretches from
the Great Belt on the N. to the Baltic Sea on the S. Its
extreme length is 32 miles, its average breadth 4 miles, and
its area nearly 80 geographical square miles. Its highest
eminence, though not above 150 feet, exceeds in elevation
the surrounding islands. The climate is salubrious; and the
soil is rich, and produces flax, timber, corn, potatoes, and
apples in abundance for exportation. A considerable
number of cattle is reared, and fishing is extensively car¬
ried on. Although the water is very deep on both sides
of the island, all harbourage of vessels is prevented on the
E. shore by a never-shifting current, that sweeps along an Langen-
unindented coast. But on the W. coast, the quietness of salza
the sea, and the many creeks along the shore, afford an II
excellent roadstead and numerous havens. The island con-
tains fifteen parishes, and has Rudkiobing for its capital, y
Pop. (1851) 17,368.
LANGENSALZA, a town of Prussian Saxony, govern¬
ment of Erfurt, on the Salza, 19 miles N.W. from Erfurt.
Its industrial population are employed in the production of
silk, cotton, and woollen fabrics, gunpowder, saltpetre, starch,
and other articles. A four-gated wall surrounds the town.
Pop. (1849) 8279.
LANGENSCHWALBACH, a watering-place of Nas¬
sau, 8 miles. N.W. from Wiesbaden, and 15 miles S'.S.E.
from Nassau. Its celebrity as a resort for English invalids
dates from the publication of Head’s Bubbles. Nearly
200,000 bottles of its mineral waters are exported everv
year. Pop. 2010.
LANGHOLM, a parish, burgh of barony, and market-
town of Scotland, in the county of Dumfries, is situated on
the River Esk, 25 miles E.N.E. from Dumfries. Manufac¬
tures cotton, woollen plaid, and other fabrics. In the
market-place is a monument to Sir Pulteney Malcolm, and
another on Langholm Hill to his brother, Sir John. Here
were born Telford the engineer, and Meikle the translator
of the Lusiad. Pop. of burgh (1851) 1406. Adjacent to
Langholm is the village of New Langholm, occupied chiefly
by weavers engaged in the woollen and linen manufactures.
Pop. 1057.
LANG HORNE, John, the English translator of Plu¬
tarch's Lives, was born in 1735 at Kirkby-Steven, in West¬
moreland. He was educated first at Winton, and afterwards
at Appleby; but being too poor to go directly to the uni¬
versity, he devoted himself to private teaching, took orders,
and began to dabble in literature. In 1760 he entered
Clare Hall, Cambridge, as a ten-year man, but does not
seem to have taken his degree. He was at this time acting
as private tutor in the family of a Lincolnshire gentleman,
with whose daughter he fell in love. His suit was rejected,
and he betook himself to London, where he became curate
of St John’s; Clerkenwell, and wrote largely for the perio¬
dical press. One of his best pieces was his poem entitled,
Genius and Valour, in which he defended the Scottish
nation against the fierce invective of Churchill’s Pro-
phecg of' Famine. The University of Edinburgh, by the
advice of Robertson the historian, acknowledged his good¬
will with the degree of D.D. In the following year, 1767,
he married the lady by whom he had been rejected some
time before. Her friends were rich, and bought for him
the living of Blagden, in Somersetshire; but in less than
a year after her marriage his wife died in childbed. He
felt her loss very keenly. Retiring to Folkestone, in Kent,
he joined his brother, perpetual curate of that place. With
his assistance he began the translation of Plutarch, which,
when published in 1771, made his name widely known, and
still preserves it from oblivion. In 1772 he married again,
and four years later had the misfortune to lose his second
wife from the same cause as the first. He was a man of
strong domestic sympathies, and this double calamity quite
unhinged his mind. To escape from his griefs, he plunged
headlong into the social excitements, of which he had been
always, though moderately fond. He died in 1779, in the
forty-fifth year of his age. For the details of his life we are
chiefly indebted to a memoir of him by his son, prefixed to
a posthumous edition of his poems.
Langhorne was a very voluminous writer. His principal
works, besides his Plutarch, are his Letters on Religious
Retirement, dedicated to Warburton, 8vo, 1762; Poetical
Works, 2 vols., 1776, and two volumes of Sermons. He
also wrote largely for the press, especially for the Monthly
Review, to which he contributed many essays and short
184 LAN
Langland. tales. His translation of Plutarch is correct and literal, but
v v-» ' very far from being what a translation of Plutarch ought
to be. His poetical pieces never rise above neatness and
good taste, but are easy and melodious, and sometimes strike
chords of gentle pathos. His prose runs on smoothly and
clearly, with no great originality or depth of thought. The
manifest tendency to rhetoric is kept within bounds by the
same'good taste which marks his poetry.
LANGLAND, or Longland, Robert, the reputed
author of the Visions of Piers Plowman, was a native of
Cleobury-Mortimer, in Shropshire. Of his personal his¬
tory nothing is known beyond this, that he was a fellow cf
Oriel College, Oxford, that he entered the church and be¬
came a secular priest, that he lived in the times of Edward
III. and Richard II., and that he was one of the earliest
followers of Wyclilfe. The dates of his birth and death
are both unknown, but internal evidence fixes, approxi¬
mately at least, the time when the Visions were written.
One passage contains an allusion to the Treaty of Bretigny,
made with France in 1360, and to the disasters which
brought it about; another describes the great storm of
January lo, 1362, as a recent event. “ It is probable,”
says Mr Wright, in his edition of the Visions, “that the
poem of Piers Plowman was written in the latter part
of this year, when the effects of the great wind were fresh
in people’s memory, and when the Treaty of Bretigny had
become a subject of popular discontent.” According to
Bale, the poem begun, or in hand this year, was completed
in 1369.
The poem purports to be a series of visions seen by the
author, when he fell asleep “ on a May morwenynge,”
among the Malvern Llills. It consists of twenty “passus,”
or sections, each passus forming, or professing to form, a
separate dream. The connection of the various dreams
with each other is so ill-sustained, that the work may be re¬
garded not so much as a single poem, as a succession of
poems. The subject and the treatment are very much the
same with the Pilgrim’s Progress of Bunyan. A parallel
has been drawn between the two works, suggested in the
first instance by the similarity in the names of the person¬
ages, and borne out by a resemblance on many points far
more important than that merely accidental one. But the
general scope of the two allegories is widely different. The
Visions are professedly satirical, and the satire being di¬
rected chiefly against the ignorance, irreligion, and immo¬
rality of the ecclesiastical orders. Interspersed are many
passages of extraordinary poetical vigour, bursts of serious
feeling, and sketches of external nature. These, however,
are mere digressions, and the author always returns with
new and sharper zest to his favourite theme. From the
idea that the Visions were not only a religious, but also a
kind of Protestant work, they were reprinted at the Refor¬
mation no fewer than three times in one year. The fact
is, howrever, that the anti-clerical spirit in Langland is no
more decided than it is in Chaucer. Many of the allego¬
ries are whimsically ingenious, and are good types of the
kind of inventions in vogue in the poetry of the middle
ages. The Lady Anima, who represents the soul of man,
is placed by Kind, that is Nature, in a castle called Caro,
or the Flesh ; and the charge of it is committed to the Con¬
stable Sir In-wit, a wise knight, whose chief officers are his
five sons, See-well, Say-well, Hear-well, Work-well, and
Go-well. One of the other figures is Reason, who
preaches in the church to the king and his knights, teach¬
ing that all the evils of the realm are because of sin.
Among the vices who are converted by the sermon we
LAN
see Proud-heart, who vows to wear haircloth ; Envy, lean, Langon
cowering, biting his lips, and wearing the sleeves of a friar’s ||
frock; and Covetousness, a bony, beetle-browed, blear- Langton.
eyed, ill-clothed caitiff. The metrical structure of the
poem is accentual, and is, in fact, a revival of the old alliter¬
ative system of metre. Its success in its own day was so
great as to prompt many imitations, all, without exception,
quite inferior to the original.
The Vision has been often printed. There are two
sets of MSS. of the poem, containing readings differing
considerably from each other. The received version has
been frequently published, but the last edition, that of
1842, by Thomas Wright, is beyond all comparison the
best. The edition of 1813, by Dr Whitaker, follows the
other texts, and is cumbrous, costly, and incorrect, while
the glossary and notes are contemptible.
LANGON (the ancient Alingo), a town and river-port
of France, in the department of Gironde, on the left bank
of the Garonne, 25 miles S.S.E. from Bordeaux; its chief
manufactures are casks and leather, and its trade is in ship
timber, brandy, and the white wines of the district. Pop.
3950.
LANGRES (Andomatunum Lingonum), a fortified
town of France, department of Haute-Marne, is situate
on a hill, at the foot of which the Marne flows, 18 miles
S.S.E. from Chaumont. From its excellent cutlery, it is
often called the French Sheffield. It trades in cattle,
hemp, wine, flour, corn, flax, whetstones, and other articles,
and is important in a military point of view, as command¬
ing the passage from the basin of the Saone into that of the
Seine. Its cathedral of St Mammee is said to have been
founded in 380. The ancient church of St Didier is
now converted into a museum. There are also a town-
house, a library of 7000 volumes, some hospitals, a com¬
munal college, a mercantile court, and a bishop’s palace.
Langres was the capital of the ancient Lingones, and con¬
tains many Roman remains, the principal of which is an
arch erected in honour of the two Gordians, A.D., 240.
Pop. (1851) 8646.
LANGSIDE, a small village of Scotland, county of
Renfrew, 2 miles S. of Glasgow. Here the Regent Mur¬
ray defeated Queen Mary in 1568.
LANGTON, Stephen, Archbishop of Canterbury, was
born about the middle of the twelfth century, and is claimed
as a son by the counties of Lincoln and Devon. The
exact date and the exact spot of his birth are alike un¬
known. He studied at Paris, and in course of time be¬
came chancellor of the University of that city. Soon after
the beginning of the thirteenth century he visited Rome.
The reigning Pope (Innocent III.) not only made him
cardinal of St Chrysogonus, but appointed him to the see of
Canterbury, then vacant. John of England refused to
sanction the choice of the pontiff, and his refusal led to
that memorable contest, which resulted in his complete
humiliation. (See England, and John of England!) It
was by Langton’s advice that the English barons insisted
upon the charter of Runnymede ; but his unyielding asser¬
tion of their rights against the king, after John had been
formally reconciled to the Papal see, brought him into
disgrace with Innocent, who suspended him. Langton,
however, retained office, and continued to administer the
affairs of the church with his wonted skill and vigour till
his death in 1228. In letters, Langton did too little to
make himself a lasting name, but some small theological
essays of his which have been published justify his character
as an elegant and accomplished scholar.
185
LANGUAGE.
Language.
[
I.—ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE : REMARKS ON THE IDIOM AND
GENIUS OF LANGUAGE.
Origin of Language, in tlie proper sense of the term, signifies the
Language, expression of our ideas and their various relations by certain
articulate sounds, which are used as the signs of those ideas
and relations. By articulate sounds are meant those modula¬
tions of the voice, or of sound emitted from the thorax, which
are formed by means of the mouth and its several organs, the
teeth, the tongue, the lips, and the palate. In a more general
sense, language is sometimes used to denote all sounds by
which animals of any kind express their particular feelings and
impulses in a manner that is intelligible to their own species.
Nature has endowed every animal with powers sufficient to
make known those sensations and desires with which it is
necessary, for the preservation of the individual or the con¬
tinuance of the kind, that others of the same species should be
acquainted. For this purpose, the organs of all vocal animals
are so formed as, upon any particular impulse, to utter sounds,
of which those of the same species instinctively know the mean¬
ing. The summons of the hen is instantly obeyed by the whole
brood of chickens ; and in many others of the irrational tribes
a similar mode of communication may be observed between the
parents and the offspring, and also between one animal and
another. But it is not amongst animals of the same species
only that these instinctive sounds are mutually understood. It
is as necessary for animals to know the voices of their enemies
as those of their friends ; and the roaring of the lion is a sound
of which, previously to all experience, every beast of the forest
is naturally afraid. Between these animal voices and the lan¬
guage of men, however, there is very little analogy. Human
language is capable of expressing ideas and notions, which
there is every reason to believe that the mind of the brutes can¬
not conceive. “ Speech,” says Aristotle, “is made to indicate
what is expedient and what inexpedient, and, in consequence
of this, what is just and unjust. It is therefore given to men,
because it is peculiar to them, that of good and evil, just and
unjust, they only, with respect to other animals, possess a sense
or feeling.” The voices of brutes seem intended by nature to
express, not distinct ideas or moral modes, but only such feel¬
ings as it is for the good of the species that they should have
the power of making known ; and in this, as in all other
respects, these voices are analogous, not to speaking, but to
weeping, laughing, singing, groaning, screaming, and other
natural and audible expressions of passion or appetite. An¬
other difference between the language of men and the voices
of brute animals consists in articulation, by which the former
may be resolved into distinct elementary sounds or syllables ;
whereas the latter, being for the most part inarticulate, are not
capable of such a resolution. Hence Homer and Hesiod cha¬
racterize man by the epithet or voice-dividing, as de¬
noting a power peculiar to the human species ; for, though
there are a few birds which utter sounds that may be divided
into syllables, yet each of these birds utters but one such
sound, which seems to be employed rather as a note of natural
music than for the purpose of giving information to others;
and hence, when the bird is agitated, it utters cries which are
very different, and have no articulation.
A third difference between the language of men and the sig-
m cant cries of brute animals is, that the former is the product
ot art, the latter derived from nature. Every human language
is learned by imitation, and is intelligible only to those who
eu er inhabit the country where it is vernacular, or have been
aug it it by a master or by books. But the voices in question
are not learned by imitation; and being wholly instinctive,
they are intelligible to all the animals of that species by which
they are uttered, though brought together from the most dis¬
tant countries on earth. That a dog, which had never heard
another bark, would notwithstanding bark himself, and that
the barkings or yelps of a Lapland dog would be instinctively
unc erstood by the dogs of Spain, Calabria, or any other coun-
rj, are facts which do not admit of doubt. But there is no
reason to imagine that a man, who had never heard any lan-
VOL. XHI.
guage spoken, would himself speak ; and it is well known that Language,
the language spoken in one country is unintelligible to the v ^ '
natives of another country where a different language is
spoken. Indeed, it seems obvious, that were there any in¬
stinctive language, the first words uttered by all children
would be the same; and that every child, whether born in the
desert or in society, would understand the language of every
other child, however educated or however neglected. Nay
more, we may venture to affirm that such a language, though
its general use might, in society, be superseded by the prevail¬
ing dialect of art, could never be wholly lost; and that no man
of one country would find it difficult, far less impossible, to
communicate the knowledge of his natural and most pressing
wants to the men of any other country, whether barbarous or
civilized. The exercise of cultivated reason, and the arts of
civil life, have indeed eradicated many of our original instincts,
but they have not eradicated all. [This is doubtful. It is
generally believed that the dog, in its natural state, howls;
it being only where contact with dogs, the companions of man,
has (either directly or indirectly) taken place, that it harks.
Again, children do form their earliest words alike, and that
independent of imitation.—r. g. l.]
There are external indications of the internal feelings and
desires, which appear in the most polished society, and which
are confessedly instinctive. The passions, emotions, sensations,
and appetites,, are naturally expressed in the countenance by
characters which the savage and the courtier can read with
equal readiness. The serene look, the smoothed brow, the
dimpled smile, and the glistening eye, denote equanimity and
good will, in terms which no man can mistake. The contracted
brow, the glaring eye, the sullen gloom, and the threatening
air, denote rage, indignation, and defiance, as plainly and
forcibly as revilings or imprecations. To teach men to dis¬
guise these instinctive indications of their temper, and
To carry smiles and sunshine in their face,
When discontent sits heavy at their heart,
constitutes a great part of modern manners. Yet, in spite of
every effort of the utmost skill, and of every motive resulting
from interest, the most consummate hypocrite, or the most
hackneyed politician, is not always able to prevent his real
disposition from becoming apparent in his countenance. He
may, indeed, by long practice, acquire a great command over
his temper, and the instinctive signs of it; but at times nature
will predominate over art, and a sudden and violent passion
will flash in his face, so as to be visible to the eye of every be¬
holder. If these observations be just, and we flatter ourselves
that no man will call them in question, it seems to follow, that
if mankind were prompted by instinct to use articulate sounds
as indications of their passions, affections, sensations, and
ideas, the language of nature could never be wholly forgotten,
and that it would sometimes predominate over the language of
art. Groans, sighs, and some inarticulate lively sounds, are na¬
turally expressive of pain and pleasure, and equally intelligible
to all mankind. The occasional use of these no art can wholly
banish ; and if there were articulate sounds, naturally expres¬
sive of the same feelings, it is not conceivable that art or edu¬
cation could banish the use of them, merely because, by the
organs of the mouth, they are broken into parts and resolvable
into syllables.
It being.thus evident that there is no instinctive articulated
language, it has become an inquiry of some importance, how
mankind were first induced to fabricate articulate sounds, and
to employ them for the purpose of communicating their
thoughts. Children learn to speak by insensible imitation ;
and when advanced some years in life they study foreign lan¬
guages under proper instructors.. But the first men had no
speakers to imitate, and no foreign language to study. By
ivhat means, then, did they learn to speak? On this question
only two opinions can possibly be formed. Either language
must have been originally revealed from heaven, or it must be
the fruit of human invention.
2 a --
LANGUAGE.
186
Language. The latter opinion is strongly supported by Lord Monboddo
v ; in his very learned and able work on the Origin and Progress
0f Language. But he candidly acknowledges, that if language
was invented, it was of very difficult invention, and far beyond
the reach of the grossest savages. Accordingly he holds, that
though men were originally solitary animals, and had no natu¬
ral propensity to the social life; yet, before language could
be invented, they must have been associated for ages, and have
carried on in concert some common work. Nay, he is decidedly
of opinion, that before the invention of an art so difficult as
language, men must not only have herded together, but also
formed some kind of civil polity, existed in that political state
a very long time, and acquired such powers of abstraction as
to be able to form general ideas. But it is obvious^ that men
could not have instituted civil polity or carried on in concert
any common work, without communicating their designs to
each other ; and there are four ways by which the author thinks
that this might have been done before the invention of speech,
viz.,—1st, Inarticulate cries, expressive of sentiments and
passions; 2d, Gestures, and the expression of countenance;
3d, Imitative sounds, expressive of audible things ; and, 4th,
Painting, by which visible objects may be represented.
Of these four ways of communication, it is plain that only
two have any connection with language, inarticulate cries and
imitative sounds ; and of these the author abandons the latter
as having contributed nothing to the invention of articulation,
though he thinks it may have helped to advance its progress.
“ I am disposed,” says he, “ to believe, that the framing of
words w ith an analogy to the sound of the things expressed by
them, belongs rather to languages of art, than to the first lan¬
guages spoken by rude and barbarous nations.” It is, there¬
fore, inarticulate cries only that must have given rise to the
formation of language. Such cries are used by all animals
who have any use of voice, to express their wants; and the
fact is, that all barbarous nations have cries expressing differ¬
ent things, such as joy, grief, terror, surprise, and the like.
These, together with gestures and expressions of the counte-
nance, were undoubtedly the methods of communication first
used by men. AVe have but to suppose, says our author, a
great number of our species carrying on some common busi¬
ness, and conversing together by signs and cries ; and we have
men just in a state proper for the invention of language. For,
if we suppose their numbers to have increased, their wants
would also increase ; and then these two methods of communi¬
cation would become too confined for that larger sphere of life
which their wants would make necessary. The only thing,
then, that remained to be done, was to give a greater variety
to the instinctive cries ; and as the natural progress is from
what is easy to what is more difficult, the first variation would
be merely by tones from low to high, and from grave to acute.
But this variety could not answer all the purposes of speech in
society ; and being advanced so far, it was natural that an
animal so sagacious as man would go on farther, and come at
last to the only other variation remaining, namely, articula¬
tion. The first articulation would be very simple, the voice
being broken, and distinguished only by a few vowels and con¬
sonants. And as all natural cries are from the throat and
larynx, with little or no operation of the organs of the mouth,
it is natural to suppose, that the first languages were for the
greater part spoken from the throat; that what consonants were
used to vary the cries were mostly guttural; and that the or¬
gans of the mouth would at first be very little employed.
From this account of the origin of language it appears, that
the first sounds articulated were the natural cries by which
men signified their wants and desires to one another, such as
calling one another for certain purposes, and other such things
as were most necessary for carrying on any joint work; then
in process of time other cries would be articulated, to signify
that such and such actions had been performed or were per¬
forming, or that such and such events had happened relative
to the common business. The names of such objects as they
were conversant with would be invented; but as we cannot
suppose savages to be deep in abstraction, or skilful in the art
of arranging things according to their genera and species, all
things, however similar, except, perhaps, the individuals of the
lowest species, would be expressed by different words not re¬
lated to each other either by derivation or composition. Thus
would language grow by degrees; and as it grew, it would be
more and more broken and articulated by consonants ; but still Language,
the words would retain a great deal of their original nature of
animal cries. And thus things would go on, words unrelated
still multiplying, till at last the language would become too
cumbersome for use, and then art would be obliged to inter¬
pose, and form a language upon a few radical words, according
to the rules and method of etymology.
Those who think that language was originally revealed from
heaven, consider this account of its human invention as a series
of mere suppositions hanging loosely together, and the whole
suspended from no fixed principle. The opinions of Diodorus,
Vitruvius, Horace, Lucretius, and Cicero, which are frequently
quoted in its support, are in their estimation of no greater
authority than the opinions of other men ; for as language was
formed and brought to a great degree of perfection long before
the era of any historian with whom we are acquainted, the an¬
tiquity of the Greek and Roman writers, who are comparatively
of yesterday, gives them no advantage in this inquiry over the
philosophers of France and England. Aristotle has defined
man to be a ^uov [/,ipriTtx.ov,ox imitative animal; and the defi¬
nition is certainly so far just, that man is much more remark¬
able for imitation than invention ; therefore, say the reasoners
on this side of the question, had the human race been originally
mutum et turpe pecus, they would have continued so to the
end of time, unless they had been taught to speak by some
superior intelligence. That the first men sprung from the
earth like vegetables, no im dern philosopher has ventured to
assert; nor does there anywhere appear sufficient evidence
that men were originally in the state of savages. The oldest
book extant contains the only rational cosmogony known to the
ancient nations; and that book represents the first human in¬
habitants of this earth, not only as reasoning and speaking
animals, but also as in a state ot high perfection and happi¬
ness, of which they were deprived for disobedience to their
Creator. Moses, setting aside his claim to inspiration, de¬
serves, from the consistency of his narrative, at least as much
credit as Moschus, or Democritus, or Epicurus : and, from his
prior antiquity, if antiquity could on this subject have any
weight, he would deserve more, as having lived nearer to the
period of which they all write. But the question respecting
the origin of language may be decided without resting on
authority of any kind, merely by considering the nature of
speech, and the mental and corporeal powers of man. Those
who maintain it to be of human invention, suppose men at first
to have been solitary animals, afterwards to have herded to¬
gether without government or subordination, then to have
lormed political societies, and by their own exertions to have
advanced from the grossest ignorance to the refinements of
science. But, say the reasoners, whose cause we are now plead¬
ing, this is a supposition contrary to all history and all ex¬
perience. There is not upon record a single instance well
authenticated of a people emerging by their own efforts from
barbarism to civilization. There have indeed been many na¬
tions raised from the state of savages; but it is known that
they were polished, not by their own repeated exertions, but
by the influence of individuals or colonies from nations more
enlightened than themselves. The original savages of Greece
were tamed by the Pelasgi, a foreign tribe ; and were after¬
wards further polished by Orpheus, Cecrops, Cadmus, and
others, who derived their knowledge from Egypt and the East.
The ancient Romans, a ferocious and motley crew, received the
blessings of law and religion from a succession of foreign kings ;
and the conquests of Rome, at a later period, contributed to
civilize the rest of Europe. In America, the only two nations
which, at the invasion of the Spaniards, could be said to have
advanced a single step from barbarism, were indebted for their
superiority over the other tribes, not to the gradual and un¬
assisted progress of the human mind, but to the wise institu¬
tions of foreign legislators.
This is not the proper place for tracing the progress of man
from the savage state to that of political society ; but expe¬
rience teaches us, that in every art it is much easier to improve
than to invent ? The human mind, when put into the proper
track, is indeed capable of making great advances in arts and
sciences ; but, if any credit is due to the records of history, it
has not, in a people sunk in ignorance and barbarity, sufficient
vigour to discover that track, or to conceive a state different
from the present. If the rudest inhabitants of America and
LANGUAGE.
Language, other countries have continued, as there is every reason to he-
lieve they have continued, for ages in the same unvaried state
of barbarism ; how is it imaginable that people so much ruder
than they as to be ignorant of all language, should think of
inventing an art so difficult as that of speech, or even to frame
a conception of the thing. In building, fishing, hunting, navi¬
gating, and the like, they might imitate the instinctive arts
of other animals, but there is no other animal that expresses
its sensations and affections by arbitrary articulate sounds. It
is said, that before language could be invented, mankind must
have existed for ages in large political societies, and have car¬
ried on in concert some common work ; but if inarticulate cries,
and the natural visible signs of the passions and affections,
were modes of communication sufficiently accurate to keep a
large society together for ages, and to direct its members in
the execution of some common work, what could be their in¬
ducement to the invention of an art so useful and difficult as
that of language ?
Let us however suppose, say the advocates for the cause
which we are now supporting, that different nations of savages
set about inventing an art of communicating their thoughts,
which experience had taught them was not absolutely neces¬
sary ; how came they all, without exception, to think of the
one art of articulating the voice for this purpose ? Inarticu¬
late cries, out of which language is fabricated, have indeed an
instinctive connection with our passions and affections ; but
there are gestures and expressions of countenance with
which our passions and affections are in the same manner con¬
nected. If the natural cries of passion could be so modi¬
fied and enlarged as to be capable of communicating to the
hearer every idea in the mind of the speaker, it is certain
that the natural gestures could be so modified as to answer the
very same purpose; and it is strange that, among the seve¬
ral nations who invented languages, not one should have
stumbled upon fabricating visible signs of their ideas, but that
all should have agreed to denote them by articulated sounds.
Every nation whose language is narrow and rude, supplies its
defects by a violent gesticulation ; and therefore, as much less
genius is exerted in. the improvement of any art than was
requisite for its first invention, it is natural to suppose that,
had men been left to devise for themselves a method of com¬
municating their thoughts, they would not have attempted any
other than that by which they now improve the language
transmitted by their fathers. It is vain to urge that articulate
sounds are fitter for the purpose of communicating thought than
visible gesticulation ; for, though this may be true, it is a
truth which could hardly occur to savages, who had never ex¬
perienced the fitness of either; and if, to counterbalance the
superior fitness of articulation, its extreme difficulty be taken
into view, it must appear little less than miraculous that every
savage tribe should think of it rather than the easier method
of artificial gesticulation. Savages, it is well known, are re¬
markable for their indolence, and for always preferring ease
to utility ; but their modes of life give such pliancy to their
bodies, that they could with very little trouble bend their limbs
and members, into any positions agreed upon as the signs of
ideas. I his is so far from being the case with respect to the
organs of articulation, that it is with extreme difficulty, if at
all, that a man advanced in life can be taught to articulate
any.sound which he has not been accustomed to hear. No
foreigner who comes to England after the age of thirty ever
pronounces the language tolerably well; an Englishman of
that age can hardly be taught to utter the guttural sound which
a Scotsman gives to the Greek x, or even the French sound
of the vowel u; and of the solitary savages who have been
caught in different forests, we know not that there has been
one who, after the age of. manhood, learned to articulate any
language so as to make himself readily understood. The pre¬
sent age has indeed furnished many instances of deaf persons
being taught to speak intelligibly by skilful masters moulding
the organs.of the mouth into the positions proper for articulat¬
ing the voice ; but who was to perform this task amongst the
inventors of language, when all mankind were equally ignorant
of . the means by which articulation is effected ? In a word
daily experience informs us, that men who have not learned to
articulate m their childhood, never afterwards acquire the
tacuity of speech but by such helps as savages cannot obtain ;
and therefore, if speech was invented at all, it must have been
187
either by children who were incapable of invention, or by men Language
who were incapable of speech. A thousand, nay, a million, v .
of children could not think of inventing a language. While
the organs are pliable, there is not understanding enough to
frame.the conception of a language; and by the time that
there is understanding, the organs are become too stiff" for the
task, and therefore, say the advocates for the divine origin of
language, reason as well as history intimates, that mankind in
all ages must have been speaking animals—the young having
constantly acquired this art by imitating those who were older;
and we. may. warrantably conclude, that our first parents re¬
ceived it by immediate inspiration.
To this account of the origin of language an objection readily
offers itself. If the first language was communicated by in¬
spiration, it must have been perfect, and held in reverence
by those.who spake it, in other words, by all mankind. But a
vast variety of languages have prevailed in the world ; and
some of these which remain are known to be very imperfect,
whilst there is reason to believe that many others are lost. If
different languages were originally invented by different na¬
tions, all this would naturally follow from the mixture of these
nations ; but what could induce men possessed of one perfect
language of divine original, to forsake it for barbarous jargons
of their own invention, and in every respect inferior to that
with which their forefathers or themselves had been inspired ?
In answer to this objection, it is said, that nothing was given
by inspiration but the faculty of speech and the elements of
language ; for, when once men had language, it is easy to con¬
ceive how they might have modified it by their natural powers,
as thousands can improve what they could not invent. The
first language, if given by inspiration, must, in its principles,
have had all the perfection of which language is susceptible ;
but. from the nature of things it could not possibly be very
copious. The words of language are either proper names or
the signs of ideas and relations ; but it cannot be supposed
that the All-wise Instructor would load the memories of men
with words .to denote things then unknown, or with the signs
of ideas which .they had not then acquired. It was sufficient
that a foundation was laid of such a nature as would support
the largest superstructure which they might ever after have
occasion to. raise upon it, and that they were taught the me¬
thod of building by composition and derivation. This would
long preserve the.language radically the same, though it could
not prevent the introduction of different dialects in the dif¬
ferent countries over which men spread themselves. In what¬
ever region.we suppose the human race to have been originally
placed, the increase of their numbers would, in process of time,
either disperse them into different nations, or extend the one
nation to a vast distance on all sides from what we may call
the seat of government. In either case they would every where
meet with new objects, which would occasion the invention of
new names; and as the difference of climate and other natural
causes would compel those who removed eastward or north¬
ward to adopt modes of life in many respects different from
the modes of those who travelled towards the west or the
south, a vast number of words would in one country be fabri¬
cated.to denote complex conceptions, which must necessarily
be unintelligible to the body of the people inhabiting countries
where those conceptions had never been formed. Thus would
various dialects be unavoidably introduced into the original
language, even whilst all mankind remained in one society and
under, one government. But after separate and independent
societies were formed, these variations would become more
numerous, and the several dialects would deviate farther and
farther from each other, as well as from the idiom and genius
of the parent tongue, in proportion to the distance of the
tribes by whom they were spoken.
[This is not sufficient. Languages ought, by hypothesis, to
graduate into each other more than they do. In order to ac¬
count for the existing lines of demarcation, which are broad
and definite, we must bear in mind a fresh phenomenon, viz.,
the spread of one dialect at the expense of others, a fact which
obliterates intermediate forms, and brings extreme ones into
geographical juxtaposition.
And here it may be noticed, that the distribution of lan¬
guages over the earth’s surface is irregular. In all the quar¬
ters of the world we find the two kinds of areas contrasted
with one another. In the one, a single language, with a
188
LANGUAGE.
Language, minimum amount of dialectual difference, is spread over a
JL/ vast extent of country; in the other, a multiplicity of mutually
unintelligible forms of speech is found within a small com¬
bin'Europe, the Slavonic tongues have a large, the Biscayan
a hT-Asia, the Turk area is large, that of the languages of Cau¬
casus, Nepaul, &c., small. , . ., . . .
In Africa, the Berber is large, and certain Abyssinian ana
other areas small. , xu r>
In Polynesia, the Malay and Polynesian are large, the i a-
puan area small. -u x a i
In America there are numberless small areas ; but the Ai-
gonkin, Guarani, and a few others, are large.—a. g. l.]
If we suppose a few people either to have been banished
together from the society of their brethren, or to have wan¬
dered of their own accord to a distance, from which,, through
trackless forests, they could not return (and such emigrations
have often taken place), it is easy to see how the most copious
language must in their mouths have soon become narrow, and
how the offspring of inspiration must have in time become so
deformed as hardly to retain a feature of the ancestor whence
it originally sprung. Men do not long retain a practical skill
in those arts which they never exercise ; and there are abun¬
dance of facts to prove, that a single man cast upon a desert
island, and having to provide the necessaries of life by his own
ingenuity, would soon lose the art of speaking with fluency his
mother tongue. A small number of men cast away together,
would indeed retain that art somewhat longer; but m a space
of time not very long, it would in a great measure be lost by
them or their posterity. In this state of banishment, as their
time would be almost wholly occupied in hunting, fishing, and
other means within their reach, to support a wretched existence,
they would have very little leisure, and perhaps less desire, to
preserve by conversation the remembrance of that ease and
those comforts of which they now found themselves for ever
deprived: and they would of course soon forget all the words
which in their native language had been used to denote the
accommodations and elegancies of polished life. This at least
seems to be certain, that they would not attempt to teach their
children a part of language which in their circumstances could
be of no use to them, and of which it would be impossible to
make them comprehend the meaning ; for where there are no
ideas, the signs of ideas cannot be made intelligible, r rom
such colonies as this, dispersed over the earth, it .is probable
that all those nations of savages, have arisen, which have in¬
duced so many philosophers to imagine that the state ot the
savage was the original state of man; and if so, we see that
from the language of inspiration must have unavoidab y
sprun0- a number of different dialects, all extremely rude an
narrow, and retaining nothing of the parent tongue, except
perhaps the names of the most conspicuous objects, of nature,
and of those wants and enjoyments which are inseparable
from humanity. The savage state has no artificial wants, and
furnishes few ideas that require terms to express them. The Language^
habits of solitude and silence incline a savage rarely to speak ;
and when he speaks, he uses the same terms to denote diflerent
ideas. Speech, therefore, in this rude condition of men, must
be extremely narrow, and extremely various. Every new
region, and every new climate, suggests different ideas, and
creates different wants, which must be expressed either by
terms entirely new, or by old terms used with a new significa¬
tion. Hence must originate great diversity, even in the first
elements of speech, among all savage nations, the words re¬
tained of the original language being used in various senses,
and pronounced, "as we may believe, with various accents.
When any of those savage tribes emerged from their bar¬
barism, whether by their own efforts or by the aid of people
more enlightened than themselves, it is obvious that the im¬
provement and copiousness of their language would keep pace
with their own progress in knowledge, and in the arts, of civil
life ; but, in the infinite multitude of words which civilization
and’refinement add to language, it would be little less than
miraculous were any two nations to agree upon the same
sounds to represent the same ideas. Superior refinement,
indeed, may induce imitation, conquests may impose a lan¬
guage, and extension of empires may melt down different
nations and different dialects into one mass ; but independent
tribes naturally give rise to diversity of tongues ; nor does it
seem possible that they should retain more.ot the. original
language than the words expressive of those objects with which
all men are at all times equally concerned. The variety of
tongues, therefore, the copiousness of some, and the narrow¬
ness of others, furnish no good objection to the divine oripn
of language in general; for, whether language was at first
revealed from heaven, or in a course of ages invented by men,
a multitude of dialects would inevitably arise, as soon as the
human race had separated into a number of distinct and inde¬
pendent nations.1 X X-nGnm flnrt
As the knowledge of languages constitutes a great part of'd‘°.^annfQ
erudition, as their beauties and deformities furnish employ-. ^
ment to taste, and as these depend much upon the idioms ot 6 b-
the different tongues, we shall proceed to make a few.remarks
upon the advantages and defects of some of those idioms of
language with which we are best acquainted. As the words
idiom and genius of a language are often confounded, it will
be necessary to inform the reader, that by idiorn we would
here be understood to mean that general mode of arranging
words into sentences which prevails in any particular lan¬
guage ; and by the genius of a language, we mean to express
the particular set of ideas which the words of any language,
either from their formation or multiplicity, are most naturally
apt to excite in the mind of any one who hears it properly
uttered. Thus, although the English, French, Italian, and
Spanish languages nearly agree in the same general uUom,
vet the particular genius of each is remarkably different.
The English is naturally bold, nervous, and strongly articu¬
lated ; the French is weaker, and more flowing; the Italian
. I„ the foregoing view of this subject, the .rgnjnent for the SS, wS.Sntr It .“'ll”
wishes to favour. But though we have, with some slig a era 1011 > 1 . . which it SUpp0Vts. We do not assert, because we could
editions of this work, we are far from adopting the very unp i osop P hestow on man the gift of speech ; but we think, with
have nothing like evidence for such an assertion, that t e ei y 1 Jt in"the revolutions and calamities that have befallen
Lord Monboddo, and many others, that if sucha boon ever was conferred, it and have ever existed, the art of speech
the human race, inevitably have been lost; and, there ore a ^ supernaturai aid. This is the view taken by our best philosophers,
is one which man is capable of attaining to, indepen y Y 1 . . omentoug sup;ects, unhesitatingly avows his con-
Thu,, Mr Stewart, notwithstanding hi, well-known cant,on in form.ng concte.on, ^ vol. iii., chap 1.) In another
viction, that “ the human faculties are competent to the ° observations on this subject:—“ The steps in the formation of lan-
place, the same admirable writer makes the following p i osop^ ^ from the known principles of human nature, how the various
guage cannot probably be determined with certainty y .n de’ patisfied) bu? a check is given to that indolent philo-
parts may naturally have arisen, the mind is not only natural or moral world, it is unable to explain.” One of the
sophy which refers to a miracle whatever appearances, e t g the human mind would naturally proceed in the acqui-
most ingenious attempts that, ever has rn|^e. ^ S«°Cons{derations on the Formation of Languages.” His theory may perhaps
sition of speeches that contained |n ^xats butitisdeveloped with singular clearness and simplicity; and it must, in its general
be liable to objection in some of its details, out it is ueveiuj • „„xi,r This essav was annexed by its author
scope and design, be allowed by all candid and ^ ^ ^Id bHlr Stewfrt, that he‘aiways regarded it with great partiality,
to the first edition of his Theory of Moral Sentiments ,-.an J " e ‘ ' . y{ that work which he himself revised. Mr Stewart’s commen-
and that he reprinted it, without a single alteration, in the last e . na of lammases are those of Growth
tar, upon it (PMlompkf o/ the Mind, ubi supra) ought to !>«?“»“ * “8 "" ' J1, which these phenomena are studied is all
and Development, rather than those of an orgamc whole anrekEate wLever we cantrace to a recent origin, e.g„
abstract tems^conj’unctions'knfle^ionk'&th ^Doing this( thou’gh we never com, to .be origins, nue.eus of ianguage, we soon become
satisfied that that was exceedingly small.—R. G. L ]
L A N G U A G E.
189
Language, more soothing and harmonious ; and the Spanish more grave,
' sonorous, and stately. Now, when we examine the several
languages which have been most esteemed in Europe, we find
that there are only two idioms among them which are essen¬
tially distinguished from one another ; and all those languages
are divided between those two idioms, following sometimes the
one and sometimes the other, either wholly or in part. The
languages which may be said to adhere to the first idiom, are
those which, in their construction, follow the order of nature ;
that is, express their ideas in the natural order in which they
occur to the mind ;—the subject which occasions the action ap¬
pearing first ; then the action accompanied with its several
modifications ; and, last of all, the object to which it has
reference. These may properly be called analogous lan¬
guages ; and of this kind are the English, French, and most
of the modern languages in Europe. The languages which
may be referred to the other idiom, are those which follow no
other order in their construction than what the taste or fancy
of the composer may suggest; sometimes making the object,
sometimes the action, and sometimes the modification of the
action, to precede or follow the other parts. The confusion
which this might occasion is avoided by the particular manner
of inflecting their words, by which they are made to refer to
the others with which they ought to be connected, in whatever
part of the sentence they occur, the mind being left at liberty
to connect the several parts with one another after the whole
sentence is concluded ; and as the words may be here trans¬
posed at pleasure, those languages may be called transpositive
languages. To this class we must, in an especial manner,
refer the Latin and Greek languages. As each of these idioms
has several advantages and defects peculiar to itself, we shall
endeavour to point out the most considerable of them, in order
to ascertain with greater precision the particular character and
excellence of some of those languages now principally spoken
or studied in Europe.
The partiality which our forefathers, at the revival of letters
in Europe, naturally entertained for the Greek and Roman
languages, made them look upon every distinguishing peculi¬
arity belonging to them as one of the many causes of the
amazing superiority which those languages evidently enjoyed
above every other at that time spoken in Europe. This blind
deference still continues to be paid to them, as our minds are
early prepossessed with these ideas, and as we are taught in
our earliest infancy to believe, that to entertain the least idea
of our own language being equal to the Greek or Latin in any
particular whatever, would be a certain mark of ignorance or
want of taste. Their rights, therefore, like those of the church
in former ages, remain still to be examined ; and we, without
exerting our reason to discover truth from falsehood, tamely
sit down satisfied with the idea of their undoubted pre-emi¬
nence in every respect. But if we look around us for a moment,
and observe the many excellent productions which are to be
met with in almost every language of Europe, we must be
satisfied that even these are now possessed of some powers
which might afford at least a presumption, that if they were
cultivated with a proper degree of attention, they might, in
some respects, be made to rival, if not to excel, those beauti¬
ful and justly admired remains of antiquity. Without endea¬
vouring to derogate from their merit, let us, with the cool eye
of philosophic reasoning, endeavour to bring before the sacred
tribunal of truth some of those opinions which have been most
generally received upon this subject, and rest the determina¬
tion of the cause on her impartial decision.
The learned reader well knows, that the several changes
which take place in the arrangement of the words in every
transpositive language, could not be admitted without occa¬
sioning great confusion, unless certain classes of words were
endowed with particular variations, by means of which they
might be made to refer to the other words with which they
ought naturally to be connected. From this cause proceeds the
necessity of several variations of verbs, nouns, and adjectives ;
which are not in the least essential or necessary in the analo¬
gous languages, as we have pretty fully explained under the
article Grammar, to which we refer for satisfaction on this
head. We shall, in this place, consider whether these varia¬
tions are an advantage or a disadvantage to language.
As it is generally supposed that every language, the verbs
of which admit of inflection, is on that account much more
perfect than one where they are varied by auxiliaries, we Language,
shall, in the first place, examine this with some degree of at- ». | >
tention ; and, that what is said on this head may be the more
intelligible, we shall give examples from the Latin and Eng¬
lish languages. We make choice of these languages, because
the Latin is more purely transpositive than the Greek, and
the English admits of less inflection than any other language
that we are acquainted with.
If any preference be due to a language from the one or the
other method of conjugating verbs, it must in a great measure
be owing to one or other of these three causes: Either it
must admit of a greater variety of sounds, and consequently
afford more scope for harmonious diversity of tones in the
language ; or a greater freedom of expression is allowed
in uttering any simple idea, by the one admitting of a greater
variety in the arrangement of the words which are necessary
to express that idea than the other does ; or, lastly, a greater
precision and accuracy in fixing the meaning of the person
who uses the language, arise from the use of one of these
forms rather than from the use of the other. For, as all the
other circumstances which may serve to give a diversity to
language, such as the general and most prevalent sounds, the
frequent repetition of any one particular letter, and a variety
of other circumstances of that nature, which may serve to de¬
base a, particular language, are not influenced in the least by
the different methods of varying the verbs, they cannot be here
considered. We shall therefore proceed to make a compari¬
son of the advantages or disadvantages which may accrue to a
language by inflecting its verbs, with regard to the variety of
sound, variety of arrangement, and accuracy of meaning.
The flrst particular that we have to examine is, whether
the one method of expressing the variations of a verb admits
of a greater variety of sounds. In this respect the Latin
seems, at first view, to have a great advantage over the
English ; since the words, amo, amabam, amaveram, ama-
vero, amem, &c., seem to be more different from one another
than the English translations of these, I love, I was loving,
I had loved, I shall have loved, I may love, &c. ; for although
the syllable am is repeated in every one of the first, yet, as the
last syllable usually strikes the ear with greater force, and
leaves a greater impression than the first, it is very probable
that many will think the frequent repetition of the word
love, in the last instance, more striking to the ear than the
repetition of am in the former. We will therefore allow this
its full weight, and grant that there is as great, or even a
greater, difference between the sounds of the different tenses
of a Latin verb, than there is between the words that are equi¬
valent to them in English. But as we here consider the va¬
riety of sounds of the language in general, before any just
conclusion can be drawn, we must not only compare the different
parts of the same verb, but also compare the different verbs
with one another in each of these languages. And here, at
first view, we perceive a most striking distinction in favour of
the analogous language over the inflected; for, as it would
be impossible to form a particular set of inflections, different
from one another, for each particular verb, all those languages
which have adopted this method have been obliged to reduce
their verbs into a small number of classes, all the words of
each of which classes, commonly called conjugations, have the
several variations of the moods, tenses, and persons, expressed
exactly in the same manner, which must of necessity intro¬
duce a similarity of sounds into the language in general,
much greater than where every particular verb always retains
its own distinguishing sound. To be convinced of this, we
need only repeat any number of verbs in Latin and English,
and observe on which side the preference with respect to va¬
riety of sounds must fall.
Pono,
Dono,
Cano,
Sono,
Orno,
Pugno,
Lego,
Scribo,
Puto,
Vivo,
Ambulo,
y put.
I give.
I sing.
I sound.
I adorn.
I fight.
I read.
I write.
I think.
I love.
I walk.
Moveo,
Doleo,
Lugeo,
Obeo,
Gaudeo,
Incipio,
Facio,
Fodio,
Rideo,
Impleo,
Abstineo,
I move.
1 ail.
I mourn.
t I die.
1 rejoice.
I begin.
I make.
I dig.
I laugh,
I fill.
I forbear.
190
LANGUAGE.
Language. The similarity of sounds is here so obvious in the Latin, as
to be perceived at the first glance ; nor can we surprised to find
it so, when we consider that all their regular verbs, amount¬
ing to four thousand or upwards, must be reduced to four con¬
jugations, and even these diftering but little from one another,
which must of necessity produce the sameness of sounds which
we here perceive; whereas, every language that follows the
natural order, like the English, instead of this small number
of uniform terminations, has almost as many distinct sounds
as original verbs.
But if, instead of the present of the indicative mood, we
should take almost any other tense of the Latin verb, the simi¬
larity of sounds would still be more perceptible, as many of
these tenses have the same termination in all the four conju¬
gations, particularly in the imperfect of the indicative, as
below:—
2>dly, Write I do ; kthly, Write do I.1 And if we consider Language,
the further variation which these receive in power as well as v ^ ^ — j
in sound, by having the emphasis placed on the ditferent
words, instead of four we will find eleven different variations.
Thus, I write, with the emphasis upon the I; I write, with
the emphasis upon the word write. Let any one pronounce
these with the different emphasis necessary, and he will be
immediately satisfied that they are not only distinct from each
other with respect to meaning, but also with regard to sound.
The same must be understood of all the other parts of this
example :—
I do write.
I do write.
I do WRITE.
Write 1 do,
Write I do.
Write I DO.
Write do 1.
Write Do I.
Write do I.
Pone-bam,
Dona-bam,
Cane-bam,
Sona-bam,
Orna-bam,
Pugna-bam,
Lege-bam,
Scribe-bam,
Puta-bam,
Yive-bam,
Ambula-bam,
Move-bam,
Dole-bam,
Luge-bam,
Obi-bam,
Gaude-bam,
Incipie-bam,
Facie-bam,
Fodie-bam,
Eide-bam,
Imple-bam,
Abstine-bain,
I did put,
I did give,
I did sing,
I did sound,
I did adorn,
I did fight,
I did read,
I did write,
I did think,
I did live,
I did walk,
I did move,
I did ail,
I did mourn,
I did die,
1 did rejoice,
I did begin,
I did make,
I did dig,
I did laugh,
I did fill,
I did forbear,
or was
or was
or was
or was
or was
or was
or was
or was
or was
or was
or was
or was
or was
or was
or was
or was
or was
or was
or was
or was
or was
or was
putting.
giving.
singing.
sounding.
adorning.
fighting.
reading.
writing.
thinking.
living.
walking.
moving.
ailing.
mourning.
dying.
rejoicing.
beginning.
making.
digging.
laughing.
filling.
forbearing.
It is unnecessary to make any remarks on the Latin words
in this example. But in the English translation we have care¬
fully marked in the first column the words without any in¬
flection ; and in the second, have put down the same mean¬
ing by an inflection of our verb ; which we have been enabled
to do, from a peculiar excellency in our own language unknown
to any other, either ancient or modern. Were it necessary to
pursue this subject farther, we might observe, that the perfect
tense in all the conjugations ends universally in i, the plu¬
perfect in eram, and the future in am or bo ; in the subjunc¬
tive mood the imperfect universally in rem, the perfect in
erim, the pluperfect in issem, and the future in ero ; and as a
still greater sameness is observable in the different variations
for the persons in these tenses, seeing the first person plural
in all tenses ends in mus, and the second person in tis, with
little variation in the other persons, it is evident that, in re¬
spect to diversity of sounds, this method of conjugating verbs
by inflection is greatly inferior to the more natural method of
expressing the various connections and relations of the ver¬
bal attribute by different words, usually called auxiliaries.
The second particular by which the different methods of
marking the relation of the verbal attribute can affect lan¬
guage, arises from the variety of expressions which either of
these may admit of in uttering the same sentiment. In this
respect likewise, the method of conjugation by inflection seems
to be deficient. Thus the present of the indicative mood in
Latin can at most be expressed only in two ways, viz., scribo
and ego scribo, which ought, perhaps, in strictness to be ad¬
mitted only as one; whereas, in English, we can vary it in
four different ways, viz.,—1st, I write ; 2dly, I do write;
None of the Latin tenses admit of more variations than the
two above mentioned ; nor do almost any of the English ad¬
mit of fewer than in the above example; and several of these
phrases, which must be considered as exact translations of
some of the tenses of the Latin verb, admit of many more.
Thus the imperfect of the subjunctive mood, which in Latin
admits of the above two variations, admits in English of the
following :—
1 might have written. Written might have 1.
Written 1 might have. I written might have.
Have written 1 might. Have written might I.
And if we likewise consider the variations which may be pro¬
duced by a variation of the emphasis, they will be as under :—-
I might have written.
I MIGHT have written.
I might have ivritten.
I might have WRITTEN.
Written I might have.
Written I might have.
Written I might have.
Written 1 might HAVE.
Have written I might.
Have WRITTEN I might.
Have written I might.
Have written I might.
Written might have I.
Written MIGHT have I.
Written might HAVE I.
Written might have I.
I written might have.
I written might have.
1 ivritten MIGHT have.
I written might have.
Have written might I.
Have written might I.
Have written MIGHT 1.
Have written might I.
In all, twenty-four variations, instead of two. If we like¬
wise consider that the Latins were obliged to employ the same
word, not only to express “ I might have written,” but also,
111 could, 1 would, or I should have written,” each of which
would admit of the same variations as the word might, we have
in all ninety-six different expressions in English for the same
phrase, which in Latin admits only of two, unless they have
recourse to other forced turns of expression, which the defects
of their verbs in this particular has compelled them to invent.
But if it should be objected that the last circumstance we
have taken notice of as a defect can only be considered as a
defect of the Latin language, and is not to be attributed to
the inflection of their verbs, seeing they might have had a
particular tense for each of these different words might, could,
ivould, and should ; we answer, that, even admitting this ex¬
cuse to be valid, the superiority of the analogous language as
such still remains in this respect as twelve to one. Yet even
this concession is greater than ought to have been made. For
as the difficulty of forming a sufficient variety of words for all
the different modifications which a verb may be made to undergo
is too great for any rude people to overcome, we find, that every
nation which has adopted this mode of inflection, not excepting
the Greeks themselves, has been obliged to remain satisfied
with fewer words than would have been necessary even to effect
this purpose, and make the same word serve a double, triple,
1 We are sufficiently aware that the last variation cannot in strictness he considered as good language, although many examples of this
manner of using it in serious composition, both in poetry and prose, might easily be produced from the best authors in the English
language. But, however unjustifiable it may be to use it in serious composition, yet, when judiciously employed in works of humour,
this and other forced expressions of the like nature produce a fine effect, by giving a burlesque air to the language, and beautifully
contrasting it with the purer diction of solid reasoning. Shakspeare has on many occasions showed how successfully these may be
employed in composition, particularly in drawing the character of Ancient Pistol in Henry V. Without this liberty. Butler would
have found greater difficulty in drawing the inimitable character of Hudibras. Let this apology suffice for having inserted this
and other variations of the same kind, which, although they may be often improper for serious composition, have still their use in lan¬
guage.
language.
Language, or even quadruple office, as in the Latin tense which gave rise
to these observations. So that, however, in physical necessity
this may not be chargeable upon the particular mode of con¬
struction, yet in moral certainty it must' always be the case ;
and, therefore, we may safely conclude, that the mode of vary¬
ing "veibs by inflection affords less variety in the arrangement
of the words of the particular phrases, “than the method of
varying them by the help of auxiliaries.
13ut if there should still remain any shadow of doubt in the
mind of the reader, whether the method of varying the verbs
by inflection is inferior to that by auxiliaries, with regard to
diversity of sounds or variety of expression, there cannot be
the least doubt that, with respect to precision, distinctness,
aiK\ accuracy in expressing any idea, the latter enjoys a su¬
periority beyond all comparison. Thus, the Latin verb amo
may be Englished either by the words I love or I do love, and
the emphasis placed upon any of the words that the circum¬
stances may require; by means of which the meaning is
pointed out with a force and energy which it is altogether im¬
possible to produce by the use of any single word. The fol¬
lowing line from Shakspeare’s Othello may serve as an ex¬
ample
“ Excellent wretch!
Perdition catch my soul, but/no love thee.”
Here the strong emphasis on the word no gives it a force
and energy which conveys, in an irresistible manner, a most
perfect knowledge of the situation of the mind of the speaker
at the time. That the whole energy of the expression depends
upon this seemingly insignificant word, we may be at once
satisfied of by keeping it away, in this manner :—
“Excellent wretch!
Perdition catch my soul, but I love thee.”
How poor, how tame, how insignificant is this, when compared
with the other. Here nothing remains but a tame assertion,
ushered in with a pompous exclamation, which could not here
be introduced with any degree of propriety. Whereas, in the
way that Shakspeare has left it to us, it has an energy which
nothing can surpass; for, overpowered with the irresistible
force of Desdemona’s charms, this strong exclamation is ex¬
torted from the soul of Othello in spite of himself. Surprised
at this tender emotion, .which brings to his mind all those
amiable qualities for which he had so much esteemed her, and
at the same time fully impressed with the firm persuasion of her
guilt, he bursts out into that seemingly inconsistent exclama¬
tion, Excellent wretch ! and then he adds in the warmth of
his surprise, thinking it a thing most astonishing that any
warmth of affection should still remain in his breast,—he even
confirms it with an oath,—Perdition catch my soul, hut Ido
love thee. “ In spite of all the falsehoods with which 1 know
thou hast deceived me., in spite of all the crimes of which I
know thee guilty, in spite of all those reasons for which I ought
to hate thee, in spite of myself, still I find that I love, yes,
I no love thee.” We look upon it as a thing altogether im¬
possible to transfuse the energy of this expression into any
language whose verbs are regularly inflected.
In the same manner we might go through all the other
tenses, and show that the same superiority is to be found in
each. Thus, in the 'perfect tense of the Latins, instead of the
simple am a vi, we say 1 have loved ; and by the liberty we
have of putting the emphasis upon any of the words which
compose.this phrase, we can in the most accurate manner fix
the precise idea which we mean to excite ; for, if we say, I have
loved, with the emphasis.upon the word I, it at once points
out the person as the principal object in that phrase, and makes
us naturally look for a contrast in some other person, and the
other parts of the phrase become subordinate to it: “ He has
loved thee much, but I have loved thee infinitely more.” The
Latins, too, as they were not prohibited from joining the pro¬
noun with their verb, were also acquainted with this excel¬
lence, which Virgil has beautifully used in this verse
“ Nos patriam fugimus :
Tc, Tityre, lentus in umbra,” &c.
We are not only enabled thus to distinguish the person in
as powerful a manner as the Latins, but can also with the same
facility point out any of the other circumstances as principals ;
191
for if we. say, with the emphasis upon the word have, “ 1 have Language.
loved,” it as naturally points out the time as the principal ob- V. 1
ject, and makes us to look for a contrast in that peculiarity, I
have : “ I have loved indeed; my imagination has been led
astray, my reason has been perverted ; but, now that time has
opened my eyes, I can smile at those imaginary distresses which
once .perplexed me.” In the same manner we can put the em¬
phasis upon the other word of the phrase, loved; “ I have
loved.” Here the passion is exhibited as the principal cir¬
cumstance ; and as this can never be excited without some ob¬
ject, we naturally wish to know the object of that passion,
Who ! what have you loved ?” are the natural questions we
would put in this case. “ I have loved Eliza.” In this manner
we are, on all occasions, enabled to express, with the utmost
precision, that particular idea which we would wish to excite,
so as to give an energy and perspicuity to the language, which
can never be attained by those languages whose verbs are con-
jugated by inflection ; and if to this we add the inconvenience
which all inflected languages are subject to, by having too
small a number of tenses, so as to be compelled to make one
word on many occasions supply the place of two, three, or
even four, the balance is turned still more in our favour. Thus,
in Latin, the same word, amabo, stands for shall or will love’
so that the reader is left to guess from the context which of
the two meanings it was most likely the writer had in view.
In the same manner may or can love are expressed by the
same word, amem ; as are also might, could, would, or should
love, by the single word amarem, as we have already observed,
so that the reader is left to guess which of these four mean¬
ings the writer intended to express ; an ambiguity which oc¬
casions a perplexity very different from that clear precision
which our language allows of, by not only pointing out the
different words, but also by allowing us to put the emphasis
upon any of them we please, which superadds energy and force
to the precision it would have had without that assistance.
. Upon the whole, therefore, after the most candid examina¬
tion, we must conclude that the method of conjugating verbs
by inflection is inferior to that which is performed by the help
of auxiliaries ; because it does not afford such a diversity of
sounds, nor allow such variety in the arrangement of expres¬
sion for the same thought, nor give so great distinction and
precision in the meaning. It is, however, attended with one
considerable, advantage above the other method ; for, as the
words of which it is formed are necessarily of great length, and
more sonorous than in the analogous languages, it admits of
a more flowing harmony of expression ; for the number of
monosyllables in this last greatly checks that pompous dignity
which naturally results from longer words. Whether this single
advantage is sufficient to counterbalance all the other defects
with which it is attended, is left to the judgment of the reader
to determine. Eut we may remark before we quit the subject,
that, even this excellence is attended with some peculiar incon¬
veniences, which shall be more particularly pointed out in the
sequel.
Eut perhaps it might still be objected, that although the
comparisons we have made above may be fair, and the conclu¬
sion just, with regard to the Latin and English languages, yet
it does not appear clear, that on that account the method of
conjugating verbs by inflection is inferior to that by aux¬
iliaries ; for, although it be allowed that the Latin language
is defective in point of tenses, yet, if a language were formed
which had a sufficient number of inflected tenses to answer
every purpose ; if it had, for instance, a word properly formed
for every variation of each tense; one for I love, another for
I do love ; one for I shall, another for / will love ; one for I
might, another for I could, and would, and should love; and
so on through all the other tenses ; that this language would
not be liable to the objections we have brought against the
inflection of verbs ; and that of course the objections we have
brought are only valid against those languages which have fol¬
lowed that mode and executed it imperfectly. We answer
that although this would in some measure remedy the evil, yet
it would not remove it entirely. For, in the first place, unless
every verb, or every small number of verbs, were conjugated
in one way, having the sound of the word in each tense, and
division of tenses, as we may say, different from all the other
conjugations, it would always occasion a sameness of sound,
which would in some measure prevent that variety of sounds
192 LANG
Language. g0 proper for a language. And even if this could be effected,
v ' it would not give such a latitude to the expression as auxiliaries
allow; for,although there should be two words, one for I might,
and another for I could love, yet as these are single words,
they cannot be varied ; whereas, by auxiliaries, either of these
can be varied twenty-four different ways, as has been shown
above. In the last place, no single word can ever express all
that variety of meaning which we can do by the help of our
auxiliaries and the emphasis. I have loved, if expressed by
any one word, could only denote at all times one distinct mean¬
ing ; so that to give it the power of ours, three distinct words
at least would be necessary. However, if all this were done ;
that is, if there were a distinct conjugation formed for every
forty or fifty verbs; if each of the tenses were properly formed,
and all of them different from every other tense as well as
every other verb ; and these all carried through each of the
different persons, so as to be all different from one another;
and if lihewise there were a distinct word to mark each of the
separate meanings which the same tense could be made to as¬
sume by means of the emphasis; and if all this infinite variety
of words could be formed in a distinct manner, different from
each other, and harmonious ; this language would have powers
greater than any that could be formed by auxiliaries, if it
were possible for the human powers to acquire such a degree
of knowledge as to be able to employ it with facility. But
how could this be attained, since upwards of ten thousand
■words would be necessary to form the variations of any one
verb, and a hundred times that number would not include the
knowledge of the verbs alone of such a language?1 How much,
therefore, ought we to admire the simple perspicuity of our
language, which enables us, by the proper application of ten or
twelve seemingly trifling words, the meaning and use of which
can be attained with the utmost ease, to express all that could
be expressed by this unwieldy apparatus ? What can equal the
simplicity or the power of the one method, but the well-known
powers of the twenty-four letters, the knowledge of which can
be obtained with so much ease, whilst their powers know no
limits ? or, what can be compared to the fancied perfection of
the other, but the transcript of it which the Chinese seem to
have formed in their unintelligible language ?
Having thus considered pretty fully the advantages and de¬
fects of each of these two methods of varying verbs, we can¬
not help feeling a secret wish arise in our mind, that there
had been a people sagacious enough to have united the powers
of the one method with those of the other ; nor can we help
being surprised, that among the changes wdiich took place in
the several languages of Europe after the downfall of the
Roman monarchy, some of them did not accidentally stumble
on the method of doing it. From many concurring circum¬
stances, it seems probable that the greater part, if not all, of
the Gothic nations that overran Italy at that time, had their
verbs varied by the help of auxiliaries ; and many of the
modern European languages which have sprung from them,
have so far borrowed from the Latin, as to have some of the
tenses of their verbs inflected. Yet the English alone have in
any instance combined the joint powers of the two, which could
only be done by forming inflections for the different tenses in
the same manner as the Latins, and at the same time retaining
the original method of varying them by auxiliaries ; by which
means either the one or the other method could have been em¬
ployed as occasion required. We have luckily two tenses
formed in that way, the 'present of the indicative, and the
aorist of the past. In almost all our verbs these can be de¬
clined either with or without auxiliaries. Thus the present,
without an auxiliary, is, I love, I write, I speak; with an
auxiliary, I do write, I do love, I do speak. In the same
manner, the past tense, by inflection, is, I loved, 1 wrote, I
spoke; by auxiliaries, 1 did love, I did speak, I did write.
Every author who knows any thing of the power of the Eng¬
lish language, knows the use which may be made of this dis¬
tinction. What a pity is it that we should have stopt short so
soon. How blind was it in many other nations to imitate the
U A G E.
defects without making a proper use of that beautiful language Language,
which is now numbered among the dead.
After the verbs, the next most considerable variation we find
between the analogous and transpositive languages is in the
nouns ; the latter varying the different cases of these by in¬
flection ; whereas the former express all the different varia¬
tions of them by the help of other words prefixed, called pre¬
positions. Now, if we consider the advantages or disadvan¬
tages of either of these methods under the same heads as we
have done the verbs, we shall find, that with regard to the
first particular, viz., variety of sounds, almost the same re¬
marks may be made as upon the verbs ; for if we compare any
particular noun by itself, the variety of sound appears much
greater between the diff’erent cases in the transpositive, than
between the translation of these in the analogous language.
Thus rex, regis, regi, regem, &c., are more distinct from one
another in point of sound, than the translation of these, a king,
of a king, to a king, a king, &c. But if we proceed one step
further, and consider the variety which is produced in the lan¬
guage in general by the one or the other of these methods, the
case is entirely reversed. For, as it would have been impos¬
sible to form distinct variations, different from one another,
for each case of every noun, they have been obliged to reduce
all their nouns into a few general classes, called declensions,
and to give to all those included under each class the same ter¬
mination in every case, which produces a like similarity of
sound w’ith what we already observed was occasioned to the
verbs from the same cause ; whereas, in the analogous lan¬
guages, as there is no necessity for any constraint, there is al¬
most as great a variety of sounds as there are of nouns. The
Latins have only five different declensions; so that all the
great number of words of this general order must be reduced
to the very small diversity of sounds which these few classes
admit of; and even the sounds of these few classes are not so
much diversified as they might have been, as many of the dif¬
ferent cases in the different declensions have exactly the same
sounds, as we shall have occasion to remark more fully here¬
after. We might here produce examples to show the great
similarity of sounds between different nouns in the Latin lan¬
guage, and variety in the English, in the same way as we did
of the verbs ; but as every reader in the least acquainted with
these two languages, can satisfy himself in this particular,
without any further trouble than by marking down any num¬
ber of Latin nouns, with their translations into English, we
think it unnecessary to dwell longer on this particular.
But if the inflection of nouns is a disadvantage to a language
in point of diversity of sounds, it is very much the reverse with
regard to the variety it allows in the arranging the words of
the phrase. Here, indeed, the transpositive language shines
forth in all its glory, and the analogous must yield the palm
without the smallest dispute. For as the nominative case, or
that noun which is the cause of the energy expressed by the
verb, is different from the accusative, or that noun upon which
the energy expressed by the verb is exerted, these may be
placed in any situation that the writer shall think proper,
without occasioning the smallest confusion ; whereas, in the
analogous languages, as these two different states of the noun
are expressed by the same word, they cannot be distinguished
but by their position alone ; so that the noun, which is the effi¬
cient cause, must always precede the verb, and that which is
the passive subject must follow, which greatly cramps the har¬
monious flow of composition. Thus the Latins, without the
smallest perplexity in the meaning, could say either Brutum
amavit Cassius, or Cassius amavit Brutum, or Brutum Cas¬
sius amavit, or Cassius Brutum amavit. As the termination
of the word Cassius always points out that it is in the nomi¬
native case, and therefore that he is the person from whom the
energy proceeds; and in the same manner, as the termination
of the word Brutum points out that it is in the accusative case,
and consequently that he is the object upon whom the energy
is exerted, the meaning continues still distinct and clear, not¬
withstanding all these several variations ; whereas, in the Eng-
1 This assertion may perhaps appear to many very much exaggerated ; hut if any one should think so, we only beg the favour that he
will set himself to mark all the variations of tenses, mode, person, and number, which an English verb can be made to assume, varying
each of these in every way that it will admit, both as to the diversity of expression and the emphasis, and he will soon be convinced
that we have here said nothing more than enough.
LANGUAGE.
193
Language, lish language, we could only say, Cassius loved Brutus, or, by
a more forced phraseology, Cassius Brutus loved. Were we
to reverse the case, as in the Latin, the meaning also would
be reversed ; for if we say Brutus loved Cassius, it is evident,
that instead of being the person beloved, as before, Brutus now
becomes the person from whom the energy proceeds, and Cas¬
sius becomes the object beloved. In this respect, therefore,
the analogous languages are greatly inferior to the transposi¬
tive ; and, indeed, it is from this single circumstance alone that
they derive their chief excellence.
But although it thus appears evident that any language
which has a particular variation of its nouns to distinguish
the accusative from the nominative case, has an advantage
over those languages which have none; yet it does not appear
that any other of their cases adds to the variety, but rather
the reverse; for in Latin we can only say Amor Dei; in
English the same phrase may be rendered either the love of
God, of God the love, or, by a more forced arrangement, God
the love of. And as these oblique cases, as the Latins called
them, except the accusative, are clearly distinguished from one
another and from the nominative, by the preposition which
accompanies them, we are not confined to any particular ar¬
rangement with regard to these, as with the accusative, but
may place them in what order we please, as in Milton’s elegant
invocation at the beginning of Paradise Lost:—
“ Of man’s first disobedience, and the fruit
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste
Brought death into the world, and all our woe,
With loss of Eden, till one greater man
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat,
Sing, heavenly muse.”
In this sentence the transposition is almost as great as the
Latin language would admit of, and the meaning as distinct as
if Milton had begun with the plain language of prose.
Before we leave this head, we may remark, that the little
attention which seems to have been paid to this peculiar ad¬
vantage, derived from the use of an accusative case different
from the nominative, is somewhat surprising. The Latins,
who had more occasion to attend to this with care than any
other nation, and even the Greeks themselves have in many
cases overlooked it, as is evident from the various instances
we meet with in their languages where this is not distinguished.
For all nouns of the neuter gender, both in Greek and Latin,
have in every declension their nominative and accusative sin¬
gular alike. Nor in the plural of such nouns is there any dis¬
tinction between these two cases; and in Latin all nouns
whatever of the third, fourth, and fifth declensions, of which
the number is very considerable, have their nominative and
accusative plural alike. So that their language reaps no
advantage in this respect from almost one-half of their nouns.
Nor have any of the modern languages in Europe, however
much they may have borrowed from the ancient languages in
other respects, attempted to copy from them in this particular ;
from which perhaps more advantage would have been gained]
than from copying all the other supposed excellencies of their
language. But to return to our object.
% It remains that we consider whether the inflection of nouns
gives any advantage over the method of defining them by pre¬
positions, in point of distinctness and precision of meaning?
But in this respect, too, the analogous languages must come
off victorious. Indeed, this is the particular in which their
greatest excellence consists ; nor was it, we believe, ever dis¬
puted but that, in point of accuracy and precision, this method
must excel all others, however it may be defective in other
respects. We observed under this head, when speaking of
verbs, that it might perhaps be possible to form a language
by inflection which should be capable of as great accuracy as
in the more simple order of auxiliaries ; but this would have
been such an infinite labour that it was not to be expected
that ever human powers would have been able to accomplish
it. More easy would it have been to have formed the several
inflections of the nouns so different from one another as to
have rendered it impossible ever to mistake the meaning.
Yet even this has not been attempted. And as we find that
those languages, which have adopted the method of inflecting
their verbs, are more imperfect in point of precision than the
other, so the same may be said of inflecting the nouns ; for
VOL. XIII.
not to mention the energy which the analogous languages Language,
acquire by putting the accent upon the noun, or its preposi-
tion, when in an oblique case, according as the subject may
require,—to express which variation of meaning no particular
variety of words have been invented in any inflected language,—
they are not even complete in other respects. The Latin,
in particular, is in many cases defective, the same termination
being employed in many instances for different cases of the
same noun. Thus the genitive and dative singular, and no¬
minative and vocative plural, of the first declension, are all
exactly alike, and can only be distinguished from one another
by the formation of the sentence ; as are also the nominative,
vocative, and ablative singular, and the dative and ablative
plural. In the second, the genitive singular and nominative
and vocative plural are the same, as are also the dative and
ablative singular, and dative and ablative plural, except those
in um, whose nominative, accusative, and vocative singular,
and nominative, accusative, and vocative plural, are alike.
The other three declensions agree in as many of their cases as
these do, which evidently tends to perplex the meaning, unless
the hearer is particularly attentive to, and well acquainted
with, the particular construction of the other parts of the sen¬
tence ; all of which is totally removed, and the clearest cer¬
tainty exhibited at once, by the help of prepositions in the
analogous languages.
It will hardly be necessary to enter into such a minute
examination of the advantages or disadvantages attending the
variation of adjectives, as it will appear evident, from what
has been already said, that the endowing them with termina¬
tions similar to, and corresponding with, substantives, must
tend still more to increase the similarity of sounds in any lan¬
guage, than any of those particulars we have already taken
notice of; and were it not for the liberty which they have, in
transpositive languages, of separating the adjective from the
substantive, this must have occasioned such a jingle of similar
sounds as could not fail to have been most disgusting to the
ear; but as it would have been impossible in many cases, in
those languages where the verbs and nouns are inflected, to
have pronounced the words which ought to have followed each
other, unless their adjectives could have been separated from
the substantives, therefore, to remedy this inconvenience, they
were forced to devise this unnatural method of inflecting them
also ; by which means it is easy to recognise to what substan¬
tive any adjective has a reference, in whatever part of the
sentence it may be placed. In these languages, therefore,
this inflection, both as to gender, number, and case, becomes
absolutely necessary ; and, by the diversity which it admitted
in the arranging the words of the several phrases, might
counterbalance the jingle of similar sounds which it introduced
into the language.
Having thus examined the most striking particulars in
which the transpositive and analogous languages differ, and
endeavoured to show the general tendency of every one of the
particulars separately, it would not be fair to dismiss the sub¬
ject without considering each of these as a whole, and pointing
out their general tendency in that light: for, we all know,
that it often happens in human inventions, that every part
which composes a whole, taken separately, may appear ex¬
tremely fine ; and yet, when all these parts are put together,
they may not agree, but produce a jarring and confusion very
different from what we might have expected. We, therefore,
imagine that a few remarks upon the genius of each of these
two distinct idioms of language, considered as a whole, will
not be deemed useless.
Although all languages agree in this respect, that they are
the means of conveying the ideas of one man to another, yet as
there is an infinite variety of ways in which we might wish to
convey these ideas, sometimes by the easy and familiar mode
of conversation, and at other times by more solemn addresses
to the understanding, by pompous declamation, &c., it may so
happen that the genius of one language may be more properly
adapted to the one of these than the other, while another lan¬
guage may excel in the opposite particular. This is exactly
the case in the two general idioms of which we now treat.
Every particular in a transpositive language is peculiarly cal¬
culated for that solemn dignity which is necessary for pompous
orations. Long-sounding words, formed by the inflection of
the different parts of speech ; flowing periods, in which the
2 B
194 LANG
Language, attention is kept awake by the harmony of the sounds, and in
v / expectation of that word which is to unravel the whole ; if
7 composed by a skilful artist, are admirably suited to that
solemn dignity and awful grace which constitutes the essence
of a public harangue. On the contrary, in private conversa¬
tion, where the mind wishes to unbend itself with ease, these
become so many clogs which encumber and perplex. At these
moments we wish to transfuse our thoughts with ease and
facility, we are tired with every unnecessary syllable, and
wish to be freed from the trouble of attention as much as may
be. Like our state robes, we would wash to lay aside our
pompous language, and enjoy ourselves at home with freedom
and ease. Here the solemnity and windings of the transposi¬
tive language are burdensome, while the facility with which a
sentiment can be expressed in the analogous language is the
thing that we wish to acquire. Accordingly, in Terence and
Plautus, where the beauties of dialogue are most charmingly
displayed, transposition is sparingly used. In this humble,
though most engaging sphere, the analogous language moves
unrivalled ; in this it wishes to indulge, and never tires. But
it in vain attempts to rival the transpositive in dignity and
pomp : the number of monosyllables interrupts the flow of
harmony ; and, although they may give a greater variety of
sounds, yet they do not naturally possess that dignified gravity
which suits the other language. This, then, must be considered
as the striking particular in the genius of these two different
idioms which marks their characters.
If we consider the effects which these two different charac¬
ters ot language must naturally produce upon the people who
employ them, we will soon perceive that the genius of the
analogous language is much more favourable for the most
engaging purposes of life—the civilizing the human mind by
mutual intercourse of thought—than the transpositive. For
as it is chiefly by the use of speech that man is raised above
the brute creation—as it is by this means he improves every
faculty of his mind, and, to the observations which he may
himself have made, has the additional advantage of the ex¬
perience of those with whom he may converse, as well as the
knowledge which the human race have acquired by the ac¬
cumulated experience of all preceding ages—as it is by the
enlivening glow of conversation that kindred souls catch fire
from one another, that thought produces thought, and each
improves upon the other, till they soar beyond the bounds
which human reason, if left alone, could ever have aspired to—
we must surely consider that language as the most beneficial
to society which most effectually removes those bars that ob¬
struct its progress. Now, the genius of the analogous lan¬
guages is so easy, so simple and plain, as to be within the
reach of every one who is bom in the kingdom where it is
used to speak it with facility ; even the rudest among the vul¬
gar can hardly fall into any considerable grammatical errors :
whereas, in the transpositive languages, so many rules are
necessary to be attended to, and so much variation is produced
in the meaning, by the slightest variations in the sound, that
it requires a study far above the reach of the illiterate me¬
chanic ever to attain. So that, how perfect soever the lan¬
guage may be when spoken with purity, the bulk of the nation
must ever labour under the inconvenience of rudeness and
inaccuracy of speech, and all the evils which this naturally
produces. Accordingly, wre find that in Rome a man, even in
the highest rank, received as much honour, and was as much
distinguished among his equals, for being able to converse
with ease, as a modern author would be for writing in an easy
and elegant style ; and Caesar, among his contemporaries, was
as much esteemed for his superiority in speaking the language
in ordinary conversation with ease and elegance, as for his
powers of oratory, his skill in arms, or his excellence in
literary composition. It is needless to point out the many
inconveniences which this must unavoidably produce in a state.
It is sufficient to observe, that it naturally tends to introduce
a vast distinction between the orders of men—to set an im¬
penetrable barrier between those born in a high and those
born in a low station—to keep the latter in ignorance and
barbarity, while it elevates the former to such a height as
must subject the other to be easily led by every popular dema-
gogue.. How far the history of the nations who have followed
this idiom of language confirms this observation, every one is
left to judge for himself.
CAGE.
[The first stage of language exhibits single words, chiefly Language,
nouns or verbs, in a short form, and with a minimum amount . , >
of inflection, some subordinate to the others, but still sepa¬
rate words. The Chinese is usually considered to be the type
of language in this state.
In the second, the subordinate words coalesce with the main
ones, but not so as to wholly conceal their originally separate
existence. Languages in this state are called agglutinate.
This is the state in which most of the languages of the world
exist. The Mantshu and Mongol are the usual examples of
this condition. Most other tongues, however, would serve as
well.
The coalition of the subordinate with the main word having
become so perfect as for the former to look like a part of the
latter rather than a word originally separate, the combination
becomes amalgamate instead of agglutinate, and the lan¬
guage inflectional. The Greek and Latin are the types of
this form.
Inflections fall off, and get displaced by separate words,
these words being of a peculiar kind—prepositions with sub¬
stantives, auxiliaries with verbs. The English is in this
stage, and, doubtless, it is destined to further changes.
These, however, will not be in a cycle. It is only in ap¬
pearance that the fourth stage is in the same predicament as
the first. It is only in the comparative absence of inflections,
and the separate existence of the subordinate parts of sentences,
that they agree. The subordinate words themselves differ.
An English auxiliary, or preposition, in its more typical
form, is meaningless when taken by itself. In I have ridden
a horse, the word have originally meant, I possess a horse
as a ridden thing ; where, however, is the idea of possession
in I have been, a sentence exhibiting language in the most
abstract or supra-sensible form in which it has ever existed ?
In the difference of character between the suoormnate words
of sentences, we have a means of ascertaining whether lan¬
guages in the same non-inflectional state have lost their in¬
flection, or have yet to develop them. The question, how¬
ever, is not asked so often as it ought to be.
In the actual field of language the lines of demarcation are
less definitely marked than in the preceding sketch. The
phenomena of growth, however, are, upon the whole, what it
suggests.
That languages like the English, French, &e., are more
advanced, grown, or developed, than the classical tongues,
is certain, whatever may be the interpretation of the fact in a
question as to the relative values of the different stages.—
R. G. L.]
II. AFFINITIES OF LANGUAGE.
The study of the affinities of various languages is so far one
of the most important of all branches of human knowledge, as
it affords, when properly applied, an unerring test of the
truth or falsehood of historical evidence, without which it
would sometimes be impossible to unravel the mysteries of
contradictory testimonies, respecting the relations of the dif¬
ferent races of mankind. We have, for example, no tradi¬
tional evidence in support of any connection between the
ancient Egyptians and the Indians; whilst, on the other hand,
a number of persons who came with the English army from
the East Indies into Egypt, were so strongly impressed with
the resemblance of the Egyptian and Indian temples, which
appeared even to excite the religious feelings of many of the
natives who were amongst the troops employed, that a very
general inclination has arisen from these circumstances to con¬
sider the Egyptian mythology as merely a branch of the
Indian. But if the Egyptian people had really been of Indian
origin—that is, if the Egyptians and Indians had really been
one people, at any later period than that at which the whole
of the Indian and European races were separated from their
common stock—the languages of India and of Egypt could not
but have exhibited some features of resemblance, which would
have preserved the traces of the connection ; whilst, in fact,
there is much less similarity between the Egyptian and the
Indian, than between the Indian and the Greek, or the English
and the Persian ; so that etymology may here be adduced as
confirming the evidence, or as justifying the silence, of his¬
tory ; and the resemblance of the mythological representations
must be considered as in great measure accidental.
LANG
Language. [Similarity of language is strong primd facie evidence infa-
v — ^ ; vour of a common origin ; but it is nothing more. The strongest
instances of a mother-tongue having become forgotten or un¬
learned, and a new language adopted in its stead, are to be
found amongst the negroes of the New World. In St Domin¬
go, the languages are French and Spanish; in the United States,
English; and in South America, Dutch, Spanish, and Por¬
tuguese. Here, however, the conditions were peculiar. The
native language was no longer connected with the soil to which
it was indigenous, but transplanted to a new area. Neither
was it any single homogeneous form of speech that was oblite¬
rated, but, on the contrary, a multitude of mutually unintelli¬
gible tongues, which, under any circumstances, would have
ended in the establishment of a Lingua Franca.
With the negro languages of the New World we have the
maximum amount of change in speech with a minimum in
the way of intermixture of blood. With the native American
tribes, the phenomena of change are somewhat different. As
a general rule, the number of individuals who speak one and
the same language is remarkably small; every now and then,
however, in contact with these small patches of speech, is to be
found some language spread over a considerable area, and
spoken by several tribes. These the missionaries have con¬
verted into Lingua Francas ; it being a matter of observation
that an American Indian learns an American language, no
matter how unlike his own, easier than one from Europe.
Many of the minor languages of the South American republics
and Brazil have thus been replaced by the Guarani.
In each of the previous cases, there is the actual replacement
of one language by another. In the Lingua Franca of Europe
this is not always the case. In the Levant, the Italian (the
Lingua Franca, or its basis) is spoken by numerous Arabs,
Greeks, &c. The native Arabic, however, and the native
Greek, co-exist by the side of it. There is no extinction as
yet. Nevertheless, the tendencies towards it have set, inasmuch
as where two languages have to be learned, the less useful is
the weakest, and has a chance of going to the wall.
Sometimes with two languages thus brought in contact with
each other, we have the phenomenon of intermixture, rather
than obliteration—an intermediate tongue being formed out
of the fusion of two. A priori, it seems likely that such should
be the case often. In reality, however, the development of
such a language as (say) C, out of languages A and B, is very
rare indeed. The ordinary phenomenon is A with a certain
amount of B, or B with a certain amount of A—the original
character of the fundamental language being preserved. The
English (for instance), for all its Latin elements, is German ;
the French, for all its German elements, Latin.
This suggests, that in language we have every degree of
change, from simple intermixture to absolute obliteration and
replacement. It also suggests, that similarity of language is
a matter of degree. There may be absolutely community of
tongue, or there may be an admixture of say one per cent, of
foreign terms. Language is one of those signs of community
of origin which is slow to be abolished—slower than most
others—slower, perhaps (on the whole), than any other ; never¬
theless, it is only a sign, and a sign capable of obliteration.
Its relative permanence, when compared with other criteria,
is a matter upon which there is a wide discrepancy of opinion ;
the facts upon which our hypotheses must rest being by no
means easily ascertained. It is only certain that the questions
involved in it are far too complicated to be disposed of by the
application of any general rule. As new ideas are introduced,
language changes. As new physical influences are brought into
action, the anatomical conformation of the human body becomes
modified. That these latter forces have some influence is uni¬
versally admitted ; though many competent authorities put a
close limit on its extent. It is clear, however, that, within
certain limits, both language and physical conformation may
change.
They may change at different rates—i.e., in a given period
(say ten generations), the speech may be considerably modi¬
fied, whilst the anatomy of the speakers remains the same.
And, vice versa, the physiognomies may alter, whilst language
remains fixed. Every comparison of the difference of rate be¬
tween such changes should be made on the merits of the parti¬
cular question under notice, no general rule being sufficient.
Next conies the question of limit. Here we may safely say,
CAGE. 195
that the range of change in language is wider than that of Language,
which physical form is susceptible. It is, clearly, easier for a ^ „- v J
negro to be converted into a Frenchman in the matter of lan¬
guage, than in that of colour. Extreme forms of language
may more easily be converted into each other, than extreme
forms of physical conformation ; and this is all that can safely
be said. It is by no means certain that a population of negroes,
transplanted from a low alluvial swamp to an elevated moun¬
tain range, would not retain their language without alteration,
than they would their physical form—within certain limits.
The contact of two languages has a greater tendency to effect
the obliteration of one of them than the development of a ter-
tium quid out of their fusion.
The contact of different stocks in the way of physical union
has a greater tendency to effect the intermixture of blood than
the obliteration of one of the constituent elements.
From this it follows, that languages are much more either
one thing or another than stocks, races, or families. The
language of Radnorshire and Cornwall is much more English
(as opposed to Welsh) than the blood or pedigree of its speakers
is English ; indeed, as a general rule, the blood of a given
population is more mixed than its language. This is because,
whilst A and B, in the way of stock, blood, or pedigree, will
give C (a true tertium quid, or a near approach to it), A and B,
in the way of language, will only give themselves,—i.e., they
will give no true tertium quid, nor any very close approach
to it. These, however, are matters that belong to the question
of man in general rather than to language. Language (as an
instrument of criticism in ethnology) is the most permanent
of the criteria of human relationship derivable from our moral
constitution, and, in some cases, equally permanent with physi¬
cal form, though, in the case of extreme changes, less so.
The particular illustration of the original text to which this
notice is a comment, drawn from the languages of India and
Egypt, is exceptionable. The languages of India are two
in number. Of these it is only one, the Sanscrit, that is
more Persian, &c., than Egyptian. Of the other, the Tamul,
&c., no such statement can be made. It is, probably, more
Egyptian than Persian—certainly more Egyptian than Greek
or English.—n. g. l.]
It is, however, only with regard to the languages of the an¬
cient world that we can feel much interest in such an investi¬
gation. The American dialects might afford equally extensive
subjects of speculation in a metaphysical and critical point of
view ; but the concerns of barbarians, unconnected and remote
from all contact with literature or civilization, and destitute of
all historical records, will scarcely be thought to require any
great portion of attention from a philosophical inquirer ; and
there is ample scope for the employment of all our faculties
in the analysis and comparison of the various languages of
Europe, Asia, and Africa. If, indeed, an extraordinary7 exer¬
tion of enterprise and industry, which can be expected from a
few distinguished individuals only in the course of as many
centuries, should make known relations, such as Alexander
von Humboldt has appeared to discover, between the Ameri¬
can and Asiatic nations, a new field would be ojrened for the
gratification of our curiosity ; but it can scarcely be expected
that these points of resemblance can be sufficiently numerous
to afford any thing like demonstrative evidence, until the
whole subject has been much more deeply and repeatedly dis¬
cussed. In the mean time, a very brief enumeration of the
names of the American languages is all that can be required,
on an occasion like the present; except the insulated though
interesting remark, that the countries separated by Behring’s
Straits exhibit, as might indeed be expected, strong resem¬
blances in some of their languages.
[It is in the ruder languages that the important phenomena
of development and growth—the laws of language—are best
studied. The following extracts are from an opuscule of the
writer on the subject:—
“ A little consideration will show, that that difference be¬
tween the study of a given subject in its general and abstract,
and the study of one in its applied or concrete form, which
finds place in so many departments of human knowledge, finds
place in respect to language and languages. It finds place in
the subject before us as truly as it does in the science of the
laws of life—physiology or biology. Just as there is therein
a certain series of laws relating to life and organization, which
196 L A N G U A G E.
Language, would command our attention, if the whole animal and vege-
table world consisted of but a single species, so the study of
speech would find space in a well-devised system of education,
even if the tongues of the whole wide world were reduced to a
single language, and that language to a single dialect. This is
because the science of life is one thing, the science of the forms
under which the phenomena of life are manifested, another.
And just as physiology, or biology, is, more or less, anterior
to, and independent of, such departments of study as botany
and zoology, so, in the subject under notice, there is the double
division of the study of language in respect to structure and
development, and the study of languages as instances of the
variety of form in which the phenomenon of human speech ex¬
hibits, or has exhibited, itself. Thus—
‘ ‘ When (as I believe once to have been the case) there was
but a single language on the face of the earth, the former of
these divisions had its subject-matter. And—
“ When (as is by no means improbable) one paramount and
exclusive tongue, developed, at first, rapidly and at the expense
of the smaller languages of the world, and, subsequently, slowly
and at that of the more widely-diffused ones, shall have re¬
placed the still numerous tongues of the nineteenth century,
and when all the dialects of the world shall be merged into one
universal language, the same subject-matter for the study of the
structure of language, its growth and changes, will still exist.
“ So that the study of language is one thing, the study of
languages another.
“ One main distinction between the study of language and
the study of languages lies in the fact of the value of the for¬
mer being constant, that of the latter fluctuating. The rela¬
tive importance of any two languages, as objects of special
attention, scarcely ever remains steady. The value, for in¬
stance, of the German—to look amongst the cotemporary forms
of speech—has notably risen within the present century. And
why ? Because the literature in which it is embodied has im¬
proved. Because the scientific knowledge which, to all who
want the key, is (so to say) locked up in it, has increased some
hundred per cent.
“ But it may go down again. Suppose, for instance, that
new writers of pre-eminent merit ennoble some of the minor
languages of Europe—the Danish, Swedish, Dutch, &c. Such
a fact would divide the attention of savans—attention which
can only be bestowed upon some second, at the expense of
some first, object. In such a case, the extent to which the Ger¬
man language got studied would be atfected much in the same
way as that of the French was by the development of the
literature of Germany.
“ Or the area over which a language is spoken may increase,
as it may also diminish.
“ Or the number of individuals that speak it may multiply
—the area being the same.
“ Or the special application of the language, whether for the
purposes of commerce, literature, science, or politics, may be¬
come changed. In this way, as well as in others, the English
is becoming, day by day, more important.
“ There are other influences.
“High as is the value of the great classical languages of
Greece and Rome, we can easily conceive how that value
might be enhanced. Let a manuscript containing the works
of some of the lost, or imperfectly preserved, writers of anti¬
quity be discovered. Let, for instance, Gibbon’s desiderata—
the lost Decads of Livy, the Orations of Hyperides, or the
Dramas of Menander—be made good ; the per-oentage of
classical scholars would increase, little or much.
“ Some years back it was announced that the Armenian lan¬
guage contained translations, made during the earlier centuries
of our era, of certain classical and ecclesiastical writings, of
which the originals had been lost—lost in the interval. This
did not exactly make the Armenian, with its alphabet of six-
and-thirty letters, a popular tongue ; but it made it, by a
traction, more popular than it was in the days of Whiston and
La Croze, when those two alone, of all the learned men of
Europe, could read it.
“Translations tell in another way. Whatever is worth
reading in the Danish and Swedish is forthwith translated into
German. E.g., Professor Retzius of Stockholm wrote a good
Manual of Anatomy. He had the satisfaction of seeing it
translated into German. He had the further satisfaction of
hearing that the translation ran through five editions in less Language,
time than the original did through one. v
“ Now, if the Germans were to leave off translating, the
value of the language in which Professor Retzius wrote his
Anatomy would rise.
“Upon the whole, the French is, perhaps, the most impor¬
tant language of the nineteenth century ; yet it is only where
we take into consideration the whole of its elements of value.
“ To certain special savans, the German is worth more ; to
the artist, the Italian ; to the American, the Spanish. It fell,
too, in value, when nations like our own insisted upon the use
of their native tongues in diplomacy. It fell in value because
it became less indispensable ; and another cause, now in ope¬
ration, affects the same element of indispensability. The
French are beginning to learn the languages of other nations.
Their own literature will certainly be none the worse for their
so doing. But it by no means follows that that literature will
be any the more studied; on the contrary, Frenchmen will
learn English more, and, pro tanto, Englishmen learn French
less.
********
“ What is the import of such sounds as that of the letter s
in the word father-s ? It is the sign of the plural number.
“ Such is the question—such the answer. But is the answer
a real one ? Is it an answer at all ? How come such things
as plural numbers, and signs of plural numbers, into language ?
How the particular plural before us came into being, I cannot
say ; but I can show how some plurals have. Let us explain
the following—
Ngi — /. Ngi-n-de = We.
Ngo — Thou. Ngo-n-da = Ye.
Ngu = He. Nge-n-da = They.
Da = With.
The da (or de) in the second column is the sign of the plural
number in a language which shall at present be nameless. It
is also the preposition with. Now with denotes association ;
association, plurality. Hence
Ngi - n-de = I + = We.
Ngo - n - da = Thou + = Ye.
Nge - n - da He + = They.
This is just as if the Latins, instead of nos and vos, said me-
curn and te-cum.
“ Such is the history of one mode of expressing the idea of
plurality ; we can scarcely say of a plural number. The
words plural number suggest the idea of a single word, like
fathers, where the s is inseparably connected with the root, at
least so far inseparably connected as to have no independent
existence of its own. Ngi-n-de, however, is no single word
at all, but a pair of words in juxtaposition, each with a sepa¬
rate existence of its own. But what if this juxtaposition
grow into amalgamation ? What if the form in da change ?
What if it become t or z, or th, or s? What if, meanwhile,
the separate preposition da change in form also ; in form or
meaning, or perhaps in both ? In such a case a true plural
form is evolved, the history of its evolution being a mystery.
“ So much for one of the inflections of a noun. The re¬
maining words illustrate one of a verb.
“ Hundreds of grammarians have suggested that the signs
of the persons in the verb might be neither more nor less than
the personal pronouns appended, in the first instance, to the
verb, but afterwards amalgamated or incorporated with it. If
so, the -m in inqua-m is the m in me, Ac. The late Mr Gar¬
nett, a comparative philologist whose reputation is far below
his merits, saw that this was not exactly the case. He ob¬
served that the appended pronoun was not so much Personal
Possessive ; that the analysis of a word like inqua-m was not
so much, say + I, as saying + my •, in short, that the verb was
a noun, and the pronoun either an adjective (like mens) or
an oblique case (like tnei), agreeing with or governed by it.
“ It is certainly so in some cases. In a language which, at
present, shall be nameless, instead of saying my apple, thy
apple, they say what is equivalent to apple-m, apple-th, Ac.
-—i.e., they append the possessive pronoun to the substantive,
and by modifying its form, partially incorporate or amalgamate
it. They do more than this. They do precisely the same with
the verbs in \\uzir personal as they do with the nouns in their
LANGUAGE.
197
Language.£>oss<3isii/e relations. Hence, olvas-om, &c., is less I
^ v ' than my-rending; less read +1, than reading + my.
read
Olvas—om
od
uk
atok
i.
— I read.
— Thou readest.
= We read.
= Ye read.
ir.
Alma—m = My apple.
d = Thy apple.
nk — Our apple.
tok = Your apple.
“ I submit, that facts of this kind are of some value, great
or small. But the facts themselves are not all. How were
they got at ? They were got at by dealing with the pheno¬
mena of language as we found them, by an induction of no or¬
dinary width and compass ; and many forms of speech had to
be investigated before the facts came out in their best and
most satisfactory form.
“ The illustration of the verb (olvasom, and almam, &c.)
is from the Hungarian ; that of the plural number (nginde,
Ac.), from the Tumali—the Tumali being a language no nearer
than the negro districts to the South of Cordovan, between
Sennaar and Darfur, and (as such) not exactly in the highway
of literature and philology.” (Lecture on the Importance of
the Study of Language as a Branch of Education for all
Classes, by Robert Gordon Latham, M.D., F.R.S.)
Of language in general we do not here intend to treat, but
merely of languages as they are distinct from each other. It
is not, however, very easy to say what the definition ought to
be that should constitute a separate language ; but it seems
most natural to call those languages distinct, of which the one
cannot be understood by common persons in the habit of speak¬
ing the other, so that an interpreter would be required for com¬
munication between persons of the respective nations. Still,
however, it may remain doubtful whether the Danes and the
Swedes could not, in general, understand each other tolerably
well, and whether the Scottish Highlanders and the Irish would
be able to drink their whisky together without an interpreter ;
nor is it possible to say, if the twenty ways of pronouncing
the sounds belonging to the Chinese characters, ought or ought
not to be considered as so many languages or dialects, though
they would render all oral intercourse between the persons
so speaking the language actually impracticable. But, whether
we call such variations different languages, or different dia¬
lects, or merely different pronunciations of the same dialect,
it is obvious that they ought all to be noticed in a complete
history of languages ; and, at the same time, that the lan¬
guages so nearly allied must stand next to each other in a
symmetrical order ; the perfection of which would be, to place
those languages nearest together in which the number of
coincidences in the signification of words throughout the lan¬
guage are the most numerous.
It has sometimes been imagined, that all languages in exist¬
ence present something like a trace of having been deduced
from a common origin ; and it would be difficult to confute
this opinion by very positive evidence, unless every separate
language had been very completely analysed and examined by
a person well acquainted wuth a variety of other languages,
with which it might be compared. But, without such an ex¬
amination, the opinion must remain conjectural only, and no
more admissible as demonstrated, than the opinions of some
empirics, that there is only one disease, and that the only
remedy for it is brandy. In an essay on probabilities, lately
published in the Philosophical Transactions, Dr Young has
remarked, that “ nothing whatever could be inferred, with re¬
spect to the relation of two languages, from the coincidence of
the sense of any single word in both of them,” that is, suppos-
ing the same simple and limited combinations of sounds to oc¬
cur in both, but to be applied accidentally to the same number
of objects, without any common links of connection ; “ and that
the odds would only be three to one against the agreement of
two words, but if three words appeared to be identical, it would
be more than ten to one that they must be derived, in both
cases, from some parent language, or introduced in some other
manner,” from a common source ; whilst “ six words would
give near 1700 chances to one, and eight near 100,000; so Language,
that, in these last cases, the evidence would be little short of
absolute certainty.”
[Few applications of mathematical reasoning to questions
beyond its usual field, have commanded more attention than
this calculation of Dr Young’s, under wh se name it is quoted
in most works that support the doctrine of the fundamental
unity of languages. Its scientific appearance has, doubtless,
recommended it. It is exceptionable, however, on the score
of its only meeting one out of the several causes of similarity
of meaning accompanied with similarity of form in different
languages. It only deals with the coincidences referable to
chance or accident; of these, however, no advanced philologue
takes any account either way ; indeed, it is probable that an
advocate of the unity of language might allow his opponent
some dozen or scores of similar words in different languages,
without either drawing any inference in favour of his own
views himself, or expecting from his adversary any anticipa¬
tion of any argument whatever founded upon them. The
simple question of chance in language has ceased to be one of
any importance. The really important question is one of the
kind to which the chapter in Mill’s Logic, on what the author
calls the Collocation of Causes, has given prominence. Here
a variety of causes may end in the same effect. Nowhere is
this commoner than in language. Let two sounds have a ten¬
dency to change into a third—say m and b into v, and the com¬
bination van may come out of ban and man equally. The
field of language is full of instances of this kind. Then there
are the words that resemble one another, independent of imi¬
tation, either from being onomatopoetic, or imitative of certain
sounds, or organically connected, i.e., referable to a tendency
to express certain ideas by certain combinations. Certain
ideas come earlier than others; so does the capability of pro¬
nouncing certain sounds. The former will naturally be repre¬
sented by the latter. The sound of r, which comes late, is not
likely to enter into the child’s name of his papa or mama—
ideas expressed, half the world over, by the same sounds. In
the investigation of the laws by which the articulate sounds
are distributed over the different languages of the world little
has been done. In many cases, however, the sounds (r, th,
&c.) that children learn last, are those that the ruder lan¬
guages most want.—n. g. l.]
The author of the article in the Quarterly Review, on Ade-
lung’s Mithridates, observes, that, setting out from the esta¬
blishment of a certain number of separate languages as species,
“ we may proceed to comprehend, in the description of one
family, such as have more coincidences with each other than
diversities, and to refer to the same class such families as ex¬
hibit any coincidences at all that are not fortuitous, imitative,”
that is, from onomatopoeia, “or adoptive. In order, however,
to avoid too great a number of classes, which would arise from
an inadequate comparison of languages imperfectly knqwn, it
may be proper, in some cases, to adopt a geographical distinc¬
tion, as sufficient to define the limits of a class, or to assist in
its subdivision into orders. We are thus obliged to employ
an arrangement of a mixed nature and, in fact, the tests of
affinity here proposed depend so much on the progress of our
knowledge in the study of each language, that the results must
unavoidably be liable to great uncertainty and fluctuation, of
that we can reasonably expect nothing more than an approxi¬
mation to an arrangement completely methodical.
“If,” continues the reviewer, “ the resemblance or identity
of a single word, in two languages, supposed to be exempt
from the effects of all later intercourse, were to be esteemed a
sufficient proof of their having been derived from a common
stock, it would follow, that more than half the languages of
the universe would exhibit traces of such connection, in what¬
ever order we might pursue the comparison. Thus we find in
a ver}' great number, and perhaps in a majority of known lan¬
guages, that the sound of the vowel a, with a labial consonant,
is employed for the name of Father; and if this be supposed
to be something like an onomatopoeia, or an application of the
first sounds which an infant naturally utters, the same reason
cannot possibly be assigned for the still more general occur¬
rence of the combination nm in the term name, which is by
no means likely to have originated from any natural associa¬
tion of this kind. But neither these points of resemblance,
198
LANGUAGE.
Language. nor any other that can he assigned, are absolutely universal;
for, besides the numberless varieties referrible more or less
immediately to Abba, Father, we have at least twenty differ¬
ent and independent terms for the same relation in the old
world;” Tia, Issa, Plar, Hair, Rama, Diam, Bina, Kettem,
Assainalagi, Medua, Thewes, Sunk, lot, Anathien, Messee,
Indaa, Nu, Nam, Monung, Dengabey, Ray, Tiklcob, and
Oa; and about as many for Name, besides those languages in
which the version of an abstract term of this kind is less likely
to have been ascertained; Ming, Tren, Diant, Sheu, Hes-
sara, Shem, Tsarship, Ad, Nipta, Liim, Sacheli, Assia,
Want a, Ngala, Taira, Siinna, Ran, Hhili, Ding, Dbai, and
Anghara. “ At the same time, therefore, that we venerate
the traces of our common descent from a single pair, wherever
they are still perceptible, we must not expect to find them in
all existing languages without exception ; and an Etymologi-
con Universale, considered as intended to establish such a per¬
fect community of derivation, can only be regarded as a vision¬
ary undertaking. Nor must we neglect to unite, in some
common arrangement of classification, those languages which
have the words here specified, or any other radical words, in
common, as incomparably more related to each other than the
Chinese to the Cantabrian, or the Irish to the Hottentot.
“ The gradations by which a language is likely to vary in
a given time, seem to be in some measure dependent on the
degree of cultivation of the language, and of the civilization
of the people employing it. From Homer to the Byzantine
historians, the Greek language remained essentially the same
for 2000 years ; the German has varied but little in 1500 ; and
even the English, notwithstanding its mixture with French and
Latin, has altered but three radical words out of the fifty-four
which constitute the Lord’s Prayer, in the same period. On
the other hand, a few barbarians in the neighbourhood of
Mount Caucasus and of the Caspian Sea, of modern origin,
and ignorant of the art of writing, are divided into more
nations speaking peculiar languages, radically different from
each other, than the whole of civilized Europe. In such cases,
little light can be thrown upon history by etymological re¬
searches ; while, with regard to more cultivated nations, we ob¬
tain, from the examination of their languages, historical evi¬
dence of such a nature as it is scarcely possible for either
accident or design to have falsified.”
[The study of the rate at which languages change must begin
with the history of those tongues which we know in more
stages than one. These are few in number ; being only those
which are cultivated and written. In the fact of their being
known in one form only (combined with the absence of a litera¬
ture) lies the true reason for comparative unimportance of the
ruder languages. As languages—i.e., as data for the natural
history of speech—they are valuable, as they are as instruments
of ethnological criticism.
Amongst the languages known to us in more stages than one,
the classical languages are the chief; next to these the Hebrew,
Sanskrit, Arabic, Old Slavonic, Anglo-Saxon, &c. Up to
the present time they have told us, over and above the fact,
that languages change at different rates, the more important
one, that they change after the same fashion or upon the same
principle. The Romaic differs from the ancient Greek; the
Italian, Ac., from the Latin ; the English from the Anglo-
Saxon ; the Danish from the Icelandic ; all in the same way—-
i.e., in the use of prepositions and auxiliary verbs instead of
cases and moods and tenses.
This means that certain parts have a tendency to change in
a definite manner. Further researches will show that they
generally change in the same order, e.g., the sign of a dative
case will go before that of a genitive, Ac.
Hence, there is not only a question of parts changed, but
also that of the order and rate of change ; and, lastly, that of
the forces that regulate this rate. They are somewhat differ¬
ent from those indicated in the text, the influence of writing
and cultivation being less than is usually imagined. What
they are in detail, however, has yet to be investigated.
The best exhibition of the transition of a language from one
stage to another, is to be found in Petersen’s History of the
break-up of the Icelandic, or old Scandinavian language, into
the modern tongues of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. His
facts appertaining to rate are interesting. The Danish is gene¬
rally about a century in advance of the Swedish—i.e., the
Swedish of a.d. 1300, or a.d. 1800, is as archaic as the Danish Language,
of a.d. 1200, or a.d. 1700 ; the Danish of 1600 being, there or
thereabouts, of the form of tlie Swedish of 1700.
So much for the regularity of relation between these two.
Turn from them to the Norwegian. Up to the time of the Re¬
formation it hardly changed at all; afterwards it changes in
about one century as much as the other two tongues had in
four.—n. o. n.]
According to the supposition of Professor Adelung, it seems
not improbable that Thibet, on the E. of Cashmere, may
“ have been the habitation of Adam immediately after his fall,
and the country occupied by the descendants of Cain. In Thi¬
bet, and in the countries immediately beyond it, the languages
of at least a hundred and fifty millions of people are still prin¬
cipally monosyllabic ; and from this peculiarity, as well as
from the singular simplicity of their structure, they are sup¬
posed to constitute the most ancient class of existing languages,
though it must be confessed that much of Adelung’s reasoning
on this subject is extremely inconclusive.” Mr Townsend re¬
marks very judiciously, that one of the canons of Rudbeck is
by no means admissible. He states, that a language which
has numerous monosyllabic expressions is a parent language.
The English has more than 3700 monosyllabic expressions,
and the Chinese has none but such ; yet neither of them is, for
that reason, to be considered as a parent language. Certain
it is, that all languages, by abbreviations, have a tendency to
become monosyllabic, and therefore a language which abounds
in monosyllables is ancient, and these commonly are the most
antiquated parts of every language. New compounds are in¬
cessantly created. These are abbreviated, and in process of
time become monosyllabic. In deriving, therefore, a word in
one language from its correspondent expression in some other
language, we must ever bear in mind, that, unless in the for¬
mation of new compounds, the least abbreviated is commonly
the parent, and the most abbreviated its offspring. Would it
be possible for any one to persuade us that Colaphus was de¬
rived from Cuff, or Blaspheme from Blame'? “A similar
instance,” says the reviewer, “might be found in Trachelos
and Hals of the Greeks and Germans; for certainly Hals is
more like Trachelos than like Collum.
[Monosyllabicism is one thing : the want of inflection is an¬
other. Wherever there is a want of inflection, there is the
word in its simpler form—i.e., a root minus any adjuncts.
Without this absence of adjuncts, there is but little chance of
words being monosyllabic. It may occur, however, and yet
leave the roots dissyllabic or even polysyllabic—since there is
no necessity for its being limited to one syllable ; though such
is, generally, the case. On the contrary, inflections may
coalesce with the root, and so exist without increasing the
number of syllables. Dogs is as much a monosyllable as
dog.
Referring to what has been said about loss and non-develop¬
ment in the way of inflection, let us ask whether, assuming a
language to be in its first stage, it is therefore a parent lan¬
guage ? No. It has simply changed more slowly than others.
This leads to see that the word old has two meanings.
The English of America is, in one sense, older than the
English of Australia. It separated earlier from the parent
tongue.
Yet it may not be the oldest one thousand years hence.
Suppose the Australian, by changing the slowlier, preserves
more old forms. In that sense it will be the older language.
—R. G. L.]
The Chinese, however, which is the principal, and probably
the most ancient, of the monosyllabic languages, is distin¬
guished from almost all others by a more marked peculiarity,
which is, that its written characters, instead of depicting
sounds, are the immediate symbols of the objects or ideas, and
are even imperfectly represented by the sounds, whatever dif¬
ference of accent or tone may be exhibited by the most refined
speaker; as indeed it may happen accidentally in our own lan¬
guage, that we may be at a loss to explain, without circumlo¬
cution, whether we mean to say Son or Sun ; Beer or Bier ;
Bear or Bare; You, Ewe, Yew, or U; but in the Chinese, the
real cause of this essential characteristic appears to be, that
the symbol was in fact originally intended as a hieroglyphic
or picture of the object, though the resemblance, coarse as it
probably was at first, has been generally altogether lost by the
LANGUAGE.
190
Language, modifications which the character lias conventually undergone.
And in this point of view the Chinese would require to be
classed with the old Egyptian only, since we know of no other
language which was habitually expressed in hieroglyphics and
their immediate derivatives. It is not at all uncommon for
the same sound in Coptic, as in Chinese, to have four or five
senses all essentially different, as may easily be observed in
turning over a dictionary ; hoou, for instance, means Bad,
and Them, and a Shoivcr, in two verses of St Matthew (v. 45,
46), and perhaps several other things.
[This is chiefly a question of writing, not one of speaking ;
a question concerning the representation of language, not lan¬
guage itself. In the importance of the accent we recognise a
point of speech ; _a_nd.it indicates poverty of vocabulary ; but
the expression of it is wholly a matter of orthography. In
the history of the alphabet, the peculiarities of Egypt and
China find place ; not in the history of language.—a. g. l.]
Another ancient and extensive class of languages, united by
a greater number of resemblances than can well be altogether
accidental, may be denominated the Indo-European, compre¬
hending the Indian, the West Asiatic, and almost all the Eu¬
ropean languages. If we chose to assign a geographical situ¬
ation to the common parent of this class, we should place it to
the south and west of the supposed origin of the human race;
leaving the north for our third class, which we can only define
as including all the Asiatic and European languages not be¬
longing to the two former ; which may be called Atactic, or,
perhaps, without much impropriety, Tataric ; and which may
be subdivided into five orders, Sporadic, Caucasian, Tarta¬
rian, Siberian, and Insular. The African and American
languages will constitute a fourth and fifth class, sufficiently
distinct from all the rest, but not intended to be considered as
any otherwise united among themselves, than by their geo¬
graphical situation. There is, indeed, little doubt, that some
of the languages here called Tataric are essentially allied to
others, which are referred to the Indo-European class; but
they have been too little investigated to allow us to make the
selection that would be required for completing the classifi¬
cation. [I he extent to which this classification is accurate or
inaccurate will be seen in the sequel.—r. g. l.]
Ihe following tables are copied, with considerable additions,
from Adclung’s Mithridates. The words Heaven and Earth
are chosen as specimens, because they seem to be known in a
greater number of languages than any others, except the name
of Father, which is supposed to exhibit, in some cases, a falla¬
cious similarity. The German orthography has been prin¬
cipally employed, except in such languages as are usually
written in the Roman characters, the pronunciation of the
consonants being more uniform than in English, and that of
the vowels differing little from the Italian.
[The selection of words representative of rude and unknown
languages, has commanded no small amount of the attention
of philologues and ethnologists; and many lists, ready pre¬
pared, are in circulation—in India and North America more
especially. They are none of them unexceptionable ; and the
reason for their , being so lies in the fact of the choice being
made on d priori views of what words are fundamental and
what not. Actual observation tells us, that the most perma¬
nent parts of languages are by no means the words that d
priori speculations indicate.
Among the best words for specimens are the names for fire,
water, sun, moon, and star. Man and woman are generally
ambiguous, the names for them being often the names for man
and wife as well. Hence, unless we have the terms for all four
{man, husband, woman, wife), we have but half the requisite
information. It may also be added, that along with the name
for sun, the names for shy (heaven), light and day, should be
given.
The numerals are always of value, because, whether they be
of little or great use for the purposes of comparative philology,
they, have always a value in the history of the arithmetic.
.1 heir pure and proper philological importance, however, is
inconstant. Sometimes the numerals of two or more languages
shall be alike whilst the rest of the vocabulary differs. 'Some¬
times the similitude between the words other than numeral
shall be great, the numerals themselves being unlike. In many
languages it.happens, that if some of the numerals are alike,
the others will be so also. In others, on the contrary, it by no
means follows that because (say one and two are alike, three Language,
and/cmr, &c., should be equally so. As a class, the names of
the parts of the human body are, perhaps, the best.—r. g. l.]
Classes, Orders, and Families of Languages.
I. Monosyllabic.
1. Chinese
2. Siamese
3. Avanese
4. Tibetan
II. Indo-European.
5. Sanskrit
6. Median
7. Arabian
8. Lycian
9. Phrygian
10. Greek
11. German
12. Celtic
13. Etruscan
14. Latin
15. Cantabrian
16. Sclavic
HI. Tataric.
(1.) Sporadic.
17. Tshudish
18. Hungarian
19. Albanian
(2.) Caucasian.
20. Armenian
21. Georgian
22. Abassan
23. Circassian
24. Ossetish
25. Kistic
26. Lesgian
(3.) Tartarian.
27. Turco-Tartarian
28. Mantshuric
29. Tungusic
(4.) Siberian.
30. Permian
31. Wogulic
32. Ostiak
33. Tsheremissic
34. Morduin
35. Teptjerai
36. Samoiedic
37. Camashic
38. Jeniseiostiak
39. Jukadshiric
40. Koriak
41. Kamtschatkan
(5.) Insular.
42. Kurilee
43. Eastern Islands
44. Japanese
45. Leu Cheu
46. Formosan
47. Philippine
48. New Holland, E.
49. Van Diemen’s
50. New Caledonian
51. New Zealand
52. Easter Island
IV. African.
V. American.
Families, Species, or Distinct Languages, and Varieties at
Dialects, with Specimens.
1. Chinese
Fo Kien
Tonquinese
Laos
2. Siamese
3. Avanese
Peguan
Rukheng
4. Tibetan
1. MONOSYLLABIC CLASS.
Heaven, Sky.
Tien, Li
Tshio
Thien, Bloi
{Man, Phu chai)
Sa wang
{Man, Pho chai;
Hand, Mu)
Mo kaun, Nip ban
Mo kaun
{Man, Lu ; Hand,
Earth.
Ti, To
Tshio
Dat, Dia
Din
Lu pu, Mi6
La pri ? Tre
Nam khei [Lak) Dshik ten, Sa
5. Sanskrit
Prakrit
Bali
Hevanagri
Nepal
Assam
Tiperah
Kassai
Bengalee
Hindee
Urdu
Brijbassa
Jypura
Hindustanee
Moors
II. INDO-EUROPEAN CLASS.
Paramandale, Vana, Bumi, Stira
Aagaska, Svarga,
Veigunda, Artha-
loga, Nibu {Man,
Purusha)
Saggo {Man, Pariso)
Saggo {Man, Burut-
sa)
Ardwa, Arthaloga Buma
Shorgue, Behesht Porthibit Morto
Asmaan, Mukuti
Sjimien
Dunia
Dshiamin,
200
Language.
LANGUAGE.
Udiapura
Benares
Munipura
Goandee
Orissa
Telug
Telinga
Carnatic
Marwa
Tamul
Maleiam
Malabar
Kanara
Decan
Kunkuna
Mahratta
Guzurat
Beloshee
(Afghan)
Bikanira
Sindh
Multan
Gipsey
Wuch
Sikh
Cashmir
Kuch
Maldivian
Cingalese
Malayan
Sumatran
Batta
Rejang
Lampuhn
Achim
Neas
Foggy
Javanese
Borneo
Andaman
6. Median
Zendish
Pehlvish
Persian
(Bucharian)
Kurdish
Afghan
7. Arabian
Syriac
Assyrian
Phenician
Punic
Hebrew
Chaldee
Samaritan
Arabic
Modern Arabic
Maroccan
Ethiopic
Geez
Tigri
Amharic
Hauasa
Maltese
8. Lycian
9. Phrygian
10. Greek
Heaven, Sky.
Ashaman
Paramandal
{King, Raja)
Terti
Bumi, Bumilo
Naela
Wana, Man a, Para- Pumii, Nawarg
mandal [pam)
Wana {Bread, Ap-
Asmanu, Agasha Bhumi, Samina
Weikuntha, Agasha, Pumandala, Puma
Sorgi Pirtumir, Soumssar,
Zimmin
Weikuntham, Suargi, Pumandi, Saumsar,
Agasha Puma
Paramanda Bumi
Oshman
Amengi, Tsheros
Dzhemi
Pu, Phu, Pube
(1. Katka; 3. Tuhm-
ka ; Man, Mipa ;
Father, P’ha)
Ouddou, TJda Bin
Swarga, Ahaza Bumidshe, Bumi
Surga Bumi, Dunga, Tana
{Bay, Torangharik) Tana
{Bay, Bileytueng) Pihta
{Bay, Rannih) Tanno
{Bay, TJrai) Tano
Surga, Dilangin
{Night, Malang)
Madamo {Head, Ta-
bai)
Tshekhre, Sakhter,
Esmen6, Sperez6
Tsherk, Shmeha, Se-
per
Asmon
Asman, Bauta
Asmo, Asman
Shemaio
Simmi
Lemma, Darat
Totongnandshi
Za, Zao, Zemo, Ze-
meno
Zivanand, Arta, Da-
mik, Leka, Bamih
Semin, Zemin, Chaki,
Chark, Bum
Ard, Sigit, Chaak,
Choli
Smak, Sm’ige, Zmuku
Aro, Areto
Dinii
Shamaiim Arez
Shemaia Ara, Arga
Sumia Aroa
Semavati Ardi
Ssamvat, Shema, Te- Arz, Ardh, Auf, Tu-
lek rap, Aalem
Smavat Ord
Samaiat Mydrni
Midre
Samai, Samaie Mydrm, Medre, Me-
dere
Szemmey Middrih
Serna, Smeviet, Sme- Art
zijet
(/Son, Tidaimi; And,
Atbi)
{Bread, Bek ; TFa-
ter, Bedii)
Ouranos Ge
Romaic
11. Germanic, 360
Alemannish, 720
Classical German
Transylvanian
German
Jewish Germa
Low Saxon
Frieslandish
North Friesland
Dutch
Danish
Norwegian
Orkney
Icelandic
Swedish
Balecarlian
Gothlandish
Danish Saxon, 880
English, 1160
12. Celtic
Irish
Gaelic
Manks
Walden
Cimbric
Welsh
Cornish
Brittanish
13. Etruscan
14. Latin
Italian
Piedmontese
Waldensic P.
Genoese
Onsernone
Venetian
Friulian
Valais
Bolognese
Sicilian
Sardinian
Spanish
Castilian
Catalonian
Galician
Portuguese
Romanish
Provencal
French
Beamish
Rovergne
Flanders
Walloon
W allachian
Bacian
Cutzo- Wallachian
15. Cantabrian
16. Sclavic
Sclavonian
Russian Church
Common Russian
Malo-Russian
Susdalian
Servian
Uskok
Ragusan
Transylvanian
Scl.
Croatian
South Wendish
Hungaro - Wendish
Polish
Kashubish
Bohemian
Serbian, Tipper
Lusatia
Serbian, Lower
Lusatia
Polabish, 1691
Heaven, Sky.
Ouranos
Ilimina, Rimins
Ilimil
Himmel
Hemmel
Himal
Himmel, Hemel
Hiemmel
Hemmel
Hemel
Himmel
Himmel
Chimrie
Himne
Himil, Himirik
Himblum
Hymblum
Heofena
Heaven
Neamh, Nau
Neamh
Niau
Neambh
Nefoedd, Nef
Neau, Nev
Eon, Buff
{Bread, Puni, Urtu)
Ccelum
Cielo
Siel
Cel
Ze
Ciel
Zielo
Cil, cm
Cel
Cil
Celu
Cel, Chelo, Quelu
Cielo
Cel
Ceo
Ceo
Ciel, Tshiel
Cel
Ciel
Ceou
Cel
Ciel
Cir
Tsheri, Czelurg
Cerio
Sseru
Earth.
Ge
Airtha
Erdu
Erde
Jerde
Hardi
Eere, Erde
Jerde, Yrtrik
Eerde, Wroll
Aerde, Eertryke,
1270
Jord
.lord, Jera
Yurn
Jord
Jord, Jordriki
Jord
Tord
Eortha
Eorth, Yearth
Italamh, Thallamh,
Talu
Talamh, Dtalmhuin
Tallu
Talmhin
Ddaear
Nore
Duar, Dovar
Terra, Tellus
Terra
Terra
Terra
Terra
Terra
Terra
Tiarra
Terraz
Terra
Terra
Terra
Tierra
Terra
Terra
Terra
Terra
Terra
Terre
Terro
Terro
Terre
Ter
Pamentiv
Pimchita
Lurre
Language.
Nebesi
Nebo
Nebo
Nebo
Nebesse
Nebbu
Nibe {Bread, Liab)
Nebi, Nebiesi
Nebi
Nebi
Niebie
Nebo
Nebi, Wnebi
Niebiu
Nebu
Nibis, Nebui
Semli
Semla
Zemla
Zemla
Semli
Semgli
Semlji
Semli, Krai
Semi
Siemie
Ziemie
Semi
Semi
Semi
Ssime
Language.
Lithuanian
Old Prussian
Prusso-Lithua¬
nian
Polono-Lithua¬
nian
Crivingian
Lettish Proper
17. Tshudish
Finnish
Olonetzish
Carelish
Esthonian
Livonian
Laplandish
18. Hungarian
19. Albanian
Calabro-Alban.
Siculo-Alban.
20. Armenian
21. Georgian
Imirettish
Mingrelish
Suanetish
Tushetic
22. Abassan
Kush Hasib
Alti Keseh
23. Circassian
Cabardinish
2'i. Ossetish
Dugorieh
25. Kistic
26. Lesgian
Chunsag
Avaric
Dido
Kasi Kumuk
Andi
Akushan
Kubeshan
Kalalatish
27. Turco-Tar-
TARIAN
Caspian
Turkish
Bucharian
Crimean
Nogaic
Cumanish
Kasanish
Mestsheretskic
Bashkiria
Tobolskie
Kirgishic
Tarary
Tomskie
Turetish
Tshulimie
Jeniseic
Kuznetic
Barabish
Usbek, Chivinic
Teleutic
Heaven, Sky.
Delbes, Dangon
Debsissa, Danguje
Danguose
Dangus
Debbes
LANGUAGE.
Earth.
Semie, Worsinny
Zemes, Sjemes
Ziame, Ziames
Zemme
Semmes, Zemmo
III. TATARTC CLASS.
(1.) Sporadic Order.
Taiwas
Taiwag
Taiwag, Taivazh
Taewas
Tauwis
Almen, Almism, Tsi-
atse
Menny, Meneg
Kiel, Kielt
Chielue
Chiex
Maa
Ma
Mua, Mua
Ma
Maal
Aednemen
Fold, Fjeld, Mezon
Zee, Sje, Be
De
Dee
(2.) Caucasian Order.
Hierkins, Girkin, Er-
gink
Tza, Zata
Tshash
(Bread, Tshkomi)
Tsah
(Bread, Mak)
Agughan, Ashnan
(Bread, Tshakua
Makua)
(Bread, Mikel)
Wuafa
Phemeh (Bread,
Tshach)
Arv, Arwi
Arf
Sigelich, Stuigley
Zo, Zob
Zuv
Zub, Zuv
Sur
Teshin
Hierkri, Gerkrii, Er-
kir, Tap, Huoch
Sze, Miza, Kwekara
Dikha
Dicha
Gim
Jobste
Astula, Tshiillah
Tula
Tzula
Tshi, Jaethae
Tshigit, Segh, Stil
Gukh
Late, Mezha, Ghumm
Rati
Bak
Tshedo
Kerki
Misa, Bisa, Tshur
(Bread, Katz, Zulhe) Mussa, Musseka
Zub Muza
Reshin Unshi
(3.) Tartarian Order.
Gug, Kiokler, Chi-
ojler
Telek, Asman, Kuk-
liar
Gug, Ghiogh, Chok,
Kok
Kuk, Heda
Kuk, Kek, Kik
Kuk, Tengeri, Samoh
Kuk
Kuk, Ava
Auva, Asman
Kiuk, Asman
Auva, Asman
Kok, Asman
Gkiok, Gioch
Tengri
Tengeri
Tengeri
Asman, Hava
Asman
Tegir, Tengeri
Jer, Gyr, Kher, Ber
Zamin, Chak, Jus-
jurd
Gier
Er, Toprak
Jer
Ger, Ars
Jer
Jer, Dzhir
Irjo, Gir, Jir
Dzher
Jir
Jer
Toprak
Jer
Tobrak, Dzhir
Jer, Tsher, Toprak
Der
Jer, Toprak
Cir, Jer, Toprak
Jakutie
Tshuwashic
Mongol
Burattish
Calmuck
Tagurian
28. Mantshuric
Sagalien
Corean
29. Tungusic
Nertshinic
Jeniseic T.
Mangazeic T.
Barguzinskic
Angarian
Jakutie T.
Ochotskic
Lamutic
Tshapogiric
30. Permian
Sirjanish
Wotiak
31. Wogulic
Tshussovic
Verchoturic
Tsherdymic
Berezovan W.
32. Ostiak
Berezovan 0.
Narymic
Joganic
Lumpokolic 0.
Vashuganskan
Tazian
33. Tsheremissic
34. Morduin
Moktanic
35. Teptjerai
36. Samojedic
Archangel
Pustozerskan
Oby
Juratshic
Mangazeic S.
Tawgish
Turucanish
Tomskic S.
Narymic S.
Ketish
Timskic
Caragassic
37. Camashic
Taigish
Koibalic
Motoric
38. Jeniseiostiak
Arinic
Kotov ic
Assanic
Inbatshic
Lumpokolic J.
39. JUKADSHIRIC
40. Koriac
Kolymic
Tigilic K.
Karaginic
Tshutshic
Heaven, Sky.
Tagara, Chaltan
Pullu, Pilt, Sundaliik
Tingri
Tingeri
Octorgoi
Tengri
Abka, Appia
Hurara (Bay, Jang-
sey)
Hanel, Tshen
Negdau, Nian, Dshi-
ulbka
Tingeri, Nengne, Nai
Nengne
Nangna
Nengna
Nengne
Nengne, Nenone
Nan
Nana
Negie
(4.) Siberian Order.
Olanun, Kumar
Jen esh, Neb us
Wiiliin, Kuldenju-
mar, In, Immun,
Tslim kiid
Eterdarum
Tarom, Nair
Numma
Tul
Soum
Nopkon
Nomen, Numtorem,
Saika
Nusunde
Ninnak
Num torom
Torom, Jom
Lom
Kiusiuluste, Kushna
juma, Pil, Pil pun-
dash, Joma, Tunja
Manel, Werepass,
M anen
Shkai
Earth.
Sirr, Jeme, Bor
Sir, Ser
Dere, Gadzar, Shiroi
Gazar
Gasar, Ertjajaze
Kaaziar
Na
Ki ?
Endra, Dunda, Tor
Turn
Dunda
Tukala
Dunne
Tukalagda
Dundra
Tor
Tuor
Dunda
Ma, Mu
Mu
Musum, Sioi
201
Language.
Maanku
Ma
Ma
Ma
Mag
Jogodt
Mug, Mu
Mug
Much
Much
Tagai
Tshvotsh
Ijulmin, Melentesta,
Kok, Mlande, Mu-
lens, Zantiulek
Master, Moda
Master, Moda
Numilembarti
Nunara
Num, Nomiin
Nub
Podassie
Nuonto, Nuon, Ngoa,
Noa
Na, Teiga
Nom fiinde, Lom
Tit
Tita
Tit
Tit, Tere
Num, Ti urach
Num nidi
Num
Orgochairachan, N um
Oes
Eish, Eish pa rang
Oesh
Es
Etsh
Dsjunga, Zjugo,
Kundshu
Kh’igan, Cherwol,
Chaan, Eiaan, Jan
Chain
Kiisha
Shilchen
Keh’quin, Chervol,
Chiternik, Killak,
Ging, Keilak
Jae
Ja
Joa, Ma, Mogh
Ja
Da
Mamoru
Ja, Baddu
Tuetsh
Tuetsh
Tuetsh
Ttitsh
Tutsh, Dsha
Dsha, Dzhu
Dzha
Dshu, Dzhu
Dsha, Dzha
Peng
Pang
Pang
Bang, Bach
Bing
Leviangh, Lewjie
Nutoliit, Nutelchan
Nutelchan
Niutiniut
Nultenut, Nuna
vol. xm.
9
202
LANGUAGE.
Language.
(Greenland and
Esldmaux)
41. Kamtshatkan
Tigilic K.
Srednish
Jozhnyshic
42. CURIIiEE
43. Eastern
Islands
44. Japanese
45. Leu Cheu
46. Formosan
47. Philippine
Moluccan
Magindanao
Tagalish
Bissayish
Sulu
Bugis
Mungharar
Pelew
Mariana
Friendly Islands
Coco Islands
Savu
Parapang
New Guinea
New Britain
Bima
Sumbavja
48. New Holland E.
49. Van Diemen’s
Land
50. New Caledo¬
nian
51. New Zealand
Otaheite
Marquesas
Sandwich Islands
52. Easter Islands
Heaven, Sky.
Kochan, Hai
Keis
Kochal, Kollaa
Kogal
Earth.
Nuna
Simmt, Nuta
Semtushimta
Summit
(5.) Insular Order.
Niss
Inkak
Ten
Dianni
Vullum, Tounnoun
Languin, Surga
Langit
Langit
Langit
(Day, Aso; Sun,
Mataso)
(Day, Alo ; Sun,
Matalo)
Yiingley (Day, Ko-
kuhk; Bad, Mogull)
Languit
Elandshi (Food, Maa)
(Food, Maa)
Liruh
Bar
(Sun, Mataliro)
(Sun, Matahari)
Kere
(Father, Bina)
Ndaoe
(Bread, Eei ; Bad,
Kino)
Erai (Food, Maa;
Bad, Ino)
Tahua, Hani
Harani (Bad, Ino)
(Father, Mama)
Kotan
Tshekak
Tsatsmo, Cino, Ci,
Tji, Dsi
Zudshi
Nay, Nai
Buchit, Dunga
Lopa
Lupa, Tana
Yuta
Tana
Butta
Tano
Tuguta
Kille
Vorai. Rai
Labuad
Taar. Behoul
Nabagr ?
Dana
Bumi
Poapoa, Popo
Guiahse. Do
Uenua
Hwennua
Hwenua
Motu
Soupe, Henua
IV. AFRICAN CLASS.
Egyptian
Coptic, Memphitic
Sahidic, Thebaic
Bashmuric
Oasitic
Barabrish
Kensy, Burckhardt
Nouba, B,
Bishareen, B.
Adareb, Salt
Argubba
Massowah
Arkeeko, Salt
SuAKIN
Sumo, Salt
Takue, Salt
Barea, Salt
Mutshuana, Salt
Briqua, Salt
SlIANGALLA, Salt
Phe
Pe
Pe
Szemma
Semeyg (Day, Ou-
gresk)
Sema (Day, Aly)
Otryk (Day, Toy)
(Day, Ombe)
(Father, Anathien ;
Head, Dimmaha)
(2, Killot; 3, Szalis)
Astur (Sky) (Day,
Ummet)
(2, Kille; 3, Selass)
Tebre
Aroan
(Man, Grua; Water,
Ane)
(Man, Ookooi; Wa¬
ter, Umba)
(O, Let chachi; ]),
Wirri). See Beet-
juana
(1, Oonchela, 3,
Taroo, Miraroo)
Kahi
Kahe, Kah
Kehi
Iskitta
Aryd
Gourka
Tobut
Midur
W uhash
Baru
Lebachi
Darmitchequa
Tacazze
Makooa, Salt
Monjou, Salt
Sowauli, Salt
Somauli, Salt
Hurrur, Salt
Galla
Adaiel, Salt
Danakil, Salt
Dungolish
Bornou, Burckhardt
Borgo, Burckhardt
Darfur
(Amharic) Salt
(Tigre) Salt
Agow, Salt
Tsheraz A.
Damot A.
Gafat
Falasha
Soudan
Begirma
Fulah
Phellata
Yalofs
Berber
Canary
Tibbo
Shilluh
Sivah
Sereres
Serrawallis
Mandingo
Yallonka
SOKKO
Felups
TlMMANEYjWinterb.
Bullam
Heaven, Sky. Earth.
Goza, Sky (Q, Woka; Enniah
Beja)
Quegah, Sky (O, Hugga
\Vah ; ]), Terah)
(O, E-zoo-ah ; ]), E-la-poo
Mare)
(0> D”yoova ; ), Mooze
Mooeize)
”a catch or click]
(1, Chemo-je ; 3,
Ma-da-too)
(O, Chur-rah ; )),
Tai-ya ; 1, K’ow ;
3, Sud-de)
Semme (0> E61’) ])> Ei-che
Werke, 1, Ahad)
Ivaq (O- A(lda 5 Laf-fa, S.
Dje-a, Ba-te. S.)
(O) Airo; Al-sa) Ba-ro
Am-boo re, Sky Arde-Barroo
Szemma (©, Ayero; Arikha
J), Al-sa, Berra)
Perg Tsedy
Sema (Day, Dealka) Berr
Szemma (©, Dule ; Suru, Szura
)), Doal, Salt)
(O, Tsai; }), Tcker- Mider
ka)
(©, Tsai; }), AVerke) Midre
(O, Quo-rah ; }), Ziv-va
Er-wah)
(King, Negumani;
Song, Mossagan)
(King, Negus; Song,
Mazena)
(King, Negus; Song,
Aedje)
(0, Kuara; Song,
Baze)
(1, Deja ; 3, Oku)
(1, Kidde ; 3, Metta)
Hyalla Lehidy
Szemma Lissedi
Assaman Souffe
Ginna, Tigot, Igna Doonit, Akai
(©, Tafogt)
Titogan, Ataman
(King, Monsey)
(1, Trono; 3, Agues-
so)
(0, Atfuet)
(0, Itfuet)
Rogue
(1, Bani; 3, Sicco)
Santo
Margetangala (1,
Kidding)
Bandee (1, Kulle)
(1, Enory; 3, Sisa-
jee)
1, Pin ; 3, Pisaas)
Foy (1, Bui, Nimbul; Upock Leh
3, Rah, Ninraa,
Wint.)
Berr
Lanceh
Banko, Binku
Susu
Fetu
Kanga
Mangree
Gien
Quoja
Fante
Akripon
Amina
Akkim
Akra
Tambi
Whydah
Papua
Watje
Araiani Bohhe
Ara.iani Aradde
Nesua (1, Aniandu)
Tata (Head, Tri)
Lam (1, Do)
(King, Dondag
Head, Hunde)
Niame Assasso
Aduankam (1, Ehoo)
Jankombum (1, Ak-
kun)
Jahinne (Head, Me-
tih)
Ngoi, Jankombum ? Sipong
Giom (Father,
Tshiah; Head, li)
(1, De ; 3, Otton)
Jiwel (1, Depoo)
(1, De ; 3, Etong)
language.
Language.
Calbra
Camacons
C. Lobo Gonsalvas
Loango
Congo
Angola
Mandongo
Camba
Angola, Hervas
Karabari
I bo
Mokko
Wawu
Tembu
Krepeer
Assianthes
Kasse^ti
(Bornu)?
Affadeh
Mobba
Shilluh
(Darfur)
Darrunga
(Gallas)
Shaggai
Madagascar
Lagoa Bay
Koossa
Beetjuanas
Mutshuana
South
Caffres
Hottentots
Heaven, Sky.
(1, Barre ; 3, Terre)
(1, Mo ; 3, Melella)
{King, Sauepongo;
Bad, Mondello)
Iru (1, Boosse; 3,
Tattu)
Sullo
Maulu, Beulu
Sambiampungo (1,
Omma; 3, Metatu)
Julo (1, Moski)
Monte
Elukwee (1, Otuh)
Tshukko, Ella (1,
Otuh)
Ibanju (1, Kid,)
Barriadad (1, Baba)
So (1, Kuddum)
{Bread, Apohae j
Head, Ota)
{Bread, Abodo;
Hea.d, Otri)
Ktak (1, Obaa)
Dilko
Szemma
(1, Warre; 3, Kod-
dus)
Earth.
Toto
Boxi, Toto ?
Aamano
Ftung
Barr
(1, Kadenda;
Attih)
3,
{Soldier, Gonso)
Danghitsi, Langhitsi, Tane, Tanne, Zanne
Lainch, Atemco
(1, Chingea; 3, Tri-
rarou)
Isuhlu Umtsllaha
Maaro Lehaatsi
(1, Oonchela; 3, Ta- Lebochi
roo, Miraroo)
(1, Enje; 3, Atatu,
Zintate)
Inga ?
Ki, Koo, Qu’au Gam-
kamma
T”kehaub
Hu
T”kanguli
Coranas (1, T”’koey)
Saldanha Homma
Bosjemans T”gachuch
The Hottentots have three particular clicking sounds, made
by withdrawing the tongue from the teeth, the fore part, and
the back part ot the palate: they are respectively denoted by
I’, T’’, and T”\ The first two appear to resemble the sounds
sometimes used to express a trifling vexation, and to make a
horse go on, or to call to poultry.
V. AMERICAN CLASS.
(1.) South American.
B
i. Southern Extre¬
mity
1. Terra del Fuego
2. Patagonia, Chili
Moluchan. Arau-
kan
Tehuelhet
Puelche
East from R. Plata
to Marafion
3. Charrua
4. Yaro
5. Bohane
6. Ghana
7. Minuane
8. Guenoa
9. Karigua
10. Guarany
South
West
Heaven, Sky.
Earth.
(A. Penguin,
poggre)
Com-
Huenu (Q, Antu; Tue mapu
Hill, Calul)
{Hill, Calille)
{Hill, Casu)
Ibag, (Q, Cuarazi) Ibi
North. Tupi, Bra- Ibaca
zil
C. East of Paraguay
11. Brazilian dia¬
lects
Common
Heaven, Sky.
Earth.
Ibi
Kiriri
Curumare
Forty-nine others
unknown.
D. West of Paraguay
12. Aquiteguedi-
chaga
13. Guato
14. Ninaquiguila
15. Guana
16. Mbaya, Guaikur
17. Payagua
18. Lenguas
19. Enimaga
20. Gulentuse
21. Yacurure
22. Machikuy
23. Mataguaya
24. Malhalae
25. Pitilaga
26. Toba
27. Abipon
28. Mocoby
29. Aguilot
30. Chumipy
31. Vilela
32. Lule
E. Coast of Peru
33. Quichua
34. Aymara
35. Puquina
36. Yunka Mochika
F. East of Peru
37. Samuca
38. Chiquitos
39. Moxos
40. Mobimi
41. Cayubabi
42. Itonami
43. Sapiboconi
44. Heresibocaua
45. Canesiana
46. Pana
47. Rema
48. Pira
G. East of Quito, on
the Maranon
49. Aquanos, Xe-
beros
50. Mainas
51. Yameos
52. Omagua, Yuru-
magua
53. Yahua ; 100
more
H. From R. Negro to
Oronoco
54. Maipuri
55. Salivi
56. Guaivi, Ciricoa
57. Achagua
I. About Casanare
58. Yarura
59. Betoi
60. Situfa, Girari
61. Ottomak
62. Guama, Guaneri
K. North Coast
63. Tamanac
64. Arawac
(O, Arassu; 1, Gipi;
3, Busapu ; 4, Bu-
sapu munan gipi;
6, Busapu sapu
Arndt)
Arakie
{God, Aunim)
Bu
Rada
Titipi guime
Jego
Piguem
Ipigem
Ipiguem
Laue
Zo {God, Ano)
Hanacpacha; Hanac ?
(O, Inti)
Alapacha, Alai
Hanigo
Anguic
Guiate
Ape
Anamocu
Benrra
Idah
Numane ?
Euocuepana
Alua
Aaloa, Aaloba
Aloba
Basle
Ama, A.
Caypacha, Cay ? All-
pa
Acaphan, Aca ?
Urakke
Cohua
Capuc
Numitie, Nup
Aaqui, Quiis
Kiere, Motehi
Yanlo, Llacamba
Idatu
Nicosnone
Mechi
Inapa
Arresiuma
Ehuatemai
Eno
Mume
Ande
Ubu, Tentucu
Caga
Cap
Nono
Aijumun, Kassakku Whnabu
Isse
Popo
Tuyuca
Peni
Ada ? Seke ?
Dabu
Umena ? Ajao ? Da-
fibu
Poga
203
Language.
204
LANGUAGE.
Language.
Heaven, Sky.
65. Carib
Yaoi Oubecou
Islands Capou
L. Mountains in the fMen
^Women
Earth.
N.W.
66. Muysca
Monha
Soye
Nonum
Monha
67. Kiminzac
68. Popaya
69. Darien
(O Sua ;
Muysca)
Man,
(O Nie ; Cupego :
3, Pauquah)
(2.) Middle American.
A. Islands
1. St Domingo
B. Darien to Guate¬
mala
2. Kiche, Utlateca
3. Poconchic
{Field, Conuco;
Meadow, Savana;
House, Boa; Bread,
. Casabi)
Taxah (Q, Quih;
Head, Na ; Hand,
Cam ; Bad, Tseri)
4. Yucatan, Maya, (©, Kin ; Hand, Cab)
Caann6
Acal, Vleu
Luam
C. Table - Land
Mexico
5. Mixtecan
6. Totonacan
of
7. Mexican, Azte-
kan
8. Huastecan
9. Othomi
10. Mechoacan
11. Pirindan
12. Tarascan
Andihui, Andi
Tiayan, Acapon, Aca-
paian (1, Tom • 3,
Toto)
Ilhuicatl (O, Tona-
tiuh ; 1, Ce; 3,
Yei)
Tiaeb (©, Aquicha ;
Head, Na)
Mahetzi
Nuuiiaihui, Nunai
Nitiet ?
Tlalli
Tiabal
Chimohoi, Hoy
D. California to Hi
del Norte
13. Coran
14. Tepehuana, To-
pia
15. Tubar
16. Tarahumaran
Pininte
Avandaro (1, Ma ; 3,
Tanimo)
Tahapoa
Chuehti
Tegmecarichui
Guami ? Bad, Tseti ;
Dog, Cocotshi)
17. Zuaquan, Yaqui Tevecapo
18. Pima Titauacatum ? (/,
Ani; 1, Mato; 3,
Walk)
19. Eudeve Tevictze?
20. Opata Tequiaca?
Nuniguatae
Gue
Buyapo
Inatuburch ?
Yuhtepatz;
Terepa ?
(3.) North American.
New
A. N.W. of
Mexico
1. Jetan, Apache
2. Keres, Moqui
B. About California
3. Pericu
4. Waicuric
10. Ecclemach
D. About Nootka
11. Nootka Sound
Heaven, Sky.
(1, Pak ; 3, Ullef)
Earth.
Language.
12. Atnah
13. Friendly Village
5. Cochimi, Lay¬
men
C. N. of California
6. St Barbara
7. Eslene
8. Runsien
9. Achastlien
{Head, Necchu ; 1,
Paca; 3, Mapja)
Imita (O. Tomanis
ashi ; 1, Pek ; 3,
Julep)
Terray (Q, Orpetuei
istmen ; 1, Enjala;
3, Kappes)
(1, Moukola ; 3,
Capes)
14. Queen Char-
‘ lotte’s Island
15. Colushan
Nas, Inaihl nas (O,
Opulsthl ; 1, Tsa-
wak ; 3, Catsa)
( Water, Shaweliquoih;
Head, Scapacay)
( Water, Ulkan ; Fire,
Neach)
{Fire, Tesh; 1, Soun-
chou; 3, Sloonis)
Ki, Keu, Kiiwa, Ki- Tljaknak,
tani, Kiigon, Chaaz
Tlatka,
Tlekw, Tka, Shti,
Tlinkitaannii
16. Ugaljachmuzi
17. Tshinkitany
18. Kinaizi
{Stone, Te; Mex. Tetl)
Koas (Throat, Kat-
katl; Mex. Cocotl.
“Boil, Coatk; Mex.
Coxitia”)
(0, Krane; 1, Clerg,
Kaike; 3, Notshk,
Netx)
Jujan, Juon, Jugan Altnen, Alsleh
An
E. West of Missis¬
sippi
19. Blackfooted In¬
dian
Blood Indian, Be¬
gan
20. Tall Indian
(1, Tokes-cum ; 3,
Nohokescum)
21. Sussee
22. Snake Indian
23. Nadowessian
(1, Karci; 3, Narce;
4, Nean)
(1, Ut-te-gar; 3, Tau-
key; 4, Tobo)
Assinopoetuc
Sioux
24. Saki, Ottogami
Menomene
25. Osage
Uohta tibi (©, Paeta;
]), Oweeh)
{Dog, Shong; 4, Tope)
Winnibeg, Malta
Missouri, Oto
Arkansa, Kanze
26. Pani
27. Caddo, Natshi-
totshe
28. Adaize, Atta-
hapa
F. West of Missis¬
sippi, to Ohio
29. Floridan, Apa-
lache
30. Timuacan
(Wind, Tattasuggy ;
[Brothers, Tinai-
tauna ?])
31. Natshes
32. Muskohge,
Creek
33. Chikkasaw
Choktaw
Tekericadatemba (O, Datemba
Ibo, Ibunga; ]),
Gomma, Ganehma)
Ambayujui, Ambeing Keammete, Amet,
Ametetenang
34. Cherokee
35. Woccon
36. Katahba
37. Six Nations
Mohawk
Seneka
(A^rrem6Ze,Hitanachi;
Priests, Jaoiia)
{My, Na ; Elder Bro¬
ther, Niha; 1, Mi-
necotamano ; 3,
Nahapumima)
(O, Qua, chill)
(0, Hashseh, Husa; Ecaunnauh
1, Hommai, 3,Toot-
shena)
(0, Hashe, Hasce ; Yahkanh
1, Chephpha; 3,
Tootshena)
(0, Eusse, Anantoge
calesta ; Fire,
Cheela: 1, Soquo)
(O. I), Witapare;
Water, Eau ; 1,
Tonne ; 3, Nam-
mee)
(0, ]), Nooteeh; TFa-
ter, Ejau)
Karongiage,Cauroun- Oo-hon-cha, Owhon-
kyawga, Kaaron- cheat, Ahunga, O-
hiate, Toendi hunjea, Uchwunts-
kia, Ondeehra
{Fire, Ocheeleh)
LANGUAGE.
205
Language.
1
Onondaga
Oneida
Cayuga
Tuscarora
Heaven, Sky.
(Dog, Chierha)
Earth.
G-. West of ITudson’s
Bay, and S.W.
38. Chippeway of
Del.
(]), Hatshe-nyahah;
Water, Auweau;
Dog, Cheeth)
39. Delaware
40. Algonkin Mohe-
gan
41. Shawanno
Pampticough
42. Miami, Illinois
(Tooth, Tibbit, Wi-
bit; 3, Taghee ; 4,
Neon, Nea)
(Tooth, Weepeet)
(Tooth, Tibit ; 4,
Neou)
Spimiki (Tooth, Ne- Assiskie
pittalleh)
43. Kikkapoo
44. Piankashaw
45. Pottawatameh
46. Delaware
Kechekoue (©, }), Akihkeouts
Kilswoa ; Tooth,
Neepeetah)
(O, }), Kishessu)
(Tooth, Webit)
Acoossagame (Tooth, Achquidhackamicke,
47. Minsi
48. Sankikani
49. New Sweden
50. Narraganset
Natik
51. New England
52. Abenagui
53. Mohegan
Weepeet)
(Tooth, Wichpit)
(Tooth, Wypyt)
“ llocque'1’(Flesh, Jos)
Keesuck (3, Nish)
Kesuk (3, Nishnoh)
(Tooth, Mepeteis ; 3,
Nis)
Agi, Hogkey
Aucke Hocque
Ohke
54. Penobscot
55. Souriquois
56. Micmic
57. E. Chippeway
58. Messisauger
59. N. Algonkin
60. Knistenaux
Spummuck (Tooth, Hacki, Nohnkey
Weepeetan)
(Tooth, Weebeetah)
(Ouajek (©, Kissis; Megamingo
Tooth, Nebidie)
Oaiok
61. Nehetawa
62. Skoffie
63. Mountanee
Speminkakuin
(O, Keeshoo)
Spiminkakuin
(O, Pisim ;
Us-ti-quoin
Neway)
(4, Naou)
(Head, Mesticbee)
(Head, Teekechee)
Head,
Head,
; 4,
Aukuin
Nindohockee
Ackouin, Acke
Messee asky
64. W. Chepewyan (©, 1), Sah:
Mack. Ed-thie)
65. Nagail (Head, Thie)
66. Hudson’s Bay (Head, Tenet thie)
Islands
H. North Coasts
67. Greenland
68. Eskimaux
69. Tshugassic
70. Norton Sound
Nuna
(71.) Tshuktshe
71. Jakutat
Nuna
Nuna
Killang, Killak (Q, Nuna
Ajut, Seckanach ;
)), Anningat ; 1,
Attausek; 3, Pin-
gasut) A
Taktuck, Nabugakshe
(O, Sukkinuch ;
}), Tatcock)
Koilak
(Hand, Aishet ; 1,
Adowjack; 3, Pin-
gashook)
Ke'ilak
Kilag
72. Koniige, Kadjak Killach (i7an<i, Aiget; Nuna
!•> or Kikhtak 1, Alchallack; 3, *
Pingaic)
The tables will at least serve, notwithstanding some imper¬
fections and uncertainties, as a convenient synopsis for facili¬
tating the reference to a brief sketch of the history of the dif¬
ferent families of languages.
1. The strongest proof of the great antiquity of the Chinese
language appears to be the extreme simplicity of its structure,
and the want of those abbreviations and conventional implica¬
tions which have been sometimes called the wings of languages.
It is natural that, in attempting to express ideas at once by
characters, the rude pictures of material objects should first
have been principally, if not exclusively traced; thus the Egyp- Language,
tians had 0, J) for the sun and moon, and ^ for a country
or field, and the Chinese have still f y, 0 for these
objects respectively, the characters having been made square
instead of round, which some of them were in their more an-
- cient forms. The Egyptians, represented a man by a figure
kneeling, and stretching out his hand, or, in the enchorial cha¬
racter, thus p. The Chinese figure may originally have
been of the same form; but at present is more like a pair of
legs only, , whilst a dog seems to have three or four legs,
or , A thousand, according to Mr Jomard’s ingeni¬
ous conjecture, was copied from the lotus, with its seed vessel,
having a great multitude of seeds, and the Chinese J is cer¬
tainly not altogether unlike the Egyptian ^ ; nor is the cha-
•iKi
racter for light which seems intended to represent a
o
radiant body, altogether different from the 0) or so often
found among the hieroglyphics of Egypt, although it is not
easy to believe, tvith Mr Palin, that the manuscripts found with
the mummies agree precisely with a Chinese version of the
Psalms of David, character for character. The successive in¬
troduction of figurative expressions and characters may easily
be imagined ; but it would be useless to enter at present into
further details of this kind, on grounds almost entirely specu¬
lative. The Chinese are said to have been, in the ninth cen¬
tury, a race of people resembling the Arabs ; their physiog¬
nomy was contaminated in the thirteenth and fourteenth by
a mixture with their conquerors, the Mongols; but their lan¬
guage remained unaltered. The dialect of Tonkin is some¬
times called the language of Anam, and the Guan: on occa¬
sions of state they use the Chinese character, but more com¬
monly a character of their own, probably resembling that of
the Siamese. Dr Leyden observes, that at least twenty differ¬
ent nations employ the Chinese characters, though they read
them quite differently; and he considers the Cochin-Chinese,
the Cantonese, and the Japanese, as all essentially different
from the Mandarin Chinese, though they have all some words in
common. He gives us as the names of the dialects of Chinese,
constituting almost as many separate languages,'—1, Kong,
spoken at Canton; 2, Way; 3, Ndm; 4, Chew; 5, Sew; 6,
Lui; 7, Limm ; 8, Khum, or Mandarin; 9, Shi; 10, Kunng;
11, Hyong san, spoken at Macao; 12, San tahk; 13, Nam
hei; 14, Pun ngi; 15, Tong khun; 16, Fo khun, or Chin-
chow. There is also a language spoken by the Quan to, be¬
tween Tonkin and China, a people who consider themselves as
more ancient than their neighbours. Notwithstanding, how¬
ever, all this supposed diversity, we may trace a considerable
resemblance in the spoken language, even as far as Corea. In
all these dialects, the conversation is a sort of recitative, and
the different notes give distinct meanings to the words ; as, in
fact, we distinguish in English the sense of M ? from M ! or
simply M.; tones perfectly understood, though never written.
The Chinese are without the sound of the letter r, and several
other sounds common in Europe ; the only way in which they
express foreign words is by putting together the characters of
the nearest import, with a symbol of pronunciation annexed to
them; thus, for Christus and Cardinalis, they are obliged
to write Ki lu su tu su, and Kia ul fi na li su, with a mouth
annexed to them. The names of places are generally distin¬
guished by a square inclosing the characters which express
them ; and the names of men, in some books, by a line drawn
on one side of the characters only. In this there seems to be
a distant analogy to the ring which incloses proper names in
the Egyptian inscriptions, but the names of places were not
distinguished in this manner by the Egyptians. The dialects
of Cambodia and Laos have received some mixture of Malayan
from their neighbours ; in writing the former of these, some¬
times called K’hdhmen, according to Dr Leyden, the Bali, or
old Sanscrit character, is employed; and the latter has some
analogy with the Siamese ; indeed, both the Siamese and the
206
LANGUAGE.
Language. Aranese are disposed to derive themselves from Laos. It may
i r- y— > be seen, from the specimens exhibited in the article Philology,
that at least some of the Chinese dialects have sounds agreeing
in several instances with European words of the same import;
but the agreement is scarcely precise enough to justify our in¬
ferring from it an original connection between the languages.
2. The language of Siam resembles the Chinese in its sim¬
plicity and metaphorical structure, though not so decidedly
monosyllabic. It is obvious, however, that the distinction of
monosyllabic and polysyllabic could not, in very ancient times,
have been so positively laid down as at present, since it was
usual, in almost all countries, to write the words contiguous to
each other in a continued series, without any divisions between
them ; and, even in modern printing, there is a happy inven¬
tion, which often restores this agreeable obscurity, under the
name of a hyphen, by the use of which we avoid the difficulty
of determining whether we wish to employ one word or several.
The Siamese call themselves Thai;; and a part of their coun¬
try is distinguished by the appellation Tai hai, or Great T’hay.
The numerals resemble the Mandarin Chinese ; several words
of the language are borrowed from the Bali; it is written in
an alphabetical character, which is said to be complicated and
refined.
3. The Avanese, or Burmanish, has also borrowed some
polysyllabic words from the Bali, and is written in a peculiar
alphabetical character. It must be considered as an era in the
history of this country, that its emperor has employed Mr
Felix Carey, at his own expense, to establish a printing press
at Ava, his metropolis, for printing a translation of the Scrip¬
tures in Burmanish. A dialect, spoken in the district called
Tanengrari, is said to be of greater antiquity. The Mon or Pe-
guan is called by Dr Leyden a distinct original language ; but
it is written in the Avanese character; and Adelung’s specimen
scarcely differs at all from the Burmanish. The language of
Arakan and Rashaan is called Rukheng ; it contains a num¬
ber of words from the Bali, many of them converted into mo¬
nosyllables by an imperfect pronunciation. Dr Leyden con¬
siders it as the connecting link between the monosyllabic and
the polysyllabic languages; and he calls it an original lan¬
guage, notwithstanding its acknowledged derivation from its
neighbours. It employs the Devanagri alphabet, including the
letter a. Out of fifty words of Rukheng, quoted by Buchanan,
the seven which are not Burman are only varieties of pronun¬
ciation. The Kiayn or Koli'm, and the Kukis, N.E. of Chati-
gong, are mentioned as neighbouring tribes, speaking lan¬
guages almost entirely different from the Rukheng. We find,
in Mr Buchanan’s paper, some specimens of the languages of
the Burma empire, which it is difficult to distribute methodi¬
cally without a further knowledge of their peculiar characters,
but some of which may, without impropriety, be introduced
here.
Earth.
Myammaw, in Bur- {Head, Kaung; Wind, Myacgee
Lae)
ma
Yakain, in Arakan
Tanaynthoree
Yo
Moitag, near Assam
Koloun, or Kiayn
Kurayn or Kaloon
Passooko
Maploo
Play
(Wind, Lee)
(Stone, Kionkag)
(Head, Kop, Kok ; Leipauk
O, Noomeet)
(Head, Multoo; ©, Dag
Konee)
Hindu of Burma
Pooinga
Rossawn, Arakan
(Head, Kozohui; 0,
Moomag)
(Head, Kohuin; 0,
Moo)
(Head, Kohui, Poko-
chui ; 0, Mooi,
Moomag)
Katchaykoo
Kolanghoo
Kako, Laukoo
(Head, Mata; 0, Bel) Kool
(Head, Mustek; 0, Murtiha
Sooja)
Banga, or Ayhoba (Head, Teekgo ; Q, Matee
Bayllee)
4. The language of Thibet, or the Tangutish, has some
words in common with the Chinese, but is less simple in its
structure. It is at least as ancient as the religion of the coun¬
try, which is nearly coeval with Christianity. Its character is
well known to be alphabetical, from the title of the learned Language,
work of Father Georgi on the subject.
[The Anamitic of Tonquin and Cochin-China is a separate
language, with Chinese affinities.
The Mon of Pegu is (what Dr Leyden makes it) a separate
language from the Burmese.
The Rukheng is Burmese.
Nothing has to be subtracted from this class. The additions,
however, are numerous.
1. Numerous forms of the speech of the ruder branches of
the Burmese—viz., Kariens, tribes of the Yuma
Mountains, tribes of the interior of Aracan.
2. The same in respect to the Siamese—Khamti, Laos, &c.
3. Forms of speech, with Burmese affinities—more or less
close—from Sylhet, Tippera, Chittagong, Manipur,
and the southern frontier of Assam—Naga, and other
dialects.
4. Forms of speech from the northern and eastern frontiers
of Assam—more or less Burmese, Siamese, and Tibe¬
tan—Jili, Singpho, Mishimi, Abor, Aka, Dofla, &c.
5. Sub-Himalayan forms of speech—Garo, Kooch, Bodo,
Dhimal, &c.
6. Sikkim and Nepal forms of speech—Lepcha, Limbu,
Murmi, Nevvar, &c.
7. The Chepang of Kumaon.
8. The Andaman.
9. The language of the Nicobar Islands.
10. Thelanguages (Sifan)ofthe ruder parts of China.-u.G L.]
5. The Indo-European languages have been referred to a
single class, because every one of them has too great a number
of coincidences with some of the others to be considered as
merely accidental, and many of them in terms relating to ob¬
jects of such a nature that they must necessarily have been, in
both of the languages compared, rather original than adoptive.
The Sanscrit, which is confessedly the parent language of
India, may easily be shown to be intimately connected with the
Greek, the Latin, and the German, although it is a great ex¬
aggeration to assert anything like its complete identity with
either of these languages. Thus, we find, within the compass
of the Lord’s Prayer only, Pida, Pitir, among the Sanscrit
terms for Father; Gr. Pater. Nama, or Namadheya, for
Name; Gr. Onoma, Onomati. Radshiam, Kingdom; Lat.
Regnum from Rego. Manasam, Will, like the Gr. Meniio,
and the Latin Mens. Stira, Earth ; Gr. Era, whence perhaps
the Latin Terra: and Danim, or Devanagri Dia, Day ; Lat.
Dies. There are also some singular resemblances of declension
and conjugation between the Sanscrit and the Greek, Dodami,
Dodasti, Dodati; in old Greek, Didomi, Didosi, Didoti. In
a tablet of the date 23 b.c. we find Kritico for a Judge, Gr.
Crites, Criticos. In Mr Townsend’s work we also find some
well-selected instances of resemblance between the Sanscrit and
other languages: thus, Bhru, is Brow; Pota, a Boat; Bad, a
Bath, Germ. Bad; Dhara, Terra; Nava, Novus; Nakta,
Node, Night; Pad, Foot, Patte; Prathama or Protoma,
First, whence vve deduce both the Greek y>roios and the Latin
primus; and Upadesaca, Didasco, Doceo, and Disco. \V e
have also Vayajan, W ind; in Russian, Vieyanie: and Vidhava,
Widow; Latin, Vidua; German, Wittwe; Russian, Vdova. The
nt of the plural verb is found in the Sanscrit Bhavanti, They
are; Dadanti, They give. Sir William Jones and many others
have attributed to some of the works which are still extant in
Sanscrit an antiquity of 4000 or 5000 years; but Professor
Adelung denies the validity of any of the arguments which have
been adduced in favour of a date at all approaching to this.
The Sanscrit, even in its earliest state, can scarcely have been
altogether uniform throughout all the countries in which it was
spoken, and it has degenerated by degrees into a great diver¬
sity of modern dialects: the term signifies learned or polished.
Beyond the Ganges, it is called Bali or Magudha, which, the
missionaries say, “scarcely” differs from Sanscrit; the term
Magudha is said to mean mixed or irregular. In Siam the
Sanscrit is still the language of elegant literature; and it is often
employed throughout India, with some little difference of con¬
struction, under the name of Devanagari, the divine language.
The Prakrit is rather a vague term, meaning, according to Mr
Colebrooke, common or vulgar ; but it is also applied to the
language of the sacred books of the “ Jainas.” We find in a
little publication, entitled a Brief View ofthe Baptist Missions
LANGUAGE.
Language, and Translations, some useful information respecting the
v-—' Indian languages and dialects, into a great number of which
these laborious and disinterested persons have made or pro¬
cured translations of the whole of the Scriptures, which they
have printed at Serampore, near Calcutta. The dialects which
they enumerate are principally arranged in a geographical
order ; and, beginning with those which are spoken towards
the middle of India, as the pure Sanscrit and its least modified
dialects, we may place next to them the languages of the
countries bordering on the monosyllabic nations, toward the
N. and E. We have here the dialects of Nepal, Assam or
Uhumiya, Tiperah, im& Kassai, of which little more is known
than that translations into the first two have been already
executed. The Bengalee is spoken in and about Calcutta. The
Hmdee or Hinduvee is spoken about Agra; it is printed in
the Devanagri character, the font of which contains more than
800 varieties of letters and their combinations. The Urdu or
Oordoo is a sub-dialect of the Hindee, as well as the Brijbassa,
which is nearer to the Sanscrit than some other dialects. The
Jypura is mentioned as another language belonging to the
same neighbourhood. The Hindustanee is spoken in Hindustan
Proper, or Lower Hundustan ; the missionaries say it is “dia¬
metrically different” from the Hindee. The Moors or “ Mongol
Indostanish ’ seems to belong to this country, being mixed
with a good deal of Persian and Arabic, unless it be rather
referable to the Hindee. The dialects of Udaipura, Benares,
and M unipur a, are also called separate languages. The Goandee
is spokfen at Nagpore, in the Mahratta country. Further east
is Orissa or Uriya, the language of which is printed in a cha¬
racter requiring tiOO different types. The Telug or Warug is
spoken about Cuddalore and Madras: the Telinga further
west. The Carnatic has a peculiar language, besides the Tamul,
which is spoken from Paleacate, near Madras, to Cape Como¬
rin, and the Marwa, which appears to belong to a part of this
country. About Cochin in Travancore we have the Maleiam:
further north, the languages of Malabar, Kanara, and of the
Deccan. I he dialect of Malabar is of considerable antiquity,
being found in two copper tablets as old as the eighth or ninth
century. rI hen comes the Kunkuna, about Bombay. The Mah¬
ratta is further inland; the Guzurat on the coast; and, be¬
yond the Indus, the Beloshee in Belochistan. North of this we
find the Afghan or Pushtu language, which contains more
Hebrew words than any of its neighbours ; the people are said
to have come from the N. about 2000 years ago, and, according
to a Persian tradition, to be descended from King Saul; indeed,
the language stands somewhat more correctly under the Median
family in the Mithridates, but since it forms the connecting
link between the two families, it might perhaps be as conveni¬
ently arranged among the more numerous species of the San¬
scrit ; it is written in the Arabic character, with some additional
letters for expressing the Sanscrit sounds. The language of
Multan, Is. of hindh, has about one-tenth of Persian mixed
with it. I he Gipsies were certainly expelled from some part
of India by the cruelties of Timur Leng, about the year 1400;
and there were probably some of the Zingans in the neighbour¬
hood of Multan, their language having a great number of co¬
incidences with that of Multan, and being still more manifestly
a dialect of the Sanscrit, although they have adopted many
European, and especially Sclavonian words. When they first
appeared in Europe, they were supposed to amount to about
half a million ; at present they are less numerous.
I he Maldivian is peculiar to the group of small islands
from which it is named; the Baptists have already printed
some books in it. 'ihe people are said greatly to resemble
those of Ceylon. . 1 he Cingalese, which is spoken in great
part of Ceylon, is a mixture of several of the continental
dialects; and it has been observed, that the proper names in
Ceylon mentioned by Ptolemy are of Sanscrit origin.
[Ihe Sanscrit can scarcely be called “confessedly” the parent
language ot India. I hat the languages of the Dekhan are
Sanscrit, only in the way that English is Latin (i.e., in respect
to some incorporated elements), is generally admitted. That
the northern forms of speech are Sanscrit is beginning to be
doubted That their vocabulary is largely Sanscrit is certain.
iNot so, however, their grammar. The forms of speech that,
at one and the same time, are most generally treated as sepa¬
rate languages, and, at the same time, most especially believed
to be of Sanscrit origin, are—•
1. The Hindui, i.e., the Brijbasa of the text.
2. The Gujerathi of Gujerat.
3. The Udiya of Orissa.
4. The Bengali.
5. The Mahratta.
The Multan, Punjab, Scinde, Rajasthan, Cashmerian, and
other less important forms of speech, belong to this division,
and chiefly approach the Hindui section of it.
Ihe Hindostani is a Lingua-Franca, rather than a true na¬
tive form of speech.
On the other hand, the Teluga, Telinga, Canarese (or Car¬
natic), Malayalim, and Kunkuna (of the Concan), are all Ta¬
mul ; as are all the Todah, Ghond, Khond, and Kol dialects ;
as well as that of the Rajmahali mountaineers, on the very
verge of the Ganges, and within 100 miles of the southern
boundary of the sub-Himalayan monosyllabic tongues.
The basis of the Maldivian and Cingalese is Tamul • the
place of many of the Bhil dialects being, if not in the Tamul
class, at least intermediate.
In Biluchistan the Biluch is not the only language. The
Brahui of the mountains is spoken concurrently with it and
that is Tamul, or South Indian.
_ Of Nepal, Assam, Tipperah, and the Kasia country, the na¬
tive dialects are all monosyllabic. It is only the intrusive
forms of speech that are Indian.
The Afghan and Biluch are Persian, rather than either Ta¬
mul or Northern Indian.—k. g. l.]
Dr Leyden gives, as a proof of the antiquity of the Ma¬
layan, that the Temala of Ptolemy is derived from Tema, tin.
The connection of this language with the Sanscrit has not been
very universally admitted; and some of those who have studied
it most are disposed to consider it as wholly original: but in
the purest part of the language, Dr Leyden confesses that there
is a considerable resemblance to the Avanese and the Siamese ;
the words derived from the Sanscrit he considers as somewhat
less numerous, amounting, however, to about 5000 ; they are
generally less like the Bali than the Sanscrit, and a still
smaller number are borrowed from the Arabic. The character
of the monosyllabic languages is in some measure retained.
Sir William Jones considered the Malayan as a derivative of
the Sanscrit; Mr Marsden supposes it to have received its
Sanscrit words through Gujerat; Dr Leyden rather from
Kalinga or Telinga; and it exhibits some traces of the dialects
of Tamul and Maleiam. Besides these various sources, it is
said to have borrowed some of its simplest words from the
Javanese and the Bugis ; and it has become more nearly mono¬
syllabic by dropping the first syllables of some of the words
which it has adopted. The Javanese is said to be more an¬
cient than the Malayan : the empire of Java was formerly
powerful and flourishing: the ancient language was much like
the Sanscrit, more so than the Malayan, but was written in a
peculiar character. Dialects of this language are still spoken
in Bali and in Madura. Leyden thinks the Malays were de¬
rived from Java ; Marsden rather from Sumatra, though he
allows that there are some reasons for conjecturing that an old
Sanscrit colony may have settled many hundred years ago in
Java, and mixed its language with a supposed mother tongue
of that Asiatic race.
Of the Sumatran dialects, the principal, according to Dr
Leyden, is the Batta, spoken by a people who occupy the
centre of the island, and who still, like some other Indian na¬
tions, retain the custom of eating their old relations. The
language seems to be partly original, and partly connected
with the Malayan; and other dialects of the neighbouring
islands. The Rejang is chiefly a mixture of Batta and Ma¬
layan ; in the Lampuhn or Lampung there is also some Ja¬
vanese. The Achi has admitted a still further influx of words
belonging to all the Mussulman jargons of the neighbourhood
especially to that of the Mapulas of Malabar. There are other
dialects of less note in Neas and the Poggy Islands, most re¬
sembling the Batta. This language is provided with a peculiar
alphabet, which is remarkable for being written from the bot¬
tom of the paper upwards, like the Mexican hieroglyphics;
though the Battas, as well as the Chinese, sometimes hold their
books so as to read horizontally. In Borneo there appear to
be several dialects, or rather separate languages ; two of them
according to Dr Leyden, are the Biaju and the Tisun.
[ The Malay is nearest the southern members of the mono-
207
Language.
208
Language.
LANG
syllabic stock. In Malacca and Sumatra it is spoken with little
variation, with more in Borneo, more still in Java and Ce¬
lebes, and the Philippines. It then passes through the inter¬
mediate forms of Lord North’s Island, the Pelews, &c., into
the Micronesian of the Carolines and Mariannes ; thence on to
the Polynesian of the Navigators’ Isles and all the islands be¬
tween New Zealand S., and the Sandwich Isles N.; the Fijis
W., and Easter Island E. The islands between Java and
Timor (the latter included) are Malay, So is, to a great ex¬
tent, the language of Madagascar.
The numerous mutually unintelligible languages of Aus¬
tralia are connected with some of the ruder forms of speech of
Timor, Ombay, &c., being also radically connected with each
other. The extent to which they are other than Malay being
greatly exaggerated.
In New Guinea, the Louisiade, New Ireland, &c., the
languages are Papuan, mutually unintelligible to a, great ex¬
tent, yet related, and touching the Malay tongues in the Arru
Isles.
The Tasmanian of Van Diemen’s Land is perhaps more
akin to the New Caledonian than to the Australian, as if the
stream of population had gone round Australia rather than
across it.
A Malay form of speech is spoken in Formosa. The lan¬
guages of all the wilder tribes of the Peninsula of Malacca
and"the larger isles is, even when they are more or less black,
Malay.—R. g. m]
The Andaman language is inserted here for want of a better
place only ; it does not appear to have any connection with
the Sanscrit, and may possibly be found to be more like that
of Madagascar: the people seem to belong to the Papuas, a
distinct original race, according to Dr Leyden, black, and with,
woolly hair.
[The Andaman is nearest the languages of the opposite coast,
i.e., the Burmese.—r. g. l.]
Besides the numerous translations into languages of the
Indo-European class, the Baptist missionaries have also printed
some Armenian and Persian works at the indefatigable press of
Ssrampore, which is supplied by a letter-foundry and a paper-
mill, belonging to the same establishment, enabling them to
execute the whole business at less than half the expense of
European books of the same magnitude. The little pamphlet
already quoted contains also specimens of the characters of the
Sanscrit, Assam, Bengalee, Mahratta, Sikh, and Cashmirian,
which somewhat resemble each other in the square ^form of
their characters ; as well as of the Burman, Orissa, Telinga,
and Cingalese, which have a more rounded and flourished ap¬
pearance ] of the Tamul, which looks a little like Armenian ,
of the Afghan and the Persian used in India; and of the Chi¬
nese, both as printed from blocks, and from the moveable
metal types which have been cast at Serampore.
6. The connection of the Median family with the Sanscrit
on one side, and with the Greek and German on the other, is
sufficiently proved by the words Abitap, Zend. Sun ; Sansc.
Abitaba. Bar, Ter, Pers. Door; Sansc. Dura, Tuwara;
Javanese, Turi; Gr. Thura; Germ. Thiir, Thor. Dip, Pers.
Land or Island ; Sansc. Dihp. Dochtar, Pers. Pothre; Zend.
Daughter; Gr. Thiigater; Germ. Tochter; Sansc. Putri.
/are, Zend. Year; Sansc, Jahran; Germ. Jahr; and Ishlc,
Zend. Love; Sansc. Itsha. To this list we may add, from Dr
Leyden, Stree, Zend. Woman; Sansc. Stri. Asti. Zend. He
is; Sansc. Asti ; Gr. Esti. Hapte, Zend. Seven ; Sansc. Sap-
i. tah; Gr. Hepta. There are also some coincidences with the
v Chaldee, but the Median is certainly not a dialect of the Chal-
- dee. Sir W. Jones and others have said that the Zendish was
* nearest to the Sanscrit, and the Pehlvi to the Chaldee or
Arabic. In ancient Media, the Zendish was the language of
the northern, and the Pehlvi, or Parthian, of the southern
parts; the word Pehlvi, or Pahalevi, is supposed by Leyden to
have been nearly synonymous with Pali or Bali, though this is
said to be derived from Bahlika, an Indo-European country.
The Zendish was more particularly appropriated to religious
purposes, and the Pehlvi had in a great measure superseded it
for common use at a very early period. Under the Sassanides,
again, from the third to the seventh century, the use of the
Pehlvi was discouraged, and the old Persian substituted for it.
It is said, however, that in the remote parts of the country,
about Shirwan, some traces of the Pehlvi may still be found
U A G E.
in existence. The Zendavesta of Zoroaster, which is still ex- Language,
tant in Zendish, is said to have been written 520 years b.c. ;
and Adelung follows Anquetil in asserting its authenticity,
even in opposition to the opinion of Jones and Richardson.
These languages have little or no connection with the Georgian
and Armenian, which have succeeded them in some ot the same
countries. The old Persian, which seems to be much con¬
nected with the Pehlvi, has remained in use, either as a living
or as a learned language, ever since the time of the Sassanides:
it was current among the Persians when they were conquered
by the Arabs in the seventh century ; and it is the language
of the Shah Nameh of Firdusi, written in the tenth century,
as well as of the Ayeen Akbery, of which the date is about
1600. The modern Persian became a cultivated language
about the year 1000, having received a considerable mixture
of Arabic and Turkish words. The term Parsee is commonly
applied to a corrupt Pehlvi, spoken by the refugee fire-wor¬
shippers in Bombay.
The Goths are said to have inhabited, for some centuries,
the countries about the Black Sea, and may originally have
bordered on Persia. From this circumstance, and probably
also from the effects of a later irruption of the Goths into
Persia, which is recorded in history, we may easily explain the
occurrence of many Persian words in German, and in the other
languages of Northern Europe. Professor Adelung has ex¬
amined more than two hundred cases of such resemblances,
and has found only one sixth part of them in Anquetil’s voca¬
bularies of the more ancient dialects. He has, however, omit¬
ted to state what proportion the whole magnitude of these voca¬
bularies bears to that of a complete dictionary of the language.
It is well known that an essay was published a few years since
in London, On the Similarity of the Persian and English
Languages; and a more elaborate work on the relations of
the Persian languages, by M. Lepileur, has since appeared m
Holland. M. Lepileur attempts to explain the is or s of the
genitive of the northern languages by the Persian preposi¬
tion ez, which seems to be synonymous with the Greek and
Latin ex ; but he has not shown that this ez ever follows the
noun to which it relates.
The Kurds speak a corrupt dialect of the Persian ; they are
probably derived from the Carduchi of the Greeks, who in¬
habited the Gordiaean Hills. They spread into Persia about
the year 1000, and are now situated on the borders of the
Persian and Turkish dominions. The. language ot the Af¬
ghans, about Candahar, is said to contain about one-fourth of
Persian, and some Tartarian, besides the Sanscrit which
abounds in it.
[The term Median appears to mean the languages allied to
either the Zend or the modern Persian ; and as few writers
(of which, however, the present is one) hesitate to derive the
latter from the former, this meaning may stand ; subject, how¬
ever, to future correction.
Zend is so akin to the Sanscrit, that a class of any con¬
venient magnitude must contain both. If so, their descendants
should be in the same class also, viz., the modern Persian and
the North Indian dialects. The complications and difficulties
that arise out of this are considerable.
The Zend is the language of the Zendavesta ; and closely
allied to it is that of the Cuneiform inscriptions. . .
The Pehlvi is the language of the Sarsasian inscriptions.
It is safer to write thus than to distribute the languages thus
named geographically. ^ . „
There are difficulties in deriving the modern Persian from
the Zend, and there are difficulties in not doing so. In the
mind of the present writer, the former outweigh the latter.
Suppose that, after the Macedonian kingdom of Bactria
was formed, the successors of Alexander had extended their
conquests into Tibet; that they filled the country with in¬
scriptions in Macedonian Greek, and that a Greek litera¬
ture was developed. Time goes on, and the Greek language
changes. It takes in some wmrds from the original libe-
tan ; it gives more, say thirty, forty, fifty per cent. Mean¬
while, the original monosyllabic and uninflected character
of the native language is preserved. Modern scholars in¬
vestigate it; they note the number of Greek words ; they
note, too, the absence of the Greek inflections ; they in¬
fer that the Tibetan is a language of . Greek origin,^ being
once, but now no longer, inflectional; just like the English
LANGUAGE.
Language, as compared with the Anglo-Saxon ; or the Italian as compared
v j with the Latin.
All this is wrong. The non-inflectional character of the Tibe¬
tan arises, not out of the facts of inflections having been lost, but
out of the fact of their never having been developed. Neverthe¬
less, a historical series of changes that never existed is in¬
ferred.
The real relation of the Greek to the Tibetan is that of the
Latin (not the Anglo-Saxon) to the English. The real history
of the want of inflections is the opposite of the one assumed.
A change from the inflected to the uninflected stage of a single
language is simulated. The actual fact is the incorporation of
a large (say an inordinately large) percentage of words from a
polysyllabic to a monosyllabic tongue.
\Yrite Zend for Greek, and Persian for Tibetan, and the
modern language of Ispahan and Teheran appear as descend¬
ants from the Zendavesta and arrow-headed forms of speech.
Apply the criticism suggested by the erroneous character of the
preceding inference, and this affiliation becomes doubtful. Such
criticism, however, has yet to be applied.
Mutatis mutandis, the same applies to relations of the
Sanscrit to the North Indian dialects.
The Biluch is Persian.
The Afghan belongs to the same class.
Again, an important group, that by slightly raising the value
of this class can be referred to it, or (if this be inconvenient)
may stand as a closely allied order, is one for which our data
are quite recent. It contains the languages of some of the
northern tribes of Afghanistan, the Cohistan of Cabul, Kafer-
istan (Siaposh), the head waters of the Oxus, Chitral and
Hunz-Nagor. The present writer has called this the Paro-
pamisan group.
The present writer, holding that the comparative absence of
inflections of the Persian arises not from loss, and from non¬
development (the same applying to the North Indian forms of
speech), stands perhaps alone in placing it, with its congeners,
in immediate connection with the monosyllabic languages,—
the Zend and Sanscrit (the apparent mother-tongues) being
widely separated from them, though closely allied to each other.
If this be true, the Indian tongues are those where the basis
is Tamul rather than monosyllabic ; the Persian those wffiere
xt is monosyllabic rather than Tamul.
More, however, will be said about this in the sequel; also
something about the Goths.—k. g. l.]
7. The Arabian family is called by the German critics
Semitic, from Shem the son of Noah, as having been princi¬
pally spoken by his descendants. Though not intimately con¬
nected with the European languages, it is well known to have
afforded some words to the Greek and Latin; it has also some
in common with the Sanscrit, though apparently fewer than
either the Greek or the German. Thus we have Acer, Heb.
a Husbandman ; Ager, Lat. a Field. Asther, a Star. ; Gr.
Aster. Bara, Buri, Germ. Burg. Ben, Heb. Son.; Sansc.
Bun, Child. Esh, Heb. Eshta; Chald. Fire ; Sansc. Aster:
and Ish, Heb. Man ; Sansc. Isha, Man or Lord. The He¬
brew Ani, Anoki, I, has been noticed by Townsend and
others as affording an etymology for Ego as well as Ni or Mi
of verbs, for the Anok of the Egyptians, and even for the Ngo
of the Chinese.
The northern nations of this family have sometimes been
comprehended under the name Aramaic, in contradistinction
to the middle or Canaanitish, and the southern or Arabian.
The Eastern Aramaic, or old Chaldee, is very little known;
it was the language of a people situated in the north of Meso¬
potamia, which is now the south of Armenia ; a part of them
extended themselves further south, and became Babylonians,
of whose dialect some traces are said still to exist about Mosul
and Diarbeker. The old Assyrians, between the Tigris and
Media, were a colony of the Babylonians, and spoke a lan¬
guage unintelligible to the Jews (2 Kings xviii.) The West¬
ern Aramaic has become known, since the Christian era, as the
Syriac, in which there is an ancient and valuable translation
of the A eiv Testament. It is still spoken about Edessa and
Harran. The Palmyrene was one of its dialects ; the modern
Assyrian of the Russian vocabularies appears to be another.
The language of the Canaanites is said by St Jerome to have
been intermediate between the Hebrew and the Egyptian.
The people are supposed to have come originally from the
VOL. XIII.
Persian Gulf; the Philistines, who were found among them
to have emigrated from the Delta to Cyprus, to have been
thence expelled by the Phoenicians, and to have adopted the
language of the Canaanites when they settled among them.
The book of Job is considered as affording some idea of the
dialect of Edom ; it is well known to contain many Arabisms,
besides some other peculiarities. The Phoenician is only
known from a few coins and inscriptions found chiefly in Cy¬
prus and in Malta, and not yet very satisfactorily deciphered ;
though Akerblad is convinced, by some of them, that it varied
but very little from the Hebrew ; of its descendant, the Punic,
or Carthaginian, a specimen is preserved in the speech of
Hanno in Plautus, as happily arranged by Bochart; the ob¬
jection of Adelung, respecting the want of a proper name, ap¬
pearing to have arisen from a mistake. The last six lines of
the text are probably either a repetition of the same speech in
the old Libyan of the neighbourhood, or a jargon intended to
imitate it.
The Hebrews originated among the Chaldeans, Terah, the
father of Abraham, having been a native of Ur, or Edessa,
beyond the Euphrates. They adopted the language of the
Canaanites, among whom they led a nomadic life, till their re¬
sidence in Egypt, which must probably have had some effect
in modifying their language. After that time, however, it ap¬
pears to have varied but little in a period of 1000 years, from
Moses to Malachi; and this circumstance Adelung considers as
so uncommon and improbable, that he is disposed to believe
that the writings of Moses must have been modernized at least
as late as the time of Samuel. The old Hebrew became ex¬
tinct, as a living language, about 500 b.c. ; 1000 years after¬
wards the Masoretic points were added, to assist in its pro¬
nunciation : and this was done in some measure upon the model
of the Syro-Chaldaic, which at that time was still spoken. The
Septuagint version, which is much older, supports, in the in¬
stances of many of the proper names, the reading indicated
by the points; but in about as many others it appears to de¬
viate from that system, and to agree with a mode of pronunci¬
ation founded upon the text or principal characters alone.
The reading in Greek letters of Origen, in his Hexapla, tends,
on the whole, very strongly to support the points. The Chal¬
dee had superseded the Hebrew at the time of the captivity,
and was gradually converted into the Syro-Chaldaic, which is
called Hebrew in the New Testament. The Targums, and the
Talmud of Babylon, are in the older Chaldee; and a Syro-
Chaldaic translation of the New Testament has been discovered
to be still in existence.
The Samaritan somewhat resembles the Chaldee. It was
formed among the Phoenicians and others, who occupied the
habitations of the ten tribes when they were carried into
captivity by Salmanassar and Esarhaddon. Its peculiar al¬
phabet is well known as a mere variation of the Hebrew.
The Rabbinical dialect was principally formed in the
middle ages, among the Spanish Jews, who were chiefly de¬
scended from the inhabitants of Jerusalem; while those of
Germany and Poland were generally Galileans, and spoke a
ruder dialect of the Hebrew than the fugitives from the me¬
tropolis.
The Arabs have been a distinct, and, in a great measure, an
independent nation, for more than 3000 years. Some of them
were descended from Shem ; others, as the Cushites, Canaan¬
ites, and Amalekites, from his brother Ham. Their language,
as it is found in the Koran, contains some mixture of Indian,
Persian, and Abyssinian words. Its grammar was little culti¬
vated until a century or two after the time of Mohammed. It
is certainly copious; but its copiousness has been ridiculously
exaggerated and absurdly admired. The best Arabic is spoken
by the upper classes in Yemen ; in Mecca it is more mixed;
in Syria corrupt, and still more so in some parts of Africa.
There are dialects which require the assistance of an interpre¬
ter to make them intelligible ; at the same time, it has been
maintained by Aryda, a learned Arab of Syria, in contradic¬
tion to Niebuhr, that the Arabic of the Koran is still employed
in conversation among the best educated of the people, as
well as in correct writing. The Arabs living in houses are
called Moors, and those of Africa are the best known under
this name. The Mapuls or Mapulets of Malabar and* Coro¬
mandel are a numerous colony of Arabs, who have been settled
there above a thousand years.
2 »
209
Language.
210
LANG
Language. The Ethiopians arc descended from the Cushite Arabs. In
, ^ / the time of Nimrod they conquered Babylon; before that ot
/ Moses they emigrated into Africa, and settled in and about
Tigri; in Isaiah’s time they seem to have extended to Fez ;
and at present they occupy Tigri, Amhara, and some neigh¬
bouring countries. They became Christians in 325, but re¬
tained the initiatory ceremony of the Jews and Mussulmans.
The pure or literary Ethiopic is called Geez, or Axumitic, in
contradistinction to the Amharic, by which it was superseded
as the language of common life in Amhara about the four¬
teenth century, although it is still spoken, without much al¬
teration, in some parts of Tigri; while in others, as in Hauasa,
a different dialect is spoken. The Ethiopic was first particu¬
larly made known in Europe by the elaborate publications of
Ludolf. Mr Asselin has since procured a translation of the
whole of the Bible into the Amharic, as it is now spoken at
Gondar ; it was executed by the old Abyssinian traveller who
was known to Bruce and to Sir William Jones, and was after¬
wards put to press at the expense of some of the British
societies.
The Maltese is immediately derived from the modern
Arabic, without any intervention of the Punic. The island,
having been successively subject to the Phceacians, Phoenicians,
Greeks, Carthaginians, Romans, and Goths, was subdued by
the Arabians in the ninth century ; in the eleventh the Nor¬
mans conquered it; and it remained united with Sicily until
it became in some measure independent, under the Knights of
St John.
[There is nothing to be subtracted from this group. In
the way of addition, it contains the Gafat of Ethiopia.
The Semitic tongues graduate into the other African tongues
by means of a class for which the name Sub-Semitic has been
suggested, containing—
1. The Coptic of Egypt, which has affinities with the Bis-
harye, the Nubian, and the Galla.
2. The Amazirgh or Berber tongue, leading to the Bornu,
Ilaussa, and other languages of Central Africa.
3. The Jflrota and other allied tongues of Abyssinia. These
are, perhaps, absolutely Semitic.—r. g. l.]
8. The Lycian is only known from a few short inscriptions
copied by Mr R. Cockerell, and published in Mr Walpole’s
collection, together with two or three longer ones, which have
been lately brought from Antiphellos by the enterprising and
indefatigable Mr W. J. Bankes. By means of a proper name
in one of Mr Cockerell’s inscriptions we obtain a part of the
alphabet; thus i is a ; A, n ; n, i; r, n ; ,5 > s > ar*d Pro_
bably A, h ; and i, l. A further comparison of the differ¬
ent parts of the other inscriptions with the Greek phrases
that almost uniformly accompany them, implying “ for him¬
self AND HIS WIFE AND CHILDREN,” gives US the Words
a, or at’-hi, himself; sa, his, or for his ; iirdi, or perhaps
hroi, wife ; tidaimi, son; hoa\u\, children; and atbi, and.
It does not appear that any of these words would authorize us
to place the Lycian language as a member of the great Indo-
European class ; but it is reported to have been much mixed
with Greek, and, on account of its geographical situation, it
may be allowed to occupy a temporary rank between the prin¬
cipal oriental and European languages. If it has a shadow
of likeness to any other language, it is perhaps to the Cimbric ;
and Tidaimi may also possibly be allied to the Greek Titheno,
to nurse.
9. Respecting the ancient Phrygian, we have a few tradi¬
tions only, which at least agree in giving it a high antiquity,
as the source of several Greek words. Thus, Plato observes,
in his Cratylus, that the terms denoting^re and water are not
derived from any other Greek words, but are Phrygian primi¬
tives. It seems, however, that water was called Bedii by the
Phrygians, and the word resembles the Bada, Bath, ot the
northern nations, as well as the Vate, water, of the Swedes.
Moirai, the fates, derived from the Phrygian, is compared to
Meyar, virgins, of the Gothic ; and Bek, bread, is as much
like our Bake, as like the Albanian Buk, bread.
10. The Greek has no very intimate or general connection
with any of the older languages which have been preserved en¬
tire, although there are a number of particular instances of its
resemblance to the Sanscrit, some of which have been already
mentioned ; it has also many German and Celtic words, some
U A G E.
Sclavonian, and, as it is said, a few Finnish. It can only Language,
have been immediately derived from the language of the s*
neighbouring Thracians and Pelasgians, who seem to have
come originally from the middle of Asia, through the countries
N. of the Black Sea, and to have occupied not only Greece and
Thrace, but also the neighbouring parts of Asia Minor, where
they probably retained their ancient dialect to a later period
than elsewhere. The whole of the Thracian states were greatly
deranged by the expedition of the Celts in 278 n.c. which ter¬
minated in their settling the colony of Galatia. The Dacians,
or Getae, who principally occupied Bulgaria, extended them¬
selves further northwards, and afterwards constituted the Ro¬
man provinces of Mcesia and Dacia, which were conquered by
the Goths in the third century. The Macedonians, in the time
of Alexander, spoke a language which was nearly unintelligible
to the Greeks in general; even the Pelasgi in Epirus and
Thessaly long retained a dialect materially different from their
neighbours, and in Arcadia still longer. The Hellenes, who
emigrated from Asia Minor into Greece, were not sufficiently
numerous to carry their own dialect with them, although the
language assumed their name. The Graeci in Italy were Pe¬
lasgians, although Dionysius of Halicarnassus includes them
in the denomination Hellenic _; their language must have been
iEolo-Doric, and it was in this form that the Latin received
its mixture of Greek ; the Lacedemonian also retained it till
a late period, writing, for instance, instead of Pais, Pair, as
in Latin Puer. The TEolic appears once to have extended
over Attica, and to have left some iEolisms in the old Attic
dialect. This dialect was the principal basis of the common
language of Greece at a later period, which must have been the
most cultivated under the protection of the court of Alexan¬
dria, and which continued to be spoken and written in the
highest circles of Constantinople throughout the middle ages.
By degrees it degenerated into the modern Romaic, having
received a mixture of Turkish and Italian, and perhaps ot
some other neighbouring languages.
11. The German family is sufficiently connected with a va¬
riety of others belonging to the Indo-European class to be
admitted into it upon a very short investigation. Its resem¬
blances to the Greek, within the compass of the Lord’s Prayer,
besides Father and Name, are Wille, Wollen, Gr. ; Boide;
perhaps Brot or Proat, bread, like Artos; and Freyen or
Losen, like Rhuein and Liisein. Dr Jamieson has shown
very clearly, in his Hermes Scythicus, how immediately the
structure of the Gothic languages is derived from that of the
Greeks. Thus the bin of the Greek infinitive became in the
Moeso-Gothic an or ian, in German en. The icos of the adjec¬
tives, Mceso-Gothic, ags, igs? or eigs, as mahteigs, mighty,
Germ, machtig; the Sclavonians have ski, the Swedes ska.
The inos, Lat. ends, Anglo-Saxon en. The licos, Latin lis,
German lich, English like ; thus pelicos is what like, at
least in Scotland ; the Mceso-Gothic swaleiks is our such;
sameleiks is similis. Los, lis, lion, of diminutives, in Latin
lus, becomes in Mceso-Gothicilo, as barnilo, a little child; in
German mannl is a little man. Among the pronouns we have
ego in Greek and Latin, Mceso-Gothic ik, Icelandic EG, Swe¬
dish JAG ; EMOU, MOU, Gr., Latin MEI, Moeso-Gothic meina,
German meiner ; emoi, moi, Latin mihi, Mceso-Gothic mis,
Swedish mig, Dutch my ; eme, me, Latin me, Moeso-Gothic
mik, Anglo-Saxon me, Dutch my. Su, Doric tu, Latin tu,
Mceso-Gothic thu. Is in Latin, Mceso-Gothic is ; ejus, Moeso-
Gothic is, izos ; id, Moeso-Gothic ita, English it. Quis, cujus,
cui, quem, Moeso-Gothic quhas, quhis, quhe, quhana, the last
having the n, as the Greek hon. Uter, whether, alter,
other, seem to be derived from anther, enthera, meaning
one of them, so that in this instance the Gothic has the appear¬
ance of the greater antiquity, while the Greek affords, on the
other hand, an etymology for ekeinos, from ekei, there, which
is wanting to the Moeso-Gothic gains or jains, the Alemannic
gener, the German jener, and the English yonder or yon.
Again, among the numerals, deka has been derived from deo,
as if both hands were tied together; and pente has a strong
resemblance to panta, as A all the five fingers were reckoned :
and, on the other hand, da cuig in Gaelic, meaning twice five,
has been considered as the original of deca. But none of these
etymologies seems to be so decisive of originality as that ox
caterva. which is evidently related to turba or turma, while
the first syllable remains unexplained in Latin; but in tne
LANG
language. Celtic we have cod tarf, or cath tarf, a war troop, agreeing
undeniably with the sense. For another example, we may
take ventus and wind, for which we find no Latin etymology,
while the German furnishes us with wehen, to blow, and
thence ivehend and wind. The words nodus and knot afford
also a similar instance ; nodus having nothing nearer to it in
Latin than neo, to spin, necto, to unite; but in German we
have kniitten, to^join, and in English knit and knead from
the same root. 1 he degrees of comparison are expressed in
Greek by eros and istos ; in Anglo-Saxon by er or era, and
ist or ast. Er seems to mean before, as well as the Latin or.
The Coptic has no comparative ; but for better than I, the
Egyptians said very good before me. It would seem at first
sight natural to make than a preposition, as well as before, and
to say better than me; but the fact is, that in English, as
well as in German, it was usual of old to say then or denn in
this sense; and he is wiser than I meant only, he is wise be¬
fore, then I follow. The idea of time or place is now
dropped as unessential to the kind of priority in question, but
the ground of the grammatical construction remains unaltered.
In Moeso-Gothic the comparative termination is izo or ozo, the
superlative ists or ista ; thus the Greek meizon becomes
meizo, and maists is obviously megistos. The old megalos is
mikils, mickle or muckle ; and minor, minimus, became min-
nizo, minnists; in Persian, mih is great, mihter, greater,
mihtras, greatest; better seems to be from the old German
bied or bieder, upright, honest, and resembles the Persian
bihter, better. The Mceso-Gothic verbs have also some strik¬
ing resemblances in their form to the Latin ; thus the present
tense of to have is haba, habais, habaith; habam, habaith,
HABAND. HaBUIT is HABAIDA ; HABENS, HABANOS J HABENTIS,
HABANDIS ; HABENTEM, HABANDAM ; HABENTES, HABANDANS.
The substantive verb singular in Greek is eimi, eis, esti ; the
plural in Latin sumus, estis, sunt : the Mccso-Gothic has im,
is, ist, simjum, sijuth, sind ; and sis is sijais ; esse, wisan.
The Moeso-Gothic nouns frequently retain the resemblance of
the Greek more strongly than their more modern derivatives ;
thus a tooth does not seem to point very immediately to den-
tem or odonta as its source ; but the older form tunthu is
clearly the intermediate stage of this modification ; and num¬
berless other instances of the same kind might easily be
found.
The Germans were known, as early as the time of Pytheas,
that is, 320 b.c., as consisting of the Jutes in Denmark, the
Teutones on the coast to the east of them, the Ostheans next,
and lastly the Cossini, Cotini, or Goths. Professor Adelung
imagines that the eastern nations, or Suevi, employed almost
from the earliest times a high German dialect, and the western,
or Cimbri, a low German ; the Suevi he supposes to have been
driven, at a remote period, into the south of Germany by the
Sclavonians ; and some of the Goths appear to have extended
as far as the Crimea. The Bible of Ulphila, in the Gothic or
Mceso-Gothic of 360, is the oldest specimen in existence of the
German language, Besides the Greek and Latin, which ap¬
pear to prevail so much in the language, it exhibits a consi¬
derable mixture of Sclavonian and Finnish ; the translation is
tar more literal than it could be made in any of the more mo¬
dern dialects of the German, and sometimes appears to follow
the text with somewhat too much servility.
^ The modern German, founded on the higher dialects of
Saxony, was fixed and made general by Martin Luther.
There are many shades of dialect and pronunciation in the
different parts of this diversified country, but none of them of
any particular interest, or established by any literary autho-
rity.. 1 here are still some German colonies in the territories
of \icenza and Verona, called the Sette Comuni, which retain
their language. The German Jews have a peculiar jargon,
borrowed in some measure from their brethren in Poland, which
they write in Hebrew characters ; and another similar mixture
of discordant dialects is spoken by the Rothwelsh, a vagabond
people m the south of Germany, who have sometimes been con-
founaed with the Gipsies.
Ihe Loiv Saxon, or Platt Deutsch, is spoken about Halber-
stadt, and farther north, in the countries between the Elbe and
the Weser; it seems to be intimately connected with the Fries-
landish and Dan sh, as well as with the English. The Fries-
landers originally extended from the Rhine to the Ems, and
the Cauchi, thence to the Elbe ; these countries still retain a
U A G E.
211
dialect materially varying from those of tneir neignoours. Language.
The Brokmic laws of the thirteenth century exhibit some re-
markable differences from the German of the same date: thus
we find in them Redieva, a judge, ov Reeve, instead of Richter;
Kenne, kin ; and sida, side, as in Swedish, instead of seite.
The Batavian Frieslandish approaches very much to the Eng¬
lish ; it has several sub-dialects, as those of Molkwer and Hin-
delop. Some of the Cauchish Frieslanders remain in the ter¬
ritory of Bremen ; the North Frieslanders occupy Heligoland,
Husum, and Amrom.
The Dutch language is a mixture of Frieslandish, Low
Saxon, and German, with a little French. It appears, from
Kolyn’s Chronicle, to have been distinctly formed as early as
1156. J
The Scandinavian branch of the Germanic family is charac¬
terized by the want both of gutturals and of aspirates, which
renders its pronunciation softer and less harsh ; and by some
peculiarities of construction, for instance, by the place of the
article, which follows its noun, both in Danish and Swedish,
instead of preceding it, as in most other languages. The
name of Denmark is first found in the ninth century ; until the
sixth the people were called Jutes. Norway, in the ninth
century, was termed Nordmanland. A corrupt Norwegian is
still, or was lately, spoken in some of the Orkneys, which were
long subject to Norway and Denmark. In the eastern parts
of Iceland, the language is much like the Norwegian ; but, on
the coast, it is mixed with Danish. The oldest specimen of
Icelandic is the Jus Ecclesiasticum of 1123. The term Runic
relates to the rectilinear characters cut in wood, which were
sometimes used by the Scandinavian nations. The Swedes
are derived from a mixture of Scandinavians with Goths from
Upper Germany, but their language does not exhibit any dia¬
lectic differences corresponding to this difference of extraction.
Mr Townsend has given us a list, from Peringskiold, of 670
Swedish words resembling the Greek; but it must be con¬
fessed that the resemblance is in many cases extremely slight.
The Saxons are mentioned by Ptolemy as a small nation in
Holstein, whence, in conjunction with the Frieslanders, and the
Angles of South Jutland, they came over to England about the
year 450. The Saxons settled principally south of the Thames,
the Angles north. At the union of the Heptarchy, the Saxon
dialect prevailed, and the Anglish, which nearly resembled the
Danish of that time, was less in use; but new swarms of Danes
having inundated the north of England in 787, the Danish
dialect was introduced by Canute and his followers; and it is
about this period that our earliest specimens of the Anglo-
Saxon are dated. The Saxon dialect again obtained the as¬
cendancy under Edward the Confessor; and although some
French was introduced by this prince, and still more by Wil¬
liam the Conqueror, into the higher circles of society, the
courts of law, and the schools, yet the use of the French lan¬
guage never became general among the lower classes, and the
Saxon recovered much of its currency in the thirteenth cen¬
tury, when the cities and corporate towns rose into importance
under Edward the First. In the fourteenth century it was per¬
manently established, with the modifications which it had re¬
ceived from the French; and it may be considered as truly
English from this period, or even somewhat earlier, at least if
Pope Adrian’s rhymes are the genuine production of 1156. It
is still much more German than French ; in the Lord’s Prayer,
the only words of Latin origin are trespass, temptation, and
deliver. Professor Adelung’s remarks on the simplicity of the
English language appear to be so judicious as to deserve tran¬
scribing : “ The language,” he observes, “ only received its final
cultivation at the time of the Reformation, and of the civil dis¬
turbances which followed that event; nor did it acquire its last
polish till after the Revolution, when the authors who em¬
ployed it elevated it to that high degree of excellence, of which,
from its great copiousness, and the remarkable simplicity of its
construction, it was peculiarly capable. It is the most simple
of all the European languages ; the terminations of its substan¬
tives being only changed in the genitive and in the plural, and
the alterations of the roots of the verbs not exceeding six or
seven. This simplicity depends, in some measure, on a philo¬
sophical accuracy, which is carried systematically through the
whole language, so that the adjectives, participles, and article,
are indeclinable, being in their nature destitute of any idea of
gender, case, or number, and the form of a generic distinction
212
L^ngua^e.
LANG
is [almost entirely] confined to objects which are naturally en¬
titled to it. The pronunciation, on the other hand, is ex¬
tremely intricate ; and foreign proper names, in particular, are
much mutilated whenever they are adopted by the English.”
12. The Cet.tic family forms a very extensive and very in¬
teresting subdivision of the Indo-European class. It has been
asserted’ by some writers, “ That the six original European
languages, the Iberian, Celtic, Germanic, Thracian, Sclavo-
nian, and Finnish, were just as distinct at the beginning of
their history as they now are but this assertion must be sub¬
jected to considerable modification. The thing is in itself so
improbable as to require far more evidence than we possess to
establish it, even if that evidence were of a more decisive na¬
ture ; and, in fact, it will actually be found, upon a compa¬
rison of the Gothic of Ulphila with the modern dialects, that
the Germanic of that day did approach more nearly, both to
the Celtic and to the Thracian or Greek, than any of its more
modern descendants do. The change of tunthu into tooth,
for which the Germans have zahn, has already been noticed ;
the atta and himina of Ulphila seem to be more like the Irish
At'air and Neamh than the modern Vater and Himmel are ;
and the Moeso-Gothic vair, which answers to the Cimbric
fear, a man, is not at present found in German, though its
traces may still be observed in the Firiobarno of the Franks
in 1020: the antiquity of the root is shown by the Celtic
names in Caesar beginning so often with ver, and still more
strongly by the testimony of Herodotus, that the Scythian
callecT a man aior. At the same time, therefore, that we ad¬
mit the propriety of considering the Celtic and Germanic as
families clearly distinct, with respect to any period with which
we are historically acquainted, we must not forget that they
exhibit undeniable traces of having been more intimately con¬
nected with each other, and with their neighbours, in the
earlier stages of their existence. The resemblances of the
Celtic to the Latin are too numerous to require particular
notice, the immediate and extensive connection between these
languages being universally admitted ; but if any evidence
were desired on this subject, it might be obtained in abun¬
dance, by a reference to Court de Gebelin’s Monde Primitif.
With respect to the Greek, the terms Had, sun ; Dur, water ;
Peru, oak; Garan, crane ; Crunn, ice, are among the Celtic
words of the most indisputable originality ; and their resem¬
blance to Helios, Hiidor, Driis, Geranos, and Criioen, is equally
undeniable. We find, also, in the Cimbric, Has, low, con¬
nected with Bathiis, Bara, bread, perhaps with Bora, food ;
Deyrnas, kingdom, with Tiirannis; Byro, give, with Doreue ;
and Gogoriant, glory, perhaps with Gauriaon, exulting.
With the German it is easy to find a number of very near ap¬
proaches to identity, even in that Celtic which can be proved,
principally from the etymologies of proper names, to be prior
to the date of any known or supposed secondary intercourse or
mixture of the natives concerned. Thus we have, either accu¬
rately or very nearly in the same signification, Ap, Affe, or Ape;
Barra, Barre ; Bleun, Blume ; Bolgan, Balge ; Brig, Berg ;
Brogil, Briihl; Carra, Karre; Doga, Teich; Galb, Klab;
Garan, Kranichj Gnabat, KnabeLancea, Banze; Marc,
Mdhre; Marga, Mdrgel; Redya, Reiten ; Rit or Rat, Rad;
and Ur, Auer ; and it is impossible to suppose that so nume¬
rous a series of coincidences can have been derived from acci¬
dental causes only. _
The Celts may be imagined to have emigrated from Asia
after the Iberians or Cantabrians, and before the Ihracians or
Pelasgians, settling principally in Gaul, and spreading partly
into Italy, under the name of Ausonians and Umbrians. In
570 b.c. they undertook expeditions for the purposes of con¬
quest, but they were subdued by the Romans. Their language
was current in Gaul till the sixth or seventh century, when it
was superseded by the rustic Roman, which by degrees be¬
came French ; in Ireland and Scotland it has remained with
few alterations; in Wales and Brittany it has been more
mixed. The Gauls must have peopled Britain at least as early
as 500 b.c. The true ancient Britons are the Highlanders of
Scotland only, having been driven northwards by the Cim-
bri: they still call their language Gaelic. The Irish are pro¬
bably derived from these Highlanders; they were originally
termed Scots or Scuits, that is, fugitives, from the circumstance
of their expulsion from Britain ; so that, where the Scots are
mentioned before the tenth century, as by Porphyry in the
U A G E.
third, we are to understand the Irish. Gildas, in 564, some- Languagr.
times calls them Scotch and sometimes Irish. After the re-
treat of the Romans from Britain, a part of them re-entered
Scotland about the year 503, and changed its name from Cale¬
donia to Scotia Minor. In 432 St Patrick laid the foundation
of the civilization of Ireland; and, in the seventh century,
several Irish priests undertook missions to the continent. At
the beginning of this century some Scandinavian freebooters
had begun to visit Ireland; and in the year 835 they formed
large colonies of emigrants, who established themselves firmly
in that country, and in the Scottish islands, bringing with
them many Gothic words, which became afterwards mixed
with the Celtic, and which seem to constitute about one-fifth
part of the modern Irish and Gaelic, 140 Gothic words being
found under the first six letters of the alphabet only. Some
of these Normen remained distinct from the Irish till the year
1102. The oldest specimens of the Irish language, admitted
by the continental critics to be authentic, are of the ninth cen¬
tury, though some of our antiquaries have imagined they
have discovered records of a much earlier date. The Gaelic of
the Isle of Man is mixed with Norwegian, English, and Welsh.
A Gaelic colony formerly established at Walden, in Essex, has
been placed by Chamberlayne in Italy, as a nation of Wal-
denses.
The Cimbric or Celto-Germanic language was remarked by
Caesar as differing from the Gallic, although the distinction
has not always been sufficiently observed. The Cimbriana
seem to have existed as a nation 500 to 600 years b.c. ; the
Gauls called them Belgae ; they invaded Britain a little before
Caesar’s time, and drove the ancient inhabitants into the High¬
lands and into Ireland. Having called the Saxons to their
assistance against the Scots and Piets in the fifth century,
they were driven by their new allies into Wales, Cornwall,
and Brittany. Their language is remarkable for the frequent
changes of the initial letters of its radical words in the forma¬
tion of cases and numbers ; thus, from Den, a man, in Bri-
tannish, is derived the plural Tud; from Vreg, a woman,
Groages. Almost half of the Welsh language seems to be
German, and half of the remainder is perhaps Latin or Celtic ;
of the Britannic, about half resembles the Latin or French.
Brittany was originally inhabited by the Armoricans ; whether
they were properly Belgoe or Gauls is uncertain. The coun¬
try was named Britannia Minor, from the emigration of the
British in 449 ; these new comers mixed with the original in¬
habitants, all speaking the same language, and in a few years
became so numerous as to be able to send an army of 12,000
men to the assistance of the Emperor Anthemius.
Professor Adelung is disposed to consider the German por¬
tion of the different branches of the Celtic, which varies from
one-fifth to one-half of the whole language, as an accidental
mixture, and derived through different channels. But we
cannot in all cases find any historical evidence of the existence
of these channels ; it is difficult, for example, to suppose that
the Scandinavian incursions were able at any early period to
influence the language of the Highlands of Scotland ; and
wherever it happens, as it frequently does, that no term is to
be found, in the Irish, the Gaelic, or the Welsh, for express¬
ing the same idea, besides the word that they all have in com¬
mon with the German, it is scarcely possible to believe that there
ever was any other Celtic word which has been so uniformly
superseded by independent causes. We find, for instance, under
the two first letters of the alphabet only, the words Ap or Apa
in Irish, Ap in Welsh, Atfe or Ape in Gothic ; again, Abal.
Afal, Apfel; Angar, Aneang, Enge; Bacail, Bach, Bac-
ken; Barrad, Barr, Bare; Beoir, Bir, Bier ; Biail, Buie™,
Beil; Bocan, Bwch, Bock; Brathair, Brawd, Bruder; Bui,
Bida, Bulle; and the same agreement is found in almost
all other instances of German words that are detected in the
Irish language.
The much-disputed question respecting the antiquity of the
poems attributed to Ossian has an immediate reference to the
history of the Celtic languages. It has been observed, with
apparent justice, by Professor Adelung, who is not in general
sceptical on such occasions, that if these poems were really
very ancient, their language could not but exhibit marks of
antiquity. There is an Irish Leavre Lecan at Paris, written
in the thirteenth century, and scarcely intelligible to the best
Irish scholars of the present day; the oldest Gaelic maim-
LANG
iguage. scripts have also peculiar expressions no longer in use ; while
the works supposed to be the productions of a period so much
more remote are found to be in “ excellent modern Gaelic, im¬
pressed with all the marks of the language of Christianity, and
of that of the ^Norwegian invaders, whether these conquerors
may be supposed to have influenced the Gaelic language im¬
mediately in Scotland, or by the intervention of Ireland"!” It
must not, however, be forgotten, that these marks of Scandi¬
navian intercourse are somewhat more ambiguous than Pro¬
fessor Adelung is disposed to admit; and that a book written
in the thirteenth century is more likely to have preserved the
language in an antiquated form than poems so marvellously
committed to memory, from continual recitation only, by people
supposed to understand them, and of course imperceptibly mo¬
difying the expression without intending to alter them. But
since an invasion from Lochlin, that is, Denmark or Norway,
is actually mentioned in “ Fingal,” the author of the poem
could certainly not have been older than the seventh or eighth
century, if we are to credit the historical accounts of these in¬
vasions ; and since, in the poems discovered by Dr Matthew
Young, St Patrick is introduced discoursing with Ossian re¬
specting the Christian religion, we have an additional argu¬
ment for denying that he was contemporary with Caraealla or
Carausius, these emperors having both lived in the third cen¬
tury, and St Patrick in the fifth.
[It was shown by Dr Prichard that the Kelt tongues were
allied to the German, Latin, Greek, Sclavonic, and Sanscrit.
Did this make them Indo-European ? Not without raising
the value of the class. How far this is legitimate has never
been asked. Yet it ought to be asked wherever an addition
is made. Unless it be done, classes take indefinite dimensions.
B is connected with A, C with B, D with C, and so on, till
classification defeats itself.—it. o. n.]
14. The Etruscan is only known as the immediate parent
of the Latin ; but it was written in a character totally differ¬
ent, and was read from right to left. Notwithstanding the in¬
dustry and ingenuity of Lanzi, the evidence of the accuracy of
his interpretations is somewhat imperfect. We should natu¬
rally have expected to find more words of a Celtic or Gothic
origin, and not merely Greek or Latin words with the termi¬
nations a little varied, as Ustite for Ustura, Tribo for Tribus,
and Urte or Urta for Heorte; still less should we have expected
that the same sense should be expressed sometimes by a Greek
and sometimes by a Latin word, as Urtu and Puni for Bread,
Capros and iYres for a Boar. The Etrurians and Umbrians
were originally a branch of the Celts from Rhastia, as is shown
by the similarity of the names of places in those countries, as
well as by the remains of Etruscan art found in that part of
the Tyrol; they are supposed to have entered Italy through
Trent, about the year 1000 n.c., and to have afterwards im¬
proved their taste and workmanship under the auspices of
Demaratus of Corinth, who settled in Etruria about 660 b.c.
(See Etruscans.)
[The philological place of the Etruscan, as well the Lycian
and Phrygian, has yet to be determined.—r. g. l.]
15. The Latin language is placed at the head of a family,
rather with regard to the number of its descendants than to
the independence of its origin, being too evidently derived
from the Celtic, mixed with Greek, to require particular com¬
parison. The first inhabitants of Italy appear to have been
Illyrians or Thracians, Cantabrians, Celts,Pelasgians, and Etru¬
rians. Rome, from its situation, would naturally acquire much
of the languages of these various nations, and at the same time
much of the Greek from the colonies in the south of Italy. In
the time of Cicero, the Italian songs, supposed to be about 500
years old, were no longer intelligible, even to those who sang
them. . We find, in an inscription still more ancient, and ap¬
proaching to the time of Romulus, Lases for Lares ; and for
Flores, Pleores, which, is somewhat nearer to the Celtic Bleun.
In the time of Numa, for Hominem liberum, we have Tlemo-
nem loebesom ; we find, also, a d added to the oblique cases, as
Capited for Cavite, which, as well as the termination ai, in
the genitive aulai, pennai, is taken immediately from the
Celtic, and is even found in modern Gaelic.
The Latin remained in perfection but a few centuries. In
the middle ages, a number of barbarous words were added to
it, principally of Celtic origin, which are found in the gloss¬
aries of Dufresne and Charpentier. At the end of the seventh
U A G E. 213
century it began to acquire the character of Italian, as Campo Language.
divisum est; and, in the eighth century, in Spain, we find, as
an example of its incipient conversion into Spanish, Vendant
sine pecho, de nostras terras. The formation of the Italian
language may be said to have been completed by Dante, in the
beginning of the fourteenth century ; and it was still further
polished hy the classical authors who immediately succeeded
him. It contains many German words, derived from the differ¬
ent nations who occupied in succession the northern parts of
Italy, and some Arabic, Norman, and Spanish, left by occa¬
sional visitors in the south. It is spoken by the common
people in very different degrees of purity. Among the
northern dialects, that of Friuli is mixed with French and
with some Sclavonian. The Sicilians, having been conquered
in succession by the Greeks, Carthaginians, Romans, Byzan¬
tines, Arabs, Normans, Germans, French, and Spaniards, *
have retained something of the language of each. Sardinia
has given shelter to Iberians, Libyans, Tyrrhenes, Greeks,
Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, Byzantines, Goths, Lom¬
bards, Franks, Arabs, Pisans, and Aragonians ; and the pro¬
per Sardinian language is a mixture of Latin with Greek,
French, German, and Castilian. Corsica has also been occu¬
pied by a similar diversity of nations ; its peculiar idiom is
little known, but the dialect of the upper classes is said to ap¬
proach nearly to the Tuscan.
Spain, after its complete subjugation by the Romans, en¬
joyed some centuries of tranquillity. The Vandals and Alans
retained their power in Spain but for a short time y the Suevi,
on the N. coast, somewhat longer; and from these nations the
rustic Roman, which had become general in Spain, received
some words of German origin. It derived, however, much
more from the Arabic during the domination of the Moors,
which lasted from the beginning of the eighth century to the
end of the fifteenth ; and, at one time, the Arabic was almost
universally employed throughout the country, except in the
churches. The Spanish language advanced the most rapidly
toward perfection during the height of the national prosperity
which immediately followed the conquest of America. It was
afterwards neglected, and again more particularly cultivated
by the Academy of Madrid, in the eighteenth century ; as far
at least as an academy can be supposed to have any influence
in the modifications of a language.
The Portuguese is supposed to have received a mixture of
French from the followers of Count Henry of Burgundy,
under whom Portugal first formed a separate state in 1109;
but the language is very different from that of the confines of
France and Spain; and the nasal vowels, which are remark¬
able in the Portuguese, differ materially from those of the
French, or of any other nation. Many Latin words are re¬
tained in the Portuguese which are not found in any other
modern language; and it is remarkable that almost all the
words of the language are contracted, by the omission of some
of the radical letters of the originals.
The Rhaetians, in the country of the Orisons, were subdued
by the Romans in the time of Augustus. They became part
of the Alemannish kingdom, under Theodobert, in 539; their
union with Switzerland took place in the beginning of the
fourteenth century. Half of the Grisons speak the Romanish
language, immediately derived from the Latin, though mixed
with some German, which has been particularly made known
by Mr Planta’s account of it in the Philosophical Transac¬
tions. One-third speak German, with some mixture of Roman¬
ish words, and the rest a bad Italian.
France in the time of the Romans, was occupied by the
Gauls, together with the Aquitanians, who were probably Can¬
tabrians, and the Cimbrians or Belgians. From the rustic
Roman, mixed with the languages of these nations, the Ro¬
mance was gradually formed. In the filth century, the Franks
took possession of the north-eastern part of the country. They
retained their language for some centuries, but by degrees it
became mixed with the Romance and formed French, of which
at least one-fifth is supposed to be of German origin, though
many of the German words seem to have been admitted through
the medium of the Italian. In the S. of France, the language
remained more exempt from the influence of the German, under
the name of the Provencal; and the troubadours contributed,
especially from the eleventh to the thirteenth century, to give
it refinement and currency ; but, in later times, the Langue
214 LANG
Language. d'ov,i has prevailed over the Langue d’oc, which is now spoken
hy a few of the lowest class only.
The last and least genuine of the descendants of the Latin
is the Wallachian, about one-half of which is borrowed from
the German, Sclavonian, and Turkish. The original Thra¬
cians of the country must have been in a great measure super¬
seded by the successive settlements of various nations ; in the
third century, some of the Goths and Vandals; in the fourth,
the Jazyges, after Attila’s death ; in the fifth, some Huns and
Alans ; about the end of the seventh, the Bulgarians, and after¬
wards the Petschenegers and Hungarians, established them¬
selves in it; and, in the thirteenth century, Wallachia became
an independent state. The Latin part of this language has
much of the Italian form, and had even assumed it as early as
the fifth century. It must have been derived from Roman
* colonies, and more lately, perhaps, from the missionaries sent
into the country by Pope Gregory XI. The Dacian or Hun¬
garian dialect prevails on the N. of the Danube ; the Thracian,
or Cutzo-Wallachian, on the S. ; the latter is more mixed with
Greek and Albanian. There is also a small Wallachian colony
in Transylvania.
[For remarks on the Greek, Latin, and German, see be¬
low.—E. a. L.]
The Cantabrian or Biscayan has many words in common
with the Latin, whether originally or by adoption, and was pro¬
bably in some measure connected with the Celtic dialects, which
were the immediate predecessors of the Latin, though still
sufficiency distinct from them. The Cantabrian Aita, Father,
has some resemblance to the Irish At’’air, and the Mceso-Gothic
Atta; Geru is not wholly unlike Coelum ; Ercenjaa, Regnum;
and Borondatia, Voluntas ; the coincidence of Gun, Day, with
the Tartarian, is perhaps more accidental. But the word Lurre,
Earth, which seems at first sight so unlike any other language,
is in all probability the derivative of Tellure; and this form
of the word affords also a connecting link with the Irish Talu,
and may have been contracted into the more common Latin
word Terra; a supposition which seems to lessen the proba¬
bility of the original connection of this form of the word with
the Greek Era, and the Sanscrit Stira. The Biscayan is still
spoken in the angles of France and Spain adjoining to the
northern extremity of the Pyrenees. The same people were
called Cantabrians in the X., and Iberians in the S., and ex¬
tended between the Pyrenees and the Rhine, as Ligurians, or
inhabitants of the coast. They have adopted a few German
words, perhaps from the empire of the West Goths ; and they
have furnished the modern Spanish with more than a hundred
original words of their own. The construction of the lan¬
guage is extremely intricate ; its verbs have eleven moods,
among which are a consuetudinary, a voluntary, a compulsory,
and a penitudinary. Larramendi’s Grammar, published at
Salamanca in 1729, is called El Impossible Vencido. A valu¬
able abstract of the most interesting particulars relating to the
language is found in the Additions to the Mithridates, by the
Baron William von Humboldt, late Prussian ambassador to the
court of Great Britain, printed at Berlin, 1816. Dr Young
has lately remarked, in the Philosophical Transactions for
1819, that at least six of the words contained in Humboldt’s
vocabulary coincide very accurately with the Coptic, or ancient
Egyptian, though they are not found in any of the languages
of the neighbouring countries ; and he infers that the chances
are “ more than a thousand to one, that, at some very remote
period, an Egyptian colony established itself in Spain.” It
maybe observed, that one of these words, guchi, little, appears
to be also Turkish or Tartarian ; so that it becomes a second
instance of a coincidence between this language and the Can¬
tabrian.
[The Bask has yet to be placed. It is nearer the Kelt
than is generally admitted. At the same time, its African
affinities are important. It is an eminently agglutinate lan¬
guage.—r. G. L.]
16. The connection of the Sclavonian and Lithuanian, and
of the other branches constituting the Sclavic family, with the
languages of the Indo-European class in general, is sufficiently
established, without exceeding the limits of the Lord’s Prayer,
by the resemblance of Ntbi or Nebesi to the Cimbric Nefoedd,
and the Greek Nephos,- and of Wolja and Chljeb to the Gothic
Wilja and Hlaif. The Sclavonians are the descendants of
the ancient Sarmatians, who were situate N. of the Black
U A G E.
Sea and of the Danube. They were conquered by the Goths, Language,
and then driven by the Tartars and Huns into the N.E. of v ^ j
Germany, and the neighbouring countries. Procopius calls
them Spori, and divides them into the Sclavi and Antes, the
latter, perhaps, the same as the Wends. They formed, at an
early period, two principal states, Great Russia, about Novo-
gorod, and Little Russia, on the Dnieper, its capital being
Kiew. The Russi were a Scandinavian branch, under Rurik,
to whom the Sclavonians of the former state submitted in 862,
whence they were called Russians; and Rurik’s successor,
Oleg, conquered Kiew. After several vicissitudes, the Rus¬
sians were liberated by Iwan Wasiliewitch, at the end of the
fifteenth century ; and this period was the beginning of their
greatness. Their language has some mixture of Greek, Fin¬
nish, Swedish, Tartarian, and Mongol. The ecclesiastical
dialect was uniformly retained in all literary works in the
former part of the last century, but now the language of con¬
versation is generally adopted in writing. This language is
more immediately derived from that of Great Russia: that of
the church, which is called the Slawenish, rather from Little
Russia, and especially from the dialect of Servia. The
3Ialo-Russian dialect is somewhat mixed with the Polish,
and is spoken in Ukraine and Little Russia; the Susdalian is
mixed with Greek and other languages, and is spoken in Thrace.
In 640, the Sclavonians took possession of Illyria, which
before that time had been overrun by a variety of other na¬
tions ; and they still retain it, under the names of Servians,
Croatians, and Southern Wends. The Servians are supposed
to have come from Great Servia, now East Gallicia, on the
Upper Vistula ; the Croatians, from Great Chrobatia, proba¬
bly situated on the Carpathian Mountains. Cyril first adapted
the Greek alphabet to the Sclavonian language in Pannonia ;
his letters were afterwards a little altered, and attributed to St
Jerome, in order to reconcile the people to their use; and in
this form they are termed Glagolitic characters. The Servian
dialect is intermediate between the Russian and the Croatian.
The Bulgarians speak a corrupt Sclavonian, which Boscovich,
from Ragusa, could scarcely understand. The Uskoks are a
wild race of the Bulgarians, extending into Carniola, and
speaking a mixed language. The dialect of Sclavonia and
Dalmatia is nearly the same as that of Servia and Bosnia ; the
churches use the ecclesiastical language of Russia. In Ragusa,
the orthography approaches, in some measure, to the Italian.
The Servian is also imperfectly spoken by a small colony in
Transylvania. The Southern Wends were first distinguished
in 630, and were probably so named, like the Veneti, from be¬
ing settled on the shores of the Adriatic, the word Wend or
Wand meaning Sea. They are now mixed with Germans in
Carniola, Carinthia, and Lowrer Stiria. In Hungary there is
a small colony, who call themselves Slowens, and speak the
Wendish dialect of the Sclavonian. The western Sclavonians,
or the proper Sclavi, write their language in the Roman char¬
acters ; but the specimens copied from Adelung are accommo¬
dated in their orthography to the German mode of pronunci¬
ation.
The Poles probably came with the Russians from the Da¬
nube into the countries abandoned by the Goths ; the name
Pole implies an inhabitant of plains. Their language was
partly superseded by the Latin in the tentli century, when
they received the rites of the Latin church ; but it has in later
times been more cultivated. The Cassubians, or Kashubians,
in Pomerania, speak a Polish mixed with a little German.
In Silesia, the names of places in the plains are Sclavonian;
in the hills, more lately occupied, German; but German has
been the language of Breslau ever since the year 1300.
The Bohemians emigrated with the Moravians and Slowaks
into their present habitations about the middle of the sixth
century, after the destruction of the kingdom of Thuringia by
the Franks and Saxons. There is a Bohemian hymn of the
date 990, and a chronicle in rhyme of 1310. One-third of the
Bohemians are of German origin, and speak a corrupt German.
The Serbs or Wends came about the same time into the
countries between the Saal and the Oder, from the neighbour¬
hood of the Volga or the Crimea; a few of them are still left
in Lusatia, under the name of Wends or Sclavonians, and
some in Misnia. In Pomerania the Wendish became extinct
about 1400; but the Polabes in Liineburg, on the Leyne.kept
up till lately a language consisting of a mixture of Wendish
LANG
Language, and German. The Sorabic of the Russian vocabulary seems
^ i- ^ / to be the same with this Servian.
Of the Lithuanian or Lettish language, two-thirds are Scla-
vonian, the rest is principally German. When the Goths had
removed from the Baltic towards the Black Sea, their neigh¬
bours the iEstii remained for some hundred years independent,
till, in the sixth century, the Sclavonians incorporated them¬
selves with them, and formed the Lettish people and language.
The Old Prussian was spoken, at the time of the Reforma¬
tion, Samland and its neighbourhood, but it is now lost; it
contained more German than the other Lithuanian dialects.
The Prussian Lithuanian is spoken from the Inster to Memel,
especially in Insterburg. The Polish Lithuanian, in Samo-
gitia, has a little mixture of Polish. The proper Lettish is
current in Lettland and Courland; it is purest about Mittau
and Riga ; the old Courlanders having been Fins, this dialect
has received a little Finnish from them. The Crivingian is
another dialect, spoken by the Krewins in Courland.
[Sarmatian is a convenient term for the Sclavonic and Lithu-
anic collectively. The Sanscrit, instead of being a language
of the Indo-European class, with equal affinities to the Greek,
Latin, German, and Sarmatian, has a special preponderance
of Sarmatian affinities.—r. g. l.]
17. The Tshudish or Finnish, the Hungarian, and the Al¬
banian languages, have some traits of resemblance to each
other: they are placed as forming the sporadic or scattered
order of the great Tataric or Asiatic class, being in some
measure geographically detached from the rest, and scattered
through different parts of Europe: they immediately follow
the Indo-European class, as exhibiting an occasional resem¬
blance to some of the languages contained in it, though not
enough to make it certain that the connection is essential or
original. Thus the Finnish is said to have some coincidences
with the Greek, the Laplandish with the Hebrew, the Hunga¬
rian with the Finnish, and the Albanian with all its neighbours.
The term Tshudish is employed as comprehending the Fins,
Laplanders, Esthonians, and Livonians ; a race of people of
unknown origin, but in all probability unconnected with the
Huns or Mongols. Their languages are remarkable for the
great complexity of their structure ; their nouns, for example,
having from ten to fifteen cases, among which are reckoned, in
the Finnish, a nuncupative, a conditional accusative, a factitive,
a mediative, a descriptive, a penetrative, a locative, a privative,
and a negative. The Esthonian has less direct variety of ter¬
minations, but several intricate combinations. There is also a
great multiplicity of dialects, partly from a mixture of Scandi¬
navian, and partly from other causes; in Lapland almost
every church has a peculiar version of the service kept for its
use. The Finnish is intermediate between the Laplandish
and the Esthonian. The Esthonians are the ./Estii of the
Romans, the name implying Easterly, and being appropriate
to the country, and not to the people. The principal dialects
of their language are those of Reval and of Dorpat; some
authors also consider the dialect of the Krewins in Courland as
belonging to it. The Livonian is much mixed with other
languages, and has been almost superseded by the Lettish.
Amongst the Laplandish words which Rudbeck has derived
from the Hebrew, we find Aedhame, Earth, like the Hebrew
Adameh. Hadas, New; Heb. Khadesh. T/adsAe, the Moon;
Heb. Hhadesh. JecZ, the Hand ; Heb./d. Lse, Man; Heb.
Ish. Pothi, Persuaded ; Heb. Pathehh. Saedke, Law ; Heb.
Tzedek: and Safothi, Rested; Heb. Sabbath. In the Fin¬
nish, Kana is something like the English and German Lien.
18. The Hungarians inhabited, in the fourth century, the
country of the Bashkirs, between the Tobol, the Volga, and
the Jaik, perhaps as colonists, since their name signifies
strangers. Their language was spoken in this neighbourhood
as late as the thirteenth century ; in the sixth they were con¬
quered by some of their Turkish neighbours; in the end of the
ninth they were forced by the Petschenegers, a Tartarian
nation, to remove nearer to the Carpathian Mountains. They
were then engaged in the German wars, and their country hav¬
ing been occupied during their absence by the Bulgarians, they
took possession of the Bulgarian kingdom on the Theiss, as
well as of Pannonia. I heir language is somewhat like the
Finnish, but the people are very different from the Fins in
appearance; which might indeed be the effect of a difference
ot climate; but, in fact, the language appears to be still more
CAGE. 215
like the Sclavonian with a mixture of a multitude of others; Language,
it has some words from various Tartarian dialects, German, ‘
French, Latin, Armenian, Hebrew, Persian, and Arabic; but
it has no traces ®f the Mongol, nor is it possible that the people
can be descendants of the Huns, whose character and cast of
features can never be eradicated. The word Coach, so general
in Europe, is originally Hungarian, having been derived from
the town of Kots, where coaches are said to have been invented.
The Szecklers, in Transylvania, speak a language like the
Hungarian ; it is uncertain whether they are a Hungarian
colony, or remains of the Petschenegers ; but, however this
may be, there is little doubt that the Hungarians are princi¬
pally of Tartarian extraction, though much mixed with other
nations.
19. The Albanians speak a language, of which a consider¬
able portion is Greek, Latin, German, Sclavonian, or Turkish;
but the rest seems to be perfectly distinct from any other lan¬
guage with which we are acquainted. They are probably con¬
nected with the Albanians between Mount Caucasus and the
River Cyrus, who are supposed to be derived from the Alani;
some of them seem to have entered Bulgaria as late as 1308.
In 1461 many of them fled from the Turks to Italy and Sicily,
where they still exist near Reggio and Messina. The Clemen¬
tines are an Albanian colony, who followed the Austrian army
in 1737 ; such of them as escaped from the pursuit of the Turks
established themselves in Syrmia.
[The Albanian is less, the Hungarian more, Finn than the
text makes them.
The ordinary term at present in use for the name of the
class is Ugrian.
It is chiefly in the southern part of the area that the Ugrian
languages are sporadic. The Hungarian has intruded into Hun¬
gary; the Russian into the governments of Permia, Viatka,
Kazan, Simbirsk, and Saratov, &c., all of which were origi¬
nally Ugrian. The Lap, Esthonian, Finn of Finland, &c., are
all continuous.
The so-called Indo-European tongue nearest to the Finn is
the Lithuanic.
The Livonians (Liven) are a small population of Courland,
originally spread over Livonia, or Liefland, to which they
gave the name.
The locality' of the iEstii was the amber-country of East
Prussia, not Esthonia.—r. g. l.]
20. The languages referred to the Caucasian order have
little to distinguish them from the rest of the class, except their
geographical situation, in the immediate neighbourhood of the
Caucasian Mountains. They have a general resemblance to
some others of the languages of Northern Asia, and particu¬
larly to the Samojedic dialects, spoken on the mountains be¬
tween Siberia and the Mongols. Except the Armenian and
Georgian, they' are scarcely ever employed in writing; and
principally, perhaps, from this cause, they exhibit as great a
diversity, in the space of a few square miles, as those of many
other nations do in as many thousands. It is only conjectured
that most of the inhabitants of these countries are derived from
the miscellaneous fragments of expeditions of various nations,
left behind in their passage through them at different periods.
[The use of the term Caucasian in ethnological physiology
(the Ca-ucemcm race of Blumenbach, containing Arabs, Jews,
Europeans, &c.) as a class-name for a heterogeneous group of
families, engenders ambiguities. The present writer has sug¬
gested the name Dioscurian; Dioscurias being the name of
a town of Caucasus, not only mentioned by ancient writers,
but mentioned with reference to the remarkable multiplicity of
languages and dialects spoken in its neighbourhood—this being
a notable characteristic of modern Caucasus.
The Dioscurian class he arranges as follows :—
1. Circassian or Tsherkess, falling into the Abassian,
Tsherkess, and Kabardinian divisions.
2. The Lesgian, falling into—
a. The Tshetsh (Kistic)—the Tshetshents, Ingush,
andTushi; and
b. The Lesgian Proper—the Avar, Dido, Ac.
3. The Georgian—Suanic, Imiretian, Mingrelian, Lazic,
and Kartulinian dialects.
4. The Armenian—ancient and modern.
5. The Iron, or Osset, leading to the Persian, and contain¬
ing numerous Indo-European words.
21G L A N G U A G E.
Language. The nearest a ffinities of the most northern and most charac-
v . teristic of the Caucasian dialects, the Circassian, are with the
'r^ Tibetan, and the western monosyllabic tongues. It is only
because the comparison has been most carefully made with the
Samoyed, that they seem to be more akin to that family than
to others. They have miscellaneous affinities wdth all the
Turanean languages. There is no reason to believe that any
of them are other than aboriginal to the soil.—a. g. l.]
The connection of the Armenian with the Sanscrit and the
Persian is just enough to make it equally possible that the
coincidences may have been derived from a common parent, or
that one language may have simply borrowred detached words
from the other. We find, in difi'erent parts of Mr Townsend's
work, about ten Armenian words resembling some other lan¬
guage ; these are—Air, a Man ; Irish Air. Atamn, a Tooth;
Greek Odonta. Chuerlc, Four; Sanscrit Chatur. Dor, a
Door. E, Is ; Latin Est. Es, I; Russian laze. Gas, a
Goose; German Gans. JZottze, a House. LaJceil, to Lick;
Greek Leichein; and Sirt, the Heart. Nothing is known of
the history of the Armenian before the time of Miesrob, who
translated the Bible into it in 405: the historian Moses, of
Chorene, was his pupil. The language flourished till the year
800, and is still preserved in tolerable purity in the cloisters.
The common people speak a dialect more corrupt and mixed.
The fathers of the Armenian convent at Venice have been very
laudably employed in the improvement of the literature of their
nation by the publication of several very elegant editions of
Armenian books, which have been executed at their press ; in
particular, of an Armenian translation of Eusebius, containing
some passages which are not extant in Greek, and said to have
been copied from a manuscript of great antiquity at Constan¬
tinople. It is, however, very remarkable, that, as they candidly
confess, the copy, when first received by them, contained the
corrections and additions of Scaliger, in conformity with the
text of the printed Greek edition; and the copyist, when ques¬
tioned, asserted that he had merely translated and inserted
passages of his own accord, and in silence, in order to make
the work more perfect. Still the Armenian Eusebius is a very
handsome book, and every way calculated to do credit to the
Venetian editors and their patrons; a Latin translation of it
only has been published by Angelo Mai at Milan.
[The persons of the verb, and the numerals are the points in
which the Armenian most agrees with the so-called Indo-Euro¬
pean languages; but these are just the points in which numer¬
ous languages, never considered Indo-European, also agree.
The glossarial affinities are most with the Iron (Osset), and
Persian. It graduates through these into the other allied
groups. Nevertheless, many authorities make it absolutely
Indo-European.—n. g. l.]
21. The Georgians are supposed to have derived their name
from the River Cyrus or Gur, and to have extended formerly
to Colchis, under the denomination of Iberians. Moses of
Chorene, in the fifth century, mentions the Georgian transla¬
tion of the Bible. The old language is still preserved in the
churches, and the common dialect of the country is derived
from it, together with the Kartuelish, Imirettish, Mingrelish,
and Suanetish, which are varieties of that dialect; the
Tushetish is mixed with some Kistic. The Georgians have no
fewer than thirty-seven letters, and among them a variety of
aspirates and sibilants, of no very agreeable sounds.
[To the Georgian dialects of the text, add the Lazic of the
Mohammedans of the parts between Batoum, Kars, and Trebi-
zond. Subtract the Tushi (Tushetish) which is Tshetsh. The
Kartulinian is the most cultivated, the Suanic the rudest, of
the Georgian forms of speech.'—n. g. l.]
22. The Abassic nations seem to be the oldest inhabitants
of the Caucasian country. 23. The Circassians are situate
to the E. of them, on the promontory of North Caucasus. 24.
The Ossetes, on the left of the Terek, N. of the mountain ;
the dialect of the Dugors is scarcely distinguishable from this.
25. The Kistic, spoken by the Ingushans, and their neigh¬
bours at the head of the Terek, is connected with the Tushetic
Georgian. 26. The Lesgians, E. of Caucasus, on the Caspian
Sea, have a number of distinct dialects, or rather languages.
Thus, the Chunsag and Avaric, the Dido, the Kasi Kiumiik,
the Andi, and the Alcushan, have little connection with each
other, except that the Dido somewhat resembles the Chunsag,
of which the Avaric, the Antsug, and the Dzhar, seem to be
subordinate dialects. The Kasi Kumiik appears to have Language,
adopted some words of the Armenian, and the Andi and Aku-
shan of the Georgian. The dialect of Kubesha resembles that
of Akusha, and retains no traces of a supposed European
origin.
[The Abassic is Circassian; the Circassian forms of speech
being the most monosyllabic and uninflected of Caucasus—also
most like the Tibetan.
The Osset (or Iron) is the most like the Persian, and has
by many been considered Indo-European. But the Georgian
is connected with it. What do we infer from this? That the
Georgian also is Indo-European, or that the Osset is not
so ? The former is the inference of learned men with whom
the present writer (who holds the latter view) reluctantly
differs.—r. g. l.]
27. The languages of the central and elevated parts of Asia
are comprehended in the order Tartarian; they extend from
the Caspian Sea to the mouth of the Amur, through countries
which have been in former ages the constant scenes of emi¬
gration and barbarism. The Turco-Tartarians are supposed to
correspond to the descendants of the Magog of the Scriptures,
and to some of the Scythians of the Greeks. The Turks of Tur¬
kestan seem to have been the Massagetm and Chorasmii of the
ancients ; their country extended N. of Persia and Thibet,
from the Caspian to the Altaic Mountains. In the twelfth
century they were brilliant and victorious ; at present, a few
of their descendants only are left in the neighbourhood of the
Mongols, and their language is no longer spoken ; the Tur¬
comans scattered in Persia and Arabia are derived trom the
same race. The Osmans, now commonly called Turks, left
Turkestan in 545, and succeeded in the conquest of Persia.
They were denominated Osmans, from one of their leaders, in
the fourteenth century. Their language has been much mixed
with Arabic and Persian. This language, with the neighbour¬
ing dialects, has been considered in the table as belonging to
a family called Caspian, the word Tartarian having been pre¬
viously applied to the whole order. Several of these dialects
exhibit a mixture of words from the language of the Mongols,
which, as well as the Calmuck, has a sufficient connection with
them to be arranged as belonging to the same Turco-Tartarian
family. It would, perhaps, be equally correct to consider some
of them rather as distinct languages than as dialects of a single
one ; but it is not easy to discriminate those which are entitled
to this rank; and, on the other hand, some specimens have
been admitted, from the Comparative Vocabularies, which
scarcely deserved to be noticed as separate dialects. Ihe
Bucharians are situate between the Oxus and Jaxartes, on
the River Koly. They still retain some traces of a superior
degree of civilization, by which they were once distinguished.
Their language is little known, but it seems to be at least as
much connected with the Median and Arabian families as with
the Caspian. The Tartars were described by the terms Scy¬
thians, Bulgarians, Avari, and other appellations, before they
were conquered and united by Genghiz Khan the Mongol. In
the year 1552 they became subject to the Russians. The most
westerly are the Nogaic or Nagaic and Crimean T artars ; their
language is much like the Turkish, but mixed with some Mon¬
gol. Those of Cumania in Hungary have now forgotten their
original language, and speak the Hungarian, the last person
who understood the Cumanian having died in 1/70. They en¬
tered Hungary in 1086, and became Christians in 1410. rlhe
Tartarian, or rather Caspian, is spoken in great purity about
Kasan ; a dialect somewhat different in Orenburg ; and an¬
other by the Kirgishes, who occupy part of the ancient Tur¬
kestan. “ Among the Siberian Tartars, the remains of the
kingdom of Turan, some areMohammedans; others, as theTura-
linzic villagers, have been made Christians ; at least the Arch¬
bishop Philophei performed the ceremony of baptizing them, by
ordering his dragoons to drive them in a body into the river.”
The inhabitants of the banks of the Tara, a branch of the
Irtish, are said to be derived from the Bucharians. The Tshu-
limic Tartars enjoy the same advantage as the Turalinzic, and
are considered as Christians by the Russians. The Teleutes,
in Sonjor, are heathens, nearly- like the Shamanites of India.
The Jakuts extend along the Lena to the sea ; their language
contains some Mantshuric and some Tungusic. That of the
Tshuwashes, on the Volga, is said to have been once completely
distinct from the Tartarian or Caspian ; and even at present,
LANGUAGE.
Language, though more mixed with it, may require to be classed as form-
- _ ^ ^ mg a separate species.
The Mongols are marked by their features as a race very
ditferent from the other Tartars ; the character of their coun¬
tenance seems to be easily propagated from father to son, and
never to be completely effaced ; their original habitation ap¬
pears to have been in the neighbourhood of the Altaic Moun¬
tains, The description of the Huns, found in Ammianus, Pro¬
copius, and others, agrees exactly with the present Mongols,
whom the Chinese still call Kiong nu ; and more particularly
with the Calmucks. The proper names of the Huns are also
found to be explicable from the Mongol language. In the first
century they were driven westwards by the Chinese: under
Attila they penetrated into the middle of Europe ; and they
were little less successful at subsequent periods, under Genghiz
Khan and Timur Leng. When they were expelled from China,
after having held it in subjection for more than a century, they
carried back no civilization with them ; nor was either of the
languages permanently affected by this temporary mixture of
the nations, although the physiognomy of the Chinese bears
ample testimony of its having once existed. The construction
of their language seems to be very indirect and figurative. Mr
Townsend has copied from General Valiancy a long list of
words, in Strathlenberg’s Mongol Vocabulary, which agree
very remarkably with the Irish ; among these we find Are and
Ere, man ; Irish Ar, Air, Fear. Arul, a spindle ; Irish Oirle.
Alemamodo, an apple-tree; Irish Amhalmhaide. Asoc, to
ask ; Irish Ascadh. Baiehu, I live long; Irish Baoth, long
life. Bugu, a buck ; Irish Boc, a he-goat. Choy, a ewe; Irish
Choi : and Choraga, a lamb; Irish Caorag ; without going any
further in the alphabet. The last two instances are very strik¬
ing, and seem to point very strongly at that part of the East
from which the Celts may be supposed to have originally emi¬
grated. The Calmuck dialect is somewhat mixed with the
neighbouring Tartarian. The Tagurians, or Daurians, be¬
tween the Lake Baikal and the Mongol Hills, are said to be of
Mantshuric origin ; but their language evidently resembles the
Calmuck. The Burattish is from the Russian vocabularies.
28. The Mantshurians are sometimes improperly called
Eastern Mongols ; they are subjects of the empire of China.
Their language is rude, and not much like the Chinese, though
evidently derived from the monosyllabic class. It has some
few words in common with the European languages, as Kiri,
patient; Kirre, German; Cicur, Latin, tame. Furu, Furor.
Layla, rags; Lappen, German. Sengui,blood. Sanguis; Ania,
a year, Annus ,- but, considering the remoteness of their situa¬
tion, we can scarcely form any conclusion from the occurrence
of these resemblances. M. Abel Remusat held the appoint¬
ment of professor of this language at Paris ; but it was found
difficult for him to render its study very popular in the midst
of so busy a metropolis. Whether the language of the island
of Sagalien, opposite to the mouth of the Amur, is a dialect
of the Mantshuric, or totally distinct, and requiring to be classed
with the insular languages, appears to be not yet sufficiently
ascertained. The Corean has been supposed to be a mixture
of Mantshuric and Chinese : the Coreans do not understand
either of those languages when they are spoken, but this fact
is perfectly compatible with the supposition.
29. The Tungusians, in the E. of Siberia, subject to the
Chinese, speak a peculiar language, mixed with some Mongol.
The Russian vocabularies contain specimens of a variety of
their dialects, besides those of the Tshapogirs, on the Jenisei;
and the Lamuti, on the Sea of Ochotsk, none of them particu¬
larly interesting or remarkable.
[The Bucharian Proper is Persian ; the Uzbek of the domi¬
nant stock only being Turk.
The Tshuwash is as often considered Ugrian as Turk.
The Huns are quite (if not more) likely to have been Turks
than Mongolians.
1 he present classification of the languages allied to the Turk
is as follows :—
1 he Turanian, or Scythic stock contains the (1.) Mongolian,
(2.) Turk (lartarian), (3.) Tungus, and (4.) Ugrian branches.
The Manchu is a section of the Tungus branch. The Corean
belongs to a different division.^—n. g. l.]
30. The languages belonging to the Siberian order occupy
the principal part of the N. of Asia, between the mountainous
Tartarian territory and the Frozen Sea. At the commence-
YOL. XIII.
217
ment of this order, we find a variety of inconsiderable nations Language,
in the neighbourhood of the confines of Europe and Asia, which ^ m- ^
have their distinct languages, probably formed, in times com¬
paratively modern, out of the fragments of others. They have
almost all of them some Finnish words, but none a sufficient
number to justify us in considering them as dialects of the
Finnish language, although the people were very probably con¬
nected with the Fins as neighbours, in the middle ages, on the
banks of the Dwina and elsewhere. The Sirjdne#, in the
government of Archangel, speak nearly the same language with
the Permians, who are partly in the same government, and
partly in that of Kasan. The Wotiaks, on the Wiatka, also
in Kasan, have a dialect which seems to be intermediate be¬
tween the Permian and the Tsheremissic. 31. The Woguls,
situate on the Kama and the Irtish, afford specimens of several
dialects in the Russian collection ; they seem to have borrowed
a few words from the Hungarian, and much more from the
language of the Ostiaks (32), who are also divided into several
races. 33. The Tsheremisses, situate on the Volga, in Kasan,
have a little mixture of Turco-Tartarian. 34. The Morduins,
on the Oka and Volga, have about one-eighth of their language
Finnish, and also some Turco-Tartarian words. The Moktanic
is a dialect differing but slightly from the Morduin. 35. The
Teptjerai are people paying no taxes, who originated from the
relics of the Tartaro-Kasanic kingdom in the sixteenth century,
and who are said to speak a language peculiar to themselves.
The arrangement of all these dialects must remain very imper¬
fect, for want of a greater number of specimens of their pecu¬
liarities.
36. The Samojedic nations are situate N. of the Tartars,
by whom they may possibly have been driven into their pre¬
sent habitations. Their languages seem to have some affinity
with the Caucasian and Lesgian dialects, and some of them
with the Wogulic and Ostiak families; the specimens in the
Comparative Vocabularies seem to have been multiplied some¬
what too liberally. 37. The Camashes are situate on the right
of the Jenisei ; they are Shamanites or Buddhists ; their lan¬
guage seems to be a mixture of several others, and is divided
into several very distinct dialects. The Koibals have been
baptized ; they have borrowed some words from the Turco-Tar¬
tarian family. The Motors are situate on the Tuba. 38.
The Ostiaks on the River Jenisei afford us five specimens of
languages totally different from those of the Ostiaks already
mentioned, but nearly connected with each other, so that they
may properly be called Jenisei-Ostiaks. 39. The Jukagirs, or
Jukadshirs, are few in number; they are situate between
the Jakuti and the Tshutshi; they have some Jakutish words
mixed with their language, and some Tsheremissic.
[The Teptyar are Turk rather than Ugrian.
All the other populations of this section are Finn or Ugrian,
viz., Sirianian, Permian, Morduin, Samoyed, &c. The term
Siberian is not used in the sense of the text.—r. g. l.]
40. The Koriaks and the Tshutshi occupy the north-eastern-
most point of Siberia ; the proper Koriak is spoken on the Bay
of Penshin ; the Kolymic on the River Kolyma, the Tigilic on
the Tigil, in Kamtschatka ; and the Karaginic on the island
Karaga: the Tshutshic has been considered as a dialect of the
Koriak. 41. The Kamtschatkans are a little farther S. ; the
Tigilic Kamtschatkan is found, however, on the N. of the
Tigil; the /SrecZnisAto the W., on the Bolshaia, and the Jozhny-
shic on the River Kamtschatka, and towards the South Cape.
The languages of the neighbouring parts of America, according
to Professor Vater, greatly resemble the Tshutshic.
The Insular order of the Tataric or Atactic class of lan¬
guages must be understood as comprehending all the Asiatic
islands E. of Borneo. 42. The language of the Curilees is
spoken not only in the principal of these islands, but also in
Kamtschatka, about Cape Lopatka; but in some of the islands
the Japanese is spoken. The Japanese derive themselves
from the Chinese, but their language contradicts this opinion ;
they have evident traces of Mongol extraction or relationship.
The amiable islanders of Loochoo will long be remembered by
the British public, for the hospitality they showed to the Al-
ceste and the Lyra ; their language appears to be related to
the Japanese, as might be expected from their situation.
[In the opinion of the present writer, the Koriak (to which
the Kamskadale belongs), the Curile, the Japanese, and the
Corean, constitute a class, for which he recommends the name
2 E
218 LANG
Language. Peninsular, transitional to the Ugrian tongues on the one
hand, and the American on the other.—r. g. l.]
Formosa was conquered by the Dutch in 1620, but in 1661
it was taken from them by a Chinese pirate : the next year
some books were printed in the Formosan language in Hol¬
land, the recapture of the island not being yet known there ;
in 1682, it was finally given up to the Chinese government.
47. The Moluccan is considered by Dr Leyden as an original
language; that of Magindanao contains some Malayan, Mo¬
luccan, Tagalish, and Bugis. The Tagalish, or Gala, is the
principal language of the Philippines, and almost as generally
understood in that neighbourhood as the Malay and Hindus-
tanee in other parts ; it is allied to the Malayan and to the
Javanese, and was probably derived in great measure from
these languages; it also resembles in some measure the Bugis.
The Bissayish is a ruder dialect of the Tagalish. The Sulu
differs but little from these dialects, being derived from the
same sources. The Bugis is the language of Celebes ; it is
supposed to be more ancient than the Javanese: it seems to
contain no Sanscrit, but much Malay, Tagalish, and Javanese,
and some of the old Ternate, or Molucoan ; it is written in a
peculiar character, and some good poetry is found in it. There
is a dialect called the Mungharar. The Bima somewhat re¬
sembles this dialect; it is spoken in the eastern parts of Sum-
bawa, and the western of Ende or Flores ; it is written either
in the Bugis or the Malay character; it seems to have a dis¬
tant resemblance to the language of Orissa. The dialect of
Sumbawa exhibits some slight variations. A few single words,
as Malta, the eye, and Matte, death, are found to coincide in
almost all the islands of the Pacific Ocean; the languages of
which, notwithstanding their immense distances, seem to differ
less than those of the inhabitants of some very small continen¬
tal tracts; and they might probably be divided into a few
well-defined families, if our knowledge of them were more com¬
plete. The resemblance of Matte to the Arabian Mot, and
the Latin Mactare, is probably accidental.
[All these languages are Malay.—r. g. l.]
The number of the African languages is supposed to amount
to one hundred or one hundred and fifty, and as many as
seventy or eighty of them have been distinguished with toler¬
able accuracy. The population of Africa seems to have been
derived from Arabia, and, as some critics think, rather from
the southern than from the northern part; a great number of
its present inhabitants are negroes, but these cannot be distin¬
guished from the rest by any infallible criterion. The account
given by Ptolemy of the interior part of the country appears
to be wonderfully accurate and extensive; although some of
his measures seem to be erroneous, and not sufficiently recon-
cileable with the truth, even by adopting Major Itennell’s
hypothesis respecting them. It is, however, remarkable that
Ptolemy followed Hipparchus in extending the eastern coast o f
Africa to the Ganges, although more correct ideas of its form
had been entertained at Alexandria before his time.
The Egyptians demand the priority in treating of the in¬
habitants of Africa, from their early connection with ancient
history, both sacred and profane. It is observable that the re¬
presentations of the old Egyptians have countenances more or
less approaching to the negro physiognomy, though the dry
bones of the skeleton have that character somewhat less de¬
cidedly than they must have had when clothed with the thick
lips and flattish noses of the generality of the representations ;
at the same time there are sculptures of great antiquity, which
exhibit features not unlike those of correct Grecian or Roman
beauty ; and others have a considerable resemblance to the
Arabian nation. At present the people of middle Africa in
general are more or less like negroes, but they are somewhat
less dark, and their noses and lips are less peculiar ; the wo¬
men sometimes screamed if Burckhardt made his appearance
on a sudden, and called him the devil, because he was white.
The Egyptians are supposed by some writers to have received
their civilization from Ethiopia ; but there are at present no
traces of the remains of high civilization farther S. than
Nubia, except a few scattered monuments about Axum, of no
great antiquity. The Egyptians were at first called Copts by
the Saracens, and their language has been commonly distin¬
guished by the appellation Coptic, that is, as written in char¬
acters which are principally Greek, and frequently intermixed
with a number ot pure Greek words; but not a single frag-
U A G E.
ment of Coptic has yet been discovered in this form that is Language,
earlier than the establishment of Christianity in Egypt; and
it seems probable that the character was introduced by the
early Christians at the time of the translation of the Scrip¬
tures into Coptic, which is certainly of very high antiquity.
The Greek authors frequently mention an Egyptian alphabet
of twenty-five letters ; but no traces of any such alphabet are
found in the multitudinous inscriptions or manuscripts that
have been preserved by the exertions of the numerous and ad¬
venturous travellers who have lately visited the country. The
Greek words mixed with the Coptic are not considered by the
grammarians as incorporated with the language, nor are they
admitted into the dictionaries. The genuine language bears
very evident marks of great antiquity; its construction is simple,
and often awkward, and a great number of its words are mono¬
syllables. We have positive evidence of its having remained
unaltered from the time of Herodotus, Plutarch, and other
Greek authors ; and it atfords us the etymology of the name of
Moses, and of some other words mentioned in the Scriptures.
It exhibits a few coincidences with other ancient languages,
but not enough to enable us to consider it either as the oil-
spring or the parent of any of them, except that it gives us
something like an explanation of the meaning of some of
the Greek particles. Out of one hundred and fourteen ori¬
ginal Egyptian words, there are fifty-two that resemble the
Greek, twenty-seven the German and English, eighteen the
Hebrew, three the Syriac, two the Arabic, two the Sanscrit,
one the Sclavonian, and one the Cantabrian. It is, how¬
ever, probable, that a person more intimately acquainted
with the languages of the Arabian family would have been
able to find a much greater number of coincidences, since
nations which had so much intercourse as the Jews and the
Egyptians could scarcely fail to have many words in common,
even if their languages had been at first completely different;
and probably many of the Arabic roots, which are not Hebrew,
may be found in the Egyptian. To the Cantabrian word in¬
serted in this enumeration Dr Young added five others, the
whole six being—Berria, new; Ora, a dog; Guchi, little;
Oguia, bread; “ Otsoa,” a wolf—whence the Spanish Onza ;
and Shashpi, seven. In Coptic, Beri, new; Uhor, a dog;
Kudshi, little ; Oik, bread; Uonsh, a wolf; and Shashf,
seven. Hence he infers, that “ if we consider these words as
sufficiently identical to admit of our calculating upon them, the
chances will be more than a thousand to one that, at some very
remote period, an Egyptian colony established itself in Spain ;
for none of the languages of the neighbouring nations retain
any traces of having been the medium through which these
words have been conveyed. On the other hand,” he con¬
tinues, “ if we adopted the opinions of a late learned antiquary.
General Valiancy, the probability would be still incompar¬
ably greater that Ireland was originally peopled from the
same mother country, since he has collected more than one
hundred words which are certainly Egyptian, and which he
considers as bearing the same sense in Irish; but the relation,
which he has magnified into identity, appears in general to be
that of a very faint resemblance ; and this is precisely an in¬
stance of a case in which it would be deceiving ourselves to
attempt to reduce the matter to a calculation.” It may, in¬
deed, be imagined that the Egyptian dominions may formerly
have extended to the Straits of Gibraltar, and that Spain may
have derived a part of its population from this part of Africa,
which approaches so near to it; but it could scarcely have hap¬
pened that no traces of Egyptian monuments should ever have
been found at any distance from the Nile, if that active people
had really occupied any considerable portion of the neighbour¬
ing continent. The word Chemistry, in Greek Chemia, is well
known to be derived from the Egyptian; it has successively
been compared, by the Quarterly Reviewer, to Chim or Chem,
heat, and to Chem, secret; the latter being the more probable
origin of the two ; and a third etymon might be found, if it
were required, in the Dshem, or Ghem, to find, or invention.
The Coptic language has been nearly extinct for about two
centuries ; but the service has been read in Coptic much more
lately in some of the churches, though it has now been almost
entirely superseded by the Arabic. The proper Coptic, or
Memphitic, which was the dialect of Lower Egypt, is sup¬
posed, from a word quoted by Herodotus, to be the most an¬
cient ; the Sahidic or Thebaic of Upper Egypt was probably
lang
Language, preserved for a longer time, especially in some of the monas-
L—^/—teries; there is a separate version of the principal part of the
Bible in this dialect, fragments of which have been published
by Mingarelli and Woide; a third dialect, much resembling
the Thebaic, is commonly called the Bashmuric; and a fourth,
the Oasitic, has been partially made known by M. Quatremere
de Quincy. The Egyptians have left no traces of their lan¬
guage among the people wlm at present occupy the countries
that they inhabited; the Nubian vocabularies collected by
Burckhardt contain no Coptic words; the people are of dif¬
ferent Arab races, but have acquired peculiar dialects, probably
mixed with those of the neighbouring negro nations, of several
of which we find specimens in Mr Salt’s Voyage to Abyssinia.
[1 fie Coptic is an eminently agglutinate language.
As far as the hieroglyphics have been deciphered, the lan¬
guage given by even the earliest is Coptic.
Syllable for syllable, Copt — V-gypt.
The Barabra is a Nubian dialect.
The nearest affinities of the Coptic are those that geography
suggests, viz., the Semitic, and the other Sub-Semitic forms
of speech.—r. g. l.]
But one of the most learned, as well as the most adven¬
turous and industrious, of modern travellers, has remarked
some coincidences between the old Egyptian language and that
of the Barabras, who are neighbours of the Nubians, and ex¬
tend to the confluence of the Tacazze and the Nile. The Geez
and Amharic have already been mentioned as descendants of
the Arabian family ; they seem to have introduced some traces
of this extraction into several of the neighbouring dialects,
probably by the translations of the Scriptures, or by the use
of the Koran. Professor Vater has taken some pains to prove
that the language of Amhara, the Camara of Agatharchides,
is wholly independent of the Ethiopic and Arabian ; but in
this he appears to be mistaken. It exhibits some slight re¬
semblance to the Sanscrit, in a few instances; thus Tshegure
is hair, in Sanscrit Sshicura. Macrizi tells us that there are,
in the whole, fifty Abyssinian dialects; but he has probably
exaggerated their number. We have obtained more authentic
information respecting them from the collections of Bruce, and
of his editor, Murray, and still more lately from Dr Seetzen
and Mr Salt. Of the Mek of Dongola, the representative of a
long race of the Christian kings of Nubia, little is now known,
except that he is in a great measure dependent on the king of
Sennaar on the one hand, and has been expelled from a part
of his territories by the Mamelukes on the other. Of the
Agows and the Gafats, neighbours of the Abyssinians, and
situate on the Bahr el Azrek, as well as the Jewish Ealashas,
who are scattered over the country, especially in Dembea, we
have read much in the historical romances of Mr Bruce, which
certainly give a faithful picture of the countries to which they
relate, notwithstanding some unaccountable inaccuracies with
respect to the personal adventures of the author.
The _N. of Africa is occupied by inhabitants not much dif¬
fering in appearance from the Arabs. Its three principal divi¬
sions are—the coast, the country of wild beasts, and the desert.
The later Arabs have expelled the earlier Africans from the
first division, and partly from the second; the Berbers oc¬
cupy the third, inhabiting principally the oases, or cultivable
islands, scattered through the desert from Mount Atlas to
Egypt, and speaking, as Horneman first ascertained, the same
language throughout its vast extent. They were first well de¬
scribed by Leo Africanus: they are probably the remains of
the Mauritanians, Numidians, Gaetulians, and Garamatians.
There is no foundation whatever for the opinion of some mo¬
dern authors of celebrity, that their language is derived from
the Punic. We even find, from Sallust, that the Numidian
language diflered from the Carthaginian ; and from Valerius
Maximus, that it was written in a peculiar character, perhaps
the same with that which is found in the inscriptions from Le-
beda, now in the court of the British Museum. The language
of the Canaries considerably resembles the Berber ; thus, milk
is Acho in Berber, and A ho in the Canaries. These islands
were discovered in 1330, and afterwards conquered, with some
difficulty, bj the Spaniards. I he inhabitants were a fine race
of men, and lived in comfort and tranquillity: and they still
present some traces of their original character and condition.
[ 1 he Gafat are Semitic; the Agows and Falasha Sub-
Semitic. So are the Berber, or Amazirgh tongues.
U A G E. 219
The Dongola forms of speech are Nubian. Barabra (dif- Language,
ferent from Berber) and Nubian are nearly synonymous.— v _ /
R. g. l.]
The country between the desert Zahara and the Niger is in¬
habited by a race of people who have a great resemblance to
negroes, but are somewhat difterent from them. In the E.
are those of Soudan or Afnu, and Begermah; in the W. the
Foulahs ; the Fellatas are a branch of these, extending con¬
siderably to the N.E., with a mixture of negroes.
Of the languages of the negroes, strictly "so called, many in¬
teresting specimens have been collected by the zeal of the evan¬
gelical missionaries in the Caribbee Islands, and published by
Oldendorp, in his Account of the Mission ; but they do not
afford us sufficient materials to enable us to trace any exten¬
sive connections or dependencies among their multifarious
dialects.
There are some points of coincidence between the language
of Madagascar and those of the Malays, the Philippine
islanders, theBeetjuana Caffres, and the Corana Hottentots:
there are also a few words, in many of the African dialects,
borrowed from the modern Arabic, not, as Court de Gebelin
would persuade us, from the Phoenician. Nor can any other of
the affinities be very distinctly established.
The Caffres have little of the negro character except the
black colour, and less of this as they become more remote from
the equator. They are supposed to extend across the whole
of Africa, immediately N. of the Hottentots, as far as Ben-
guela and Quiloa. The Hottentots, with their neighbours the
Bosjemen, speak different dialects of the same singular lan¬
guage, in different parts of their country. Of that of the
Dammaras, little or nothing is known. Lichtenstein has classed
them as Hottentots; but Barrow, who was better acquainted
with them, considers them as Caffres.
[For a fuller sketch of the African languages in general, see
below ; here observing that—
a. The Malagasi of Madagascar is Malay.
b. There are two different populations known as Dammaras,
one of which is Caffre, one Hottentot.—r. g. l.]
ADDENDA.
On the Languages of Armenia.
I he Eskimo.—The extent to which this language is iso¬
late has been greatly exaggerated. It has decided and direct
affinities with the north-eastern Ugrian and the Peninsular
languages on one side, and the north-western languages of
America on the other.
It is spoken in Greenland, Labrador, the coast of the Arctic
Ocean, Russian America, the Aleutian Isles, and the parts
about Tshuktsh-Noss in Asia.
It is succeeded by the languages of,—
The Athabaskan Group.—The vast size of the area
over which the Athabaskan tongues have spread themselves
has commanded less attention than it deserves. It should
command attention if it were only for the fact of its touching
both the oceans—the Atlantic on the one side, the Pacific on
the other.
For the northern Athabaskans, the main body of the family,
the philological details were, until lately, eminently scanty and
insufficient. There was, indeed, an imperfect substitute for
them in the statements of several highly trustworthy authors
as to certain tribes who spoke a language allied to the Chepe-
wyan, and as to others who did not,—statements which, on
the whole, have been shown to be correct; statements, how¬
ever, which required the confirmation of vocabularies. These
have now been procured ; if not to the full extent of all the
details of the family, to an extent quite sufficient for the pur¬
poses of the philologue. They show that the most western
branch of the stock, the Chepewyan proper, or the language
of the Northern Indians, was closely akin to that of the Dog-
ribs, the Hare (or Slave), and the Beaver Indians, and that
the Dahodinni, called from their warlike habits the Mauvais
Monde, vtere but slightly separated from them. Farther W.
a change took place, but not one of much importance. The
interpreters were understood with greater difficulty, but still
understood.
I he Sikani and Sussee tongues are known by specimens of
220
LANGUAGE.
Language, considerable length and value, and these languages, lying as
far S. as the drainage of the Saskatshewan, and as far W.
as the Rocky Mountains, are, and have been for some years,
also known as Athabaskan.
Then came the Takulli of New Caledonia. This was the
Nagail, or Chin Indian of Mackenzie, or nearly so. Now,
Nagail I hold to be the same word as Tacull-i, whilst Chin
, is Tshin = Dinne — Tnai — Atna ~ Knai = Man. The Ta¬
kulli division falls into no less than eleven (?) minor sections,
all of which but one end in this root, viz., tin.
1. The Tau-tm, or Talko-tm.
(?)2. The Tsilko-tm, or Chilko-Gn, perhaps the same word
in a different dialect.
3. The Nasko-fiw. 8. The Natliau-tm.
4. The Thetlio-#in. 9. The Nikozliau-fo’n.
5. The Tsatsno-tm. 10. The Tatshiau-tm, and
6. The Nulaau-tm. 11. The Babin Indians.
7. The Ntaauo-tm.
Sir John Richardson, from vocabularies procured by him
during his last expedition, the value of which is greatly en¬
hanced by his ethnological chapter on the characteristics of
the population which supplied them, has shown, what was be¬
fore but suspected, that the Loucheux Indians of Mackenzie
River are Athabaskan, a most important addition to our know -
ledge. Now, the Loucheux are a tribe known under many
names,—under that of the Quarrellers, under that of the
Squinters, under that of the Thycothe, and Digothi. Sir John
Richardson calls them Kutshin, a name which we shall find in
several compounds, just as we found the root tin in the several
sections of the Takulli, and as we shall find its modified form
dinni among the eastern Athabaskans. The particular tribes
of the Kutshin division occupant of either the eastern frontier
of Russian America, or the north-western parts of the Hud¬
son’s Bay territory, are (according to the same authority) as
follows:—
1. The Axiez-kutshi — Hard people.
2. The Tshu-A’u tshi — Water people.
3. The 'Yntzei-kutshi = Rampart people ; falling into four
bands.
4. The Teystse-ittfsM = People of the shelter.
5. The Vanta-/cu<s/n' — People of the lakes.
6. The Neyetse-&wis/ii = People of the open country.
7. The Tlagga-silla = Little dogs.
I This brings us to the Kenay. Word for word, Kenay is
Knai — Tnai, a modified form of the now familiar root t-n —
man, a root which has yet to appear and reappear under va¬
rious new, and sometimes unfamiliar and unexpected forms.
A Kenay vocabulary has long been known. It appears in
Lisianisky tabulated with Kadiak, Sitkan, and Unalaskan of
the Aleutian Islands. It was supplied by the occupants of
Cook’s Inlet. Were these Athabaskan ? The present writer
owes to Mr Isbister the suggestion that they were Loucheux,
and to the same authority he was indebted for the use ef a
very short Loucheux vocabulary. Having compared this with
Lisiansky’s, he placed both languages in the same category—
rightly in respect to the main point, wrongly in respect to a
subordinate. He determined the place of the Loucheux {Kut¬
shin, as he would now call them) by that of the Kenay, and
made both Kolush. He would now reverse the process, and
make both Athabaskan, as Sir John Richardson has also sug¬
gested.
The Atna, at the mouth of the Copper River, the Koltshani,
higher up the stream, and the Ugalents, about Mount St Elias,
are all held by the present writer to be Athabaskan ; not, in¬
deed, so decidedly as the Beaver Indians, the Dog-ribs, or the
proper Chepewyans, but still Athabaskan.
Ihe most southern of the Athabaskans are the Sussees,
in N. latitude 51°; there or thereabouts. But the Sussees,
far S. as they lie, are only the most southern of the Atha¬
baskans en masse. There are outliers of the stock as far S.
as the southern parts of Oregon. More than this, there are
Athabaskans in California, New Mexico, and Sonora.
Few discoveries respecting the distribution of languages
are more interesting than one made by Mr Hale, to the
effect tliat. the Umkwa, Kwaliokwa, and Tlatskanai dialects
of a district so far S. as the mouth of the River Colum¬
bia, and the upper portion of the Umkwa River (further S. Language,
still), were outlying members of the Athabaskan stock—a . ^ , j
stock pre-eminently northern, not to say arctic, in its main
area.
Yet the dialects just named were shown, by a subsequent
discovery of Professor Turner’s, to be only penultimate ra¬
mifications of their stock, inasmuch as further S., and fur¬
ther S. still, in California, New Mexico, Sonora, and even
Chihuhua, as far S. as 30° N. latitude, Athabaskan forms
of speech were to be found ; the Navaho of Utah and New
Mexico, the Jecorilla of New Mexico, and the Apatch of New
Mexico, California, and Sonora, being Athabaskan. The
Hoopah of California is also Athabaskan.
The Kolush of Sitka, &c., can be made Athabaskan by
raising the value of the class, or it can stand as the sample of
a separate and allied group.
The first of the populations to the S. of the Athabaskan
area, who, lying on or to the W. of the Rocky Mountains,
are other than Algonkin, are,—•
The Kitunaha.—The Kitunaha, Kutani, Cootanie, or Flat¬
bow area is long rather than broad, and it follows the line of
the Rocky Mountains between 52° and 48° N. latitude.
The Kutani, differs notably from the tongues with which
it is in geographical contact; though, like all the languages
of America, it has numerous miscellaneous affinities.
The Atna Gkoup.—W. of the Kutanis, and S. of the
Takulli Athabaskans, lie the northernmost members of a
great family, which extends as far S. as the Sahaptin fron¬
tier, the Sahaptin being a family of Southern, or American
Oregon.
The Atna, called by Mr Hale, Tsihaili-Selish languages,
reach the sea in the parts to the S. of the mouth of Frazer’s
River, i.e., the parts opposite Vancouver’s Island; perhaps
they touch it further to the N. also ; perhaps, too, some of
the Takulli forms of the speech further N. still reach the
sea. The current statements, however, are to the effect
that to the S. of the parts opposite Sitka, and to the N. of
the parts opposite Vancouver’s Island, the two families in
question are separated from the Pacific by a narrow strip of
separate languages—separate and but imperfectly known.
These are, beginning from the N.,—
The Haidah Group of Languages, spoken by the Skitte-
gats, Massetts, Kumshahas, and Kyganie of Queen Charlotte’s
Islands and the Prince of Wales Archipelago. Its area lies
immediately to that of the S. of the so-called Kolush languages.
The Chemmesyan, spoken along the sea-coast and islands of
N. latitude 55°.
The Billechula , spoken at the mouth of Salmon River; a
language to which I have shown elsewhere that a vocabulary,
from Mackenzie’s Travels, of the dialect spoken at Friendly
Village, was referable.
The Hailtsa.—The Hailtsa contains the dialects of the
sea-coast between Hawkesbury Island and Broughton’s Archi¬
pelago ; also those of the northern part of Vancouver’s Island.
In Gallatin, the Chemmesyan, Billechula, and Hailtsa are
all thrown in a group, called Naas. The Billechula numerals
are certainly the same as the Hailtsa ; the remainder of the vo¬
cabulary being unlike, though not altogether destitute of coin¬
cidences. The Chemmesyan is more outlying still. I do not,
however, in thus separating these three languages, absolutely
deny the validity of the Naas family. I only imagine that if
it really contain languages so different as the Chemmesyan and
Hailtsa, it may also contain the Haidah and other groups ; e.g.,
the ones that come next, or
The Wakash of Quadra and Vancouver’s Island.
The Tshinuk, or Chinuk.
The Kalapuya.
The Jakon ; all agreeing in the harshness of their phonesis,
and (so doing) contrasted with—
The Sahaptin, and
The Shoshoni.
The Sahaptin is separated by Gallatin from the Waiilatpu,
containing the Cayiis or Molele form of speech. The present
writer throws them both into the same group.
The Shoshoni and Sahaptin languages are as remarkable for
the apparent ease and simplicity of their phonesis as the Jakon,
Kalapuya, and Tshinuk are for the opposite qualities.
LANGUAGE.
Language. South of the Cavus, Waiilatpu, and Wihinast, or Western
^ Shoshonis, come—
(a.) The Lutuami ; (b.) the Palaik ; (c.) the Shasti,
thrown by Gallatin into three separate classes. They are,
without doubt, mutually unintelligible. Nevertheless, they
cannot be very widely separated.
The Lutuami seems somewhat the most Sahaptin of the
three, and this is what we expect from its geographical posi¬
tion, it being conterminous with the Molel^ (or Cayiis) and
the allied Waiilatpu. It is also conterminous with the Wihi¬
nast, Shoshoni, or Paduca, as is the Palaik. Both Palaik and
Lutuami (along with the Shasti) have Shoshoni affinities.
Of three, languages spoken in the N. of California, and
mentioned in Schoolcraft by name, though not given in speci¬
mens—(1), the Watsahewa ; (2), the Howtetech ; and (3), the
Nabiltse, the first of which is said to be that of the Shasti bands.
Of the Howtetech I can say nothing.
The Nabiltse is probably the language of the Tototune; at
least, Rogue’s River is its locality, and the Rascall Indians is
an English name for the Tototune.
South of the Shasti and Lutuami areas we find—
1. The Ehnik.
2. The Tahlewah.
The junction of the Rivers Klamatl and Trinity gives us the
locality for—
The Languages akin to the Weitspek.—The Weitspek
itself is spoken at the junction, but its dialects of the Weyot
and Wishosk extend far into Humboldt county, where they
are probably the prevailing forms of speech, being used on the
Mad River, and the parts about Cape Mendocino.
The Weyot and Wishosk are mere dialects of the same lan¬
guage. From the Weitspek they differ much more than they
do from each other. It is in the names of the parts of the body
where the chief resemblances lie.
The Mendocino (?) Group.—This is the name suggested for
the Choweshak, Batemdaikai, Kulanapo, Yukai, and Khwa-
klamayu forms of speech collectively.
1, 2. The Choweshak and Batemdaikai are spoken on Eel
River, and in the direction of the southern branches of the
Weitspek group, with which they have affinities.
3. 4, 5. The Kulanapo is spoken about Clear Lake, the
Yukai on Russian River. These forms of speech, closely
allied to each other, are also allied to the Khwaklamayu.
We may now turn to the drainage of the Sacramento and
the parts S. of the Shasti area. Here we shall find three
vocabularies, of which the chief is called—
The Copeh.—How far this will eventually turn out to be a
convenient name for the group (or how far the group itself
will be real) is uncertain. A vocabulary in Gallatin from the
Upper Sacramento, and one from Mag Readings (in the S.
of Shasti county), belong to the group.
The Pujuni.—Concerning this we have a notice in Hale to
the effect that, about 80 or 100 miles from its mouth, the
River Sacramento formed a division between two languages,
one using momi, the other kik = water.
The Pujuni, &c., say momi, as did the speakers of the Chepo.
For this group we have—(a.) Pujuni, (f>.) Secumne, and (c.)
Tsamak specimens, as also the Cushna vocabulary, from the
country Yuba, the Cushna numerals, as well as other words,
being nearly the same as the Secumne.
The Moquelumne Group.—The name Moquelumne is pro¬
posed, inasmuch as we find a Moquelumne Hill (in Calaveras
county), and a Moquelumne River within the area over which
the languages belonging to it are spoken. Again, the names
of the tribes that speak them end largely in nine, Chupumne,
&c. As far S. as TxuA-umne county the language belongs
to this division.
These make a provisional division for a vocabulary called—
The Costano.—The tribes under the supervision of the
Mission of Dolores were five in number—the Ahwmstes, the
Olhone, or Costanos of the coast, the Altahmos, the Tulomos,
and the Romonans.
The Mariposa Languages.—In the N. ©f Mariposa
county, and not far S. of the Tuolumne area, the lan¬
guage seems changed, and the Coconoons is spoken by some
bands on the Mercede River, under a chief named Nuella.
They.are said to be the remnants of three distinct bands, each
with its own distinct language.
221
The Salinas Group.—This is a name which I propose for Language,
a group of considerable compass, and one w’hich contains more i ^
than one mutually unintelligible form of speech. It is taken
from the River Salinas, the drainage of which lies in the
counties of Monterey and San Luis Obispo.
The Ruslen, Eslen, San Antonio, and San Miguel of this
group are probably four mutually unintelligible languages.
The Salinas languages are succeeded to the S. by the forms
of speech of—
The Santa Barbara Group, containing the Santa Barbara,
Santa Inez, and San Luis Obispo languages.
The Capistrano Group.—Capistrano is a name suggested
by that of the Mission of San Juan Capistrano. The group,
I think, falls into two divisions—
1. The Proper Capistrano, or Netela, of San Luis Hey and
San Juan Capistrano.
2. The San Gabriel, or Kij, of San Gabriel and San Fer¬
nando.
The Y'uma Languages.—At the junction of the Gila and
Colorado stands Fort Y'uma, in the district of the Yuma In¬
dians. They occupy each side of the Colorado, both above
and below its junction with the Gila. How far they extend
northwards is unknown, probably more than 100 miles. They
are also called Cuchans, and are a fierce predatory nation,
encroaching equally on tribes of their own language and on
aliens.
From these Yuma Indians I take the name for the group
now under notice. It contains, besides the Yuma Proper, the
Dieguno of San Diego, the Coco-maricopa, and the Cochimi
(succeeded by the Waikur and Perien) of Old California.
The Coco-maricopa Indians are joint occupants of certain
villages on the Gila, the population with which they are asso¬
ciated being Pima. Alike in other respects, the Pima and
Coco-maricopa Indians differ in language.
That the Pima group contains the Pima Proper, the Opata,
and the Eudeve, may be seen from the Mithridates. That
the language of the Papagos, or Papago-cotam, is also Pima,
rests upon good external evidence. Whether the speech of
the Ciris, and population of the island of Tiburon and the
parts opposite, be also Pima is at present uncertain.
W. of the Pima lies the Tarahumara, and S. of it the Hiaqui,
succeeded by the Tubar and Cora of Sinaloa.
The Paternosters of these four languages, compared with the
Opata dialect of the Pima, suggest the likelihood of a closer
relationship than is usually admitted.
With these end our data, but not our lists of dialects. The
names Maya, Guazave, Heria, Sicuraba, Xixime, Topia, Te-
peguana, and Acaxee, all being either in Hervas, or else¬
where, as applied to the different forms of speech of Sonora
and Sinaloa, to which may be added the Tahu, the Pacasca,
and the Acasca, which is probably the same word as Acaxee,
as Huima is the same as Yuma, and Zaque as Hiaqui. Of the
Guazave a particular dialect is named as the Ahome. Add
also the Zoe and Huitcole, probably the same as the Huite.
That some of these unrepresented forms of speech belong
to the same class with the Pima, Hiaqui, &c., is nearly cer¬
tain. How many, however, do so is another question; it may
be that all are in the same predicament, it may be only a few.
The languages of Mechoacan are—
. 1. The Pirinda.
2. The Tarasca.
3. The Otomi.
More has been written on the Otomi than any other lan¬
guage of these parts, the proper Mexican not excepted. It
was observed by Naxera that it was monosyllabic rather than
poly synthetic, as so many of the American languages are,
with somewhat doubtful propriety, denominated. A Mexi¬
can language, with a Chinese characteristic, could scarcely
fail to suggest comparisons. Hence the first operation on the
Otomi was to disconnect it from the languages of the new,
and to connect it with those of the old world. With his
accustomed caution, Gallatin satisfies himself with stating
what others have said, his own opinion evidently being
that the relation to the Chinese was one of analog}^ rather
than affinity.
Doubtless this is the sounder view, and one confirmed by
three series of comparisons made by the present writer.
I he first shows that the Otomi, as compared writh the mo-
222
LANGUAGE.
Language, nosy liable languages of Asia en masse, has several words in
common. But the second qualifies our inferences by showing
that the Maya, a language more distant from China than the
Otomi, and by no means inordinately monosyllabic in its
structure, has, there or thereabouts, as many. The third fojr-
bids any separation of the Otomi from the other languages of
America, by showing that it has the ordinary amount of miscel¬
laneous affinities.
In respect to the Chinese, &c., the real question is, not
whether it has so many affinities with the Otomi, but whether
it has more affinities with the Otomi than with the Maya or
any other American language,—a matter which we must
not investigate without remembering that some difference in
favour of the Otomi is to be expected, inasmuch as two lan¬
guages with short or monosyllabic words will, from the very
fact of the shortness and simplicity of their constituent ele¬
ments, have more words alike than two polysyllabic forms of
speech.
The fact, however, which most affects the place of the
Otomi language is the monosyllabic character of other Ame¬
rican languages; e.g., the Athabaskan and the Attakapa.
Utah and New Mexico.'—The comparative civilization of
the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico has always attracted the
attention of the ethnologist. Until lately, however, he had but
a minimum amount of trustworthy information concerning
either their habits or their language. He has now a fair amount
of data for both. For philological purposes he has vocabu¬
laries for six (probably for all) of them.
Of the Pueblo languages two belong to the drainage of the
Rio Colorado, and four to that of the Rio Grande. Of these
two divisions the former lies the farthest W., and of the two
Colorado Pueblos, the most western is that of—
The Moqui.—The Moqui vocabulary was procured by
Lieut. Simpson from a Moqui Indian who happened to be
at Chelly.
The Zuni country lies in 35° N. latitude, to the S. and E. of
the Moqui, and is probably divided by the Sierra de Zuni from—•
The Acoma, or Laguna, the most southern of the Pueblos
of the Rio Grande. N. of the Acoma area lies that of—
The Jemez, on the San Josef.
The two that still stand over lie on the main stream of the
Rio Grande itself. They are—
The Tesuque; and
The Taos or Picuri.—The northern boundaries of the Te¬
suque seem to be the southern ones of Taos. Connect these
Pueblos with the town of Taos, and the Tesuque with Santa
Fe, and the ordinary maps give us the geography.
The philological affinities of the Pueblo languages scarcely
coincide with the geographical relations. The Moqui lies far
W. Laying this then out of the question, the three that
most strike the eye in tables, as agreeing with each other, are
the Laguna, the Jemez, and the Tesuque. The other two that
thus outwardly agree are the Taos and the Zuni,—two that
are not in the most immediate geographical juxtaposition.
The Moqui, which is not to be separated from the other
Pueblo languages, has, out of twenty-one words compared,
eight coinciding with the Utah.
Neither are there wanting words common to the Pueblo
languages and those of the Athabaskan Navahos, Jecorillas
and Apatches.
It is convenient, in a notice of the languages of the state of
Texas, to bear in mind its early, as well as its present, rela¬
tions to the United States. In a country where the spread of
the population from the other portions of the Union has been
so rapid, and where the occupancy is so complete, we are pre¬
pared to expect but a small proportion of aborigines. And
such, upon the whole, is the case. The displacement of the
Indian tribes’of Texas has been great. Even, however, when
Mexican, Texas was not in the category of the older and more
original portions of Mexico. It was not brought under the
regime ot the missionaries, as we may see by turning to that
portion of the Mithridates which treats of the parts W. of the
Mississippi. Ihe references here are to Dupratz, to Lewis
and Clarke, to Charlevoix, to French and English writers,
rather than to the great authority for the other parts of Spanish
America Hervas. And the information is less precise and
complete. All this is because Texas, in the earlier part of its
history, was, in respect to its exploration and description, a
part of Louisiana (and, as such, French) rather than a part of Language.
Mexico (and as such, Spanish).
The notices of Texas, in the Mithridates, taken along with
our subsequent data, are to the effect that (a.) the Caddo, (f>.)
the Adaize or Adahi, (c.) the Attakapa, and (d.) the Cholctah,
are the prevailing languages of Texas; to which may be added
a few others of minor importance.
The details as to the distribution of the subordinate forms
of speech over these four leading languages are as follows :—
(a.) The Nandakoes, Nabadaches, Alich (orEyish), and Ini,
or Tachi, are expressly stated to be Caddo; and, as it is from
the name of the last of these that the word Texas is derived,
we have satisfactory evidence that some members, at least, of
the Caddo family are truly and originally Texian.
(6.) The Yatassi, Natchitoches, Adaize (or Adaye), Nacog¬
doches, and Keyes, belong to the Caddo confederacy, but with¬
out speaking the Caddo language.
(c.) The Carancouas, the Attacapas, the Apelusas, and the
Mayes, speak dialects of the same language.
(d.) The Tunicas speak the same language as the Choktahs.
Concerning the philology of the Washas, the Bodies, the
Acossesaws, and the Cances no statements are made.
It is obvious that the information supplied by the Mithri¬
dates is measured by the extent of our knowledge of the four
languages to which it refers.
Of these, the Choktah, which Adelung calls the Mobilian,
is the only one for which the Mithridates itself supplies, or
could supply, specimens; the other three being unrepresented
by any sample whatever. Hence, to say that the Tachi was
Caddo, that the Yatassi was Adahi, or that the Carancoua
was Attacapa, was to give an instance, in the way of explana¬
tion, of the obscurum per obscurius. Since the publication of
the Mithridates, however, we have got samples of all three—
Caddo, Adahi, and Attacapa.
The tendency of the Mithridates is to give prominence to
the Caddo, Attakapa, and Adahi tongues, and to incline the
investigator, when dealing with the other forms of speech, to
ask how far they are connected with one of these three. The
tendency of the later writers is to give prominence to the
Cumanch, and to suggest the question: Flow far is this (or
that) form of speech Cumanch, or other than Cumanch ?
A Washita vocabulary, which will be referred to in the sequel,
concludes the list of Texian languages known by specimens.
At present, the chief question respecting the philology of
Texas is one of distribution. Given, as centres to certain
groups—
1. The Choktah,
2. The Caddo,
3. The Adahi,
4. The Attakapa,
5. The Cumanch, and
6. The Washita languages—•
how do we arrange the tribes just enumerated? Two works
help us here,—1. A Letter from' the Ex-President Burnett to
Schoolcraft on the Indians of Texas ; date 1847. 2. A Sta¬
tistical Notice of the same by Jesse Stem; date 1851.
Stem’s statistics run thus :—
TRIBES.
Towacarros.
Wacos 
Ketchies 
Tonkaways,
Wichitas 
NUMBERS.
...141 )
...114 1293
... 38 J
1,152
100
TRIBES. NUMBERS.
Caddos 161 \
Andarcos 202 l 476
loni 113 J
Lipans  500
Cumanches 20,000
giving us several of the names that have already appeared;
giving also great prominence to the Cumanches'—numerically
at least.
In Mr Burnett’s Letter the term Caddo is prominent; but
whether it denote the Caddo language, or merely the Caddo
confederation, is uncertain. Neither can I find from the con¬
text whether the statements respecting the Indians of the
Caddo connection (for this is what we must call it at present),
are made on the personal authority of the writer, or whether
they are taken, either directly or indirectly, from the Mithri¬
dates. The term that Burnett uses is stock, his statement
being that the Waco, the Tawacani, the Towiash, the Aynic,
the San Pedro Indians, the Nabaducho, and the Nacodocheets,
are all both Texian in origin and Caddo in stock.
FIis other tribes are—
LANGUAGE.
Language. 1. The Ketchi, a small tribe on Trinity River, hated by the
v—Cumanches as sorcerers, and, perhaps, the same as  
2. f he Hitchi, once a distinct tribe, now assimilated with
their neighbours.
_ b'he Tonkaways, a separate tribe, of which, however, the
distinctive characters are not stated.
\\ hatever may be the exact details of the languages, dia¬
lects, and subdialects of Texas, the general outline is simple.
The Choctah forms of speech are anything but native,
fhey are of foreign origin and recent introduction. So are
certain Sioux and other dialects spoken within the Texian
area.
Ihe Cumanch is in the same predicament; though not,
perhaps, so decidedly. It belongs to the Paduca class, and its
affinities are with the Shoshoni and Wihinast of Oregon.
The Caddo Proper is said to be intrusive, having been intro¬
duced so late as 1819 from the parts between the great Raft
and the Natchitoches, or Red River. I hold, however, that
some Caddo forms of speech must be indigenous.
The Witchita is probably one of these.
The Adahi has already been noticed as being a compara¬
tively isolated language, but, nevertheless, a language with
numerous miscellaneous affinities.
The Attacapa is one of the pauro-syllabic languages of
America, by which I mean languages that, if not monosyllabic
after the fashion of the languages of south-eastern Asia, have
the appearance of being so. They form a remarkable class,
but it is doubtful whether they form a natural one; i.e., whether
they are more closely connected with each other in the other
elements of philological affinity than they are with the tongues
not so characterized. They deserve, however, what cannot be
given in the present paper, a special consideration.
For the north-eastern districts of Mexico, New Leon, Ta-
maulipas, &e., i.e., for the parts between the Rio Grande and
Tampico, no language is known to us by specimens. It is only
known that the Cumanch dips deeply into Mexico. So does
the Apatsh.
A tribe, lately mentioned, that of the Lipans, is, perhaps,
Apatsh. Burnett states that they agree with the Mescalero
and Seratics of the parts about the Paso del Norte. For these,
however, we still want vocabularies Us nominibus.
For the parts about Tampico the language belongs to the
Huasteca branch of—
The Maya.—The Maya succeeds the languages just enu¬
merated on the east. On the west, the Otomi, Pirinda, and
Tarasca are succeeded by—
The Mexican Proper.
The languages that, from their comparative obscurity, claim
the attention of the investigator, are those which are other
than Maya, and other than Mexican Proper.
Of these, the first succeeds the Huasteca of Huastecapan, or
the parts about Tampico; which it separates, or helps to sepa¬
rate, from the northern branches of the Maya Proper, beino- 
The Totonaca of Vera Cruz.
Cross the watershed from Yera Paz to Oaxaca, and you
come to the area of—.
The Mixteca.—In the ordinary maps, Tepezcolula, on the
boundaries of Oaxaca and Puebla, is the locality for its chief
dialect, of which there are several.
The Mixteca is the language of Northern Oaxaca.
The Zapoteca that of Southern Oaxaca.
South of the areas of the three languages just enumerated
comes the main division of the Maya—the Maya of Guatemala
and Yucatan, as opposed to the Huasteca of the parts about
Tampico. Ihis, however, we pass over sicco pede, for—
The Lenca dialects of Honduras, San Salvador, &c. ; these
being from the four Pueblos of Guajiquiro, Opatoro, Intibuca,
and Sirmlaton, those of the last being shorter and less com¬
plete than the others. They are quite recent, and are to be
found only in the Spanish edition of Mr Squier’s Notes on
Central America.. The English is without them.
As Mr Squier is the sole authority for the Lenca of San
Salvador and Honduras, so he is for Nicaragua, for which we
have specimens of—•
1. The Choretega ;
2. The Nagranda ; and
3. The Wulvva, of the Chontal district.
The language of the Moskito country gives us a fourth form
223
of speech ; at least (I think) as different from the Choretega, Language.
Nagranda, Wulwa, and Lenca, as they are from each other. ^ ^
This is—•
The Waikna of the Indians of the coast, and, probably,o f
several allied tribes inland.
In Costa Rica, a Talamenca; in Veragua, a Bayano, a Sa-
vanenc, and a Cholo vocabulary carry us into South Ame¬
rica, which must not, however, be entered before the languages
of North America, to the E. of the Rocky Mountains, have
been noticed.
S. of the Eskimo, and S. and E. of the Athabaskan group,
come the great class of the languages called—■
Algonkin, falling into the following (more or less) provi¬
sional divisions:—
1. The Bethuck of Newfoundland ;
2. The Central Group, containing the Cree, Skoffi, Mic-
may, Echemin, Abnaki, Algonkin Proper, Ojibwa, Delaware.
Pequod, Mohican, Narraganset, Natik, Massachusetts, Messi-
saugi, Pamticough, Menomini, Sauk, Potowotami, &c. ;
3. The Shyenne and Arapaho ;
4. The Blackfoot.
The vast area of this class extends from Labrador to North
Carolina. It surrounds that of the—
Iroquois—the Mohawk, Oneyda, Onondago, Seneca, Cayuga,
Huron, Nottoway, and Tuscarora, &c.
The Sioux.—Winnebago, Dakota (with divisions and sub¬
divisions), Assineboin, Upsaroka (Crow), Mandan, Minetari.
Osage. The Sioux area lies chiefly between the Mississippi
and the Rocky Mountains.
The Woccon (with which associate the Catawba) of Caro¬
lina.
The Cherokee of Tennessee, &c.
The Choctah, Muskoqhe, and Creek of Florida, &c.
The Caddo (see notice of Texas) have all Sioux and Iro¬
quois affinities ; as have also—
The Riccaree and Pawnee of Kanzas and Nebraska.
In Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana.
The Natchez, Uche, and Chelomacha, have miscellaneous
affinities, but still have to be definitely fixed.
They are succeeded by the Adahi and Attacapa, already
noticed.
In South America we begin with a very obscure area. In
the Mithridates there is no specimen of any sufficient length of
any of the languages of New Grenada, of which the chief was
called the Muyska. Neither, until lately, did the present
writer know of any vocabularies. He wrongly imagined
that all the Indian forms of speech were extinct, and has
erroneously stated as much in his work on the Varieties of
Man. This opinion he now corrects. The Bibliotheca Glottica
of Ludwig gives the following data. For (see sub. voc.)—
The Andaqui of the territory of Mocoa, a vocabulary taken
in 1854 by the Presbyter Manuel Marca Albis.
Notices of some words of the Coconucos, Polindaras, and
Guambras, in the province of Cundinamarca.
Vocabulary of the Correguaje, spoken in the territory of
Mocoa.
Do. of the Guaque, ibid.
Do. of Inganos, ibid.
The Muyska Proper, or Chibcha, nearly extinct, is spoken
in the neighbourhood of Santa Fe de Bogota. The chief dic-
tibnary of it is in MSS. (See Ludwig, ad voc. Muysca).
To the south the languages of New Grenada are succeeded
by—
The Quichua of Bolivia and Peru, the language of the In¬
cas, spoken from the equator to S. Lat. 28. The Quichua area
almost surrounds that of—•
The Aymara of the parts about the Lake Titicaca, to which
it is allied.
The Quichua is spoken as far inland as Tucuman ; but over
a great portion of its area it is an intrusive and foreign lan¬
guage, a fact which leads us to the consideration of the minor,
and less known language, within its area, or on its precincts.
These, though probably numerous, are little known by speci¬
mens. There is one of the Zafara language of the province
of Mainas, which looks like an independent form of speech.
There is also the—
Yurakares of the eastern slope of the Andes, in 17° S. Lat.
In Venezuela and Demerara, the great—•
224 LANG
Language. Carib family takes the same prominence as the Quichua in
v ,r / Peru. To it belong the Chayma, Tamanak, Aravvak, Accavva,
Macusi, Arecuna. Maiongkong, Guinau, Soerikong, Waya-
wara, Maopetyan, rYi\ev\ghotto, Vianoghotto, and most of the
numerous languages whose names end in ghotto.
Akin to the Carib are several of the languages of the Ori¬
noco, Rio Negro, and northern bank of the Amazons, of which
we know by specimens the—
Saliva, Maypure, Yarura, and Ottomaca groups, of un¬
determined value.
With Carib and Maypure affinities, in proportions hitherto
unascertained, we find on the northern affluents of the Ama¬
zons, the Uainambeu, Tariana, Isanna, Barre, and Tomo-
Maroa forms of speech ; and somewhat more isolated (though
with miscellaneous affinities), the Juri, the Javita, the Coretu,
Cobeu, and Tucano, known from vocabularies in Mr Wallace’s
work on the Amazon and Rio Negro.
In a similar state of isolation, as compared with the definite
and undoubted members of the Carib family (though still with
miscellaneous affinities), are the Warow, Taruma, and Wapi-
siana of Demerara.
In Brazil there is the great family of the Guarani tongues,
and, by the side of it, the analogues of the minor languages of
the Inca and Carib districts. Thus, of the Brazilian lan¬
guages
Other than Guarani we know, by specimens, the Botocudo,
Coropo, Coroado, Puri, Machacali, Malali, Camacan, Menieng,
Cachriaba, Kiriri, Sabujah, Timbira, and others. Of—
The Guarani, the Guarani Proper (the basis of the Lingua
Geral, Lingua Franca), the Chiriguano, the Omagua, the Mun-
drucu. The Omagua is spoken on the Napo, the Chiri-
guarano on the La Plata; so wide is the vast Guarani area.
(See Ethnology.)
Passing over large tracts of terree incognitce, in the Mis¬
sions of Moxos and Chiquitos, the Moxa, Movima, Cayuvava,
Sarabeca, Covareca, Pacaguara, Curuminaca, and Paioconeca
forms of speech, known by specimens, with miscellaneous affi¬
nities, and leading to the languages of the Chaco, which form
a class of considerable compass called—-
Abiponian — Abiponian Proper, Mbocobi, Toba, Paya-
gua (?) Lengua, and Zamucu (?). The exact relations of these
to the Lule is uncertain. We approach, however, another
group.
The Chileno-Patagonian—The Araucarian (Chileno Pro¬
per), the Pampa (?), the Patagonian, and the Fuegian.
A recent and valuable contribution to the philological ethno¬
graphy of America, by Mr Daa of Christiania, besides giving
a comparison of the Samoyed of Asia with the Dakota of
America (along with much other subsidiary matter), contains
more than one suggestion respecting the forces by which
changes in language are effected. Great stress is laid upon
the size of the community that uses it. “ When language is
confined to the daily use of a family, or a small knot of acquaint¬
ance, it stands in a quite contrary relation to the use of men,
than when it is the common medium that combines millions
of human beings. In the last case, the individual license in
changing the adopted sounds and significations of words, where¬
by are introduced novelties of speech, is continually checked
by the impossibility of making all such unnecessary changes
comprehensible to the mass of those who speak. Thus we see
that in the present English and French languages, this license
of adding to what is the common property of millions in both
hemispheres, is a privilege for only a few distinguished inven¬
tors of new things, or authors of widely-read books. The
power of changing language is so much repressed, that it can
only be observed by comparing two remote periods of the his¬
tory of the language, as you observe the geological changes by
considering generations as merely a single day. The habit of
speaking distinctly is then kept up and cultivated as a ne¬
cessary means to be comprehended by the many unknown per¬
sons you continually meet with.
‘‘ In a small island in the South Sea, or an insignificant
tribe m the wildernesses of America or Siberia, the facility of
changing language may easily be conceived to be next to un¬
bounded. ^ Everybody who speaks must become understood,
because his hearers almost know beforehand what he is to say.
The most arbitrary changes of languages are thus introduced
continually, as may be proved historically.
U A G E.
“Almost all those languages that are spoken by nations Language,
living either in a natural (geographical) isolation, or in an ^ ^ y
arbitrary and artificial one, want a great number of letters.
For one letter in one dialect is substituted another letter in
the next tribe; because every word is as well understood whe¬
ther you pronounce it with the letter r, or l, or v. Accidental
and individual defects of uttering are thus changed into na¬
tional peculiarities, and a general indistinctness of pronuncia¬
tion is introduced. The sounds that are hardly perceptible to
a stranger will, among close relatives, appear sufficiently in¬
telligible.
“ The strange practices of mutilating the nose and the lips
must have contributed a great deal to disfigure the enuncia¬
tion of language itself. The insertion of one or more large
pieces of wood into incisions in the lips or the nose, still prac¬
tised on the Pacific coast, and from which custom a tribe is
called Nez Perce, has no doubt been more frequent formerly.
These mutilations would evidently make it next to impossible
to pronounce any labial consonant, and they would in return in¬
troduce a nasal articulation. Now a paucity of labial, and a
superfluity of nasal sounds, is just what we observe in many
American languages.
‘ ‘ Similar permutations of letters of course happen among all
languages of the world, and in fact form the basis and the
principal means by which the differences in language are in¬
troduced and produced. Only among those nations who lead
an isolated life are these changes more violent, and appear to
separate tribes that evidently, from their general habits and
manners, must be very closely related. Thus the Dakotas,
forming only a nation of 25,000 individuals, are split into
tribes divided by such considerable differences of dialect as
these—one tribe changes d into t, and h into r; another
changes h into k; a third changes h into g ; d is altogether
rejected, and l substituted in its place; another band only uses
g at the end of syllables, and l does not occur ; thus, the word
hda, ‘ to go home,’ becomes kda and gla in different dialects.
“ In the syllabic alphabet invented for the Cherokee tongue
by a native, the whole number of possible syllables is merely
seventy, besides the vowels. In the excellent Dakota Diction¬
ary of Mr Riggs we see abundant proofs how a scarcity of
radical words and simple ideas is made to expand into a lan¬
guage of endless compositions. But, from the variety of ob¬
jects to be expressed, these composed words in a great mea¬
sure must contain the most arbitrary descriptions of things : a
continual make-shift of substitutes for the thing that is thus
obscurely brought before the mind. For instance, the word
maza means ‘ metal of any kind,’ gadi ‘ merchandize hence
are derived, by addition of other substantives, or adjectives and
particles, compositions expressing an anchor, iron pot, brace- ■
let, bell, trap, chair, gun and all its parts, pistol, cannon,
lock, ramrod, &c., nail, steelyard, blacksmith, spade, Jinger-
ring, stove, skates, sword, iron, silver, money, dollar, shilling,
bank-note, medal, gold, lead, bullet, moulds, copper, pewter,
button, spoon, pan, brass, file, hammer, pincers, tongs. In
like manner the syllable ta comprehends all ruminating ani¬
mals and their parts.
“ The state of small isolated tribes or clans in which the
half-savage nations ^ive will as easily introduce an endless
change of significations. In a family, or amongst the inmates
of the same house, it is quite as easy to make arbitrary expres¬
sions or slang words understood and ultimately accepted of as
an indistinct utterance of the common words. Instead of
father, you may say master, governor, husband, the old one,
and the original word father you may restrict to God. only ;
instead of child you may use any word signifying little or
dear, &c. We have special accounts of two remarkable in¬
stances of the action of this principle among the rude tribes.
One is the superstitious custom of the South Sea islanders, on
the death of a king whose name is composed of a couple of
common words, to abstain altogether from the use of those words
that form his name, and to substitute others. The practice is
either ascribed to a reverence for him, or to some religious
sentiment connected with omens. Such a custom will, of
course, in many instances, lead to a permanent instead of a
temporary change of language. The other fact upon this head
is the sacred languages employed by the conjurors or priests.
As far as this has been accurately found out, for instance, in
the Greenlandic, it seems to be chiefly an arbitrary perver-
L A N G U A G E.
225
Language, sion of the significations of old and known words. It is then
i ^ r ^ the same principle as in Europe has formed any slang, for in¬
stance, among vagrants and thieves. Yet these words of the
conjurors have been so far altered that any double meaning is
sufficiently avoided.
“ From the effect of these causes it appears probable that as
one savage tribe may, from trifling occasions, suddenly split
into two, that separate widely from each other, thus also their
language may, m a comparatively short time, deviate into two
very different dialects. If there were means of investigating
the state of a given language of savages in different periods, it
would perhaps be demonstrable that its formation as a pecu¬
liar dialect, or a variety of speech, does not require those thou¬
sands of years, as one might suppose, who starts from the fact
that a great many Greek and Hebrew words have been pre¬
served uncorrupted for thousands of years, through the influ¬
ence of literature and civilization.”
ON THE LANGUAGES OF AFRICA.
Our data for the investigation of the African languages are
greater than we expect d priori. Many unexplored districts
are known in respect to their philology. This is because mis¬
sionaries, and other investigators, have taken down the accounts
of slaves transported from the more inaccessible portions of the
continent to either localities on the coast, or to America.
The general distribution of the African languages is that of
the languages of the rest of the world, viz., irregular in respect
to the different areas of the different tongues. This means
that sometimes a single form of speech, with either a
paucity of dialects and sub-dialects, or else with a slight
amount of difference between its extreme forms, is spread over
a large extent of country; whereas, on the other hand, a small
tract of land shall contain several mutually unintelligible
tongues. The Berber, the Fulah, and the Kaffir tongues are
remarkable for the ground they cover; all the parts 8. of the
equator, with the exception of the Hottentot, being Kaffir,
and all the parts N. of Negro land, with the exception of the
Arabic and Tibboo districts, being Berber.
The small areas with the greatest number of mutually un¬
intelligible tongues, are the alluvial tracts between the Gambia
and Cape Mount, i.e., the deltas and valleys of the Casamam;a,
Rio Grande, Nunez, &c., then certain districts in Abyssinia.
The areas of moderate or intermediate magnitude are those
of the Haussa, Woloff, Mandingo, &c.
The evidence that all the languages of Africa are related to
each other is, in the mind of the present writer, though not,
perhaps, to the majority of investigators, conclusive. This
rests upon two series of facts'—the accumulation of new
materials and the breaking down of distinctions which a fiast
sight appear more definite and trenchant than they really are.
This latter process has taken place most especially with the
tongues of the extreme N. and the extreme S.
To begin with the former. The languages akin to the
Hebrew and Arabic—Semitic as they are called—were
long either isolated, or, if connected with those of any other
class, connected with the so-called Indo-European forms of
speech. This was on the strength of the higher civilization,
greater historical importance, and superior physical organiza¬
tion of the nations which spoke them. Writers, however,
were not slow to observe that the populations of northern
Africa in general were, to a great extent, possessed of the
same characteristics. Such were the Egyptians, whose lan¬
guage was the Coptic, a language which was one of the first
to be recognized as one exhibiting Semitic characteristics.
This was not doubted. It was only doubted whether the
Coptic was, in the ordinary sense of the word, African.
Then came a language to which the French conquest of
Algeria gave prominence, whilst it also made it accessible; the
language of the Kabyles, Tuaricks, Siwans, and Canary
Islanders. This was recognized, if not as actually Semitic, as
what was designated by the new term, stth-Semitic.
That other tongues, especially those in geographical contact
with the Kabyle (Berber or Amazirgh), were, more or less,
what the Berber was, was shown by even the Berber scholars;
the foremost of whom recognized, in the Hanssa of Sudania,
Berber elements. (See a paper by Francis Newman in the
Appendix to Prichard’s Physical History of Man.
VOL. XIII.
Then came the turn for the tongues to the south of the Language.
Coptic area to be considered as, more or less, Coptic; e.g., the . . J
Bisharye, the Nubian, and the Galla; and, finally, that for
the languages of Abyssinia in contact with the recognized Se¬
mitic tongues (such as the Tigre, Amharic, &c.), but not them¬
selves Semitic. Of these the Agow and Falasha forms of
speech are the chief.
With this relation between the Semitic and sub-Semitic
classes,—a relation made patent by the name itself—the
question as to the relations of the African languages at large
must either remain stationary, or one of two alternatives be
resorted to.
Either languages like the Haussa, Nubian, Agow, &c.,
must lead to the true Negro tongues, or they must be wholly
separated from them. It is not too much to say that, on the
part of the proper Semitic philologues, the tendency was
towards separation. This, however, was impossible. Who¬
ever knew anything of the other African languages knew that
for every step from such languages as the Coptic and Berber,
towards the Hebrew and Arabic, a similar advance could be
made in the opposite direction, i.e, towards the Fellatah,
Mandingo, and Woloff, and through these to the most Negro
languages of the whole continent.
On the South there are the same apparent differences, and
the same abrogation of them ; two languages coming more
especially under notice,—•
1. The Hottentot.—It is doubtful whether the presumed iso¬
lation of the Hottentot forms of speech rests on purely philo-
logic grounds; indeed, it is pretty certain that it does not.
The same is the case with the Semitic and sub-Semitic
tongues, wherein physical difference has as much to do as
glossarial. The contrast between the Bushman, and not only
the so-called higher races in general, but his immediate neigh¬
bours, is great. At the same time there are many more
transitional and intermediate forms than is generally be¬
lieved, especially in the northern parts of the Hottentot area.
The articulate sound described as a click, characterizes
the Hottentot languages. Like most points of phonesis, its
import has been overvalued. It is not limited to the Hot¬
tentot, and would not prove isolation if it were. More than
one Kaffir dialect has it. Then there is a kind of gender in
the Hottentot grammar ; a fact which has led some able philo¬
logists to the preposterous doctrine that it has an affinity with
the more cultivated tongues of Europe. It has some Kaffir
affinities, too, and others (perhaps more numerous) with the
languages N. of the Kaffir area—a matter that should by no
means surprise us, inasmuch as the amount of displacement
along the whole frontier has been great.
The comparison of the scanty specimens of a scanty language
gives us the following miscellaneous Hottentot {H) affinities
with the other languages of Africa (A):—
English
II. S
H ttentot
Corana
A. Agow
Somauli
Km
Kanga
Wawu
English
II. Corana
Bushman
A. Fertit
English
II. Bushman
A. Darfur
English
II. Corana
A. Shilluck
English
II. Corana
Bushman
A. Shilluck
sun.
tkora.
sorre.
sorob.
quorah.
g hurrah.
gruro.
jiro.
jirri.
tongue.
tamma.
t'inn.
timi.
neck.
t’fcau.
kiu.
hand.
t’koam.
kiam.
tree.
peikoa.
thauki.
yuke.
English
H. Corana
A. Falasha
English
II. Corana
A. Bullom
English
II. Corana
A. Kossa
mountain.
teub.
duba.
ear.
i’naum.
naimu.
star.
kambrokoa.
rumbereki.
English bird.
H. Bushman tkanni.
A. Mandingo kuno.
English
II. Corana
Bushman
A. Susu
Howssa
English
H. Corana
Congo.
Somauli
Bushman
sleep.
t'kchom..
t’koing.
kima.
kuana.
fire.
taib.
tubia.
dub.
t'jih.
2 F
226
LANGUAGE.
Language. A. Fot
^ - — / Ashanti
English
H. Bushman
A. Makua
English
II. Corana
Bushman
A. Makua
English
II. Corana
Bushman
A. Makua
English
II. Corana
Hottentot
A. Makua
English
II. Corana
diu.
ojia.
neck.
t'kau.
tchico.
die.
t'koo.
tkuki.
ocoa=dead.
good.
t'kain.
teteini.
oni-touny.
foot.
tnah.
t’noah.
nyahai.
drink.
t’kchaa.
A. llowssa
English
II. Bushman
A. Bagnon
Fulah
English
II. Corana
Bushman
A. Bagnon
Timmani
Bullom
English
II Bushman
sha.
star.
tkoaati.
hoquooud.
kode.
child.
t'koh.
i’katkoang.
colden.
kalent.
tshant.
tree.
t huh.
A. Seracole, &c. itc.
English
H. Corana
Bushman
A. Sereres
foot.
t'keib.
t'koah.
akiaf.
Waag Agau tsab.
In respect to the so-called genders, the following table shows
how little they are those of the European languages. The
forms are simply compounds. They are taken from the Abriss
der Formenlehre der Namaqua- Sprache (Barmen, 1854);
the German ich, dur, &c., being translated into Latin :—
Ta
Ke
Khom )
Khoma J
Z, ze
Ko
Ivko
B, ba
Ku, ka
Kha
MASC.
Ego
nos
nos ambo
I.
FEM.
Ta ego
Se nos
Tm
Tina
nos ambo
Ta
Da
Um
Uma
COM.
ego.
nos.
nos ambo.
tu
VOS
vos ambo
ii ambo
II.
S, se tu
So vos
Ko vos ambo
III.
S, se ea
Ti, te eai
Ita eai amlo
S, se tu.
Do vos.
Ko vos ambo.
T, e is, ea.
If, na ii, eai.
Ka ii (eai) amlo.
Te — mei, mihi, me, mcus, mea, mcum.
Zi — tui, tibi, te, tuus—Masc.
Si tui, tibi, te, tua—Fem.
U = tui, tibi, te, tuus, tua, tuum (?)—Com (?''
Bi — sui, sibi, se, suus, sua, suum.
Si ~ eos, eorum, earum, eorum.
Du = vestrum, vos, vester, vestra, vestrum.
Au-ta
Au-ke
Au-khom
Au-khom
Au-z
Au-ze
Au-ko
Au-kko
Au-b
Au-ba
Au-ku
Au-ka
Au-kha
Masc.
vir ego
vir nos
-»}
viri nos ambo
■ viri tu
viri vos
viri vos ambo
j vir is
]
viri ii ambo
Fem.
Tara-ta1
Tara-se
( Tar-aim
\ Tar-aima
f Tara-s
| Tara-se
Tara-so
Tara-ro
f Tara-s
( Tara sa
I Tara-ti
| Tara-te
Tara-ra
Com.
Koi-ta.3
Koi-da.
Koi-um.
Koi-uma.
Koi-s.
Koi-se.
Koi-do.
Koi-ro.
Koi-i.
Koi-e.
Koi-n.
Koi-na.
Koi-ra.
I Muter ego, &c., as Homo ego.
Homo ego (Alensch), &c., as with the other two.
mao^ t^ie -^ex^con» we find, aub, man; aus, \
man’ woman ; M, man; koiis, y
Of A hereffnc Tlier0 “ ““ eJ‘PreSS
AmeJiif; (2.)fhe o°f p'>»«*****»’-<
According to the former, when two words stand in cert
graminatical relations to one another, the initial letter of the Language,
subordinate is changed to that of the governing term, just as if v. >
we said, in English, bun-beam instead of sun-beam.
According to the latter, every noun has, as its concomitant,
some non-radical^ prefix, so necessary, that when the mis¬
sionaries would introduce such English words as priest or
pharisee, the form they gave them in Kaffir was um-priest,
um-pharisee.
i hese two characteristics give a very remarkable physiognomy
to the language. Doing this, they have a tendency to create
broad and definite lines of demarcation. Hence the separation
between the Semitic tongues on the N. and the inland and
western dialects, is repeated in the S. between the Kaffir and
the non-Kaffir languages.
The ethnological import of the twro characteristics in ques¬
tion has never been very closely considered. They may mean
much ; they may mean little.
Their absence may separate languages, otherwise like, from
the Kaffir; their presence may connect languages otherwise
unlike. So, at least, was the opinion of many investigators;
for the fact suggested is a real one.
Both have been discovered elsewhere. The Timmani is a
language of the parts about Sierra Leone. It is a language of
Northern Africa. That it exhibits the so-called characteristics
of the Kaffir tongues of South Africa, is notified by Bishop
Vidal in the preface to his edition of Crowther’s Toruba
Grammar. Mr Norriss had, by independent researches, ar¬
rived at the same conclusion.
The import of this coincidence is another question. That
the most northern of all the Negro languages, the Wolotf,
exhibited a remarkable series of euphonic initial changes, had
been known since the time of Dard. The WolofF changes,
however, wTere not so Kaffir as the'Timmani.
But there is another series of facts. The language of all the
languages of Africa, wherein the Kaffir characters are at a
minimum, is the Mandingo—at least in the proper Mandingo
dialect. \V riters who have made everything that was Kaffir-
like Kaffir, have still left the Mandingo undisturbed. The
most that has been done towards even approximating it to
Kaffir-like languages has been done by Mr Norriss and Dr
Bleek. The former has suggested the likelihood of the signs
having been lost—obscure traces of them still being discover¬
able. The latter has, at one and the same time, pronounced
the. Grebo dialects to be Mandingo, in respect to the class to
which they belong, and South African (Kaffir) in their structure.
.But the Timmani is connected by its vocabulary with the Man¬
dingo,—not directly, but still as a member of the same class;
that class being one of no inordinate magnitude, and one which
does not contain the Kaffir; one, too, which the geographical
conditions indicate as likely. How does this affect our classi¬
fication ? Much more than it ought to do. The present ten¬
dencies are to make everything Kaffir. True criticism only
tells us to look twice before we allow a single characteristic to
become the basis of a classification. Naturalists know this.
Philologists have yet to learn it. In the mind of the present
writef, the Timmani, and other languages in the same cate¬
gory, are Kaffir, in the way that an eel is a snake, a whale a
fish, or a bat a bird.
There is another preliminary to the classification of the lan¬
guages of Africa. We cannot treat them as w'e treat those of
Europe. Everything in Europe is definite; i.e., it is Latin
or Greek, German or Keltic, Sarmatian or Turkish,—there be¬
ing no such thing as an intermediate, transitional, or equivocal
form. Hence, we can classity by definition, separating tongue
from tongue. In Africa we must classify by type; i.e., group
certain forms of speech round certain others, without being able
to separate the outlying members of one class from the outly¬
ing members of another. This makes the place of many forms
of speech equivocal,—equivocal rather than actually doubtful
or obscure. They may belong to two classes at once.
I hus guarded against the expectation of finding greater de-
finitude than the nature of the inquiry will allow, wre begin
with the parts where Asia and Africa join, and where the
(so-called) Semitic touch the (so-called)—
I. Sub-Semitic form of speech:—
(1.) Berber (which leads to the Haussa, Tibbu, and Bornui.
(2.) Coptic (which leads to the Bishari, Nubian, and Galla.
(3.) The Gafat, Agow, and allied tongues of Abyssinia.
LANGUAGE.
227
II. The Nubian group, containing:—•
{a) The Kensy, Noub, and Barabra of the specimens, the
Dongolawy of Dongola.
(b.) The Koldaji of Kordovan.
(c.) The Shelluk, Denka, Takeli, Tumali, Shabun, and Fer-
tit of the parts to the S. of Kordovan.
(d.) The Furian of Darfur, allied to—
III. The Bisharye, between the Nile and Red Sea; and,
IV. The Fazoglo and Qdmamyl of Bertat.
To the west of Fiarfur follow—.
V. The Borg ho (of Wadai or Darseleh).
VI. The Begharmi.
VII. The Mandara.
VIII. The Bornui or Canoivry group; which will, pro¬
bably, when better known, be more closely connected with each
other, and also with—•
IX. The Tibbu of the eastern part of the desert.
To the W. of Bornu lie the languages of—
X. The Ilaussa ; and—
XL The native language of the parts about Timbuctu.
XII. The Fulah groups, leading to the complex philology
of the languages known to us on the coast of the Atlantic.
Between the southern boundary of the desert and the equator
we find, passing from N. to S.—
XIII. The Wolofoitbe Gambia.
XIV. The Mandingo of the Senegal.
XV. The Felup, &c., for the mouths of the Nunez, Rio
Grande, &c.
XVI. The Grebo or Kru, of the parts about Cape Palmas;
passing through—■
XVII. AveJcvom, of the Ivory Coast, to—
XVIII. The Gold Coast group, containing,—
(a.) The Fanti (Ashanti);
(b.) Acra (Cape Castle) ;
(c.) Whidah (of Dahomey).
Akin to which are—
XIX. The Yoruba.
XX. The Ibo (of the Lower Niger).
XXL The Nufi (of the Tshadda) leading through'—
XXII.-XXIII. The Efik of Old Calabar, and the Fernando
Po language, to—
XXIV. The Empoonga of the Gaboon.
XXV. The Bati of Adamova has miscellaneous affinities
with the language last mentioned, and with—•
XXVI. The great Kaffir class, which reaches to—
XXVII. The Hottentot area. On the E., Kaffir languages
are spoken as far N. as (there or thereabouts) the equator,
where they are conterminous with a transitional form of speech.
XXVIII. The Ulcuafi; and also with—
XXIX. The GaWa, which leads us up to Nubia and Abyssinia.
In the interior, a class of languages spoken by the negroes
of Abyssinia is represented by—
XXX. The Darmichegan; and—
XXXI. The Tacazze vocabularies of the specimens ; and
further inland still, to the S. W. of Abyssinia, we find consti¬
tuting a class conveniently called—•
XXXII. The Gonga, the Raffia, Woratta, Wolaitsa, and
Yangaro forms of speech.
It is not pretended that the value of all these groups is the
same. It is only submitted that there is no African language,
hitherto known (and, with few exceptions, all are known),
which cannot be referred to some of the previous groups. It
is also added, that they have all miscellaneous affinities ; in
other words, there is no such a thing as isolation.
Lhc preceding arrangement is a modification of one laid
before the British Association for the Advancement of Science
in 1844, and expanded (with slight modifications) in 1847,
the original form being as follows. It is given for the sake
of foreshadowing the more complex classification of divisions
and sub-divisions of higher and lower groups, &c., which a
more advanced state of our investigations will require.
o" on16 c^ass> containing the extinct dialects of Egypt.
„ * , e 1 class> containing the non-Arabic languages
of northern Africa.
3. The Hottentot class.
4. The Kaffir class, extending from the limits of the Hot-
tentot country as far northward as Loango, and the River Juba
VV . and E.
5. The fifth and last class, which was left unnamed, fell into Language,
eleven subordinate groups ?—
1. The Nubian group. 7. The Hawssa group.
2. The Galla group. 8. The Mandingo group.
3. The Borgho group. 9. The Woloff group.
4. The Begharmi group. 10. The Fulah group.
5. The Bornu group. 11. The Ibo-Ashanti group.
6. The Mandara group.
Of these groups the ten first were undivided; whilst the
eleventh fell into the following sub-divisions
cc The Fantee division, S The Ibo division.
/3 The Acra division. s The Nufi division,
y The Dahomey division. £ The Yoruba division.
Notwithstanding these sub-divisions, the followinglanguages
remained unplaced :—
1. The Agow dialects. 4. The Sereres.
2. The Bisharye dialects. 5. The Akvambu.
3. The Serawoolli. 6. The Kru.
These last are now distributed as follows:—'The first is sub-
Semitic ; the second allied to the Nubian and Coptic: the
third and fourth Mandingo, with Fulah elements; the fifth
Fanti; the sixth intermediate to the Mandingo and Fanti.
The Mandingo, Kru, Ashanti, Woloff, and Fulah will, pro¬
bably, be brought by future researches more closely together.
That this classification is right in its main elements is ren¬
dered probable by the confirmation it has received from sub¬
sequent investigations. The Folyglotta Africana of Mr Kolle
(published in 1854), as far as it goes—which is to the extent
that specimens collected at Sierra Leone carried the writer—
gives the same groups, though under different names, the in¬
vestigation being (I believe) independent. Thus Kblle’s :—
I. North-western Atlantic languages fall into four groups,
represented by the («.) Felup, (5.) Repel, (c.) Biafada, and (d.)
Timmani languages, respectively, each falling into dialects and.
subdialects.
II. The North-western High Sudan, or Mandingo Ian-,
guages, constitute the second group.
III. The Upper Guinea, or Middle-coast languages, the
third. This means, the forms of speech akin to (a.) the Kru,
(b.) the Dahomey, (c.) the Yoruba.
IV. The North-eastern High Sudan languages are spoken
inland, at the back of the Ashanti country, and along the
eastern range of the Kong Mountains. They are akin to
the (a.) Mosee, (b.) Kouri, (c.) Koama, and (d.) Yula forms of
speech.
V. The Niger-delta group falls into the (a.) Isoama, (b.)
Soho, and (c.) Okuloma divisions.
VI. The Niger-Tshadda languages as those akin to the
Nufi.
VII. The Central African division contains the languages
allied to (a.) the Bornui, and (b.) the Pika.
In Part II. we have the South African languages distin¬
guished by an initial inflection, as has been already stated. It
excludes the Hottentot, and includes the Old Calabar, Came¬
roon and Gaboon languages. Doing this, it coincides with the
so-called Kaffir class of tongues, in its latest form, i.e., in the
form it has taken since it was shown that the Poongwe, the
Isubu, the Efik, and other languages, exhibit a similar series of
initial changes to those of the Kaffir and Bichuana.
There are of course some differences of detail; the main
groups, however, are the same. The first is one for which de¬
tails were especially wanted. The fourth also is important.
It should probably form a separate substantive division of the
group called Ibo-Ashanti.
If the foregoing is what the writer believes it to be, viz., the
sketch of the classification into which the languages of Africa
ought to fall, it is far from being that which the very newest
investigations have suggested. The very newest investigations
are those of which Mr Norriss, Dr Bleek,and Mr Kolle are the
chief representatives; and, in a less degree, perhaps, Professor
Lepsius. It is the overvaluation of the Kaffir characteristics
(along with certain other points of less importance) that makes
these arrangements exceptionable; and it is this against which
the preliminary criticism of the previous pages is directed.
Lest it should be thought unnecessary, I subjoin the follow¬
ing table from Dr Bleek’s paper, De Nominum Generibus: —
LANGUAGE
228
Language.
LINGUA MATER
in qua pronomina e nominum particulis derivativis petita sunt, ideoque nomina
in genera dispersa quse cum naturae discriminibus non congruunt.
Language.
Magna stiups Africa australis
in qua sedecim genera; quorum duo ad sola
hominum nomina restricta sunt.
Pamilia australis
quae tria genera amisit, n^;
numeri discrimen satis
observat.
Familia septentrionalis
quae sedecim ilia genera omnia
retinuit, numerique discrimen
melius observat.
Stirps sexualis
in qua quodque genus et ad sexus et ad numeri discrimen
inclinat. Sic octo saltern genera distinguuntur:
masculina : singulare, plurale, duale ;
feminina: singulare, plurale;
communia: singulare, plurale, duale.
Kaffri
CUANI
Familia septentrionalis
quae commune singulare et
utrumque duale genus amisit.
Hottentoti
Koran
qui communi sin¬
gular! carent.
Namah
apud quos
octo ilia
genera.
(Indo-Germani)
Semito-Africani
COPTI
qui tria genera pluralia in unum confuderunt.
SEMITiB
apud quos, si suffixis significantur, ejus-
dem numeri genera nonnunquam indis-
tincta sunt; sin praefixis, ejusdem sexus
genera semper coaluere. Communis plu-
ralis nota praecipue masculino contigit.
Gall^ei [Seho]
apud quos, si suffixis significantur, genera
feminina singulare et plurale indistincta
sunt: neque minus pluralia masculinum
et commune in uuum coaluere.
[Sin prasfixis significaptur, ejusdem
sexus genera semper coaluere.]
Berberi
apud quos ejusdem sexus genera coal¬
uere. Communis pluralis notae sola
numeri notio mansit.
One of the best measures of the truth of a principle, is to
he found in the result to which it leads. Here we have one,
which, separating the Hottentots from the Kaffirs, connects
them with the Egyptians, Algerians (Berberi), Gallas, Jews,
and Arabs (Semitae), and, finally (though more indirectly),
with the Sclavonians, Germans, Greets, and Latins (Indo-Ger¬
mani). This is what it comes to when we classify on the
strength of a single characteristic. The actual details of the
ethnographical philology of Africa are important. The prin¬
ciple, however, on which investigators arrive at them is much
more so.
To conclude : The preface of a work, not two months old,—
The Languages of the Mozambique, or Vocabularies of the
Dialects of Lourenzo Marques, Inhambame, Sofala, &c.,
from the MSS. of Dr Peters, by Dr Bleek,—contains the fol¬
lowing passage: “ The languages of these vocabularies all
belong to that great family which, with the exception of the
Hottentot dialects, includes the whole of South Africa, and
most of the tongues of Western Africa, &c. If so, and if
the table be equally accurate, the affinities of the Bushman
are with the Parisian, the Londoner, and the Athenian, rather
than with the Negro of the Gold Coast, or Sierra Leone.
It is the old error—a bat has wdngs, therefore it is a bird ;
an oyster lives in the sea, therefore it is a fish; and so on through
the whole range of possible misnomers.
On the so-called Indo-European Class.
As this stands, it contains, according to all authorities, the
Keltic, the German, the Sarmatian, the Classical (the Latin
and Greek), and Sanscrit groups. To these many (perhaps
most) add the Armenian and Ossete ; some the Albanian. In
respect to the import of these terms, the ordinary views make
Gothic and German nearly synonymous, and Sanscrit the
name of a language of Asiatic origin, to which the Zend was
allied, and out of which and its congeners some Indian and
Persian forms of speech have been developed, and to which
they are allied, as the Italian, &c., is to the Latin. The
greater part of this is believed by the present writer to rest on
an illegitimate amount of assumption.
Firstly, that the Keltic was not isolated, but allied to the
German, Sclavonic, &c., was shown by Dr Prichard, and ex¬
cellent service he did in showing it. But that it is allied to
these tongues, as they are to each other, has never been shown.
Yet this is whaHs wanted, in order to make an addition to a
class without raising its value. This, however, should never
be done without consideration. The principle upon which the
value of a class is raised, in order to admit one addition, may
be extended so far that, by successive increases of value, it may
be no class at all; as the so-called Indo-European class is in a
fair way of becoming. Good reasons can be given for limiting
rather than widening it. It can, of course, when thus limited,
be subordinated to some other.
Secondly, In respect to the German division, a vast super¬
structure totters as soon as we inquire for evidence to the as¬
sumed fact of any German population whatever having been
called Goth anterior to its settlement in the country of the
Get®. No such evidence exists. On the contrary, the Ger¬
mans were Goths as they were Britons, i.e., occupants of Bri¬
tish soil, but no Britons at all—nor yet Goths.
Thirdly, The philological evidence of the Sanscrit being of
Asiatic origin is that of the Latin of Spain having been His-
panian ; certainly no better. It consists in the fact of its ap¬
pearing on the soil at an early (admittedly a very early)
period ; a literature indigenous to the Indian soil having ex¬
isted in it, along with inscriptions, and a certain amount of in¬
fluence upon the later language. In India, the appearance of
the Sanscrit on the soil is earlier than that of the Latin in Spain.
On the other hand, no one has doubted the Latin origin of the
Spanish language, whilst more than one competent judge has
doubted the Sanscrit origin of the Plindui, Bengalee, &e. Yet
we know from history that the Latin of Spain was not only not
indigenous to the Peninsula, but that it was not even derived
from the next country. All that rests upon legitimate in¬
ference, in respect to the Sanscrit in India, are the facts of its
early introduction and the greatness of its subsequent influence.
Its Indian origin, its Persian origin, and the like, are all based
upon covert, but undue, assumptions.
Akin to these are the explanations of the affinity between
the Sanscrit on the one side, and the Lithuanic, Slavonic,
Latin, Greek, and German on the other. The latter are de¬
duced from Asia, i.e., five species of a genus are deduced from
the scite of one, instead of the one from the scite of the other
five. This is all improbable, except so far as it can be shown
that the Dnieper and Danube are nearer to the Indus and
Ganges than the Ganges and Indus are to the Danube and
Dnieper.
The Asiatic origin of the Greek, Latin, Lithuanic, Slavonic,
German, and Keltic, has been assumed at once, without any
consideration whatever of the other alternative, viz., the Euro¬
pean origin of the Sanscrit. This is over-hasty.
The recent deductions from the Ossete, and its Indo-European
affinities, verify what has been said concerning the Keltic.
Whatever the Ossete is, the Georgian is also ; and the Georgian
has been made Indo-European. But what the Georgian is, the
Circassian is; which is more Chinese than Greek, more Tibetan
than Latin, more Burmese than German. Classifications of
this kind prove too much.
It is held that the class in question is most conveniently
limited to (1.) the German; (2.) the Classical (Greek and
LAN
LAN
229
Latin); (3.) the Sarmatian; and (4.) the Sanscrit groups,—
the two last, perhaps, belonging to the same division.
At any rate, the principles upon which the ordinary division
has been formed, along with its name, and many important de¬
tails in the way of fact, require revision.
Gessner,Mithridates de Differentiis Linguarum, Zurich, 1555, 8vo;
Megiser, Specimen XL. Linguarum, 1592; Duret, Tkresor de VHis-
toire des Langues, 4to; Liideken (Muller), Specimina Linguarum,
Berl. 1680 ; (Jhamberlayne, Oratio Dominica, Amst. 1715 ; Schultz,
Orientalischer und Occidentalischer Sprachmeister, Leipz. 1748;
Hervas, Saggio, Hervas, Idea delV Universo, Cesenn. 1778-87, vols.
xvii.-xxi. 4to; Vocabularia Comparativa, 2 vols. 4to, Petersburg,
1787, 4 vols. 1790 ; Bergmann, Specimina, Ruicn, 1789 ; Marsden s
Catalogue of Dictionaries and Grammars, 1796 ; Marcel, Oratio Do¬
minica, Paris, 1805; Adelung und Vater, Mithridates, oder Allege-
meine Sprachkunde, 4 vols. 8vo, Berlin, 1806-17 ; Le Pileur, Ta¬
bleaux Synoptiques de Mots similaires, 8vo, Paris and Amst. 1812 ;
Jamieson’s Hermes Scythicus, 8vo, Edin. 1814 ; Townsend’s Char¬
acter of Moses, vol. ii., 4to, Bath, 1815; Leyden, Asiatic Researches,
x.: Brief View of the Baptist Missions and Transactions, 8vo, Lond.
1815 ; Vater, Index Linguarum totius Orhis, 8vo, Berl. 1815 ; V ater,
Prohen Deutscher Mundarten ; Seetzens Nachlass, 8vo, Leipz. 1816;
Arndt, Ursprung und Verwandtschaft der Europdischen Sprachen,
8vo, Frankfort, 1818, compared with the Russian; Volney, sur
I’Etude Philosophique des Langues, 2d edit,, 8vo, Paris, 1820, la¬
ments that he has not the happiness to understand German.
Bopp, Vergleichende Grammatik; Grimm, Deutsche Sprache;
Deutsche Grammatik, &c.; Jiilg, Supplement to the Mithridates)
Humboldt (K. W. von), Ueher die Kawi Sprache; Craufurd’s
Indian Archipelago; Malay Dictionary (Introduction) ; Klaproth, Languag
Asia Polyglotta; Hodgson, chiefly in Journal of the Asiatic So- ||
ciety of Bengal (for India, Nepaul, Tibet); Logan, in Journal of Lanzi.
Asiatic Society (for the Malayan Peninsula and Indian .Archi- V..—
pelago); Rask, Om Zendsprogets og Zendavestas Aide og Agthed,
&c. For the Fin branch, consult works of Sjogren and Castren
(the latter most especially); Samojed Grammar; Ostiak Grammar;
also papers in the Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences of
Berlin, by Schott, Gabelentz, &c.; Prichard, Eastern Origin of the
Celtic Nations ; Kcelle, Polyglotta Africana; Newman (Francis W.),
Berber Grammar, and short papers; Hard, Grammaire Wolofe;
Schbn, Haussa Grammar; Manbrair, Mandingo do.; Crowther, Yor-
uba do., and Fulah do. ; Tutschek, Grammar of the Galla, and of
the Tumah Language; Latham, Report in Transactions of British
Association, 1847 (Africa); Riis, Grammatik der Odschi (Ashanti)
Sprache; Grammars of the Bakele, and other languages akin to the
Kafirs, by the American Missionaries of the Gaboon station; Rev.
J. Mackay, Grammar of the Banga Language; Boyce, Kafir Gram¬
mar) Archbell, Bechuana Grammar) Koelle, Bornu Grammar; Dr
Bleek, De Nominum Generibus Linguarum Africa;, Australis, Copticce,
Semiticarum, aliarumque sexualium) Appleyard, The Kafir Lan¬
guage, &c.; Krapf, Outline of Elements of the Kesuaheli Language.
For America, see Ludvig, Bibliotheca Glottica; Gallatin, Trans¬
actions of the American Ethnological Society, vols. i. and ii.; Ameri¬
can Archaeological Society, vol. ii. Hale, Philology to the United
States Exploring Expedition ; Travels of Prince Maximilian of Neu-
uiied, and of Castelnau (chiefly for Brazil); D’Orbingy, L'homme
Americain; Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes; Squier, Nicaragua and
Central America (Spanish edition), for Honduras ; Seeman, Voyage
of the Herald (for the Isthmus of Darien). (t. y.) (r. o. l.)
LANGUEDOC, (the ancient Narbonensis Primd), an
old province of the S. of France, of which Toulouse was the
capital, now forming the departments of Haute-Loire, Lozere,
Ardeche, Gard, Herault, Aude, and Tarn, the greater
part of Haute-Garonne, and a part of Tarn-et-Garonne.
As a Roman province, it enjoyed the freedom of Italy.
It formed part of Gallia Narbonensis, but, in the middle
ages, was known as Septimania from the seven cathedral
churches which it contained. From the hands of the
Romans, it passed into the possession of the Goths; and,
being wrested from them, it was occupied by the Saracens
till 725, when they were expelled by Charles Martel. It
afterwards came under the sway of Philip the Bold, and
became a part of the French kingdom in 1361. During
the old Bourbon monarchy, Languedoc had a kind of par¬
liament of its own, of which the archbishop of Narbonne
was the perpetual president. The canal of Languedoc is
153 miles in length, commencing in the Garonne, near
Toulouse, and terminating in the Lake of Thau and the
Mediterranean. See France.
LANNION (the ancient Lanium), a town and river-
port of France, capital of a cognominal arrondissement in the
department of C6tes-du-Nord, on the right bank of the Guer,
near its mouth, 35 miles W.N.W. from St Brieuc. It has
manufactures of linen fabrics, leather, hats, ropes, and refined
wax; and carries on a trade in flax, hemp, thread, corn,
cider, wine, timber, and colonial produce. Its harbour admits
vessels of a burthen less than 200 tons. Pop. (1851) 6075.
LANTAO, a small island of China, at the mouth of the
Canton River, about 10 miles W. of Ilong Kong. It is 15
miles in length from E. to W., by 5 in breadth; has a very
uneven surface, and a coast indented by numerous bays.
LANUVIUM, now Civita Lavinia, an old and impor¬
tant city of Latium, on the Appian Way, about 20 miles S. of
Rome. Tradition describes it as a colony from Alba, but
it first rose to importance in the fifth century b.c., when it
took part against Rome as one of the thirty cities of the
Latin League. After this date its name does not again ap¬
pear in history, till, in the long wars between Rome and the
Alqui and Volsci, it is found siding with Rome. For some
unexplained reason, it changed sides in b.c. 383, but was
leniently treated by its old ally at the end of the war. In
the great Latin war, b.c. 340, it again took part against Rome,
and, in the general settlement at the close of hostilities, it
obtained the Roman civitas, but without the suffragium.
At a later period it obtained the suffrage also. After the
time of Cicero, Lanuvium became a mere municipal town,
and was only important as the chief seat of the worship of
Juno Sospita, whose rites were celebrated first by the
Lanuvians, and afterwards by the Romans, with great pomp
and splendour. Lanuvium was the birthplace of the Em¬
peror Antoninus Pius, who often went to live there, as did
also his successors, M. Aurelius and Commodus. The little
town of Civita Lavinia occupies part of the site of the old
Lanuvium. Some shapeless ruins in the neighbourhood
are supposed to mark the site of the temple of Juno; and
a small portion of a theatre has also been brought to light.
LANZEROTE. See Canary Islands.
LANZI, Luigi, a celebrated Italian archaeologist, and the
historian of Italian art, was born in 1732, at Monte dell’
Almo (Ulmodunum), near Fermo, in the States of the
Church. He was carefully trained at home, and made great
and rapid progress, especially in the classics. Cicero was his
favourite author. He used to boast that he knew nearly all
his works off by heart. In his eighteenth year he joined the
Jesuits, studied at their college in Fermo under the cele¬
brated Boscovich, taught publicly in various schools, and
made himself a considerable name as a teacher and elegant
writer. When the order of Jesus was suppressed, he
adopted the career of letters. In 1775, Leopold, Grand
Duke of Tuscany, made him sub-director, and, in the follow¬
ing year, antiquario, or conservator, of the Florentine Gal¬
lery. The next six years of his life were spent in preparing
his Guida della Galleria di Firenze, in which the history
of the objects in the collection is traced with great learning
and critical skill, and, at the same time, so agreeably as to
interest the mere pleasure-seeker. In 1789 he published
his Saggio di lingua Etrusca. Flis design in this essay
was to draw the attention of scholars to the archaeology of
Tuscany; and he may be said by it to have created this
difficult branch of erudition. Before his day native anti¬
quarians had been in the habit of elevating the civilization of
Etruria, by maintaining that its religion and mythology owed
nothing to Grecian influence. Lanzi, taking a different
230 LAN
Lanzerote view, claimed a Greek origin for both, and bis opinion has
k | been followed by continental scholars. His Saggio was a
v J C0(^'/ work of immense erudition and research, and placed him
v at the head of the antiquarians of modern Italy. In the
course of his wanderings through Italy in quest of materials
for these works, Lanzi had conceived the idea of a general
history of Italian art. He was encouraged in the idea by
his old friend and colleague, Tiraboschi, who had some time
before completed his own history of Italian literature. The
Storia Pittorica della Italia came in time to supply a
want that had long been felt. There was no general history
ot painting, and the histories of particular epochs, as well as
the biographies of individual artists, merely recorded the
private opinions and prejudices of their authors. They
were all partial, and without method, or a philosophical
standard of taste and criticism. Lanzi, following out the
plan of Winckelmann, gives a separate history of each
school. After giving its general character, he distinguishes
it into three, four, or more epochs, according as its style
underwent changes with the change of taste, in the same
way that the eras of civil history are deduced from revolu¬
tions in governments, or other remarkable, events. A few
celebrated painters, who swayed the public taste, and gave
a new tone to the art, are placed at the head of each epoch ;
and their style is particularly described, because the general
and characteristic taste of the age was formed upon their
models. Their immediate pupils and other disciples follow
the great masters ; and, without a repetition of the general
character, reference is made to what each has borrowed,
altered, or added to the style of the founder of the school.
This method, though not susceptible of strict chronological
order, is much better adapted to a history of art than etther
an alphabetic arrangement or a body of separate lives.
I he first portion of the Storia Pittorica, containing the
schools of Low’er Italy—that is, the Florentine, Sienese,
Homan, and Neapolitan schools—w'as published in 1792.
The publication of the rest of the work was delayed by the
author’s bad health, and only appeared in 1796, at Bassano,
whither he had gone to recruit. There is a good translation
of it in English by Thomas Roscoe. When the French be¬
came masters of that part of Italy, Lanzi retired to Treviso,
and afterwards to Udine. In the latter city he remained till
1801, when he returned to Florence, and resumed his duties
in the ducal gallery. Soon after his return, he was made
president of the Cruscan Academy. His next literary
undertaking was three dissertations upon Ancient Painted
Vases, commonly called Etruscan, which he followed up
with his learned and pleasantly written Inscriptionum ct
Carminum libri tres. Among his latest productions may
be mentioned his edition of Hesiod’s Works and Days, with
valuable notes, and a translation in tcrza rima. It had been
begun as far back as 1785 ; but was re-cast and completed
in 1808. The list of his works closes with his Opere Sucre,
a series of treatises on spiritual subjects. Lanzi himself
attached more importance to these than to any other of his
writings, and w’as often heard to say that he would gladly
renounce all kind of literary honours for the pleasure of
being assured that his sacred works had in any degree pro¬
moted the cause of Christianity. Lanzi died of apoplexy,
March 30, 1810, in the seventy-eighth year of his age.
lie was buried in the church of the Santa Croce at Flo¬
rence, by the side of Michael Angelo.
LAOCOON, in ancient mythology, a Trojan hero, was
- Fiest of Apollo, or, according to some, of Neptune.
While the 1 rojans wrere hesitating whether they should
convey into the city the wooden horse wdnch the Greeks
had left at their pretended departure, Laocoon urged them
to destroy it, and, at the same time, pierced its side with
his lance. The horse had been consecrated to Minerva, who
punished the saci ilege. Soon after, when Laocoon was sacri¬
ficing a bullock to Neptune on the shore, two enormous ser-
L A O
pents issued from the sea, and attacked his two sons, standing Laodices.
beside the altar, f he father, rushing to their aid, was like- ^ mr
wise involved in their coils, and all three perished. This
story, so often sung by ancient poets, is interesting to us,
chiefly from being the subject of a magnificent piece of
sculpture, which was found, in 1506, among the ruins of
the palace of litus, was bought by Pope Julius II., and
placed in the Vatican. It represents three persons (of
whom the middle one, Laocoon, is the tallest) struggling
in the folds of two monster serpents, and with intense
visible in all parts ot their bodies. According to
Pliny, with whose description it has been identified, it is
the work of three Rhodian sculptors, Agesander, Polydorus,
and Athenodorus, and stood in the palace of Titus. He
also supposes it to have been made out of one stone, but
minute examination can discover five pieces, artfully joined
together. The right arm of Laocoon, which was wanting
when the group was dug up, has been skilfully replacecf.
The date of the work is not fixed. Lessing places it in the
reign of Titus, and Winckelmann in the time of Lysippus
and Alexander. This group has been made the subject of
an essay by Lessing, and has been described by Heyne
and others.
LAODICEA, a name common to four places,—one in
the western part of Phrygia, on the borders of Lydia; a
second in the eastern part of the same country, denomi¬
nated Laodicea Combusta; a third on the coast of Syria,
called Laodicea ad Mare, and serving as the port of Alep¬
po; and a fourth in the same country, called Laodicea ad
Libanum, from its proximity to that mountain. The first-
named, lying on the confines of Phrygia and Lydia, about
40 miles E. of Ephesus, is the Laodicea of Scripture.
Laodicea was the capital of Greater Phrygia, and is sup¬
posed to have received its name from Laodice, wife of An-
tiochus Theos. Before this time it had been called Dios-
polis and Rhoas. It was a very considerable city at the
time it was named in Scripture (Strabo, p. 578) ; but the
frequency of earthquakes, to which this district has always
been liable, demolished, some ages after, great part of the
city, destroyed many of the inhabitants, and eventually
obliged the remainder to abandon the spot altogether.
Smith, in his Journey to the Seven Churches (1671), was
the first to describe the site of Laodicea. He was followed'
by Chandler and Pococke; and the locality has, within the.
present century, been visited by Mr Hartley, Mr Arundell,
and Colonel Leake.
Laodicea is now a deserted place, called by the Turks
Eski-hissar (old castle), a Turkish word equivalent to Paleo-
kastro, which the Greeks so frequently apply to ancient sites.
From its ruins, Laodicea seems to have been situated upon
six or seven hills, taking up a large extent of ground. Tt>
the N. and N.E. runs the River Lycus, about a mile and a
half distant; but nearer it is watered by two small streams,
the Asopus and Caprus, the one to the W., and the other
to the S.E., both passing into the Lycus, which last flow’s
into the Mmander (Smith, p. 85).
Laodicea preserves great remains of its importance as the
residence of the Roman governors of Asia under the em¬
perors,—namely, a stadium, in uncommon preservation;
three theatres, one of which is 450 feet in diameter; and
the ruins of several other buildings (Antiq. of Ionia, part ii.,
p. 32 ; Chandler’s Asia Minor, c. 67). Colonel Leake says,
“ There are few ancient sites more likely than Laodicea to
preserve many curious remains of antiquity beneath the sur¬
face of the soil; its opulence, and the earthquakes to which
it was subject, rendering it probable that valuable works of
art were often there buried beneath the ruins of the public
and private edifices (Cicero, Epist. ad Amic., ii. 17; in. 5;
v. 20. Tacit. Annul., xiv. 27). And a similar remark,
though in a lesser degree, perhaps, will apply to the other
cities of the vale of the Mmander, as well as to some of
LAO
Laodicea those situated to the N. of Mount Tmolus; for Strabo
II (pp. 579, 628, 630) informs us that Philadelphia, Sardis,
Lapidary. an(] Magnesia of Sipylus, were, not less than Laodicea and
the cities of the Majander, as far as Apameia, at the sources
of that river, subject to the same dreadful calamity” {Geo¬
graphy of Asia Minor, p. 253).
Laodicea ad Make. See Latakia.
LA ON {Landunum, or Lugdunum clavatum), a city of
France, and capital of the department of Aisne, stands on
an almost isolated hill, commanding an extensive view over
the surrounding plain, 74 miles N.E. from Paris. The town
is surrounded by old walls and ramparts. Among its public
buildings are the noble cathedral of Notre Dame, built in
the twelfth century, and surmounted by two square towers ;
the church of St Martin, and the Hotel de Prefecture,
established in the ancient Abbey of St Jean. There are
also the Hotel Dieu, a library containing 20,000 volumes,
and a college. Corn and wine form the staples of its trade,
and woollen cloths, blankets, hats, and worsted caps are its
principal manufactures. Laon is the see of a bishop. Under
the early French kings it was a place of note, and was the
last possession of the Carlovingian dynasty. In 1411 it was
captured by the Duke of Burgundy; the English took it in
1419, and lost it in 1429. In 1594 it surrendered to Henry
IV.; and in 1814 it was the scene of the defeat of the F rench
under Marmont, by the allied army under Bliicher. Pop.
(1851) 8043.
LAOS, a country in S.E. Asia, extending from N. Lat.
15. to 24., and E. Long. 96. to 103., bounded N. by China,
W. by the Birman Empire, E. by Cochin-China, and S. by
Cochin-China and Siam. Little is known of this extensive
country, or its inhabitants, by Europeans. Numerous
mountain-chains traverse it from N. to S., forming an equal
number of valleys, through which the rivers flow. These
rivers (the principal of which are the Saluen, the Mack-
haun, and the Menam), from their frequent overflowings,
form extensive swamps in the plains. The soil, however,
in these level tracts is fertile, produces rice, cotton, tea, and
other fruits, and is covered in many parts by extensive and
luxuriant forests. The mountains contain gold, silver, iron,
and copper, and some tin and lead have also been discovered.
Of wild animals, the tiger and the rhinoceros are the most
numerous. The history of the people is very obscure.
About the end of the eighteenth century they were subject
to the Birmans. Since that time, although yielding a no¬
minal submission to China, they have been gradually re¬
gaining their freedom, and are now under a number of
small native governments. Though speaking the same
language, the various tribes differ considerably in civiliza¬
tion and character. The divisions of Laos are three—
Upper Laos, the northern ; Lactho, the middle ; and Lan-
chang, the south-eastern part. Kemalatain is the capital of
the first; Zaenmae, or Changmai, the capital of the second ;
and Lanchang is said to be the capital of the third. A con¬
siderable commerce is carried on by the natives with Cbina,
Burmah, and Siam. They export cattle, fruits, precious
stones, gold, silver, cotton, wool, lac, rhinoceros’ horns,
ivory, benzoin, hides, and tiger skins, salt, and silk stuffs.
I he chief articles imported are iron-ware, sandal-wood,
chintzes, opium, musk, and chowry tails. They have a na¬
tional literature, and are Buddhists in religion. Except for
the purposes of trade, they have little communication with
foreigners.
LAI ID ALA, a name given to the artist or artisan whose
business it is to cut, grind, and polish gems, small stones,
&c., for the purposes of jewellery, and also for mineralogical
specimens. 1 he name, derived from lapidarius, pertaining
to stones (from lapis, a stone), would seem to include the
various modes of working or finishing stones in general; the
technical use of the word, however, is limited as above
noticed.
LAP 231
Minerals differ greatly in the physical property of hard- Lapidary.
ness ; and this is so marked a feature, that a scale has been
formed in which certain well-known minerals are arranged
as standards of comparison ; they increase gradually in
hardness from No. 1 in the scale, represented by talc, which
is very easily cut, to No. 10, the diamond, which nothing
will cut. No. 2 is compact gypsum, No. 3, calc-spar; No.
4, fluor-spar; No. 5, apatite ; No. 6, felspar ; No. 7, quartz ;
No. 8, topaz ; No. 9, sapphire.*
Stones are usually cut or polished by means of harder
stones, in the form of powder, applied to the edge, or on the
surface of certain disks of metal, wood, &c., revolving hori¬
zontally, on vertical axes, and called mills. The annexed
figure represents the lapidary’s bench, consisting of a stout
plank, supported on a frame. The top is formed into two
unequal compartments, and a rim rises above it to prevent
the dispersion of the waste emery and water. In the com¬
partment A is a hole and collar, through which passes the
vertical spindle of the driving-wheel W, which is about 18
inches in diameter, and is worked by the handle represented
in A. In the compartment B is another vertical spindle,
carrying the mill M, which is 8 or 9 inches in diameter, and
also the pulley P, which causes it to revolve by its connec¬
tion, by means of a cord, with W. D is a square wooden
rod, supporting a horizontal iron arm, in which the top
conical end of the spindle works. At C is an iron support,
called a gim-peg, or germ-peg, the use of which is to support
the arm of the workman in grinding the edges of small
stones, and also as a guide for the vertical angle in cutting-
facets, for which purpose a wooden socket C is slipped oveV
the upper part of the peg, and held by a wedge, while holes
or notches in the side of the socket enable the operator to
place at the proper angle the stick S, upon which is cemented
the stone to be cut.
Diamond powder is preferred as the cutting material
even where sand or emery might be employed. It does
its work far more rapidly than any other material; it lasts
much longer, it can be used with very thin plates, which
not only expedite the process, but waste much less of the
material in the cutting than thick sheers. Diamond powder
is prepared from hort, as diamond fragments are called or
from imperfect stones ; they are crushed in a mortar of hard
steel, a process rendered easy by the brittleness consequent
on the crystalline structure of the diamond. If not made
sufficiently fine by this means, the powder is mixed with oil
of brick, placed on a flat piece of iron, and worked with an¬
other piece of iron as a muller.
The sheer is of planished iron, 8 or 9 inches in diameter,
and 5Joth of an inch in thickness. The diamond powder
is formed into a paste with oil of brick, and is applied to
232
LAP
Lapis-
Lazuli
the edge of the sheer with a piece of stick or a slitted quill,
and the particles of diamond are pressed into the iron with
ii a piece of agate or flint applied to the edge. Ihis season-
Laplace. ^ as it is wiH last several hours. The stone to be
cut’is applied lightly to the edge of the sheer, which, to
prevent heating, is made to revolve with moderate velocity
by turning the handle, shown in A; the sheer during the
cutting being well supplied with oil of brick.
The flat surfaces produced in the above arrangement,
which is called a slitting-mill, are ground upon what is
called a roughing-mill, which consists of a lead lap, charged
with emery and water. It is polished in the polisJimg-
mill, on a lead or pewter lap, supplied with rotten-stone and
water.
When a stone is to be worked into a definite shape, a
pattern is cut out in card, and this being laid upon the
stone, the outline is marked with ink. The stone is then
roughly worked into shape by means of flat nippers of sott
iron. The stone is then cemented to a stick, and the ex¬
posed portion is ground by holding the stick upon a flat
mill, and imparting to the stone certain peculiar motions,
which are well understood by working lapidaries, who pro¬
duce rounded, elliptical, and other faces and edges, with sur¬
prising accuracy. The numerous forms of facetting are
performed with the assistance of the gim-peg, as already
explained.
Diamonds are, for the most part, cut at Amsterdam, where
the steam-engine is used to give motion to the mills, (c. T.)
LAPIS-LAZULI. See Mineralogy.
LAPITHES, in Grecian mythology, the son of Apollo
and Stilbe, was the brother of Centaurus, and the husband
of Orsinome, daughter of Euronymus. From him the de¬
scendants of his sons, Periphas and Phorbas, who dwelt
among the mountains of Thessaly, were called the Lapithae,
and the name was afterwards extended to all the inhabitants
of the country under their rule. The most notable event
in their history was their quarrel with the Centaurs. See
Centauri.
LAPLACE, Pierre Simon, Marquis de, the greatest
of recent physicists, was born March 23, 1749, at Beaumont,
near Pont 1’Eveque, in Lower Normandy. His father, a
small farmer in the Vallee d’Auge, was too poor to send
him to school, but some rich friends took an interest in the
young scholar and sent him to the college of Caen, and
afterwards to the military school of Beaumont. Though
mathematics were at this time his favourite study, he seems
to have paid a good deal of attention to theology. In his
eighteenth year he went to Paris, furnished with introduc¬
tions to D’Alembert and others. D’Alembert took no no¬
tice of his letter, till Laplace sent him an essay involving
some of the higher principles of mathematics, when he in¬
vited him to his house, and shortly afterwards procured him
a mathematical mastership in the military school of Paris.
Laplace soon justified his choice by his papers read before
the Academy of Sciences, of which, in 1773, he became an
associate, and in 1785 a member. Before he was thirty
years of age he had begun that career of discovery which
only terminated with his life. It is not necessary here to
recapitulate the details of his studies and their results, which
are given in full in the Preliminary Dissertations of Sir
John Leslie and Professor J. D. Forbes. When the Revo¬
lution broke out, Laplace became ambitious of political dis¬
tinction. In 1796 he was one of the deputation which, in
presence of the Council of Five Hundred, swore eternal
hatred against royalty. A little later he dedicated to this
same body his Exposition dn Systems du Monde. On the
return of General Bonaparte from his campaigns in Italy,
Laplace paid his court to him and secured his admission into
the Institute. His good will was rewarded at a later period
with the portfolio of the interior. But, as Napoleon after¬
wards said, “ he carried into government the principles of
LAP
the calculus,” and managed matters so ill, that after six wreeks Laplace,
of office it was found necessary to promote him to a sinecure
in the senate. This occurred in 1799. Four years later
he was made successively vice-president and chancellor of
that body. Though he had sworn eternal hatred against
kings and tyrants, he cheerfully took the oath of allegiance
to Napoleon when he mounted the throne in 1804. Plis
complaisance was rewarded with numerous honours. He
received the grand-cordon of the Legion of Honour in 1805,
the title of count in 1806, the cross of grand-officier of
the Legion of Honour in 1813, with many other distinc¬
tions. Yet when his benefactor’s power began to wane,
Laplace was among the first who voted for the overthrow
of the imperial throne, and the restoration of the Bourbons.
He even displayed a spirit of pusillanimous ingratitude to
his fallen patron. He had dedicated to him, in very fulsome
terms, his Theorie des Probabilites ; in 1814, on the down¬
fall of the empire, he suppressed this dedication. Shame
or remorse for this time-serving may perhaps have pre¬
vented him from visiting the Tuileries during the Hun¬
dred Days. It is all the more creditable to him, however,
that he did not go, as he had been assured of a kindly wel¬
come. He carried a somewhat similar spirit into his writ¬
ings, in which he withheld nearly all mention of any who
had preceded him in his own branch of science, though
liberal enough of praise to the great names in other depart¬
ments of inquiry. On this point, however, it is unneces¬
sary to dwell, as it has been already discussed in Professor
Forbes’ Dissertation. In 1816 Laplace was named by
Louis XVIII. president of a commission for the reorgani¬
zation of the Polytechnic School, and in the following year
became president of the Academy of Sciences. Before this
date he had been elected a member of all the leading learned
societies of Europe. At the time of his death, March 5,
1827, exactly a century after that of Newton, he had nearly
completed his 78th year. The last words he was heard to
utter were, “ Ce que nous savons est peu de choses ; ce
que nous ignorons est immense.”
The following list of Laplace's works is taken chiefly from La
France Litteraire, by M. Querard, and includes not only his sepa¬
rate publications, hut also numerous memoirs, with which, during
a period extending to rather more than half a century, he enriched
the collections of the Academy and the Institute, and the Journal
of the Polytechnic School:—
1. Essai Philosophique sur les Probabilites, Paris, 1814, in 4to.
Another edition of this work was published the same year in 8vo,
and the work was reprinted in 1816, 1819, and 1825. The Essai
Philosophique is merely an abstract of the large work on the same
subject.
2. Exposition du Sysieme du Monde, in five hooks, the fifth edi¬
tion, revised and augmented by the author, Paris, 1824, in 4to, and
in two vols. 8vo. The first edition of this work appeared in 1796,
in two vols. 8vo. In five books the author treats, 1st, of the appa¬
rent motions of the heavenly bodies ; 2d, of the real motions of
those bodies; 3d, of the laws of their motions; and, 4th, of the
theory of universal gravitation. The fifth book contains an abridg¬
ment of the history of astronomy.
3. Precis de VHistoire de VAstronomic, Paris, 1821, in 8vo. This
is merely the fifth book of the fifth edition of the Exposition du Sys¬
ieme du Monde, published separately.
4. Theorie Analytique des Probabilites, third edition, revised and
augmented by the’author. The first edition of this work appeared
in 1812, in 4to. Prom 1816 to 1825, M. de Laplace published four
supplements, which the publisher, after having sold them for some
vears separately, added to the volume to which they now serve as
a complement. These supplements treat, 1st, of the application of
the calculus of probabilities to natural philosophy ; 2d, of the ap¬
plication of the calculus of probabilities to geodesical operations ;
and, 3d, of the application of geodesical formulas of probability to
the meridian of France. The fourth contains an abridgment of the
theory of probabilities.
5. Theorie des Attractions Spheroides, et de la Figure des Planetes,
Paris, 1785, in 4to. This is a memoir extracted from the collection
of the Academy of Sciences.
6. Theorie du Mouvement et de la Figure elliptique des Planetes,
Paris, 1784, in 4to. This work was printed at the expense of Pre-
LAP
Laplace, sident Bochard de Saron, who only caused 200 copies to be struck
^ > off, for the purpose of being distributed gratuitously.
7. Traiti de Mecanique Celeste, in sixteen books, Paris, 1799-
1825, in five volumes 4to, with four supplements published at dif¬
ferent times. The first book treats of the general laws of the equi¬
librium of motion ; the second, of the law of universal gravitation,
and the motion of the centres of gravity of the heavenly bodies;
the third, of the figure of the heavenly bodies; the fourth, of the
oscillations of the sea and the atmosphere ; the fifth, of the motions
of the heavenly bodies around their proper centres of gravity ; the
sixth, of the theory of the planetary motions; the seventh, of the
theory of the moon ; the eighth, of the theory of the satellites of Ju¬
piter, Saturn, and Uranus; the ninth, of the theory of comets; the
tenth, on different points relative to the system of the world ; the
eleventh, on the figure and rotation of the earth; the twelfth, on
the attraction and repulsion of spheres, and the laws of the equili¬
brium and motion of elastic fluids; the thirteenth, on the oscilla¬
tion of the fluids which cover the planets; the fourteenth, on the
motions of the heavenly bodies around their centres of gravity; the
fifteenth, on the motions of the planets and comets; and the six¬
teenth, on the motions of the satellites. A second edition of the
first two volumes of this work was published at Paris in 1829, 1830.
In this country no attempt has yet been made, so far as we know,
to translate the Traitb de Mecanique Celeste into English; but, in
1830, an English translation of the first volume, with a commen-
tary, was published at Boston, in the United States of America.
Both the translation and the commentary are by Dr Bowditch of
Boston ; but the amount of the latter is out of all proportion to the
text, being intended to enable persons but moderately skilled in the
mathematics to comprehend the profound analytical investigations
of the great astronomer, and to follow him to his beautiful and
striking results.
8. Besides the works which we have just enumerated, M. de La¬
place is also the author of a series of very important Memoirs, in
which, from 1772 to 1823, he published the collections of the old
and the new .Academy of Sciences, that of the Institute, and the
Journal of the Polytechnic School. The subjects of these Memoirs
are exceedingly various. We give the following list in the chrono¬
logical order of their impression, viz. :—1. On the Particular So¬
lutions of Differential Equations, and on the Secular Inequalities of
the Planets, 1772; 2. On the Integral Calculus, and on the System
of the World, 1772; 3. On the Integral Calculus of Partial Differ¬
ences, 1773; 4. On recurring Series, and their Uses in the Theory
of Chances, 1774; 5. On the Probability of Causes afforded by
Events, 1774 ; 6. On some Points in the System of the World,
1775 and 1776 ; 7. On the Integration of Differential Equations
with Finite Differences, 1776; 8. On the Mean Inclination of the
Orbits of Comets, id. ; 9. On the Use of the Calculus of Partial
Differences in the Theory of recurring Series, 1777 ; 10. On the
Precession of the Equinoxes, id.; 11. On the Integration of Differ¬
ential Equations by Approximation, id.; 12. On Probabilities,
1778 ; 13. On Series, 1779; 14. On the Determination of the Or¬
bits of Comets, id.; 15. On Heat, id.; 16. On the Electricity which
Bodies absorb when reduced to Vapour, 1781 ; 17. On the Approxi¬
mations of Formulae which are functions of very great numbers,
1782,1783; 18. On the Figure of the Earth, 1783; 19. On the
Births, Marriages, and Deaths at Paris from 1772 to 1784; 20. On
the Population of France, and the Number of Inhabitants in the
Country, 1783-1788; 21. On the Secular Inequalities of the
Planets and of the Satellites, 1784; 22. Theory of Jupiter and of
Saturn, 1787; 23. On the Secular Equation of the Moon, 1786;
24. On the Theory of Saturn’s Ring, 1787 ; 25. On the Secular
\ aviations in the Orbits of the Planets, id.; 26. Theory of the Sa¬
tellites of Jupiter, 1788, 1789; 27. On the Theory of the Satellites
of Jupiter, 1789 ; 28. On the Flux and Reflux of the Sea, 1790;
29. On the Determination of a Plane which remains always parallel
to itself, in the movement of a system of bodies acting upon each
other in any manner whatsoever, and free from all foreign action,
1798 ; 30. On Mechanics, id.; 31. On the Motions of the Heavenly
Bodies round their Centres of Gravity, id.; 32. On the Secular
Equations of the Motions of the Moon, of her Apogee, and of her
Nodes, 1/99; 33. On the Motion of the orbits of the Satellites of
Saturn and Uranus, 1801; 34. On the Theory of the Moon, id.;
30. On Different Points of Analysis. 1809 ; 36. On the Motion of
Light in Diaphanous Media, id.; 37. On the Approximations of the
ormulae which are functions of very great numbers, and on their
iE?l1Caon0V0 Pro^fbilities, id- 5 38. On the Figure of the Earth,
* II ’ ' . the F UX and Reflux of the Sea. 1818 ; 40. Addition
to the Memoir on the Figure of the Earth, id.; 41. On the Develop¬
ments of the true Anomaly, and of the Elliptical Radius Vector, in
series, arranged according to the powers of the eccentricity, 1823.
Lastly, the Marquis de Laplace contributed, in the mathematical
department, to the Leqons de VEcole Normale.
(See Eloge Hijtorique de M. le Marquis 'de Laplace, by Baron
VOL. XIII.
LAP
233
Fourier, in the Memoires de VAcademic Royal des Sciences de VIn- Lapland.
stitut de la France, tom. x., p. Ixxxi.; Qudrard, La France Line- v .
raire, art. Laplace ; Revue Encydopidique, tom. xxxiii., p. 880 ;
Edinburgh Review, vol. xi., p. 249, et seqq., vol. xv., p. 396, et
seqq., and vol. xxiii., p. 320, containing masterly criticisms on the
Mecaniquc Celeste, the Exposition du Sysieme du Monde, and the
Essai Philosophique sur les Probabilites; and Dissertations Fourth
and Sixth, prefixed to the present work.) (j. B—E.)
LAPLAND, the most northerly country of Europe, is
bounded N. by the Arctic Ocean, S. by Sweden, E. by the
White Sea, and W. by Norway and the Atlantic Ocean.
Its limits are not very accurately laid down by geographers ;
but it seems to be divided from the rest of Scandinavia by
a line nearly corresponding with the polar circle, in latitude
66. 32., and is consequently almost entirely an arctic region.
North Cape, its most northerly point, is situated in N.
Lat. 71. 10. 15., consequently its length from N. to S. is
about 330 miles, and not 500, as is usually stated. From
Cape Orlov, on the White Sea, to the Atlantic on the W.,
it extends about 700 miles; but besides this continental
territory, there are a vast number of islands, which are in¬
cluded in the general name of Lapland. The whole country
is divided into three parts, called Russian, Swedish, and
Norwegian Lapland or Finmark, and is recognised by the
Swedes and Norwegians by the name of Lapmark, mark
signifying, both in Swedish and Norse, land or tract of
country. The very early writers, however, do not notice
any country under the name of Lapmark, whilst Fin mark
is alluded to, though not with such clearness as would admit
of our defining the exact extent of country which went by
that appellation. It has been conjectured that, in former
ages, the parts of the north now known by the names of
Swedish and Russian Lapland were distinguished as Rus¬
sian and Swedish Finmark previously to the period when
the Finns obtained the name of Lapper, or Laplanders.
Throughout Norway and Finmark they are uniformly
termed Finns, which was their ancient and most proper
designation ; it is only in Sweden, and Swedish and Rus¬
sian Lapland, that the name of Lap is given to the inha¬
bitants of the country. They were called Lappes by Laxo
in the twelfth century ; but still the etymology of the word
is thus very obscure, though circumstances seem to favour
the supposition that the term Lap was applied to this race of
people by their neighbours the Swedes, and hence was trans¬
ferred to the country which they inhabited. In the old Rus¬
sian annals they are always styled Lepori, a word most pro¬
bably of Finnic origin. Finmark, which forms the most nor¬
thern part of this wild and extensive territory, constitutes one
extremity of the kingdom of Norway, to which it now belongs,
though doubtless in ancient times it was a separate kingdom,
governed by its own sovereigns. Its present boundary on the
W. is Loppen, the first island in Finmark, and which forms
a line between it and the Nordlands, a part of Norway
sometimes erroneously confounded with Lapland. On the
N.W. and N.E. it is washed by the Polar Ocean, whilst to
the E. it is bordered by Russian Lapland, which also, with
Nordland, bounds it to the S.; the boundary line between
the two countries being the River Tana. Its extent from
N. to S.,'—that is, from the borders of Russian Lapland to
the North Cape,—is nearly three degrees of latitude; its
greatest breadth being from W. to E., namely, from the
western side of Faroe to the coast above Waranger, near
the borders of Russian Lapland. At the eastern extremity
of Finmark there is a considerable tract, to which both Nor¬
way and Russia lay claim. It lies between the acknow¬
ledged boundaries of each of these powers, and being now
considered as neutral ground, is free to the Laplander of
both countries to hunt and fish in. This district extends
a little to the westward of Bugefiord, stretching nearly
S. to the Enara Lake, where it bends to the E., and after¬
wards to the N.E., where it joins the coast. Russian Lap-
land lies to the S. and E. of the debateable ground above
2 G
/
234
LAPLAND
Lapland, mentioned. The river Muonio, which for a considerable por-
tion of its early course receives the name of the Kbngarnaelf,
constitutes the boundary between Sweden and Russia. The
circle of Kola, and the northern part of Eastern Kemi, con¬
stituted at one time Russian Lapland; but, by subsequent
treaties, two extensive districts, all the Lapmark of West¬
ern Kemi, and the greater part of the Lapmark of Torneo,
have been ceded to Russia. Thus nearly two thirds of the
regions inhabited by the Laplanders are included in the do¬
minions of the emperor of Russia. Swedish Lapland, the
most southerly division, occupies the interior part of the
country to the west of the river Torneo ; the maritime dis¬
trict ot Nordland, a portion of Norway, being situated be¬
tween it and the North Sea. How much of the northern
part of Sweden is entitled to be called Swedish Lapland,
it is impossible to say. If the arctic circle be taken as the
boundary line, only that portion of Sweden called North
Bothnia can be considered as belonging to Lapland; but
Pitea Lapmark and Umea Lapmark are sometimes men¬
tioned as forming part of the latter country, and these are
situated in West Bothnia. The cause of error may be
traced to the circumstance of these nomadic tribes frequent¬
ly inhabiting, at least for a portion of the year, districts of
country far down in the interior of Sweden and Norway.
Thus, in the latter country, the Roraas Mountains, situated
between Christiania and Drontheim, are inhabited, during
summer at least, by a family of Laplanders, with the never -
failing herd of rein-deer. But the exact boundary line is
not very material, as it has reference only to different por¬
tions of a tract of country which is under one government.
Moan- Lapland is not intersected by alps or very high moun¬
tains. tains, as is sometimes asserted; but, from Nordland onwards,
the whole region is a table-land, crow ned only on its west¬
ern frontier w ith a mountainous chain, which forms the ex¬
tremity of the Scandinavian Alps, and descends from Su-
litelma, of which the elevation is 6200 feet, to the height
of Norwegian Finmark. These are about 3600 feet high
on the continental coast, and nearly 4000 on some islands.
The sea-coast presents a remarkably bold and rugged, if not
magnificent appearance. Mountain is seen piled on mountain
in stern grandeur, and white with the snows of ages ; and
the sublimity of the scene is enhanced by the myriads of
islands which are scattered in an extraordinary manner along
the Norwegian and Lapland coast, as far as North Cape.
Ravines and valleys intersect the interior; the elevation
of the highest plains has been estimated at about sixteen
hundred feet, but towards the east and the south they de¬
scend. Rocks and hills rise from the table-land, vary¬
ing, to the east of 18° west longitude, from 2000 to 2400
feet above the level of the sea, but only from 500 to 600
feet above their base. These hills are rather isolated
groups than a continuous chain ; and at twenty leagues to
the south of them the streams and rivers separate in differ¬
ent directions between the North Sea and the Bothnian
Gulf, and between the Gulfs of Alien and Torneo. The
central ridge is supposed to descend without interruption
to the entrance of the White Sea, and that part of Lap-
land consists of extensive marshes, studded with rocks.
These have been called the Koelin Mountains, and, strictly
speaking, may be said to form one great chain; but the
branches which it casts off to the right and to the left, the
mountainous isles of Lofoden, which are merely the sum¬
mits of some of its branches, and the mountains which ter¬
minate near Lake Enara in Russian Lapland, entitle it to the
name of a group. Other ranges of hills, which traverse Lap-
land, and are connected with Finland, are lost round the
numerous lakes in that country- Sulitelma, already men¬
tioned, is the highest mountain in Lapland. The islands of
Waag and Hurd have each heights rising 4264 feet above
the level of the sea ; and a glacier on the island of Seyland
is 4155 feet high. The mineralogical structure of the
Lapland Mountains has not been thoroughly ascertained. Lapland.
M. de Buch informs us that the hills which he examined
on the higher part of the table-land are composed of granite
and gneiss. The latter rock is said to be by far the most
abundant in Scandinavia, all the other primitive rocks ap¬
pearing in some degree subordinate to it. Quartz is very
abundant on the island of Mageroe. On the Dovrefield,
and other mountains, it is met with in scattered blocks;
but at the North Cape the surface of the ground is wholly
covered with it. M. de Buch also observed, in an excursion
which he made towards the Gulf of Bothnia, a succession
of calcareous and schistose rocks. These substances like¬
wise abound in the country between the last-named gulf
and that of Kandala. The land is intersected with ra¬
vines, but its elevation is inconsiderable. The whole re¬
gion is supposed to rest on a base of red decomposable gra¬
nite, or, as it is generally called by the natives, rapakivi.
There is abundance of metal found in Lapland, particularly
iron, of which whole mountains exist in that part of the
country belonging to Sweden. Copper, lead, zinc, silver,
and even traces of gold, have been found ; but iron ore is
the chief mineral treasure of the country, and might assist
in introducing cultivation and an extensive trade into this
desert portion of Europe, did not the scarcity of timber,
and the great difficulty of conveying goods, constitute in¬
superable obstacles to the wmrking of the mines in the in¬
land and eastern parts of the country, where it would ap¬
pear to be most abundant. The marshy lands are impreg¬
nated with this valuable metal, and in gneiss it occurs in
beds which are sometimes nearly forty feet in thickness.
Numerous minerals are found in Lapland ; rock crystal in
particular is very common, and the inhabitants occasion¬
ally dispose of it for amethysts and topazes.
There are numerous lakes and rivers in Lapland. Of Lakes,
the latter, several take their rise in the Koelin Mountains, rivers,
and flow in various directions into the Atlantic Ocean or
the Gulf of Bothnia. The principal rivers of the country
are the Tana or Tarna, which takes a north-eastern course
through Finmark, and empties itself into a bay or sound of
the same name; the Alien or Alata, which is very rapid,
forcing its way through the mountains of Finmark in a
north-westerly direction, empties itself into a bay of the
same name; the Torneo, which issues from a lake so
named, and, after being enlarged by a number of streams
uniting in one channel and running nearly due south through
a long course, falls into the northern extremity of the Both¬
nian Gulf at Torneo ; and the Muonio, which rises from the
Killpis Jaure, at the foot of the alpine chain of Norway,
is a considerable stream, and constitutes the boundary line
between Sweden and Russia, till it unites with the river
Torneo, when the latter marks the limits of either coun¬
try in this quarter. There are also other rivers which take
their rise in Lapland, and fall into the Gulf of Bothnia,
such as the Lulea, Pitea, Kalix, and others. In Rus¬
sian Lapland there are several considerable streams, but
these have not been so well defined, nor has this part of
Lapland been so fully described, as the others. The Kemi
takes its rise amongst the Kemi Mountains, situated near
the centre of the country, and flows into the Gulf of
Bothnia. It has many imposing cataracts, of wdiich the
Taival Koski, or the fall of the heavens, is the only one
which the adventurous boatmen never attempt to cross.
The Passe, or holy stream, is the outlet of the great lake
Enara, flowing thence to the Arctic Ocean. The eastern
declivities of Russian Lapland are watered by the Panoi,
which discharges itself into the White Sea. The Tuloma
falls from a great height, enters the lake Kola, which name
it afterwards takes, and falls into Kola Bay, on the Arctic
Ocean. Besides these, there are numerous other rivers
which traverse the country in various directions, and either
give rise to lakes, or issue from them. The abundance of
LAPLAND. 235
Ijjpland. lakes is the most prominent feature of Lapland, as it gene-
' ' rally is of all countries situated in such latitudes. Some¬
times these sheets of water occur singly, sometimes in
chains, and many of them are of considerable size; but
there exists such a confusion of nomenclature, that it is
difficult to distinguish one from another, and apply to each
its proper designation.1 Very often the rivers, such as the
Muonio, become so broad in some parts, as often to assume
the appearance of lakes, and there is little doubt they have
occasionally been so termed. The most considerable lakes
are, the Enara, in Russian Lapland, which is about forty
miles in length by sixteen in breadth; the Imandra, which
has an elevation of four hundred feet above the level of the
sea, and is discharged into the Gulf of Kandala; the Biggi
Lobee, and Biggi Jaure, one or other of which, Sir Capel
Brooke supposes, is that designated by Von Buch the Jess
Jaure; and many others which do not require to be enu¬
merated. Besides these inland bodies of water, the shores
are indented by extensive fiords or arms of the sea, which
frequently run thirty, or even forty miles into the heart of
the country.
Vegeta- Finmark and Swedish Lapland, including all the mo-
tion. dern provinces belonging to Russia, have been carefully
examined by Wahlenbergand ^ on Buch, and the vegeta¬
ble kingdom distinguished into six zones, concentric with
the Gulf of Bothnia, each differing from the others in cli¬
mate and productions. The first or lower region of the
forests rises from the level of the sea to the height of five
hundred feet, forming a zone generally eighty miles in
breadth ; and here the spruce and Scotch fir abound. The
second is higher and colder than the first, rising from five
hundred to eight hundred feet, and being generally only
from six to eight miles in breadth. This portion has been
denominated the upper region of the forests, and here the
Scotch fir is still found, but the other plants disappear. The
third is higher than any of the preceding, rising from 800
to 1200 feet, and for the most part about twelve miles in
breadth, excepting at one place, where this becomes very
great. The fir here is rarely seen, but pines are abun¬
dant. Ihe fourth or subalpine region, rising from 1200
to 1800 feet, is a zone of about the same dimensions as
the preceding, and contains birch, but coniferous trees do
not grow there. The fifth is called the alpine region, or
the country of the dwarf birch ; and the sixth, which is
the highest and most northern of all, varies in breadth
according as it is indented by the sea. It is the region
of perpetual congelation and eternal snow, producing no
trees, and scarcely any vegetation whatever. The vege¬
table scale in Norwegian Lapland has been marked by
Von Buch. Ihe following table is intended for seventy
degrees of north latitude:—Limit of the red pines, 730
feet; of the birch, 1483; of the vaccinium myrtillus,
1908; of the dwarf birch, 2576; of the salix myrsinites,
2908; of the salix lanata, 3100; and of perpetual snow,
3300. Jlie species ol plants which constitute the Flora
Laponica. are not numerous, but they abound in indivi¬
duals, and the vegetation here is decidedly superior to
t lat of the other countries round the Frozen Ocean. Moss¬
es and lichens cover the plains and rocks which are ele¬
vated more than a thousand feet; and were the inhabi¬
tants more industrious, these might be rendered useful as
dye-stuffs. The rein-deer’s lichen is of a bright yellow
colour, which, however, is fugitive, the yellow giving
p ace to white as the plant dries or withers. The mosses
and lichens constitute the food of the cattle, and from a lapland.
species of the latter a wholesome and nutritious flour is
extracted. The rocky country is the region of these crypto-
gamia. The rubus chamcemorus, and the vaccinium myrtil¬
lus, occur in the neighbourhood of the extensive marshes ;
but reeds or aquatic plants are found on the banks of
lakes or rivers. A plain surrounded by rocks, and cover¬
ed with moss and other alpine herbage, forms a Lapland
meadow. Rein-deer moss is quite indispensable to the
Laplander’s herd. It is hardly to be met with on the
Finmark coast, but on the continent it is found in abun¬
dance, though not so plentifully as in the interior parts.
It thrives best in a flat extent of low ground, consisting of
morass or forest well saturated with moisture. On this
account Finmark, which is rocky and mountainous, does
not abound so greatly in this moss as the level plains and
morasses of Russian Lapland, where it grows in the great¬
est profusion, immense tracts of country being wholly
covered with it. Of trees, twenty-six kinds have been
enumerated, including the salices. There are no less
than nineteen species of willows; the others consist of
Scotch and spruce fir, birch, alder, poplar, mountain ash,
and bird cherry. Apples, pears, plums, and cherries,
scarcely grow at all, although carefully cultivated ; but
considerable varieties of berries are spontaneously pro¬
duced, amongst which are black currants, and raspber¬
ries of an exquisite fragrance. It may be stated, that in
Swedish Lapland the vegetable productions bear a nearer
resemblance to those of Siberia than the plants of the
western part of Lapland, which, towards the sea, are ana¬
logous to those of Scotland and Iceland. The most abun¬
dant indigenous vegetables are the sorrel, which is prized
on account of its antiscorbutic properties; the angelica, a
highly-relished article of food; and the lichen rangiferi-
uus, the staple of the rein-deer during winter. Towards
the south are gardens in which the vegetables of the tem¬
perate zone are cultivated ; and various flowers, including
roses, carnations, and the like, also adorn these enclo¬
sures. Potatoes reach the size of poppy-heads (those of
Finmark are very sweet, and of a waxy consistency) ;
French beans, broad beans, and tobacco, where care is
taken with it, are raised, but neither peas nor white cab¬
bage come to perfection.
With respect to the climate and vegetable productions
of Alten, Sir Arthur de Capel Brooke observes, “ in speak¬
ing of its horticulture, it might be supposed that the pro¬
duce of a country under the latitude of 70° would be ex¬
tremely scanty. This, however, is not the case. Most
kinds of vegetables succeed perfectly well, and are culti¬
vated in sufficient abundance for the wants of the inhabit¬
ants. This traveller then proceeds to mention the cul¬
tivation of the potato, which is raised to- some extent in
Finmark.
Most of the wild animals common to Norway and Swe- Anim.iL.
den are found in Lapland. Bears are numerous; and
though the rein-deer evades destruction by the rapidity
of its flight, yet cows, goats, and sheep frequently fall
victims to their rapacity. Ihese animals are extremely
partial to a certain kind of berry which is abundant in the
country; but they likewise feed on grass. Wolves and
foxes are plentiful, and the former are likewise very de¬
structive to the tame animals; the skins of the latter are
much prized in the north of Europe. The glutton, which
is strongly furnished with teeth, as well as very sharp
exposed to error in describin/ant mri T f ' T, f"/ thingS 111 LaPland’ and eveI7 wr‘ter must experience difficulty and be
quently, indeed in almost every iLtance mT H ^ ' 'f coun^or Us.inhabltan{'s- Mountains, lakes, and rivers have fre-
ativ given work will be found’des^hpa ’ n * aPPeilatlon assigned to them ; so that what is called by one name ai
nvers which from thefr sour! to tn Under an°ther designation in every other. This is particularly the case with regard to
avers, » men, trom their source to the sea, sometimes change their names two or three times. °
HHMHHI
236 LAPLAND.
Lapland, nails, is common ; and its skin, on account of a white shin-
V—^ ing streak with which the neck is marked, is held in great
estimation. In the woods the glutton frequently sur¬
prises the rein-deer, by suddenly descending upon it from
the branch of a tree, and killing it by mangling the neck
with its teeth. Otters of different kinds, ermines, a spe¬
cies of white weasel, squirrels whose skins are beautiful
and much valued, the mus lemmis, a species of marmot pe¬
culiar to the country, and field-mice in vast numbers, are
all natives of these high latitudes. The beaver is found
in some parts, but seldom on the rivers. The wool and
the skin of this animal are marketable commodities.
Hares are bred in great numbers ; and they are distin¬
guished by the striking peculiarity of changing their co¬
lour from gray to white during winter. Coverlets are
made from their skins. There are three species of mar¬
tens found ; the steen-maar, which inhabits the rocks ; the
birfe-maar, which makes the birch-tree thicket its home ;
and the furr-maor, which haunts the fir-trees. There
are said to be a few elks, but of wild rein-deer the number
is very great. From these to the individuals of the race
which have been domesticated, the transition is natural.
The most valuable part of a Laplander’s possessions, and
the chief object of his care, is the rein-deer. It unites
in itself the best qualities of almost every other animal
which has been found essential to the comfort of man
in other countries to which it is a stranger, being at once
the horse, the cow, the sheep, and the stag of Lapland.
Its milk is so rich as to require being diluted before it is
used. Its flesh is superior to that of the sheep; and, from its
tractability and natural power of endurance, it drags the
sledge of the Laplander with extraordinary speed and per¬
fect safety over the desolate and chilling regions of snow
which he inhabits. It is, moreover, easily maintained, find¬
ing its food, the favourite moss which goes by its name,
amongst the frozen wastes during winter with perfect ease.
These animals are also said to feed on frogs, snakes, and
mountain-rats, and to be very partial to human urine, which
they lick up with avidity whenever it comes within their
reach. But the possession of this invaluable quadruped
is very uncertain, for the wandering herds sometimes dis¬
perse themselves in the woods, from which it is difficult
for the shepherd to dislodge them. They are, besides, not
easily milked, and yield but a small quantity at a time,
so that a large flock is necessary before the head of a fa¬
mily can be supplied with a sufficiency of food and milk.
In shape they resemble stags ; and their hair, at first gray,
becomes blanched before it falls off. They cast their
horns annually ; those of the male are often two feet and
a half in length, and their points are frequently as far
asunder. They are generally four feet in height from
the foot to the top of the back; and the length from the
shoulder to the tail is two feet. A crackling noise is
heard when they walk, which is asserted by some writers
to result from the hoofs striking together when the foot
is raised, but there are other opinions upon this subject.
The rein-deer is subject to various diseases from which
other animals appear to be exempt, and during summer
they are attacked by the oestrus tarandi, a large kind of
bee, whose eggs, deposited in the skin, produce ulcera¬
tions not unfrequently destructive to the fawns. This
great enemy of the rein-deer will pursue it for many
miles ; and in hot weather the Laplander takes a jour¬
ney of some hundred miles to the sea-coast, principally for
the purpose of avoiding its attacks. The oestrus nasalis,
another tormentor of the rein-deer, makes small punctures
within the nostrils, and there deposits its eggs. It is a
singular fact, observed by Sir Arthur de Capel Brooke,
that the rein-deer increases in size the farther north it is
found. Cows, sheep, goats, and horses, have been natu¬
ralized in Lapland ; but the management of these animals,
together with other particulars regarding the rein-deer, Lapland,
we will afterwards have occasion to recur to.
Of birds there are many found in Lapland which are Birds,
unknown in other countries, such as the Lapland wood¬
cock, the Swedish mock-bird or nightingale, called, from
its melodious notes, “ the bird of an hundred tunes,” to¬
gether with a peculiar species of the owl, magpie, wood¬
pecker, woodcock, and others of the feathered races.
Flocks of birds of passage resort to Lapland during sum¬
mer for the purpose of breeding, amongst which may be
enumerated the eagle and falcon tribe, owls larger than
common, and occasionally white, crows or rooks in great
numbers, ravens, partridges, large bustards, magpies, pi¬
geons, plovers, ptarmigans, swans, wild geese, eider ducks,
cocks of the wood, varieties of grouse, curlews, and vari¬
ous other feathered frequenters of the field or lake. Only
a very few species of birds remain during winter, there
being little subsistence for them in such chilly wastes
of snow and ice. Common frogs and lizards are the only
amphibious animals found. No venomous animal is to be
met with in Lapland, but insects are in hot weather as
numerous and annoying as in tropical climes. Besides
the two already mentioned, the interior forests of Lapland
swarm with gnats, which attack both man and beast with
the greatest fury. The rivers abound in excellent sal¬
mon, and the lakes in perch, pike, trout, char, and other
fish. The seas are also well replenished with the finny
tribes, such as cod, tusk, and ling; and whales, particu¬
larly that species called the fin whale, so difficult to be
captured, abound upon the Lapland coast. These enor¬
mous animals are very plentiful about Cape North; and
Sir Arthur Capel Brooke was informed by the Laplanders
that they are extremely partial to cows and horses, and
will pursue a boat in which these are until they are
landed.
The climate of Lapland is of course very cold, but it Climate,
is milder than that of any other region on the same pa¬
rallel, the coasts of Siberia, for instance. The tempera¬
ture of the air is regulated by the height above the le¬
vel of the sea, and the distance from the Gulf of Bothnia,
and may be divided into two regions, the inland and the
maritime. It may be laid down as a principle which gene¬
rally holds true, that in the former the winter is severe and
the summer hot, whilst in the latter the winter is compa¬
ratively mild and the summer cold. An open and ever
agitated sea is one great cause of the mildness of tempe¬
rature which is experienced on the northern coasts of
Finmark ; but the maritime climate is much colder on the
other side of Cape North, and the harbours on the coast
of Eastern Lapland are sometimes blocked up in the mid¬
dle of June. In the inland parts the summer is short;
but in the sixty-six days during which there is no night,
the crops are sown, ripened, and reaped. At this time the
enlivening songs of birds are heard, and the earth is in
some places covered with flowers. There is no darkness,
and the coolness of evening is never felt. The heat is
thus very oppressive, particularly in confined places, such
as valleys. At this time insects are exceedingly trouble¬
some. Acerbi, a traveller in Sweden and Lapland, found
the degree of heat fifty-two of Fahrenheit in the shade,
and eighty-one in the sun. The ground was so hot as to
give uneasiness to the feet, whilst it oppressed the lungs;
and the shrubs which were met with at distant intervals
afforded little or no shelter to the traveller. In various
parts of Lapland the days during summer are in bright¬
ness, geniality, and sereneness, equal to those of more
propitious latitudes, and both delightful and healthy.
Von Buch found the mean temperature of the month of
July nearly sixty-three degrees at Altengaard, in north
latitude sixty-nine degrees. In winter the cold is so ex¬
cessive, that mercury, and even brandy, frequently freeze
LAPLAND.
237
Agricul¬
ture.
I upland, in the open air. All the lakes and rivers are covered
V'-*"' with ice of great thickness, and the whole face of nature
is buried beneath a sheet of snow several feet in depth.
During the winter solstice the sun continues seven con¬
secutive weeks below the horizon, when only a partial
twilight prevails ; but this “ darkness visible” is to a con¬
siderable extent compensated by the superior brightness
ot the moon and stars, and the vivid beams of the aurora
borealis, the light ol all these luminaries being augment¬
ed by the whiteness of the snow, which keeps up a per¬
petual reflection from the earth’s surface. Thunder storms
sometimes occur during the depth of winter. When a
thaw comes on, the atmosphere is filled with vapours ; but
during the prevalence of the north wind the air is clear
and the sky is serene.
Vegetation depending more upon the heat of summer
than the cold of winter, Enontekis is superior to the North
Cape in bringing the productions of the ground to matu¬
rity, notwithstanding that the mean temperature is lower,
because the heat during the summer is higher at the
former than at the latter place. The covering of snow
here also, as elsewhere, serves to retain the heat which
the earth has imbibed during the warmer months, and pre¬
serves it in a better state for vegetation. At Enontekis
the snow continues on the ground from October till May,
whilst at the North Cape, being open to the sea-breezes,
it is exposed to frequent thaws ; nor is it likely, under
such circumstances, it can ever lie so deep. On some of
the inland elevations, particularly in Finmark, if the sum¬
mer be very cold, it lies during the whole year, and en¬
tirely prevents vegetation from making its appearance,
with the exception of some of the cryptogamia.
The soil of Lapland is generally sterile. The greater
part of the country is covered with rocks or moss, or
gravelly plains, or a kind of turf composed of mosses de¬
cayed by the frost, and impregnated with standing water.
There are a few tracts of tolerable soil, especially in the
more southern districts. The agriculture of Lapland is
hence very trifling, for the soil yields but a very inade¬
quate return for the labour which the hardy native be¬
stows upon it; and in general he finds a more ready means
of supplying himself with what he requires, by barter with
the Russians. The following quotation, however, from Sir
Arthur de Capel Brooke, presents a more favourable view
of the climate and its productions than might have been
anticipated. After mentioning the culture of the potato,
already alluded to, and which is likely to be very benefi¬
cial to the country, as rendering it less dependent upor;
Russia for a supply of bread corn, he proceeds: “ To this
it may be added, that barley and rye are cultivated to
some extent in parts of Finmark, particularly at Alten,
although no agriculture is carried farther north ; and this
circumstance alone would induce us to form no unfavour¬
able opinion of the climate of a place situated near four
degrees beyond the polar circle. The Scotch fir, too,
reaches Talvig in seventy degrees ; and the moltebcer (ru-
ous chamcemorus) flourishes to the very verge of the North
Cape, in 71.10.15. where the winter night is ten weeks in
length.”
. Much obscurity veils the origin and early history of the
in labitants of Lapland. The Samoyedes, Esquimaux,
ureenlanders, and Laplanders, appear to have been origi-
nally the same people. The more immediate ancestors
of the latter were probably the ancient Finns, for the de¬
scription which Ptolemy and Tacitus give of the Finni
exactly corresponds to that of the highland Laplanders of
the present day. There is also a race of people inhabiting
rinmark, quite distinct from the Laplanders, called the
CJuans.
Professor James D. Forbes, who visited Finmark in 18.51,
thus speaks of the Quans“ A stranger has some difli-
Origin of
races.
culty to understand their relation to the Laplanders, with Lapland,
whom they are easily confounded, both being often called N—y-*--
Finns. It is, indeed, in Finmarken itself that the Lapps are
most frequently, but inaccurately described as Finns. The
Quans, however (who, like the Lapps, are foreigners), pro¬
perly come from Finland, whilst the Lapps belong prin¬
cipally to the opposite or western side of the Gulf of
Bothnia. Their appearance (excepting, however, their
dress), their habits, and even their language, are essentially
distinct; the Lapp is dwarfish in the extreme, and the form
of the countenance resembles that of the Tartar tribes.
The Quan, or Finlander, or Esthonian, with some features
in common, is moderately tall, and has a skull more of the
usual European type. Their habits are absolutely diverse:
the Quan being domestic and fond of agriculture, the Lapp
essentially nomadic and incapable of steady labour; so
much is this the case, that some writers consider the dis¬
tinction as referring rather to occupation than to race. Of
die capacity of the Quans some difference of opinion exists.
Von Buch considers them to have done much more for
Finmarken than the Norwegians themselves, and that they
are even now its most civilized inhabitants, and by far its
best agriculturists. The report of the Alden Company’s
officers is less favourable; but it is quite possible that mining
industry is unsuited to their tastes and habits. The lan¬
guage differs as much from the Lappish as Swedish does
from the German. Though their costume is similar, their
houses, substantially built of logs, are roomy, comfortable,
and of course permanent, unlike the Lapps. The appear¬
ance of the Quans in Norway is believed not to date earlier
than the commencement of the last century. They are
stated by Von Buch to have been driven out of their native
country by the wars of Charles XII.”
The Finmark Laps have been divided into two classes,
the fishing or Shore Laplanders, and the rein-deer or High¬
land Laplanders. From their different habits of life, there
is a marked distinction between the two; and there is yet
another class of poorer Laplanders, who are numerous in
all parts of Swedish and Russian Lapland. These are
called Skogslapper, or Wood Laps, dwelling almost entirely
in the wooded pg.rts of the country, their herds of deer
being too small to enable them to live in the mountains.
During summer they live in tents ; in winter they construct
sod-huts, resembling the gammies of the coast Laps.
This kind of Laplander is unknown in Finmark, the
country being mountainous, and nearly destitute of forests.
The mountain Laps of the latter country are for the most
part wild and savage, both in appearance and habits.
They exhibit a degree of haughtiness and proud inde¬
pendence of spirit, which is wanting in individuals of the
race who inhabit the plains of Russian Lapland or the
shores of the northern coast. Until softened by a pre¬
sent, they are surly and morose in disposition ; and their
suspiciousness of temper detracts much from any hospi¬
tality which is apparent in them. The stranger must
therefore remove this natural mistrust of the Lap before
he can expect to receive from him any attention ; and
brandy, above all things, is the most potent softener of
his feelings. This, or a present of tobacco, is so efficacious
as to render him quite a different person, and willing to
perform any service to the donor.
The dress of the mountain Laplander of Finmark does Dress,
not materially differ from that of the inhabitants of other manners,
parts of Lapland. In winter they are entirely clothed incl,ararter,
rein-deer skins, consisting of & pcesk, or frock of rein-deer &c- ot l^e
fur, or, what is more common, a muadda or sheep-skin gar- PeoI)ie‘
ment. This is belted up by the leathern girdle (buagan), to
which is suspended the knife, the tobacco pouch, and
shooting apparatus when they follow the chase. The first
is a long knife, not unlike that of a butcher, the handle of
birch root, and the blade of great substance and strength.
238
LAPLAND.
Lapland. The driving paesk is composed of the thickest and best
^skins Ids deer afford; and, as a further protection whilst
travelling, a broad bear-skin tippet covers the shoulders,
and reaches nearly as low as the elbows. The lower part
of the dress consists of the bcellinger, a sort of loose spat¬
terdashes or leggins, which, being drawn over a pair of
long, loose deer-skin pantaloons, reach from the ancles
high up the thigh. These are whole, and fastened or
tightened at the top by a running string, and covered
over at the bottom by the skallkomager, or high rein-deer
shoes, and the homager baand, which is a long, narrow
band, going several times round the ancle, keeping the
whole tight together, and preventing the possibility of
any snow from getting in ; for the upper parts of the
bcellinger are of course covered by the peesk, which, when
girded up, reaches just below the knees, but, when loose,
1'alls down nearly to the ground. In summer, the heat of
the weather compels them to make an alteration in their
dress, and the rein-deer pgesk is exchanged for a round frock
of wadmal cloth. Thisor summer frock, which is ge¬
nerally made of the skins of young deer, extends below the
knees. On the head is worn a small low cloth cap (gappir),
turned up all round, with a facing of fine rein-deer fur.
No shirt is worn next the skin, linen being a luxury with
which the Laplanders are entirely unacquainted. The
use of stockings is likewise unknown, but a substitute is
found in the soft dried grass called sena, with which the
shoes are well stuffed. The hands are protected by rein¬
deer gloves, or rather mittens, being without fingers, but
stuffed with the same kind of grass as the shoes. Al¬
most every part of the winter dress of the Laplander is
thus furnished by the useful animal which is the compa¬
nion of his wanderings. The paesk is made from the
whole hide of the deer killed during winter ; the baellinger
and gloves, of the skin covering the legs and thighs of the
animal ; and the shoes are taken from the skin between
the horns, and covering the crown of the head. The fur
is worn on the outside, and, from the peculiar closeness
and thickness of its texture, it is impossible for the cold
to penetrate it. Every part of a Laplander’s dress is worn
loose, and thus the blood is allowed to circulate freely,
an advantage which could not be enjoyed were the clothes
tight on the skin. The dress of the coast Laplander is
entirely similar to that of the mountaineer, except that
when the weather is not warm, he usually wears a sheep¬
skin garment called muadda; and the wool being next
the skin, it is rendered nearly as warm as the rein-presk,
though this also he commonly wears in winter. The for¬
mer, however, being the produce of his own flock, and
made up by himself, is naturally in more general use.
The rein-deer skins are obtained by barter from the
highland Laplanders, and being made into garments by
the inhabitants of the coast, who are expert at this kind
of work, are again sold or exchanged for silver money, or
the necessaries they may require. The women have some
skill in embroidery, and collars and cuffs of the wadmal
dresses, both male and female, exhibit their taste in the
art of adorning. The dress of the females very much re¬
sembles that of the men. In winter a frock or paesk of
sheep-skin, worn with the woolly part inside, is bound to
the waist by a belt, to which a small knife is suspended.
In summer the sheep-skin frock is exchanged for one of
wadmal cloth. The cap is sometimes made of various
kinds of cloth, and it is usually encircled by a ribbon.
I he fondness of these people for anything gaudy is very
conspicuous in their summer dress, for the necessities of
winter compel them to keep it more unvaried. During
the hot months the Lapland costume is very picturesque,
from the variety of colours combined in it. It is then,
particularly on the sabbath-day and on holidays, that he
shows his pride, by making his appearance in all the
finery that his means will afford. The usual colour of Lapland,
his koften or daily frock is white, with several edgings of
blue and red cloth round the bottom and cuffs, but his
Sunday garment is of a more ornamental nature, and fre¬
quently of thin cloth, richly embroidered in party colours
round the cuffs and collars. In some parts of Lapland
koftens of black cloth are met with, and those that are
wealthy sometimes array themselves in scarlet ones. On
extraordinary occasions, other parts of their d. ess are also
of a finer nature than what is commonly worn. As may
be supposed, even the best species of cloth which finds
its way to these regions, is of a very inferior quality ; it
is chiefly of German manufacture, although cotton from
England is also found here. Those of the women who
can afford it, adorn their persons with rings, and ribbons
of the gayest colours dutter around their bonnets. Like
the Greenlanders, and other inhabitants of high latitudes,
females wear pantaloons like the men, a practice which
was in all probability had recourse to for personal com¬
fort, in regions where open garments would have unne¬
cessarily exposed the body to the cold. It may be men¬
tioned, that the dresses of the families of the merchants
who live on the coast are very superior, in point of ele¬
gance, to the garments of the native Laplanders.
The difference of character between the highland and
coast Laplander has already been adverted to. The for¬
mer is known by his haughty expression of countenance,
and proud independence of demeanour. The more do¬
mestic habits of life of the coast Laplander, render him
a more quiet and inoffensive being, and give to his fea¬
tures a milder and a somewhat vacant expression. Speak¬
ing of the Laplanders in general, they must be considered
as a diminutive race, though not such pigmies as is com¬
monly supposed. The Norwegian Laplander is superior
in stature to the rest of the race, and this difference is
probably to be attributed to the freer and purer air of his
mountains rendering him more hardy and robust. The
average height of the highland Laplander may be con¬
sidered as varying from five feet to five feet two inches.
They sometimes, but very rarely, exceed this stature.
The characteristic features of the race are small elon¬
gated eyes, high cheek-bones, wide mouth, and a point¬
ed chin, with little or no beard. Their hair is generally
brown, or dark coloured. Their bodies, from their habits,
are naturally spare, and devoid of corpulence, though in
general they are ill made. They are bony and muscular,
possessing greater strength than their stature would seem
to indicate, active, and capable of enduring almost any
fatigue. Their hands and feet are remarkably small;
their voice is weak, and its tones have a squeaking effect
upon the ear of a foreigner. In their moral character the
Laplanders exhibit some marked peculiarities. Their pas¬
sions partake of the torpor of the climate, and flow in a
slow, cool, and regular course, unbroken by those sudden
ebullitions and transports which characterize the men of
warmer latitudes. Love, or the amatory feeling, is but a
lingering spark, only sufficient to answer the purposes of
nature. They possess in a remarkable degree the virtue
of continency, and the conjugal relation is rarely or never
violated, although both their parental and filial affections
are weak. Anger and bloodthirstiness are unknown to
them; and Sir A. Capel Brooke found, in 1823, that, du¬
ring the space of twenty years, only one murder had been
committed m Finmark. Although they are generally cau¬
tious, mistrustful, and suspicious, especially of strangers,
as well as cunning in their commercial dealings, yet theft
is almost unknown amongst them. The absence of this
vice is proved by the fact, that locks, bolts, and other
safe-guards, are considered as unnecessary appendages to
a door. They have been accused of avarice, but with¬
out any just reason ; for whatever strictness they may
]. A P L A N D.
239
l.apland. observe in bargain-making does not arise from a wish
"——V-—'to hoard up money, but that they may be more boun¬
tifully supplied with their favourite beverage, brandy, of
which they are excessively fond. Drunkenness is not
only common, but may be said to constitute a feature of
their character. In temper the coast Laplander is of a
kinder nature than the mountaineer, and he is more in¬
clined to hospitality, although this virtue is by no means
very conspicuous in either. They are generally passive,
without much courage, and altogether of a very peaceable
and inoffensive disposition. They now exhibit little of
a warlike spirit, although in former ages they were fre¬
quently the cause of terror to the Norwegians. Notwith¬
standing their ebriety, health is a blessing wrhich the inha¬
bitant of Lapland enjoys in a high degree. They were for¬
merly addicted to degrading superstitions; and the witch¬
craft in particular which was exercised amongst them has
passed into a proverb. Milton alludes to this circum¬
stance when he speaks of dancing “ with Lapland witches.”
1 hey were famous for their empire over the winds, which
they disposed of in bags to the credulous mariners. In
performing their infernal rites, the instrument used was
the magical drum, by beating which as an accompaniment
to other ceremonies, they fancied they had the power of
foretelling future events, curing diseases, and exorcising
evil spirits. Their mythology was distinguished by an
universal idolatry, in which the elements were typified,
and a polytheism, by which every object in nature was
changed into a god. But on these wild creations of the
human mind in a state of ignorance and barbarism it is
unnecessary to dwell. The rites by which the worship of
their deities and idols were celebrated are now unknown,
being supplanted by those which have their origin in the
milder and purer genius of Christianity.
Ihe habitations of the Laplanders now demand descrip¬
tion. The mountaineers live in tents, which differ in no
respect in summer and winter, and are of very simple con¬
struction. They are formed by six beams of wood rising
in a pyramidal form, and meeting nearly at the top, cover¬
ed with thick and coarse cloth, a flap of which, left loose
between two of the beams, constitutes the door. The
height of the tent is generally about six feet, and the whole
circumference of the inside seldom exceeds fifteen or eigh¬
teen feet. 'I he floor is strewed with rein-deer skins, hav¬
ing the hair upwards, and which thus serve for either lying
or sitting on, the tent being too low to permit of the oc^
cupants assuming the erect posture, except in one place.
A stone frame is made in the middle for the fire, and
there is a hole at the top to which the smoke must find
its way; but its speedy egress is by no means consider¬
ed as necessary to comfort. Ihe fumes thickly impregnate
the whole tent, as well as “ all which it inhabita species
of japanning highly valued, as affording a protection in win¬
ter against the cold, and in summer against the swarms of
mosquitoes. Cabined and confined in this limited do¬
micil, it is here that the Laplanders, seated on their heels
in the manner of the eastern nations, or squat like toads,
spend in all the beatitude of idleness the moments which
they can spare from their pastoral avocations. The differ¬
ent provisions are kept in boxes attached to the stakes;
and boxes are ranged on the inside round the cloth or co-
vei mg , ut these precautions are often unavailing against
the impetuosity of the blast, whilst the thinness of the tent
naturally exposes the inmates to the severity of the wea-
1<rr*.. n, re£ai . to habitation, the shore Laplanders have
a decided superiority over those of the mountains. The
gamnne or hut of the former is usually about five feet in
leiglit. It is generally of a circular or oblong form, hav¬
ing the appearance of a large rounded hillock, which name
u may be said to deserve, being composed of turf laid on
branches of the birch, and supported underneath by a
Habita¬
tions.
wooden frame-work of stronger materials, to bear the Lapland,
weight of the whole. The entrance is by a low, narrow s-—
passage, at the extremity of which is the door communi¬
cating with the part inhabited. Around them are general¬
ly enclosures for the cattle, and several racks of coarse
fodder for their winter food. The farming stock of the
coast Laplander consists of a few sheep, and sometimes a
cow or two, which are kept in the enclosure during the
summer season, and in winter occupy the same buildings
with their owner, being supported during the latter partly
by the coarse fodder which he has been able to collect, but
chiefly by the remnant of his fishing produce.
Necessity has rendered the highland Laplander a wan-Habits and
derer, and habit has made that mode of life a second nature ni«des of
to him. It is upon the rein-deer that he almost entirely,
if not altogether, depends for subsistence; and hence their
welfare is the chief object of his care, in promoting which
he is compelled annually to take long journeys to the sea¬
shore for the purpose of avoiding the attacks of insects.
His habits of life are thus in a great measure formed ; and
the year is divided between his abode on the mountains
and his migrations to the coast, whilst his life as a whole
consists of the extremes of bodily fatigue and total inac¬
tion, plenty and want. When he is hungry, and has the
power of gratifying his appetite without restraint, he is per¬
fectly ravenous, and devours a quantity sufficient to sup¬
port him for several days. Those who inhabit high lati¬
tudes, where subsistence is precarious at certain seasons,
seem all to have a remarkable capacity of stomach, and to
be capable of eating an enormous quantity at a meal, so as
to serve them for five or six days, without being annoyed
by the load. I he necessities of their situation have com-
pelled them to practise this frequently, and custom has
rendered it easy. The Laplander’s household economy, it
may readily be imagined, is simple in the extreme. His
food during the period of his summer rambles is spare and
frugal, and without any indulgence in rein-deer venison, Ins
favourite food and the luxury of the w inter season. In sum¬
mer he is intent only on increasing the number of his flock,
and on providing against his future wants. He contents
himself then generally with milk, and the remains of the
curd and whey after making bis cheese. The first is taken
sparingly, on account of the small quantity which a single
deer yields, as well as of the great importance it is to linn
to secure a good quantity of cheese for his winter stock,
and to guard against any disaster that might befal his herd
and reduce him to want. As he milks his herd during the
summer season only, when this approaches a close, some
milk is generally preserved for the purpose of being frozen.
Ibis serves not only for his own individual use during the
winter, but, being highly prized for its exquisite delicacy in
this state, it constitutes an article of trade; and the mer¬
chants with whom the Laplander deals, and who then re¬
pair to the interior, gladly purchase it at any price. Though
the rein-deer milk is thus of a very rich quality, yet the
cheese made from it is extremely bad, and unpalateable to
any one but a native. It is made by simply placing the
milk in a large iron pot over the fire, which, w ith the addi¬
tion of rennet made from the stomach of the deer, quickly
coagulates. I he curd is then pressed, and the whey, being
separated from it, is put into shallow moulds of about the
size of a small plate. Bad as it is, the hardy Laplander is
very partial to it both raw and roasted £ m the latter state
it appears at the tables of the merchants, and is rather more
eatable than when unprepared. When heated, an oily
juice exudes from it, which is found of great use in remov¬
ing the effects arising from being frost-bitten. Butter is
seldom if ever made of rein-deer milk by the Laplanders,
but it is so by the k inland settlers, who in many parts of
Lapland keep herds of rein-deer, the colour of which, it is
said, is pecuhaily white. Ihe Laplanders sometimes vary
I
24v
j,apland.
LAPLAND.
Herds.
tlieir dishes by mixing different kinds of wild berries with
'the whey, the latter being previously boiled till it acquires
some degree of consistency. They are no less fond of the
roots of the angelica, which has an agreeable taste, and like¬
wise possesses antiscorbutic properties. Much value is set
upon the blood of the rein-deer, from which a variety of
dishes is prepared, care being always taken to preserve it
when the animal is killed. It is also supposed to possess
antiscorbutic properties. Those who reside upon the coast
subsist chiefly on fish, with a little beef and mutton oc¬
casionally. The furniture consists of horn spoons, pots
and kettles made of brass or copper, and sometimes of
stone, wooden bowls capable of holding about twelve
quarts, a basket for holding cheese, and a barrel for oil
and other liquids. Some of the richer natives possess the
more showy utensils, such as pewter plates, and spoons of
silver. The highland Laplanders obtain all the artificial
light which they require from the fire alone, but those on
the coast use a rude sort of lamp. One or two shelves for
cheese run along the upper part of the house ; and a few
rennet bags, containing the milk for winter use, are sus¬
pended from the roof. Oval fir boxes, answering for pan¬
niers, are employed in transporting their goods; two of
them, weighing about two pounds each, are carried by one
rein-deer. The most ornamental article of furniture is the
cradle, which is a piece of wood hollowed out, and having
a recess for receiving the head of the child, and being pro¬
vided with cords, by which it is fastened to the mother’s
back when she travels. In shape it somewhat resembles
the sledge, with the lower part open, and the upper pro¬
tected by an arched covering made of leather, which shel¬
ters the head of the infant. It is stuffed with soft moss, is
portable and safe, and, when slung on the back, the head of
the child appears above the shoulders of the mother, whose
hands are left at liberty, and who is otherwise little incom¬
moded by her burden in travelling.
The herds of the Laplanders vary much in size, and this
circumstance constitutes their riches or poverty. He who
has 1000 rein-deer is accounted rich, though instances are
by no means rare of one individual possessing 1500 or 2000
animals of this description. With three hundred a family
may live in tolerable comfort, but with one hundred sub¬
sistence is precarious, and fifty reduces a Laplander to the
state of a menial. He is no longer independent and able
to keep a separate establishment, but generally joins his
herd to that of a richer proprietor, whom he serves in the
capacity of a servant, milking and tending the herd. Some¬
times when thus reduced he migrates to the sea-coast, where
he supports himself by fishing or otherwise. If successful
in his efforts, he returns, purchases a held, and resumes
his pastoral habits. It more generally happens, however,
that having once become a coast Laplander, he remains so
to the last, being naturally too thoughtless and improvi¬
dent to carry his views beyond the exigencies of the mo¬
ment. Should the herd of the mountain Laplander be at
all numerous, it rarely happens that the possessor is aware
of the exact number, there being a superstition prevalent
amongst them, that counting the flock, like numbering the
heads of the Israelites, will be attended with evil. During
the day they are allowed to wander over the hills where
they please, but watched by a shepherd, who observes their
motions, and is assisted in his duties by several dogs. 1 hese
are in readiness not only to guard against any attack ot
wolves, but also to prevent the herd from being too widely
dispersed, and to assist in bringing them to the fold in the
evening to be milked. After they are brought into t ns
enclosure, and secured by a cord attached to the hoi ns,
and held either in the hands, or fastened to some shrub,
the women bring their bowls from the tent, and proceed
in the operation in the usual way. Many of the deer aie
very refractory whilst this is going on, and, butting with
their horns, not unfrequently overthrow the female in at- Lapland.^
tendance. The Laplander justly sets a very high value
upon his dogs, the services of which are invaluable. I ho
breed is remarkable for the smallness of its size, resembling
the arctic fox in every thing but colour.
The employment of the highland Laplander may be said mP °.v*
to be entirely confined to the care of his deer ; and whenmen s’
not actively engaged in tending them, he most frequently
stretches himself in his tent in a state of listless ease, or
amuses himself by fashioning a rein-deer’s horn into a spoon.
But this monotony is occasionally broken by a hunting ex¬
cursion, in which he pursues the bear and other animals.
Ptarmigans, foxes, gluttons, martens, and other animals, he
either shoots, or catches by means of traps and snares..
He has several kinds of sledges, both for the conveyance of
himself and of his effects. The pulk, which is intended for
the use of merchants and other travellers, in form resembles
a boat, and is about seven feet in length by sixteen inches in
breadth, and generally about eight inches in depth, the back
board or stern part being about sixteen. The head of the
pulk comes to a point like a canoe ; the stern is flat, and
the bottom or keel convex. Above it has an oval halt deck
in front, covered with seal-skins. Ihis is the close pulk ,
the open sledge wants the deck, but its general dimensions
are similar to the other, and it is made, like it, of birch wood,
althouo-h of ruder construction, and finished with less care.
For the conveyance of goods, there is another open sledge
of much larger dimensions, being about eight or nine feet in
length, and of proportionate breadth. One deer is sufficient
for a sledge, to which it is attached by a.very simple harness,
consisting of a collar of rein-deer fur for the neck, a trace
which passes between the legs of the deer, and through a
broad belly-band of cloth fastened round the body of the
deer. There is of course a bridle and rein, and round the
neck is a loose band of cloth, to which a bell is suspend¬
ed, the sound serving to keep the party together. Al¬
though the difficulty of preserving the equilibrium of the
pulk is at first very great, yet, so expert is the Laplander
in o-uiding it, that the chief accidents that happen to him
in °his winter expeditions arise either from losing his
way, or being caught by snow-storms or snow-drifts.
Without these convenient vehicles it would be impossible
to traverse a country so rugged and broken as Lapland,
and even with this advantage as to locomotion, the difficulty
is very great. The speed with which the animal travels
is remarkable, ten miles an hour being easily accomplished
at a trot, and probably double that space at a gallop.
In the interior parts of Lapland travelling is suspended
during summer, roads being unknown here ; and it is
only in winter that, by the aid of this invaluable animal,
the country can be traversed. In some parts of Lap-
land, rein-deer have been made available for agricultural
purposes, such as ploughing and harrowing; but this only
happens when the proprietor is very poor. Ihey are
likewise employed during the winter season in drawing
hay and fodder "loaded upon trays. Hie Laplanders, espe¬
cially those of Finmark, have a mode of travelling by means
of the skie or snow-skait. it is made of wood, is very nar¬
row, but frequently more than seven feet in length. In
many parts of Lapland the greatest use made of them is
in pursuit of wild rein-deer, and the other animals with
which the country abounds. With these he makes rapid
progress, and undertakes very long journeys without any
other means of locomotion.
Various reasons induce the mountaineer to repair to the Migra-
coast during the summer season. First, that his herd of lon*’
deer may escape the gad-fly, with which, in June, July, and
August, the rein-deer are much tormented ; and secondly,
to sell or barter the disposable commodities which he has
collected during winter. These consist of the skins and
horns of the deer which he has killed for the support of
LAPLAND.
241
Lapland his family during winter ; and the skins of other animals
''—-v''—^ which he has succeeded in capturing, such as the bear,
fox, glutton, and marten, and the feathers of the ptarmi¬
gans which he has shot or ensnared. All these are valu¬
able articles of commerce to him ; and, by bartering them
with the merchants of the coast, he is enabled to procure
others that are necessary to his comfort in winter, such as
coarse cloth, meal, gunpowder, and tobacco. It is also a
matter of belief with the Laplander that it is absolutely
necessary to the existence of his rein-deer, that they should
once during the summer drink salt water ; and this forms
another and a very strong inducemer ^for him to visit the
coast. The deer eagerly drink salt water, and the draugh
is said to be efficacious in destroying the larvae of the gad
fly, which lays its eggs in the hide of the animal previous¬
ly to quitting the forest. The annual migration of the
Laplander commences in June, by which time the snow
is generally off the ground, and consequently his mode of
travelling is no longer in sledges. These, with all his win¬
ter necessaries, are left behind him in his summer expedi¬
tion, and he commonly deposits them in the storehouse
which almost every highland Laplander possesses, near
his church, in the neighbourhood of which he generally
remains during the winter. The distance which he has
to travel varies according to the situation of the coast to
which he is bound, but sometimes exceeds three hundred
miles. Sir Arthur de Capel Brooke, speaking of migra¬
tions, observes, “ the Swedish Laplanders that repair to
the coasts of Tromso and Senjen belong chiefly to Tor-
nea Lapmark, inhabiting the shores of the Tornea Trask.
These parts are also the resort of those from Enontekis,
in Russian Lapland. The Laplanders from the other
Lapmarks make for other parts of the Norwegian coasts
which are nearest to them ; and, though the distance may
be less, they do not, I believe, ever bend their steps to¬
ward the Gulf of Bothnia, preferring the coasts of Nor¬
way, from the absence of wood, the freshness of the
breezes, and the freedom from the insects which swarm
in the forests that skirt the shores of the gulf, as well as
in their own.”
In studying the health and safety of their herd, they ge¬
nerally make choice of the numerous islands on the western
coasts of Norway and Lapland, from their superior coolness,
as well as from the absence of bears and wolves. * These
also present a great advantage in being very convenient sta¬
tions for fishing, and possessing good harbours; whilst fish
likewise resort in great numbers to the numerous fiords or
bays, and narrow channels between them. This is the
reason why on the whole of the northern line of coast the
mainland is nearly uninhabited, with the exception of the
borders of the fiords, though the only supply of wood is to
be found there; whilst almost all the rocky isles so pro¬
fusely scattered along the coast possess inhabitants, al¬
though generally barren in the extreme. After the moun¬
tain Laplander has reached his fishing station, he erects his
tent of coarse wadmal cloth, and proceeds to barter his
skins, furs, and other articles of commerce, for necessaries
which he requires, but principally for brandy, which he
dunks to excess. Indeed it sometimes happens, that when
he is about to return to his winter quarters, he is occasion¬
ally obliged, though reluctantly, to part with his deer, in
order to supply himself with what is absolutely necessary
to. is existence.. Ihe mountain Laplander makes it a
point to be paid in silver in all his dealings with the mer-
ciants; and he frequently amasses a considerable quantity
of dollars, which he usually buries in the ground in some
spot near his tent. In September, he breaks up his sum¬
mer quarters, and gradually retires into the interior parts
of the country. Ihe circumstances which oblige him to
return is the want of rein-deer moss on the islands, and
also of fuel, both of which are readily procured in the in-
vol. xni.
terior parts of the country. The want of the latter is said Lapland,
to have led to the gradual and almost entire depopulation
of the Finmark coasts. His stock of necessaries and house¬
hold utensils are packed in a kind of wicker pannier, one of
which hangs on each side of the deer, and, by slow and easy
stages of six or seven miles a day, he reaches that part of
the continent where he intends to fix his winter abode.
Venison constitutes the principal article of food of the
highland Laplander in winter, the only season when he
kills his deer for supporting himself and his family.
The coast Laplanders support themselves entirely by the Fishery
fishery, which is astonishingly productive, 2000 lbs. weight &c.
of cod-fish being caught in a day by means of lines alone.
From the great number of small Russian vessels which
frequent the coast at certain seasons, they find a ready sale
for the fruits of their industry, receiving in exchange chiefly
meal, brandy, tobacco, and the like. Whales are abundant,
particularly what is called the fin whale, which is long, ac¬
tive, swimming with great strength and speed, and conse¬
quently difficult to capture. It is usually killed by darting
the harpoon into the body, and then breaking it close off.
No more notice is taken of it at the time, but the wound
generally proves mortal, and in a few days the animal is
found cast upon some part of the neighbouring shore. The
value of a good whale of this kind is about L.150, or 1000
specie dollars. The owner is known by a mark on the
barb of his harpoon, by which he identifies his property;
but law entitles the finder to one third of the booty. Great
quantities of other kinds of fish, particularly the sey or
coal-fish, are likewise caught. The latter are taken by
means of nets, and this fishery constitutes one of the
most lucrative branches of the Fmmark trade, as does the
down of the eider-duck. Plaice of a huge size, halibut,
and echini of all hues and sizes, are likewise amongst the
fish taken; but of shell-fish there are few or none, the
northern shores, from their nature, being particularly barren
of testacea. Halibut of 500 lbs. weight is frequently taken,
and it is esteemed a great delicacy. The farming stock of
the coast Laplander consists of a few sheep and goats, and
sometimes a cow or two; but pigs are little known in Fin-
mark, and do not constitute part of his property, sheep being
of superior utility in furnishing him both with food and rai¬
ment ; and his wants are, besides, very limited. On the ap¬
proach of winter the whole of the cattle are brought from the
mountains, where they are sent to graze during summer, and
are shut up in stables. The weight of the cattle is not
considerable. During winter, as a substitute for fodder, they
are almost entirely fed upon fish, to which they are very
partial. Some of the shore Laplanders keep rein-deer, but
these animals very rarely constitute part of their property.
In their manual arts and manufactures, that is, making^rts rna
the various utensils which their mode of life requires, thenufactures,
Laps display some ingenuity. Their sledges and canoes amuse-
are very strongly and closely put together, so as to be en-ments, &c.
tirely impervious to water. They tan hides with the first
inner bark of the birch, make strong cordage and thread
of the sinews of the rein-deer, weave coverings for their
tents, knit gloves, fashion wooden utensils for domestic
purposes; and the women prepare the skins of foxes, fawns,
otters, and other animals for sale, by stripping off the mem¬
braneous parts, and curing them with fish-oil. The Lap¬
landers have a few amusements, but the chief is hunting,
which, however, rather constitutes a part of their professional
avocations, than of their choice pastimes. The bow and
arrow, which formerly constituted their offensive weapons,
are now supplanted by fire-arms, particularly rifles, in the
use of which they are very expert. A taste for music and
poetry have been attributed to the Laplanders ; but this,
Sir Arthur de Capel Brooke observes, is a mistake, arising
from travellers mistaking Finns for Laplanders, a circum¬
stance which very frequently takes place. Amongst the
2 H
242
LAPLAND.
Lapland, amusements of the Laplanders may be mentioned their
occasionally assembling at feasts, where the favourite beve-
rao-e brandy, freely circulates, and mirth and noisy loqua-
cify prevail. At marriage-feasts hundreds meet, and the
ceremony is conducted with great formality and decorum;
but the more solemn ritual ot a funeral is,characterized by
an appropriate want of anything like parade or show.
Russian Lapland begins at the Waranger Fiord, under
N. Lat. 70., and extends as far as the White Sea. Admiral
Litke, in surveying its northern coast, in the years 1822-3,
has noted down many interesting particulars, from which
we derive the following notes:—
It may appear surprising, but it is nevertheless true, that
this coast, navigated for three centuries by the first mari¬
time nations, was, before Admiral Litke’s survey, less known
to us than many of the most distant and uninhabited parts
of the globe. Vessels trading to Archangel had, for a long
time, only the Zeefakel of the Dutch for a guide. Litke,
June 1822, began his survey of the Lapland coast at Cape
Orlow, in about N. Lat. 67. This, the eastern extremity
of Russian Lapland, consists of high, steep, and bare rocks.
Near Sviatoi Nos (in N. Lat. 68.) the coast has an invit¬
ing appearance ; the S. side of the islands, or indentations,
being covered with beautiful turf, wild leek, and a numbei
of strawberries, but there were no bushes. On the main
shore, however, were seen low dwarf birch and juniper
bushes, and numerous tracks of rein-deer. During summer,
as Admiral Litke was here informed, there is no land route
through Lapland", and all who are then necessitated to
travek—as, for example, clergymen, the judges, or officers
of judicial courts, &c.,—pass by shnakes along the shore,
by stations, from Kola, round the whole peninsula, as far as
Kandalaksha, in the extreme north-western point of the
White Sea. Between Kandalaksha, however, and Kola,
they manage to travel in the usual manner.
A little to the W. of Sviatoi Nos is the mouth of the
Yukanka River, which is navigable for 3 to 4 sea miles up,
when rapids commence, and prevent navigation, even foi
small boats. On the left bank of this river lies a Lopar
village, called the \ukanka Lodge; for all places of the
Lopares, both for summer and winter residence, are called
by the Russians pagosti (lodges). The summer houses are
entered about the beginning of May, and are inhabited
until the first snow, when the winter quarters are re-enteied,
which are 150 to 200 wersts farther inland. The rein-deer,
which the Lopares bring with them to this coast, are then
let loose on the islands, or on the bogs, and in autumn they
are found again by their tracks in the snow. Sometimes,
however, rein-deer are lost on the bogs, or are devoured
by wolves. On the islands, on the contrary, they are secure ;
but they would not all find food there. The Lopares are
occupied during summer with fishery, and those on the
Yukanka River chiefly take salmon, the neighbouring sea
being poor in other fish, ihe fish taken is either used by
themselves, or bartered for flour and other necessaries,
brought to them from various parts of the White Sea. Some¬
times they lease for a summer the whole river, or part of it,
to Archangel traders. One of their most important occu¬
pations during summer is the making of their keroschki,
i. e., winter sledges, which resemble a pointed trough.
During the winter, the Lopares are employed with fishery
in the lakes, and with the chase. The Yukan lodge con¬
sists of eleven vyeyi, inhabited by about sixty persons of both
sexes. These vyeyi are made of wattles, of a conical shape,
covered with thorn-bush branches and moss, and are from
7 to 10 feet wide, and 5 to 7 feet high. A small opening
on the ground serves at the same time for window and door,
whilst the smoke escapes through another hole at the top.
In the middle of the vyeya is a hearth made of stones, where
a fire is burning for the purpose of heating, cooking, and
bread-baking: the latter is done in a most simple way, by
making a dough of flour and water, and forming it into a Lapland,
flat cake, which, with one side, is laid on a hot stone, and
with the other, is turned to the fire, and, when done, is called
bread. The place between the hearth and the wall is filled
with branches, and covered with rein-deer skins, and there
the inhabitants sleep, wrapping themselves up in other rein¬
deer skins. Around these vyeyi prevails a filth and dis¬
order that is frightful: the entrails of fish, heaps of bones,
dogs, kettles, sledges, and keroschki, are lying about pell-
mell, spreading most offensive smells. The appearance of
the Lopares themselves, however, is quite pleasing. The
men are dressed in short woollen overcoats, mostly of blue
colour, with a similar coat underneath, worsted stockings,
and shoes. The women wear Russian sarafanes, and around
the head the Russian kakoshnik, or handkerchiefs.
About 30 miles N.W. from Yukanka is Cherni Nos, or
Black Cape ; and near it, Noknev Island,—in earlier charts,
called Nagel, or Nagol. Here Admiral Litke found that
the needle showed no variation. On the main shore, near
Noknev Island, the principal fishes caught are salmon, bib,
paltus, and piksha. The peshchanka (sand-eel) is caught
in a remarkable manner. Some time before ebb, the
Lopares set about digging up the wet sand close above
the strand line; with almost every step they dig out such
a fish, to which, however, they must not allow a second’s
time, as otherwise it would be sure to dig itself in again, and
escape. As soon as they perceive it, therefore, they seize
it with a handful of sand and throw it violently on the ground.
The fish, thus stunned, are collected in baskets or casks. It
is strange that this fish is found only at ebb during the day,
and never at night. The people of this place had also
some sheep, which had abundant food in the adjoining
pastures. # .
The chief island on the coast of Russian Lapland is Kudin,
—not Kilduin, as the Dutch call it,—and lies 11 miles E.
from the mouth of the Kola Bay. It is 9 miles l°ng> an(l
1|- to 3£ miles broad. Its shores are high and precipitous on
the N. side, and terminate abruptly in a perpendicular rock
on the W., while on the S.E. side it slopes down gently to
the sea. The appearance of the S. coast is most peculiar,
rising as it does in four most regular terraces, forming an
amphitheatre of 500 feet in height, with a flat table-like
top. This coast is everywhere clothed with the richest ver¬
dure, forming a most striking contrast with the bare granite
crags on the main shore. The island consists of primary
slate, and thus differs from both the islands and the main
shore to the south-eastward, which show only granite.
Rein-deer, belonging to Mr Popow, merchant in Kola, are
pastured on this island. He introduced them heie about
twenty-five years ago, and since then their number has in¬
creased from two or three couples to several hundreds. Mi
Popow permitted the Lopares to use these rein-deer on con¬
dition of delivering to him the skin of every beast killed,
and paying him for the meat one pud of salmon, or other
fish they may take during the winter in the lakes. Excellent
mushrooms, called mochoviki (bog-mushrooms), grow in
great abundance. . .
Kola, the capital of Russian Lapland, is situate at tne
confluence of the Rivers Kola and Tuloma, about 30 miles
from the sea. As determined by Mr Rasumowski, who, m
the last century, observed in this place the transit of Venus
over the sun, the latitude of the city is 68. 52., the longi¬
tude 33. 1. E. from Greenwich. It appears that Kola was
founded long before 1533, as English and other mariners
traded already about the middle of the sixteenth century
to Kola as to a well-known place. It was at first only a
wolash (capital of a district), became under Peter the Great
an ostrog (fortified place), and since the foundation of the
stadtholdership, the capital of a government. Ihe place
extends 530 fathoms along the River Kola, and \l>-> fathoms
along the River Tuloma. Except a church built of stone,
LAPLAND.
Lapland, all the houses are of wood. The streets are paved with
N—^ planks. On the bank of the Kola, near the centre of the
town, lies a wooden fort, being a square with five towers:
since the rupture with England, in the year 1800, the can¬
non of this fort were removed to the priory of Solowez, in
order to put the latter in a state of defence; and since then,
the walls of the fort serve only as a fence for the cathedral,
and the towers are transformed into storehouses. The
number of inhabitants of both sexes were estimated by Litke,
in 1822, at about 800, but recent official data show that it
was, in 1849, only 642.
As famous names like London, Paris, See., call forth in¬
voluntarily the idea of incomparable splendour, uninter¬
rupted pleasure, and constant happiness, so one thinks, at
the name of Kola, of a direful place, the seat of extreme
poverty, entirely separated from the civilized world, enve¬
loped in enduring night. Human imagination seldom knows
the middle course, and, accordingly, the latter notions are as
incorrect as the former ones. The officials and merchants
of Kola live in a style varying little from that of the capital.
In external appearance, Kola is that of a clean town ; and
the houses, consisting frequently of two floors, are neat.
The view of the town from the N.E. is most charming; it
stands on a high and abrupt bank, from which a wide plain
extends, bordered on three sides by high hills.
The principal trade of Kola is in fish, particularly in
bib (J.reska) and paltus. The Kolaers are not themselves
engaged in fishing, but obtain the fish by barter, mostly
from the Russian fishers trading on the Lapland coast,
partly from the Norway ports of Wadsb, Wardhuus, Ham-
merfest, and even from Tromsb, to which ports the Kolaers
are permitted to export about 2000 tchetwert of rye flour
every year.
Kola lodji go to Archangel to barter their cargo of fish
for the various merchandise they require, and some of them
venture to set out from the latter place on their return home
as late as October. Whilst the men of Kola are thus oc¬
cupied, their wives and daughters do not remain idle. They
cross in little boats to the islands to gather moroshka, the
berries of Rubus chamcemorus. A boat contains usually
but one young and able man, and from twelve to twenty
women. Among the islands near the Bay of Kola, the
Koreline Islands are considered to give the best produce of
moroshka; they lie 5 miles W. from the mouth of the bay.
The Kola women, however, will go still farther, to Motov
Bay, and even to the Ainova Isles, at least 100 miles from
Kola, in a boat. The moroshka from these isles are said to
surpass in size and flavour all others, and are mostly destined
for the imperial court.
The Bay of Kola, near the town, is so shallow, that even
the smallest vessels can approach it only at high water. The
River Kola ceases altogether to be navigable at the town ;
but the Tuloma is navigable for about 40 miles, namely, to
its origin from the lake. Its banks are densely wooded with
splendid fir.
1 here is a small and bare island in the middle of the Bay
o Kola, called Solnoi Ostrow (Tallow Island), from the
immense number of seals which formerly used to come ashore
ere, but which have entirely disappeared about the end of
the last century.
W.fiom Kola is the Bay of Motov, and Ribachi, or Fisher’s
Demnsula, m old maps mostly presented as an island. This
difference must not, however, be altogether attributed to
the inaccuracy of the old charts; for it is not merely pos¬
sible, but even highly probable, that this peninsula was once
separated from the mainland; and this hypothesis is the
more probable, because the rising of the Scandinavian pe¬
ninsula has been noticed before. Almost throughout the
whole extent of the coast of Lapland, traces were found
by Litke, in a height from 4 to 9 fathoms, that the sea once
un tne isthmus grow very straight
attained that height.
and thick birches; and in case of necessity, fuel can be pro¬
cured from this wood, although with some difficulty. Mo-
roshka grow in great plenty, and of exceeding beauty, on
the shores of the peninsula.
The Bay of Motov is very remarkable on account of the
whales which are driven in thither every year, in greater or
smaller numbers. Sometimes, in the course of the summer,
as many as ten wdiales are cast up; generally fewer, but they
are seldom totally wanting. All the shores are covered with
bones of these animals, or remains not yet thoroughly decom¬
posed, which emit an insupportable stench to a great distance,
and by which bears and other beasts of prey are attracted to
the strand. The Lopares, to whom this district belongs, con¬
sider as their property everything that is cast up by the sea,
and this forms one of their contested privileges. They sell
the cast-up whales to the Pomarov, who come to them, for
fish and fat. The usual price of a whale is 60 rubles, which
is exceedingly moderate, when we consider the quantity of
train oil to be obtained from a whale. These whales are
probably the Balcena physalus and B. mysticetus.
On the western side of the Fisher’s Peninsula is the
Waranger Fiord, which has in its eastern portion the River
Petchenga, celebrated, because on its banks dwelt St Tri-
phon, the miracle-performer, who converted the Lopares
to Christianity. The abode of this saint still exists at the
embouchure of the River Triphonov into the Petchenga,
8f miles from the mouth of the latter. In the sixteenth
century stood there the convent of the Life-bringing Tri¬
nity, to which, in the year 1556, the whole coast of Lap-
land W. of the Quit of Kola, with all the inhabitants, w'ere
given for an ecclesiastical district by Czar Joan Wasilevitch.
In the deed of grant, the Bays of Motov, Liza, Ura, Patrez,
and Nyawden, are mentioned, and also whatever the sea
casts up, such as the whale, walrus, or similar animals. In
the year 1589 this convent was destroyed by the Swedes,
and afterwards transferred to Kola, but subsequently en¬
tirely abolished and combined with the convent of Archangel.
On the Petchenga, the church alone remained, adorned, as
we are told, with rich pictures of the saints. It has no
minister of its own, but one comes there annually from Kola.
Petchenga is the Mecca of the neighbourhood; for every
Lopar ot respectability considers it a duty to worship, at
least once in his life, the relics of the God-pieasing saint. In
times of danger, they make vows to go to Petchenga to pray.
In the Waranger Fiord, Russian Lapland ceases; and
according to Admiral Litke, Cape Weres forms the boun¬
dary. It lies in N. Lat. 69. 58., and E. Long. 29. 50.
from Greenwich.
One of the latest travellers who have added to our store
of knowledge of Lapland generally, is Professor J. D.
Forbes, already quoted. He visited a Lap encampment near
1 romso, and gives the following interesting description :—
“ We at length extricated ourselves from the wood, and
crossing the stream, saw the Lap camp before us on a dry
and pleasant grassy space, about 2^ English miles from the
sea. Some piles of sticks and mounds, which seemed like
no human habitation, first attracted attention. The piles
of sticks form a sort of skeleton shed, which can be covered
in bad weather by a kind of rude tarpaulin. They contain
barrels, clothes, and many nondescript utensils and stores,
which in fine weather are exposed suspended from the bare
poles. Two low round mounds of turf, overlaid with sticks
and branches in a most disorderly fashion, composed the
habitations of a multitude of men, women, and especially
children, who seemed at first sight to be countless. Their
appearance—uncouth, squalid, and diminutive in the ex¬
treme—was, I thought, decidedly unprepossessing. But an
attentive survey brought out some more favourable features.
The countenance was altogether unlike any I had seen, but
by no means devoid of intelligence, and even a certain sweet¬
ness ot expression. Notwithstanding that our party was
243
Lapland.
244
LAP
Lapland.
tolerably numerous, they exhibited no signs either of dis¬
trust or shyness ; and whilst some of them entered into con¬
versation with one of the gentlemen from Tromso, who
knew a little of their dialect, and others went attended by
several small active dogs to fetch some rein-deer for our in¬
spection, from the heights, the greater part remained quietly
engaged in their huts, as we had found them, quite regard¬
less of our presence. On inquiring into their occupation,
we were surprised to find them possessed of some excel¬
lently printed and well-cared-for books, particulaily a bible
in the Finnish tongue, and a commentary, each forming a
quarto volume. We found some of them also engaged in
writing. This was a matter of surprise, where we had been
led to° expect something approaching barbarism ; and we
had soon a proof that their pretension to religious impres¬
sions was not merely theoretical, for they positively refused
to taste the spirits which were freely offered to them, and
of which our party partook; though it is well known that
excessive and besotting drunkenness used to be the great
sin of the Lappish tribes, and still is of those who have not
been converted to habits of order and religion by the ze&-
lous efforts of the Swedish missionaries who have indefati-
gably laboured amongst them.
“ The Lap hut is formed interiorly of wood, by means
of curved ribs, which unite near the centre in a ring, which
is open, and allows free escape for the smoke, the fire being
lighted in the centre of the floor. The exterior is covered
with turf. The door is of wood on one side. The in¬
mates recline on skins on the floor, with their feet towards
the fire ; and behind them, on a row of stones near the wall
of the hut, are their various utensils. Their clothing
chiefly of tanned skins and woollen stuffs—looked very dirty.
Their whole wealth consists in rein-deer. The two families
who frequent this valley possess about /00 deer. We saw,
perhaps, about one-fourth of that number. A few of them
were driven, for our inspection, into a circular enclosure of
wooden paling, where they are habitually milked. One of
the men dexterously caught them by the horns with a lasso,
or noose. The deer are small; but some of them carry
immense branching horns, the weight of which they seem
almost unable to support. At this season their long winter
coat of hair came off by handfuls. They make a low grunt¬
ing noise, almost like a pig. The milk is very small in quan¬
tity and excessively rich.”
The whole population of Finmark does not exceed
45,000. The degrading superstition in which they were
formerly sunk has now in a great measure disappeared,
along with those numerous deities which they worshipped:
the wild creations of unenlightened nature have been su¬
perseded by Christianity, and a knowledge of the true God.
Regular clergymen are established in the country by the
different governments, and the Laps exhibit much rever¬
ence and devotional feeling during divine service, although
its purport is only known to them through an interpreter.
Finmark, in regard to ecclesiastical regulations, is under
the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Norland and Finmark,
both of which form one diocese. Swedish Lapland has a
population of only about 12,000. .
Language. The language of the Laplanders is a Finnish dialect,
with so great an infusion of foreign words, that the inha¬
bitants of the two nations require an interpreter before
they can understand each other’s meaning. “ I he nume¬
rous cases,” says Malte-Brun, “the varied terminations of
nouns and compound verbs, the method of expressing pro¬
nouns by ajjixa joined to verbs, and, lastly, the negative
conjugations, are characteristics equally applicable to the
languages of Finland, Esthonia, and Lapland. Ihe last
is in some respects still poorer than the other two; thus
there are five words for snow, seven or eight for a moun¬
tain ; but honesty, virtue, and conscience must be expressed
by a periphrasis. The Lapponic has been mixed, perhaps
Popula¬
tion.
L A R
still more than the other Finnic tongues, with the German
and Scandinavian, which were spoken by the conquerors,
who were too often the tyrants of the Finnic race.” Some
old Hungarian roots are also found in it, from which cir¬
cumstance, as well as from others, it has been inferred that
the Laplanders are the descendants of a Hunnic mixed
with a Finnic people, or perhaps a distinct branch of the
great Finno-LIunnic race. The principal roots and deri¬
vatives in the Lapponic tongue certainly bear less affinity
with those of the languages of Upper Asia than any other
Finnic dialect. See also Leemii de Lapon. et Finmar.
Commentatio. (j. f. s.) (a. p.)
LAR, a town of Persia, the capital of the province of
Laristan, and formerly of an Arabian kingdom, is situate
in a spacious plain at the foot of a range of hills, in N. Lat.
27. 30., E. Long. 52. 45., 180 miles S.E. from Shiraz. The
inhabitants are chiefly employed in the manufacture of
gunpowder, arms, and cotton fabrics. Among its buildings
are a dilapidated fort, a handsome bazaar, said to be the
best of the kind in Persia, and the fortified mansion of the
khan, or governor. Pop. about 12,000.
LARCHER, Pierre-Henri, a learned Greek scholar,
was born at Dijon in 1726. At an early age he gave him¬
self up to the study of Greek and English, and made him¬
self known by translations from both of these tongues. He
greatly extended his fame by his controversy with Voltaire
on the subject of that writer’s Philosophie de VHistoire.
This work was thought highly dangerous by the orthodox,
and Larcher was urged to reply to it, which he did in his
Supplement a la Philosophie d’Histoire. He was thought
to have the best of the argument; but his antagonist, in a
rejoinder, entitled Defense de mon Oncle, overwhelmed
him with ridicule and persiflage. Larcher incautiously
adopted the same style in his Beponse, but in that vein he
was no match for his opponent, and to all the future sneers
of Voltaire he did not dare to reply. In 1775 he published
his Memoire sur Venus, which was crowned by the Aca¬
demy of Belles-Lettres. 4 hree years later he became a
member of that society, and contributed to its Transactions
some valuable papers, chiefly on the vases and festivals of
some of the nations of ancient Greece. When the Imperial
University was instituted, Larcher was made titular pro¬
fessor of Greek; but he was then eighty-three years of
age, and could only do duty by deputy. He died in 1812 of
the effects of a fall.
Of Larcher’s translations may be mentioned the Plectra
of Euripides; Xenophon’s Apologia and Anabasis; 1 opes
Martinas Scriblerus. His name,however,is kept alivechiefiy
by his Herodotus, which appeared in 1786. Trom the first
it was condemned as clumsy and inelegant, though correct
in the main; but the value of the geographical and chro¬
nological notes was acknowledged as great. Even these
have been now, to a great extent, superseded by the later
researches of Rennell, Niebuhr, Dahlmann, Jiigei, and Biihr.
GARDNER, Nathaniel, D.D., author of the Credibi¬
lity of the Gospel History, was born in 1684 at Hawkhurst,
in Kent. On leaving the school of his native town, he
went to study in London, in the academy of Dr Oldfield,
a Presbyterian dissenter; and at the age of sixteen, accord-
ino- to a custom then common among the English dissenters,
he went over to Holland, and studied there for three years
under Burmann, Graevius, and D’Uries. He returned to
England in 1703, spent six years more in the special study
of theology, and took license in 1709. He was not popu¬
lar as a preacher. His elocution was bad, chiefly from
deafness, being such that he could not modulate his voice
properly. In 1713 he entered the family of Lady Treby
as private chaplain and tutor to her son, and remained with
her till she died in 1721. From this time till his death
devoted himself almost wholly to the writing of those
Lar
I!
Lardner.
he
works which have given him a foremost place among the
L A R
Lares theological scholars of Britain. His public duties were
I! limited to occasional lectures in the Presbyterian chapel at
Laristan. qjj je^y. Though the value of his writings was freely
acknowledged, he was very meanly remunerated for them.
A small property which he possessed in his native town
secured him against the worst evils of poverty. At the
time of his death, which happened at Hawkhurst, in 1768,
he had completed his eighty-fourth year.
The most important of Lardner’s works is his Credibility
of the Gospel History, in which proofs of the truth of Chris¬
tianity are brought together from innumerable sources in
religious history and literature of the first five centuries.
It was published between 1730 and 1757, and still holds
its place as one of the strongest bulwarks of revealed re¬
ligion. The Supplement to this work, and the Large Col¬
lection of Jewish and Heathen Testimonies, are in an equal
degree distinguished by profound learning and close and
cogent reasoning. The composition of these works occu¬
pied the better part of forty-three years. Of the less ela¬
borate essays thrown off during this time, the most import¬
ant was his Letter concerning the question. Whether the
Logos supplied the place of the Human Soul in the Person
of Jesus Christ, in which he openly professed himself a
Socinian. There are two complete editions of Lardner’s
works, one in 11 vols. 8vo, edited, in 1788, by Dr Kippis;
and another in 5 vols. 4to, Lond. 1815.
LARES, the household gods of the Romans, whose
images stood on the hearth in a little shrine {cedes) or a
small chapel (lararium). The name is of Etruscan origin,
and signifies kings or heroes. The Lares seem to have
been identical with the Manes, but it was only the spirits
of good men that were worshipped as such. Of the domes¬
tic Lares, the Lar familiaris, as founder of the family, was
the chief, and was always taken with the family in its
changes of abode. In every household there were gene¬
rally two Lares at least, and they were either clad in the
skin of a dog, or represented with a dog at their feet. In
their hands they held a cornucopia ; and on their festivals,
which fell on the first of May, they were crowned with
garlands, and worshipped with sacrifices. Besides the Lares
domestici et familiares, there were also Lares compitales et
viales, militares et marini, urbani, rurales, fyc.
LARGS, a port and w'atering-place of Scotland, county
of Ayr, on the Firth of Clyde, 22 miles W.S. W. from Glas¬
gow. Weaving and fishing form the chief occupation of
the industrial classes. Adjacent to the town is the battle¬
field of Largs, where Alexander III. defeated Haco, King of
Norway, in 1263. Tumuli and cairns still mark the ground.
Pop. (1851) 2824.
LARISSA (Turkish Yenitcher), a town of European
Turkey, the ancient and modern capital of Thessaly, on
the right bank of the Selembria, here crossed by a bridge
of ten arches; 37 miles E. by N. from Trikala; N. Lat.
39. 52., E. Long. 22. 40. 23. It is composed of unsightly
miserable houses, built of clay and wood, and forming streets
narrow, crooked, and filthy. Manufactures of silk, morocco-
leather, and cotton. A Greek metropolitan church, several
mosques, and some bazaars occupying an open area in the
centre of the town, are worthy of notice. Pop. about 25,000,
three-fourths of whom are Turks.
LARIS TAN, a maritime province in the S. of Persia,
extending from N. Lat. 26. 30. to 28. 25., and from E.
Long. 52. 30. to 55. 50., is bounded S. by the Persian Gulf,
VV. and N. by Ears, and E. by Kirman. Its greatest length
fiom E. to W. is 210 miles; its greatest breadth from N.
to S., 120 miles. Area 16,000 square miles. It consists of
two paits : the northern and upland part, skirted by a long
chain of mountains running from S.W. to N.E.; the southern
and lowland part, consisting of steppes of sand and salt, in¬
terrupted at intervals by rocky mountains. The only im¬
pel tant liver is the Nabou, in its western corner. On the
LAS 245
coast, the inlets of the sea are numerous. Among the nor- Larne
them mountains there are some fertile tracts, yielding dates II
and other fruits. Of the products of the rest of the pro- Lascaris-
vince, the chief are camels, salt, and silk. The coast is in-
habited by independent Arab tribes. The capital of the
province is Lar.
LARNE, a sea-port and market-town of Ireland, county
of Antrim, on the N. shore of Lough Larne, 18 miles N.N.E.
from Belfast, of which it is an out-port. The manufactures
are cotton, sails, ropes, and leather; and the trade carried on
is almost exclusively in slate, lime, timber, and coals. The
chief object of interest is the ruined castle of Olderfleet,
erected in the reign of Henry HI. It is the seat of a poor-
law union, and of a petty sessions court. Edward Bruce
landed there in 1315. Pop. (1851) 3074.
LARNICA, or Larneca, a town on the S. coast of the
island of Cyprus, on a marshy plain, about a mile from the
shore, and 23 miles S.E. from Lefkosia. The houses are
built of mud, and only one storey in height, through fear of
earthquakes. It has a citadel, a cathedral, two convents, a
mosque, and several cisterns. Larnica is the chief place of
trade in the island, and the residence of the European con¬
suls. The principal exports are wine, silk, wheat, cotton,
and drugs. Rice and sugar are imported from Egypt;
cloth and hardware from Malta and other places. Larnica
is near the site of the ancient Citium, the birthplace of Zeno
the Stoic, and contains many vestiges of antiquity. Pop.
about 4000.
LASCARIS, Constantine, an eminent Greek scholar
of the fifteenth century, was a member of the royal house
of Lascaris, and was born at Constantinople, but in what
year is not known. When the Turks became masters of
that city in 1453, he sought an asylum in Italy, where
Francesco Sforza, Duke of Milan entrusted him with the
education of his daughter Hippolyta, afterwards married to
Alfonso, King of Naples. On leaving Milan, he went first
to Rome and afterwards to Naples, in both of which cities
he taught Greek and rhetoric. A few years later, when on
a visit to Messina, he was so cordially received by the in¬
habitants that he determined to settle there. The school
which he established enjoyed a great reputation till his death
in 1493. Among his pupils was the celebrated Bembo.
Lascaris bequeathed his library and valuable MSS. to the
senate of Messina. They were afterwards carried off to
Spain, and are now preserved in the Royal Library of the
Escurial. His published works are—Grammatica Grcecu,
sive Compendium octo Orationis partium, Milan, 1476, in
4to, being the first book printed in Greek ; Two Opuscula
on the Sicilians and Calabrese, who had written in Greek,
published, for the first time, by Maurolico in 1562. A
Dissertation on Orpheus, printed in the first volume of the
Marmora Taurinensia, from a manuscript in the library ot
the King of Sardinia. These works, though now of little
value, were useful in their day, by reviving the study of the
Greek tongue in countries where it had long been dead.
Lascaris, Andreas Joannes, a learned Greek, of the
same family with the preceding, and surnamed Rhyndace-
nus, because he was born on the banks of the Rhyndacus,
in Bithynia. On the Turkish conquest of Constantinople,
he took refuge at the court of Lorenzo de’ Medicis, who
sent him to Greece to collect valuable MSS. in that country.
Lascaris returned with a large number, and a few years
afterwards, made a second voyage to Greece for the same
purpose. Before his return, Lorenzo died, and Lascaris, on
the invitation of Charles VIII., removed in 1495 to Paris,
and began to teach Greek publicly. Among his pupils were
Budaeus and Danes. In 1503, and again in 1505, Louis
XII. appointed him to the embassy of Venice; and at a
later period Leo X. invited him to Rome, to take charge
of the Greek college newly founded there. In 1515 the
pope sent him on a mission to Francis I.; and this prince,
246 LAS
Las Palmas sensible of his merits, endeavoured to retain him in France.
11 Lascaris, however, returned to Ifome the same year , but
Lass- he revisited Paris in 1518, and, along with Budaeus, was
employed to form the Royal Library of Fontainbleau.
Francis I. then appointed Lascaris his ambassador to Venice,
as his predecessor had done; and he remained in that city
until Pope Paul III. urgently pressed him to settle at Rome.
Though suffering seriously from bad health and the infirmi¬
ties of old age, he immediately set out; but he only sur¬
vived his arrival at Rome for a few months, dying in 1535,
at the age of nearly ninety.
The principal works edited by Lascaris are—Anthologia
Epigrammatum Grcecorum, libri vii., Graeco, Florence,
1494, in 4to; Callimachi Hymni Gr. cum scholiis Gratis,
ibid, in 4to, the editio princeps ; Scholia Graca in Iliadern,
in integrum restituta, Rome, 1517, in folio, a very rare edi¬
tion ; Homcricarum Qucestionum liber, et de Nympharum
antro in Odyssea opusculum, ibid. 1518, in small 4to*, the
editio princeps; Commentarii [Graeci] in septem Tragve-
dias Sophoclis, ibid. 1518, in small 4to. Lie also translated
into Latin some treatises of Polybius on the military art.
The following smaller works are also ascribed to him Epi-
grammata Greeca et Latina, Paris, 1527, in 8vo, and 1544,
in 4to ; Be veris Grcecarum Litterarum formis ac causis
apud Antiques, Paris, 1536, in 8vo ; Orationes, Francfort,
1575. The Nuova Scelta di Lettere, by Bernardo Pino,
contains one of Lascaris. (j* B e.)
LAS PALMAS. See Canary Islands.
LASS A, or H’Lassa (Land of the Divine Intelligence),
the capital of Tibet, is situate in a fertile plain on the
banks of the Dzang-tsu, 30 miles above its junction with
the Dzang-bo, in N. Lat. 29. 30., E. Long. 91. 40. The
city is composed of wide and regular streets, lined with
houses built of mud, brick, or stone, and having their walls
whitened, and their doors and window-frames painted with
the sacred colours, red and yellow. Lassa is the chief seat
of commerce in Tibet, and the resort of merchants from all
parts of Asia. The principal articles of its trade are linens,
woollen cloth, Cashmerian shawls, sable furs, raw silk,
musk, sugar, dried fruits, sweetmeats, bullion, glass, and
cutlery. Foreign merchants and workmen reside in parts
of the city allotted to them, according to their nations. I he
women of Lassa cover their faces with a thick dark varnish
before appearing in public. The town is walled, and con¬
tains some fine public edifices, the chief of which is the
lamasery of Mom. In the suburbs are situate the four
largest lamaseries in Tibet—Prasbung, Sera, Sarnie, and
Pobrang-Marbu. The last of these, built on Mount Bo-
tala, to the N.W. of Lassa, is the residence of the Dalai-
Lama, is 367 feet in height, and said to contain 10,000
rooms. These lamaseries are attended by thousands of
students from different parts of Asia. Pop. of city and
suburbs, about 50.000.
LAS US, or Lassus, a Greek poet and musician, re¬
specting whom only a few facts have been transmitted to
us. He was the son of Charbinus, a native of Hermione,
in Argolis, and flourished about the sixty-ninth olympiad
(b.c. 504), during the reign of Darius I., King of Persia.
Some of the ancients put Lasus in the number of the seven
wise men of Greece, to the exclusion of Periander of
Corinth. He was the first who wrote on the theory of
music, and joined example to precept, being also an ex¬
cellent musician. According to Clemens of Alexandria,
he was the inventor of dithyrambic verse ; he was at least
the first to introduce it at the public games, and instituted
prizes for the successful candidates. (Suidas, Anstoph.
Schol. Vesp. 1401.) We are informed by Llerodotus (vii.
6), that Lasus caused the poet Onomacritus to be banished
from Athens by Hipparchus, because he interpolated the
poetry of Musseus with false prophecies. He was the con¬
temporary of Simonides, and the instructor of Pindar.
LAT
(Thom. Mag. Vit. Pind.) Athenseus (viii. 20) has pre- Laswaree
served some witticisms of Lasus, which do not tend to raise ]|
him in our estimation. He quotes also a hymn to Ceres Latakia.
of Llermione, and an ode entitled the Centaurs, in neither '■"•v*
of which he had made use of the letter S (x. 455 ; xiv. 624).
(See Les Remarques de Burette sur le Dialogue du Plu-
tarque touchant la Musique, in the Mem. de VAcad, des
Inscrip., xv., p. 324.) (c. T. R.)
LASWAREE, a small village of Hindustan, in the
rajpoot territory of Macherry, or Alwur, the scene of a des¬
perate battle fought between the British army and Scindia
on the 1st November 1803, in which the former obtained
a complete victory. In this engagement the Mahratta force,
consisting of 9000 infantry and 3000 cavalry, under the
command of General Dudernaigne, a French adventurer,
was attacked by Lord Lake with his cavalry, which he had,
by a forced march, brought on in advance of his infantry.
The British cavalry suffered dreadfully, especially from the
well-served artillery of the Mahrattas, but after the arrival
of the infantry the fate of the day was no longer doubt¬
ful. The British arms steadily advanced, and by four
o’clock in the afternoon the destruction of the hostile army
was complete. A medal, commemorative of the victory,
was struck in London in 1851, and presented, with the
sanction of her Majesty, to the surviving officers and sol¬
diers who were present at the engagement. The village
of Laswaree is 128 miles S. of Delhi. Lat. 2/. 33., Long.
76. 59.
LATAKIA, or Ladikiyeh (Laodicea ad Mare), a sea¬
port-town of the Levant, in the pashalik of I ripoli, is
situate on a short tongue of land opposite the north-eastern
promontory of Cyprus, 78 miles N. of 1 ripoli, in N. Lat.
35. 30., and E. Long. 35. 48. It was founded in the be¬
ginning of the second century B.c. by Seleucus Nicator,
and named, in honour of his mother, Laodice. The sur¬
rounding country was at that time very fertile, and pro¬
duced celebrated wine, which was exported to Alexandria
in large quantities. Many ancient remains are to be
seen in the town and neighbourhood. 1 he most striking
of these is a triumphal arch, or town gate, situate at the
S.E. corner of Latakia, and supposed to have been erected
in honour of Caesar Septimius beverus. It is from 30 to
40 feet high, has four door-ways, and is almost entire.
Besides this edifice there are the remains of numerous
tombs and mausolea, with defaced inscriptions in Latin
and Greek. The modern town is divided into two por¬
tions, the landward and seaward. The latter, called La
Scala, or Marina, forms the port of the town proper. It is
composed of a single range of buildings running parallel
with the shore, and is connected with Upper Latakia by a
roadway, lined in some parts with houses and villas. Its
harbour, formed by a natural basin, and once protected on
the N. by a fortress, now in ruins, is sheltered on all direc¬
tions but the W. It has, however, no depth of water for
large vessels. 1 he custom-house, mei chants stores, and
British, French, and Austrian consulate offices are situate
here. ’Upper Latakia is mile distant from the port, the
ground intervening being laid out in gardens. It is in a
dilapidated state, in consequence of the frequent earth¬
quakes which have visited its neighbourhood, and the
streets are, like those of most eastern towns, narrow, tortu¬
ous, and dirty. The houses are, for the most part, built of
cut stone, with two storeys, flat roofs, and an inner court.
The principal buildings of the town are a mosque, adorned
with the columns and carvings of some ancient edifice, two
Greek churches, and a bazaar. The trade of Latakia is
considerable. Its exports include tobacco, cotton, bees’-wax,
scammony gum-resin, and sponges; in return for sugar,
coffee, cotton, and woollen goods, imported from Western
Europe. Its tobacco has long been famous, and is the
principal article of export. Latakia and Alexandretta are
L A T
L A T
247
Lateran t|ie tw0 p0rts 0f Aleppo. Latakia is the see of a Greek
I' bishop. Pop. estimated at 7000.
atiam^ LATERAN. See Rome, and Councils.
LATHAM, John, M.D., one of the most zealous and
successful of English ornithologists, was born June 27,
1737, atEltham, in Kent, where his father was a respectable
general medical practitioner. He received his elementary
education in the Merchant Tailors’ School in London,
whence he was removed, at the age of fifteen, to commence
his medical studies under Dr William Hunter, and the
other teachers in the London schools, and in the hospitals
of the capital. At the age of twenty-six he was established
at Hartford, to follow his father’s profession; but he had
early devoted his leisure hours to the study of natural his¬
tory, and especially to ornithology; for, in 1771, he was a
valued correspondent of Pennant, and assisted Sir Ashton
Lever in the arrangement of his noble museum.
In 1781 appeared the first volume of Latham’s most
valuable Synopsis of Birds, which continued to be pub¬
lished in successive parts to 1785. In his title-pages, this
work is stated to be in three volumes; but the second and
third volumes are each divided into two parts, so that the
Synopsis makes really six quarto volumes, to which two
supplemental volumes appeared in 1787. In this work he
adopts the two great divisions of his countryman Ray, into
land and water birds, as more natural than the six orders
of Linnaeus, who has introduced the water birds between
the pies and the waders, and before the gallinacece and
the passeres. Latham, however, has retained the Linnaean
genera, with a few exceptions; for which deviations he
assigns sufficient reasons. The descriptions of individual
birds in this work have never been exceeded in clearness
and fidelity; and although the modern ornithologist may
consider the Linnaean arrangement and generic distinctions
now rather antiquated, the work of Latham has no rival
in the English language for accuracy of detail, or the ease
with which the young ornithologist can name, and refer to
its place in the system, any bird he examines. The figures
given in this work are all etched by the author’s own
hand, from specimens in his possession, prepared and stuffed
by himself, and are excellent representations of the birds.
Gmelin’s edition of the Systema Natures appeared in 1788 ;
and any one who consults it will find how largely the labours
of Latham have contributed to the Linnaean ornithology.
In 1791 Latham published his capitalize# Ornithologi-
cus, an admirable book of reference, in which many new
species are introduced, and prove how sedulously the author
cultivated this branch of natural history.
He had become a member of the Royal Society in 1775,
corresponding member of the London Medical Society in
1778, and was one of the founders of the Linnaean Society.
His fame as an ornithologist was firmly established, and
honours flowed in on him ; he received the honorary
degree of M.D. from the University of Erlangen, and was
elected a corresponding member of the Natural History
Society^of Berlin, and of the Royal Society of Stockholm.
In 1796 Dr Latham retired from medical practice, and
took up his abode at Romsey, in Hampshire. There he
lived for some years, still cultivating his favourite study,
when a severe reverse of fortune overtook him, and he re¬
tired to the house ot his son-in-law, Mr N. Wickham, at
Winchester, in 1819. There he began to prepare for pub¬
lication his great work, entitled General History of Birds ;
and even in his old age, retouched the plates that had suf¬
fered from the many impressions thrown off. The first
volume of this work appeared in 1821, and was followed by
the sequel, until it reached ten quarto volumes, all equally
clear and accurate with his former works. It is perhaps,
however to be regretted that he still followed the Linnsean
system, instead of adopting one more adapted to modern
discoveries, as that of Temminck, or of Cuvier.
Latimer.
Besides these valuable works on natural history, Dr Laticlave
Latham published only a few medical tracts and some con¬
tributions to societies of which he was a member.
After a short illness, he died on 4th February 1837, in
the ninety-seventh year of his age, and was buried in the
abbey church of Romsey. (t. s. t.)
LATICLAVE. See Angusticlavia.
LATIMER, Hugh, bishop of Worcester, the only son
of a yeoman, was born about 1472, at Thurcaston, in
Leicestershire, and studied at Christ’s College, Cambridge,
where he took a degree. At the age of thirty, although
formerly a zealous Papist, he became as zealous a Protes¬
tant, chiefly through the influence of Bilney. Being one
of the twelve licensed preachers of the university, he boldly
avowed his new opinions, and was summoned, along with
his friend Bilney, on a charge of heresy, before Cardinal
Wolsey. On subscribing certain articles, they were liber¬
ated. Latimer, however, retaining the same fearless spirit,
wrote a letter to Henry VIII., protesting against the sin and
evil of prohibiting the Bible in English. The King was so
far from being offended at this, that, on the recommendation
of Cromwell, he appointed him to the living of West Kinton,
in Wiltshire. Here he preached so violently against
Popery, that in 1531 he was cited to appear before the
Archbishop of Canterbury, and the Bishop of London.
Cromwell’s patronage, however, not only shielded him from
danger, but recommended him as chaplain to Anne Boleyn,
and advanced him, in 1535, to the bishopric of Worcester.
When the famous Six Articles were passed in 1539, Latimer,
vacating his bishopric, retired into the country, but coming
to London soon afterwards for the cure of a severe injury,
he was accused, at the instance of Gardiner, and thrown
into the Tower, where he lay for six years. On the acces¬
sion of Edward VI. in 1547, he was liberated, but refusing,
on account of his age, to resume the duties of his bishopric,
he remained at court, and became famous for his impartial
reproval of the vices of the age. Mary’s reign began in
1553, and Latimer was cited before the Privy Council.
As he was in the country at this time, and was allowed to
obey the citation of his own accord, he might have foiled
his enemies by flight. Nevertheless, he set out for London,
remarking as he passed through Smithfield, that it had long
groaned for him. The Privy Council, after examination,
committed him to harsh confinement in the Tower; and in
April 1554 he was sent to Oxford, along with Ridley and
Cranmer, to hold a disputation with several doctors from the
universities. Latimer, alleging his unfitness for a> verbal
dispute, on account of age, sickness, and disease, delivered
his opinions in writing, and was condemned as a heretic.
Another attempt to make him recant, was met by his re¬
fusal “ to deny his master Christ, and his verity ;” and ac¬
cordingly he was doomed, along with Ridley, to be burnt
at Oxford on the 16th October 1555. He met his fate
with great courage, exhorting his fellow-martyr with these
well-known words, “ Be of good comfort, Master Ridley,
and play the man. We shall this day light such a candle, by
God’s grace, in England, as, I trust, shall never be put out.”
The chief feature in Latimer’s character is his piety,
alike earnest and cheerful, bold and simple-minded. His
heroic zeal for truth and virtue, which sometimes seemed a
want of common prudence, was well exemplified when he
presented to Henry VIII., for a Christmas present, a Bible
marked at the passage, “ Whoremongers and adulterers
God shall judge.” His sermons (the latest edition of which
was published at London in 1825) were peculiar in their
day for their simplicity of plan and enforcement of practical
piety. But the features most striking to us, are a pithy
common sense, a colloquial familiarity, and the ingenious
and superabundant use of homely imagery; which qualities,
although they may now savour of a want of taste, rendered
Latimer one of the most impressive preachers of his time.
248
Latitudi-
narians
II
Latium.
L A T
L A T
LATITUDINARIANS, the name given to certain
English writers who flourished towards the close of the
seventeenth century. It was applied more especially to
such men as Hales, Chillingworth, Cudworth, Idlotson,
Henry More, &c., who gave a philosophical tone to the
principles of their theology. They endeavoured to steer a
middle course between the extreme Whigs and Tories of the
period ; between the strict Presbyterians and Independents
on the one hand, and the more intolerant Episcopalians on
the other ; but were branded by both as deists and atheists,
as well as Latitudinarians. Their creed most nearly approxi¬
mated that of the Dutch Armenians; but, as their name
implies, they allowed considerable latitude on theological
subjects. The Latitudinarian divines were raised to pro¬
minent places during the reign of Charles II. Iheir cause
is defended by Fowler, Bishop of Gloucester, in a work
entitled, The Principles and Practices of certain Modern
Divines of the Church of England, abusivelg called Lati¬
tudinarians, Truly Represented and Defended, by way of
Dialogue, 8vo, London, 1670.
LATIUM, the country of the Latini, a division of ancient
Italy, on the eastern shore of the Tuscan Sea. The etymo¬
logy of the word is very doubtful. The Romans, accepting
the old myth, that Saturn hid himself there when dethroned
by his son, derived it from lateo- Another tiadition deiived
it from the same source, either because the first inhabitants
lived or hid themselves in caves, or because the whole
country was hidden or sheltered from the rest of Italy by
the barrier of the Apennines. A modern etymon, con¬
necting Latium with latus, broad, is untenable from the
difference in quantity of the roots of the two words. The
probability is, that Latium, like most ancient countries, took
its name from its inhabitants, and did not give name to them,
and that it means nothing else than the land of the Latins.
In the classics, the name is used in two widely different
senses,—ls£, In the early history of Rome it indicates strictly
the country of the Latini; ‘Id, In the later history of Rome
it is applied to all the territory stretching from the Tiber to
the Campanian frontier, and from the Tuscan Sea inland to
Samnium and the Sabini. The original Latium, or Latium
Antiquum, was bounded on the N. by the Tibei, on the L.
by the Apennines, on the W. by the Tuscan Sea. On the
S. the boundary was somewhat vaguely fixed; but the
whole of the marshy district known as the “ Ager Pompti-
nus,” as far S. as the Prom. Circaeum, seems to have be¬
longed to the Latins from a very early period. The southern
frontier was a kind of debateable land, occupied at one time
by the Latins, and at another by the Volsci; and the bolder
towns, whose origin was perfectly well known, are often
mentioned indifferently as Latin or Volscian. A similar
state of things reigned on the N. frontier of Latium, where
it marched with Sabinum. The whole extent of ancient
Latium was very inconsiderable, from Ostia to the Prom.
Circseum the coast-line only measured 60 English miles;
the greatest length of the country did not exceed 64 miles,
while its greatest breadth was about 28. W hen the league
known as the “ Fcedus Cassianum” was formed between the
Romans and the Latins soon after the beginning of the fifth
century B.C., the cities which went to form the Latin nation
were the following:—Ardea, Aricia, Bubentum, Cornicu-
lum, Carventum, Circeii, Corioli, Corbio, Cora, Fortinium,
Gabii, Labicum, Lanuvium, Lavinium, Laurentum, Nomen-
tum, Norba, Prseneste, Pedum, Querquetulum, Satricum,
Scaptia, Setia, Tellene, Tibur, Tusculum, Toleria, I ricri-
num, Velitrae. This is the list as preserved by Dionysius.
Pliny increases the number from 29 to 53, all of which
had perished long before his day, without leaving a trace
behind; besides 31 others, which in various degrees of
prosperity or decay were still extant. These thirty-one
were Algidum, Alba Longa, Antinm, Apiola, Ardea, Aricia,
Artona, Aurunca, Bovillae, Circeii, Cora, Corbio, Fabium,
Ficuluca, Forum Appii, Gabii, Labicum, Lanuvium, Lau¬
rentum, Lavinium, Mugilla, Nomentum, Norba, Ostia, Prae-
neste, Setia, Suessa Pometia, Tibur, Troia, lusculum
Ulubrae, and Velitrae. Probably there never was a spot on "
the earth’s surface on which so many cities were crowded
into so small a space as in ancient Latium. Yet the exist¬
ence of all these cities is matter of authentic history.
Latium Novum comprised, in addition to the whole of the
ancient Latium, the country of the iEqui, Volsci, Hernici,
and Aurunci, or Ausonians. Its northern frontier remained
unchanged; on the E. and S. it was extended as far as the
Marsi, Samnium, and Campania. The Liris was vaguely
used as the line of demarcation between Latium and Cam¬
pania. At some points, however, Latium did not reach that
river, at others it went beyond it. The Volscian country,
when incorporated with Latium, comprised a large tract on
both banks of the Liris, with the whole mountain district
round Arpinum and Atina on the Samnite frontier. Under
Augustus, Latium and Campania formed together the first of
the eleven regions into which Italy was distributed for pur¬
poses of government. The physical geography of Latium is
given under Italy, Campagna m Roma, and Papal States.
& LATMUS {Monte di Palatid), a mountain on the con¬
fines of Caria, famous for the fable of Endymion, of whom
Luna was said to be enamoured: hence called Latmius
Heros, and Latmius Venator.
LATREILLE, Pierre-Andre, an illustrious French
naturalist, the “ Prince of Entomologists,” as he was called
by the Comte Dejean, was born at Brives in 1762. He
early gave evidence of a strong capacity, and it was resolved
to educate him for the church. A kind friend placed him
at the College Lemoine at Paris, where he remained for
several years. During a subsequent visit to the capital, he
found means to make himself known to the leading natu¬
ralists of the day, Fabricius, Olivier, Lamarck. In 1791, he
became a correspondent of the Society of Natural History
of Paris, and of the Linnsean Society of London ; and con¬
tributed many of the entomological articles to the Encyclo¬
pedic Methodique. When the Revolution broke out, he was
still in orders, and was involved in the general fate of the
priesthood ; but the interest of his powerful friends saved
him from ruin. The storm began to blow over, and in
1798 Latreille was employed to arrange the collection of
insects in the museum. He was next appointed to assist
Lamarck, when that distinguished naturalist was disabled
by blindness. On his death, in 1829, Latreille was pro¬
moted to his chair. He did not long survive his predeces¬
sor, dying February 6, 1833, at the age of seventy. In
1814 he had been made a member of the Academy of
Sciences, and seven years later a chevalier of the Legion
of Honour. It has not been thought necessary here to de¬
scribe his labours, which are analyzed at great length in the
bibliographical part of the art. Entomology, vol. ix., p. 8.
To Cuvier’s Regne Animal Latreille contributed the whole
of the Crustaceans, Arachnides, and Insects.
Lx\TRUNCULI, draughts, the pieces of a Roman
o-ame which in some respects resembled chess. T hey were
generally coloured black or white, to distinguish the sides on
which they were played, and their movements along the
mandrce, or spaces of the board, were defined by fixed laws.
The number of pieces seems to have varied from five to
twelve, and in later times the game was converted from one
of skill to one of chance, by the use of the tesserce, or dice.
The invention of the game is by some attributed to Pala-
medes, and it was certainly common in the days of Homer.
Seneca attributes it to Chilon, one of the seven Greek sages.
Like chess, the game runs back to an unknown antiquity.
LAUBAN, or Luben, a town of Prussian Silesia, on
the left bank of the Queis, 40 miles W.S.W. of Liegnitz.
It is walled with four gates, and is the seat of judicial
courts for the circle. It has a Roman Catholic and three
Latmua
Lauban.
Lauban
Laud.
L A U
Protestant churches, a gymnasium, orphan asylum, and two
hospitals. Chief manufactures, linen and woollen stuffs.
f Pop. (1849) 6261.
LAUD, William, Archbishop of Canterbury in the
reign of Charles I., was born at Reading in 1573. His
father was a wealthy clothier, and his mother a sister of the
Lord Mayor of London. After receiving his education in
his native town till his sixteenth year, he entered St John’s
College, Oxford, of which he became a scholar in 1590,
and a fellow in 1593. He was ordained a priest in 1601 ;
and in the following year read a divinity lecture, which was
thought at the time to savour strongly of Popery; and
which awakened in the mind of Dr Abbot, then master of
University College, that unfavourable opinion of Laud,
which time only confirmed. In 1605, being chaplain to
the Earl of Devonshire, he sanctioned, by performing the
rites of marriage, an illicit connection between that noble¬
man and Lady Rich, whose husband was still alive. This
act, for which he used to read a penitential service every
year, proved for a long time an insurmountable barrier to
his preferment in the church, and confined his ambition to
rapid changes in the lower walks of ecclesiastical service.
He became vicar of Stamford in 1607; and in the follow¬
ing year he received the living of North Kilworth, and was
made chaplain to Bishop Neile, who became his patron and
friend. In 1609, the living of West Tilbury came into his
hands, and in 1610 that of Cuckstone, which, on account of
his health, he exchanged, in the same year, for the benefice
of Norton. In 1611, through the influence of Neile, and
in spite of the counter-influence of Abbot, he was elected
president of St John’s College, and was soon after appointed
one of the king’s chaplains. After a stay of five years at
court, in undisguised disgust at the slowness of his prefer¬
ment, he was presented with the deanery of Gloucester,
where, more than by the faithful memories of eourt-gossipSj
his life was embittered by the Calvinism of the bishop. Laud
accompanied King James to Scotland in 1617. With con¬
siderable reluctance the king raised him to the see of St
David’s in 1621; and Laud, in consequence, resigned his
presidentship. He is thought to have been concerned in
the framing of the royal edict of 1622, by which any pastor
under a bishop or dean is prohibited from preaching on
predestination, and other difficult doctrines mentioned. In
the same year took place the famous “ Conference with a
Jesuit, in which Laud assisted to establish the sinking faith
of the Countess of Buckingham ; and was rewarded by be¬
coming the confessor of her son the Duke. This is supposed
to be the meaning of that passage of his diary, where he
writes that he became “ C.” to the Duke of Buckingham.
By the Duke’s influence, and at his own earnest request, he
became, in 1624, a member of the Court of High Commis¬
sion, from which he had been excluded by the old enmity
of Abbot, Archbishop of Canterbury. The accession of
Charles I. increased the influence and brightened the pros¬
pects of Laud. It seems, however, that even in taking this
step to power, he was not unstained with new guilt, for heavy
c larges were afterwards brought against him of having cor¬
rupted the prayers, and altered the coronation oath. He
ecame the king’s confidential adviser in church affairs; he
wrote his parliamentary speeches, and (as the old phrase
went), ie tuned the pulpits, when money was wanted for
^or ^ev°tion he was appointed, in
1626, Bishop of Bath and Wells, and dean of the Chapel
Royal; in 1627, a privy-councillor, and, in 1628, Bishop of
London. After the assassination of Buckingham, Laud
succeeded to his favour with the king; and as he thence-
forward plunged recklessly into political affairs, he inherited
a double share of unpopularity with the people. He inaugu¬
rated his rise to power by a relentless persecution of the
Runtans. Leighton, a physician, was among the first vic-
tuns. For the publication of Zion’s Plea, he had his nose
VOL. Xttt.
L A U
slit, his ears cropt, and his forehead branded, besides being
publicly whipped. In 1630 he became Chancellor of Oxford;
and, by his donations of valuable manuscripts, proved a liberal
benefactor to that university. Three years afterwards, he
was present at the king’s coronation in Scotland, fostering
and planning the vicious policy of Charles in regard to a
forced religious uniformity; but, at the same time, by his
overbearing insolence, creating much of the enmity that
afterwards burst upon his head. Returning home, he was
presented in the same year to the see of Canterbury; and
one of his first acts as primate was the republication of the
Lawful Sunday Sports. The very appropriate offer of a
cardinal’s hat, however, at this time, affords one of the indi¬
cations of the existence of principles stronger than his ambi¬
tion ;—when the offer was made he hesitated, consulted the
king, and at last replied, “ J hat somewhat dwelt within him,
which would not suffer that, till Rome were other than it is.”
During his metropolitan visits in 1634 and 1635, he charged
all the churchwardens, on pain of being punished by the
Star-chamber and High Commission, to place the com¬
munion-table at the east end, instead of the middle of the
chancel, and to fence it, like a Popish altar, with rails. In
1634 he became one of the Committee of Trade and the
King’s Revenue, and soon after a commissioner of the Trea¬
sury. The decree of the Star-chamber, in 1637, constituting
him, along with others, the censor of the press, brought him
into great public odium, which was greatly increased when
the Nonconformists, Prynne, Burton, and Bastwick, chiefly
at his instigation, were mercilessly fined and mangled. Soon
after the meeting of the Long Parliament in 1640, he was
accused before the House of Commons of high treason, and
was committed to the Tower. After three years of harsh
confinement, he was tried before the House of Lords; and
although the charge was not proven, he was ultimately con¬
demned by a bill of attainder. He was executed on Tower-
hill, January 10, 1645, and met his fate with firmness.
1 hat Laud was cruel and intolerant beyond his times, can¬
not be denied. His diary, which, however, only discloses one
side of his character, yet plainly shows that few who sacrficed
everything to ambition have had fewrer relentings. Only
once did he give proof of intellectual power in his boasted
argument with the Jesuit, Fisher; but all respect for the
acuteness W'hich he then displayed is lost in the contempt
which we feel for the idle narrator of stupid dreams and paltry
prodigies, such as we find him in the record of his daily life.
Unchecked by any deep benevolence, or any strength of rea¬
son, the love of church uniformity was his master-passion; and
to this idol of the fifth century he did not scruple to sacrifice
all that his country then possessed of true piety and freedom.
His principal works are:—Seven Sermons preached on
several occasions, 1651, 8vo ; Short Annotations upon the
Life and Death of the Most August Ling James; Answer
to the Remonstrance made by the House of Commons in
1628; HisLLar?/ by W barton in 1694, with six other pieces,
and several letters, especially one to Sir Kenelm Digby on
his embracing Popery ; The second volume of the Re¬
mains of Archbishop Laud, written by himself, 1700, folio;
Officium Quotidianum, or a Manual of Private Devotions,
1650, 8vo ; A Summary of Devotion, 1667, 12mo. About
eighteen Letters of Laud to Gerard John Vossius have been
pi in ted by Colomesius in his edition of Cossii JEpistolce,
London, 1690, folio; some others are published at the end
of the Life of Usher, by Parr, 1686, folio ; and a few more
have been inserted by Dr Twells in his Life of Dr Pococke,
prefixed to the theological works of that author, 1645, 2
vols. folio. His biographies include the works of Prynne
(London, 1646), Heylyn (London, 1671), John Parker
Law'son (London, 1829), Charles Webb le Bas (London,
1836), and of the Rev. J. Baines (London, 1855.) A com¬
plete edition of his works is published in the Library of
Anglo-Catholic Theology, 6 vols., Oxford, 1847.
2 i
249
Laud.
250 L A U L A U
Lauder LAUDER, Sir Thomas Dick, Baronet, a popular mis-
II cellaneous writer, the only son of Sir Andrew Lauder, was
Laura. j30rn at Edinburgh in 1784, and succeeded to the baronetcy
jn 1830. His contributions to Tail’s and Blackwood’s Ma¬
gazines first brought him into notice. Lochandhu and the
Wolf of Badenoch were written when he was very young.
He is the author of a paper on “ The Parallel Roads of
Gienroy,” printed in vol. ix. of the Transactions of the
Boyal Society of Edinburgh, of which he was a member.
He also published several sketches of Scottish scenery,
under the titles of Highland Rambles, Legendary Tales of
the Highlands, Tour round the Coasts of Scotland, and a
Memorial of the Royal Progress in Scotland in 1842. He
was for several years an active and useful secretary of the
Board of Scottish Fisheries and of Arts and Manufactures.
Sir Thomas died in 1848, at the Grange, near Edinburgh,
and was succeeded .in his title by his son.
LAUDER, a royal and parliamentary burgh of Scot¬
land, county of Berwick, near the Leader, a tributary of
the Tweed, 24 miles S.E. from Edinburgh. The burgh
possesses a common of 1700 acres, belonging exclusively
to a few privileged burgesses. In the neighbourhood is
the mansion of Thirlstane, the seat of the Earl of Lauder¬
dale ; and about half a mile from the town stood the old
bridge over the Leader, where the favourites of James III.
were hanged. Lauder unites with Haddington, Jedburgh,
Dunbar, and North Berwick in returning one M.P. Pop.
(1851) 1105.
LAUDOHN, Gideon Ernest, Baron von (-ScoL Lou¬
don), a famous Austrian general of Scottish descent, born at
Totzen, in Livonia, in 1716. At a very early age he entered
the Russian service, and fought in several battles against
the Turks ; but obtaining no preferment, he enlisted into the
Austrian army, where he was advanced in quick succession
to the rank of captain, major, and lieutenant-colonel. In
the Seven Years’ War, which was begun in 1756 against
Frederick the Great, he so signalized himself as to receive
within a year the rank of major-general, and within three
years he became commander-in-chief. Of these honours
he proved himself highly worthy by his victories at Hoch-
kirk in 1758, at Kunnersdorff in 1759, and at Landshut
and Glatz in 1760. Peace was proclaimed in 1763; and
to the title of Baron, which Laudohn then received, were
added, in 1766, the dignity of aulic councillor, and in 1778
the high office of field-marshal of the empire. In the
war with the Turks he was again victorious at Dubicza,
Novi, and Grandisca. For the capture of Belgrade, in
1789, he was made Knight of the Order of Maria Theresa.
Laudohn died of a fever in 1790.
LAUENBURG, Duchy of. See Denmark.
LAUNCESTON (anciently Dunneheved), a municipal
and parliamentary burgh of England, county of Cornwall,
stands on a hill rising from the banks of the Attery, an
affluent of the Tamar, 213 miles W.S.W. from London.
The parish church is built of curiously carved blocks of
granite. Launceston, till recently, was considered the capi¬
tal of Cornwall, and was the seat of the two county assizes ;
but these were both removed to Bodmin, the one in 1716,
the other in 1838. It returns one M.P. Market-days,
Wednesday and Saturday. Launceston was anciently sur¬
rounded by a wall, of which there are still some remains.
More interesting, however, are the ruins of an old castle,
the grounds of which are tastefully laid out as pleasure-
grounds. Pop. of parliamentary burgh, 6005 ; pop. ot
municipal burgh, 3397.
LAURA was the name given to a collection of sepa¬
rate cells in a wilderness, differing from the monastery, or
building in which the monks all lived together. In the
laura each monk had his own cell provided tor himself, and
lived alone during five days of the week, his only food being
dates and bread and water. On the remaining two days
the inmates of the lauras took the sacrament, and supped Laurence-
on broth in common. The origin of the name is obscure.
The most celebrated lauras mentioned in ecclesiastical his- ]jaUsanne
tory were in Palestine ; as the laura of St Euthymus, four v
or five leagues distant from Jerusalem ; the laura of St v ~"L
Saba, near the Brook Kedron; and the laura of the
Towers, near the River Jordan.
LAURENCEKIRK, a burgh of barony of Scotland,
Kincardineshire, on the Aberdeen E. ail way, 30 miles S.W.
of Aberdeen. It is famous for its manufacture of snuff¬
boxes, the hinges of which are almost invisible. Beattie
the poet was born here, 5th December 1735. Pop. (1851)
1611.
LAURENTUM, an ancient town of Latium, situate
between Ostia and Lavinium, about 16 miles from Rome.
It derived its name from a grove of laurels with which it was
surrounded. Virgil describes it as the residence of King
Latinus, and capital of Latium, when .Eneas landed on the
shores of Italy. With the growth of Lavinium, however,
it seems to have fallen into decay; and Ostia, as the port
of Rome, seems to have deprived it of its trading import¬
ance. Pliny the younger, and Commodus had both villas
at Laurentum, although its marshes, whence the Romans
derived wild boars for the table, must have rendered it ex¬
ceedingly unhealthy. The Ager Laurens was the general
term for the district, the limits of which, with the precise
site of the town itself, are now difficult to determine.
LAURIA, a town of Naples, province of Basilicata,
situate on the side of a steep hill, 7 miles S.S.E. of Lago-
negro. It is divided into an upper and lower town, and
has two parish churches, two convents, and several woollen
factories. In the vicinity are numerous vineyards. Pop.
about 9000.
LAURVIK, a seaport-town of S.E. Norway, in the dis¬
trict of Jarlsberg, situate at the head of a short fiord, into
which the Laagen Elv debouches a little to the S.E. of
the town. The best Norway iron is manufactured here ; a
considerable trade is carried on in timber and fish. About
half a mile S. of the town, on the W. side of the fiord, is
Frederiksvoern, a station of the Norwegian fleet, and the
seat of a naval academy. Pop. of Laurvik, 3600.
LAUSANNE (Latin Lausanium; Italian I^osanna),*
city of Switzerland, the capital of the canton ofVaud, stands
on the lower slopes of the Mount Jorat, on the northern shore
of the Lake of Geneva. As it is built on three distinct emi¬
nences and the intervening gorges, its streets are steep and
irregular, and few of its houses are built on the same level.
One of the ravines is spanned by a lofty bridge, called the
Pont Pichard. The principal edifice is the cathedral, founded
in the tenth, and finished in the thirteenth century. For the
beauty of its interior, it surpasses all the churches in Swit¬
zerland. It is crowned by a lofty tower and a spire 200
feet high, and contains the tombs of Amadeus VIII., Duke
of Savoy, and Bernard de Menthon, founder of the Hospice
of the Great St Bernard. John Kemble, the famous actor,
was also buried here. From the terrace of the cathe¬
dral a fine view of the Lake of Geneva and the vicinity is
obtained. On a higher platform, behind the cathedral,
stands the castle, a massive square building, with turrets at
the angles. It was formerly the residence of the bishops
of Lausanne, but is now the council-house of the canton.
The other public buildings are the church of St Francis, a
college, a cantonal museum, containing many curiosities,
natural and antiquarian, a theatre, prison, penitentiary, post-
office, and normal school. The manufactures of Lausanne
are few, comprising only cotton and woollen cloths, leather,
paper, and jewellery. There is little trade ; and foreigners
resort to the city chiefly on account of its cheap education
and the beauty of the surrounding scenery. Haller, I issot,
and Voltaire resided here. Here Gibbon wrote the latter
half of his History, in a house which, under its present
Lavater.
LAV
Laval name of the Hotel Gibbon, is one of the notorieties of the
city. At Ouchy, the port of Lausanne, Byron composed
/ his “ Prisoner of ChillonBetween this port and other
towns on the Lake of Geneva, steamboats ply regularly.
Pop. 17,108.
LAVAL, a town of France, capital of the department of
Mayenne, is situate on the Mayenne, a tributary of the
Loire, 187 miles W. by S. of Paris by railway. It stands on
a declivity on the W. side of the river, which is here crossed
by two bridges, connecting the proper town with a large
suburb. I he streets ot the town are narrow, steep, crooked,
and dirty. I he houses are almost all built of wood, in the
old French style, each storey jutting out beyond the one
underneath, thus rendering the streets dark and gloomy.
Laval proper is inclosed by old walls, now in a state of
decay. The suburb on the opposite side of the river is of
recent date, and is laid out on a regular plan, having wide
and regular streets. This faubourg forms a third of the
entire town, and is the residence of the better class of the
inhabitants. The village of Avenieres also adjoins the
town, and may be considered as another suburb. It con¬
tains a fine old church in the Norman style, erected in the
year 1040. The principal edifices of Laval belong to the
middle ages. An old castle of the twelfth century, now
used as a gaol, stands on the right bank of the river, near
the old bridge; it was formerly held by the Counts of
Laval and Tremouille. The cathedral, the church of St
Venerand, and two hospitals, are nearly of the same age as
the castle, and are worthy of attention as curious specimens
of Gothic architecture. The linen hall is a large and hand¬
some building of recent date. Ambrose Pare,"the father of
French surgery, was born here in 1509; and a statue
to his memory has been erected in the Place de 1’Hotel
de Ville. Laval may now be considered as wholly a manu¬
facturing town, its staple articles being linens and tickins:,
for which it has long been famous. Besides these, how¬
ever,. it also manufactures cotton, flannels, soap, and leather,
and possesses a considerable trade in wine, brandy, and
maible. The town is the see of a bishop, and contains a
tribunal of first instance and a chamber of commerce.
Laval probably owes its origin to a castle built here in
the eailiei part of the middle ages, to protect the surround¬
ing countiy fiom the inroads of the Bretons. This fortress
was destroyed by the Northmen in the ninth century, but
was afterwards rebuilt and possessed by the Laval family
for many years, until it fell into the hands of the English
under Lord lalbotin 1466. Next year, however, it was
recovered by the French, and the castle returned to its
former owners. In more modern times Laval was the scene
of a memorable conflict between the Royalists and Repub¬
licans. In 1793 the Vendeans, under Larochejacquelin,
carried this town at the point of the bayonet, and thenmarch¬
ing against the Republicans under Lechelle, routed them
at a place called Les Croix de Bataille, a little distance S. of
Laval. Pop. (1851) 17,538.
LAVATER, Johann Caspar, the “ Fenelon of Ger¬
many, as he is very frequently styled bv his German
admirers, was born in 1741 at Zurich, where his father was
a physician. In his youth he was a timid, solitary child,
sensi ive and thoughtful; but his shrinking nature was
often roused to heroism when he was called to stand forth
as a c lampion in domestic troubles, or in exposing wrongs
ls5, ,rn r y youtl1 he d«lira'«I ''imJf.o tlfe
church, ami C,oe[lie has characterized him as one of the few
nize w'ff6 (l"6" W1086 0,lt"'ard v°cation perfectly harmo¬
nizes with he inner one, and whose earliest culture, coin¬
ciding all points with their subsequent pursuits, gives a
natural development to their faculties.-' In 1762 lie entered
on tl e duties of the ministry, and in the two following years
Sed<V1\ T F'«li the painter, and
studied theology under Spalding; but it may be easily un-
L A V
251
derstood bow a mind so observant should learn theology Lavater.
more from instinct in bis contact with men than by analytic v ,
criticism from books or lectures. In 1764 he returned to
preach in his native town, where he was appointed preacher,
first of the Orphan House, and afterwards of the Petrus
Kirche, and this latter duty be continued to discharge till
his death.
It was as a preacher and a poet that be first became
known to fame, and it is needless to try to sever the two
vocations, as bis preaching often soared into poetry, and
his poetry seldom rose above the level of his preaching.
His Swiss Songs and Hymns, and his Peeps into Eternity
{Aussichten in die Ewigkeif), were the first of a series of
works, in which he was almost as voluminous as Luther,
and which maybe taken as the types of all bis productions,
either purely literary, or more strictly religious. With
Ham an n (the Magus of the North), Claudius, and Jung-
S til ling, be was one of a small band who struggled to revive
Christianity as a personal frith on a historical and living,
in contrast with a mythical and passionless, Saviour. In
bis pulpit he was listened to by thousands, his correspond¬
ence extended to all Europe, and when he went out of
doors, the people of Zurich kissed him in the streets. In
the poetic field he bad greater rivals. Klopstock and Cra¬
mer were then in the height of their fame, and his poems
were too purely an imitation of the former. Like Klop¬
stock, Lavater wrote a Messiah (1780), the Messiah of
Martha or common life, as Hamann called it, in opposi¬
tion to that of Mary or unearthly sublimity. In the
lower range of sentiment, Lavater’s Sacred Songs have
found a securer resting-place in the world. His own spi-
iltual life, however, was too restless and passionate to write
long-lived or widely popular hymns ; and in sober moments,
bis songs, whether patriotic or religious, seem far too
rhetoiical and over-drawn. His Peeps into Eternity are
peculiaily characteristic, and throw a strange light on the
earnestness with which afterwards, as a physiognomist, he
gazed on human faces. The leading principle of the book
is the dependence of the celestial state on the education
and pursuits of this world; and with this he constructs a fan¬
tastic but startling anthropology of a celestial kingdom, “ in
which the day-labourer will be as indispensable as the king.”
I oi himself, he writes to the friend to whom he dedicates
the hook, he had chosen the pursuit of teaching the children
to sing songs in heaven. Unlike Swedenborg, however,
Lavater put forth his theory as a conjecture, not as the
pioduct of celestial vision. I his w ork was followed by the
Pontius Pilatus odtr die Bihel in Kleinem (4 vols., 1782-
1 /85), another picture of the lights and shades of humanity;
Die Handbibliothekfur Freunde{2A vols., 1790); his Diary,
1 /7I-17/3 ; and his Nathanael, dedicated to Goethe, as a
£ Nathanael whose hour had not yet come.”
Previously to this, however (in 1775-78), there had ap¬
peared his Physiognomic Fragments, a profusely illustrated
book in four quarto volumes, and published at L.15. It
was the result of many years’ close observation, and has
since been issued in almost every form in all the languages
of Europe. Its publication created everywhere a profound
sensation. Admiration, contempt, resentment, and fear
weie cheiished towards the author. I he discoverer of the
new science was everywhere flattered or pilloried; and in
many places^ where the study of human character from the
face became an epidemic, the people went masked through
the streets. Musams and Lichtenberg assailed him with
ridicule, hut their arrows glanced harmless from the broad
shield'of Goethe. The principle of the study is at once true
and false. Lavater’s great error consisted in attempting to
elevate it to the dignity of science (see KzxNs Anthropology),
but this is easily paidonablc? when we remember how se~
curely and felicitously he handled the most obscure facts on
which he built his theory. In stating his method he studi-
252
LAV
LAV
Lavater.
ously lets it be seen that he founded his conclusions on the
total impression of the face ; and he is anxious to discri¬
minate his own science from the science of Pathognomic,
or the outward expression of occasional passions. It cannot
be denied that many of his observations show the keenest
sagacity, and it is equally true that his delineations are
given, not in irony, but in the profoundest love for every¬
thing human. *
In his declining years, physiognomy itself gave place to
even wilder and more objectionable pursuits in the mind of
Lavater. From the dreams of his childhood he had be¬
lieved firmly in the sensible manifestation of supernatural
powers, and, still a child in his old age, he gave the most
ample credence to the stories of exorcism of devils and
miracles by animal magnetism, which were then current
all over Europe. Of whatever extravagance he was
guilty, and it was greatly exaggerated, his defence is noble,
that with his finger on a truth, he was not ashamed to con¬
fess where he had learned it, and that it was treason to
Christianity itself to reject a true fact merely because it
was known and attested by Mesmer, Socinus, Rousseau,
Spinoza, or Cagliostro. It is characteristic of the man, and
undoubtedly redounds to his credit, that in the religious
world he was accused of all heresies, from Atheism to
Crypto-Jesuitism, because he dared to acknowledge the
truth that was in most, while in the inner intolerance of his
•own faith he rejected the falsehood that infected all.
His friendship with Goethe is one of the most affecting
episodes of literary history. In 1773 they had begun to
correspond, and soon after the two friends met at Frank¬
furt. They travelled together with all the glee of children
escaped from school, and in Goethe’s autobiography we
have an amusing sketch of a journey from Coblenz to
Neuwied with Lavater and Basedow:—
“ Propheten rechts; propheten links;
Das Weltkind in der Mittel.”
« He is the best, greatest, wisest, sincerest (innigst) of all
mortal and immortal men that I know,” wrote Goethe soon
afterwards. “ He is the flower of humanity, the best of
the best,” he wrote again, after having visited Lavater in
Zurich. Their friendship continued till the publication of
Pontius Pilate, when Goethe recoiled from the picture
which his friend had drawn of the no-Christian, as he con¬
fessed himself to be. From that hour the poet’s affection
was changed into Julian hatred, never to be appeased. In
the summer of 1797 Goethe was in Zurich, and walked
often in the Peterplatz before Lavater’s door. They did
not, however, meet. Lavater visited the hotel, and, as a
pledge of friendship, wrote his name, upon the room door,
but this appeal to their former intimacy was in vain.
With all the Swiss love of freedom, Lavater hailed the
French Revolution. After the death of the king, however,
his admiration was changed into horror, and in the pulpit
Lavoro.
he declaimed against the French party with a zeal which Lavaur
cost him a quick and summary banishment. Surrounded
with bayonets and dragoons, he quietly allowed himself to
be hurried off, saying, with a smile, that “ he had never tra- v
veiled with such pomp before.” The popular indignation
however, took fire at the outrage, and he was soon after per¬
mitted to return. On the 26th September 1799, Massena
took Zurich, and Lavater received his death-wound on the
streets while protecting a poor woman from assault, and
ministering bread and wine to the soldiers. The grenadier
who shot him was, according to Jung-Stilling, a Swiss, who
knew the fatal power with which Lavater had denounced
the tyranny of revolution. Lavater is said to have recog¬
nized the man, but in his verses of forgiveness he did not
divulge his name. He died 2d January 1801.
A good selection of his voluminous works has been edited
by Orelli. His Life has been written by Gessner, and more
recently by F. W. Bodemann, Gotha,.1856.
LAVAUR, a town of France, capital of a cognominal
arrondissement in the department of Tarn, stands on the
left bank of the Agout, here crossed by a handsome bridge,
25 miles S.W. of Alby. In the thirteenth century it was
a stronghold of the Albigenses, but was taken in 1211,
after a vigorous resistance, by Simon de Montfort, who
massacred the inhabitants without distinction of age or sex.
Lavaur has a communal college, public library, and 7113
inhabitants, chiefly employed in the manufacture of silk
serge, hosiery, cotton yarn, and leather. It is the entrepot
for the silks of Upper Languedoc.
LAVENDER. See Botany, Nat. Ord., 163; and
Perfumery.
LAVENHAM, or Lanham, a market-town of England,
county of Suffolk, on a branch of the Bret, 16 miles W.N.W.
of Ipswich, and 62 miles from London. It consists of
several streets, with a spacious market-place, having a
stone cross in the centre. The parish church is a hand¬
some edifice, with aspire 142 feet high, and having the tim¬
ber ceiling and several of the pews richly carved. Lavenham
was formerly noted for its manufacture of woollen cloth,
which subsequently gave way to that of hempen goods, but
now its manufactures are unimportant. Market-day, Tues¬
day. Pop. of parish (1851) 1811.
LAVINIUM, an ancient city of Latium, founded by
Alneas in honour of his wife Lavinia, between Lauren turn
and Ardea. At first it retained its importance, probably as a
religious centre, in opposition to the claims of Alba, but it
sunk after the fall of that city. Although on friendly terms,
it seems, along with Laurentum, to have retained a certain
measure of independence. In the time of Trajan, under
the name of Lauro-Lavinium, it united with Laurentum,
and flourished for a few years.
LAVOISIER, Antoine Laurent. See Sixth Dis¬
sertation, § 605.
LAVORO, Terra di. See Terra di Layoro.
253
L A W.
PART I.—INTRODUCTORY.
term law
its rudi¬
mentary
and pri¬
mary
senses.
Law. I. Law, as the etymology of the words used to denote it
in almost all languages shows, is something laid down, or
Significa- established. The word, in its rudimentary sense, denoted
tions of the such modes of dealing and rules of conduct as, in early times,
convenience suggested and usage established among men.
Long after these modes and rules obtained a general recog¬
nition on account of their convenience, there were no regu¬
lar means of enforcing them; they were observed partly to
avoid trials of strength, and partly because their utility dis¬
posed men to combine to enforce them. Contentions, ac¬
cordingly, frequently arose, both in regard to matters within
their provisions and without them. When these disturbed
society, its sovereign, or his functionaries, interfered to adjust
the claims of the disputants. In the judgment between them
a rule already adopted by the good sense of the people was
recognised, or a new one was laid down, and would thence¬
forth be taken for the expression of the sovereign’s will on
the matter to which it referred,—the people would incline
to observe it in their subsequent dealings, and expect the
sovereign to follow it on future occasions. By and by, to
prevent the necessity of constantly interfering to quell
such contentions, the sovereign would prescribe general
rules applicable to a variety of cases, and threaten to
punish whoever failed to observe them. The name of law
would now be given to these with a fuller meaning than
when it denominated rules of usage. By a law would now
be understood a rule of action, prescribed to and enforced
upon the people by their sovereign ; and this may be said to
be the strict and original sense of a law. Many such laws,
however, must have existed, and have lost much of the ar¬
bitrariness which their origin was calculated to stamp upon
them before the compound idea of law became complete in
men’s minds.
A law, then, in its original and strict sense, is a rule
of action contained in a command of a sovereign, ad¬
dressed to, and enforced upon, his subjects. Four distinct
ideas are brought together by this definition:—1, That of
a will as the source of the law; 2, That of a command ;
3, That of the authority from which it proceeds; and,
4, That of the beings to whom it is given, as capable of
obeying or disobeying it. Other two are incidentally
involved in it:—1, That of the end for which the law is
given; and, 2, That of the uniformity of conduct result¬
ing from obedience to it. When a law is said to be a
rule, the attributes of permanency and universality are as¬
cribed to it. It is a command addressed to all, or to whole
classes, in the state. It is a standing order of society.
The sane- ^le apphcability of the penalties, which the giver of the
tion and ^avv ^as expressed the intention to inflict on those who dis-
authority obey it, constitutes its proper sanction. The sanction is
of law. essential to the law; and it is plain that, in order to its hav¬
ing a sanction, the power of its giver must exceed that of
those to whom it is addressed. The nature of the authority
essential to giving the character of law to the commands of a
superior is not so clear. The most precise idea that can be
given of it is, that it is such as that of one who is habitually
obeyed from whatever cause. The relation of a parent and
child is of the same kind as must subsist between a superior
and inferior, in order that the commands of the former may
be laws. In that relation obedience is the general rule ;
the child has so often yielded, it thinks not of resisting. It
is through the habit of obedience on the part of the people
that, in long-established communities, the sovereign’s un¬
questionable authority makes up for his want of superior
Ideas con¬
noted by
its defini-
tion in its
primary
sense.
power, which must always reside with the people them- liaw'•
selves. 'v-‘
So far of the conception of a law. It is an expression of
will, in the form of a command, sanctioned by applicable
penalties, proceeding from a competent authority, prescrib¬
ing to free agents a rule of action for a particular end, and
resulting, generally, in a uniform line of conduct on the
part of those to whom it is given.
The word law was probably first used as a concrete The con-
general term to denote all the laws emanating from a par- crete g6*
ticular source; and in this sense it is still used, as in the neral term‘
phrases, “ English law,” “ Roman law.” Thus used, it de¬
notes the expression of the whole will of a sovereign power
respecting his subjects, so far as it is capable of being, and
and intended to be, enforced. By a more comprehensive
generalization than the preceding it acquired its general
abstract signification, and was brought to denote what is
common to all laws, emanating from whatever source. In
its definition, at this stage, are connoted all the ideas in¬
volved in the concrete from which it has been derived.
It remains briefly to explain the derived senses of the term. The de-
In its definition in any of these it will be found that the rivedsense.
ideas connoted by its primary definition are involved im_ tlie terna-
perfectly, or (some of them) not at all, or in a fuller or more
perfect sense. It will also be found that, when employed
in any of its transitive meanings, it is always accompanied
by some adjective, or words indicative of the source, sub¬
ject, or character of the rule which it is used to deno¬
minate, and so far expository of the generalization by which
its use in that sense has been brought about: of this the
phrases, “ Natural law,” “ Revealed law,” “ The law of
Nature,” “ The law of God,” are examples. Law without
addition is still law in its primary sense. It is obvious that,
in that sense, when set forth in general terms, there is no¬
thing to prevent law existing among any intelligent beings
between whom the relation of superior and inferior may be
established. Thus, “the revealed law”—the expressed The re¬
will of God prescribing rules of conduct to man under the vealed law
sanction of divine punishments—is law without addition
wherever it is declared, its definition connoting, at their
fullest, all the ideas involved in law. On whatever matters
this law is declared, it is a rule superior to all others. The
ten commandments, and other rules to be ibund in Scrip¬
ture, constitute the revealed law in Christian countries.
When the phrase, “ The Moral law,” is used to denote
these commandments, it is of course part of the revealed
law. Some, indeed, claim divine authority for the moral
law,—meaning thereby a body of doctrine as to conduct,
derived from conscience, assumed to be the representative
of Deity in the heart of man. If “ the Revealed law” is law
in its highest perfection, “ International law” is law in its Interna-
rudimentary form. It denotes the rules of the relationships tional law.
of states established by convenience and usage, but en¬
forced by no regular sanction, and which are observed to
avoid war, and because their utility disposes states to com¬
bine to enforce them.
So far, it is apparent, the term has not travelled farThe law of
from its original meaning. The next stage of transition, reason> or
however, is more remarkable. “ The law of Reason,” or naturfT °f
“ the law of Nature,” is a rule of conduct established by
reason. Its ostensible foundations are a knowledge of
human nature and certain first principles, as that men
should be just, truthful, and humane; and it consists of
such rules as philosophers have thereon founded, and have
4*
254
L A
Law. declared to be universally binding on men. They call them
/ law, because they are rules, as they say, prescribed by reason,
under the sanction of immediate feelings of self-disapproba¬
tion and of certain remote disadvantages to those who trans¬
gress them, which, indeed, reason cannot inflict as penal¬
ties, but which it predicts will certainly follow the trans¬
gression of the rules. They thus generalize the term to
the extent of admitting into its definition certain ideas, not
the same, but akin to those connoted by its original de¬
finition. Reason may be more properly said to recommend
than to prescribe its rules to man. It has ample autho¬
rity, but wants power ; and, though advice given in the tone
of authority comes closely up in idea to command, it is only
by courtesy that reason can be said to prescribe rules which
it cannot enforce. And though its rules are not without a
sort of sanction, yet their giver is neither directly nor in¬
directly the inflictor of the penalties. Lastly, the rules of
reason are not dictated by one will to another ; but, what¬
ever force they have, they owe to being approved by the
reason of him to whom they are addressed.
Natural By a wider generalization than in the case just discussed,
laws. all save one of the ideas connoted in the primary definition
came, if not to be excluded from, at least to be allowed to
enter only implicitly into, the sense of the term. '1 his is
the generalization by which it was brought to denote pro¬
positions setting forth uniformities obtaining among natural
phenomena. When the term law is used, as in the phrase,
“ The law of gravitation,” to denote such an invariable re¬
lation of things as that bodies attract each other by a force
proportional to their masses directly, and to the squares of
the distances between them inversely, what ideas does it
involve in common with the same term used to denote a
statute of the realm ? Prima facie, it is a name given to
a statement of fact,—to the formula expressing an invariable
relation existing between bodies, involving only the idea of
uniformity in common with the concrete from which it was
derived. The rationale of this transition is discoverable in
the history of science, and the transition itself was less
violent than might at first sight appear. Referring the in¬
variable relations of natural phenomena to the Ruler of the
universe as the establisher of them, the proposition express¬
ing any one of them, and the fiat by which it was established,
are seen to be identical with a change of mood.
Laws in this sense are called natural laws, either ultimate,
derivative, or empirical. Ultimate natural laws are those
simple uniformities obtaining among phenomena, and ar¬
rived at after a sufficient induction ; and which cannot be,
or as yet have not been, resolved into other and more
general uniformities. Such is the law of gravitation. De¬
rivative natural laws depend upon, and are resolvable into,
one or more uniformities, which themselves are simple and
fundamental. Such is the law of the planetary motions.
Empirical laws are derivative natural laws of unknown de¬
rivation. Such is the curious numerical relation subsist¬
ing between the respective distances of the planets from
the sun.
Confusions II. The phrases “ natural law” and “ the law of nature”
in the use are perfect equivalents in the sense of science, it not being
°f the term however, to convey that there is a single simple
^aw* uniformity to which all natural laws are referable. W Idle
their scientific use is thus settled, great confusion exists in
their use in writings on law. While some employ them as
equivalents, others put them in opposition. By natural laws,
some mean those which were observed by men in an ima¬
ginary state of existence preceding the establishment of
society; while others mean those which, by their constitu¬
tion, men observe even in society. Some, again, call the
“ law of reason” “ the law of nature ;” while others, regard¬
ing natural laws as being imposed upon things by the rea¬
son of God, and one with the law imposed by reason upon
man, give the phrase so wide a meaning as to include under
w.
it both “ the law of reason” and natural law in the sense of Law.
science.
“ Tocometothe law of nature,” says Hooker {Peel. Polity,]aw 0f
book i.), “ albeit thereby we sometimes mean that manner of nature and
working which God has set for each created thing to keep ; natural
yet, forasmuch as those things are termed most properly na- aw’
tural agents which keep the law of their kind unwittingly,
as the heavens and elements of the world, which ‘ can
do no otherwise than they do and forasmuch as are given
unto intellectual natures the name of voluntary agents, that
so we may distinguish them from the other, expedient it
will be that we sever the law of nature observed by the
one from that which the other is tied unto.” And again,
in explanation of the nonconformance of voluntary agents
to the “ law of nature” to which they are tied —“ See we^
not plainly that the obedience of creatures unto the law of
nature is the stay of the whole world ? Notwithstanding,
with nature it sometimes cometh to pass as with art. Let
Phidias have rude and obstinate stuff to carve, though his
art be that it should, his work will lack that beauty which
otherwise, in fitter matter, it might have had. He that
striketh an instrument with skill, may cause, notwithstand¬
ing, a very unpleasant sound, if the string whereon he
striketh chance to be incapable of harmony. In the mat¬
ter whereof natural things consist much of it is sometimes
such as will by no means yield to receive that impression
which were best and most perfect.” Here the law of na¬
ture is divided into two parts, according to the division of
natural subjects into intelligent and unintelligent ; and
while each of these divisions is separately spoken of as the
law of nature relative to its subject, they are jointly so de¬
nominated when said to be the stay of the whole world.
Montesquieu {Spirit of Laws, b. i., c. 1) has fallen into the
same confusion in language; and both writers agree in charg¬
ing a defect upon nature in respect of man’s nonobservance
of “ the law of nature,” meaning thereby the law imposed
upon him by reason.
The difficulty, however, vanishes if we keep in,view the
different senses of the term law ; and notice how, upon
human actions, there may be a superimposition of law upon
law in different senses. Natural laws may be predicable
of them, and, at the same time, and arising out of their
constitutional order, they may partly be determined by
law in its primary sense, and partly by rules recommended
by reason. From the nature of human beings, which is
social, and from the natural conditions of their association,
sprung government and laws; from their nature also, ■which
is rational, disposing them to acts of generalization and re¬
flection, government and law became the subjects of cri¬
ticism which evolved the law of reason. J hus, the insti¬
tutes of the state and of reason grew organically out of
the constitution of human beings and society; and it is
only when this is lost sight of that the mind gets bewil¬
dered by the apparent antithesis between them and the laws
of nature. Keeping this in view, it appears how men, while
conforming to their constitutional order, may infiinge that
established by the state, and, at any time, recommended by
reason ; and this just that the constitutional order to which
the others are subordinate may be preserved. The re¬
commendations of reason sometimes proceed from wrong
thinking and false views, and fail because they are related
to an unrealizable ideal of human perfection ; and, again,
because reason’s ideal is transitory, ever attending, though
by reflection projected in advance of, experience—a light
at the ship’s bow, and not a beacon to steer by. It is only
when reason interrogates nature before admonishing man
that its rules can be conformed to.
Before concluding this section, notice must be taken of Positive
the use of the phrase “ positive law.” It has been em- aw>
ployed in different senses by legists and men of science;
by many of the former to denote law of human institution
LAW.
Law.
The lead¬
ing divi¬
sions of
law: first
division.
Civil law.
Second
division.
Laws
create
rights and
by many of the latter to signify natural law. It would be
convenient, were there no room for ambiguity, to use it
here in the sense of the legists; but, as this cannot be
done, it is intended to reject the phrase altogether.
III. The first division of the law of a state is into two
portions—the enacted or written, and the unwritten, com¬
mon, or customary law. ihe written, or statute law, is the
wliole expressed will of the supreme power, establishing
and legulating the relations of its subjects ; and includes ail
the laws at any time promulgated by the supreme power,
so fai as not amended or repealed. The common, or cus¬
tomary law, is that which has grown up with popular usages
and customs, and taken shape in the decisions of judges.
Being unenacted, it falls short of the full idea of law.
Civil equity is a part of the law formed from usages and
decisions, but differs from the common law, properly so
called, sometimes in its subjects, and more frequently in its
modes of procedure and relief.
1 he statute and common law together compose the law
of the state—comprising the whole body of rules by which
it is constituted and governed. This has sometimes been
called its civil law, which, in this sense, comprises an im¬
portant portion of what is commonly called international
law viz., those express rules which determine the relations
of the members of the state to those of other states. The
name of civil law is, however, more frequently given to
that portion of the whole law which relates to the constitu¬
tion of the subject’s rights of person and property.
The second division of the law of a state is into parts
corresponding to the social relations which it governs. 1.
The Constitutional Laws relate to the supreme authority,
the legislature, and the higher public functionaries, and de¬
termine the most essential privileges of the subjects. Such
in Great Britain are, among others, the Magna Charta, the
Habeas Corpus, and the Reform Act of 1832. 2. The
Official Laics relate to the public service, whose different
departments, civil, military, naval, and fiscal, they establish
and icgulate ; they secure the public peace, morals, religion,
and health, authorize public works, and determine the man-
ner of their execution. 3. The CmY Z/a?es determine the
subject’s rights of person and property; the regulations and
pie-iequisites by which they are established, and the man¬
ner of administering the laws respecting them. 4. The
Criminal Laws define and prohibit offences against the
state and the exercise of public authority; and against the
lives, persons, and property of the subjects. They deter¬
mine the means of preventing such offences, and the admi¬
nistration of the law respecting them. 5. Municipal, Police,
or Local Law, is only in part a law of the state in the sense
of being prescribed by the supreme authority. It includes
some general laws relating to the public peace, and special
av\s ielating to the management of local affairs vested in
commissions; but chiefly consists of local laws, established
on authority delegated by the state,—as bye-laws enacted
by burgh magistrates.
All the rules and institutions of the law of a state are,
1ICC.7 lndirectly> limitations and definitions of the
255
obHg^tions.fjonsto0}! ^l1011 objects. It commands certain ac-
S t.ons to be always done under circumstances which it de-
nes , an it forbids others to be done under any circum-
. unces. ie powers of action w hich it assigns to and vests
nXp nf h’ PerS°nS1 are their ri(Jj>ts- 11 IbUows, from the
D , le f lat r‘&bts are powers legally vested in
L • °Vei •tllei,;0vvn or others’persons, or over things
ever tendSef-n1Cei5 ^i'6”1’ meanin£ by a service, what-
evei tends to gratify a des rp Ar,,i : i .. ,
.. r,\5 uesue. And to rights correspond
Sfcl. J tf a'V’ "i asspinS a Power to one, neces-
wi yi ’S inder tho 0bli"ati0" oot to interfere
w. h it, exercise; and an act in violation of this obliga-
t on ih « wrong. Wrongs, more briefly, are violations of
Corresponding to rights and wrongs are the legal concep- Law.
tions of right and wrong. Whatever is conformable to law
is right, and whatever is contrary to it is wrong. These Rights and
words have other meanings, which, to prevent confusion, w-rongs,—
must here be indicated. Rights, in the critical doctrine of right and
law’, are those powers which ought to he vested by law in wron£-
persons conformably to the rule of perfect benevolence ; and
wrongs are violations of such rights. Whatever is agree¬
able to the rule of perfect benevolence is right, and what¬
ever is contrary to it is wrong. It will be seen that rights
established by law may differ from those which, according to
the critical doctrine, ought to be established ; that what is
right in law may be wrong according to that doctrine, and
vice versa.
IV. The fulness of the idea of law has not been reached The growth
by the whole of any system of law’s now administered; but0^^^
in the progress of civilization, the tendency everywhere is
towards its realization. Law is, and has always been, in a
state of growth and development. History is clear that in
the infancy of society men had no idea of regulating their
relations on general or uniform principles, and that they knew
no rules except such as their natural interconnection estab¬
lished, a rude approach tow’ards justice between equals;
for the rest, the arbitrary rule of power over weakness. In
the progress of society, the tendency everywhere has been
to widen the dominion of justice and contract that of brute
force. In considering this progress, it is to be kept in view
that rules of human action are due to the contact and clash-,
ing of men with men. The closer men are pressed together
by circumstances the brisker is their action on one another,
and the more rapid the adjustment of their relationships.
I he inhabitants of cities soon feel keenly the necessity
of rules for their relations, and of combined action for en¬
forcing them. Cities, accordingly, are the centres of all that
is denominated by civilization, as the name indicates ; they
are, ex facie, the birthplaces and nurseries of civility, urba¬
nity, politeness. Among rural populations, from the causes
which develope rules of conduct operating in a wider sphere
with less intensity, and therefore with less rapidity, the pro¬
gress is naturally slow, and is mainly effected by influences
flowing over from the towns. From a similar cause the pro¬
gress is slow in the society of nations, and is seen to be ac¬
celerated as commerce and improved means of communica¬
tion bring nations more closely together, and increase the
number and weight of their common interests.
I he causes of the progress and growth of law are partly
to be sought for in the earliest stages of society, regarding
which there exists no satisfactory information. In an at¬
tempt to explicate them, however, valuable assistance may
be derived from various sources. Among these are,—1.
Ihe descriptions of early societies in various degrees of
savagery which have at different times been given by intel¬
ligent observers 2. Observation of what takes place in the
intercourse of ..ations,—nations forming a society which,
from its imperfect organization, and attempts to have laws
without a proper sanction, and also in having its origin rather
in the necessities than inclinations of its members, resembles
all communities in their early stages. 3. The history of
law itself, in its different branches, revealing its sources and
modes of growth. 4. Observation of what takes place in
any newr society formed in consequence of the necessities
of its members. 5. Observation of the development and
tendencies of individuals. From the two last might be de¬
duced the natural conditions of human association, and it
was the exclusive consideration of these that led to the fic¬
tion of a social compact as the basis of civil society.
I his fiction pioceeded on the hypothesis, which, however, The onVin
is wholly without foundation, that society was formed by of society
the aggregation of solitary beings. Society obviously
commences in the family: the society of parents into
which every human being is born, and in which are to be
256
LAW.
Law.
The bases
of law.
found the germs of that subordination to, and recognition of
authority which are essential to the civil state; the state
where the government is patriarchal is indeed the direct
prolongation of the family. As the banyan tends to sur¬
round dself with a forest of its own offshoots, so the family
tends to multiply families around it, till it becomes the centre
of a tribe. The feelings of kindred which connect families
in tribes tend, though with a feebler force, to bind tribes
together in nations; and the sentiment of humanity, which is
the feeling of kindred refined and diffused, tends, though
more feebly still, to unite nations in the great society of
mankind. While such is the gradual development, the
specialities of the composition of families and of tribes vary,
of course, with race, geographical position, climate, and the
prevailing religious beliefs.
Starting from this very general account of the origin of
civil society, it is designed (1), briefly to refer the various
bases of law to the necessities of human life to which they
correspond; and then (2), to indicate the processes by which
laws grew up to protect the various civil institutions. The
principal bases of law are four in number:—1, Personal
safety ; 2, Marriage ; 3, Property ; 4, Government, each of
which must receive brief consideration.
1. Personal safety \s> the first condition of the enjoyment
of existence, for without it man’s life would be miserable.
The provisions of nature for securing personal safety are
the instinct of self-preservation, resentment, and sympathy ;
by the last of which men are led to combine to secure their
common safety.
2. Marriage.—The origin of the institution of marriage
is to be found in the instinctive attraction of the sexes. It
corresponds to a leading necessity of human life, which
would be intolerable without the orderly gratification of the
appetites and affections which it affords. Nature’s provi¬
sions for the perpetuation of the marriage union are two¬
fold:—The causes which produce it continuing to operate
for a considerable time tend to prolong it; and, on the birth
of children, the co-operation necessary for their preserva¬
tion developes the domestic affections which tend to main¬
tain it after these causes have ceased to operate. In virtue
of these provisions, the rudest savages, it is found, have
given a degree of permanency to this union. The neces¬
sity of regulating and guarding it must have been early
felt; and it is probable that around it laws first began to
grow. In some localities the old names for law and mar¬
riage are interchangeable. The German word ehe, for ex¬
ample, which now means marriage, meant at one stage of
the language also, “ law” in general; and «<?, the correspond¬
ing word in Anglo-Saxon, signifies simply “ law.” While
the institution of marriage is to be everywhere found, as the
necessity of human life to which it corresponds is every¬
where felt, marked differences appear in the modes of regu¬
lating it adopted in different localities. These are due, in
every case, to local peculiarities; as to the proportion of
males to females,—depending on race, climate, and popular
pursuits ; and the degree of civil equality among the people
—depending on the manner in which the governing persons
acquired and maintain their authority.
3. Property.—The institution of property is ultimately
referable to the fact of men’s wants being such as the earth
does not spontaneously satisfy. Were the objects of desire
constantly in lavish excess of the demand for them, the
idea of property would never have been formed. Whether
men’s wants were ever so few and simple as that the earth
spontaneously supplied them, is more than is known ; but it
is certain that the condition was very early reached in which
the number of human desires, and the difficulty of satisfying
them, gave rise to the conception of property in all sorts
of objects. The circumstances which give rise to property
necessitate the formation of rules for its acquisition and
alienation ; and owing to the leading realities of social life
being the same everywhere, the same facts are everywhere Law.
held to have the qualities of giving rise to property,—viz., v/-*-''
pre-occupancy, labour, donation, succession, and contract.
The main necessities of life, for example, being procurable
only by labour; and there being no motive to labour with¬
out security in the enjoyment of its fruits, it is a condition
of existence, as well as of social intercourse, that a man shall
have the exclusive enjoyment of the fruits of his labour.
4. Government.—Government is the condition of security
in the enjoyments of marriage and property. Its institution
is traceable to different immediate causes in different locali¬
ties. Those causes only need here be noticed which are of
universal operation, viz.,—1. The desire of security. 2. The
experience of the advantages of association for mutual pro¬
tection and aid, acquired in various forms of association for
common objects ; as for the purposes of the chase and war,
or for mutual protection against domestic enemies. 3. The
experience of the necessity of subordination to the leader¬
ship of one, in order to reaping the full advantages of as¬
sociation. These having produced a disposition towards
government, it required only the rise of a leader,, pre¬
eminent for valour or sagacity, or arrogating authority to
himself on grounds connected with the prevailing religious
beliefs, to compose the fluent elements of society into the
solid fabric of the state.
It would be useless to speculate on the anti-governmental
condition of men, if it did not throw light on the causes
which lead to government. That condition still crops out,
ever and anon, in periods of revolution, and in badly go¬
verned countries, in efforts of various kinds to attain the
security which the governing persons fail to afford. 1 he
recent history of California illustrates it. Every man is at
first the defender of his own person and property. When
outrages become frequent, a sense of insecurity leads men
to combine for the common safety. Offenders are at first
punished unformally, and without moderation. But when
the combination for the public safety acquires solidity, there
is less fear of outrage and less precipitation in punishment.
Accused persons are admitted to trial, and the execution of
punishment is open, formal, and deliberate. Lynch law in
America indicates one species of combination which, in a
rude state of society, preceded the exercise of the judicial
and executive functions of government. A less rude form
of association to supplement state-action in affording secu¬
rity may be seen in the societies in England for the pro¬
secution of offenders, many going unpunished for the want
of public prosecutors.
Sovereignty is long established before the legislative
functions of government are exercised. Its first institutions
and acts are those necessary for its own security. Its first
agency is for putting down disturbances ; its next for pre¬
venting them. First, it angrily punishes both parties to
disturbances ; next, it inquires into the grounds of disputes,
and punishes those in the wrong. Lastly, it anticipates dis¬
putes by prescribing general rules.
Any view of the order of evolution of law would be false The order
that excluded the fact of a simultaneous progress in the of evolu-^
regulation of the various social relations; but, so far as we 10n 0
know, the order has been that which, on d priori consider¬
ations, might be expected. Laws may be said to have
first grown round the marriage relation, next round the
institution of property; and, lastly, to have referred to the
punishment of offences against the person. The right of
private vengeance, and the insatiable character of revenge,
long prevented the adoption of rules regarding punishments.
The sources whence laws grew up may be said to be Its sources,
six in number :—1, Equity ; 2, Decisions; 3, Contracts ; 4,
Customs; 5, The will of the sovereign power; and, 6, Opinion
acting critically on existing laws. As all laws are referable to
nature as their ultimate source, so they acquire their full
force only by concurrence with the will of the sovereign.
L A W. 257
Law. From the sovereign’s will law springs forth full-armed ;
v—^ from equity, decisions, contracts, customs, it grows up
slowly, and organically.
Eouity. 1. Ihe Birth of Law.—It is impossible to conceive a
time when men did not interfere with each other’s enjoy¬
ments. But as social relations grew in complexity, and the
objects of desire multiplied, desires must have more fre¬
quently conflicted, and unsocial tendencies increased in
number and strength. With unsocial tendencies, however,
must have grown up the means of repressing them ; other¬
wise men would not have held together.
When a stronger interfered with a weaker, there wTas
nothing for the latter but to succumb and bide an oppor¬
tunity of vengeance. In relationships between the
stronger and weaker, therefore, the rule was generally the
arbitrary will of the stronger. The case was different be¬
tween equals—resentment directly checking the tendency
to interference. When a difference arose between equals,
there being no government, or one too weak to interfere,
there was nothing for it but to settle the matter ami¬
cably, or fight. Hence arose from their intercourse two
methods of settling differences—the combat and the refer¬
ence ; the former finally passing into the legal contest, and
in many countries becoming the ally of the latter in trial
by jury The combat—at first an off-hand contest,
prompted by conflicting desires—was afterwards converted
into a formal encounter, and recognised by various na¬
tions as a civil means of determining rights. This law of
brute force was latterly accepted as an equitable means of
settling disputes, from a false view of the dispensation of
Providence, and up to a period not very remote, indeed,
survived in our own country. Prudence, however, must
soon have established among equals a preference in favour
of arbitration as a means of settling most questions. The
reference would especially be resorted to on minor ques¬
tions between persons so nearly equal as to make a recourse
to force undesirable to them both. On such questions
arising, they would first endeavour to come to terms by
private discussion ; failing in which an amicable settlement
would be obtained by a reference to an impartial person of
eminence in the community, whose decision, if approved
of, would have influence on future cases of a similar descrip¬
tion. As the design here is chiefly to trace the spontane¬
ous evolution of law, our remarks will be confined to the
case of an amicable settlement by reference to an arbiter;
but they will apply, with a slight change, to the decision of
disputes by self-constituted umpires, so far as their decision
bears on the growth of law.
The disposition of an impartial person judging between
equals is equity, which, in other words, is the disposition to
act on the best conceptions of right and wrong. Of these
the most advanced public opinion, resting on the ripest
common experience of what is convenient, is from the first
the practical standard ; and the desire to act agreeably to
this opinion is of the essence of the equitable disposition.
Security for the arbiter’s endeavouring to conform to this
standard lies in his desire of approbation ; but, in fact, in
order to his decision being final, influencing future cases,
and thus (as we shall see) passing a principle into law, it
must approve itself to the unprejudiced persons cognisant
of it, and therefore proceed, pretty nearly, on conceptions
of right and wrong drawn from the common experience.
1 hese conceptions are the guides of equity, and interpre-
ters of its maxims; and are generated by experience of,
and leflection on, the realities of things, and what is conve¬
nient to them. Without attempting an explication of the
manner of their development, it may be indicated in a
single case. I he maxim of equity, “ Give every man his
own, must be interpreted before being acted upon. The
deposition to act on it may be complete, and yet there
be different opinions as to what should be done depend-
vol. xm. 1
ing on conceptions of the requisites to make a thing “ a Law.
man’s own.” The conceptions of these requisites de-
pend on the experience which gave rise to the idea of pro¬
perty in things being vested in particular persons as their
rights ; and this draws back to certain facts which prudence
and convenience concur in leading men to hold to be qua¬
lified to give rise to property. A man will defend, as his
own, the fruits of his labour, the ground which he has pre¬
occupied, and what has been given to him as a gift. Hence,
among equals, labour, pre-occupancy, donation, will at once
be recognised as qualified to give titles to property. Ex¬
perience, then, produces notions of right and wrong, by
establishing certain associations between facts and titles to
enjoyments. Interpreted by these, the maxim now reads,
“ Give every man the fruits of his labour; the ground which
he has preoccupied ; what he has got by giftand so on :
and it must have been by a generalization from these par¬
ticular precepts that the maxim was evolved. It is right
to give effect to these qualities of facts, and wrong to pre¬
vent their operation. So, generally, experience produces
associations of legal qualities and facts ; and these are modi¬
fied by reflection. Their trueness to the realities of things
will, of course, depend on the fulness of the experience of
these realities, and the accuracy of the reflection upon
them. The lessons of experience may be misinterpreted
by reflection. Experience may demonstrate, for instance,
the evils of immoderate revenge, and yet reflection, mis¬
led by the idea of proportionality between injuries and
punishments, may produce a rude and false conception of
what the proportion between them should be, as in the
rule “ An eye for an eye,” “ A tooth for a tooth.” Before
the associations of legal qualities with facts are fixed by law,
they are likely to be loose, and different in different minds
according to the peculiarities of individual experience ; and
we are now to consider how they become fixed in the law.
On the reference being made, and the facts founded on
by the disputants being laid before the arbiter, his judg¬
ment rises into his mind according to the qualities which
he associates with the facts. If the dispute respects the
property in a thing, he declares it to be his whom the facts
favour. Kecalling what was said of his disposition, it ap¬
pears that his judgment, so far as it is what it aims at being,
is a verdict of unprejudiced public opinion, and measure of
the people’s progress in the formation of conceptions
of propriety. When, hereafter, it shall be said that equity
entered into the rule of a relationship, let it be understood
that the rule rested on an equitable judgment, and realized
the conception of right respecting the relationship enter¬
tained when it was formed.
2. The discussion on the bearing of decisions on law Decisions,
has been anticipated for the principal part, and, for the rest,
may best be introduced in showing their bearing on contracts
and customs. The origin of law in decisions of arbiters, or of
judges interfering to settle disputes, is proved by the fact
that the earliest names of law, of right, and of justice, are
words signifying decisions or judgments. The progress is
easily traceable in the language of the Greeks, ©eyius
(from Ti6r)iu) their old name for law, signified a decision,
decree, or rule, laid down in a particular case. Personifying
this idea of law, the Greeks regarded Themis as a goddess
attached to Zeus, who wTas conceived of as a judge (and
not as a law-maker), issuing Oe/juares to settle particular dis¬
putes. Alkt) and 0e/Ais at first rarely denoted justice as an
abstract conception, but special claims of right; Si/07, which
came to signify “natural right,” is from the same root as dico,
and at first signified a decision. The other Greek names
for law, pr/Tpa (pew, to speak), and vo'/xos (ve/mv, to distri¬
bute), point also to decisions as the origin of law. (Grote’s
History of Greece, vol. ii., p. 111.)
3. In proportion to the necessity for arbitration would be Contracts,
the desire to rule relationships by contract; and the desire to
2 K
258 L A
Law. prevent differences by ruling relationships by conti act would
be greater tbe more they tended to give bii tli to differences.
It is on this principle that the order of the evolution of law
is to be explained.
In transactions between equals entered into oy con¬
tract appeared a farther approach to law. What they
agreed upon was the rule of their relationship. What was
once satisfactorily the rule of a relationship was repeated.
If frequently repeated, it became a custom or usage. Trans¬
actions not provided for by contract fell to be decided ex
post facto; to these a rule previously acted upon, if there
was such, would probably be applied. Where there was
no clear rule that could be held to be implied, or that could
be agreed upon ex post facto, recourse was had to other
means of settling the matter in dispute, as to a reference to
an impartial person, whose decision again influenced future
cases, and the terms of future contracts. It is thus the
terms of decisions and of contracts grow into customs.
It is worth while considering how far equity enters into
rules of law derived from contracts whose terms are pri¬
vately arranged. Where the contractors put themselves
into the position of an impartial person, and settle terms
from his stand-point, equity directly enters into the terms.
The only case for consideration is where their conceptions
of right being modelled on their desires, are made to differ
from those commonly entertained, and the rule is reached
by a process of double position. Here either the rule of
the contract is what bystanders approve of, or it is not;
only in the former case will it be adopted and passed into
custom. Contracts from this source, then, must involve
equity to pass into law. That they should often do so, ap¬
pears from the consideration, that, in advancing to a rule
the contractors are forced to recognise equality of advantage
as the ideal rule of the contract.
Customs. 4# -\ye iiave seen i10W rules of relationships, formed in
the intercourse of equals, pass by arbitration and contract
into customs. In early times only equals would submit
their differences to the decision of neutral persons, or con¬
sent to rule their relationships by contract, because only
equals had a common interest in obtaining the settlement
of their differences by these means. Equity then entered
into all decisions and contracts in early times, and thence
into the rules of custom derived from them, and into law,
so far as it is an organic growth from the constitution and
circumstances of a people. A distinction, already hinted
at, must here be brought out between customs due to the
intercourse of equals and those due to the intercourse
of superiors and inferiors. It was said that from the latter
arose no principles for imitation by equals in forming re¬
lationships between themselves. It may now be said, that
the latter class of customs are permissive and not regulat¬
ing, and are only for consideration here as illustrating the
condition of things from which law gradually rescues men.
All the customs that shock one’s sense of justice and huma¬
nity,—the exposition of infants—the powers of a Roman
father over his children,—are remnants of the condi¬
tion anterior to law, and respect acts and relationships
not rescued from that condition, because they lay with¬
out the sphere of operation of the causes by which law
has everywhere been developed. "Ihey are proofs of the
slowness of men to extend, by sympathy, to others benefits
which, by force, they assert for themselves. 1 hat sym¬
pathy is among the causes which develop law is certain ;
but it is only by concurrence with a highly stimulated sel¬
fishness that it recovers the relations of superiors and in¬
feriors from arbitrary rule. It is owing to this that law has
been, almost everywhere, developed in some degree differ¬
ently with respect to different classes of the same people.
When it was first asserted in cities that law ought to be equal
for all, the claim was advanced only for the classes of free¬
men, who were themselves the parties making it; at first
w.
irepLOLKoi, peregrini, immigrants, helots, and slaves of every Law.
kind, were disallowed equal privileges. Women every-
where, to this day, are without equal rights. One class of our
own people reserve the right of being tried by their peers.
But it is in the intercourse of nations, who form as yet a
rude society, that the truth of the proposition is most notice¬
able. War is the moderator of the consciences of states.
Where success is easy the sense of justice rarely impedes
their aggressive tendencies; where it is difficult, their
morality shuts them up to non-interference. In Europe,
where the states are interested in maintaining the balance
of power, an approach to equity is made in the regulation
of the relations of states great and small; but outside
Europe,—in India, China, Japan, Africa,—the European
states practise the morality of superiors, and gratify every
desire, however iniquitous, in satisfying which they are not
led into conflict with one another. So that the area over
which an approach to law has been made in the intercourse
of nations is conterminous with that over which the sense
of a common interest extends and identifies the security of
individual states with that of all. With the widening of
that area, and the increasing intensity of that sense, inter¬
national law will spread and grow. Nowhere is law, local
or international, other than that sense, by its direct or in¬
direct operation, constitutes it. How sympathy of itself
fails to effect the recovery of the relations of superiors and
inferiors from arbitrariness falls not to be explained here.
Whoever appreciates what Adam Smith (Moral Senti¬
ments, part i., sect. 3) has written of the dependence of
sympathy on imagination, will have no difficulty in under¬
standing the failure.
It is in virtue of public opinion, originating in the ex¬
perience of what is conducive to the common good, and
mostly supported by the authority of religion, that before
government is fairly established, and exercises its judicial
and executive functions, customs acquire for the rules which
they embody some degree of the force and generality of
law. One of the first institutions of government is an
agency to give effect to the rules of custom,—functionaries
appointed by the sovereign to act as judges taking the
place of self-constituted umpires and arbiters. Custom, Custom,the
when its rules are thus administered and enforced by the
sovereign, is the highest rudimentary form of Jaw. “ It is f(^notary
surprising,” says Mr James Mill, “ to what an extent ovei’javv.
the surface of the whole globe law has, in all ages, re¬
mained in that state of imperfect existence, if, indeed, with
any propriety it can be called a state of existence. In
every part of Asia, in all ages, law has remained in that
state of existence or non-existence. In Europe, where, at
a pretty early period, it became the practice to record in
writing the proceedings of the judges, the natural propen¬
sity of referring to the past as a rule for the present, begat
in time a species of obligation of being directed by the
examples which had already been set. This created a uni¬
formity and certainty which, however imperfect, afforded
something better than the arbitrary proceedings of Asiatic
judges. Yet this was a benefit which had a dreadful alloy.
A body, not of law, but of decisions, out of which, on each
particular occasion, a law for that particular occasion, as
out of the crude ore, was to be smelted, hammered, and
wire-drawn, was the natural material out of which to manu¬
facture a system of chicane A system of laws so con¬
structed becomes an instrument of conservation of the bar¬
barous customs and ideas of the times in which they were
engendered; and infests society with the evils of an age
which it has left behind.” Of this effect of custom there
will be occasion to write hereafter. By a change of view,
however, it is possible to admire instead of deploring that
provision of nature by which custom is made to pre¬
serve the popular experience, and thus to accumulate the
materials which the legislator must employ in attempting
L A W.
259
Law.
Tho sove¬
reign
power.
Opinion
acting cri'
tically on
existing
laws.
Law and
morality.
to perfect the laws of his country. Even under the legis-
J lator’s superintendence, law is apt to grow up somewhat
rankly; and it is well that its growth is so far independent
of his care.
5. As civilization advances, and government becomes
firmly established, the sovereign’s judicial function is ex¬
changed for the legislative. He enacts new laws, some¬
times arbitrarily, sometimes on a principle, and amends and
repeals old rules; or rears up a homogeneous and syste¬
matic body of law out of the mass of popular usages. There¬
after this body receives successive differentiations and ac¬
cretions as popular habits change with new occupations.
When the sovereign perceives that his interests and those
of the people are identical, and that the subordination of
individual interests to those of the community is the prin¬
ciple on which legislation ought to proceed, he makes laws
in greater consistency with one another; seeks to antici¬
pate cases, and to make law popular and effective by giving
it publicity and certainty. The consideration, however, of
the bearings of sovereignty on the growth of law must be
postponed until the action of opinion on law has been farther
considered.
6. While in the growth of law custom drew in and
hugged the accidents of the soil round the rules of equity,
opinion, based on these, but expanding with improving con¬
ceptions, tended to loosen and remove them. It was at
first wavering and divided ; then men of speculative minds,
orators, poets, philosophers, and ministers of religion, gave
it precision and definite direction by their sentiments and
doctrines. They refined the rude juridical notions of early
times, and gave rise to the maxims which, by approving
themselves to popular experience, established the despotism
of opinion which met many necessities for which neither
laws, nor the actual power of each individual, could provide.
Whoever violated the rules approved of by the people, had
to dread their resentment. Weakness became formidable
to power by being armed with the sympathies of mankind.
The manner in which opinion grew up with law, be¬
ginning to grow with its first germs, but rapidly shooting
in advance of them, and thereafter always maintaining it¬
self in the advance, may be traced in the history of mora¬
lity ; and as the action of morality on law is among the
chief of the influences determining its development, it is par¬
ticularly important that their relation should be understood.
The rationale of the action of opinion on law is, of itself,
simple enough. Experience at once generated rules of
action and doctrines respecting conduct; and while use and
wont, and convenience, preserved the rules, reflection and
riper experience changed the doctrines. The new doc¬
trines, on being propagated, produced popular dispositions,
or fell in with them, by which they were in turn passed
into rules of law, realized and fixed in the rear of advancing
opinion.
The conceptions of right and wrong struck out in the in¬
tercourse of equals were the foundations of opinions re¬
specting conduct. As the highest and lowest in society had
their co-equals, all partook of instruction in the same prin¬
ciples—in the same school—if in different forms. We have
seen that these conceptions rested on associations of legal
qualities with facts, induced by experience of the impru¬
dence and inconvenience of preventing these facts operating
to vest enjoyments in particular persons. The conceptions
of enjoyments, as properly vested in particular persons, are
conceptions of rights, and the same experience gave birth to
these, and to prudential motives to respect rights. It thus
at once gave birth to morality and law. As these pruden¬
tial motives, and the rules for the regulation of the desires
based on them, which afterwards passed into moral rules,
existed from the first only relatively to the realities, how¬
ever rude, of law, morality was at the first dependent on,
if not coincident with, law. The argument, from another
Law.
point of view, of Dr Whewell {Elements of Morality, vol. i.,
pp. 36, 37), on the dependence of morality on law, when car-
ried back to the limit, establishes the same position. Its truth,
however, rests not wholly on an abstract argument; it is an
historical fact, that it is some time before morality and law are
discriminated from one another. Mr Grote points out the
fact that in the Homeric poems only the germ of the distinc¬
tion between morality and law can be detected. In a note
(vol.ii., p. 110), he quotes Nagelsbach (IJomerische Theologie
Abschn. V., p. 23), as giving “ajust and well-sustained view
of the Homeric ethics,” which is to the effect that it is their
characteristic stand-point “that the spheres of legal right,
morality, and religiosity are not as yet at all disengaged from
each other—so that a man, for example, could be just without
being godly—but exist together in undeveloped unity.” They
are only conceived of as distinct when, by the advance of'mo-
rality, law stands out by itself as a rule distinct from moral
and religious duty. This advance is due to the fact of law
realizing and fixing conceptions of right in rules of cus¬
tom ; while morality freely changes and amplifies them, by
reflection, on a riper experience than gave them birth. On
the advance taking place, it arose from the necessity of
moral rules receiving their interpretation from legal dispo¬
sitions that morality divided into two portions,—the one
steady, relative to law, and creating a disposition to conform
to it; the other vague, and contemplating better or more
convenient dispositions of things than those realized by law.
It thus became in a twofold sense the auxiliary of law, aid¬
ing at once in enforcing and improving it. It is by the re- Reciprocal
ciprocal influence of morality (and other advanced forms ofinfluence
opinion) and law that the stability of the social progress isof lav^ 011
secured, opinion steadied, and excessive inequalities in the ^rallty
development of the classes of society prevented. While cri- raljt^ on
tical morality tends to improve popular conceptions, and law.
thus to change the rules of law (or custom), the latter re¬
act on the former. Opinion in a state of fluidity, in the
front of experience, is constantly washing the law, in its
centre, of the impurities of the soil; but these in turn enter
into opinion, and tone and colour it. A most noticeable in¬
stance of this is pointed out by Adam Smith in the Influ¬
ence of Custom on the opinions of Plato and Aristotle re¬
garding the exposition of infants. In the view of this re¬
action must be noticed the tendency to finality in morals as
affecting the progress of law. The temporary effect of as¬
signing absoluteness to moral dogmas is to increase their
authority ; but the final effect is to disqualify them for car¬
rying on the improvement of law. Critical morality in the Critical
relative form, with the greatest happiness on the whole of morality,
society for its standard of right, continues to be the auxi¬
liary and guide of law, because it aims at no more than
investigating rules, the true lessons of experience, which,
on being discovered, the instincts of men compel them to
practise. And, in fact, since circumstances and convenience
determine law, and law interprets the rules of morality, it
is impossible to make them absolute or universal except in
point of form. Even the moral rules,—'Be just, pure,
humane,—which, being drawn from tiie essential institu¬
tions of society, exist in the morality of every country in
the same terms, can have no greater generality than the
corresponding rules of law. Purity in Turkey is consistent
with polygamy, and humanity in America with the institu¬
tion of slavery.
The relation of other forms of advanced opinion to the
growth of law is, for a large part, the same as we have
above indicated as subsisting between morality and law, the
progress effected resulting from the mutual actions of opi¬
nion on law, and law on opinion. When the progress has
been carried on up to a certain point, the action of ad¬
vanced opinion becomes more immediate in its effects,
taking place on law itself, instead of on popular disposi¬
tions. This is when the legislative functions of government
260
Law.
LAW.
All law, in
the long
run, due to
the same
causes that
develop
customary
law.
Political
liberty.
come to be exercised, and the functionaries of the soye-
rehm become the sole administrators of customary rules.
The law then lies open to the criticism of persons able to
trive immediate effect to their views. Judges now venture
to change customary rules, modify them to meet new cases
as they arise, and extend them to analogous cases; while the
sovereign breaks through them and prescribes, and at least
appears to enforce, laws wholly new, irrespective of popular
faith in their utility. On this stage being reached, it would
seem as if the original causes of the growth of law ceased
to operate. But, in fact, their action has merely been
changed from the direct to the indirect; for it is only by
the concurrence of the individual wills of the people that
the sovereign possesses his authority ; and this concunence
cannot be long maintained except by a line of action on his
part conformable to popular dispositions. The changes in
law, then, produced by legislative action are not to be Re¬
garded as being arbitrary, but as being, in the long run, the
effect of the indirect action of the same causes as develop
customary law. The truth of this proposition is sufficiently
obvious where the sovereignty of the people is asserted, and
they possess political liberty. The distribution of political
power and authority among the various classes of the people,
which is the practical security for good government in which
political liberty consists, facilitates their action on the course
of legislation. Though, in consideration of the degree to
which this security must be relaxed in order to good go¬
vernment, Montesquieu has made political liberty to consist
in the opinion of the people that they are free ; yet this opi¬
nion itself, supposing that there is nothing more, keeps alive
a spirit inimical to state action contrary to their interests,
and secures the harmony here contended for. But it is im¬
material to the proposition what is the character of the po¬
litical system, or the source of the concurrence on which the
sovereign’s authority depends. /nt-/
The argument, on the general case, of M. Comte {Philos.
Positive, vol. iv., p. 336, et seq), is conclusive, and is briefly
as follows That the political regime is, in the long run, in
conformity with the corresponding state of civilization, arises
from the fact, that the disturbances manifest in the one are
due to equivalent derangements in the other. The theory
that attributes to the legislator the permanent power of in¬
fringing this harmony supposes him to be armed with a suf¬
ficient authority. But authority, like every other social
power, is necessarily constituted by a corresponding assent,
spontaneous or deliberate, explicit or implicit, of various in¬
dividual wills, resolved, from certain preparatory convictions,
to concur in a common action, of which it is first the organ
and then the regulator. Thus, authority is rea ly derived
from concurrence, and not concurrence from authority, set¬
ting aside the necessary reaction, so that no great power can
arise except from the strongly preponderating dispositions
of the society in which it is established ; and when there are
no strongly preponderating popular dispositions, such social
powers as exist are necessarily feeble and languid; and this
correspondence is the more irresistible the more extensive
the society is. That the reaction of the political system
the effect of political institutions and events—on the gene¬
ral system of civilization, is great, must be admitted ; but it
must not be exaggerated so as to be placed before the pn-
mary action. In a scientific view, it is to the concurrence
of the two that the fundamental agreement of the social
organism is due. To the same effect writes Savigny, in
maintaining such an organio connection between law and
the character of the people as subsists between the lat¬
ter and their language and manners. Ihis connec¬
tion, he says, is manifested in the progress of the
times. “ For law, as for language, there is no moment
of absolute cessation ; it is subject to the same movement
and development as every other popular tendency; and
this very development remains under the same law of in¬
ward necessity as in its earliest stages. Law grows with Law.
the o-rowth, and strengthens with the strength of the people,
and°finallY dies away as the nation loses its nationality.
The sum,' therefore, of this theory is, that all law is origi¬
nally formed in the manner in which, in ordinary, but not
quite correct language, customary law is said to have been
formed ; that is, it is first developed by custom and popu ar
faith, next by jurisprudence; everywhere, therefore, by
internal silently operating powers, not by the arbitrary will
°fy. Long after men in civil society had experimentally Growth of
wrought out codes of local law and morality in a degree tional law>
supplanting the rule of brute force, the intercourse of states
was wholly faithless, lawless, and unfriendly. Whoever was
not of a state was its enemy, and, by coming within its con¬
fines exposed himself to be enslaved, and his property to be
confiscated. This in times when there were between them
no special grounds of quarrel. In war they ravaged and
depopulated each other’s countries without mercy, massacre-
ini alike armed men and helpless women and children or
sparing them only to make them slaves. Such were the
relations of states in Greece in the times of its greatest
philosophers; and such the principles on which Borne for
seven centuries made war on the world. I he ancie t
moralists, homologating the savage traditions^of their times,
enforced them bv precepts. Nor is this to be wondere ,
looking to the effect of custom on opinion alluded to in
tracing the growth of local law. Every umyersa result and
exercise of brute force the world agrees to hold legitimate .
witness the—at one time—universal institution of slavery.
Nor is this agreement anywhere broken up, till it becomes
the common interest, through the balance of forces, that t le
rule of force be abandoned. The balance of forces, how¬
ever produced and maintained, is the first condition of the
birth and growth of law. This is especially clear of mtei-
national law. It originated in the intercourse of states so
nearly equal in power as to be formidable to one another,
and between whom, in time, grew up the habit of mutual
forbearance. They adopted rules of their various relations
on the principle of reciprocity, from the mutual convenience
of comity and fear of retaliation. Ihese, embodied in
mutual contracts, tacit or express, passed into customs, and
were supported, in time, by public opinion amongst nations,
resting on the sense of their utility, and the respect for
usage. Then this opinion tended to cause the principles of
these rules to be applied to the relations of the great and
small states; while, concurrently, the mutual jealousies of
the great powers tended to widen the area of the common
interest, by, in effect, producing a balance of forces between
themselves and the less. These principles, being thus
diffused, were next made more just and humane, by cir¬
cumstances which added new common interests to those
which the fear of their respective forces, and the perception
of the advantages of comity, at first created between states.
Among these were the institution of the order of knight¬
hood; the crusades, which united men of many nations in a
common action; and chiefly the Romish Church, whose
ministers spread over Europe, imbued with the spint of
Roman justice, and sustained by the authority of the pon¬
tiffs, tempered the rude disorders of the European family.
Then criticism, to which Grotius first gave shape, applying
the principles of local justice to the relations of states,
helped on the cause of humanity by giving definite
direction to the sentiments of the leading minds in various
nations, and by, finally, through a succession of teachers,
transfusing the better classes of all societies with enlightened
views of the duties of nations. But there was another
developing cause. The relations of nations were, from the
first, affected by the experience of the advantages of com¬
mercial intercourse. It is to commerce mainly that we owe
the steady increase of the respect to humanity, perceptible
L A W.
261
Law.
Popular
tendencies
related to
law.
in their intercourse in modern times. By bringing men of
various nations face to face, it destroys their local prejudices
and antipathies, and while widening their sympathies, it
directs them by manifest and sensible interests. Its effects,
as a developing cause of international law, have already
been so powerful, that an augury of what they may here¬
after be, though reasonable, would to most appear fanciful.
It is rapidly assimilating the mercantile codes of all the
nations in the world, and stripping war of its ugliest fea¬
tures one by one: it is daily making clearer the demon¬
stration, that the interests of nations press them from all
sides not to go to war at all, and is thereby undermining
the military system. That it will henceforth still more
powerfully and rapidly conduce to the harmonious adjust
ment of international relations, is guaranteed by the steady
progress of nations in the industrial arts, and by the inven¬
tions that, facilitating their inter-communication, increase its
advantages. Wherever a nation has a market, it has an
interest that order and prosperity should there prevail. As
the subjects of various nations are brought into close and
constant intercourse, as the number and weight of their
common interests are increased, and as, through the press,
their literatures are freely interchanged, they will more and
more nearly approach towards sameness of views and senti¬
ments ; and be led by that instinct which impels men
everywhere to what is advantageous, to concur in desiring
that disputes between nations should be adjusted on the
principles of equity. The more just and definite rules of in¬
ternational law become, the more obvious will be the advan¬
tage of observing them and the mischievousness of war,
and it will be seen that the alternative should be dreadful
to justify the resort to so clumsy, ineffectual, and hor¬
rible an expedient. Public opinion in the various states,
resting on the manifest utility and justice of observing the
equal rules of international law, will then bind down govern¬
ments to respect them ; while, being everywhere guided by
the same leading ideas and principles, it will be distinctly
pronounced, and secure a preponderance of sympathy and
active assistance from nations to any state whose rights are
violated.
While such are the principal developing causes of inter¬
national law, the inequalities of development of the various
nations composing the society of mankind, the varieties of
their forms of government, and the mutual jealousies of
the governing persons in societies of different constitutions,
are among the principal of the causes which have retarded
it. But in the growth of international, as of local law, the
principles of human nature are seen steadily operating to¬
wards the just and harmonious settlement of the relations of
men. Hereafter, as hitherto, its progress must be worked
out experimentally ; and that it will be continued is insured
in the great society of mankind, as the progress of civil
law is insured within the smaller compass of individual
states, by the concurrence of the desires of individuals for
happiness, and the common experience that the largest
measure of durable good is obtainable only in the way of
justice. It is in the view of this security that the scientific
truth of the faith, that “all things work together for good”
is perceived; for it guarantees that in the long run all
mights must perish that are exercised prejudicially to the
interests of mankind.
VI. In the view of law being everywhere, in the long run,
the result of the habitual sentiments of the people, it remains
briefly to notice the principal popular tendencies that affect
its progress. A tendency, that has almost everywhere been
influential, is to conceive one’s self out of society in what
is called “ the state of natureand, with the feelings and
ideas of society, to consider the faculties of action one would
then have. From this sprung the popular conceptions of
“ natural rights,” which, favouring strong desires, and being
easily (if vaguely) formed, have powerfully affected politi¬
cal systems ; to an extent beneficially, by balancing the Law.
tendency of sovereigns to arbitrary rule; to an extent also
injuriously, by throwing society, in moments of heat, into
confusion. The desire of liberty from legal restraints, one ^aw an<l
of its manifestations, deserves consideration, because its lil:,erty'
strength depends on errors that may readily be exposed.
“ Natural liberty,” or the liberty a man would have in the
“ state of nature,” as opposed to what he has in society, is
unintelligible in so far as the “ state of nature” of man is
society. But the idea is, that it is the liberty a man would
have in the solitary state, or in a society without laws or
government. It appears at first as if a man by relinquishing
either of these for a governed society lost a portion of his
liberty. But if liberty be defined to be greater or less ac¬
cording to the number of ways in which a man may exercise
all his faculties, the number of objects on which he may
exercise them, and the extent to which they may be exer¬
cised, it is greater in a governed society than in either of the
states supposed. However great may be a man’s liberty of
action in these, he wants, as has well been said, the materials
for it. Many of his noblest faculties are exercisable only in
a governed society in which others are developed to a degree
of activity unattainable in the so-called state of nature.
Government and laws subordinating individual to public
interests, and prescribing the modes and limits of social acti¬
vities, establish order and security—the guarantees of
human happiness; and while, in a sense, abridging men’s
liberties, so increase the materials on which the faculties left
with them may be exercised as on the whole greatly to
enlarge their freedom in the truest sense. The definition
of civil liberty which places it in the freedom from legal
obligation left, or granted, by the supreme power to its
subjects, opens the way to the desire of “ natural liberty”
as the perfection of freedom. Its true definition destroys
that desire. Civil liberty is analogous to what natural 0}v}i
liberty really is. As this consists of freedom of action, un- liberty,
controlled save by the wise laws and dispositions of nature
by which the harmony and welfare of the world are secured;
so that consists in freedom of action, uncontrolled save by such
wise and benevolent laws as are necessary for the harmony
and welfare of the state. This definition agrees substan¬
tially with that given by Sir James Mackintosh {The Theory
of the Laics of Nature and Nations), when he places liberty
in security against wrong. It turns round the tendency
from which aspirations after savagery arise, and makes it con¬
duce to the perfection of law and government. The desire Equal laws,
for equal laws must here be briefly noticed, from its having
acted healthfully on systems of laws. It grew up with the
conception of law as designed to secure the public good,
and is to be distinguished from the sentimental longing for
an equal distribution of the objects of desire among the
members of society. It demands security to all in the
enjoyment of the fruits of their industry, and that none shall
be laid under any obligation with respect to another under
which the latter is not put equally with respect to him.
The obstacles to the realization of equal laws are,—1, The
necessity for government, which requires that the multitude
shall always be subordinated to their rulers; and, 2, The
selfishness of the governing classes. But supposing laws
equalized up to the point consistent with government, they
might still fall short of the character which law should have
according to the latest conception of it. According to this The latest
it is an active force, restricting and directing the various conception
social activities, so as, though in small part, beneficially tooflaw‘
determine the character of the social progress. So long as
law is determined solely by present convenience, it may fail
of securing what is conceived to be its proper end—the per- n
manent welfare of society. .j ects in‘
\ II. 1 reparatory to the inquiry how this latest conception law from
of law is to be realized, it will be well briefly to exhibit the its modes
defects incidental to law from its modes of growth, to see of growth.
262 L A
Legisla- what is the knowledge necessary for their rectification. Law
tion. branches out in different directions corresponding to its dif-
f’erent sources—common law to popular customs—statute law
(immediately) to the will of the sovereign—civil equity to
certain defects of statute and common law, which it partly
rectifies. The first defects, then, to be noticed are four,—1.
Defect of consistency between the principles in its different
branches. 2. Defect of cognoscibility due to their number,
and their being mostly welded into cases, and the difficulties
of ascertaining which of them apply to new cases that occur.
3. Defect of equity. That there should be positive defects
of equity in the rules of statute and common law, looking
to their later stages, is plain enough, considering how often
the sovereign’s immediate interests conflict with those of
the people, and the limits within which authority may be
abused without exciting a corrective popular reaction, and
how often circumstances warp the judgments of the most
conscientious judges. 4. Defects due to its tenacity in
carrying forward into one age the imperfect modes of
dealing, and forms of expression peculiar to another. These
four everywhere tend to work out their own rectification,
by producing obvious intricacy and confusion in the ad¬
ministration of justice, and inconvenience and positive in¬
justice in the regulation of relationships. Accepting its
rules as having been equitable when formed, it remains to
point out their possible defects as discovered in the progress
of experience and opinion. 1 hese are two, the one due to
over-generality or over-particularity in the definitions of the
relationships of which they are the rules; the other due to
errors in the guiding conceptions of equity at the date of
their formation. Instances of the first defect are to be found
in plenty in decisions of courts of equity. The “appeal to
God,” as a means of testing a suspected person, resting on
a misconception of the method of the divine government, is
an instance of the second. On the belief that the operation
of natural laws was always suspended or altered to shield
innocence or detect guilt, the test was reasonable, and rules
of evidence applying it equitable. Their unreasonableness
was onlv discovered on the falsity of that belief being ex-
w.
posed. A third defect, akin to this, is due to defect of pre- Legisla-
vision—a short-sighted policy forming rules that soon wrork tion.
injuriously. v——
It appears, then, that, so far as concerns law related to The know-
justice, the knowledge necessary to cure its defects must ledge ne-
include,—1, Correct conceptions of the general cases to ^
provided for, from which the cases to be exempted from the jts ^efecta
general rules will at once appear ; 2, Correct conceptions
of the natural relations of persons and things and their ten¬
dencies to change. These demonstrate what the associa¬
tions between facts and rights, and what rights themselves
ought to be, and, had they existed, would have prevented
the barbarous laws of evidence above alluded to. The know¬
ledge necessary for the perfection of law related to the deter¬
mination of the phenomena of society, remains to be treated
of in the next part of this article. It will be found to include
that necessary for the rectification oflaw related to justice.
“ In everything that relates to practice,” says Lord Bacon,
“ we must make up our account as to what is in our power,
and what not. For, in the former, alteration is allowed, but,
in the latter, application merely. The husbandman hath
no power over either the nature of the soil or the weather;
nor the physician over the natural frame and constitution
of the patient or the variety of accidents. But in the cul¬
tivation of the mind, and the healing of its disorders, three
things come under consideration—the different characters
of disposition, the ailments, and the remedies : as also in the
treatment of bodily diseases, these three things are brought
under our notice—the habit or constitution of the patient,
the disease, and the cure. But of these three, the last only
is in our power, not so the two first. But we must make
no less careful inquiry into those matters which are beyond
our power than into those which are within it. For a dis¬
tinct and accurate knowledge of them must form the basis
of a doctrine respecting the remedies, in order that these
may be applied more skillully and successfully. I he
remarks here made as to the body and mind ot a man,
and their treatment, apply directly to the frame and con¬
stitution of society, and to legislative action upon it.
PART II.—LEGISLATION.
I. It has been ascertained from the study of the growth
of law, that, in the long run, both the laws and political sys¬
tem of a people are reflexes of their habitual sentiments, and
tend to change as these do. It follows that a scientific know¬
ledge of the tendencies of human nature and society is the
only safe basis of legislative action.
The test of The assumption, in every speculation on laws, must be,
laws. that they ought so to govern men as to secure the greatest
good, on the whole, of society. The test of the goodness ot
laws is their fitness to secure this good. But oi this there
can be no test, if the phenomena of society are not subject
to natural laws. Whether they are, depends on whether
the law of causality applies to human actions ; for if it does,
social phenomena are certainly subject to natural laws, be¬
cause they wholly result from the concurrence oi the actions
of individual men.
Universal experience favours the conclusion that the law
of causality applies to human actions. 1. It it did not apply,
there could neither be universal principles as to the forma¬
tion of character, nor could we have the idea ot character.
But we have that idea, and constantly assume that it is pos¬
sible to foretell the conduct of one whose character and ex¬
act situation are known. 2. In threatening punishments to
counteract the motives to offences, the assumption is, that
between motives, volitions, and actions there exists the re¬
lation of cause and effect. 3. Every one is conscious ot the
force of circumstantial evidence. Evidence of this sort, in
courts of justice, consists usually of two parts,—(1.) Evidence
that the accused had a sufficient motive to commit the
offence charged on him; (2.) Evidence that he did commit
it. The force of the first part is due to the universal con¬
viction that no one does anything without a motive, and
that w’hen a man has a motive he acts upon it, unless it be
counteracted. The links of the circumstances which make
up the second part are supplied by our conviction that cer¬
tain actions must have followed the mediate actions indica¬
tory of purposes that enter into the circumstances. 4. Who¬
ever has to influence another calculates, from his knowledge
of the person’s character, what inducements are most likely
to weigh with him. He appeals 4 to the aval ice of the
miser, the honour of the gentleman, the probity of the man
of virtueand so confesses his practical belief that mo¬
tives determine the will as necessarily as acids act upon
alkalies” (Abercromby’s Intellectual Powers). 5. Sponta¬
neous actions are not separated from, but stand in the fiont
of, the general class: they are due either to direct physical
causes, or to dispositions of mind towards certain volitions,
originating in deliberations at first consciously preceding
the'm, but at length dispensed with as leading to known con¬
clusions. Whatever is true of actions generally, therefore,
is true of spontaneous actions.
That the law of causality applies to human actions may
be held, then, to be a truth established by universal expe¬
rience. It is, in fact, “ as palpable and universal as that
bodies have weight.” It follows that the phenomena of
society, which result from the concurrence of the actions
of individuals, must be ruled by natural laws derived from
those of individual life. It is therefore possible, speaking
LAW.
263
Legisla- apart from difficulties due to the complexity of social phe-
tion. nomena, for the legislator to obtain scientific guidance in
x—acting on society.
To show how the knowledge which is to yield this guid¬
ance is to be obtained, we must briefly inquire into the
sciences of human nature and of society. Whoever desires
fuller information on these sciences should study the ad¬
mirable essay of Mr J. S. Mill on the “Logic of the Moral
Sciences,” Logic, vol. ii.; and M. Comte’s Philos. Positive.
The science Xhe science of human nature, as it must be constructed
nature an ^or Pract‘ca^ purposes, aims at investigating the laws accord¬
ing to which circumstances affect character and conduct.
Owing to the diversities of individual experience, and the
fact that every event which happens to a man affects, in
some mode or degree, his subsequent mental history, it would
be unreasonable to expect that the generalizations men
make respecting the feelings or actions of mankind, with¬
out reference to the causes which determine them, should
be anything but approximate. They are, in fact, of the
nature of empirical laws; and unless we have resolved
them into the laws of the causes upon which they depend,
and ascertained that those causes extend to the cases which
we have in view, no reliance can be placed on inferences
from them to those cases. The saying, that the old are cau¬
tious, is not a scientific truth, but an approximate generaliza¬
tion only; the scientific truth is, that contact with difficulty
and danger tends to make men cautious. This causal law
at once explains the saying, and gives us the limiting prin¬
ciple of our reliance on it. The investigation of such causal
laws is the object of the science of human nature. “ The
science of human nature,” says Mr J. S. Mill, “ may be said
to exist in proportion as those approximate truths which com¬
pose a practical knowledge of mankind can be exhibited as
corollaries from the universal laws of human nature on
which they rest, whereby the proper limits of those approxi¬
mate truths would be shown, and we should be enabled to
deduce others from any new state of circumstances in anti¬
cipation of specific experience. Men do not all
feel and act alike in the same circumstances ; but it is pos¬
sible to determine what makes one man, in a given posi¬
tion, feel and act in one way, another in another; how any
given mode of feeling and conduct, compatible with the
general laws (physical and mental) of human nature, has
been or may be formed. In other words, mankind have
not one universal character, but there exist universal laws
of the formation of character. And since it is by these
laws, combined with the facts of each particular case, that
the whole of the phenomena of human action and feeling
are produced, it is upon these that every rational attempt to
construct the science of human nature in the concrete, and
for practical purposes, must proceed” {Logic of the Moral
Sciences). The nature of these causal or “ ethological”
laws, as they have been called by Mr Mill, will now be
understood. They must be deduced from the general laws
of mind, experimentally investigated by psychology, by
supposing sets of circumstances, and then considering what,
according to the laws of mind, will be the influence of those
The science C*r^',mStaI1Ces on ^ie formation of character,
of society. sp'ence of society investigates the laws by which, in
the first instance, social phenomena are harmonized, and, in
the next, by which they tend to change. Hence its division
into two sciences (Social Statics and Social Dynamics), kept
di&tinct for the sake of convenience, but really parts of one,
and coi responding to two aspects of the same theory. So¬
cial statics considers the interconnection of the parts of so¬
ciety, and the laws by which they are harmonized ; Social
Dynamics considers the tendencies of social phenomena to
c lange, and investigates the laws by which one state of so¬
ciety tends to generate another, and by which social effects
leact on their causes, and determine the nature of the social
progress.
As the causes of social phenomena arise from the compo- Legisla-
sition of the causes of individual phenomena, their laws are tlon'
derivative from those of psychology and ethology. Hence,
however sociological laws may be investigated, it is in their
agreement with the laws of psychology and ethology that
their verification must be looked for.
The investigation of sociological laws may be conducted How social
on two methods, separately and conjunctly:—1. By deducing laws are to
social laws from the general laws of mind, and verifying be
them by deductions from history. 2. By deducing social Yerified"
laws from history, and verifying them by the general laws
of mind. M. Comte is of opinion, that the latter method
is the only one strictly applicable to sociology. Mr Mill, in
assigning importance to the former, admits that a social
science formed on that method would be a science of ten¬
dencies, and not of positive predictions. “ We may be
able,” he says, “ to conclude from the laws of human nature
applied to the circumstances of a given state of society, that
a particular cause will operate in a certain manner, unless
counteracted; but we can never be assured to what extent
or amount it will so operate, or affirm Avith certainty, that
it will not be counteracted ; because we can seldom know,
even approximately, all the agencies Avhich may exist with
it, and still less calculate the collective result of so many
combined elements. The remark, however, must here be
once more repeated, that knowledge insufficient for predic¬
tion may be most valuable for guidance. It is not neces¬
sary, for the wise conduct of the affairs of society, no more
than of any man’s private concerns, that we should be able
to foresee infallibly the results of what we do. We must
seek our objects by means which may, perhaps, be defeated,
and take precautions against dangers which possibly may
never be realized. The aim of practical politics is to sur¬
round the society which is under our superintendence with
the greatest possible number of circumstances of which the
tendencies are beneficial, and to remove and counteract, as
far as practicable, those of which the tendencies are inju¬
rious. A knowledge of the tendencies only, though Avith-
out the power of actually predicting their conjunct result,
gives us, to a certain extent, this power.” M. Comte, re¬
garding the social science as essentially consisting of gene¬
ralizations from history, verified by deductions from the
laws of human nature, seeks to construct it as a science, not
of tendencies, but of positive predictions. If the guidance
promised by Mr Mill falls short of the scientific prevision
promised by M. Comte, it can be much more easily ob¬
tained.
The leading idea of social science, as conceivedby M. Comte,
is, that society must be regarded as a whole, and singular
social facts as strictly inseparable from the whole. There is
no doubt that this is the scientific conception of society;
but the main difficulties of perfecting social science are con¬
nected Avith this conception. M. Comte is, however, of
opinion, that once the leading ideas of the science have
been seized, every observation of human nature, and im¬
pression from the events of life, Avill become of value as a
sociological indication in aid of the historical method of in¬
vestigating social laws. He thinks that when men come to
make observations on society, Avith the social theory to
guide them to Avhat to observe, the facility afforded by the
mutual relation of its various aspects will, in part, compen¬
sate for the difficulty caused by that mutual connection,—
the inseparableness of the parts from the whole, Avhile ren¬
dering observation more difficult, thus providing more means
for its prosecution. Mr Mill, however, in anticipation of •
the arrival of the period when the science will reap the ad¬
vantages of observations thus conducted, proposes to create
several sub-departments of sociological inquiry, and thus to
facilitate observation by confining it. The conclusions ar¬
rived at in these independent departments must, of course,
be less exact, and afford less safe guidance than those of
264
L A W.
Legisla- the general science. But, as Mr Mill observes, the ex-
tl0n- actness of science must give place to practical conve-
nience and utility in the science of society, as in astro¬
nomy ; and there appears to be no good reason, supposing
cases can be found analogous to that of the moon, where
the effects, though contributed to by many, are princi¬
pally due to one or two causes, why, in sociology as in
astronomy, there should not be isolated theories, the ap¬
proximate character of their conclusions not being lost sight
of. M. Comte, however, contends that the cases are not
analogous, and that in sociology the isolation of effects and
their specific causes is strictly inadmissible. Such sub-de¬
partments of social science have, notwithstanding, been
formed. For instance, political economy is isolated from
general social science, and devoted to the investigation of
the laws of the creation and distribution of wealth—its ap¬
proximations resting on the operation of a single law of
human nature, that men prefer a greater gain to a smaller.
Political Among the sub-departments thus formed or projected, is
ethology, political ethology (Mill’s Logic of the Moral Sciences), the
science of the causes which determine the type of charac¬
ter belonging to a people or an age. This science investi¬
gates the effects of institutions or social arrangements upon
national character and conduct, and thus corresponds im¬
mediately to the legislative art.
Sociological problems come in one or other of two forms:
—1, Given a certain general condition of social circum¬
stances, to determine the effect of a given cause ; or, 2,
What are the laws which determine the circumstances
themselves? Sociology, as a science of tendencies, answers
the first, by demonstrating the tendencies of particular
causes under assumed conditions of circumstances: when
the actual conditions differ from these, the practitioner, re¬
curring to the principles of the science, must endeavour to
take the omitted circumstances into account, or to omit the
superlative circumstances, as the case may be. It answers
the second by investigating the laws by which one state of
society generates another. With regard to the first, Mr
Mill is of opinion that it would be an error to suppose that,
by deduction from the principles of human nature, we could
arrive at any great number of propositions which will be
true in all societies without exception. “ Such a supposi¬
tion,” he says, “ would be inconsistent with the eminently
modifiable nature of social phenomena, and the multi¬
tude and variety of the circumstances by which they are
modified—circumstances never the same, or even nearly
the same, in too different societies, or in two different
periods of the same society. Every cause, as its effects
spread through society, comes somewhere in contact with
different sets of agencies, and thus has its effects on some
of the social phenomena, differently modified; and these
differences, by their reaction, produce a difference even in
those of the effects which would otherwise have been the
same. We can never, therefore, affirm with certainty, that
a cause which has a particular tendency in one people or
in one age, will have exactly the same tendency in another,
without referring back to our premises, and performing over
again for the second age or nation that analysis of the whole
of its influencing circumstances which w-e had already per¬
formed for the first. The deductive science of society does
not lay down a theorem, asserting in one universal manner
the effect of any cause ; but rather teaches us how to frame
the proper theorem for the circumstances of any given case.
It does not give us the law's of society in general, but the
means of determining the phenomena of any given society
from the particular elements or data of that society.” The
consideration of the second form of the social problem is Legisla-
less necessary to our purpose than that of the first, and tion.
would lead farther into the methods of general social science
than is consistent with the limits of this article.
It will by this time be seen that the function of socio¬
logy is to supply the legislator with general rules and prin¬
ciples for solving particular practical problems; and that
there can be no science of law separate from the science of
society. When the legislator has to act in any case, he may
consult the science as to the consequences of his acting in
a given way, or as to the way in which he should act to
accomplish a proposed end ; as to whether the end proposed
is itself practicable and desirable, or as to what end it would
be most desirable to accomplish, looking to the good of so¬
ciety. Legislation is the art of applying the middle principles
of sociology; and the general rules which it borrows from
the science, together with certain art-principles of its own,
make up its whole theory.
II. It remains to consider the nature and limits of the
modifications of social phenomena producible by legislative
measures.
There are here two guiding principles,—1, That events
subjected to invariable laws are susceptible of modification in
proportion to their complexity ; and, 2, That the changes are
producible by affecting their intensity and secondary opera¬
tion, but not their nature or filiation. The postures into
which an automaton may be thrown increase in number
with the number of its joints, while each joint definitely
prescribes a peculiar motion to the portion of the figure in
which it is situated, and, in a degree, determines the fashion
of all the postures. When there are many joints, an inde¬
finite number of postures are readily producible, while it is
vain to attempt to throw the figure into any one for which
a single joint would have to yield a motion contrary to its
nature. The case of a ship at sea, moving between the
points up to which it can be made to sail to the wind, illus¬
trates the same principles. In this, and every case of a
combination of causes, the producible modifications are more
numerous and easily effected the more numerous the causes
are, and the ways in which they may be resolved, so as to
vary their joint effect.1
Coming now to legislative action on the complex pheno- The limits
mena of society, the former principle guarantees its facility, of legisla-
while the latter assigns its limits. It may be stated, in tlve actl0n
general terms, that it is limited by the sociological laws of
harmony and succession; and that, within the limits pre¬
scribed by them, it must operate by affecting their inten¬
sity and secondary operation. This is no more than is in¬
tended by Adam Smith {Moral Sentiments, vol. ii., p. 84),
when, in terms equally general, he describes the man of
system as going on “ to establish his plan of government in
every point, as if he could arrange the members of a great
society as he could arrange chessmen, neglectful that each
has a principle of motion of his own.” “For the rest,” to
quote M. Comte (Philosophic Positive, vol. iv., p. 404),
“ having ascertained the existence of general limits of varia¬
tion peculiar to social phenomena, and especially of the
modifications dependent upon systematic political action,
and the scientific principle which is to give the character
and limits of such modifications; it belongs to the direct
development of social science to determine, in each case,
the influence and actual reach of this general principle, by a
special appreciation of the corresponding situation. It is by
such appreciations, made empirically, that those men of genius
who have really exercised a great and profound influence on
humanity, in any way whatever, have been guided.”
1 Accepting the definition of evil, that it is the result “ of the non-adaptation of constitutions to conditions,” the consciousness of our
power to modify phenomena so as to accommodate constitutions to conditions, within certain limits, must be accepted as the ultimate source
of our feeling of responsibility. The legislator’s duties and responsibilities unquestionably depend on his having the power to deter¬
mine the course of social events more happily than they would he determined in the natural progress.
L A W.
265
Legisla- Looking exclusively to the conditions of the existence,
tion. t]ie cohe$ion) and coherence of society, it is possible to
/ assign a few of the limits beyond which laws cannot, at
least with safety or impunity, be pressed or relaxed. (1.)
The first of the former class are determined by the condi¬
tions under which men live and propagate their kind.
Some of the Roman jurists, perceiving that legislation could
not be pressed beyond the limits set by these conditions,
gave to a rule, based on their observance, the name oi jus
naturale. To this they referred,—1, The right of self-
defence ; 2, Liberty ; 3, Common property in the air, water,
&c., as conditions of the existence of individuals; 4, The
union of man and woman ; 5, The procreation of children ;
and, 6, Their education as conditions of the existence of
the species. It seems to have been the opinion of Ulpian,
that the jus uaturale could not be infringed beyond a cer¬
tain point without fatal, or, up to that point, without per¬
nicious consequences. The limit might be partially trans¬
gressed, as in the institution of slavery; but not safely or
consistently with the public welfare. (2.) A second, if less
obvious limit is set by the conditions of popular health,
mental and physical. Unless the restrictions on the ac¬
tions of the people, set by the laws, be compatible with the
healthful exercise of their physical and mental faculties,
these will decay, and the people become stupid, brutish,
weak in mind and body, and unfitted for the cultivation of
the arts, both of peace and war. A society, governed by
such cramping rules, will either decay, or fall belbre foreign
enemies; or the people, throwing oft’ their bonds, will con¬
stitute it anew. (3.) A third limit seems to be set by the
conditions of popular activity in the directions of agricul¬
ture and commerce. The laws must allow to the people
such property in land, and in the profits of trade, as will
stimulate them to these pursuits. (4.) A fourth limit is
set by the conditions of the sovereign’s authority. These
seem to be three in number,—1, There must be a system
of education, disciplining the subject to merge his indivi¬
dual good in that of the state ; 2, There must be among the
people a feeling of loyalty ; and, 3, A feeling of nationality.
If the legislator destroys the subject’s respect for his autho¬
rity, or interrupt the process of discipline on which that
respect and the love of country depend, he endangers his
own power and the state’s existence.
The preceding limits are likely to be pressed upon only
under despotic governments ; those now to be indicated
may be approached under any government, and are not so
easily assigned. Speaking generally, tney are the limits
beyond which the law cannot safely be relaxed. No so¬
ciety can hold together without laws, or usages with the
force of law, to give reality to the conceptions of mo¬
rality. The question is, what relations of the subject
may, with safety, to the state, be left free of legal regu¬
lation. The question, in this form, is too broad to be an¬
swered. But relations may be specified which cannot safely
be left without regulation, and thus the question may be
answered indirectly. We said that the laws must permit
the union of the sexes ; here we say that they must regu¬
late that union by defining marriage, the modes of consti¬
tuting and dissolving it, and its consequences. We said
that the laws must permit the existence of private property ;
we say here that they must define it, and regulate the modes
of its transmission and alienation, and give security, in its
enjoyment, to its owners. If Proudhon’s doctrine had been
realized in France, it would have been a case of the relaxa¬
tion of law beyond a limit of legislation.
Many limits might be conceived to be set to legislation by
the character of the people in different states. In a country
where, under a free government, the people are frank, out¬
spoken, and loyal, if not always cautious in their language,
l he dogmas of the freedom of the press, liberty of conscience,
and the sovereignty of the people, set limits to legislation,
VOL. XIII.
which in other countries do not exist. Opposite limits, in
fact, would be set to legislation in a country where the
people were excitable, visionary, easily led by novel ideas,
and lived under a despotism. If in such a country the
laws were relaxed to permit the freedom of the press,
government and social order might be endangered.
Over-legislation.—The consideration of the limits beyond
which the laws ought not to be relaxed is closely allied to
the inquiry, What are the relations which ought to be
exempted from legal regulation ? The answer, in general
terms, is, that they are those with which the state cannot
beneficially interfere, or which can be regulated with equal
or greater advantage by the people themselves. What
these are cannot be generally defined. They must be dis¬
covered by an appreciation of the whole circumstances of
the particular cases, the propriety of interfering with which
is questioned; and this appreciation must include the second¬
ary and more remote consequences of instituting laws for
these cases. A law designed to eradicate evils due to one
relationship being without rule, may, by disturbing others,
induce collateral evils which may, on the whole, exceed
those it eradicates. Such relationships may be more bene¬
ficially regulated by the people themselves than by law,
their rules changing with those who enter into them, as in
the case of the commercial relation which the free-trade
agitation in this country lately relieved from legal re¬
straints. As discovery is made of the relations which may
beneficially be freed from state control, the laws will ob¬
viously diminish in number. It is in this view that Dugald
Stewart observes, that it might easily be shown that the
greater part of the political disorders existing among man¬
kind rise from politicians “ having trusted too little to the
operations of those simple institutions which nature and
justice recommend; and, of consequence, that as society
advances to its perfection, the number of laws may be ex¬
pected to diminish instead of increasing, and the science of
legislation to be gradually simplified.”
The number of laws will also diminish as legislation is freed
from empiricism. The empirical procedure makes legisla¬
tion endless ; it demands a measure to meet an evil, and a
measure to meet an evil produced by a measure ; and so on,
till the legislature, restlessly touching society on all sides,
increases beyond calculation the complexity of its pheno¬
mena, and its own difficulty in acting upon them; and till
society, over and above its natural laws, which are few and
simple, finds its action restricted by 20,000 statutes and
100 volumes of common law decisions. “ Society, a living,
growing organism, placed within apparatuses of dead, rigid,
mechanical formulas, cannot fail to be hampered and
pinched” (Herbert Spencer, Over-legislation). It is in
view of the evils of much legislation on empirical prin¬
ciples, that Mr Spencer, in his able essay on the subject of
this section, maintains that the primary state duty is to
protect each individual against others ; that to this it should
be confined ; and that all state action with the view of
protecting individuals against themselves must be preju¬
dicial. “ Badly,” he says, “ as government discharges its
true duties, any other duties committed to it are likely to be
still worse discharged. To guard its subjects against ag¬
gression, either individual or national, is a straightforward
and tolerably simple matter; to regulate, directly or indi¬
rectly, the personal actions of these subjects is an infinitely
complicated matter. It is one thing to secure to each man
the unhindered power to pursue his own good ; it is a widely
different thing to pursue the good for him. To do the
first efficiently, the state has merely to look on while its
citizens act; to forbid unfairness; to adjudicate when
called on ; and to enforce restitution for injuries. To do
the last efficiently, it must become an ubiquitous worker,
must know each man’s need better than he knows it him¬
self ; must, in short, possess superhuman power and intelli-
2 L
Legisla¬
tion.
266 L A
Legisla- gence.” That there is much truth in this view might be
tfon. established on consideration of the official laws which form
''—v'-—' the bulk of the legislative enactments of our own parlia¬
ments. But admitting that empirical politicians do, and
must continue to, commit many mistakes in extending
state action beyond what is ordinarily conceived to be the
sphere of the administration of justice ; and that many social
relationships ought to be exempted from legal rule ; we are
far from assenting to the general proposition maintained by
Mr Spencer, in the sense in which he maintains it, viz.,
that “ till social requirements are fulfilled in a spontaneous
way, they should not be fulfilled at all.” The examination
of the reasoning on which this doctrine is rested is the more
necessary, from its being held to be fundamental by a grow¬
ing school of politicians.
Mr Spencer's argument, which it is impossible to repre¬
sent here in full, is briefly as follows:—Legislators, to act
beneficially on society, should satisfy its wants in the order
of their importance. But “to select out of an immense
number of minor wants, physical, intellectual, and moral,
felt in different degrees by different classes, and by a total
mass, varying in every case, the want that is most pressing,
is a task which no legislature can accomplish.” Therefore
legislators can never beneficially interfere to satisfy the minor
wants of society; and, therefore, till such wants are satis¬
fied by social vitality, they should not be satisfied at all. If
this argument is well founded, legislation should be aban¬
doned in every state advanced in civilization, and in which,
of necessity, all the leading wants of society have already
been satisfied. But it is not to be admitted that the mis¬
chief occasioned by state action arises from its liability to
satisfy less social needs before greater. Mr Spencer has, in
our opinion, in no instance clearly traced the evil of mea¬
sures to their satisfying the needs of society out of their
order; and, besides, his doctrine on this point appears to
rest on grounds far too narrow to support it, viz., “ that to
effect a neglected thing by artificially employing citizens
to do it, is to leave undone some more important thing
which they would have been doing.” The argument here
turns (1.) on the presumed withdrawal from “social vitality”
of the few officials needed to accomplish public objects;
and, (2.) on the assumption that social vitality always satis¬
fies social needs in the order of their importance. The
presumption on the first point surely should be, on his own
principles, and considering the comparatively small num¬
bers of public officials, that “ the more important thing” will
be independently effected by social vitality. On the second
point, we object that, supposing the assumption to be strictly
correct, it extends to minor social needs, and the order of
their satisfaction, through state agencies. The separation
of the phenomena of legislation from the general phenomena
of society is altogether inadmissible. The protest which
Mr Spencer and others have raised against much legislation
may have a healthful influence on the disposition at present
prevailing in this country to trust to state action principally,
or solely, for remedying social evils ; but, judging from the
facts, there can be no doubt of the vigorous existence of that
disposition, and, so far, that the extended state action com¬
plained of is but an instance of social effort administering to
social desire. But, granting the distinction between the cases
of the leading necessities and minor wants of society,by which
Mr Spencer meets this objection, to be good, it is untrue
that the “ minor” desires of society do, in the actual course
of things, get satisfied in the order of their strength and of
the importance of the wants to which they correspond.
The order of actual satisfaction depends, in a secondary de¬
gree, upon the relative strength of desires, and, in a pri¬
mary degree, on the opportunities that occur, or may be cre¬
ated, for their being satisfied. The strongest desire stimu¬
lating to activity to produce its opportunity, is satisfied after
the weakest that grows up on an opportunity presenting itself.
w.
In this view, while the social activities in different directions Legisla-
are proportioned to the strength of the desires which induce ti00*
them, collateral circumstances conspire with them, and make
the order of satisfaction different from what it would be if
dependent solely on the degrees of activity. Though then
it were to be desired in acting on society, that satisfaction
should be given to its needs in the order of their importance,
it would be strictly impossible always to satisfy them in that
order, because of the conspiracy of causes by which the social
harmony is constantly secured. But to conclude from this
that state action following any other order must, on that
account simply, be mischievous, and that such action should
therefore, beyond a narrow conception of the sphere of
justice, be altogether suspended, seems to be a serious
error. On similar premises, a similar conclusion, appli¬
cable to family groups, would, in a large measure, arrest
systematic efforts at education of every kind, and forbid
individuals to mutually assist one another.
So far as the legislator is concerned, justice is the dis¬
position to do whatever the good of society requires to be
done; and that this is more than to stand by and see fair
play between the subjects in their transactions touching pro¬
perty, and their principal personal relations, is evident from
many acts of beneficial legislation that readily suggest
themselves. For example, the ravages committed annually
by small-pox in this country, and the culpable neglect, or
the ignorance, of the laws of self-preservation, which led
large classes of the people to omit vaccination, and conse¬
quently to endanger their own lives, and those of others,
presented a proper conjunction of circumstances for legis¬
lative intervention. The law passed relative to that con¬
junction to save certain sections of the people from the
consequences of their own ignorance or recklessness, ope¬
rated to save others, better informed and more prudent,
from danger. It was a simple case of justice ; for our per¬
sonal security ought to be guaranteed as well against the
consequences of men’s stupidity and folly, as against those
of their passions ; and laws protecting society, by making
the improvidence of individuals penal in certain cases, are
really, though not morally, in the same category with cri¬
minal laws. The same example furnishes proof that it may
be necessary in some cases to satisfy desires out of the
order in which they actually manifest themselves. Multi¬
tudes omitted to have themselves vaccinated, though in
most districts provisions existed for having the operation
freely performed. The desire of life, stronger than all
others when life is in immediate danger, is one of the
weakest in providing for distant contingencies, readily yield¬
ing to the aversion to a small exertion for a remote bene¬
fit ; and the want of laws for the protection of health,
measured by it, is accordingly small in periods of popular
health. But in providing for this want at such a time, the
state satisfies a need which then, indeed, is less than many
others, but which becomes the greatest of all, when disease
invades the people. In fact, it appears to be one of the
leading duties of the legislature to aid the spontaneous ac¬
tion of society in that class of cases in which experience
shows that the people are liable to sacrifice their true to
their immediate interests. Granted that the mode of solu¬
tion of all social problems must be experimental; yet the
lessons of experience become manifest long before itself
becomes painful enough to compel men to reduce them to
practice. And although experience will ultimately lead
the people to adopt, of their own accord, the rules neces¬
sary to be observed under their circumstances, yet surely
it is the duty of the legislator to save them from the pains
of experience, wherever his foresight enables him to do so,
by prescribing these rules to them at once.
“ It is,” says Burke, “ one of the finest problems in legis¬
lation, and what has often engaged my thoughts, whilst I
followed that profession, ‘ what the state ought to take upon
Legisla
tion.
itself to diiect by public wisdom, and what it ou^lit to leave
; with as little interference as possible, to individual discre¬
tion.’ Nothing, certainly, can be laid down on the subject
that will not admit of exceptions, many permanent, some
occasional. But the clearest line of distinction that I could
draw, whilst I had my chalk to draw any line, was this,—that
the state ought to confine itself to what regards the state
or the creatures of the state, namely, the exterior estab¬
lishment of its religion ; its magistracy; its revenue; its
military force by sea and land; the corporations that owe
their existence to its fiat; in a word, to every thing that
is truly and properly public; to the public peace, to the
public safety, to the public order, to the public prosperity.
J n its preventive police, it ought to be sparing of its effects,
and to employ means, rather few, infrequent, and strong
than many and frequent, and, of course (as they multiply
their puny politic race, and dwindle), small and feeble,
statesmen who know themselves will, with the dignity
which belongs to wisdom, proceed only in this, their su-
penor orb and first mover of their duty, steadily, vigilantly,
severely, courageously : whatever remains will, in a man¬
ner, provide for itself. But as they descend from a state
to a province, from a province to a parish, and from a
parish to a private house, they go on accelerated in their
fall. They cannot do the lower duty; and in proportion
as they try it, they will certainly fail in the higher. They
ought to know the different departments of things; what
belongs to laws, and what manners alone can regulate. To
these, great politicians can give a leaning, but they can¬
not give a law. Our legislature has fallen into this fault,
as well as other governments. All have fallen into it more
or less. Even the limits here, vaguely enough defined,
are, or at least some of them, too wide and general. The
fact is, no general limits are here assignable. As already
stated, the duty of the state must be pronounced on from
case to case, on an appreciation of the whole circumstances
of cases, and calculation of the probable effects on society
of state interference with them.
III. Jurisprudence and Legislation.—We must here, for
the sake of completeness, give a brief account of the different
senses in which the terms Legislation and Jurisprudence
have been employed by different writers, and indicate the
division8 of our subject which remain for discussion.
I he words jurisprudence and legislation have been em¬
ployed in many senses. Legislation at one time denoted
the science explaining the principles from which law ought
to be universally derived, and their application to particular
countries; recently it has been employed to represent that
poition of the law of a state directly derived from the su¬
preme authority in its legislative capacity; and in this sense
nnrdn cT11Si Jed Z" France from jurisprudence, or that
p rdon of the law derived from judicial decisions. In the
n^TrfSe.nse’ aSa‘n> legislation, or the science of law as it
& ° e, has been distinguished from jurisprudence, or
law.
267
the knowledge of law as it is (Austin’s Province of Juris- Legisla-
prudence). On the other hand, jurisprudence, or ins tion.
(Whewell’s Elements of Morality), has, both ot old and're-
cently, been employed to signify the doctrine of rights and
obligations, or the science of law; and legislation to signify
the art of applying the principles of the science of law
(Bentham, Fragment on Government). In this latter sense,
jurisprudence, under the qualification of “ natural” or
“ universal,” has had various provinces assigned to it.
Adam Smith (Moral Sentiments, vol. ii.), speaking of the
civil and criminal laws of particular countries, observes, that
the principles upon which those rules either are or ought to
be founded are the subjectof the science of natural jurispru¬
dence. The same functions have been assigned by various
writers to universal jurisprudence, which again has been
limited by others to the investigation of the principles com¬
mon to the laws of all countries. Sir James Mackintosh
uses jurisprudence by itself in the sense assigned above to
universal jurisprudence, and again in a sense in which it is
difficult to say whether he does not mean it to stand for the
who e body of municipal law (Sir James Mackintosh, Study
of the Law of Nature and Nations, Works, vol. i., p. 381).
Carmignani, again, uses the word legislation to signify “ the
science of establishing law,” and thus distinguishes it from
jurisprudence, or “ the science of the application of law ;”
and this is the sense in which Mr James Mill uses the word
jurisprudence when he says that it has nothing to do with
the constitution of rights, or the adapting them to the re¬
quirement of universal benevolence, but that its object is
to show the best means of protecting rights that exist, what¬
ever they are.
Not to dwell on the misuse of the word “science” in
most of the above cited applications of these terms, it has
been shown that, strictly, there can be no science of law
separate from the general science of sociology. Political
ethology converts the theorems of social science into rules
of policy, and legislation is the art of applying these rules
to particular cases; and the general rules and maxims of
policy derived from the science, together with its peculiar
art principles, make up the whole theory of legislation. The
part of this theory derived from the science must differ for
different societies as their states differ; but the principles of
law-making the art rules of legislation—rest on the general
laws of human nature, and are everywhere the same. The
rules of jurisprudence have the same generality, its prin¬
ciples being maxims of reason based on experience of what
is essential to the protection of rights, whatever they are.
Parting here, then, with the theory of law as connected
with social science, and assuming the rights which ought
to be established to be ascertained, two topics remain for
consideration ; the mode of establishing rights, to be con¬
sidered under the head “Law-making;” and the mode of
protecting rights, to be considered under the head “Juris¬
prudence.”
PART III.—LAW-MAKING.
The legis¬
lature.
of t0 1)e consi(iered how the consti
best be inth ^ aff®cts lts operations, and how law
L FromfCaJe?’ Promu!sated, and preserved,
rarely comhinp,!act \hat Pr^cal and speculative taler
y mbined in the same men in the highest dep-rr
ECnlaecttd&i0" f11!?'t0 be ^amted from itftl
sultative to tlm ^ ? U?g t0 the man of affairs, the
sultative to the man of science. Between these hov
there should be perfect sympathy and mutual reliam
secure what Mr Macaulay calls “ the i,, tT c
tical and speculative” wldch should ehir V60^!! 0t
legislature. If t„e
tlus sympathy existed, the legislature would natmaffy d
itself into the following departments:—1, Statistical, taking
cognizance of the state of society ; 2, Propositional, sug¬
gesting ends as desirable under the circumstances of society ;
3, Solutional, applying the principles of science to deter¬
mine how these ends may best be secured; 4, Practical,
employing the art-rules of legislation in embodying in laws
and giving effect to, the recommendations of the solutional
department. Of these departments, the first and third would
fall to be presided over by men of science; and the second
and fourth, by men of affairs. It is needless carrying this
conception of a legislature farther, as there nowhere exists a
sufficient weight of settled belief on social subjects to make
its realization possible. Pending the creation of a scientific
268
Law¬
making.
Opposition
of the con¬
ditions of
civil and
political
liberty.
LAW.
authority on these subjects to repress the tendencies of des¬
potism on the one hand, and popular passions on the other,
there is little chance of legislative action being anywhere very
wisely or consistently prosecuted. Should such an authority
ever arise, it will, in effect, destroy the distinctions of govern¬
ments. Notwithstanding the opinion of Hobbes, that men
would deny the propositions of geometry, if they anywise
affected their interest, it is the fact that conclusions from
these propositions are never questioned, though daily applied
to human affairs. It cannot escape observation either, that
in our own legislature contests no longer occur on questions
on which even the imperfect science of political economy
has unequivocally pronounced. As social questions are
rescued from conjecture and empiricism, the area of politi¬
cal agreement widens. Co-operation is facilitated by the
clearness of common interests, and the manifest conver¬
gence in the distance of opposite immediate interests.
At present, it is only under a despotism that a principled
course of legislation can be pursued ; that is, pnma facie,
the circumstances under which civil liberty could be made
most nearly perfect, leave no security for its preservation.
The conditions of civil and political liberty are, from the
nature of things, in a large measure, opposed to one an¬
other. The one is identified with good laws, in secu¬
rity for which the other consists; and almost every con¬
dition of beneficial legislation is a relaxation of this se¬
curity. This security must consist in such a distribution of
political authority as that it shall preponderate in no person
or class, so as to be exercisable to the prejudice of other
persons and classes. Suppose political authority to be equally
distributed, the people must, in order to having a legislature,
delegate their authority to a few of their number. On this
the security, looking away from the influence of public opin¬
ion, is measured by their power of making their represen¬
tatives attend to their wishes; and this practically by the
frequency of elections. But the more frequent these are,
the more difficult it is to secure qualified legislators, and
continuity in legislative operations. 1 he security, again,
is greater the less the separate constituencies are. But
the less these are, the greater will the legislative assembly
be, and the less its capacity for concert and deliberation.
The choice, then, is between a small legislature and secu¬
rity, and a large legislature, forced by its unwieldiness to
repeat the process of representation, and entrust affairs to
a ministry capable of being influenced only at second-hand
by the people; in which case, likewise, the security is di¬
minished. In the second case, the conditions of good go¬
vernment are repeated! the assembly must lelax its contiol
over ministers. Ministers, again, for the right conduct of
affairs, must divide the departments of the administration
between them, and be each left free, to a considerable ex¬
tent, in the conduct of his department. So far the condi¬
tions of obtaining good laws and government are relaxa¬
tions of the security for them, and make it almost imagi¬
nary. But, even when it is thus relaxed, the form in which it
is taken is unfavourable. Majorities only being represented,
the legislature is only partially representative of the people ;
and, again, majorities of the representatives determine the
course of legislation. So that social evils pressing on the
minority, or even on the whole community, may long go
unredressed, if, in the one case, a majority of the people,
in the other of the representatives, w'ould be inconvenienced
by redressing them. The action of constituencies on repre¬
sentatives, again, tends to convert what should be the deli¬
berative assembly into the scene of conflicts ot immediate
interests rather than reasons; and in harmony with the
character of the legislative assembly are the means resorted
to of influencing its proceedings,—political agitations with¬
out it, and party combinations within it. In the absence of
a sufficient authority on public questions, principles are
loosely held, and readily yielded to the necessity of com¬
bining to carry particular measures. In the balance of the
conservative and movement parties, small knots of men ^ma in^‘/
obtain an influence on legislation wholly disproportioned to “ Y’"™’
their numbers and the interests they represent, and this
opens the way to political immorality. Ministers, overtasked
with the duties of their departments, and having, in the fever
of party struggles, to initiate legal and social reforms, ap¬
proach divisions on grave questions only after exhausting
ingenuity in delays, among the means of obtaining which
is excessive petty legislation; and in the struggles of par¬
ties, interests on which the people cannot easily be excited
 those related to the administration of justice, for instance
 are neglected. Great measures are passed only in an
excited and unwholesome state of the body politic; and
the alternative is between state inaction and state activity
when all the circumstances are unfavourable to reasonable
legislation. While deplorable defects in legislation are thus
traceable to constitutional securities for good laws and go¬
vernment. what is, after all, the chief security for the latter
—the facilities for promptly bringing public opinion to bear
on public men, and the sensitiveness to that opinion which,
in the history of a free country, has been developed in them,
is not a whit more favourable to good legislation; public
opinion being itself generally as divided as opinion within
the legislature. But it political liberty be thus unlavouiable
to civil liberty, it keeps alive the spirit of independence and
the energies of the people, and makes them prosperous in
defiance of bad laws. It has been truly observed, that the
sense of security and independence is as essential to the
advancement of society as to the comfort of individuals;
and, without seeking unduly to disparage the laws of Eng¬
land, she may be instanced as an example of a nation niain-
tained in her rank by the feeling of freedom, in spite of
grievous defects in her institutions and laws, incidental to
the modes in which her people have had, historically, to
struggle for, and maintain their liberties. And, in fact, it
is a question, for the satisfactory settlement ot which theie
are no sufficient data, whether, in the present state of our
knowledge, the whole phenomena of a nation could be moi e
beneficially determined under the wisest and most benevo¬
lent despotism than amid the struggles of opposite interests
under a popular government.
It would be out of place here to do more than glance at
the subject of government, with which the inquiry into the
constitution of the legislature is allied. The reader must
refer to the article on that subject. But, in conclusion, of
the brief, and necessarily unsatisfactory remarks here pie-
sented, it is necessary to repeat, that the main distinctions
of governments will disappear should science ever lescue
social questions from the waste of opinion. Such a govern¬
ment as our own will then show to the greatest advantage.
The importance of the separation of legislative, judicial, and
executive functions, characteristic of a balanced government,
will then most clearly appear; the inclination to despotism as
favourable to good legislation will be removed in the presence
of a scientific authority; and with the means of obtaining
good laws, wre shall have ready provided the best means of
administering them. In the transition state, a balanced
government, as compared with a despotism, is w hat a raft is
to a ship. The one, trim and rapid in its movements, sails
up to the sunken rock on which it strikes; while the other,
unsteady and oscillating in all its parts, but safe in the in¬
herent coherency and buoyancy of its materials, passes on
always with perfect security, though in constant and im¬
mediate contact with the source of danger.
II. The evils arising from judge-legislation have been Judge-
frequently, ably, and eloquently exhibited during the last a 1
half century; but it is fitting that the question respecting
it should be here discussed, because it bids fair to continue
for some time to be one of public interest. For the same
L A W.
269
Law¬
making.
The com¬
mon or um
written
law.
Objections
to judge-
legislation.
reason it is here considered in its relation to the state of the
law in our own country.
The common law is embodied in a great number of
written and printed records—the reports of decisions of
courts of justice pronounced from time to time over cen-
l* turies. But though its rules are enacted for cases as they
occur, the fiction is that they have existed from of old, and
are not enacted but declared. According to this fiction,
common law consists of a published and unpublished part
—the latter latent and unknown till declared ; while the
former, though declared, can scarcely be said to be known,
for it is liable to be made to give place to newly-discovered
portions ot the old law. The judges who declare its rules
do not know them relative to new cases till they have de¬
cided them. \\ hen such cases occur they have to make
inquiry what the law is. In this inquiry they are guided by
the analogies of the new cases to old ones. The pleadings
before them are, as Paley observes, “a competition of op¬
posite analogies,” the best of which are entitled to prevail.
When the analogies are few and faint, they decide the case
according to their notions of the requirements of “ reason
and justice” respecting it; and having once pronounced a
decision, they are bound to adhere to it, unless it be “ flatly
absurd and unjust ’ (Blackstone’s Commentary, vol. i., p. 70),
of which themselves are the sole judges. So that at any
time they may moke new rules, and unmake old ones, pro¬
vided they can bring themselves to consider them absurd
and unjust.
The objections to this species of legislation have been
brought by Sir Samuel Romilly under six heads. 1.
Judge-made law is necessarily an ex post facto rule. “ It
governs all past as well as all future transactions. Property,
which has been purchased or transmitted by descent to the
present possessor of it, is discovered by the newly declared
law to belong to others; actions which were thought to be
innocent turn out to be criminal, and there is no security
for men’s possessions, their persons, or their liberties” {Edin¬
burgh Review, xxix. 228). 2. In making laws the judges
are compelled to proceed almost wholly on technical rea¬
sons. “ I hey are forbidden to entertain any of the consi¬
derations which ought most to influence the judgments of
those who are avowedly employed in making laws. What
will most tend to promote the general good, or what is best
adapted to the present habits and modes of thinking of
mankind, the judicial legislator is bound to disregard. °He
is to consider not what would be the best law on anv given
subject that could be made ; but what law was most likely
to have been made upon it at the remote period when the
common law is supposed to have had its origin. All his
researches tend to discover, not how the evil which has
occurred may best be remedied, but in what manner it is
probable that, in a very different state of society, the matter
would have been ordered.” Hence the anomaly of the two
main branches of law growing on opposite principles ; the
one, by analogies, drawing nourishment from the judicial
debris of centuries ; the other expanding on the principles of
expei iency. 3. Judge-made law is an uncertain rule. 4.
, u .§e'made law wants generality of application. The iudge-
egis atoi is forbidden to give a comprehensive rule. He
must lestrict the law to the particular case before him, and
take the narrowest view of that case. He thus loses every
ppoi unity that presents itself of giving a rule to include
many possible cases as well as that before him ; and while
erminating a itigation, does little towards defining the law
fn! rn-H”- utuie contests—as analogous cases will be
found to differ in some respects from one another, and from
• i, eci ^ ‘ , he opinions which he may offer on such cases
] U? \atl.n” ls ^ecls>ons are treated by his successors as
mnv KUdlCI? ’ rand °f 00 authority- 5. Judge-legislators
y e’ an. .° are> unqualified to legislate on particular
cases, on which, however, it falls to them to legislate. The
Law¬
making.
branches oflegal study are various, and the studies of most
lawyers are special. When lawyers mount the bench they
are esteemed qualified on all branches of law alike, and to
legislate on all subjects whatever which chance may bring
before them. 6. Judge-made law is made by men over
whom the people have no control. “ Our legislators here,”
says Sir Samuel Romilly, “ have been, not the representa¬
tives of our choice, but often the servile instruments of our
monarchs.”
This species of legislation, however, has its advocates—Arguments
especially among the judges. Successive governments have m favour
for more than twenty years held it settled that the unwrit-ofjudp'
ten criminal law at least should be reduced to statute; butmade aw'
the reform has yet to be accomplished. When the Lord
Chancellor Cranworth, in 1853, submitted specimen criminal-
law bills digesting the whole law relating to the definition
and punishment of offences to the judges for their opinions,
they, with one exception (Chief Justice Jervis), deprecated
the attempt to reduce the unwritten law to statute.
“ The rules of the common law,” said Mr Baron Parke,
are clear and well understood, and they have the incal¬
culable advantage of being capable of application to new
combinations ot circumstances perpetually occurring, which
are decided, when they arise, by inference and analogy to
them, and upon the principles on which they rest.” “ To
reduce the statute law into a narrow compass,” said Mr
Justice Talfourd, “is an object entirely free from objection,
and which, if accomplished with care, can produce nothing
but good; but to reduce unwritten law to statute is to dis¬
card one of the greatest blessings we have for ages enjoyed
in rules capable of flexible application.” “ It seems to me,”
said Mr Baron Alderson, “to be a very unwise thing to
abolish the common law principles of decision, which can
accommodate themselves to the varying circumstances of
the time; and thus, as it were, to stereotype them, by act
of parliament, in verbal definitions, many of them inaccu¬
rate.” Lord Mansfield is reported to have entertained a
similar opinion of its merits ; holding that “the common law,
which works itself pure by rules drawn from the fountains
of justice,” is superior to an act of parliament {Atkyn’s
Reports, vol. i., 32, 33).
From their statements on the subject, we gather that the Objections
arguments in favour of this species of law are :—1, That it to the re-
is prepared for all cases ; 2 (which is the first argument in duction of
a different form), That its rules are capable of flexible appli- unwritten
cation. While the objections to its reduction to statute are, to sta
—1, That its principles are so interwoven with the circum¬
stances of cases that they cannot be taken up from their
contexts and separately enunciated ; 2, That supposing the
unwritten law converted into statute, the uncertainties of
the interpretation, to say nothing of the errors of its defini¬
tions, would exceed those of the law as it stands; and, 3, It is
maintained by some, that the same degree of logical coherence
as the common law possesses cannot be given to written law.
I he value of the arguments in favour of unwritten law will
best appear in an examination of the objections to reducing it
to statute, to which we pass on with the remark that at the
worst, supposing written law cannot be made to meet all cases,
the discretion which the judges now have would have to be
left with them so far as concerns distinctly new cases.
The first objection is inconsistent with the assertion ofFjrst ol)-
the judges, that they find the common law rules clear, andtion. JeC
easily applicable to all sorts of cases. It cannot be clear
what the rules are, and yet be impossible to say what they
are. In applying them the judge necessarily lifts their
principles out of their old connection, and plants them in
new circumstances; and, in explaining them, in applying
them, he can neither come nearer to them, nor apply them
more correctly than he has language in which accurately
to express them. In other words, the errors in the judges’
application of the principles have for their measure, so far,
L A W.
270
Law- the errors in their definitions of the principles. The ques-
making. tiienn js not whether the rules and principles can be
defined with perfect accuracy, so as to be transferred in
their integrity into statute ; but is between the errors of
the definitions in a written law,—the definitions being made
by the men best qualified for the work, the body of judges
themselves, for instance,—and the errors of the definitions of
the same rules committed by the same men, individually,
in applying them. There can be but one answer to this
question ; that definitions made, we may say, on the mo¬
ment, are likely to be more erroneous than those made on
consultation and deliberation ; and that the errors commis-
sible by judges, in applying common law rules, are, so far,
likely to be greater than they might be if the rules were de¬
liberately defined in statute. The alleged facility of judg¬
ment is incompatible with the impossibility of defining the
law, unless, by the flexibility of its rules, it be understood that
they readily take whatever shape the judges choose to give
them. And, in fact, we are forced to understand it in this
sense. It is not that the judges easily apply the rules of
law,—that, according to themselves, cannot be done,—but
rules, it may be, wrong in principle, but having the “ incal¬
culable advantage ” of being easily applied. Their posi¬
tion is, that they do not administer law at all, but a species
of equity.
The flexibility of the common law rules is one of the
principal objections to them ; so long as it exists, decisions
must be capricious, and the law uncertain. Whoever has
often heard the common law declared must be aware of the
unsatisfactoriness of the reasons occasionally assigned for it;
the words “ reason and justice” filling up arguments based
on shadowy distinctions, and on a few, selected from many,
of the analogies presented by cases, on no principle, or one
vaguely expressed. What Beccaria has said of the discre¬
tion of judges to decide according to “ the spirit of the
law,” applies to their making the law itself. “ The spirit of
the law,” he says {Essay on Crimes and Punishments, p. 22),
“ will be the result of the good or bad logic of the judge ;
and this will depend on his good or bad digestion, on the
violence of his passions, . . . and on all those little cir¬
cumstances which change the appearance of things in the
fluctuating mind of man.” Selden’s condemnation of equity
is also directly applicable. “ For law,” he says, “ we have
a measure, and we know what we trust to. Equity is accord¬
ing to the conscience of him who is chancellor; and as that
is larger or narrower so is equity. ’Tis all one as if they
should make the standard of measure of the chancellor’s
foot” {Table Talk). “ Certainty,” says Lord Bacon, “ is
so essential to law, that a law without it cannot be just; . . .
and it is a true maxim, that the best law leaves least to the
breast of the judge.”
If, then, the definitions of written law may be made more
closely to approximate to the full and accurate expression
of common law rules and principles than the definition of
the same rules and principles made by the judges in apply¬
ing them from case to case; and if, by defining them, we
in a degree destroy their present uncertainty, there can be
no doubt so far as to the desirableness of transmuting the
common into written law. Even were it not clear that the
definitions may be improved, the certainty gained by fixing
them would almost of itself atone for their imperfections,
especially as these must soon appear and be amended.
Second ob- As to the second objection, it is incredible that the
jection. analogies of cases do not offer wider scope for misjudgment
and uncertainty than the meanings of statutory words. It
is argued, indeed, as if the liability to error from the am¬
biguities of language lay wholly with judgments proceeding
on statute. But the probable errors are less in inter¬
preting statute law than common, because the ambiguities
multiply with the words to be interpreted, and because the
definitions of statute law are short compared with the ac¬
counts of circumstances, and the comments of legists and Law-
judges, through which alone the common law rules can be making,
known. No doubt, in reducing the law to writing, a dis-
cretion of interpretation must be given to the judge instead
of that taken from him ; but then its exercise will at once
consume it, so that the new discretion will both be less dan¬
gerous and shorter lived than the old. And this is all that
it concerns us to know. That the definitions of the written
law can never be made perfect, or the discretion of the
judge be wholly removed, is nothing to the purpose; it is
sufficient that its imperfections, and the errors commissible
in its application, maybe made less than those of the com¬
mon law as now administered. Those who glory in the ca¬
pacity of the common law of “ working itself pure” should
not grudge to endow written law with a degree of the same
capacity.
The coherency which can be given to written law, it is Third ob-
argued, is less than the unwritten law possesses. The ques-jection.
tion is, whether it is likely that a system branching from well-
defined general principles into particular applications of
them can be made to observe a greater logical coherence
than is presented by a system that, beginning in rude and in¬
definite principles, has spread by the aid of analogies and
technical reasons, under the superintendence of a great many
minds of every shade of intellectual capacity and conscien¬
tiousness. The question contains its own answer. It has
been well put by Mr Empson (art. Legislation, 7th edit.
Encyclopaedia Britannica), who makes, for the sake of argu¬
ment, a concession to the common law not due to it—
that its original principles were general and sound. “ Of
the two presumptions,” he asks, “which is more probable,—
that the qualities of systematic coherence and dialectic de-
ducibleness will be the natural accompaniments of a
system which branches from sound general principles into
particular didactic regulations; or that they will be the arti¬
ficial consequences of a fictitious system built on an inter¬
minable series of specialties called precedents, especially
when it is considered that the very element of case law in¬
volves so many points of variation that, on any occasion, no¬
body can be sure that he is not exercising his logic upon a
different set of precedents, or upon those specialties in the
self same precedent which, after all, the judge may con¬
sider as not properly applicable to the case ? There are
embodied, in almost every precedent, opposite analogies,
with sundry hanging threads attached to them, any one of
which a judge, who is a little capricious, may lay hold of at
his pleasure.”
III. The discretion left to the judges is only one source Unmanage-
of the uncertainty of the common law ; if they were per- able mass
mitted to give comprehensive rules for general cases, its un- of the laWi
certainty would probably be less than it is. The rapidity
with which case law accumulates may be judged from an
inspection of the annual volumes of reported decisions.
According to Blackstone, the common law was long ago so
great that it could only be perfectly known by a twenty
years’ study. No sensible man, even in the legal profes¬
sion, now attempts to acquire a perfect knowledge of it;
judges themselves are contented to know it at second-hand
from unauthorized comments on conflicting decisions; and
even the commentators occasionally disagree as to its rules.
Nor is the mass of the statute law less. Every session
of parliament adds to it often as many as a hundred sta¬
tutes ; which rarely cancel statutes previously in force on
the same subjects, so as to be amended and uniform substi¬
tutes for them; but are commonly designed to amend
acts that previously amended others; or to confirm and
strengthen former statutes in like cases while adding or
altering some particulars as to their operation. New sta¬
tute rules thus rarely stand clear and intelligible apart
from the mass of the law, but are welded into and lost in
it; “ whence sometimes follows that torture of Menutius
L A
Iiaw. whereby the living laws are killed in the embraces of the
making, dead ones.” Even the projectors of the Criminal Law Bills,
7 already referred to as designed to consolidate and digest
the whole law relating to the definition and punishment of
offences, thought fit to propose only partially to repeal
thirty-one acts relating to offences of the thirty-three set
forth in the schedules to the bills ; and of those which they
proposed partially to repeal, many they designed to repeal
onlyin partsof sections. Of the 7 th and 8th George IV. chap.
29, for instance, they would repeal only certain sections,
and of these eighteen only partially. On this system of
law-making, the more active our legislators are, the more
confused the law becomes. “ There are at this moment”
(1842), says Mr Burton, “upwards of 130 statutes, more
or less in force, in regard to the stamp laws;” and since he
wrote legislation on stamps has been active. It is thus
that the statute law is brought into as great uncertainty as
the common law. The number of statutes is now ten
times greater than when Bacon complained, “ So great is
the accumulation of the statutes, so often do they cross each
other, and so intricate are they, that the certainty of the
law is lost in the heap.” When we look at the accumula¬
tion since his day, the story will be credited of a four days’
debate by learned advocates before a Master of the Rolls
(Sir William Grant) on the interpretation of a statute,
which was afterwards discovered to have been repealed !
As will (in view of the uncertainty of the common law) the
truth of the report of a saying of Lord Eldon (Earl of Rad¬
nor v. Shaftes, 11 Vesey, p. 453), “ Having had doubts upon
this will for twenty years, there can be no use in taking
more time to consider it!” Of a piece with which is the
exhibition of the ignorance of the law recently made by the
legislature itself. Long debates took place in the sessions
of 1854-55 and 1855-56, on a bill to amend the existing
law (Mr Lowe’s Partnership Amendment Bill) before cer¬
tain persons of high “legal authority,” after “much con¬
sideration,” concluded that, “ by the analogy of cases, the
rule to be introduced by the bill was already in the law!”
The Specialty Character of the Law is at the root of
this confusion. We have too many laws for particular
cases, to amend clauses of special laws, and to amend laws
that amended others. This is partly owing to the specialty
character of our institutions, the laziness or want of system
of legislators, and the peculiar constitution of the legislature;
but principally to empiricism. The tit-bit procedure neces¬
sitated by empiricism, by augmenting the labour of legisla¬
tion, prevents the law attaining the perfection which, even
on empirical principles, it might have. Empiricism en¬
courages attempts to cope with casual circumstances by
small measures to meet evils incidental to others, and which,
if left alone, would cure themselves, or which can be cured
only by striking at the greater evils. The special, again,
work up against the general laws, are soon found not to work
well, and are tinkered to shape them to the latest views.
The state of the law is, in short, the natural consequence
of the system of rules which Mr Macaulay represents the
legislature to have followed from the age of John to Vic¬
toria. “ To think nothing of symmetry and much of con¬
venience ; never to remove an anomaly because it is an
anomaly; never to innovate except where some grievance
is felt; never to innovate except so far as to get rid of the
grievance; never to lay down any proposition of wider ex¬
tent than the particular case for which it is necessary to
provide. It is satisfactory to be able to record that, of late
years, the disposition to depart from these rules has been
acquiring strength, under the pressure of the accumulation
of small inconveniences occasioned by so long following
them.
Law-drafting.—The bulk of the law is farther increased
by the redundancy of its language. The evils of bad law¬
drafting have been ably exhibited by Mr Symonds, in his
W. 271
Mechanics of Law-making, where he shows that the mass Law-
of the law is greatly owing to—1, The precise over-specifi- maklng-
cation of non-essentials in acts of parliament; 2, The con-
stant repetition of the same words, their doubles and equi¬
vocations ; 3, The constant reiteration of all the qualities,
incidents, and relations of a thing, as often as its name is
repeated ; 4, The confused structure of clauses ; 5, The
unscientific method of drawing acts. We must add, that
the bulk of the statutes is farther swollen by redundancies
of substance. Provisions for carrying laws into operation,
for instance, instead of forming a separate law of procedure
applicable to whole classes of statutes, are frequently brought
into the statutes individually. No idea can be formed of
the extent to which our 18,000 statutes might be reduced
by the simple operation of stripping them of these redun¬
dancies. As it is, the absence of facilities of reference to the
statutes—the last defect of law-drafting to be noticed—
aggravates the evils due to their number and bulk.
Law-literature.—Justice could scarcely be adminis¬
tered in the existing state of the law, if the accounts of it
by unauthorized commentators were not allowed weight in
courts of justice. But, on the natural law of supply and
demand, private enterprise has partially made up for state
inefficiency. Any work reducing the law on a class of
subjects to a reasonable compass is readily grasped at.
The commentators, referred to at first from convenience,
come at last to be authorities in courts of law ; and institu¬
tional or law-literature seriously undermines the authority
both of the legislature and judge-legislators. Nor is an
extensive acquaintance with the commentators necessary
to assure one that the uncertainties of the law are fully re¬
flected in their works; often they merely conjecture what
the law is—balancing the authorities of names, and adjusting
conflicting analogies. The uncertainties, indeed, are often
slight, but sometimes they are absolute ; and even slight
uncertainties are fruitful sources of litigation. And then the
superfluity of law-literature threatens to induce a similar state
of matters to that in which its own authority originated. The
books multiply so fast on the various branches of the law, that
they will soon be as unmanageable as the law itself.
Civil Equity is in the case of the common law; and
the efforts to procure its reduction to written law have
been met by the same objections. In England it has long
lost its original arbitrariness; that element dropping out
with every exercise of judicial discretion. The arbitrari¬
ness left is a discretion in distinctly new cases ; for the
rest, the application of the principles of old decisions to
analogous cases. In connection with civil equity must be
noticed the jumble of jurisdictions as an additional source
of uncertainty. To take a case lately before the public,
three courts, proceeding on different principles, have juris¬
diction in cases of intestate succession, and have no com¬
mon court of appeal. To the uncertainties in the same court
are hereby added those due to the concurrent jurisdictions
of judges administering different principles. It is not, then,
to be wondered at, looking to the state of the law, and to
our system of judicial procedure—“ a technical system in¬
vented for the creation of costs”—if we frequently submit
to injustice from one another rather than risk the greater
evil which it is in the power of the law to inflict on us
if we set it in motion to do us justice.
IV. By codification is understood an authoritative con-Codifica-
solidation of the whole law, in its leading divisions, giving tion.
it coherency and unity of principle, and making it the
clear expression of comprehensive and consistent rules.
That this reform is necessary, has been maintained by
many of the best writers on the laws of England, by none
more ably than by Bentham. The question of a code is
one of fact, to be discussed in the view of the state of the
law and the practicability of the reform. A barbarous
age presents neither the materials for a code, nor the
272
L A W.
Law- generalizing spirit necessary for its construction ; nor, such
making. js t]ie llarm0ny of things, the necessity for its being con-
structed. But when the laws of a country present such
rich materials as ours do, and in such confusion, nothing
short of the radical reform implied in codification will suf¬
fice for them. We have passed the point attained in every
country that advances far in civilization, when, in the growth
of law, its exuberance impedes its natural functions, and it
becomes imperatively necessary to prune it in all directions.
The principal objections to codification have been con¬
sidered and rebutted by anticipation in the discussion re¬
garding the desirableness and practicability of transmuting
unwritten law into statute. If the law can be, and ought
to be written, no one will assert that it ought to be written
after the manner of our statute law, or deny that our statute
law stands in need of systematization and consolidation. In
fact, no one admitting the positions which we conceive our¬
selves to have established under the head “ Judge-made
law” can question the desirableness of a code, however he
may doubt its practicability.
Its practi- rf he practicability of codifying the law might be proved
cabihty. ky a dipgct argument on its conditions, to the effect, that
no insuperable, or even very great difficulty, lies in the way
of its being done ; and the argument might be confined to
the civil and penal codes with which the principal difficul¬
ties, such as they are, are confessedly connected. The dif¬
ficulty of the civil code is that of defining and classifying
rights ; and of defining the facts which give them com¬
mencement, and put an end to them. Now rights, and
the facts which begin and end them, are already in a way
defined by the law. To the extent that this is well done,
therefore, the difficulty is commensurate with that of know¬
ing the existing law, and it is not for the opponents of
codification to maintain that this is insuperable. The first
operation in the process of codification is to bring the
definitions of rights together in lists, according to the
nature of the subjects to which they relate; the next is
to arrange those of the same kind according to duration and
extent. The difficulty of the former operation is diminished
by the fact, that on the lists being partially formed, the
rights set down suggest those to be added ; and the diffi¬
culty of classification is diminished by the principles of law
coming out, in the process, with great clearness, and throw¬
ing light on the arrangement to be adopted. When the
lists are obtained, and their arrangement effected, what re¬
mains is to specify the facts that shall give rise to rights and
end them. This has also been done by the law from case to
case, so that the difficulty of it is commensurate with that
of knowing the law; and when these facts are defined the
code is complete. In none of these operations does there
appear to be anything insuperable, or even very difficult to
be done, although, no doubt, considerable perspicuity and
logic would be necessary for the proper classification of
rights. The penal code presents still fewer difficulties,
being less extensive than the civil. What must be done
is to define and classify crimes, to fix the penalties to be
incurred by committing them, and to set forth the rules of
law as to the incapacity to commit offences, &c. Crimes and
their penalties, &c., being already defined by the law, the
difficulty is again the same as that of knowing the law.
But the practicability of codification is above depending
on an abstract argument on its conditions. Whatever the
difficulties of it may be, they have been triumphantly sur¬
mounted, as in the Code and Pandects of Justinian, the
Code Napoleon, and the Code of Louisiana, which were
successfully made to embrace the leading rules and prin¬
ciples of the systems of laws which they were respectively
framed to supplant. And while the Code of Louisiana,
which has been in operation for nearly half a century, may
be directly appealed to in proof of the practicability of codi¬
fying the common law, the Code Napoleon was far more
Law¬
making.
difficult of construction than an English code would be,
because of the greater heterogeneity of the provincial usages
which it had to reduce to system. If farther proof be
wanted, we appeal to the commentaries from which our
lawyers and judges know the law. What, in fact, are the
commentaries, but successful partial attempts at codifica¬
tion ? And will it be maintained that what private indivi¬
duals do so well cannot be done more efficiently by the
state ? That codification is difficult, and cannot be per¬
fectly executed, is nothing to the purpose. It is enough if
it be possible to frame a code more perfect than any of the
commentaries, and having authority. The Criminal Law
Bills of 1853 may be instanced as proving the practicability
of this, as they go far towards being a complete penal code,
and are, in point of style and order, almost all that can be
desired. The practicability of framing a penal code has,
indeed, been conceded by many who hold the negative on
the general question, but with what show of reason will
appear from considering that the penal code, though not
conterminous with the civil, presupposes the definitions of
the major part of it, and of many of the rules of constitu¬
tional and official law as well.
The degree of perfection which may be given to the code
will, of course, depend principally on the care, fidelity, and
capacity, of the men selected to frame it. The steps in the
operation of forming it would appear to be,—1, The classi¬
fication of the statutes and of the unenacted law; 2, The
consolidation of the statutes and digestion of the unenacted
law; 3, The digestion and assimilation into one body of the
consolidated statutes and digested common law. The prin¬
ciple of classification being previously adopted, the workers
on the statutes and on the unwritten law might continue their
labours separately over the first and second steps; in the
second also, the labour might be lightened by division, the
consolidation of each class of statute and common law rules
being entrusted to single persons ; the workers coming to¬
gether again in the third stage of the process. In the last
state of reduction, the best way would appear to be, clearly
and briefly to set forth the general rules of law, and to follow
them by specifications of the particular cases to which they
apply. Great care would be required in all the stages not
to allow any rule of law or principle of a decision to drop
out; and then to have all disputed or doubtful points cleared
up by enactment, and to have, by the same means, the con¬
tradictions and inconsistencies of the law rooted out. When
the scaffolding by which the law has been erected has been
cleared off and buried out of sight, and when it has been
stripped of its redundancies of language and substance by
the first and second operations ; the third will be found to be
far simpler than can now be conceived. It is not to be con¬
cealed, in view of the degree of organic unity which codi¬
fication aims at giving the law, that the proposal to codify
it is not a proposal to consolidate it merely, but to reform it
as well. Whatever machinery were employed to consolidate
it, would find no small part of the difficulty of its task to
arise from its being restrained from reforming it; and in
any attempt to classify the laws, their inconsistencies could
not fail to appear. It is comparatively easy to obtain struc¬
tural unity in the composition of harmonious materials, but
it is impossible to obtain it in the composition of materials
irreconcileable and discordant.
We cannot enter farther into the consideration of the ^£e^cy ^or
machinery best adapted for codifying the law, than to
mark, following high authority, that the separate divisions difficulties
of the code could more readily and successfully be reduced 0f getting
to unity and order by single minds, than by several work- the code
ing together. Supposing men of the requisite capacity to made and
be obtainable, they should be entrusted each with the de- enacte<b
partment of the law of which he has most knowledge ; one
or more to follow in their tracks, rectify their mistakes, and
fulfil their designs. Those engaged in the business would
Codifica¬
tion im¬
plies a re¬
form of the
L A W.
273
Law¬
making.
The sub¬
codes.
find again, that the tracks of the commentators who pre¬
ceded them required only to be straightened here and
levelled there to be perfect avenues to the law ; so that the
pains taken by private persons, in past times, to reduce it,
might all be made tell towards its final reduction into the
code.
Commissioners for the consolidation of the English law
have now been at work for over twenty years, and the Crimi¬
nal Law Bills ot 1853 are, so far as w'e are aware, the only
published practical results of their labours. We under¬
stand, however, that they have consolidated all the statutes
relating to indictable offences,—with the exception of those
connected with laws relating to bankruptcy, customs, and
religion, into six bills ; and included in two (having finally
abandoned the bills of 1853) the law relating to principal
and accessory, and criminal procedure. For the rest they ex¬
pect to be able to reduce our thousands of statutes into three
hundred acts or thereabout, by rejecting from the statutes
obsolete acts and acts of a special nature, and consolidating
the rest. If they do even this, they will confer on the nation
an inestimable blessing. But it must be admitted, that if the
practicability of the code were to be measured by the small¬
ness of the pretensions of the commissioners, after so many
years’ consideration of the work entrusted to them, and by
the fruits of their labours over so long a time, the case
would indeed be desperate. But whatever may be the qua¬
lifications of those employed on the commissions, it cannot
be said that they have received much encouragement. The
public scarcely believes in the sincerity of their undertak¬
ing; which is itself too narrow to meet with the full appro¬
bation of zealous legal reformers. The position is one of
great difficulty ; but it is clear that the difficulty is increased
by the disposition of successive ministers to compromise
the question of a code for a partial reform, and to postpone
the realization even of that. Either our ministers want the
largeness of view and the decision of the masters of men
who have given codes to the world, or their tenure of office
is too uncertain to permit of their energetically acting out
their views, and they are naturally lukewarm in the prose¬
cution of tasks the merit of completing which may accrue
to others. Whatever be the explanation to be given of the
fact, the instance can scarcely be said to have yet occurred
of a popular government conferring the blessing of a code on
its subjects. Supposing the task finished, the legislature is
wholly unfit to judge of its merits, and must accept or re¬
ject it on the authority of individuals. In England, high
authority on legal subjects is scarcely to be found in men
not enjoying political importance ; and the political lawyers
are called on too laboriously to attend to their own "and
party interests to exhibit those qualities of head and heart
which w’ould dispose the legislature and the people to trust
them, even if they could be induced to undertake so great
a labour as would be necessary for successful codification.
1 he only hope of the successful accomplishment of the re¬
form lies in the creation of a strong public feeling in its
favour by the repeated exhibition of the evils of the law.1
I he code must consist of five sub-codes,— 1, The con-
stitutional code ; 2, The official code ; 3, The civil code ;
. ’ * ke penal code; 5, The code of procedure. The sub¬
jects of the civil and penal codes, and the difficulty of con-
structmg them, have received special consideration.
ie advantages of forming the laws of procedure into a
separate code are apparent. For the rest, municipal or local' Law-
police laws depend on the powers of magistrates of burghs making,
defined in the constitutional code; while general police
acts are a standing portion of the official code. The pro¬
position to codify the official laws is not made without hesi¬
tation ; but it is here the law is most special, cumbrous,
and deficient in system, and that legislation is most labori¬
ous. The extent to which system and generality might be
given to these laws has been pointed out by Mr Symonds,
to whose work on the Mechanics of Law-Making the reader
should refer on this subject. The laws relating to the reve¬
nue, which should in strictness form part of this code, produce
social changes so suddenly, through the constant endeavour
of the public to relieve itself of its burdens, and must there¬
fore be changed so frequently, that it would be useless to
attempt codifying them. The modes of raising the taxes
also change with the taxes, so that neither the laws which
determine the taxes, nor those which regulate the revenue
machinery, can be other than ephemeral. There appears
to be no reason, however, why the other laws of the public
service should not be made general, permanent, and public.
It would be in favour of administrative reform if they were.
They are at present utterly incognoscible—the powers and
responsibilities of departments and commissions lying con¬
cealed under their entire history. The necessity of codify¬
ing the constitutional laws need not be insisted on. Only
one in a thousand has, at present, more than a faint general
idea of the system of government under which he lives. If
the improvement of that system is desirable in any respect,
it would follow on its real character being known.
That the code may be made perfect in its principles and Provisions
appliances once and for ever is an idle fancy ; the law can with which
never remain in the rear of the civilization which it guards.the code
Grown up with and out of experience, it must constantly mus.t be,
change with it. All that can be aimed at is to round and e(lulPPed'
compress the law relative to the experience of the past,
and to start it afresh with provisions for its accommodating
itself to the requirements of new times, without losing its
accessibility and certainty. The question is with what pro¬
visions to equip it. Two sets of ends must be provided
for; the first, for accomplishment at short intervals, are
three in number: 1, The collection of materials for the
growth of the code; 2, Their preparation for being incor¬
porated in it; and, 3, Their incorporation into it; the
second, for accomplishment at longer intervals, are two in
number: 1, The revision of the code, and rectification
of defects discovered in its principles; 2, The excision
from it of rules found to be unnecessary or pernicious
owing to social changes. Courts of justice must continue to
be the principal garners of materials for the growth of the
civil and penal codes. The imperfections of legal princi¬
ples and definitions are most likely to be discovered in
these courts, in which also cases not provided for arise for
decision. It has been suggested that the judges should be
bound to report on cases of hardship to which, through
over-generality or particularity, the law appears inapplicable,
their reports to be laid, at short intervals, before the legisla¬
ture as materials for law reform ; and that they should decide
distinctly new cases as they best can, their decisions of them
to be final, and their reports on them to be materials for
general laws to include them. By these means the materials
for the growth and reform of the law, so far as suppliable by
sisrpnp6 g07^ment. is novv sald to at last earnestly bent on the reduction of the whole statute public law of England to the cen¬
tal- th^ alf. t lmensi01ls of a practical code. The chief commissioner thus describes the procedure which he means to adopt: “To
evlrv enactment* Jh- if-66 Magna Charta t° the last act of Victoria ; to expunge and reject from the statute-book every act and
force alt f 1C •18 elther repealed, expired, or obsolete, and then to take what remains (which will consist of all that is law in
single <Subiecta°-np1nHUeti!n ffCe)> to di?est and to arrange this body of law> by dividing it into classes, and sub-dividing each class into
ieet’’’—a itter of «;• t0 the whole lnto single bills> each biU being on a single subject- but comprising the whole of that sub-
to 4 which will cnnltu1?™^ Ke ly t0 L°rd Brougham)- The result of consolidation will be, that 40 vols. of statutes will be : educed
inauirer n.av finH Statutes at largH> and contain the whole of the acts in actual force, arranged and digested, so that an
inquirer may find at once all the statute-law upon any particular subject. b
L' XII1‘ 2 M
274
LAW.
Jurispru- courts of justice, would be regularly obtained by the legis-
dence. ]ature It has also been suggested that there should be a
iciiuic. x ’ • ■ i—” Cases
commission for receiving complaints against the law.
of hardship constantly occur that never enter courts of jus¬
tice • and defects in the law are daily suggested to advocates
in private practice, by cases neither in court nor in hand,
which they forget in the hurry of business, but which
might be made available for law reform if there was a com¬
mission to which they might be notified. 1 he preparation of
the materials thus collected for the code should be the work
of sub-departments of the legislature, which, over and
above its other duties, should be able to keep the laws
parallel with judicial legislation. As to the third requisite,
it has been suggested that there should be a standing com¬
mission to publish the acts of the legislature, and classify
and adapt them for introduction into the divisions of the
code, which it should be their duty also to re-edite at certain
intervals, probably of from three to five years, according to the
scheme of Lord Bacon. The code would thus never be long
in the rear of the current legislation ; and the law, logically
arranged and authenticated by the state, would be always
accessible and certain. It is unnecessary to do more than
mention here the necessity of accommodating the language Jurispru-
of the code to that of the people. It is important that it ^ ence. ^
should be plainly written in the tone of the time. But as v-"-
the growth of language is slow, the necessity of altering
the code on this account would be felt only at long intervals.
When the code is equipped with the provisions above sug¬
gested, judicial decisions will be of value, as containing its
interpretation and the history of its application, and exem¬
plifications of its failure and success. They will, in conse¬
quence, continue to be studied by lawyers, and become of
importance to legislators. The reform which we have been
contemplating, when effected, will no doubt be accompa¬
nied with provisions for authenticating reports of decisions,
and keeping under their number, by restricting them to
crucial and "leading cases, and throwing overboard the re¬
ports of repetitions of decisions which now swell the records.
The mass of the decisions thereby becoming manageable,
they would reward careful study. The auxiliary law-lite¬
rature founded on their analysis would thenceforth be
rather critical than expository,—aiming at the impiovement,
instead of the illustration of law ; undermining its authority
no longer, save by examining and testing its principles.
PART IV.—JURISPRUDENCE.
Jurisprudence, or the doctrine of the application of law,
accents law as it is, and considers how its operation may be
made most effectual. While this is its peculiar province,
it is strictly not a separate doctrine, but falls under the ge¬
neral theory of legislation. Rules of law, and the manner
of prescribing and enforcing them, cannot well be altogether
Procedure,” the consideration of the provisions to be made
for the settlement of such disputes and the prosecution of
offenders ; and under the title “ The Doctrine of Punish¬
ments,” that of the leading questions connected with the
prevention of offences and the punishment of offendeis.
I. The nature of the judicature, and the procedure be- Judicial
of prescribing and mforcmg ™m> , 6 of foreit, must depe„d on the nature of the cases which give Procedure.
SKateJl i""S± fioTric Itn of the various questions rise to legal contests, and the operations necessary for heir
The defini
tion of
rights as a
means of
protecting
them.
Divisions
of jurispru
deuce.
chiefly for the convenient discussion of the various questions
concerning law. . . T
To protect rights is the same thing as to apply law. Law
commands certain actions to be done, and permits or tor-
bids others. All its rules and institutions, whether relating
to persons or things, are, directly or indirectly, limitations
or definitions of powers of action, assigned by it to, and
vested in, particular persons, over the persons of others or
things. And since these powers of action are rights, it fol¬
lows that to protect rights is to apply law.
As every power given to one over others or over things
limits the powers of others over themselves or over things,
law, in conferring rights which, as enjoyments, are ^objects
of desire, necessarily creates obligations propiirtionally bur¬
densome, and therefore objects of aversion. Rights, there¬
fore are exposed to be contested and violated, and need
to be protected, both to secure their possession to those
to whom the law has assigned them, or in whom it has
vested them, and to prevent their violation. The object
of inquiry is the best means of affording them this double
1 In the first place, rights must be clearly defined. Their
definitions, by setting forth the extent of the powers which
they imply, and the facts which vest them in particular per¬
sons and terminate their possession of them, will pievent
disputes as to their ownership, while warning men off from
interfering with their exercise. It is only when it is certain
what rights are, and who owns them, that public opinion an
the other sanctions of law can operate steadily in their de¬
fence. For similar reasons, offences, or violations of rights,
must also be clearly defined. Their definitions will at once
warn men off from committing them, and steadily direct the
unfavourable sentiments of men against those who commit
them.
It is farther necessary, for the protection of rights, to pro¬
vide (1), for the settlement of disputes, as to their extent
and possession, and (2), for guarding them from violation,
and for the prosecution and punishment of those who violate
them. It is designed to take up, under the title “ Judicial
rise to legal contests, and the operations necessary for their
settlement. Causes of litigation may be complicated m vari¬
ous ways. Civil causes may involve several questions of
rio-ht, each of which may require separate settlement, 01 two
oi^more of which may rest on the same grounds, and may be
settled conjointly ; and they may include several persons as
litigants for their joint or individual interests. But the most
complex cause of this sort is resolvable into simple causes,
in which single rights and pairs of litigants are concerned.
Criminal causes also may be complicated so as to involve
several persons as accusers and defenders, and several
charges, and are similarly resolvable into simple causes with
single charges and pairs of litigants ; so that all causes are
representable by the two cases of A and B disputing about
a right, and of A complaining that B has violated a right.
What has to be done in either case, the law being clear and
settled, is to solve a question of fact. In the former ca^e,
In whose favour, A’s or B’s, is the fact on which the legal
title to the disputed right depends ?—in the latter, Did B
commit the act charged upon him by A ? Tins question
of fact is the issue of the case between A and B, and in a
criminal cause, appears at once from the complaint ; but
in a civil, it is to be derived from the whole circumstances
founded on. The first operation to be performed, then, is
that necessary for bringing the case to an issue in pointot fact.
The issue being obtained, the next operation is to lead and
weigh evidence to settle the question of fact. I he tact be-
ino- ascertained, it remains to declare its legal consequences.
This is the decision of the case to be followed by u an ant
to the executive to enforce its terms. If the fact favours
A, the decision is that the disputed right is Ins ; if B com¬
mitted the act charged on him, the decision is that he shall
suffer the consequences attached to it by law. Here the
distinction between the two cases may be dropped, as the
latter plainly does not require a different procedure from the
former. It is a simple case of the former, in which the ope¬
ration to get at the issue is unnecessary. We may now
consider the case of A and B disputing about a right, assured
that all necessary to he done in the most complex cause will
L A W.
275
Prepara¬
tion for
proof.
ial
dure,
Jurispru- appear from the consideration of the procedure necessary in
dence. that case.
The three operations to be performed, then, are,—ls£. To
bring the dispute between A and B to an issue in fact, in
which A shall affirm and B deny that something happened
or was done in a particular way. 2d. To lead proof as to
the fact. 3<f. 1 o pronounce judgment and issue warrant for
execution. As the conditions of successfully performing
the second operation have been discussed elsewhere in this
work (see art. Evidence) ; and as there is nothing to be
said about the third, the business in hand is wholly with the
procedure for evolving issues, the constitution of the judi¬
cature for the several operations, and the provisions to be
made for the fidelity and fitness of’judges.
A and B dispute about a right to which each believes
himself entitled because of certain actual or supposed facts
which he conceives to have so happened as to have made it
his. Now, the facts which invest rights in particular per¬
sons, and divest them of them, being defined by law, what
in the first place is necessary is, that they come together
before a person who knows the law, and can tell them the
legal qualities of the facts on which they rely. Suppose
the suit to be at the instance of A, he must, to commence,
state before this person the fact on which he relies. B may
then deny it or its investitive quality, or allege a subsequent
fact vesting the right in himself^ or an antecedent fact pre¬
venting that alleged by A operating to vest it in him. If
B admits A’s allegation, but denies the investitive quality
of the fact, the judge has merely to declare whether it has
that quality or not. If he admits its quality, but denies that
it happened as alleged, the issue is at once reached whether
the fact happened as alleged ? If, admitting the “fact and
its quality, B alleges a subsequent or antecedent fact, vest¬
ing the right in himself, or preventing it vesting in A, the
same course is open to A with respect to B’s allegation, that
was open to B in respect of A’s first allegation. He may
deny it; admit it and deny its quality ; or allege an ante¬
cedent or subsequent fact, as in the former case. At every
stage there thus arises a question of law or fact, or both ; and
after a few steps at farthest, if the parties are made to face
each other, the issue or final question of fact is naturally
evolved, and the case prepared for proof.
dhe allegations of A and B, in turn meeting one another,
soon exhaust the whole circumstances founded on. The
issue will be the more speedily and correctly evolved, the
fewer fictitious circumstances introduced to complicate the
case. It is desirable, then, that neither party make any
allegation that is not true ; and that the facts alleged should
have the qualities ascribed to them. To secure the first,
litigants should be subjected to certain penalties if con¬
victed of making allegations that they knew to be false;
e‘9-> they should be made to bear the expenses of the suit,
so far as due to its being complicated by these allega¬
tions, and farther, a pecuniary fine, to be fixed according
to the circumstances. It has also been proposed that they
s lould be made to swear that their allegations are true
to t ie best of their belief, and thus to make them under
t le penalties of witnesses. There appears to be no good
i eason why this should not be done ; and there certainly
is good reason why something should be done to obvi¬
ate t le evils of litigation as at present everywhere con-
uctei, owing to the moral turpitude of suitors, who are
unfortunately kept in countenance by the traditional mo-
ia ity o t le bar. 1 o secure the second desideratum, it is
su cient that the allegations be made before a judge ac¬
quainted with the legal qualities of facts, and who can at
once pionounce whether they have those ascribed to them.
so, t ie convenience of the judicature, and the interests
o justice require, that at this stage, in all but the simplest
cases, advocates acquainted with the law, and accustomed
to eal with complex facts, should be interposed between
The bar.
suitors and the judicature; that the facts of cases may be Jurispru-
set forth in continuous chains, and not in ravelled wisps; dence.
and that cases be simplified before entering court, by being
stripped of all matters plainly irrelevant. The presence of
advocates is, farther, a security for the judge’s attention to
matters which, if set forth by suitors themselves, might be
underestimated or overlooked.
If the judge knows the law, and has the requisite power
of attention, he is more likely to manage this part of the
business with fidelity and efficiency, singly, than with co¬
adjutors sharing the responsibility of the task with him.
It appears that a single judge is the only agency required Constitu-
for the preparation of the case for proof. On the opera- *10r! of the
tion of leading proof, the reader may consult the articlesJudicature'
on Evidence, and Trial by Jury. There appears to be
little room for doubting that a single person of probity and
ability, accustomed to taking and weighing evidence, is
more likely to settle the question of fact satisfactorily than
several persons, selected almost at random, as a jury, and
unaccustomed to these operations. The question is between
the value of the vague impression from the evidence re¬
ceived by these men, and that of the logical inference from
it of an acute mind alive to all the little circumstances which
affect the credibility of witnesses, and accustomed to com¬
pare evidence of different sorts, and sift contradictory evi¬
dence. As in the first operation, too, the responsibility of
the task is greatest when resting on a single person. Since
there is nothing in the third operation requiring more than
one person for its performance, it appears that a single judge
is the only agency required for all the three stages of judi¬
cial procedure.
It is unnecessary to enter particularly here into the pro¬
visions requisite to secure the fidelity of judges. Most of
them must be inferred from the general provisions against
offences to be hereafter discussed. Those at the head of
the government must be guided by public opinion, in a
large measure, in making appointments to the judicial seat.
For the rest, the publicity of the judge’s proceedings, and,
particularly, the fact of their taking place before an audience
of lawyers interested in his honestly discharging the judicial
function, are among the best securities for his attention and
rectitude. To this we add, the right of appealing against
his judgment to a superior tribunal, as a great security against
his negligence and unfairness. This right should be given
to suitors in all cases in inferior tribunals. No reason can
be assigned why it should be given in one case and not in
another. The only consequence of giving it in all would be
a necessity for a greater number of courts of appeal; but
as there is no good reason why the judge on appeal should
not be single, the number of superior judges required would
probably not be greater than at present, on the system of
divided responsibility. The appeal, also, might be simpli¬
fied by the judgment in the superior courts proceeding on
an authentic record of the proceedings in the inferior.
II. It must now be inquired how undisputed rights may The doc-
best be guarded from violation, and how persons convicted trinf of
of violating them should be dealt with. Though all wilful
violations of rights come under the generic name of wrongs,
only certain of those made penal are called crimes; yet it
will be convenient to speak here indifferently of all acts to
be prevented as crimes.
In inquiring how crimes are to be prevented, attention The causes
must, first of all, be given to their causes. The cause 0f of crimes,
every crime is the desire of some actual or imaginary good.
A man is led to steal by the desire of property, and to in¬
jure another’s person by resentment. Generally, the desires
which cause crimes are the same that lead to other and ne¬
cessary forms of human activity. And as they are essential
to man’s existence, the question is, What obstacles must be
devised to prevent their leading to criminal acts, while leav¬
ing them free within legitimate limits ?
276
Jurispru¬
dence.
How they
are to be
counter¬
acted.
L A W.
The prin¬
ciple on
which acts
are to he
selected for
punish¬
ment.
Natural
obstacles to
crimes.
They lead to crimes unless they are counteracted by
stronger motives, or the criminal acts are prevented by the
interposition of physical force. It is clear that crimes can¬
not be prevented in more than a few cases by physical force.
They must be prevented, then, by supplying motives to
counteract the desires which lead to them; and, considering
what these are, the counteracting motives must be desires
for greater advantages than those obtainable by the criminal
acts, or aversions to evils certain or likely to follow upon
their commission. To supply motives of the former class
would be to reward men for not committing crimes, and is
wholly out of the question. It remains that the motives to
crimes are to be counteracted by applying evil consequences
to their commission.
But it is expedient that no evil be produced that does
not, directly or indirectly, produce a greater good. This is
the principle on which injurious acts are to be selected for
prohibition in the penal code; and in applying it, regard
must be had to all the consequences of making acts penal
through which the influence of the penalties is diffused
through society. The immediate consequences of making
failure to pay a debt penal might be beneficial, but its con¬
sequences in the long run on trade and commerce would
certainly be mischievous. One deduction from this prin¬
ciple is, that the protection of rights should be left to the
fear of the direct evil consequences of violating them, when¬
ever it is ordinarily sufficient to prevent their violation.
Another obvious deduction is, that penalties should be an¬
nexed to no acts, the commission of which they are unsuited
to prevent.
The direct evil consequences of injurious acts are the
natural protections of the corresponding rights; they are
obstacles to crime, existing in the nature of society and of
man, which it is the duty of the legislature to uphold and
strengthen. They either depend on the moral sensibilities
of men, or on the immediate practical results of provoking
their unfavourable sentiments. Over the area of the com¬
mon experience that the largest measure of durable good
is attainable only in the way of justice, the desires of indi¬
viduals for happiness concurrently constitute an instinct in
society of self-preservation from all who practice injustice,
which not only secures that they shall be punished with
odium in proportion to their sensibilities and the public
estimate of their deserts, but that, when hardened to shame,
they shall be ruined and cast out of society. The task
of the legislator, so far, must be, to enlighten men’s moral
judgments, and stimulate and tutor their unfavourable sen¬
timents by promulgating just views of criminality. But,
further, he must take care that the unequal development of
society shall nowhere efface or prevent the effects of those im¬
pressions of mutual hatred and esteem on which the moral
tone of the community depends. Accordingly, wherever
peculiarities of experience have generated false sentiments,
that shelter one class of society from the indignation of the
rest, it becomes the duty of the legislator to educate and
reform that class, and to check the causes of vagabond and
criminal habits which perpetuate the families of the morally
obtuse. So far as religion constitutes a more awful
morality, with more terrible, if less immediately obtrusive
penalties, it is the duty of the legislator to foster a universal
regard for its sanctions, and to cherish the general diffusion of
its principles.
It will never be possible, however, so to train or elevate
all that they shall feel the force of these natural obstacles,
which also must often fail by defeating themselves. The
aspiring classes, in all ranks, are particularly exposed to an
unfavourable action of public opinion, being tempted, on
their fortunes changing, to continue their upward progress
by the secret avenues of fraud, lest they should appear ridi¬
culous in suddenly descending from positions honestly at¬
tained. Also, so long as criminals can evade the natural
consequences of their crimes by shifting their localities, Jurispru-
there must be other means of preventing crimes. Without dence.
indorsing the opinion that men are to be held in awe by
the terror of physical pain alone, it will always be necessary
to employ motives from the physical source to counter¬
balance the effects of the dissocial passions.
The evils incurred by transgressing the natural obstacles Difference
are due to the incongruity of crimes to the constitution ofbetween
society. By increasing them ever so much no evil uncom- ™*!iral
pensated for by a greater good can be produced; because
they can only be increased by transfusing society with the stacks,
sentiments essential to its well-being and stability—in¬
creasing the vigour of its system, so as more speedily to re¬
ject whatever is noxious to it; and because,as the evils in¬
crease, the occasions become less frequent of their being
inflicted, from the diminution of the criminally disposed
and greater efficacy of the obstacles. The evils incurred
by transgressing the artificial obstacles, on the other hand,
are created by the legislator, and are pure evils, unless they
are successfully employed to prevent greater. His design,
then, must be to prevent crimes by threatening to inflict
these evils. When his threats do not prevent crimes, and
the evils have to be actually inflicted, his design has failed.
They are then to be inflicted to maintain the future efficacy
of his threats.
According to this design, the first condition of the em- Tlie two
ployment of punishments is, that they must be fixed and de- jg1^10"3
dared by lawr, so as to be standing menaces against the
criminally disposed. The second condition depends on its pUnjsh_
being more desirable to prevent the more than the less mis- ments must
chievous crimes, and is, that the penalties declared by the be em-
law must be graduated to the scale of crimes, the former P10) 6'1-
ascending in severity as the latter ascend in mischievous¬
ness. For, if the same penalty were threatened against
crimes of different degrees of mischievousness, there would
be nothing to deter a man from committing the more mis¬
chievous as often as it promised to be the more profitable.
Besides the principle of proportioning penalties to the Principle
mischievousness of crimes, none other is practically appli-
cable; it is the single principle on which the relative se- penalt?eg
verity of the punishments in different cases must depend. [<, crimes.
This will appear from a brief view of the only other prin¬
ciples that have ever pretended to determine penalties. It
is out of the question proportioning punishment to the
moral guilt or to he criminal intention of offenders ; for, as
the former is held to diminish as temptation increases, pen¬
alties on that principle should be least wdien, for the pur¬
pose of prevention, they should be greatest; and because it
is impossible to measure the latter so as to proportion pun¬
ishment to it. Nor can the principle be that of propor¬
tioning punishments to the motives which lead to crimes ;
because (1), there can be no measure of motives ; and (2),
even if motives could be measured, they would be no mea¬
sures of the punishments sufficient to counteract them by
producing fear. Motives to crimes rise from the concur¬
rence of desirableness in objects obtainable by them with cir¬
cumstances which diminish the difficulties and risks of com¬
mitting them, and depend on the views taken by criminals
of the whole circumstances under which they are committed.
It is impossible to estimate either of these factors in motives
as seen from the stand-point of criminals, far less the motives,
as determined by their concurrence. This, even when the
object has a market-value ; but when it is the gratification of
a sense, or passion, the estimate is wholly impossible. And
even if we could appreciate motives, yet, since punishments
cannot be made to follow immediately on crimes, and the
causes by which they lose deterring force are beyond our
cognizance, our measures of motives would be no guides in
annexing penalties. The fear of punishment felt by a crimi¬
nal, supposing him to deliberate, depends largely on his
imagination and a calculation of chances based on his pre-
/
L A W.
277
Jurispru
dence.
Compari-
Kon of
crimes in
point of
inischiev-
The doc¬
trine of
satisfac¬
tion.
■ vious experience and immediate means of concealment. An
error in reasoning, or in the calculation of a probability, may
' take all the terror from the law. Also, in the majority of
cases, the motives to crimes are wholly vague—as when a
man breaks open a till or into a house. In fact, to apply
this principle, the law, instead of aiming at generality,
would have to address itself to each individual criminal, and
punish him on an appreciation of the whole circumstances
under which his crime was committed. But this would be
to break through the first condition of the employment of
punishments, and, leaving penalties to be determined by
judges, leave to their discretion what laws, ifanv, should
be enforced. It remains that penalties be proportioned to
the mischievousness of offences.
It would be difficult to compare crimes in point of mis¬
chievousness were not incomparably their worst evil the feel¬
ing of insecurity which they produce ; but by attending to
this single effect of crimes exclusively, an approximate mea¬
sure of their comparative mischievousness may be obtained.
It would again be difficult to make direct appreciations of
the extent of diffusion and degree of intensity of this feel¬
ing in different cases ; but their measures may be indirectly
obtained by comparing—1, The importance of the rights
violated in different cases ; 2, The difficulties of individuals
guarding themselves from similar acts ; and, 3, The spheres
of operation of the desires leading to crimes of different
sorts. In this way treason, putting the lives and property
of all in danger, takes its place at the top of the scale;
while petty thefts, causing little more than annoyance to the
persons whose property is stolen, and exciting, when fre¬
quent, only the feeling of the necessity of greater care in
storing things, take their place at the bottom. Between
these all crimes whatever may readily be arranged. To
compare theft, robbery, and burglary, for instance:—
Thefts make property insecure, but raise no sense of per¬
sonal danger ; robberies, when frequent, add personal inse¬
curity in going abroad to insecurity of property; to which bur¬
glaries, when frequent, add insecurity in staying at home.
Again, supposing the motive, i.e., so far as concerns the de¬
sirableness of the objects of the acts, in the three cases to be
the same:—Theft waits opportunity ; robbery makes oppor¬
tunities ; and burglary makes opportunities in defiance of all
the ordinary protections of person and property. Murder
for money, again, is more mischievous than when com¬
mitted in the heat of passion. Passion is accidental be¬
tween the criminal and his victim ; but all desire money,
and all who have it feel exposed to be murdered for it.
While the mischievousness of crimes may be compared in
this way, it is impossible to estimate precisely their differences
in degrees of mischievousness. Beyond saying that in one
case punishment should be greater than in another, theory
can give the legislator no practical guidance; so that a
large amount of arbitrariness must be admitted into this
branch of law.
So far we have seen how penalties are to be proportioned
to crimes, but not how their sufficiency for the purpose of
prevention is to be secured. Perhaps the nearest approach
t tat could be made to securing their sufficiency would be
to make part of the punishment, in every case in which it is
practicable, consist in the criminal repairing the injury oc¬
casioned by his criminal act. When the injury is done to
propei ty or reputation, it may, in most cases, be repaired ;
and even when it is done to the person, a substitute for re¬
paration may in many cases be exacted. Stretched to its
ull extent, the doctrine of satisfaction would require that the
criminal should not only be made to compensate the person
injured by his act, but to defray by his labour, or from his
estate, the expenses of convicting and punishing him.
But the extent to which the principle should be applied
must be determined by expediency in the circumstances of
cases.
It remains to set forth the penalties available from the Jurispru-
physical source, and the qualities which lots of punishment dence.
should have for the purposes of prevention. A man may
be punished through his person directly—(1), by being sub- Penalty
jected to bodily pain, or (2), to hard labour ; and (3), by be- from the
ing deprived of his liberty; and, indirectly (4), by being P11)’8'091
deprived of his property. The punishments which he may source-
be made to suffer in these ways may be made to vary—(1),
between scourging and death ; (2), between a brief term of
hard labour and perpetual slavery ; (3), between imprison¬
ment for a brief term and for his natural life; (4), between
a small fine and his whole fortune. Also, these punish¬
ments may be made up in an indefinite number of lots, by
combining different degrees of the various sorts, so as to be
of every degree of formidableness.
It appears, then, that these penalties possess the two Primary
qualities most essential to punishment, viz., formidableness qualities
and measureableness, so that they may be formed in lots of Punish*
increasing in severity with the classes of crimes which they Inent8,
are designed to prevent. The other qualities which a lot
of punishment should have for the purpose of prevention
are obvious. 1. It should be suggestive of the crime to
which it is attached, that the idea of it may be closely asso¬
ciated with that of the crime. 2. It should be calculated to
operate with the same intensity on all persons. 3. It should
be disabling, i.e., such as to prevent the criminal doing fur¬
ther injury to society.
Secondary to these qualities are others which a lot of Their
punishment should have in the view of benevolence, and secondary
which bear only indirectly on the prevention of crime. 1. qualities.
It ought to be humane, i.e., occasion as little as possible
useless suffering. 2. Corrective, tending to the moral im¬
provement of the criminal. 3. Remediable, in case it should
be discovered to have been undeserved. It must not be
attempted, however, to give it these qualities at the ex¬
pense of its formidableness, which benevolence indeed re¬
quires it to have, that the fear of it may prevent the neces¬
sity of inflicting it. Its sufficiency to prevent crime is
what must chiefly be attended to. This, however, de¬
pends not wholly on its severity, but on the degree of ex¬
pectation that it will be inflicted. The more severe the
penalty is, this expectation being the same, the greater will
be its deterring force; but, the penalty being the same,
the less this expectation, the less effectual will the penalty
be. Also, if its infliction is certain to be long delayed, it
loses force, through the operation of psychological laws too
well known to require explication here. So that the cer¬
tainty of punishments being speedily inflicted is, it may be,
of as great importance as their severity in determining their
sufficiency. They may, accordingly, be made less severe
in proportion as they are made proximate and certain.
Here must be noticed the fact, that a limit is set in the
nature of things to the advantages, in a jurisprudential view,
derivable from severe punishments, as their severity tends
to diminish their certainty, through men’s reluctance to
cause others to suffer great pains. The more severe
punishments are the more likely they are to be effective ;
but then, the more severe, the less likely they are to be
inflicted ; and the point is reached where what is gained by
increase of severity is lost by increase of impunity. It is
all the less necessary, too, that punishments should be
severe, that one of their chief functions is to direct public
disapprobation against offenders. It is due to their discharge
of this function, that in countries remarkable for lenient penal
laws, crime is as effectively prevented as in others where
they are very severe.
It is probable that, when all has been done to secure the Means of
certainty and proximity of punishments, they may writh increasin'-
safety be made exceedingly lenient. Among the means their cer-
that may be employed to secure these are—1, The estab- taint7 Hnd
lishment of a vigilant police, to secure the speedy detec-proxim‘ty
L A W.
278
Jurispru- tion of criminals; 2, Of a system of public prosecutors,
dence. and of courts in which criminals may be tried without
^ delay, to secure their speedy conviction ; 3, Restriction
of the Judge’s discretion by defining the circumstances
which may justify him in lightening punishments, among
which should not be the plea of a “ first offence,” for
which a first conviction is too often mistaken ; 4, Restric¬
tion of the pleas on which punishments may be evaded,—
when the plea is insanity, confinement in a public asylum
should follow; 5, The full infliction in all cases of the
penalties incurred by criminals. Let the law have rules
for singular cases ; but let its awards be in all cases definite,
and certain to be inflicted. Such a practice as that recently
adopted in this country of commuting punishments, and of
giving criminals the chance of winning off* parts of the
penalties incurred by them, is contrary to the first prin¬
ciples of jurisprudence; and the only apology that can be
made for it is that it originated in a desire to remedy the
evils of a penal system far too severe.
Next to being made formidable by the concurrence of se¬
verity and certainty, it is important that punishments should
be made equable. The more equable they can be made,
plainly over the wider area will their deterring force be ex¬
erted. It is extremely difficult, however, owing to the
varieties of complexion and condition presented by men in
society, to give penalties any great degree of this quality.
The same pecuniary fine may deprive a poor man of his
whole fortune, and be no more to a rich one than he daily
spends in pleasure. Imprisonment may be fatal to the
prospects of a man in a middle station, while to the peasant,
who, on the approach of winter, considers whether to retire
to the union or &e jail, so far from being a punishment, it
is a favour. Hard labour is severe on men unaccustomed
to it, but the ordinary fare of multitudes; and even trans¬
portation, a grievous calamity to some, is welcomed by
others. It has been proposed that, to secure a high degree
of this quality, a discretion should be given to judges to
apportion punishments to the nature and condition of offen¬
ders. But, besides that it would be difficult for judges
correctly to appreciate these, it would be contrary to the
first condition of employing punishments to leave such a
discretion with them.
Connected with the difficulty of making punishments
equable is that of making them equally severe for the same
crimes, even when, nominally, they are the same. It is simply
impossible to attain equal severity in the same punishments
inflicted in different places on different persons. Their se¬
verity in the last resort depends partly on governors of jails,
but principally on turnkeys,—on coarse people and coarse
machinery. The machines made to equalize punishments
have failed; nor, had they succeeded on their part, would they
have brought us near the equality which benevolence desi¬
derates, and which could only be reached by punishing
men proportionally to their sensitiveness and strength.
The treadmill, Sir George Grey’s crank, and other machines,
are found to vary, as far as to require, in some cases, three
times the labour per day necessary in others. When the
crank is adjusted to require a few pounds force, it depends
on the turnkey’s care in oiling it whether it may not require
several hundred. The differences also between criminals in
point of skill and strength make it impossible to equalize
punishments by prescribing the same amount of work to be
done by different persons. All that can be effected is a
rough approach to equality. The inequalities remaining
must be borne as accidents of the system which the legis¬
lator is constrained to employ ; they are in many cases com¬
pensated by its other accidents, and, at any rate, are as
nothing to the whole consequences of crimes to convicts.
1 he most grievous part of punishment is, in many cases, its
effect on the convict’s relation to society, to which is partly
due what truth there is in the saying, “ Once a criminal,
always a criminal.” The question, whether anything should Jurispru-
be done by the legislator to save convicts from the social dence.
consequences of crimes, is a difficult one. The answer to
it must depend on that to another, What would the
effect of doing so be as regards the prevention of crimes ?
I he reaction of society upon criminals leads them to war
against it, and back to the dock; so that while the fear of it
tends to prevent crime, itself tends to occasion it. This
reaction cannot, however, be prevented; nor would it be
desirable to prevent it, seeing that it acts to deter almost all
from crime, and to propel to it only the few who have of¬
fended. Criminals cannot, then, be thrown back on so¬
ciety, and, at the same time, saved from the social conse¬
quences of their crimes. They can only be saved from
them by being retained under the care of the state. But
to save them in this way would be to let them drop out
of society, and to extinguish all the minor differences of
penalties, which would have no proportion to this single
result of crimes. It would be as if there was the same
penalty for all crimes which provoked this reaction, and no
means of preventing men from committing the more mis¬
chievous as often as it promised to be the more profitable.
And this argument will hold good till provisions are made
for the gradual ascent into society of those who incur its
decided enmity. As yet it is impossible to say whether
such provisions can ever be made, or to pronounce on the
propriety of attempting to make them. We desiderate a
scientific analysis of full criminal statistics ; and till that has
been procured, these, and other questions concerning the
treatment of convicts, must remain unsolved. At present
the case of a criminal at war with society is as melancholy
as it is helpless. Whatever private individuals may do to
improve it, it seems contrary to principle that the legislator
should interfere in such work. His business, on the con¬
trary, must be to sharpen, by every means in his power,
and guide the social instinct to which the position is due.
And by such means, so far as yet appears, he will, in the long
run, do most for the prevention of crimes.
The importance of correct information regarding the Criminal
operation of penal laws is universally recognised ; criminal statistics,
statistics, when properly collected and interpreted, disclose
the causes of crime, its progress, and the defects of the
agencies for repressing it. But on none of these points can
even an approximate conclusion be drawn from criminal
statistics as at present collected ; their prima facie evidence
must be received with large reservation. And, for two
reasons, the statistics of crime in Scotland should be selected
as the basis of an explanation of the nature of these reser¬
vations ; first, because of the smallness of its areaandpopu-
lation, and next, because its agencies for the prosecution
of offenders are more definite than those of England.
The only point that can here be touched upon respects the
evidence of our criminal statistics as to the progress of crime.
The statistics of crime in Scotland bearing on this point
are confined to the numbers of commitments for trial and
of convictions; and arguments on its progress proceed on
comparisons of the commitments in different years. It would
appear, at first sight, that the main body of crime in each year
might safely be averaged to its number of commitments.
But unless we know that the causes which affect commit¬
ments remain invariable over the years to be compared, we
can have no security that this average may not be wholly
erroneous. The importance of attending to the causes
which affect the administration of justice is indicated by
the striking variations in the differences between commit¬
ments and convictions in different years. Thus, out of
4027 commitments in 1852, were obtained only 3018 con¬
victions, leaving 1009 crimes unaccounted for ; while, out
of 3019 in 1853, were obtained 2849 convictions, leaving
only 260. And equally striking variations are presented in
the differences between commitments and convictions in
L A W.
Jurispru- other years. To explain these variations, we should be
dence. able to point out the causes which make the zeal of the
v-,police and of procurators-fiscal for the prosecution of offen¬
ders, to exceed their care in preparing cases, and vice versa.
Looking to the years 1852 and 1853, for example, it may
have been that the fall of 1008 commitments for trial, and
the disproportioned diminution of the difference between
commitments and convictions, w'ere due to the experience,
in the former year, of the inutility of sending to trial cases
in which convictions were not certain to be obtained. So
far from crime being less in 1853 than in 1852, in the pro¬
portion of 4027 to 3019, it may have continued the same
over the two years; and the convictions in the latter differ
from those in the former by 169 only. But the strongest
reason against arguing without reservation on the progress
of crime from commitments for trial, lies in the returns
made by the crown agent of undetected “ housebreakings
and other depredations on property,” in 1854-55, which
demonstrate that the main body of crime has hitherto always
lain concealed. When corrected, by adding to them pro¬
portional numbers for the places from which no returns
were made, they show that, in that year, the whole number
of serious offences against property was, at least, more than
eight times the convictions for such offences, and that the un¬
detected crimes alone were more than quadruple the commit¬
ments. How these proportions may vary from year to year,
is beyond our cognizance ; but it is proved that the main
body of crime is so great in proportion to the commitments,
that the latter may be varied indefinitely from year to year
by causes which affect them, without any corresponding
variations necessarily taking place in the main body of
crime. The limits of variation of commitments are so wide
short of exhausting crime, that no inference can reasonably
be drawn from them as to its progress. This will farther
appear, if attention is given to the commitments for trial
during the last twenty years, and to the variations in the prin¬
cipal causes affecting them that have occurred in that interval,
viz., in the police force and constabulary, and the system of
procurators-fiscal. Commitments took a start in 1841, the
average for the years 1841-45 being 347 above that for the
years 1836-40. They again took a start in 1846, the average
279
for the years 1845-50 being 792 above the average for Jurispru-
1840-45; and, since 1850, the average has been lovvering. dence.
Now, it is noticeable that 1840 is the date of the act em-
powering the establishment of the county constabulary,
which attained its highest degree of efficiency about 1846;
and that the zeal of a large batch of procurators-fiscal for
the prosecution of offenders was cooled in 1850 by their
being put upon fixed salaries. Who will undertake to say
how far these circumstances have had to do with the appa¬
rent advance and retrogression of crime ? And till we
can say how changes in the prosecuting agencies affect the
commitments, they are valueless as indications of its pro¬
gress. In fact, criminal statistics, as at present collected,
give us, in commitments for trial, convictions, and prison
statistics, measures not of crime but of the pressure upon
it, of the state machinery for repressing it; and in order to
get from them approximate measures of the variations in
crime itself, we should be able to modify them by adding
to or substracting from them such numbers as may repre”
sent the effects of such variations as take place in that ma¬
chinery. And in attempting to interpret them when thus
modified, to ascertain from them whether crime is advanc¬
ing or retrograding, the manner in which crime and the
state machinery act and react on one another should not be
lost sight of. A downward tendency in the commitments,
so far as due to the impaired efficiency of that machinery,
must be attended by an upward tendency in crime through
the increase of impunity, and vice versa. So that the true
conclusion as to the progress of crime may be the opposite
of that which even the corrected statistics are, on a first
view, calculated to suggest. And this holds, notwithstand¬
ing that an upward tendency in crime must be accompanied
by a tendency towards improvement in the state machinery
for repressing it through the increase of the feeling of
insecurity. For the impression of impunity affects crime
more rapidly than the sense of insecurity affects the agencies
for repressing it. The former, as it were, affects criminals
individually and at once; but the latter, notwithstanding the
sensitiveness of modern society, must acquire a considerable
degree of intensity, and be felt for a considerable time be¬
fore it can effect changes in the state machinery.
LAW OF NATIONS.
I.—Ideas involved in the term Law.— These ideas how mo¬
dified in the term Law of Nations.— The only sanction
applicable to the Law of Nations is the popular sanction.
— What dependence may be placed upon the popular
sanction.
In the meaning of the word Law, three principal ideas
are involved; that of a command, that of a sanction, and
that of the authority from which the command proceeds.
Every law imports that something is to be done, or to be
left undone.
But a command is impotent, unless there is the powei
of enforcing it. Ihe power of enforcing a command is tht
power of inflicting penalties if the command is not obeyed
And the applicability of the penalties constitutes the sanc¬
tion.
. lhere is more difficulty in conveying an exact concep¬
tion of the authority which is necessary to give existence
to a law. It is evident that it is not every command, en-
. iced by penalties, to which we should extend such a
title. A Jaw is not confined to a single act; it embraces a
class of acts: it is not confined to the acts of one man ; it
embraces those of a community of men. And the autho¬
rity from which it emanates must be an authority which
that community are in the habit of obeying. An autho¬
rity to which only a temporary obedience is paid, does not
come up to the notion of that authority which is requisite
to give existence to laws ; for thus the commands of a
hostile army, committing plunder, would be laws.
The conditions which we have thus described may all
be visibly traced in the laws which governments lay down
for the communities to which they belong. There we ob¬
serve the command, there the punishment prescribed for its
violation, and there the commanding authority to which
obedience is habitually paid.
Of these conditions, how many can be said to belong to
any thing included under the term Law of Nations ?
By that term is understood, something which either
does, or which, it is supposed, ought to bind the conduct
of one nation towards another.
But it is not understood that one nation has a right to
command another. When one nation can be commanded
by another, it is dependent upon that other; and the laws
of dependence are different from those which we are at
present considering. An independent nation would resent,
instead of obeying, a command delivered to it by another.
Neither can it properly be said that nations, taken aggre¬
gately, prescribe those laws to one another severally; for
when did they ever combine in any such prescription ?
When did they ever combine to vindicate the violations of
280
LAW OF NATIONS.
Law of
Kations.
them ? It is therefore clear, that the term command can¬
not be applied, at least in the ordinary sense, to the laws
of nations.
In the next place, it would not seem that any thing de¬
serving the name of sanction belongs to them. Sanction,
we have already seen, is punishment. Suppose nations to
threaten one another with punishment, for the violation
of any thing understood to be a law of nations. To
punish implies superiority of strength. For the strong,
therefore, the law of nations may perhaps have a sanction
as against the weak. But what can it have as against the
strong ? Is it the strong, however, or is it the weak, by
whom it is most liable to be violated ? The answer is ob¬
vious and undeniable. As against those from whom al¬
most solely any violation of the laws of nations need be
apprehended, there appears, therefore, to be no sanction
at all.
If it be said that several nations may combine to give it
a sanction in favour of the weak, we might, for a practical
answer, appeal to experience. Has it been done ? Have
nations in reality combined, so constantly and steadily, in
favour of the law of nations, as to create, by the certainty
of punishment, an overpowering motive to unjust powers,
to abstain from its violation ? For, as the laws against
murder would have no efficacy if the punishment pre¬
scribed were not applied once in fifty or a hundred times,
so the penalty against the violations of the law of nations
can have no efficacy if it is applied unsteadily and rarely.
On the mode in which it has been applied, we may ap¬
peal to a great authority. Montesquieu says, “ Le droit
public est plus connu en Europe qu’en Asie : cependant
on peut dire que les passions des princes, la patience des
peuples, la flatterie des ecrivains, en ont corrompu tous
les principes. Ce droit, tel qu’il est aujourd’hui, est une
science qui apprend aux princes jusqu’a quel point ils
peuvent violer la justice, sans choquer leurs interets.”
{Lettres Persanes, xciv.)
To go a little deeper, we may consider whether the in¬
terest of nations, that which in the long run governs
them all, can ever produce combinations, from which an
effectual sanction, of the nature in question, can be ex¬
pected to proceed. That they would derive some advan¬
tage from the general observation of those maxims which
have been called laws of nations, frivolous as are the
points upon which the greater part of them turn, cannot
be denied. These advantages, however, are seen at a dis¬
tance, and with the mind’s eye; they are speculative ra¬
ther than sensible. The inconveniences, on the other
hand, which must result from any movement to lend ef¬
fect to the law of nations, are immediate and formidable;
the whole train of the evils of war are almost sure to arise
from them. The latter class of impressions must, in
general, be far more powerful than the former; and thus
the interposition in favour of the law of nations will gene¬
rally be shunned. A nation is often but too easily stimu¬
lated to make war in resentment of injuries done to itself.
But it looks with too much coolness upon the injuries
done to other nations, to incur the chance of any great in¬
convenience for the redress of them.
Besides, the object is to be gained by the means of com¬
bination. But the combinations of nations are very diffi¬
cult things. Nations hardly ever combine without quar¬
relling.
Again, all nations ought to combine for an object com¬
mon to all. But for all nations to combine in any one en¬
terprise is impossible. Suppose a prince to have violated
the law of nations, it would be absurd to suppose that all
the countries on earth should conspire to punish him.
But if not all, what is to be the selection? Who shall
come forward; who stand excused ? By those whc are
condemned to the sacrifice, in what proportion are the con¬
tributions to be made ? Who is to afford the greatest, and Law of
who may come with the least ? Nations.
It is unnecessary to pursue any farther the analysis of ^ Y
this extraordinary hypothesis. It is evident, from what
has been said, that it is full of impracticabilities.
Are we, then, obliged to consider the maxims or rules
which pass under the name of Laws of Nations, as utterly
without force and influence ; and the discourse which is
made about them as mere affectation and impertinence ?
Not wholly so. It is of use that the ordinary inter¬
course of nations should be conducted according to certain
forms, generally known and approved; because they will
be observed on all occasions when there is no particular
motive to violate them, and will often prevent disputes
which might arise on frivolous occasions. They resemble
in this respect the ceremonial of a court, or the establish¬
ed forms of polished society.
The objects, however, which are understood to be em¬
braced by the law of nations, are of two sorts. The first
are those minor objects which partake more of form than
of substance ; the other are objects which deeply affect
humanity. That there are certain interests of nations,
which it were good to have considered as their rights,
and of which it is infinitely to be desired that the viola¬
tion could be prevented, is most true. But if national law
has no penalty annexed to it; if the weaker party who is
wronged has no means of redress, where, it may be said, is
the advantage of such a law? Or where the propriety of
calling that a law which is only a declaration respecting
rights ; violated by the more powerful party with impuni¬
ty, as often, and to as great an extent, as he pleases ?
There is still, however, a power which, though it be not
the physical force either of one state or of a combination
of states, applied to vindicate a violation of the law of na¬
tions, is not without a great sway in human affairs; and
which, as it is very nearly the whole of the power which
can be applied to secure the observation of that law, de¬
serves to be carefully considered, that, by duly appreci¬
ating its efficacy in this important affair, we may neither
trust to it where it will disappoint our expectation, nor
neglect the use of it where it may be turned to ad¬
vantage.
That the human mind is powerfully acted upon by the
approbation or disapprobation, by the praise or blame, the
contempt and hatred, or the love and admiration, of the
rest of mankind, is a matter of fact, which, however it
may be accounted for, is beyond the limits of dispute.
Over the whole field of morality, with the exception of
that narrow part which is protected by penal laws, it is
the only power which binds to good conduct, and renders
man agreeable and useful to man. It is evident, also, that
where there is not great inequality, it is a power, the
binding force of which must be necessarily great; be¬
cause every individual, considered in himself, is weak and
helpless as compared with the rest of the community.
Unless, therefore, he can prevail upon them to abstain
from injuring him, he must be exposed to unlimited suf¬
fering. And if, on the other hand, he can prevail upon
them to combine in doing, or in desiring to do, him good,
he is put in the way of receiving perpetually the greatest
advantages. His motive, therefore, to obtain the favour¬
able and to avoid the unfavourable regards of the mem¬
bers of the society in which he lives, is of the highest
order. But he can obtain their favourable, and avoid
their unfavourable sentiments, only by abstaining, with
scrupulous anxiety, from doing any injury to them, and
observing all such modes of conduct as are calculated to
be useful and agreeable to them.
The value which men set upon these favourable regards
of the persons among whom they live, is strikingly mani¬
fested by some of the most ordinary forms of their dis-
LAW OF NATIONS.
281
i,aw of course and behaviour. What is more esteemed than cha-
Nations. racier? What injury reckoned more deep and unpardon-
able, than that of the man who exerts himself to take
away unworthily any part of the reputation of his neigh¬
bours ? But what is character, if not the title to the fa¬
vourable sentiments of other men ? And what is the loss
of character, but the opinion of other men that we do not
deserve those favourable sentiments with which they have
been accustomed to regard us?
Honour and shame, those emotions, the intensity of
which is proved by so many phenomena of human life, are
but the feelings which attend upon those different situa¬
tions. When a man finds himself in possession of the love,
the esteem, and admiration of those by whom he is sur¬
rounded, he is filled with that delight which the belief of
the secure possession of a great source of benefit cannot
fail to inspire : he is fearless, elated, and confident; the
principal characteristics of that state of mind which we
denominate pride. When he is conscious, on the other
hand, of having forfeited in any degree the favourable sen¬
timents of those among whom he lives, he suffers that de¬
pression which the loss of a highly valued possession is
calculated to create; he ceases, in some degree, to look
forward to his fellow-men for good, and feels more or less
the apprehension of evil at their hands ? he fears to prove
how far their disapprobation of him reaches, or to excite
them to define it too accurately for themselves; he hangs
down his head, and dares not so much as look them in the
face.
When men are favourably situated for having those
impressions deeply struck, or, more correctly speaking,
when those combinations of ideas have consistently and
habitually been presented to their minds, the association
becomes at last so indissoluble and strong, as to operate,
even where the connection among the things themselves
may not exist.
When persons who have been educated in a virtuous
society have, from their infancy, associated the idea of
certain actions with the favourable sentiments, and all the
advantages which flow from the favourable sentiments, of
mankind ; and, on the other hand, have associated the
idea of certain other actions with the unfavourable senti¬
ments, and all the disadvantages which flow from the un¬
favourable sentiments, of mankind; so painful a feeling
comes in time to be raised in them at the very thought of
any such action, that they recoil from the perpetration of
it, even in cases in which they may be perfectly secure
against any unfavourable sentiments which it might be
calculated to inspire.
It will, we apprehend, upon the most accurate investi¬
gation, be found, that this is the only power to which we
can look for any considerable sanction to the laws of na¬
tions ; for almost the only species of punishment to which
the violation of them can ever become amenable: it is
the only security, therefore, which mankind can ever en¬
joy for the benefit which laws, well contrived for this pur¬
pose, might be calculated to yield.
It is, in the next place, incumbent upon us to inquire,
what dependence can be placed upon this security, in the
set of cases now under consideration ; and in what cir¬
cumstances it is calculated to act with the greatest, in
what with the least efficacy, towards this important end.
A power which is wholly derived from the good which
may follow the favourable, the evil which may follow the
unfavourable, sentiments of mankind, will act most effica¬
ciously upon him who is the most, least efficaciously upon
him who is the least, exposed to receive good and evil
from the immediate inclination of his fellow-men.
It seems to be evident, that he who is most weak, as
compared with the rest of the community, is the most ex-
posed to receive good or evil in consequence of their fa-
VOL. XIII.
vourable or unfavourable sentiments ; and that he, on the Law of
other hand, who is the most powerful, as compared with Nations,
them, is the least exposed to receive good or evil in con- ■v'~—
sequence of those sentiments.
When men are nearly upon equality, no one has any
chance of inducing other people to abstain from hurting
him, but by his abstaining from doing hurt in any way to
them. He has no means of inducing them to do him any
acts of service, but by their expectation of receiving si¬
milar acts of service from him. He is, therefore, intensely
interested in its being generally believed of him, that he
is a man who is careful to abstain from injuring, and ever
ready to exert himself to do services to others.
The case is exceedingly different where one man is
lifted high above others. In that case, he has powerful
means of protection against their hurtful acts, powerful
means of obtaining their services, altogether independent
of his conduct, altogether independent of his disposition
either to abstain from injuring them, or to render them
service.
So far, therefore, as good conduct arises from a man s
dependence upon the sentiments of others ; and from this
is derived the moral power, to which alone the term moral
sanction or obligation can properly belong; the security
for good conduct is apt to be lessened, in exact propor¬
tion as any one is raised above the level of those com¬
posing the mass of the community. If any man possesses
absolute power over the rest of the community, he is set
free from all dependence upon their sentiments. In this, or
nearly in this situation, is every despot having a well-estab¬
lished authority. So far as a man is educated as a des¬
pot, he can therefore have but few of those associations
on which a conduct beneficent to others depends. He is
not accustomed to look, for the services which he needs,
or the evils which he apprehends, from others, to the
opinion which they may entertain of the goodness or bad¬
ness of his conduct; he cannot, therefore, have that salu¬
tary train of transitions from the idea of an evil act to that
of the condemnatory sentiments of mankind, and from the
condemnatory sentiments of mankind to the forfeiture of
all those delights and advantages which spring to him
from the operation of their favourable regards; associations
which in men favourably situated become at last habitual,
and govern the conduct, as it were mechanically, without
any distinct recurrence to the consequences, upon the
thought of which, nevertheless, this salutary and ennobling
sentiment ultimately depends, and from which it has been
originally derived.
If such is the situation of the despot with regard to
these important associations, it is in a proportional degree
the situation of all those who partake of that species of ele¬
vation. In an aristocratical country, for example, a coun¬
try in which there is great inequality of wealth, those
who possess the large fortunes are raised to a great de¬
gree above any chance of receiving evil, or of standing
deprived of any good, because the great mass, the lower
orders, of their countrymen, think unfavourably of them.
They are, no doubt, to a considerable degree dependent
upon what the people of their own class may think of
them ; and it is accordingly found, that those qualities and
acts which are useful to that class are formed into a par¬
ticular, an aristocratical code of morality, which is very
effectually sanctioned by the favourable and unfavourable
sentiments of the aristocratical body, at the same time
that it is exceedingly different from that more enlarged
and all-comprehensive code, on which the happiness of the
greatest number depends, and to which alone the epithet
moral in propriety belongs.
Such being the state of the facts connected with this
important case, it remains to see what are the inferences
bearing upon it which we are entitled to draw from them
2 N
282 LAW OF NATIONS.
Law of We have already ascertained, that the only power which
Nations. can operate to sanction the laws of nations, in other
—■""v''—’' words, to reward or punish any nation, according as it
obeys or as it disobeys them, is the approbation and dis¬
approbation of mankind. It follows, that the restraining
force is, in this case, determined by the associations which
they who govern it may have formed with the approba¬
tion and disapprobation of mankind. If they have formed
strong associations of a pleasurable kind with the appro¬
bation, strong associations of the painful kind with the
disapprobation, of mankind, the restraining force will be
great; if they have not formed such associations, it will
be feeble and insignificant. It has, however, appeared,
immediately above, that the rulers of a country, of which
the government is either monarchical or aristocratical, can
have these associations in but a very low degree ; as those
alone, who are placed on a level with the great body of
other men, are placed in circumstances calculated to pro¬
duce them. It is only then in countries, the rulers of
which are drawn from the mass of the people, in other
words, in democratical countries, that the sanction of the
laws of nations can be expected to operate with any con¬
siderable effect.
II.— What is required to give to the Law of Nations its
greatest perfection.—Necessity for a Code of Interna¬
tional Law.—Rights of Nations.
Having thus ascertained what is the power which re¬
strains from violating the laws of nations, and what the de¬
scription of rulers upon whom its restraining force is the
greatest, we are next to inquire by what expedients the
force of it may be raised to the greatest pitch, and the
greatest amount of benefit may be derived from it.
It is sufficiently recognised, that whatever is intended
to produce any effect as a punishment, produces it in a
greater degree, in proportion as it operates with greater
precision and certainty. The inquiry, then, regards the
means of giving precision and certainty to those senti¬
ments of the world, on which the binding powTer of the
laws of nations so greatly depends.
Two things are necessary to give precision and cer¬
tainty to the operation of laws within a community. The
one is a strict determination of what the law is; the se¬
cond, a tribunal so constituted as to yield prompt and ac¬
curate execution to the law. It is evident that these two
are indispensable requisites. Without them no penalties
can operate with either precision or certainty. And the
case is evidently the same, whether we speak of the laws
which regulate the actions of individual and individual
w'ithin the state, or those which regulate the actions of one
state towards another.
It is obvious to remark, in the first place, that, with re¬
gard to the laws of nations, not one of those two indispen¬
sable requisites has ever yet had any existence. It has
neither been determined what the laws in question are,
nor has any common tribunal for cognizance of the viola¬
tions of them ever been constituted. With respect to the
last, not so much as the idea of it seems to have been en¬
tertained. And with respect to the first, though much has
been written, it has been almost wholly in the way of
vague and general discourse. Hardly a single accurate
definition has yet been applied to any part of the subject.
Here, then, we come to what is obviously the grand in¬
quiry ; namely, first, what can be done towards defining
the laws of nations ? and, secondly, what can be done to¬
wards providing a tribunal for yielding prompt and accu¬
rate decisions in conformity with them ? in other words,
for applying with the greatest possible efficacy the opinion
of the world for restraining the violation of them ?
In the preceding article, to which it is necessary for us
here to revert, we have sufficiently made it appear, that Law of
the foundation of all law is the constitution of rights. Of Nations,
two parties, unless it is previously determined what each “
shall enjoy, it can never be determined whether one has
improperly disturbed the enjoyment of the other. To
determine, however, what a party is to enjoy, is to deter¬
mine his rights.
Now then, with regard to nations, the question is, what
ought to be constituted rights ? or, in other words, what
would it be desirable for the good of mankind upon the
whole, that the several nations should respect as the rights
of each other ?
This, it is pretty obvious, is one of the most extensive
of all inquiries, far exceeding the limits of an article in
the present work. We can attempt little more than to
show the way in which the inquiry may be carried on.
In the preceding article, we have endeavoured to clear
up the meaning which in legislation can, without leading
to confusion, be alone attached to the term rights; and
we have there likewise seen, that there are but two classes
of objects in which individuals can have rights, namely,
things and persons.
The case, we believe, will be found the same with re¬
spect to nations. They also can have rights in nothing
but persons and things. Of course it follows that they
can receive injury in nothing but in persons or things.
The inquiry, however, with respect to the rights of na¬
tions, is not so simple as that with respect to the rights of
individuals; because, between individuals subject to the
same system of laws, the legislature recognises no state of
hostility; but between nations there is the state of war
and the state of peace, and the rights which are under¬
stood to belong to nations are different in these two dif¬
ferent states. In the state of war, nations recognise in
one another very few rights respecting either persons or
things; they kill the one, and take and destroy the other,
with little other limit than the want of ability. In the
state of peace they respect as rights belonging to one ano¬
ther, nearly the same things which are constituted rights
of individuals, by the ordinary systems of national law.
HI.— What should be recognised as Rights in time of Peace.
— The Property of Individuals.— The Persons of Indi¬
viduals.— The Property or Dominion of the State.—
Dominion in Land.—Dominion in Water.
We shall begin with the consideration of those things
which it would be desirable that nations should respect as
the rights of one another in the time of peace.
And, first, of rights with respect to things. As the
subject of the rights of nations, things may be divided into
two sorts ; things belonging to some individual member of
the nation, and things belonging to the nation in its col¬
lective or corporate capacity.
Those rights in things which the nation guarantees to
its individual members within the nation, it would be de¬
sirable, with hardly any exception, that nations should re¬
spect in regard to one another ; that those things, for ex¬
ample, which the government of the country to which a
man belongs, would regard, and would compel all its sub¬
jects to regard, as his property, the governments of all
other countries should respect, and compel all their sub¬
jects to respect as his property.
There are two states of circumstances in which ques¬
tions may arise between nations, respecting the property
of their respective subjects. The first, where the property
in question, when the cause of dispute arises, is within the
country of the individual to whom it belongs. The second,
where the property has by its owner been previously re¬
moved into the foreign country, with which, or some of the
inhabitants of which, the dispute has arisen.
Law of
Nations.
LAW OF NATIONS.
con^rmlSlSriiiXSg fnhabita^oTwhS TTf" ^ !° ^
'being neighbours to one another, may as anv otLr npth yP]lf .by. th^ tribun^ of one country to the injuries per-
hours, infringe the properties of one another The nroner theTnhahi^ W 1(Jm tbey may baYe to judge» uPon
mode of settling these disputes seems to be suffirfpnJK p inhabitants of another country. If an inhabitant of
vious. The rights of the nartv rnmnl .in' i ib* \erSia’ /°r examPle’ should force cow-broth down the
adjudged according to Z faws^f tZ cZfrv tnwhiPh thYoat«f aa “tant and native of Hindustan, the tribu-
heJ belongs. But the party sued or nrosecutPd^hmS L na S.°/ l erSia should not punish this outrage as they would
amenable only to the tribunals of the country to which he ^fT^P ^ ™abinS another swallow the same
belongs; that is to 'say, the auesBonTS £ SV" the..Persian be a trifling injury, and
belongs; that is to say, the question should be tried be¬
fore the tribunals of the country of the defendant; but the
definition of the right in question should be taken from
the law of the country to which the plaintiff belongs. It
might in some cases be convenient for countries in this
situation to ^ agree in constituting a common judicature,
remedy of punishment is required. ' duals „L hve ™Z’. , 7 be “•|U-red ‘P0"^ the
It would appear that punishment ought to be apportioned which it may be iniurcd ^ eCf1t-10n’ tbere are cases in
according to the laws of the country to which the nartv belong nr/np t m0re dlrectIy- Certain things
who has incurred it belongs. Whatever would be the pu- to any indfvidual f a„°d
nishment decreed for the offence, if committed against a
man of his own country, such a punishment he ought to
sustain for the offence against the man of the other coun¬
try. The question of punishment is here understood as
extraneous to that of compensation. This ought always
government, or agents of the government, who may re¬
ceive injuries in that capacity, distinct from those which
affect them as private individuals. These are the cases
to winch it now remains that we direct our attention.
ib0|Se..n§s which belong to government as goods and
to be made to the party injured, where it is capable of chattels; its moveablerfo^examnkTrXTagd00dShnf
being made, and in a case of propertv it is nlwavs panoMo . if ,, example , or the lands which
if not by the author of the 4 Y from ^7X3^ h°lds j" ™y of an
if not by the author of the injury, from want of property,
or other cause, at least by the government of the country
to which he belongs. J
2. Where a man has removed his property from his own
into another country, there seems to be no peculiar reason
why it should be regulated by any other laws than those
of the country into which he has removed it; why the
lights which it confers should be otherwise determined,
or the violation of them otherwise punished.
We have now considered, though in a very general man¬
ner (and our limits preclude us from attempting any thing
mnrp). thp mnrlo  -.Li! o j
estate; there seems to be no reason for considering as
subject to any other rules than those applicable to the
goods and chattels which belong to individuals.
other things, those to which any government can
claim a right, as representative of a nation, must be either,
hrst, portions of land, or, secondly, portions of water.
L: questions which relate to the rights which any
nation may claim in any portion of land, are questions re¬
garding boundaries; and these involve the whole of the
questions respecting the acquisition of dominion.
lo have any standard for determining questions with
more), the mode in which nations Zu S re4d ,o domfnion the fff de‘y“W”« q—ion, with
allowed and respected by other nations must be distin-
establish), in as far as the property of individuals belong-
ing to them is concerned. After the property of indivi¬
duals, their persons are to be considered as requiring the
protection of laws. ^ &
There is more difficulty in determining what is desirable,
as international law, with regard to this part of the subject,
* U A r i J    must UC UISLIII-
guished from those which are improper, must be accurate-
Jy dehned, and the definitions made known.
lor this purpose it is easy to perceive that the same
process is necessary as that for the definition of rights,
uescnbed in the section Jukisprudence of the preceding
dhes”rable Shrsil8 thefPr0P.e';ty «f individuals. It is article to which we must againrefer"
try should receive protection accorfhrg to thflOTTofThSi evinirwhicrar^’to^brcY"8,!10 '7'' e“mPie’ tIlat tlle
eaftman s,,ould ment ,to a;4TordoLr„mdrdd,Mchcr
r^ddaacr^dareddtoiMhou,dbeM7““-
with one another.
nermittW0^6”1!11^’ however’ seems to be greater, in
accordinfFtn tl ir!habltants of one country to be punished
a °„ tuZ0 „arher’11,811 in kavi7 L i"1-
ao-ainst i™,,™ , antry to the same measure of protection
countries^ is off "'f ?ers°",s from ,he inhabitants of other
tries bTt’hX L l t,°.tl’e '“habitants of those conn-
Zvedi7 Whic7 H aWS- Many cases> i“d“d> may be con-
reasonable men ' t !S a. measure of protection which all
reasonable men would allow to be inadequate.
This is the first part ot the process. The other part
IS, to distinguish the different degrees of dominion. There
is a dominion which is perfect, which includes every
power over the subject in question, and leaves nothing
farther to be acquired, a dominium plenum ; there is also
a dominion, which is but the commencement, as it were
nff0fMini10n,-andinideS the smallest Possible fragment
of a ful dominion. These are the two extremes; and be¬
tween them are various distinguishable degrees. All these
sbaa d be fully enumerated, and accurately defined.
an^..^^10Se events occurs which are to be co*
cases however the 1   LU, ue 1Iiauequate. In such
able lo rSerfS"8 ^ sid-d as giving commen^memto righJa T often Z
prescribe. This ,a„er cpediS^eSS S
283
Law of
Nations.
    trifling injury, anu
more than a trifling punishment would not be required,
lo the Hindu it would be one of the greatest of all con¬
ceivable injuries. It ought to be, therefore, put upon the
same footing with an injury of an equal degree done to a
Persian ; the nature of the injury, not the external act,
should be the object of consideration ; and whatever the
284
LAW OF NATIONS.
Law of the dominion less than full. These circumstances ought
Nations, also to be completely enumerated, and the power of each
 to be accurately defined.
If this were done, an international code would be com¬
posed, in which the rights of dominion would be accurate¬
ly defined ; and to determine any question about bounda¬
ries, or about the degree of dominion, nothing farther
would then be necessary than an adequate inquiry re¬
specting the state of the facts.
The questions would exactly resemble those which we
have already described in the preceding article in ana¬
lyzing what is called pleading in judicature. In a ques¬
tion about boundaries there is, let us suppose, a district
over which one country affirms that it has a right of do¬
minion, a dominion more or less complete, and another
country denies that it has that right. The first question
is, whether any of those events has occurred which would
give the affirming country a right of dominion ? The se¬
cond question is, whether, if such an event had occurred,
it was accompanied with any of those circumstances which
limit dominion, and render it less than full; and if so, un¬
der what degree of limiting power they are classed? The
third question is, whether, if an event thus giving com¬
mencement to a right of dominion had occurred, any
other event putting an end to that right had subsequent¬
ly occurred ?
We need not here enlarge upon these several topics,
because they will be sufficiently understood by those read¬
ers who bear in mind the expositions already given in the
article referred to; and to those who do not, we suggest
the propriety of recurring to that article, as a preparation
for the perusal of this.
It is evidently disproportionate to the limits which we
must here prescribe to ourselves, to enumerate the events
which it would be agreeable to the interests of mankind
in general that nations should regard as giving, and alone
giving, commencement and termination to rights of domi¬
nion, because, in order to afford an enumeration which
would be in any degree instructive, the reasons must be
given why one set of events, and not another, should have
the privilege in question conferred upon them.
It may be proper, however, in the mean time, to ob¬
serve, that the events in question will not be found to be
numerous, nor very difficult to discover. In fact they are,
and among civilized nations almost always have been,
pretty nearly agreed upon ; and they are the questions of
modification, and questions of fact, upon which chiefly
differences have arisen. For example, there is no dispute
that occupancy, where there is no prior right, is an event
which should be considered as giving commencement to
a right of dominion. Neither is there any doubt that the
consent of those who have a right may transfer that right
to others ; or, in other words, that such consent is an event
which gives commencement to a right in those others.
Conquest, also, made in a lawful war, is recognised as an
event of the same description ; and it will be found upon
inquiry that these do in fact constitute the whole. For,
on every occasion on which dominion is acquired, the ter¬
ritory so acquired must beforehand either have belonged
to somebody, or have belonged to nobody. If it belong¬
ed to nobody, occupancy is the only event which can be
supposed to give commencement to the right. If it be¬
longed to somebody, it must be taken from him, either
willingly or by force. If it is taken from him willingly,
we have his consent. If it is taken by force, it is by
conquest in war that the new right is created.
It is evidently, however, farther necessary, that the
different species of consent should be distinguished, and
those to which it would be proper to attach this investi¬
tive power separated accurately from those from which
it should be withheld. It is here, accordingly, that the
doctrine of contracts would need to be introduced ; that Law of
the different species of them applicable to this subject, in Nations,
which all treaties w'ould be included, should be enumerat- ^ v-*-
ed; that the effects proper to be given to each of them
should be defined; and the mode of interpreting them,
or fixing the sense which they ought to bear, accurately
laid down.
It wmuld also be expedient, after the principal contracts
applicable to international concerns are ascertained, to
exhibit in the international co&e, formulae, with blanks to
be filled up, which should be employed by nations on all
occasions of such contracts ; and, being framed with the
greatest possible accuracy, would go as far as it would be
possible by words to go, in excluding ambiguity and the
grounds of dispute.
With respect to conquest, the last event calculated to
give commencement to rights of dominion mentioned in
the above general enumeration, it is allowed, that as there
are some conquests which ought not to be considered as
conferring rights of dominion, there are others which ought
to be considered as doing so. It is evidently necessary,
therefore, that the line of separation should be drawn.
Whether a conquest, however, should or should not be
considered as conferring a right of dominion, depends very
much upon the nature of the war through which it is made.
If the war be what is regarded as just, and the mode of
warfare conformable to the recognised rules, the conquest
is apt to be regarded as conferring a legitimate title; if
the war, and mode of war, be of a contrary description,
the validity of the title conferred by the conquest may be
liable to dispute.
It is evident, therefore, that in order to define the spe¬
cies of conquest on which the investitive power in ques¬
tion should be conferred, the circumstances which render
a war justifiable, and the mode in which it is justifiable to
carry it on, must first be ascertained. This forms the se¬
cond part of our inquiry ; and the question regarding the
investitive power of conquest must be deferred till that
inquiry is performed.
2. Having thus far considered the mode in which
should be determined the rights which nations acquire
over portions of territory or land, it remains that we con¬
sider the mode in which their rights should be determin¬
ed with regard to waters.
Waters, as concerns the present purpose, are either ri¬
vers or the sea.
As the sea involves the questions of greatest extent and
importance, we shall attend to that part of the subject first.
Even in the language of ordinary discourse, the sea is
denominated the common domain of nations.
The first principle with regard to the sea is this, that
all nations have an equal right to the use of it. The uti¬
lity of recognising this principle is so apparent, that it has
never been the subject of any dispute. And all the rights
assigned to nations severally in the enjoyment of this
common domain ought to rise out of this principle, and
to be limited by it. Whatever use any nation makes of
it, should be such as not to prevent a similar and equal
use from being made by other nations. And every use
which cannot be shown to have that effect, should be re¬
cognised as a right by the law of nations.
The principal use which nations make of the sea is that
of a passage for their ships. Agreeably to the principle
which we have recognised, the ships of one nation should
pass in such a manner as not to obstruct the passage of
those of another. The rules according to which the pos¬
sible cases of interference should be regulated are very
simple, and are, in fact, laid down and acted upon with
considerable accuracy. They resemble in all respects
those according to which the vessels of the same country
are made to avoid and to regulate their interferences in
LAW OF NATIONS.
285
T^w of the rivers of the country, or upon its coasts. There would
Nations, be no difficulty, therefore, in making accurate definitions of
' the requisite rights, for insertion in the international code.
The rights being established, the violations of them
should be punished, on the same principles as those
which we have laid down in regard to the preceding cases.
Either property has been injured, or persons. In either
case, compensation is an indisputable part of the remedial
process, wherever it is practicable. In loss of property it
is fully practicable. It is also practicable in many of the
injuries done to the person. As in the case of offences
committed on land, the rights of the individual who has
suffered should be estimated according to the laws of the
country to which he belongs; but the punishment of the
offender should be measured according to the laws of the
country to which he belongs. In the .case of piracy,
which is robbery or murder committed by persons whom
no country recognises, and upon whom, therefore, justice
can be demanded from no foreign government, it has
hitherto been the practice that the nation suffering has
taken the punishment into its own hands. Accordingly,
the punishment of piracy has always been extremely se¬
vere. It would be no doubt better if a mode were adopt¬
ed by which it would not be necessary for a nation to be
judge in its own cause. A rule does not seem impossible
to be framed, according to which the punishment of pi¬
racy might be provided for, by referring those accused
of it either to some general tribunal constituted for that
purpose, or to the tribunals of some nation other than
that against which the offence has been perpetrated.
A general law on this subject, to be observed by all na¬
tions, would be highly desirable.
Rules, therefore, seem not difficult to be laid down for
regulating the proceedings of nations on the high seas. A
distinction, however, is drawn between what is called the
high, and what is called the narrow seas. By the narrow
seas is commonly meant some portion of sea to a greater
or less extent immediately surrounding a particular coun¬
try, and in which that country claims peculiar privileges.
I he question is, whether any such privileges should be
allowed, and, if allowed, to what extent ?
The regulating principle in this, as in other cases, is
the general advantage, the principle of utility. There are
cases in which certain privileges in the waters surround¬
ing a particular country are of so much importance to
that country, and the exercise of those advantages occa¬
sions so very little inconvenience to other nations, that
what is lost by all of them taken together bears no com¬
parison with what is gained by that particular nation. In
these cases the exercise of such privileges should be al¬
lowed; they should, however, be defined, in as many in¬
stances as possible, and promulgated by insertion in an
international code.
Of the privileges in question, are all those which are es¬
sential, or to a considerable degree subservient, to the na¬
tional security. In some cases the exclusive right of fish-
ing might perhaps come under the same rule. But this
is in general provided for by the necessity of drawing the
nets, or curing the fish, upon the land, a privilege which,
withhold^ U 18 m P°Wer °f any nation t0 give or t0
!n obedience to this equitable principle, it appears that
sue oppis i privileges as have sometimes been insisted
upon, affording no advantage to one nation which is not
0 ^ 1 .e 1ci°st .°* oth.e.rs (lowering the flag, for exam-
f 't)30 S'iIC 1 i-Ue .lmPos^‘ons)> should not be recognised
by the code of nations. &
It appears, also, that those tolls which have been some-
LTv* f” r ne rie1 at the narrovv inlets of some seas> de'
fhr h Un-d7 th? Same condemnation. The passage
through these inlets is a common good to all the nations
of the earth which may have a motive to use them, a good
of the highest importance to the nations which are situ¬
ated within, and to which it is the only means of mari¬
time communication ; and, while it imparts no evil to the
conterminous nation, the toll which that nation levies is
an advantage obtained wholly at the cost of others, and im¬
posing upon them a burden, in the way of obstruction and
trouble, which is compensated for by advantage to nobody.
The waters, we have said, in respect to which rights
should be assigned to nations, are rivers and the sea
Having stated what appears necessary on the present
occasion with respect to the sea, it remains that we offer
the few observations required on the subject of rivers.
Rivers are either the boundary between two countries,
or they are wholly within a particular country.
Those which are wholly within a particular country, it
seems most agreeable to the principle of utility to regard
as wholly belonging to that country. In the case of&na-
vgable rivers which pass through several countries, it
would indeed be desirable for those countries which are
situated higher up than at the mouth of each, as well as
for all those who might thus have intercourse with them,
that the navigation of such rivers should be free; but it
would be difficult so to regulate this right, as not to af¬
fect the security of the country through which a free na-
yigation should thus be allowed; and a slight diminution
in its security would be so great a loss to that country as
would require, to compensate for it, a very great advan¬
tage to those by whom the navigation was enjoyed. Un¬
less where this advantage were very great, it would not,
therefore, be agreeable to the principle which should dic¬
tate the laws ot nations, that the freedom of the naviga¬
tion should be regulated on any other principles than
those of mutual agreement.
In regard to those rivers which flow between two coun¬
tries, the principle of regulation is sufficiently plain. The
benefits derivable from the river should be shared equally
between them. Its principal benefits arise from the fish¬
ing and from the navigation. I he right of fishing in most
cases may be fitly distributed, by each party fishing from
its own bank to the middle of the stream. The right of
navigating of each must be so exercised as not to ob¬
struct the right of the other. In this case the same sort
of rules are required to prevent the ships of the two na¬
tions from obstructing one another in a common river, as
are found available to prevent the ships of different indi¬
viduals from obstructing one another in a river beloivdn^
to one country. There is no difficulty, therefore, here^
w Inch it is worth stopping to show how to remove.
IV.— I That should be recognised as Rights in time of War.
— What should be regarded as necessary to render the
Commencement of a War just.— What should be regard¬
ed as just and unjust in the Modes of ca.rrying on a
War.
Law of
Nations.
V e have now adduced what our limits admit to be said
upon the first great branch of the inquiry relative to the
law of nations, namely, the rights which they should recog¬
nise in one another in the state of peace. We proceed
to the second branch, relating wholly to the state of war.
The questions which present themselves for solution
relating to the state of war, are either those which re¬
spect its commencement, or those which respect the mode
of carrying it on.
' With respect to the commencement of a war, the prin¬
cipal question is, What are the conditions which should
be regarded as necessary to render it just?
As men, in a situation where laws, and the protection
derived from them, do not exist, are left to their own pro¬
tection, and have no means of deterring other men from
LAW OF NATIONS.
286
Law of injuring them, but making them dread injury in return ;
Nations. so nations, which, with respect to one another, have, as we
have seen before, but little protection from the legal sanc¬
tion, are left to supply its place by this dread of injury in
return, which, in the case both of individuals and of nations,
may be called the retributive sanction, and of which, in the
case of nations, war is the principal organ.
From this view of the essence and end of war, we lay
down immediately one pretty extensive proposition with
regard to the conditions necessary to render it just.
As the legal sanction, or punishment for the offences of
individuals, ought to operate only where some right has
been violated, and the violation has been such as to require
it, so the retributive sanction of nations, which is war,
ought to operate only where some right of the nation, or
something which ought to be traced as a right, has been
violated, and where the violation has been such as to re¬
quire that desperate remedy.
But as not all violations which may possibly be commit¬
ted of the rights of a nation will justify it in inflicting war,
the next object is to draw the line of separation, and dis¬
tinguish between those violations of the rights of nations
which justify, and those which do not justify, the extre¬
mity of war.
As the evils which war produces are exceedingly great,
it is, first of all, evident, that no violation of rights which
is not very great, will, upon the principle which we have
so often recognised, suffice to justify it. Of two evils, the
least is the choice of all sound legislation.
Of the violation of the rights of individuals in the same
country, the cases meet for punishment are capable of be¬
ing pointed out with a degree of accuracy not wanting
much of perfection. Of the violation of the rights of na¬
tions committed by one nation against another, the cases
which would justify the remedial operation of war are much
more difficult to define. The difficulty, indeed, is not uni¬
versal ; for there are cases which may be very satisfactorily
defined ; and as far as definition can go, it is of the utmost
importance that it should be carried. Uncertainty, then,
pervades only one part of the field ; which the more we are
able to lessen, the greater is the advantage in favour of hu¬
manity. If a proper code of international law were formed,
there would be certain defined violations of the rights of
nations which would be pointed out, not only as deserving
the indignation and hatred of all the world, but as justify¬
ing the injured nation before all the world, in inflicting
upon its injurer the calamities of war. There would also
be certain other injuries pointed out, of a more doubtful
character, which might, or might not, according to circum¬
stances not easy to define, be such as to justify recourse to
war. The injuries of this secondary character, also, which
might, or might not, according to circumstances, justify a
war, are capable of being pointed out with a certain degree
of accuracy. To a certain degree, likewise, the circum¬
stances which would convert them into justifying causes,
are capable of being foreseen. So far definition is capable
of extending, and so far, of course, it ought to be carried.
In illustration of this latter class of injuries, we may se¬
lect the most remarkable, perhaps, and important of all the
instances ; preparations for a threatened attack. A sense
of security is one of the most valuable treasures of a na¬
tion ; and to be deprived of that sense of security, is one
of the greatest injuries. But what state of preparation
shall or shall not be considered as justifying the threatened
nation in striking the first blow, in order not to give its
enemy the advantage of completing his preparations, and
making his attack just at the moment when it would be
most destructive, it is perhaps impossible to determine for
all cases beforehand; though, no doubt, a certain progress
may be made towards that determination, and the bounds
of uncertainty may be greatly reduced.
We are aware how general, and therefore how unsatis- Law of
factory, these observations are, on the important sub- Nations,
ject of defining those violations of the rights of nations,
which ought to be regarded as justificatory causes of war ;
but at the same time it is to be observed, that not much
more could have been done without framing the code, by
actually enumerating and defining the violations for which
that remedy should be reserved.
Another consideration is now to be weighed. It is evi¬
dent, that whatever injuries are done by one nation to an¬
other, compensation may almost always be made for them.
It is equally evident, that whatever injury may have been
sustained, if compensation is made for it, the justificatory
cause of war is removed.
The doctrine of compensation, therefore, is an important
part of international jurisprudence. Before recourse is had
to war for any violation of rights, compensation ought first
to be demanded; and no war, except in cases fit for ex¬
ception, should be regarded as just, which this demand had
not preceded ; a demand which should be made through a
constituted organ, and in a predetermined mode, as we
shall more fully describe in a subsequent page, when we
come to treat of an international tribunal.
As there can be no reason why the demand of compen¬
sation should not always precede the use of arms, except
in cases of such a necessity as will not allow time for de¬
manding compensation, a necessity for the immediate use
of arms, in order to prevent an evil immediately impend¬
ing, those cases of urgent necessity should, as far as pos¬
sible, be sought out and defined.
Other circumstances may be enumerated, as belonging
to this first stage of the remedy against a nation which
places itself in an attitude affecting the sense of security
of any of its neighbours. If a nation is making prepara¬
tions, or executing any other measures calculated to excite
alarm, it may be called upon to desist from them; or it
may be called upon to give security that it will not make
a hostile use of them. Of these securities, hostages are one
of the most familiar instances. Various other instances
will easily present themselves to the consideration of our
readers. Upon this part of the subject, therefore, it is un¬
necessary for us to enlarge.
It thus appears, that we may lay down, with a consider¬
able degree of precision, the conditions upon which the com¬
mencement of a war ought to be regarded as just. It re¬
mains, under this head of inquiry, that we show how it may,
as far as possible, be determined, what ought to be regard¬
ed as just and unjust in the modes of carrying it on.
This is an inquiry of more complexity, a good deal, than
the first. In looking out for a guiding principle, it is evi¬
dently necessary to keep in view the end to which every
just war is of necessity restricted. That is, compensation
for an injury received, and security that a fresh injury shall
not be committed. Combining this with the grand prin¬
ciple of humanity and utility, in other words, of morality ;
namely, that all evil, wilfully occasioned, and not calculated
to produce a more than equivalent good, is wicked, and to
be opposed, we obtain one comprehensive and highly im¬
portant rule; which is this: That in the modes of carrying
on w'ar, everything should be condemned by the law of
nations, which, without being more conducive, or more in
any considerable degree to the attainment of the just end
of the war, is much more mischievous to the nation against
whom it is done.
As the end is to be gained, in most cases, only by in¬
flicting a loss of men and property upon the opposing na¬
tion, it would be desirable that the distinction should be
drawn between the modes of inflicting this loss, which are
the most, and those wfliich are the least, calculated to inflict
pain and suffering, without being more conducive to the
end.
LAW OF NATIONS.
Law of One distinction is sufficiently remarkable; namely, the
Nations, distinction between the men who are in arms, or actually
"''v'''-' opposed to the designs of the belligerent, and the men who
are not so; also between the property which belongs to
the government of the opposing nation, and that which be¬
longs to private individuals composing the nation.
With respect to the first class of objects, the men in
arms, and the property of the government, there is not
much difficulty. To produce the loss of them, as rapidly
as possible, till the end or purpose of the war is obtained,
appears to be a privilege which cannot be separated from
the right of warring at all.
With respect to the loss of men, indeed, there is an
important restriction. It means the loss of them for the
purposes of the war, and no more. If it be practicable to
put them in a situation in which they can no longer be of
any service to the war, all farther injury to them should be
held unjustifiable. Under this rule falls the obligation so
generally recognised of making our enemies, as often as
possible, prisoners, instead of killing them, and of treating
them with humanity while retained in that condition.
That part of the subject, therefore, which relates to men
in arms, and to such property as belongs immediately to
the government, it is not impossible to include in rules of
tolerable precision. The difficulty is with respect to those
individuals who, composing the body of the nation, form
no part of the men in arms, and with respect to the pro¬
perty of such individuals.
Though it would not be correct to say, that these do not
contribute, or rather that they may not be made to con¬
tribute, to the means with which the government carries
on the war ; yet it would be absurd not to recognise a very
broad distinction between them and the men and things
which are immediately applied, or applicable to the war.
A difference, therefore, equally broad, ought, in reason, to
be made in the mode of treating them. The mode of treat¬
ing the one ought to be very different from that of treat¬
ing the other. As the rule of destruction must be the rule
with regard to the first, only limited by certain restrictions ;
so the rule of forbearance and preservation ought to be the
rule with regard to the latter, only to be infringed upon
special and justifying circumstances.
Thus far we seem to have travelled with the advantage
of light to our path. We may go a little farther with equal
certainty, and say, that, as far as regards the persons of those
who are not engaged in the immediate business of hostility,
very few occasions can occur, in which it would be allow¬
able, upon any just principle of international law, to do
them any injury. Leaving them out of the question, we
narrow it to the case of the property belonging to indivi¬
duals ; and shall now proceed to see how far the protection
of it can be embraced within general rules.
We must suppose the case which is the strongest, that
of an invading army. The advantage which is capable of
being derived to such an enemy, by seizing and destroying
the property of individuals, bears, unless in certain very
extraordinary instances, no sort of proportion to the evil
inflicted upon the individuals. This, we presume, cannot
a nut of a dispute. Upon the principle, therefore, so often
recognised, as dictating the rules which ought in this af¬
fair to be solely obeyed, no such destruction, unless in such
instances, ought to be sanctioned by the law of nations,
kuch property, it is well known, can rarely be counted
upon as any considerable resource ; because it is to a very
great extent in the power of the people invaded to drive
their property away, or to destroy it. The property of in-
ivi ua s in an invaded country would in general be a
muc i more certain resource to an invading army, if that
army tveie to purchase from them the articles it desired.
nc, pei laps, this would be the most advantageous com¬
promise of which the circumstances admit; namely, that
287
the invading army should abstain from the violation of pri- Law of
vate property, but that it should in return have the be- Nations,
nefit of an unrestricted market; that nothing should be
done on the part of the government of the invaded coun¬
try to prevent its subjects from buying and selling with the
invaders, as they would with any other parties.
It may no doubt be true, that the plunder and devasta¬
tion of a province, or other portion of a country, must have
an effect in diminishing the resources of the government
for carrying on the war. In this point of view, it must be
allowed that the destruction of private property is of some
importance to the invading nation with regard to the re¬
sult of the war. But the question, in settling the difficul¬
ties of international jurisprudence, is not whether an ad¬
vantage is gained, but whether the advantage, such as it is,
be not gained at too great a cost.
If it be certain that the losing party, in consequence of
the destruction in question, loses more than the gaining
party gains, it is certain that the two parties, taken to¬
gether, are losers by the proceeding ; and of course that na¬
tions, in the aggregate, are losers upon the whole. Nay,
it is certain that each nation, taken by itself, is a loser,
upon the balance of the cases in which it is liable to lose,
and those in which it is liable to gain. If it loses more in
the cases in which it bears, than it gains in the cases in
which it inflicts invasion, and if it is as liable to bear as
to inflict, which is the usual condition of nations, it follows
clearly that it is its interest to concur in a rule which shall
protect the property of individuals in cases of invasion.
Even in that more civilized mode which has been adopt¬
ed by invading armies, of availing themselves of the pro¬
perty of individuals, by exacting contributions through the
instrumentality of the local authorities ; contributions which
these authorities are left to partition among the people, as
they may deem equitable ; though it is admitted that this
is a much less hurtful proceeding than military rapine, still
we think it will easily appear, that the evil inflicted upon
the contributors is greater than the benefits derived to the
receivers.
Unless the amount thus received by an invading army
is very considerable, the benefit which is derived, the aid
which is gained towards accomplishing the end of the war,
must be considered as trifling. But if a contribution, the
amount of which can be of any considerable avail towards
attaining the object of the war, is levied suddenly upon a
particular district, a comparatively small portion of the in¬
vaded country, it must operate upon the contributors with
a dreadful weight of oppression. Upon an equal estimate
of the circumstances, it can, therefore, hardly fail to appear
that, whether the contribution exacted is heavy or light (it
must always be heavy to those who sustain it), the loss to
those who suffer must greatly outweigh the advantage to
those who receive. If it be so, this mode of exaction should,
it is evident, be forbidden by the law of nations.
If these are the principles upon which an international
code, regarding this branch of the subject, ought to be con¬
structed, they will enable us to determine the question with
regard to the property of individuals in another set of cir¬
cumstances, to which the rules of civilized society have
hardly yet begun to be applied. Whatever rules apply to
the property of individuals found upon the land, the same
rules ought, by parity of reason, it should seem, to apply
to it when found upon the sea.
The conduct of nations, however, has hitherto not been
conformable to the parity which appears to belong to the
two sets of cases. Some tenderness, more or less, accord¬
ing to the progress of civilization, appears to have been
shown, by all but savages, to the property of individuals
upon the land. To this hour the property of individuals
upon the sea is made prize of without mercy, by the most
civilized nations in the world.
288
LAW OF NATIONS.
Law of The notions of piracy, in fact, have, on this subject, un-
Nations. happily prevailed, and governed the minds of men. Pi-
’“'V'-'' rates make prey of everything. Sailors, originally, were
all pirates. The seafaring state was a belligerent state, of
almost every vessel against every other vessel. Even when
nations had gradually advanced into a more civilized state,
and when their vessels abstained from injury to one another
in a period of peace, they appear, when the ties of peace
were dissolved, and they were placed with respect to one
another in a state of war upon the seas, to have felt the
force of none but their old associations, and to have looked
upon the state of war as a state of piracy. Two nations at
war with one another continue to act towards the property
of individuals belonging to one another at sea, exactly as
two nations of pirates would do.
Assuredly this is a state of things to which the present
intelligence and morality of the world ought speedily to
put an end. The very same reasoning which we have ap¬
plied to the case of the property of individuals upon the
land, is not less conclusive when applied to the property of
individuals upon the sea. The loss to the party losing is
more than an equivalent for the gain to the party that
gains.
There is another consideration of great importance. All
nations gain by the free operations of commerce. If, then,
we were to suppose that the losses and gains of the two
belligerent parties balanced one another, which yet they
never do, there is an advantage derived from their com¬
merce to every nation on the earth to which, in any de¬
gree, either directly or indirectly, that commerce extends ;
which advantage is either lost or diminished, by their prey¬
ing upon the property of the individuals belonging to one
another. This, therefore, is an unquestionable balance of
loss to the general community of nations, which the law
of that community ought to endeavour to prevent.
If, then, we should suppose that it were enacted as the
law of nations, that the property of individuals passing on
the seas should be equally respected in peace and in war,
we may proceed to consider whether any disadvantage,
nearly countervailing the general good, would thence ac¬
crue to the belligerents.
It may be alleged, that a nation at war with another is
retarded in i*educing its antagonist, by the riches which
the commerce of that antagonist, if undisturbed, will place
at its disposal. But it is evident that an advantage to one
of two antagonists, when compensated to the other, by a
power to overcome that advantage, exactly equivalent, is
in reality no advantage at all. Such is the case with the
advantage accruing to the nation with which another is at
war, when the property of individuals upon the sea is al¬
lowed to pass unmolested. If its riches are increased by
freedom of commerce, so are those of its antagonist. The
advantages are equal where the circumstances are equal,
which, in the majority of cases, they undoubtedly are.
If it be still objected, that there may be cases in which
they are not equal, the answer is obvious and incontrover¬
tible. There is no general rule without its exceptions, but
partial evil must be admitted for general good. Besides,
if the case were very remarkable, it might be excepted from
the general rule.
If this were adopted as part of the law of nations, all
those questions respecting the maritime traffic of neutrals,
questions which have been the source of so much trouble¬
some inquiry, so much animosity, and so much mischief,
would be immediately at an end. If the traffic of the bel¬
ligerents, so far as concerned the property of individuals,
were free, so would be that of all neutral nations.
Places actually blockaded, that is, surrounded with
an hostile force for the immediate purpose of being re¬
duced, either by arms or by famine, would still form ex¬
ceptions ; because the admission of ships into them with
supplies, either of food or munition of war, would be di¬
rectly at variance with the very object of the blockade.
In all other cases, the admission either of provisions or
of instruments of war into a belligerent country ought,
undoubtedly, upon the principle of utility, not to be dis¬
turbed. The benefit, except in rare and remarkable cases,
could not be material to the country into which they
might enter, nor hence the injury to its antagonist; on
the other hand, that antagonist would enjoy the same pri¬
vilege of the free admission of those commodities, and thus
they would be equal in all respects. The inconvenience,
however, which would thus be saved to the neutrals—the
annoyance of search, the loss by detention, the occa¬
sions of quarrel—are known to be evils of no ordinary mag¬
nitude.
The desertion of sailors from the ships of a belligerent
to those of a neutral has given rise to disputes in one in¬
stance only, that of Great Britain and the United States
of America. The question to be determined, in laying
down the principles of international jurisprudence, is,
whether this desertion ought to be considered as consti¬
tuting a ground for the general right of search ; in other
words, whether the evil to which a belligerent is exposed
by desertion, or rather by that portion of desertion which
can be prevented by the right of search, is an equivalent
for all the evil which is unavoidably produced by it.
Desertion must take place either from the ships of war
of the belligerent, or from its merchant ships.
In respect to ships of war, it is so easy for a belligerent
to prevent desertion to neutrals, at least in any such de¬
gree as to constitute a great evil, that it would be altoge¬
ther absurd to speak of it as fit to be compared with the
evils arising from the right of search. The only occasions
on which ships of war can be exposed to desertion to neu¬
trals, must be those on which they go into a neutral port.
But on those comparatively rare occasions, they can so
easily take precaution against desertion, that the danger
to which they are exposed is hardly worth regarding.
When the sailors belonging to merchant ships transfer
their services to the ships of a neutral, it is not to be call¬
ed desertion. It can only take place in very consider¬
able numbers when seamen’s wages in the neutral coun¬
try are much higher than in the belligerent. The sailor, in
this case, leaves his own for another country, only be¬
cause he improves his situation by so doing. This is a
liberty which, as it ought to belong to every body, so it
ought not to be withheld from the sailor. If, indeed, any
nation thinks proper to forbid any class of its people to
leave their country, as England with regard to its arti¬
ficers, other countries cannot help that; but they ought
not to be called upon to lend their aid to such an antiso¬
cial regulation, by allowing their vessels to be searched,
as security against its infringement. Besides, it is evi¬
dent that there is a much greater security, arising from
the very nature of the case, against the chance of a na¬
tion’s being, to any considerable degree, deprived of its
sailors by any such means. If the sailors go into the neu¬
tral country because wages are higher there, a small num¬
ber only will have gone, when wages, from diminution of
the numbers, will begin to rise in the country which they
have left, and, from increase of the numbers, will begin to
fall in the country to which they have been tempted to
repair. When the wages of seamen have thus sufficiently
risen in the belligerent country, which they are sure to
do if the demand for them rises, the sailors will not only
come back from every country in the world, but the sailors
of other countries will hurry along with them; and the
evil of desertion cures itself.
Only two questions of any great importance appear to
remain ; that relating to the march of troops, for a hostile
purpose, through a neutral country, and that relating to
Law of
Nations.
LAW OF NATIONS.
289
Law of
Nations.
the extent to which the operations of a successful war
ought to be pursued.
According to the principles which we have already laid
down for regulating the proceedings of a hostile army
even in the invaded country, namel}', that of committing
no plunder, and enjoying the right of market, it appears
that the right of passing through a neutral country on si¬
milar terms should be refused to no party. This rule,
while it holds out equal advantages to all belligerents, ad¬
mits, less than any other rule, grounds of dispute.
The end, which we have already described as that alone
the pursuit of which can render any war justifiable, suffi¬
ciently defines the extent to which the operations of a
successful war ought to proceed. The end of every jus¬
tifiable war is to obtain compensation for an injury sus¬
tained, and security against the repetition of it. The last
point, that of security, alone admits any uncertainty. Na¬
tions are apt to exaggerate the demand for security; to re¬
quire too much ; very often unconsciously, from the mere
cravings of self-love; sometimes fraudulently, as a cover
for ambitious views. As the question, however, respect¬
ing what may or may not, in each instance, be sufficient
security, is a question of fact, not of law, it must be de¬
termined, if determined at all, by a tribunal empowered
to take cognizance of the facts.
V.— Of the Construction of an International Code, and an
Internationl Tribunal.—How the Nations might concur in
framing an International Code—How an International
Tribunal should be constructed.—Form of Procedure be¬
fore the International Tribunal.
We have now, then, laid down the principles by which,
in our opinion, the rights of nations, in respect to one
another, ought to be determined; and we have shown in
what manner those principles should be applied, in order
to come to a decision in the most remarkable cases. The
minor points it is, of course, not in our power to illustrate
in detail; but that will not, we should hope, be difficult,
after the exemplification exhibited, and the satisfactory so¬
lutions at which we seem to have arrived, of all the more
considerable questions which the subject presents.
From what has been shown, it is not difficult to see
what would be the course pursued by nations, if they were
really actuated by the desire of regulating their general
intercourse, both in peace and war, on the principles most
advantageous to them all.
Two grand practical measures are obviously not only of
primary importance toward the attainment of this end, but
are ot indispensable necessity toward the attainment of it
in any tolerable degree. These are, first, the construction
of a code ; and, secondly, the establishment of a tribunal.
It is perfectly evident, that nations will be much more
likely to conform to the principles of intercourse which are
best for all, il they have an accurate set of rules to go by,
than ii they have not. In the first place, there is less room
lor mistake; in the next, there is less room for plausible
pretexts; and, last of all, the approbation and disapproba¬
tion of the world is sure to act with tenfold concentration,
where a precise rule is broken, familiar to all the civilized
world, and venerated by all.
How the nations of the civilized world might concur in
t ie framing of such a code, it is not difficult to devise.
Ihey might appoint delegates to meet for that purpose
m any central and convenient place, where, after discus¬
sion, and coming to as full an undertaking as possible
upon all the material points, they might elect some one
person, the most capable that could be found, to put these
their determinations into the proper words and form; in
s 10rfi to make a draught of a code of international law,
as enectually as possible providing for all the questions
VOL. XIII.
which could arise, upon their interfering interests, be- Law of
tween two nations. After this draught was proposed, it Nations,
should be revised by the delegates, and approved by them,
or altered till they deemed it worthy of their approbation.
It should then be referred to the several governments, to
receive its final sanction from their approbation; but, in
the mean time, it should be published in all the principal
languages, and circulated as extensively as possible, for
the sake of two important advantages. The first would
be, that, the intelligence of the wdiole world being brought
to operate upon it, and suggestions obtained from every
quarter, it might be made as perfect as possible. The
second would be, that the eyes of all the world being fix¬
ed upon the decision of every nation with respect to the
code, every nation might be deterred by shame from ob¬
jecting to any important article in it.
As the sanction of general opinion is that upon which
chiefly, as we have already seen, such a code must rely
for its efficiency, not a little will depend upon the mode
in which it is recognised and taught. The recognition
should in each country have all possible publicity and so¬
lemnity. Every circumstance which can tend to diffuse
the opinion throughout the earth, that the people of each
country attach the highest importance to such a code, is
to themselves a first-rate advantage; because it must be
of the utmost importance to them, that all the nations of
the earth should behave towards them upon the prin¬
ciples of mutual beneficence ; and nothing which they
can do can have so great a tendency to produce this de¬
sirable effect, as its being generally known that they
venerate the rules which are established for its attain¬
ment.
If nations, then, were really actuated by the desire of
regulating their mutual intercourse upon principles mu¬
tually beneficent, they would adopt measures for having
a code of international law constructed, solemnly recog¬
nised, and universally diffused and made known.
But it is not enough that a code should exist: every
thing should be done to secure a conduct conformable to
it. Nothing is of so much importance for this purpose as
a tribunal; before which every case of infringement should
be tried, the facts of it fully and completely explored,
the nature and degree of the infringement ascertained ;
and from which a knowledge of every thing material to
the case should be as rapidly as possible diffused through
the world; before which also all cases of doubt should re¬
gularly come for determination : and thus wars, between
nations which meant justly, would always be avoided, and
a stigma would be set upon those which justice could not
content.
The analogy of the code, which is, or ought to be, fram¬
ed by each state for regulating the intercourse of its own
people within its own territory, throws all the illustration
which is necessary upon the case of a tribunal for the in¬
ternational code. It is well known, that laws, however
carefully and accurately constructed, would be of little
avail in any country, if there was not some organ, by
means of which it might be determined when individuals
had acted in conformity with them, and when they had
not; by which also, when any doubt existed respecting the
conduct which in any particular case the law required,
such doubt might be authoritatively removed, and one de¬
terminate line of action prescribed. Without this, it is
sufficiently evident that a small portion of the benefit ca¬
pable of being derived from laws would actually be attain¬
ed. It will presently be seen how much of the benefit ca¬
pable of being derived from an international code must be
lost, if it is left destitute of a similar organ. We shall first
consider in what manner an international tribunal might
be constructed; and, next, in what manner it might be
appointed to act.
2 o
290
LAW OF NATIONS.
Law of As it is understood that questions relating to all nations
Nations, should come before it, what is desirable is, that all nations
should have equal security for good judicature from it, and
should look with equal confidence to its decisions.
An obvious expedient for this purpose is, that all na¬
tions should contribute equally to its formation ; that each,
for example, should send to it a delegate or judge. Its
situation should be chosen for its accessibility, and for the
means of publicity which it might afford; the last being,
beyond comparison, the advantage of greatest importance.
As all nations could not easily, or wnuld not, send, it would
suffice if the more civilized and leading nations of the
world concurred in the design, with such a number of the
less considerable as would be sure to follow their example,
and would be desirous of deriving advantage from an in¬
strument of protection, which to them would be of peculiar
importance.
As it is found by specific experience, and is, indeed, a
consequence of the ascertained laws of human nature, that
a numerous assembly of men cannot form a good judica¬
tory ; and that the best chance for good judicial service is
always obtained when only one man judges, under the vi¬
gilant eyes of interested and intelligent observers, having
full freedom to deliver to the world their sentiments re¬
specting his conduct; the whole of these advantages may
be obtained, in this case, by a very effectual expedient. If
precedent, also, be wanted, a thing which in certain minds
holds the place of reason, it is amply furnished by the Ro¬
man law ; according to which, a great number of judges
having been chosen for the judicial business generally of
the year, a selection was made out of that number, accord¬
ing to certain rules, for each particular case.
Every possible advantage, it appears, would be combin¬
ed in the international tribunal, if the whole body of dele¬
gates or judges, assembled from every country, should, as
often as any case for decision came before them, hold a
conference, and, after mature deliberation, choose some
one individual of their body, upon whom the whole duty of
judge should, in that case, devolve; it being the strict
duty of the rest to be present during the whole of his pro¬
ceedings, and each of them to record separately his opi¬
nion upon the case, after the decision of the acting judge
had been pronounced.
It would be, no doubt, a good general rule, though one
can easily foresee cases in which it would be expedient to
admit exceptions, that the judge, who is in this manner
chosen for each instance of the judicial service, should not
be the delegate from any of the countries immediately in¬
volved in the dispute. The motive to this is sufficiently
apparent.
We apprehend, that few words will be deemed necessary
to show how many securities are thus provided for the ex¬
cellence of the judicial service.
In the first place, it seems impossible to question, that
the utmost fairness and impartiality are provided for in
the choice of the judge ; because, of the two parties in¬
volved in the dispute, the one is represented by a dele¬
gate as much as the other, and the rest of the delegates
are indifferent between them. In general, therefore, it is
evident, that the sinister interest on the two sides being
balanced, and there being a great preponderance of in¬
terest in favour of nothing but a just decision, that inte¬
rest will prevail.
The best choice being made of a judge, it is evident
that he would be so situated as to act under the strongest
securities for good conduct. Acting singly, he would bear
the whole responsibility of the service required at his
hands. He would act under the eyes of the rest of the
assembled delegates, men versed in the same species of
business, chosen on account of their capacity for the ser¬
vice, who could be deceived neither with respect to the
diligence which he might exert, nor the fairness and ho- Law of
nesty with which he might decide; while he would be Nations,
watched by the delegates of the respective parties, hav- v"-”
ing the power of interest stimulating them to attention ;
and would be sure that the merits or demerits of his con-
ductwould be made fully known to the whole, or the greater
part of the world.
The judicatory being thus constituted, the mode of pro¬
ceeding before it may be easily sketched.
The cases may be divided into those brought before it
by the parties concerned in the dispute, and those which
it would be its duty to take up when they were not
brought before it by any of the parties.
A variety of cases would occur, in which two nations,
having a ground of dispute, and being unable to agree,
would unite in an application to the international tribunal
for an adjustment of their differences. On such occa¬
sions, the course of the tribunal would be sufficiently clear.
The parties would plead the grounds of their several
claims; the judge w'ould determine how far, according to
the law, they were competent to support those claims;
the parties would adduce their evidence for and against the
facts on which the determination of the claims was found
to depend ; the judge would receive that evidence, and
finally decide. All this is so perfectly conformable to the
course of pleading, and receiving proof, in the case of suits
between individuals, as analysed and explained in the
preceding article, that it is unnecessary to be more par¬
ticular here. If further exposition is required, it will be
found upon a reference to the article to which we allude.
Decision, in this case, it is observable, fully accomplishes
its end; because the parties come with an intention of
obeying it.
Another, and a numerous class of cases, would probably
be constituted, by those who would come before it, com¬
plaining of a violation of their rights by another nation,
and calling for redress.
This set of cases is analogous to that, in private judica¬
ture, when one man prosecutes another for some punish¬
able offence.
It should be incumbent upon the party thus applying
to give notice of its intention to the party against which
it is to complain, and of the day on which it means that
its complaint should be presented.
If both parties are present when the case comes for¬
ward for trial, they both plead, according to the mode de¬
scribed in the preceding article ; evidence is taken upon
the decisive facts; and if injury has been committed, the
amount of compensation is decreed. When it happens
that the defendant is not present, and refuses to plead, or
to submit, in this instance, to the jurisdiction of the court,
the inquiry should notw ithstanding go on ; the allegations
of the party present should be heard, and the evidence
which it adduces should be received. The non-appear¬
ance of the party defendant should be treated as an article
of evidence to prove the truth of its opponent’s allegations.
And the fact of not appearing should itself be treated as
an offence against the law of nations.
It happens, not unfrequently, when nations quarrel,
that both parties are in the wrong; and on some of these
occasions neither party might think proper to apply to an
equitable tribunal. This fact, namely, that of their not
applying to the international tribunal, should itself, as
stated before, be marked in the code as an international
offence, and should be denounced as such by the interna¬
tional tribunal. But even when two offending parties do
net ask for a decision from the international tribunal, it is
not proper that other nations should be deprived of the
benefit of such a decision. If these decisions constitute
a security against injustice from one another to the gene¬
ral community of nations, that security must not be al-
LAW OF NATIONS.
291
of lowed to be Impaired by the refractory conduct of those
Nations, drea(i an investigation of their conduct.
Certain forms, not difficult to devise, should be laid down,
according to which, on the occurrence of such cases, the
tribunal should proceed. First of all, it is evident that
the parties in question should receive intimation of the in¬
tention of the court to take cognizance of their disputes
on a certain day. If the parties, one or both, appeared,
the case would fall under one of those which have been
previously as above considered. If neither partyappear¬
ed, the court would proceed to estimate the facts which
were within its cognizance.
It would have before it one important article of evidence,
furnished by the parties themselves, namely, the fact of
their non-appearance. This ought to be considered as
going far to prove injurious conduct on both sides. The
evidence which the court would have before it, to many
specific facts, would be liable to be scanty, from the ne¬
glect of the parties to adduce their pleas and evidence.
The business of the court, in these circumstances, would
be, to state correctly such evidence, direct or circumstan¬
tial, as it had before it; giving its full weight to the evi¬
dence contained in the fact of non-appearance; and to
pronounce the decision which the balance of the evidence,
such as it was, might be found to support.
Even in this case, in which the practical effect of a de¬
cision of the international court may be supposed to be
the least, where neither party is disposed to respect the
jurisdiction, the benefit which would be derived would by
no means be inconsiderable. A decision solemnly pro¬
nounced by such a tribunal would always have a strong
effect upon the imaginations of men. It would fix and
concentrate the disapprobation of mankind.
Such a tribunal would operate as a great school of po¬
litical morality. By sifting the circumstances in all the
disputes of nations, by distinguishing accurately between
the false colours and the true, by stripping off all dis¬
guises, by getting at the real facts, and exhibiting them
in the true point of view, by presenting all this to the
world, and fixing the attention of mankind upon it by all
the celebrity of its elevated situation, it would teach men
at large to distinguish. By habit of contemplating the
approbation of such a court attached to just proceeding,
its disapprobation to unjust, men would learn to apply
correctly their own approbation and disapprobation ;
whence would flow the various important effects which
those sentiments, justly excited, would naturally and un¬
avoidably produce.
As, for the reasons adduced at the beginning of this
article, the intention should never be entertained of sup¬
porting the decisions of the international court by force
of arms, it remains to be considered what means of an¬
other kind could be had recourse to in order to raise to
as high a pitch as possible the motive of nations respec¬
tively to yield obedience to its decisions.
We have already spoken of the effect which would be
produced, in pointing the sentiments of mankind, and
giving strength to the moral sanction, by the existence of
an accurate code, and the decisions themselves of a well-
constituted tribunal.
To increase this effect to the utmost, publicity should
be carried to the highest practicable perfection. The
code, of course, ought to be universally promulgated and
known. Not only that, but the best means should be in
full operation for diffusing a knowledge of the proceedings
of the tribunal ; a knowledge of the cases investigated,
the allegations made, the evidence adduced, the sentence
pronounced, and the reasons upon which it is grounded.
The book of the law of nations, and selections from the
book of the trials before the international tribunal, should
form a subject of study in every school, and a knowledge
of them a necessary part of every man’s education. In Law of
this manner a moral sentiment would grow up, which Nations,
would, in time, act as a powerful restraining force upon
the injustice of nations, and give a wonderful efficacy
to the international jurisdiction. No nation would like
to be the object of the contempt and hatred of all other
nations; to be spoken of by them on all occasions with
disgust and indignation. On the other hand, there is
no nation which does not value highly the favourable
sentiments of other nations ; which is not elevated and
delighted with the knowledge that its justice, generosity,
and magnanimity, are the theme of general applause.
When means are taken to make it certain, that what affords
a nation this high satisfaction will follow a just and benefi¬
cial course of conduct, that what it regards with so much
aversion will infallibly happen to it if it fails in the pro¬
priety of its own behaviour, we may be sure that a strong
security is gained for a good intercourse among nations.
Besides this, it does not seem impossible to find various
inconveniences, to which, by way of penalties, those na¬
tions might be subjected, which refused to conform to the
prescriptions of the international code.
Various privileges granted to other nations, in their in¬
tercourse with one another, might be withheld from that
nation which thus demeaned itself in a way so contrary
to the general interests. In so far as the withholding of
these privileges might operate unfavourably upon indivi¬
duals belonging to the refractory nations, individuals who
might be little, or not at all, accessory to the guilt, the
effect would be the subject of proportional regret. Many,
however, in the concerns of mankind, are the good things
which can only be attained with a certain accompaniment
of evil. The rule of wisdom, in such cases, is, to make
sure that the good outweighs the evil, and to reduce the
evil to its narrowest dimensions.
We may take an instance first from trivial matters.
The ceremonial of other nations might be turned against
the nation, which, in this common concern, set itself in
opposition to the interests of others. The lowest place in
company, the least respectful situation on all occasions
of ceremony, might be assigned to the members of that
nation, when travelling or residing in other countries.
Many of those marks of disrespect, implying injury nei¬
ther to person nor property, which are checked by penal¬
ties in respect to others, might be free from penalties in
respect to them. From these instances, adduced merely
to illustrate our meaning, it will be easy to see in what
manner a number of considerable inconveniences might,
from this source, be made to bear upon nations refusing
to conform .to the beneficial provisions of the international
code.
Besides the ceremonial of other nations, means to the
same end might be derived from the law. A number of
cases might be found in which certain benefits of the law,
granted to other foreigners, might be refused to them.
They might be denied the privilege of suing in the
courts, for example, on account of any thing except some
of the higher crimes, the more serious violations of per¬
son or property.
Among other things, it is sufficiently evident that this
tribunal would be the proper organ for the trial of piracy.
When preponderant inconvenience might attend the re¬
moving of the trial to the usual seat of the tribunal, it
might delegate for that purpose the proper functionaries
to the proper spot.
By the application of the principles which we have thus
expounded, an application which implies no peculiar diffi¬
culty, and requires nothing more than care in the de¬
tail, we are satisfied that all might be done, which is cap¬
able of being done, toward securing the benefits of inter¬
national law. (j. M—
292
LAW.
Law, John. LAW, John, commonly known by the name of the Pro-
^ . ’ .. was the eldest son of William Law, and was born at
Edinburgh in the month of April 1671. His father fol¬
lowed the profession of goldsmith or banker, with so much
success, that be wras enabled to purchase the lands of Lau-
riston and Randleston, which afterwards descended to his
son. The latter was educated at Edinburgh, where he is
said to have made some progress in literature; but the
bent of his genius having led him to study arithmetic and
geometry, he attained such proficiency in these branches
as to be able to solve with facility the most intricate pro¬
blems ; and he likewise made himself master of algebra.
The principles of public and private credit, the state of trade
and of manufactures, the theory and practice of taxation,
and other matters connected with political economy, also
engaged his attention; and the accession of knowledge re¬
sulting from these inquiries laid the foundation of his future
eminence. But he soon became noted as a man of pleasure
as well as of study. Having lost his father before he had
completed his fourteenth year, he was thus left at an early
age without paternal control; and as the graces of a natu¬
rally handsome person were improved by the acquisition of
external accomplishments, Jessamy John, or Beau Law, as
he was indifferently called by his companions, addicted
himself to the practice of all games of chance, skill, and
dexterity, and appears to have engaged in other pursuits of
a still more questionable character. In 1694 he visited
London, where his wit and accomplishments procured him
admission into the first circles, whilst his extravagance
speedily involved him in difficulties. At this time he was
noted for his propensity to deep play, and for his gallantries
amongst women. By the former, he injured his fortune;
in consequence of the latter, he narrowly escaped an igno¬
minious end. An intrigue which he had with a Mrs Law¬
rence proved the occasion of a quarrel between him and
one Mr Edward Wilson; a hostile meeting ensued, and
Mr Law killed his antagonist on the spot. He was imme¬
diately apprehended, and brought to trial at the Old Bailey,
on a charge of murder; and being found guilty, received
sentence of death. Upon a representation of the case to
the crown, however, Law obtained a pardon; but an appeal
being lodged by a brother of the deceased, he was detained
in the King’s Bench Prison. This appeal was brought be¬
fore the Court of King’s Bench in Trinity-term 1694: and
as the exceptions taken on the part of Law were overruled
by the court, the latter, judging it not prudent to await the
result, found means to escape from prison,1 and retired to
the Continent.
Law resided for several years abroad, first at Paris, where
he acquired great dexterity in all games of chance, and
afterwards at Genoa and Venice. One cause assigned for
his leaving Paris, was his eloping with Lady Catherine, third
daughter of Nicholas, Lord Banbury, and wife of Mr Senor,
or Seinour. His success in play was so great, that he
is said to have acquired L.20,000. At Venice his atten¬
tion was first directed to the subject of paper-money and
banking; but failing in his application, during the reign of
William III., to return to England, he proceeded to Am¬
sterdam, and made himself practically acquainted with the
Dutch system of banking. An anonymous work, by William
Paterson, entitled, Proposals and Reasons for Constituting
a Council of Trade, printed at Edinburgh in 1701, at an
interval of fifty years, was republished at Glasgow, and the
name of Law given as its author, without any authority.
Being dated from Edinburgh, 31st December 1700, Law’s Law, John,
biographers have concluded that he must have then returned
to Scotland; but the work was unquestionably written by
Paterson, known as the founder of the Bank of England,
and of the Darien Scheme. Five years later, however,
Law, having secured the interest of several persons of dis¬
tinction, offered to the Scottish parliament, in 1705, a plan
for removing the difficulties under which the kingdom then
laboured from the scarcity of specie, and the stoppage of
payments by the bank; and, with a view to further his
object, he published a work, entitled, Money and Trade
considered, ivith a Proposal for supplying the Nation with
Money, which appeared at Edinburgh the same year. His
“proposal” was, that commissioners, to be appointed by an
act, under the control of parliament, should be empowered
to issue notes, either in the way of loan, at ordinary interest,
or upon landed security; the debt, however, not to exceed
half, or at the most, two-thirds, of the value of the land;
or upon land-pledges, redeemable within a certain period,
to the full value of the land ; or, lastly, upon sale irredeem¬
ably to the amount of the price agreed upon. Paper-money,
thus issued and secured, would, he conceived, be equal in
value to gold and silver money of the same denomination,
and might even be preferred to these metals, as not being,
like them, liable to fall in value. But this scheme, thougli
supported by the united weight of the court party, and of
that called the squadrone, headed by the Duke of Argyll
and the Marquis of Tweeddale, was rejected, as the parlia¬
ment on the 27th of July 1705 resolved, “that the forcing
any paper credit by an Act of Parliament was unfit for
this nation and, likewise, that “ it was an unfit expedient
for this nation, that the current specie within the kingdom
should be raised above for what it passes at present.” The
rejection of the plan was occasioned by an apprehension,
that if it were adopted all the estates of the kingdom
would thereby be brought to a complete dependence upon
the government. He also failed in a final application to
Queen Anne for a pardon of the sentence given against
him for Wilson’s murder in 1694, which precluded his
return to England.
Mr Law therefore resolved to abandon his native country,
and to try his fortune abroad. He resided some time at
Brussels, where he became noted for extraordinary success
at play ; and in two excursions which he made to Paris, his
good fortune at the gaming-table became still more con¬
spicuous. Having visited the principal cities of Italy, he
continued the same career, playing at all sorts of games,
and betting and speculating in the public funds and banks,
with uninterrupted success; insomuch that, in the year
1714, he was worth upwards of L.l 10,000 sterling. During
these rambles, Law, having the advantage of a graceful
figure and an insinuating address, was everywhere well
received by persons of the highest quality. At Florence
he became acquainted with the Duke de Vendome, whom
he had the honour to oblige with the loan of a considerable
sum of money. At Neufchatel he obtained access to the
Prince of Conti, to whom he imparted some of his financial
projects. During a short residence at Turin, he communi¬
cated to Victor Amadeus, King of Sardinia, a scheme for
aggrandizing his territories, of the same nature as that which
he afterwards proposed to the Duke of Orleans; but the
prudent monarch declined embarking in so perilous an ad¬
venture, observing to the projecter, that his dominions were
too small for the execution of so great a design, and that
1 In the London Gazette of Monday, 7th January 1695, a reward of fifty pounds was offered for the apprehension of “ Captain John
Law, a Scotchman, lately a prisoner in the King’s Bench for murther,” who is described as “ a very tall, black, lean man, well shaped,
above six foot high, large pock-holes in his face, big high nosed, speaks broad and loud.” This description, which conveys no very
favourable idea of Law’s personal appearance, and differs from his real portrait, is supposed by Mr Wood to have been drawn up with
a view to facilitate his escape. The prefix of “ Captain,” which is otherwise a good travelling title, may also, perhaps, be explained on
the same hypothesis.
L A W. 293
, John. France was the proper theatre for such speculations. “ If
v—I know the disposition of the people of that country,”
added Victor Amadeus, “ I am sure they will relish your
schemes; and, therefore, I would advise you to go thither
without delay.”
Law took the advice which was thus given him, and re¬
turned to Paris, wdiere he arrived in 1714, not long before
the death of Louis XIV. He was more favourably received
than on the occasion of his former visits, when he appears
to have been regarded as a mere adventurer; and soon
gained the confidence of the Duke of Orleans to such a
degree, that he was not only admitted to the convivial par¬
ties of the regent, but even nominated one of his counsellors
of state. At this time the French finances were in the
greatest disorder, indeed in a situation accounted desperate;
the nation was burthened with an immense load of debt,
contracted during the expensive wars of Louis XIV.; and
the people groaned under the intolerable pressure of the
taxes which had been imposed for payment of the interest.
All industry was thus checked, and trade in a manner anni¬
hilated ; manufactures, commerce, and navigation, had al¬
most ceased; the merchant and the trader were reduced to
beggary, and the artificer was compelled, for want of em¬
ployment, to leave the kingdom. In a word, the state of
affairs was such, that it had been debated in council, and
actually proposed to apply a sponge to the debt, and to seek
relief by means of a national bankruptcy. The proposal,
however, was rejected by the regent, and a commission ap¬
pointed to inquire into the claims of the state creditors, and
endeavour to introduce some degree of order into the public
finances. At this calamitous crisis, when the surplus of the
public revenue, after payment of the interest of the debt,
was found insufficient to defray the necessary expenses of
the civil government, Law came forward with his favourite
nostrum or panacea, and proposed to liquidate the debt, by
establishing a bank for issuing notes secured upon landed
property, and on the unalienable impledgement of all the
royal revenues. The project seems to have been approved
of, but as the conjuncture was thought unfavourable for
risking so bold an experiment, his application proved inef¬
fectual. Nothing discouraged, Law requested and obtained
permission to establish a private bank, to consist entirely of
funds advanced by himself, and others who chose to em¬
bark in the undertaking. The letters-patent, which are
dated the 2d and 20th of May 1716, specify the principles
upon which the bank had been established, as well as the
regulations according to which it was to be conducted. The
scheme promised success, and, in fact, the General Bank
of Law and Company had acquired great credit, when, in
December 1718, it was dissolved by an arret of the regent,
who, observing the advantages resulting from the establish¬
ment, resolved to take it into the hands of government; a
resolution which could not be very agreeable to the founder
and his associates in the enterprise. Law, however, was
named director-general of the Royal Bank, in which his
own had merged; and branches were established at Lyons,
Rochelle, Tours, Orleans, and Amiens.
Law now began to develope the stupendous project he
had long meditated, and which afterwards became so well
known to all Europe, under the name of the Mississippi
System. This scheme was nothing less than the vesting
of the whole privileges, effects, and possessions of all the
foreign trading companies, the great farms, the mint, the
general receipt of the king’s revenues, and the management
and property of the bank, in one great company, who, hav¬
ing thus in their hands all the trade, taxes, and royal re¬
venues, might be enabled to multiply the notes of the bank
to any extent they pleased, doubling or even tripling at
will the circulating medium of the kingdom, and, by the
immensity of their funds, possessed of a power to carry the
foreign trade and the improvement of the colonies to a
height altogether unattainable by other means. This mon- Law, John,
strous and impracticable monopoly was approved of by the
regent, and by letters-patent a commercial company was
established, under the name of the Company of the West;
to which was at the same time granted the whole province
of Louisiana, a country watered throughout its whole ex¬
tent by the Mississippi, from which the project accordingly
took its name. The scheme was well calculated to entrap
the unwary and to seduce the speculative. Of tliis company
200,000 actions or shares were issued, at 500 livres each,
and the subscriptions were made payable in a depreciated
paper-currency, called billets d'etat, which, however, in the
subscriptions, was taken at its full value. This could not
fail to operate as a tempting bait to the holders of these
billets or notes to lay them out in the purchase of shares,
especially since the depreciation amounted to between sixty
and seventy per cent. The company thus became creditors
of the king to the extent of a hundred millions of livres, the
interest of which sum was fixed at the rate of four per cent.
Law, who had now advanced high in the regent’s favour,
was of course named director-general of the Company of
the West, and thus intrusted with the development of his
own stupendous project. Louisiana having been repre¬
sented as a region abounding in gold and silver, and pos¬
sessing a fertile soil capable of the highest cultivation, the
actions or shares were bought up with the greatest avidity ;
and such was the rage for speculation, that the unimproved
parts of the colony were actually sold for 30,000 livres
the square league. In pursuance of the scheme, the farm
of tobacco was made over to the company at an advance
of rent exceeding two millions of livres. Soon afterwards
they acquired the charter and effects of the Senegal Com¬
pany; and this was succeeded by a still more important ac¬
quisition, namely, the exclusive privilege of trading to the
East Indies, China, and the South Seas, together with all
the possessions and effects of the China and India com¬
panies, now dissolved, upon the condition of liquidating all
just claims against them. Upon this occasion, the Company
of the West assumed the title of Company of the Indies;
and 50,000 new shares were ordered to be constituted, at
550 livres each, payable in coin. The price of actions
quickly rose to 1000 livres each. On the 25th of July 1719,
the mint was made over to this company for a considera¬
tion of fifty millions of livres, to be paid to the king within
fifteen months ; on the 27th of August following, the regent
took out of the hands of the farmers-general, and made
over to them, the great farms, for which they agreed to
pay an advance of rent of three millions and a half of livres ;
and, on the 31st of the same month, they also obtained the
general receipt or collection of the other branches of the
king’s revenue. Having acquired all these grants, and
thus concentrated in themselves not only the whole foreign
trade and possessions of France, but also the collection and
management of the royal revenues, they promised an an¬
nual dividend of 200 livres on every share; the price of
actions instantly rose in the market to 5000 livres; and the
public ran with such eagerness upon the last creation of
stock, that nearly double the requisite sum was subscribed,
whilst the greatest interest was exerted, and every strata¬
gem put in practice, to secure places in that subscription.
The frenzy now became general. A rage for the acquisi¬
tion of shares in the India Company seized and infatuated
all ranks in the kingdom. Clergy and laity, peers and ple¬
beians, princes and peasants, statesmen and magistrates, nay,
even ladies, all, in short, who either had or could procure
money for the purpose, turned stockjobbers, outbidding
each other with such avidity, that, in November 1719, the
price of shares rose to above 10,000 livres, or (when the
depreciation of the billets detat is taken into account) more
than sixty times the sum they originally sold for. Nothing
was talked of but actions; every place echoed with Missis-
LAW.
294
Law, John, sippi and Quinquempoix.1 All classes appeared to have but
v one object, one pursuit. Mechanics laid aside their work,
tradesmen forsook their shops, and persons of all grades
neglected their professions or employments, to embark in
this new occupation; whilst even the few who observed
some degree of moderation, showed by their conduct how
little concern they took in affairs foreign to the Mississippi
scheme.2 The delirium had reached its culminating
point.
Mr Law now blazed a meteor of unequalled splendour.
He possessed the ear of the Duke of Orleans; he was al¬
most adored by the people, ever ready to worship at the
shrine of the idol of the hour ; and he was surrounded by
princes, dukes, peers, marshals, and prelates, who all
courted his friendship, and even seemed ambitious of his
patronage. Nobles were content to wait in his ante-cham¬
bers, like the meanest subjects ; and ladies of the highest
quality employed every artifice, sometimes at the risk of
their necks, to attract his passing notice.3 The property
which he acquired was immense. He purchased no less
than fourteen estates with titles annexed to them, and
amongst these the marquisate of Rosny, which had belonged
to the illustrious Sully, the friend and minister of Henri IV.
About this period, too, a free pardon for the murder of Mr
Wilson was conveyed to him from England; and Edin¬
burgh, proud of having produced so great a personage,
transmitted to him the freedom of the city in a gold box.
By his abjuration of the Protestant religion, the only ob¬
stacle which stood in the way of his advancement to the
highest offices in the state was soon afterwards removed;
and, on the 5th of January 1720, he was appointed comp¬
troller-general of the finances. A few days previous to this,
the Academy of Sciences had elected him one of its hono¬
rary members ; and the flattering incense of poetry was
offered up at the same shrine with the homage of an infa¬
tuated people. Thus the astonished world beheld an ob¬
scure foreigner, of doubtful reputation and questionable
character, rise in a few months from a private condition to
the high station of prime minister of France, and govern for
a time, with almost absolute power, one of the greatest and
most enlightened nations of Europe. It might well be said
of him, Tollitur in altum ut casu graviore cadat.
But after having raised himself to such an unexampled
eminence, Law at length fell a sacrifice to the intrigues of
the other ministers, who, partly from envy, and partly from
apprehension, combined with ignorance, undermined the
insecure fabric he had reared, and thus precipitated its
fall. The credit of the bank and of the India Company had
attained its height in November 1719, when shares of the
latter sold for more than 10,000 livres each, and money
was so abundant in the former that the directors agreed to
lend any sum upon proper security at two per cent. But
amidst the general delirium, there were symptoms which
evidently betokened an approaching revulsion. The most
alarming of these was a constant drain of specie from the
bank, either for' the purpose of being hoarded or sent
abroad. Astonished at their exorbitant gains, the original Law, John
proprietors of the company thought only of converting their
shares into gold, and realizing the fortunes which they had
so suddenly acquired ; and it was computed that not less
than 500 millions of livres, the property of persons of this
description, had been sent out of France. To avert the
danger which thus threatened the system, several edicts
were issued early in 1720, by which payments in specie
were restricted to small sums, and the standard of the coin
was kept in continual fluctuation, whilst bank-notes were
declared to remain invariable, and rents, taxes, and customs
were made payable in notes. But what crowned all was
the edict of the 27th February 1720, prohibiting indi¬
viduals, as well as secular or religious communities, from
having in their possession more than 500 livres in specie,
under the penalty of a fine, and confiscation of all sums
found exceeding that amount; a measure which could
scarcely fail to sow distrust in the bosom of families, and
to excite alarm in the public mind. Still the delusion pre¬
vailed. On the 23d of February, a few days before the
publication of this edict, the Royal Bank had been incorpo¬
rated with the company, and the king not only remained
guarantee of the bank-notes, but gave up to the company
all the profits made by the bank since December 1718,
when the government had taken it into its own hands.
Meanwhile, the manufacture of notes proceeded with so
much activity, that, by the 1st of May 1720, paper-money
had been fabricated to the amount of more than 2600
millions of livres, or nearly L.110,000,000 sterling; whilst
the specie in the kingdom was estimated at only 1300
millions of livres, or about L.52,000,000 sterling. In this
state of matters, Cardinal Dubois and M. D’Argenson re¬
presented to the regent that it had become necessary to
equalize the proportion between the notes and the coin,
either by reducing the value of the one to the extent of a
half, or by doubling that of the other.
This extraordinary point was debated in council, where
it was opposed by some of the members, amongst whom
was the comptroller-general, who strenuously contended
for letting matters remain as they were; but the majority
being in favour of the proposition for lowering the value of
the paper, it was decided accordingly ; and, on the 21st of
May 1720, an edict was issued, which, contrary to all sound
policy, and even to the most solemn stipulations, reduced
the value of the company’s bank-notes one-half, and fixed
their actions or shares at 5000 livres. By this unjustifiable
and fatal step, the whole paper fabric was destroyed in an
instant, the notes lost all credit, and next day a man might
have starved with 100 millions of paper money in his
pocket. The consternation with which all ranks were seized
was soon converted into rage, and it became necessary to
station troops in different parts of the capital, to prevent
the consequences to be apprehended from the fury and de¬
spair of the populace. Disorder and confusion reigned
everywhere ; seditious and inflammatory libels were posted
up and distributed; and the life of the regent himself was
1 The street where the stockjobbing was at first carried on.
2 The unexampled rise in the price of actions enabled obscure and humble individuals to acquire at once princely fortunes; and many
amusing anecdotes are told of persons thus suddenly raised to affluence. A footman having realized a large sum, provided himself with
a carriage; but the first day it drew up at his door, obeying the instinctive habit of his calling, he, instead of stepping into the vehicle,
mounted up to his old station behind it. Another of the same fraternity, who had obeyed the like familiar impulse, endeavoured
adroitly to cover his mistake by pretending that he got up merely to see if there was room at the back for two or three more lacqueys,
whom he was resolved to hire instantly. Law’s coachman had made so great a fortune that he asked a dismission from the service of
his master, which was granted, on condition of his procuring another as good as himself. Cook-maids and waiting-women appeared at
the opera, bedizzened with jewels and finery; many who had not a dozen livres in the world suddenly “ tumbled from a garret into a
carriage;” and the son of a baker at Toulouse, being desirous of having a superb service of plate, purchased the contents of a goldsmith’s
shop for 400,000 livres, and sent them home to his wife, with orders to set them out properly for supper. In a word, property under-
■went a new and most grotesque distribution.
3 The regent’s mofher asserts, in one of her letters, that “ si Laws le vouloit, les femmes Francises lui baiseroient la derriere ;” a
strong expression, certainly, but one which shows that all ideas of delicacy, or even decency, were absorbed by the cupidity and avarice
which had taken possession of the public mind.
LAW.
Law, John, threatened.1 Some conception may be formed of the dis-
tress of the people, when it is considered that at the time
when the bank thus stopped payment, and the value
of paper money instantly sunk to zero, not less than
2,235,085,590 livres, or upwards of L.90,000,000 sterling
in notes, were in circulation. Law was, of course, pecu°
liarly obnoxious to popular odium, which he endeavoured in
vain to allay by resigning into the hands of the regent his
office of comptroller-general, on the 29th of May ; but,
though several times exposed to imminent danger, from
the vengeance both of the parliament and the people, he
remained in France until towards the close of the year
1720, when he withdrew to Brussels; and soon afterwards
his whole property was confiscated, and his brother William
sent to the Bastile.
Law arrived at Brussels on the 22d of December 1720,
and, after waiting there for some time, in the vain expecta¬
tion of being recalled to France, set out for Venice, which
he reached early in January 1721 ; he then visited other
places on the Continent, and, in October, arrived in Eng¬
land, for the ostensible purpose of pleading the king’s par¬
don. He was at first well received, and visited by persons
of distinction ; but when it was discovered that the fallen
financier was in a state almost bordering upon destitution,
his friends began to fall off, and, of those who had known or
perhaps courted him in his day of power, he could find none
good-natured enough to lend him a thousand pounds. In
a letter addressed to Mrs Howard, afterwards Countess of
Suffolk, he calls that lady his “ only friend an avowal
which affords a striking instance of the instability of for¬
tune, power, and friendship. After residing some years in
England, this extraordinary man returned once more to the
Continent, and closed his chequered career at Venice,
where, on the 21st of March 1729, he died in a state but
little removed from indigence, in the fifty- eighth year of his
age. Lady Catherine Knollys, with whom Law had eloped,
as formerly mentioned, but whom he subsequently married,
survived him several years, having died in 1747. Soon
after his death appeared the following epitaph, the point of
which reminds us of the bitter jests which appeared upon
the occasion of his fall:—
Ci git cet Ecossois celebre,
Ce calculateur sans egal,
Qui, par les regies de Talgebre,
A mis la France a I’hopital.
Even if it had not been interrupted by the edict of the
regent, Law’s project was too insecure in principle to have
proved permanent. The favourite maxim inculcated by
Law, and upon which his whole fabric of the Mississippi
system was reared ; namely, that the power and prosperity
of a nation increase in proportion to the quantity of money
circulating therein, and that, as the richest nations have
not specie sufficient to afford full employment to their in¬
habitants, this defect may be supplied by paper credit; in¬
volves a dangerous fallacy, even in the most restricted view
that can be taken of its application, inasmuch as it implies
295
that paper money may be issued with advantage to an al- Law,
most unlimited extent, upon general security ; and that its Edmund,
credit, or, in other words, its value, may thus be maintained
without its being rendered convertible at pleasure into cash.
But all experience has proved that this is absolutely impos¬
sible. When paper is in excess, in comparison with the
total amount of gold and silver currency, it necessarily be¬
comes depreciated ; the prices of commodities experience
a corresponding rise; the nominal value of the precious
metals is increased in proportion to the amount of the de¬
preciation, of which this increase is the only measure, and
they disappear from circulation. All existing contracts and
obligations are disturbed ; debtors benefited at the expense
of creditors; a spirit of reckless speculation and adventure
is thus engendered ; and, after a time, the crisis of revul¬
sion and ruin arrives. Whenever the quantity of money
in circulation is too great in proportion to the total amount
of commodities to be circulated by it, depreciation is the
necessary consequence, or, in other words, a proportional
rise in the price of commodities. Money has no creative
power, as Law seems all along to have imagined, and can
never be in excess without endangering “ the power and
prosperity” of the nation where this is the case. His whole
system, therefore, was built upon a sandy foundation, and,
even if it had received no rude or sudden shock, would
have fallen to pieces from its own insecurity and instability.
At the same time, there is much truth in an observation of
Mr Burke, in his Reflections on the French Revolution.
“ It is not true,” says he, “ that Law built solely on a spe¬
culation concerning the Mississippi; he added the East
India trade, he added the African trade, he added the farms
of all the farmed revenue of France; all these unquestion¬
ably could not support the structure which the public en¬
thusiasm, not he, chose to build on these bases. Fie laid
the best foundation that he could, perhaps the best which,
in the circumstances, it was possible to lay ; but the nation
went suddenly mad, an event which he could scarcely have
foreseen ; the company was hurried onwards by the general
frenzy; and when the delirium had reached its height, the
regent was advised to issue the fatal edict, which levelled
the whole fabric to the dust.
(See CEuvres de Law, passim ; Histoire du Systeme des
Finances, tom. i.; Pollnitz, Memoires; Massillon, Memoires
de la Minorite de Louis XV. ; Memoires de la Regence de
M. le Due d'Orleans, tom. i.; Richelieu, Memoires, tom.
iii.; Voltaire, Siecle de Louis XV; Chalmers’s Biog.
Diet, art. “ Law;” Wood, Life of John Law of Lauriston,
Edinburgh, 1824.) (j. b—E.)
Law, Edmund, Bishop of Carlisle, was born at Cartmel,
in Lancashire, in 1703. After attending school at Cartmel,
and afterwards at Kendal, he finished his education at St
John’s College, Cambridge, and was soon after elected a
fellow of Christ College. While residing at Cambridge,
he published a translation of Archbishop King’s Essay on
the Origin of Evil; and this raising a controversy between
him and Dr Clarke, led soon afterwards to the publication
of his Inquiry into the Ldeas of Space, Time, §c. To
< yen in is season of calamity, the French exemplified the indestructible gaiety of their national character, by sporting with their
wn mis or unes in jests and epigrams. The following hebdomadal record is, perhaps, unique amongst d’esprits.
Lundi j’achetai des actions ;
Mardi je gagnai des millions;
Mercredi j’arrangeai mon menage ;
Jeudi je pris un Equipage ;
Vendredi je m’en fus au bal;
, > Et Samedi a I’hopital.
. e,, ,.el a te.rw^r® de Tencin, having had the principal share in Mr Law’s conversion, a service for which he was rewarded
by the bishopric of Grenoble, is thus addressed by a malicious epigrammatist
Foin de ton zele seraphique,
Malheureux Abb6 de Tencin !
Depuis que Laws est Catholique,
Tout le royaume est Capujin.
296 LAW
Law, this is added a valuable dissertation by Waterland, contain-
William jng one of the happiest refutations of Clarke’s a priori de¬
monstration. His edition of Stephen’s Thesaurus was
Lawn. printe(j about the same time. In 1737 the University pre-
sented him with the living of Graystock, in Cumberland ;
and to this were added in 1743 the archdeaconry of Car¬
lisle, and the living of Salkeld, a village on the River Eden.
Living in retirement at this village, he wrote Considera¬
tions on the Theory of Religion, with Reflections on the
Life and Character of Christ. In 1756, upon his succeed¬
ing Dr Keene as master of Peterhouse, Cambridge, he
resigned his archdeaconry, and in 1760 became principal
librarian of the university, and afterwards professor of casu¬
istry. In a few years more, honours came rapidly upon him.
He was presented with the archdeaconry of Staffordshire,
and a prebend in the church of Lincoln. To a stall, ob¬
tained in 1767 in the church of Durham, was added in the
following year, through the recommendation of the Duke
of Grafton, the bishopric of Carlisle. Law had chosen
Locke for his master in philosophy; and in 1777 he pub¬
lished an edition of that philosopher’s works in 3 volumes
with a preface and a life of the author. He died at Rose
Castle, his episcopal residence, in 1787, in his eighty-fourth
year. Bold and independent in speculation, and tenacious
of his own dogmas, Law was still tolerant of the opinions
of his opponents, and treated them with respect and can¬
dour. His openness to conviction was shown in the im¬
portant alterations he made in the second editions of his
two principal works. Among other peculiar tenets, he
holds that without Divine interposition the dead would con¬
tinue for ever in that state of insensibility which is the re¬
sult of the fall. In disposition he was cheerful and con¬
tented ; but his bashfulness and his fondness for literary
ease, rendered him too inactive and too facile for his high
position in the church.
Law, William, a well-known religious author, was born
at King’s Cliff, Northamptonshire, in 1686. He entered Em¬
manuel College, Cambridge, in 1705 ; and, with the inten¬
tion of taking orders, passed through the necessary degrees.
He was elected a fellow in 1711, and took the degree of
M.A. in the following year. On the accession of George
I. he refused to take the prescribed oaths and declaration,
and in consequence vacated his fellowship in 1716. After
officiating for some time as a curate in London, he went to
reside at Putney as tutor to the father of Gibbon the his¬
torian. It is not known how long he continued in that
situation; but it is certain that he left it about 1740, and
retired, along with Hester Gibbon, his ward’s sister, and
another lady, to his birthplace, for the purpose of leading a
retired and charitable life. There he had founded, in
1727, an hospital and a school. After a twenty years’ resi¬
dence, he died on the 19th of April 1761, in the seventy-
fifth year of his age.
Law’s character is clearly indicated by his published
works. It is thus pointedly described by Gibbon in his
Miscellaneous Works :—“ In our family he left the repu¬
tation of a worthy and pious man, who believed all that he
professed, and practised all that he enjoined.”
His works extend to 9 volumes octavo, embracing
sixteen treatises and a collection of letters. The most po¬
pular are the Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life
and the Practical Treatise upon Christian Perfection.
To the former Dr Johnson attributed his having been led
to think earnestly about religion. The Three Letters to
the Bishop of Bangor are, perhaps, the most powerful of
his productions, and very valuable as specimens of a high
style of controversy comparatively rare in any language.
His Reply to Mandeville’s Fable of the Bees has been
lately republished in a separate form, writh an Introductory
Essay, by F. D. Maurice.
LAWN, fine linen or cambric. See Linen.
L A W
LAWRENCE, Sm Thomas, a celebrated English
painter, was born at Bristol, on the 13th of April 1769.
His father, who kept an inn, first in Bristol, and afterwards
in Devizes, made some pretensions to literary taste, and
was in the habit of reciting poetry; an accomplishment
which his son acquired at a very early age, as well as that
of taking liknesses with striking fidelity. One of the ear¬
liest instances recorded of young Lawrence’s genius is to
be found in an incident which occurred to Lord and Lady
Kenyon, some years previous to the time when the former
was elevated to the peerage. Happening to remain for a
day at the inn of the elder Lawrence, they were introduced
by Boniface to his son, who, he said, “ although then only
in his fifth year, could recite them poetry or speeches, or
take their likenesses.” The visitors agreed that the boy’s
skill with the pencil should be put to the test; and the
future president having been lifted on the table, and seated
in an arm-chair, took their likenesses with a rapidity, a spirit,
and a correctness, which astonished them. With the ex¬
ception of a few lessons in Latin and French, obtained
through a private channel, all the education which young
Lawrence received, he acquired between his sixth and
eighth year; but his was a mind capable of educating it¬
self, and long ere the young artist attracted public atten¬
tion, he had treasured up more than an ordinary stock of
knowledge. But drawing, particularly taking likenesses,
chiefly occupied his attention until he was ten years of age,
when he began of his own accord to attempt original com¬
positions of the highest class. The subjects which he chose
were of the most ambitious description, such as Peter de¬
nying Christ, Haman and Mordecai, and the like. His
fame as an artist now spread amongst the families of dis¬
tinction in the surrounding counties ; and not long after¬
wards, the Honourable Daines Barrington noticed him in
his Miscellanies, as a striking instance “ of early genius
in children.” The elder Lawrence having failed in busi¬
ness, removed to Bath, where he placed his son for some
time with a celebrated crayon painter, under whom he
made surprising progress. At this time he executed, at
half a guinea each, likenesses of the fashionables of Bath ;
and this initiatory exercise in drawing individuals in high
life, arrayed in their gay and elegant costume, had, doubt¬
less, considerable influence in forming the style of the art¬
ist, and preparing him to become the painter of patricians.
He now numbered amongst his warm admirers and patrons
persons of rank and fortune ; but the most remarkable in¬
cident in his early career, was his receiving the great sil¬
ver pallet from the Society of Arts, with a present of five
guineas. These marks of distinction were conferred upon
him for executing in crayons the Transfiguration of Ra¬
phael, when he was only thirteen years of age. His large
crayon drawings became in great request; and in Oxford,
Salisbury, and other places which he visited, he obtained
considerable employment for his pencil. When in his six¬
teenth year, he conceived a strong desire to appear upon
the stage ; but the remonstrances of his friends induced
him to abandon this project; and about a year afterwards,
he made his first attempt in oil painting. In 1787 he re¬
moved to London, where he availed himself of the public
institutions for instruction in his art, and commenced that
career which terminated so triumphantly. He was received
at the house of Sir Joshua Reynolds, and encouraged by
the great head of the English school of art. His admission
as a student at the Royal Academy, and his first appear¬
ance in the exhibition at Somerset House, soon followed
his arrival in the metropolis. Each succeeding year he in¬
creased the number of the performances which he sent in :
and his reputation growing apace, he was elected an Asso¬
ciate of the Royal Academy on the 10th of November 1791.
The death of Sir Joshua Reynolds in 1792 opened up a
fair field of competition for aspiring genius; and although
Lawrence
L A W
Lawrence. Mr Lawrence was then only in his twenty-third year, it
soon became apparent that he was destined to bear away
the palm from the most gifted artists with whom he had to
contend. The Dilettanti Society unanimously chose him
as their painter in the room of Sir Joshua ; and his Majesty
George III. also appointed him to succeed the deceased
president, as his principal painter in ordinary. On the
10th of February 1794, Mr Lawrence was elected a royal
academician; and employment now flowed upon him from
all quarters. He made the most rapid progress in his
profession, and his reputation grew steadily until he came
to be generally considered as the first portrait-painter of
the age. An enumeration of the works of this description
which he executed would comprehend all the rank, fashion,
and intelligence which distinguished the times in which he
lived, including those of most of the crowned heads of
Europe. The royal family, the nobility and gentry, distin¬
guished men of letters and statesmen, actors and actresses,
all sat for their portraits to Lawrence. It may be justly
said of him as it was said of Sir Joshua Reynolds, that
“he painted three generations of beauties.” In 1815 the
Prince Regent conferred on him the honour of knighthood ;
and in 1818, at the request of the same illustrious indivi¬
dual, he was induced to proceed to Aix-la-Chapelle, to
take likenesses of the most distinguished statesmen who
had there assembled for diplomatic purposes. Having
executed his mission at Aix-la-Chapelle, Sir Thomas pro¬
ceeded to Vienna, and thence to Rome, where he had an
opportunity of contemplating, for the first time, the great
masterpieces of ancient art. During the whole of his resi¬
dence on the Continent, he was received by the sovereigns
of the different countries he visited, and entertained with
marked distinction; and the propriety and elegance of his
deportment made an impression highly favourable to his
character as an English artist and gentleman. After an
absence of eighteen months he returned to England; but,
before reaching his native country, he had been unanimously
elected to succeed Mr West as president of the Royal
Academy; and this office he continued to hold till his death,
which took place on the 7th of January 1830.
In portrait-painting, the branch of art which he made
his profession, Sir Thomas Lawrence was the most distin¬
guished artist of the day. He was one of the few English
painters who attained a proficiency in their art before visiting
Italy, or without studying the old masters; a circumstance
which must be attributed to his strong native genius and
exquisite taste. Ihe distinguishing characteristics of his
style was the power of conveying a faithful resemblance,
with, at the same time, a singularly delicate sense of beauty,
grace, elegance, and dignity. An able writer thus speaks
of him :—“ No painter who ever lived seemed to have dived
more deeply into individual character, as conveyed by the
conformation of the visage, and the expression of the fea¬
tures ; and none knew more skilfully how to avail himself
of the changeful appearances which they betrayed in those
conversations which were dexterously introduced durino-
the sitting, and which destroyed or relaxed a rigidity ol'
muscle assumed on such occasions, and which frequently
baffles the utmost ingenuity of the artist. In his female
portraits (the great test of talent) he had more grace and
a greater variety of attitude than Vandyke, although he
certainly did not equal him in colouring. It is a general
opinion, also, among painters, that he had less nature and
less breadth than Sir Joshua Reynolds; and that opinion
is probably well founded. Sir Thomas, especially, in the
latter periods of his practice, exhibited more detail in his
portraits, and appeared to paint with a smaller pencil, than
his illustrious predecessor, who, in his effects of light and
shade, seemed to take Correggio as his model. The hair
in Sir Thomas’s pictures was painted in fine masses, in a
way peculiar to himself; and his eyes, to the splendour of
VOL. XIII.
L A W 297
which he sometimes made great sacrifices, were divine. Lawrence,
1 he late Mr Fuseli, who was by no means a thorough-going St
admirer even of Sir Thomas, has been heard to say of him, II
‘But he paints eyes better than Titian.’”
His drawing was admirable, and some of his chalk sketches v ’ u
are considered by the best judges as fine as Michael An-
gelo or Raffaelle could have executed. Sir Thomas did
not confine himself to portrait-pain ting alone, but executed
paintings of a far higher order of art. Of these it has been
observed by Mr Westmacott, “His illustrations of Cato,
Coriolanus, and Hamlet, may be considered historical works,
and examples of his creative genius, possessing a vigour
of imagination, a propriety of sentiment, a breadth and
chasteness of composition worthy to be ranked with the
classical and distinguished efforts of the sixteenth century ;
whilst his more comprehensive powers were displayed in
the admirable picture of Satan : all eminent proofs that he
possessed talents equal to the accomplishment of the highest
designs in the art.” In private life Sir Thomas Lawrence
was most exemplary, being kind and liberal to artists, and
ready to encourage rising merit. In discharge of his duties
connected with the high station which he filled in relation
to the academy, he displayed unremitting diligence and
zeal; “ And no man,” says an academician, “died with better
claims to the respect of his brother members.” (j. f. s.)
LAWRENCE, a manufacturing town of the United
States of North America, Essex county, Massachusetts, is
situate on the left bank of the Merrimac, 26 miles N. of
Boston, and forms the centre of a network of railroads
communicating with Lowell, Newburyport, Boston, and
other places of importance. Although founded but recently,
Lawrence has become one of the chief manufacturing towns
in New England, in consequence of the great water-power
it derives from the Merrimac. In 1845 the Essex Com¬
mercial Company constructed a dam of masonry across this
stream, by which a fall of 28 feet was obtained for the
whole river. From this dam a canal, from 60 to 100 feet
broad, 12 feet deep, and more than a mile long, conducts
the water to the various factories situate betw'een it and the
Merrimac. The town proper, which is laid out between
the latter and a small tributary called the Spicket, has in
its centre an open common of 17^ acres in extent, and
contains a town-house, gaol, several churches and schools,
and a literary institute. The inhabitants are almost all
employed in the various factories in the town, some of
which are of great size, and one, the Pacific, is said to be
the largest in the world. The building has seven storeys,
and its flooring covers 16 acres, while the consumption of
cotton within its walls amounts to 1,500,000 lb. yearly,
and of wool to the third of that amount. It gives employ¬
ment to about 2000 persons. The manufactures of the
town comprise woollen, linen, and cotton goods of various
kinds. Incorporated, 1847. Pop. (1848), 6000; (1850),
8283; (1855), about 14,000.
LAWRENCE, St, Gulf, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean,
British North America, having Newfoundland on the E.,
Labrador, Lower Canada, and New Brunswick on the N. and
W., and Nova Scotia and Cape Breton on the S.; extending
from N. Lat. 46. to 51. 30., and W. Long. 58. to 65. It
communicates with the ocean by three channels, the principal
of which is between Cape Breton and Newfoundland, 48
miles in width at its narrowest part. The other two channels
are much narrower; the Straits of Belle Isle, between the N.
extremity of Newfoundland and Labrador, being 10 miles,
and the Gut of Canso, betwixt Cape Breton and the main¬
land, being only about half a mile in width at the narrowest
part. The gulf is about 300 miles in length from N. to S.,
by 240 miles in breadth, and incloses numerous islands, the
chief of which are,—Anticosti in the N., the Magdalen
group in the centre, and Prince Edward’s Island inlhe S.
I he estuary ol the St Lawrence River debouches into the
2 P
*
298 LAY
LEA
Layback gulf at the western extremity of Anticosti; although, pro-
1 perly speaking, this firth is an inlet of tlie gulf as far up as
Lead, the River Saguenay. Navigation is suspended here during
v , v—^ winter and early spring, from the prevalence of ice, which
is especially dangerous in the entrances to the gulf. Fogs,
also, are very frequent during the prevalence of the E.
winds in spring. In summer, however, the W. and S.W.
winds render navigation comparatively safe. The fisheries,
which are very valuable, are prosecuted with assiduity
by the colonists as well as by United States companies.
Herring, cod, and mackerel abound.
Lawrence, St. See Canada.
LAYBACH (ancient SEmona), a fortified town of Aus¬
tria, capital of Carniola, and of the former kingdom of Illyria,
is situate on a navigable river of the same name, an affluent
of the Save, 52 miles N.E. of Trieste; N. Lat. 46. 48., E.
Long. 14. 30. The town and its suburbs stand on both sides
of the stream, which is here crossed by several bridges. The
castle, on a hill around which the largest part of the town
is built, is now used as a prison. Among its public
buildings are,—the cathedral, several churches and religious
houses, Auersberg palace, a lyceum and gymnasium. A
pillar stands in the market-place, raised in honour of the
“ Lady Conqueror of the Moon,” Mondbezwingerinn, a
statue of whom is said to have rallied and led on the inhabi¬
tants when they were dispirited and had lost their general in
one of the Turkish invasions. Laybach is the see of a bishop,
and contains the law courts of the province. Its manufac¬
tures, which are unimportant, include porcelain, linens, and
refined sugar; and it carries on an active trade in flax,
grain, and wool. The Vienna, Bruck, and Trieste Railroad
passes through the town. It is celebrated for a congress
held here in 1821. Pop. (1851), 17,256.
LAZARITES, The, an order of priests appointed by
Vincent de Paule, and deriving their name from the Priory
of St Lazarus, at Paris. Their mission was instituted in
1624, and in 1632 it was sanctioned by Urban VIII. The
Lazarites suffered considerably as a body during the French
Revolution, but after 1816 they were restored to their
former position, and took an active part in the political move¬
ments which preceded 1830. In Poland they are numerous
and influential, and their influence has been banefully
exerted in retarding the progress of science. They have
a footing in Spain and Austria; and in the East they have
a mission in China.
LAZZARONI. See Naples.
LE, or Leh, the capital of Ladak, in Central Asia, is
situate in a narrow sandy plain between the right bank of
the Upper Indus, and a chain of mountains which rise on
the N. to about 2000 feet; N. Lat. 34. 10., E. Long. 77.
38. It is 10,000 or 11,000 feet above the level of the sea,
and is surrounded by a wall with towers, extending on either
side to the summit of the neighbouring hills. The streets
are narrow and irregular, and in some cases covered over
to protect passengers from the sun’s rays. The houses are
from one to three storeys in height, built partly of stone and
partly of unburnt brick. There are no chimneys, and
the furniture is very rude and scanty. The only conspicu¬
ous building in the town is the rajah’s palace, a square
massive edifice, several storeys in height. Le is the seat
of an active trade. Pop. about 4000.
LEAD, a simple metal of a bluish-white colour, of the
specific gravity 11‘44; its chemical equivalent is 103,57,
and its symbol Pb, from plumbum. It is so soft as to be
cut by the nail, to take impressions, and to leave a streak
on paper. Its ductility and tenacity are low, but it admits
of being rolled into sheets, and drawn into wire. Its fusing
point is 620° F. It contracts considerably in passing from
the fluid to the solid state, and hence is not well fitted for
castings. It is an inferior conductor of heat and electricity.
By being repeatedly heated and cooled, it becomes perma¬
nently enlarged; whence the puckered appearance of the
lead lining of sinks, &c., which are exposed to the action of
hot and cold water.
Lead.
There are four oxides of lead, only one of which, the
protoxide, PbO, has basic properties.
Metallurgy of Lead.—The ore which supplies the greater
portion of the lead produced in this country is galena, or
the native sulphuret. The chief lead mines are in Derby¬
shire ; but there are also mines at Allandale and other
western parts of Northumberland; at Alston Moor, and
other parts of Cumberland ; in the western parts of Dur¬
ham ; in Swaledale, Arkendale, and other parts of York¬
shire ; in Salop; in Cornwall; the Mendip Hills in Somer¬
setshire; and in the Isle of Man. The Welsh mines are
chiefly in Flint, Cardigan, and Montgomery shires; the
Scotch in Dumfries, Lanark, and Argyll; and the Irish in
Wicklow, Waterford, and Down.
Galena, when pure, consists of lead 86-55, and sulphur
13'45. It usually contains silver, and hence obtains the
name of argentiferous galena. Galena crystallizes in the
cubic system, and is deposited on a matrix of quartz, car¬
bonate of lime, fluor-spar, or baryta. In the West of Eng¬
land the lead mines occur in clay-slate; in Derbyshire, and
other northern districts, in limestone.
Preparatory to smelting, the ore is picked, broken, and
washed, to separate earthy and stony matters; it is next
roasted at a moderate heat, so as to allow of oxygen being
absorbed, whereby about one-half of the ore is converted
into sulphate of lead ; this is mixed up with the unaltered
portions, and the temperature is rapidly raised, so as to run
the two together, when sulphurous acid gas escapes, and
pure metallic lead remains behind. In this process the
sulphur of the unaltered portion of the ore unites with the
sulphur and oxygen of the other portion.
The furnace employed is represented in vertical section
(fig. 1). Its sole is made up of the fused slags of former
rig. i.
operations, and the centre is hollowed, for the purpose of
collecting the fused metal, which is drawn off by the tap-
hole T, into a cast-iron pan on the outside. The arch of
the furnace is depressed, so as to bring the flame of the fire
into contact with the charge ; this is let in by the hopper H,
and is spread about and worked by means of iron pad¬
dles through the openings O, O, which also serve to supply
air to the charge. At D is an opening for feeding the fire ;
C is the chimney ; it is connected by means of flues, with
condensing chambers, which prevent the poisonous lead
fume from escaping into the surrounding district.
The charge varies from 12 cwt. in the north of England,
to from 20 to 24 cwt. in Wales. It is spread evenly over
the sole, and occasionally stirred for the purpose of bringing
fresh surfaces to the air. After about two hours, some of
the rich slags of former operations are thrown in. These
quickly give up their metallic lead, and it is run out through
the tap-hole. The heat is increased, and as the charge
fuses, it is properly distributed over the sole. As the lead
begins to collect at the lower part of the sole, quicklime
Lead.
LEAD.
is thrown upon it, and, as the slags flow to the depression,
they are pushed back to the fire-bridge. After from 3 to
hours, the openings are closed, and the heat is urged for
about three-quarters of an hour. After this the charge is
again rubbled, to assist the flow of metallic lead into theliol-
low; the slags are pushed back, quicklime is added to set free
a portion of the oxide of lead, and to reduce the liquidity
of the slags, and allow of their being easily removed. The
oxide leacts on any portion of the sulphuret not decomposed
during the roasting; but it is now time to reduce the oxide,
which is partly effected by the addition of powdered coal,
and also by urging the heat for about 40 minutes, after
which the furnace is tapped, and the slags, dried by a further
addition of quicklime, are removed. From 7^ to 10 cwt.
of coal are required for each ton of ore smelted, and the
shift of the furnace, including the casting of the lead into
pigs, occupies from 5^ to 7 hours. If the lead contain anti¬
mony or tin, which often happens with Spanish ores, it has
to be refined by an operation called improving. The lead
is melted in a shallow cast-iron pan set in the bed of a
reverberatory furnace, and kept in that condition until
the antimony and tin, which are more oxidizable than
lead, have been entirely removed in the pellicle of oxide,
which continually forms on the surface, and is frequently
raked off. A sample of the lead is examined from time to
time, and when it exhibits a pecidiar flaky crystalline ap¬
pearance on the surface, the metal is run off and cast into
pigs.
Galena always contains a small proportion of sulphuret of
silver, the proportion being subject to considerable varia¬
tion ; an ore which yields 120 oz. of silver to the ton, or
0-36 per cent., is very rich. Formerly the silver was ex¬
tracted in a cupel furnace, called a refinery, in which the
process of cupellation, similar to that described under As¬
saying, was conducted on a large scale. Of late years,
however, a simpler and more economical process has been
adopted, based on the fact noticed by Mr Pattinson of New¬
castle, that if fused argentiferous lead be briskly agitated
during its slow cooling, a portion of the metal solidifies in
the form of crystalline grains, which subside. These crys¬
tals consist of lead nearly free from silver, the fusing point
of the argentiferous alloy being lower than that of pure
lead. All, therefore, that is necessary, is to separate the
crystals thus formed, and in proportion as this is done, the
liquid mass left behind becomes rich in silver. In Mr Pat-
tinson’s process, eight or nine cast-iron pots, each contain¬
ing about 5 tons of fused metal, are set in a row, with a
separate fire beneath each. A charge is introduced into
the middle pot, and when it is fused the fire is put out,
and the metal is briskly stirred during the cooling. As the
crystals subside, they are removed by means of a large per- *
forated iron ladle, and transferred to the next pot on the
right hand. When about fths of the metal have thus been
removed, the argentiferous alloy is ladled out into the
next pot on the left hand, and a fresh charge is added to
the centre pot, which is treated as before. When the pots
on the right and on the left hand have received a sufficient
charge, either of very poor or of very rich alloy, they are
submitted to a similar process, the concentrated argenti¬
ferous portion is again passed on to the next pot on the
left, while the crystalline, or poorer portion, is transferred
to the next pot on the right. At length the last pot
on the left may contain lead with 300 oz. of silver to the
ton, and it has not been found desirable to concentrate it
beyond this point; the last pot on the right may contain
lead with not more than % oz. of silver to the ton. This is
cast into pigs for the market, and the lead is found to be
greatly improved in quality by the process. Lead which
contains from 3 to 4 oz. of silver to the ton, admits of being
profitably worked for the sake of the silver, while by the
old method of cupellation, ores containing less than 20 oz.
of silver per ton scarcely paid the expense of extracting
the silver. The process of cupellation may, however, be
profitably employed on the rich silver alloy contained in the
extreme left hand pot. This process is based upon the fact,
that lead by exposure to a current of air at a high tempera¬
ture absorbs oxygen rapidly, and becomes converted into a
fusible oxide, whilst the silver remains unaffected. The
oxide of lead, or litharge, fuses at a high temperature, and
flowing off from the convex surface of the molten metal,
constantly presents fresh surfaces to the action of the
blast.
In Great Britain, cupellation is conducted in a reverbe¬
ratory furnace with a moveable hearth or cupel, consisting
of an oval shallow basin, made of a mixture of bone-ash
and a small quantity of wood ashes ; the two being slightly
moistened, are beaten into an iron ring, about 4 feet by 2
feet; this cupel is supported in the furnace by means of
bricks; when dry, the fire is lighted, the heat gradually
raised, and the lead placed in the cupel; when melted, a
blast of air from a tuyere is made to play over its surface;
litharge forms in large quantity, fuses, and flows off through
a gutter into an iron pot beneath the furnace. Lead is
added from time to time to supply the place of the oxidized
portions, until about 5 tons have been reduced to 2 or
3 cwt. The molten mass is run out through a hole made
in the bottom of the cupel; the hole is then closed with
fresh bone-ash, and another charge introduced. When suf¬
ficient metal has thus been collected to produce from 3000
to 5000 oz. of silver, the process is repeated in order to
remove the last portions of lead. This separate process is
found desirable, since towards the end of the process the
litharge carries much silver with it, which litharge is re¬
duced, and the silver obtained from it as before. The
litharge obtained from the first process is sold as such, or
it is reduced in a small reverberatory furnace by means of
powdered coal or anthracite. The porous cupels are also
passed through the furnace, in order to obtain the metal
absorbed by them. In the earlier stages of the process, the
litharge forms on the surface of the melted metal as quickly
as it flows off; but when nearly the whole of the lead has
been oxidized, the film becomes thinner and thinner, and
at length thin enough to exhibit the beautiful iridescent
tints of Newton’s rings. The last film suddenly breaks up,
and reveals the brilliant surface of the metallic silver, known
as the fulguration of the metal, and this indicates the com¬
pletion of the process.
In the N. of England the galena is first roasted, and
then reduced in a small square blast furnace or forge-hearth,
known as the Scotch furnace. The rectangular cavity of
masonry C (figs. 2, 3), is lined with cast-iron, and the sole-
plate S is of the same material, furnished with an upright
FiZ- 2- Fig. 3.
ledge at its back and two sides. The sole-plate is brought
299
Lead.
300
LEAD.
Lead, forward to tlie front of the hearth, or a separate cast-iron
^ plate is attached to it, called the work-stone W (fig. 2).
This also has a ledge, except towards the sole. The whole
plate is set with a slope, so that the hinder ledge is about
4 J inches above the surface of the hearth. The reduced
metal accumulates until it rises above the raised ledge,
when it flows out by gutters g (fig. 3) in the work-
stone, and is received into the melting-pot P. Above
the hinder ledge of the sole is a block of cast-iron called
the hack-stone, and on this is the tuyere t: on this is
another piece of iron called the pipe-stone, furnished with a
cavity below for the passage of the tuyere. The back wall
of the furnace is crowned by another piece of cast-iron,
called the hack-stone. The ledges of the two sides of the
sole support bearers of cast-iron, above which, resting on
fire-bricks, is another piece of cast-iron, called the fore¬
stone, while the space at each end of the fore-stone is closed
by a cube of cast-iron, called a key-stone ; two similar stones
fill up the space between the fore-stone and the back part
of the furnace. The front of the furnace is open for about
12 inches from the lower part of the front cross-piece or
fore-stone, to the upper part of the work-stone, through
which opening the workman operates. The fume is pre¬
vented from escaping into the smelting-house by means of
a hood of masonry or brick-work.
The ore is first roasted on a long flat hearth, covered by
a low arch, and heated by a fire at one end, the object being
partly to oxidize and to get rid of sulphur. The roasting
occupies from two and a half to three hours, on a charge of
from 9 to 11 cwt., and the heat is managed so as not to fuse
the galena; while the refuse of the ores, and other matters,
are agglutinated so as not to be carried off by the blast.
After a charge has been run out of the smelting furnace, a
portion of imperfectly reduced ore remains behind ; it is
called hroicse, and is mixed with coke and clinkers, and
used in the next charge. A quantity of peat, in blocks, is
also built up in the furnace, near the front; this is ignited
by means of a lighted peat, thrown in before the tuyere t, a
small portion of coal is next added, and then some of the
browse, i he matters on the hearth are next raked out
upon the work-stone ; the refuse of the ore, or gray slag,
which is more resplendent than the browse, is removed and
thrown outside to the right, while the browse is returned
to the furnace with a small portion of coal. A peat isput be¬
fore the tuyere to prevent it from choking, and also to diffuse
the blast. Quicklime is added, if necessary, to solidify the
slagot thebrowse, or to render more fusible anysilica, alumi¬
na, or iron, which may be present in the ore. The gray
slag is treated in a slag-hearth at a stronger heat. The
browse being returned to the furnace, some of the ore is
strewed over it, and in about a quarter of an hour the ma¬
terials are again raked upon the work-stone, the gray slag is
removed, while a quantity of metallic lead passes off by the
channels g, into the pan. Another peat is put before the
nozzle of the blast, coal and quicklime are added, and the
browse is returned to the furnace, with a fresh quantity of
ore. After another interval of about a quarter of an hour,
the slag is once more separated, and another quantity of
metallic lead flows into the pan. This mode of working is
continued about fifteen hours, during which from 20 to
40 cwt. of lead, and upwards, are produced. The lead
is of excellent quality, since, on account of the low tempe¬
rature employed, metals of high fusing points, with which
the ore may be contaminated, remain behind, and only the
lead and silver escape into the pan. The furnace in which
the slags are reduced is in the form of a rectangular prism
26 inches in length, 22 in breadth, 33 in height. The bot¬
tom inclines slightly from the tuyere towards the front, the
fire-hearth is formed of two stout plates of cast-iron, 26
inches by 12 inches, supported by bearers at the sides. A
space of about 5 inches is left between these plates, or
stones, as they are called, and the bottom of the furnace,
and there is also a row of fire-bricks between. Preparatory
to working the furnace, the bottom is covered with cinders,
beaten together, ami the pot which receives the lead is
filled with them. Peats are next added to the furnace and
ignited, then comes a layer of coke, and when the heat is
sufficiently strong the slags are added. The space is kept
filled with alternate layers of coke and slag, and as the slag
melts, the lead contained in it filters through the bed of
peat cinders, while the more viscid slag remains behind.
The slag is run out by perforating the coke bed with a
bent iron rod, and after passing over the surface of the pot
which receives the lead, it escapes into a large iron cistern,
sunk in the earth, containing cold water, which causes
the slag to fly to pieces, thus fitting it for washing and
other mechanical processes for separating any metal which
may yet remain in it. The high temperature necessarily
employed in the slag-hearth deteriorates the quality of the
lead produced. This furnace is also employed for reduc¬
ing certain ores which are not rich in metal, and also for
some of the carbonates in which silver is an object rather
than lead.
The neighbourhood of lead works is liable to contamina¬
tion from the escape of lead fume. Professor George
Wilson states that, in 1851, he had within five months to
make a series of analyses with reference to the deaths of
thirteen horses and several cows, which were supposed to
have been poisoned by compounds of lead, transferred by
the air or the v/ater to the fields in which they were pas¬
tured. The grass of such fields wras found to be impreg¬
nated with carbonate of lead ; and in two cases the water
drunk by the animals was found to be contaminated with
the water used in washing the ore. Lead was found in
several of the organs of the animals, especially the spleen,
which, from its small size, spongy texture, and compara¬
tive freedom from fatty matter, admits of being rapidly and
satisfactorily examined ; and lead being found in this organ,
it would not, in general, be necessary to seek for it in other
organs.1 At some works attempts are made to condense
the fume, by making the flues of the furnaces communi¬
cate with chambers in which cold water showers down from
the roof; at other works, the gases from the flues are
drawn through cold water. At the Duke of Buccleuch’s
works at Wanloch, in Dumfriesshire, the condensing appa¬
ratus, constructed about 100 yards from the smelting fur¬
naces, consists of a rectangular block of masonry about 30
feet high, divided by a partition into tu'o chambers, the
first of which, the condensing chamber, receives the fumes
from the furnaces through a large pipe ; while the second,
called the exhausting chamber, communicates with a lofty
chimney. The condensing chamber is formed into two
distinct compartments, by means of a pair of vertical walls,
placed 2 feet from each other so as to form a kind of flat
pipe, open at the top, and running the whole width of the
chamber, into which waterfalls in drops, produced by pass¬
ing the water through a filter of pounded coal, situate in
the upper part of the flat pipe. The condensing chamber
is further divided into five compartments, each 6 feet high,
by means of four horizontal floors, the last compartment
corresponding to a bed of coals which forms a filter for
the smoke. When the smoke enters the condensing
chamber, it has to pass in zig-zags through the five com¬
partments, and then through the bed of coal, on its way to
the exhausting chamber. The opening which conducts the
smoke from the exhausting chamber to the chimney is
situate in its lower part, so that the smoke has to pass
through the whole of the exhausting chamber where it
1 Monthly Journal of Medical Science for May 1852.
L E
Lead, meets with an abundant shower of rain. This shower is
regulated by a contrivance in the upper part of the cham¬
ber, where the top is covered with a large iron lid with
twelve grooves about an inch wide. This lid is furnished
with a slide, with openings of the same size, and moving
upon it so as to open or close the grooves, while a current
of water, being conducted from the upper part of the
chamber, falls at intervals through the openings, and pro¬
duces a copious shower in the chamber. “ The atmo¬
spheric pressure acts on each movement of the slide with a
force resembling that of a blast of an iron furnace, and
pioduces an action sufficiently powerful to mix the impure
vapours with the w;ater, so that smoke at length passes into
the atmosphere deprived of its injurious properties. The
saturated water proceeding from these chambers is after¬
wards conducted into a reservoir, where it deposits the
particles of lead salts that the fumes had carried off.”1 In
the Great Exhibition, specimens of fume, thus recovered,
were shown, containing 33 per cent, of pure lead, and
about 4 oz. 17 dwts. 7 grs. of silver per ton. It is stated
that the results of the above arrangement are most benefi¬
cial to the surrounding district. Formerly the noxious
fumes poisoned the neighbourhood, burnt up the heather,
destroyed the vegetation, and rendered it impossible for a
beast to graze, ora bird to feed, near the spot. The heather
now grows in luxuriance close to the works, sheep graze
within a stone’s throw of the chimney shaft, and game seek
cover on all sides.
About 5o,000 tons of lead are annually raised in Eng¬
land, from which about 150,000 oz. of silver are produced.
In the year ending 31st Dec. 1855, the quantity of lead
exported from the United Kingdom amounted to 22,353
tons, of the declared value of L.512,426. In 1854, 19,605
tons, and in 1853, 16,242 tons, were exported.
In Germany, and some other parts of Europe, where
poor ores of lead are treated, the sulphurets are reduced
by means of granulated metallic iron; the iron com¬
bining with the sulphur of the lead forms a fusible sul¬
phide of iron, and the lead is set free. This method is
useful where the ores are largely mixed with silica, which,
under the English method, would combine with oxide of
lead, and form a fusible slag.
Metallic lead is used in the arts in the form of sheets for
covering roofs and pipes for conveying water; also in the
manufacture of shot, type-metal, solder, &c.
W hen lead is exposed to the action of air and pure water, it
is partly corroded, and hence lead pipes and lead vessels for
conveying or containing water for culinary purposes, may act
as sources of poison. By such exposure the lead becomes
converted at the surface into an oxide which the water
dissolves ; the solution absorbs carbonic acid, and a film of
hydrated oxy-carbonate of lead is deposited in silky scales ;
a fresh portion of oxide is then formed and dissolved by
the water ; and so on. rI bis action is greatly modified by
the presence of different salts in the water, although the
quantity may not exceed 3 or 4 grains to the gallon; the
corrosive action being increased by the chlorides and
nitrates, and diminished by the sulphates, phosphates,
and carbonates, so much so, that oxide of lead is scarcely
soluble in water containing these salts. Bicarbonate of lime
exerts a remarkable preservative influence, and as it is a
veiy common impurity in water, few spring waters exert
much action on lead. In such cases a film of insoluble
carbonate of lead is formed upon the surface, which serves
as a protection to the metal. Rain water which pours into
A D. soi
cisterns from the roofs of houses, is usually sufficiently Lead,
impure, especially in towns, to reduce its action on the
metal. The hydrated oxy-carbonate of lead is the least
soluble among the salts of lead; pure water not taking up
more than about a grain per gallon. By exposure
to the air, a solution of oxide of lead, by absorption of car¬
bonic acid, forms silky crystals of the hydrated oxy-carbo¬
nate, and in a few hours, only a very minute portion of the
metal will remain in solution; but water highly charged
with carbonic acid may dissolve lead to a dangerous ex¬
tent, from the solubility of carbonate of lead in excess of
carbonic acid; but, by boiling, the gas is expelled, and the
carbonate subsides. I races of lead may generally be found
in water that has been stored in leaden cisterns, so that
slate ones are to be preferred. Lead is corroded in the
presence of moisture by contact with sulphate of lime ;
hence, in using it for building purposes, the contact of
stucco or plaster should be avoided.2
White Lead.—There is an enormous consumption of
lead in the manufacture of white lead, which forms the
basis of all ordinary oil paints, constituting at least ^ths of
their composition. There are various methods of manufac¬
turing white lead, the two most important of which may
be briefly noticed. In the Dutch method, as it is called,
which was introduced into England about 1780, and is still
carried on at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and other places, a
number of small glazed earthen pots, of the shape shown
in fig 4, contain in the lower part a quantity of
weak malt vinegar V, and above this is placed
a spiral of thin sheet lead l; the pots are ar¬
ranged in rows, with a plate ofleadover each,
and then in tiers to a height of 18 or 20 feet,
and covered up with fermenting tan, partly
new and partly spent, or with decomposing
stable manure; the moderated warmth thus
produced causes the vinegar to evaporate,
and, under the united action of the air and
the acid fumes, an oxide of lead is formed on
the surface of the metal, which oxide, combining with the
acetic acid, forms a basic acetate of lead; the carbonic
acid from the decomposing hot-bed converts this salt into
carbonate of lead, whilst the neutral acetate again combines
with a fresh portion of newly-formed oxide and forms the
sub-acetate, which is again decomposed ; in this way de¬
compositions and recompositions take place in succession,
the neutral acetate dissolving the oxide and forming the
sub-acetate, while this is again decomposed under the in¬
fluence of carbonic acid. In this process the quantity of
vinegar required is very small, the function of the acid
vapour being to act as a sort of carrier between the car¬
bonic acid evolved from the hot-bed, and the oxide of lead
formed under the influence of the acid vapour and the
oxygen of the air. One part of pure acetic acid to 100
parts of lead, is sufficient for carrying on the process. The
carbonate of lead slowly forms a compact layer on the
surface of the coils, and it breaks off in flakes on unrolling
them, forming the dead white colour which is so much in
request, notwithstanding its poisonous properties.3 Before
it is ready for the painter it is ground up with water into
a thin paste, and is then reduced, by successive washings
and subsidences, to an impalpable powder, which is collected
in earthen pans, and dried at about 190°. When dry the
powder gives no signs of crystalline structure, even under
the microscope.
During the pulverization, particles of the powder escape
1 Jury Report of the Exhibition of 1851, Class I.
3 J’rof’®ssor Miller’s Aments of Chemistry, part ii., 1856.
of its being1 p^^alWtransparen^so^thaMt'^Ho1106^ T * whit® Paint’ in the Place ^ ^ite lead, but it has failed from the circumstanc
zinc will not combine with oTl to form a n/* ^°e8 not P08sf s the covering properties, or bodv, of white lead. Moreover, the oxide (
ui on to lorm a plaster as oxide of lead does; hence it is a long time in drying.
Fig. 4.
302 LEA
Lead, into the air, to the great injury of the health of the
v ^ ^ , Work-people. The formation of the carbonate is also
very slow, from four to six weeks being required for the
complete coating of the coils. These circumstances led
the French chemist Thenard, to substitute for the fbre-
o-oing process, the direct decomposition of a solution of
sub-acetate oflead, by means of a current of carbonic acid:
in this way the carbonate is quickly formed in a state of
extreme division, but unfortunately the white is less opaque,
in consequence of the crystalline character of the powder,
than that obtained by the Dutch method.
M. Payen1 describes a method of grinding and sifting white
lead which is less injurious to the health of the work-people
than the common method. The dried cakes are put into a
hopper h (fig. 5), through which they fall upon an endless
band e, the motion of which conveys them to a mill mm,
which grinds the ceruse to powder. The powder falls upon a
sieve bb, furnished with brushes, attached to the axis a of the
mill; the larger particles which do not pass through the sieve,
escape by the side openings n into a close receiver. The
powder which passes through the top sieve, falls upon asecond
sieve, and from thence down an inclined plane into a ves¬
sel oo, which may contain oil, if the white lead is to be
mixed therewith, or it may be collected in this vessel dry.
The mills are surrounded by a chamber C, at the upper
part of which is a pipe It, opening into a shaft, the draught
of which carries off the dust from the chamber, but a large,
portion of this dust is condensed by means of the jets of
steam S, thus preventing loss of the white lead by way of
the chimney.
Carbonate of lead is often largely adulterated with sul¬
phate of baryta. What is called Venice white is a mixture
of equal parts white lead and sulphate of baryta. Ham¬
burg white consists of 1 part white lead and 2 baryta;
while Dutch, white is 1 part white lead, and 3 baryta.
Krems or Kremnitz-white, silver-white, and Clichy-white,
consist of pure white lead. There is a tendency in white
lead to a yellow tint, to correct which a minute quantity of
indigo, charcoal, or sulphuret of lead, is commonly added.
lied Lead, or minium, largely used by the glass-maker,
the paper-stainer, and the red sealing-wax maker, is acom-
L E A
pound of protoxide of lead with the peroxide of the metal. Leadhills
It is obtained by heating the metal in a reverberatory fur- 11.^ ■
nace, with a double hearth, one above the other, the heat 1
being greatest in the lower; here the lead, which should v ^ 7
be nearly pure, is converted into the protoxide, or massicot,
care being taken not to fuse it. This is levigated, washed,
and deposited to get rid of metallic particles, and is then
placed on the upper hearth, which derives its heat from the
lower. It is placed in iron trays, and, at a temperature of
about 600°, it gradually absorbs the additional quantity of
oxygen. The colour is improved by making the red lead
in large quantities, but its brilliancy suffers by exposure to
light. (c. t.)
LEADHILLS. See Lanarkshire.
LEAGUE. See Weights and Measures.
LEAKE, Richard, was born at Harwich in 1629, and
was bred a sailor. In the first Dutch war, being gunner
of the Princess, a frigate of 50 guns, he signalized himself
by his bravery in two extraordinary engagements. Having
been promoted to the gunnership of the Royal Prince, a
first-rate man-of-war, he was engaged in the sea-fight
against Van Tromp in 1673, and by his valour and presence
of mind, saved his vessel from being destroyed by two
fire-ships. For his services, he was soon afterwards made
gunner of Whitehall, and in 1677 obtained a life-grant of
the office of master gunner of England, and store-keeper
of the ordnance at Woolwich. He died in 1696.
Leake, Sir John, an English admiral, son of the pre¬
ceding, was born in 1656 at Rotherhithe, in Surrey. Hav¬
ing early entered the navy, he distinguished himself under
his father in 1673 in the engagement between Sir Edward
Spragg and Van Tromp; and being afterwards appointed
captain, he signalized himself by executing the desperate
attempt of convoying some victuallers into Londonderry, and
thus obliging the enemy to raise the siege. In 1702, being
made commodore of a squadron, he destroyed the French
settlements at Newfoundland, and restored to the English
the possession of the whole island. On his return he was
created rear-admiral; and soon afterwards he was made
vice-admiral of the blue, and knighted. In 1705 he re¬
lieved Gibraltar from its siege by the French ships and
the Spanish land forces, when it was on the eve of being
captured by 500 Spaniards who had climbed up the rock.
He was soon afterwards made vice-admiral of the white,
and again relieved the same fortress, by destroying the
French squadron. In 1706 Sir John relieved Barcelona,
when it was reduced to the last extremity, obliging King
Philip to raise the siege. Soon afterwards he took the city
of Carthagena, received the submission of Alicant and
Joyca, and reduced the city and island of Majorca. Upon
his return home he received, in reward of his services, a
ring, valued at L.400, from Prince George of Denmark, and
L.1000 from the queen. Upon the unhappy death of Sir
Cloudesly Shovel, in 1707, he was made admiral of the
white, and commander-in-chief of her majesty’s fleet; and the
next year, having surprised a convoy of the enemy’s corn, he
sent it to Barcelona, and thus saved both that city and the
confederate army from the danger of famine. He then
reduced the island of Sardinia to the obedience of King
Charles; and soon afterwards assisted Lord Stanhope in the
conquest of Minorca. In 1709 he was made rear admiral
of Great Britain. He was several times chosen member
of parliament for Rochester; and in 1712 conducted the
English forces to take possession of Dunkirk. On the
accession of King George I. he was superseded, and allowed
a pension of L.600 a-year. After this he lived privately
till his death, which happened at his house in Greenwich
in 1720.
LEAMINGTON, or Leamington Priory, a market
1 Precis de Chimie Industrielle, 1851.
Lease.
LEA
Leander town and fashionable watering-place of England, county of
Warwick, on the Leam, which is here crossed by two hand¬
some stone bridges, about 2 miles E. of Warwick. In 1811
it had only 60 houses, and 543 inhabitants. It is now a
favourite watering-place, and one of the handsomest and
pleasantest towns in England. The surrounding country
is highly picturesque, while Warwick Castle, Kenilworth,
Stratford, &c., are at no great distance. The most elegant
houses are mostly in the new town, on the N. side of the river.
Among the finest of the public buildings are, the newpump-
room and baths, the town-hall, the parish church, Trinity
church, and the proprietary college, erected in 1847. The
educational and benevolent institutions are numerous.
Among the latter is the “ Warneford Hospital,” endowed
by,E)r Warneford, for affording to the poor baths and medical
advice gratis. The Jephson, Ranelagh, and Priory gardens
form delightful promenades. The first is of considerable
extent, and has a statue of the founder, Dr Jephson. There
are no manufactures of importance in the town, the inhabi¬
tants being chiefly dependent on the visitors that resort
thither. The ordinary season is from May to October.
The springs of Leamington are saline, sulphureous, and
chalybeate. Pop. (1851) 15,692.
LEANDER. See Hero.
LEARCHUS, a celebrated Greek sculptor of Rhegium,
in the S. of Italy, who seems to have flourished at a
very early period, before 620 B.c. He made a statue of
Jupiter in bronze, which was seen at Sparta, and which
was regarded as the most ancient work of its kind. It was
not of one piece, but was made of pieces worked separately,
and fixed to one another by means of nails and large hooks,
so that the parts could not be separated. It is this species of
work which Quatremere de Quincy has perfectly explained,
under the name of Sphurelaton, in his Jupiter Olympien.
(Pausanias, iii. 17. See Winckelmann, Op. vi. 1, 7.)
LEASE, a word akin to the verb to let (French, laisser ;
German, lasseii), may be defined as a conveyance by con¬
tract from the lessor of lands, tenements, &c., for a given
term of years or at will, in consideration of rent paid, or
other service rendered by the lessee. As distinct from an
assignment, the lessor, in granting a lease, does not part
with his interest in the subjects leased, and hence there is
no valid lease where there is no reversion ; and by virtue of
this reversion the lessor is invested with power to distrain
in failure of payment or in case of any other breach of
fealty. Whatever words be used in granting a contract of
lease (the usual form being “ demise, grant, and to farm
let”), the duties and rights of both parties are secured
when there is sufficient evidence of an intent on the part
of a proprietor of yielding, and on the part of the lessee of
holding, possession for a determinate time. Originally,
when no writing was necessary, a valid lease was not com¬
pleted without actual entry; but now, although a deed is
necessary only in a few exceptional cases, arising from some
peculiarity in the nature of the property to be leased, leases,
like other covenants, are generally made by deeds. The
conditions on which a lease is granted may embrace any¬
thing that is lawful; and there is no authority which can
interfere with the granting of leases on any term by parties
who have the complete ownership of the property. In
cases where ownership only amounts to a divided in¬
terest in the subjects, leases are granted under particular
powers according to certain statutes; but certain classes
who have only a temporary interest in the property, and
hold it, for example, only during a precarious tenure of
office, are (as the holders of benefices by 13th Elizabeth,
chap. 20) restrained from executing deeds of this nature,
intended to be valid beyond the period of their proprietary.
An act passed in 1845 (8th and 9th Viet., c. 124) has for its
object the simplification of the terms used in granting leases.
Without rendering invalid the forms previously in use, it
L E A
gives schedules of abbreviated expressions which are con¬
sidered to be equally legal with the older and more cum
brous forms, and when taxed are, ceteris paribus, to be re¬
garded as involving equal merit by the taxing officer. This
act, however, does not extend beyond England.
In Scotland the first statute in favour of tenants w'as that
of 1449, c. 17, which secured them against purchasers of the
lands, until the expiry of their lease, provided they paid their
rent to the new proprietors. Before that date a lease was
disregarded in a competition with a subsequent proprietor,
whose titles were completed by charter and sasine. To
bring the lease under the protection of the statute, it must
be granted by a legally qualified party,—it must be in writ¬
ing, and definite as to rent, and term of endurance. The
tenant must also be in actual occupancy under it. Though
these conditions are required to render the lease available
against third parties, who subsequently become proprietors,
they are not required for the purpose of protecting the
tenant against the grantor of the lease and his heirs. A
perpetual lease, or one with a nominal rent, or which directs
the rent to be disposed of otherwise than in payment to the
landlord, or entitles the tenant to demand a renewal for
ever, is good, not only against the landlord by whom it was
granted, but against his heirs, seeing that his heirs cannot
be in a better position than the party whom they claim to
represent. To protect the tenant against strangers coming
by purchase, or by the act of the law as creditors, into what
is called the feudal right to the lands, it is necessary that
the granter of the lease have his own title, as proprietor,
made up by charter and sasine, or at least that that be
done before the ownership of the lands passes out of his
hands. If the granter be a pupil, a lease cannot last longer
than the office of his tutor; but minors, that is boys above
fourteen, and girls above twelve years of age, may, with
consent of their curators, grant leases to endure after their
majority, provided the terms be just and equitable. If the
terms be injurious to the minor, the lease may be set aside
on that ground, if challenged by an action at law raised
within four years after the minor attains majority. A lease
granted by an heir, who, in virtue of liis apparency, has been
three years in possession, though he may not have made up
his title, will be good against a subsequent heir, but not
against either an adjudging creditor, or a subsequent pro¬
prietor. The owner of an estate who has granted an heri¬
table bond over it, may afterwards grant a valid lease, but
not after certain steps have been adopted to recover the
debt, commencing by what is called adjudication ; norafter
the use of inhibition, which is a preventive measure, unless
the lease be according to the course of ordinary administra¬
tion. If the estate of a proprietor be sequestrated tor debt,
he can no longer grant a lease; neither is one granted on
deathbed available to the prejudice of the heir-at-law. A
liferent proprietor may grant a lease to terminate at his
death. Heirs of entail in possession can only grant such
leases as the deeds of entail permit.
As it is presumed, unless otherwise specially provided by
the lease, that the tenant is merely entitled to the annual
produce of the lands, or occupancy of the houses and the
like, it follows, that unless otherwise provided, mines and
minerals, trees, the right of hunting, and the landlord’s
right over the crop of each year in security of the rent of
the year of which it is the crop, are reserved to the land¬
lord. The security over household furniture, cattle, or
stocking, lasts ibr three months after the last term of pay¬
ment of the year’s rent. In the use of reserved rights, the
landlord must compensate the tenant for any damage which,
in the exercise of these rights, he may occasion.
I he destination of a lease is matter of arrangement,
otherwise it goes to the heir-at-law of the tenant on his
death. A tenant’s creditors, and even his assignees, as well
as his right of subsetting, may be excluded. All questions
303
Lease.
304 LEAS E.
Lease, of this kind should be well considered and provided for
——s/""—^ when the lease is being entered into.
The tenant is bound to stock, manure, and labour the
farm according to the rules of good husbandry; and he has
right to the annual fruits, and to the occupation of the sub¬
ject. If the subject be destroyed, as, for example, if a
house or mill be burnt down or become ruinous, or a mine
becomes unexpectedly exhausted, no rent is exigible. Even
where, from some extraordinary calamity, land has become
sterile, or, from remarkable inclemency of the weather, the
crop is lost, so that the tenant cannot recover the value
of the seed, rent cannot be exacted. Where such occur¬
rences as these do not happen, the conditions of the lease
must be strictly observed on both sides. The landlord and
his heirs must protect the tenant in his possession during the
currency of the lease ; and the tenant must pay his rent and
perform all the other obligations which he has undertaken.
It is the duty of the landlord to uphold the subject leased, un¬
less otherwise provided,and the tenant is responsible for such
damage as he may occasion, ordinary tear and wear excepted.
We have said that a Scotch lease must be in writing. A
verbal lease is in no case binding against any party for more
than one year, and a written lease, silent as to the period of
its duration, is regarded as being for one year only, or for
the shortest period beyond a year that can be construed
from its terms. In some cases where money has been ex¬
pended to a large amount on the faith of a verbal lease,
damages may be given ; and where it appears that the party
challenging a verbal lease, has done some act, plainly in
recognition of a succeeding year, the lease will be sustained
till the expiry of such succeeding year; but that only
in questions with the granter and his heirs, and not in
questions with succeeding proprietors. As a verbal lease
may be resiled from after a year, it is not competent to
establish a longer duration by a reference to oath. On the
other hand, though writing is required, it is not necessary
that it should be a formal, or, as the law of Scotland calls it,
a probative writing, provided it have been followed by pos¬
session of the subject on the part of the tenant. Accord¬
ingly, a written obligation to grant a formal lease, followed
by possession, will save the rights of the tenant, not only
against the granter and his heirs, but even against third
parties who have subsequently become proprietors, provided
it expresses the requisites of the Act 1449—namely, a fixed
rent, and a definite period of endurance. It is not neces¬
sary that the fixed rent be in money ; a grain rent, or even
service is sufficient; but if the rent be nominal (although
no criterion for determining what is elusory, has yet been
authoritatively settled), or if the rent is to be retained till a
debt due by the landlord is extinguished, the lease will be
voidable at the instance of a subsequent proprietor. In the
same way, if the term of endurance, though determinate, be
unusually long,—such as, wdiile water runs down, or grass
grows up,—or if it be renewable for ever, or even for a
period unknown in ordinary practice, the lease will be
voidable at the instance of a subsequent proprietor, as being
substantially destructive of the right of property, though it
may be available against the granter and his heirs. Of
course it is otherwise if the purchaser, at acquiring the
property, was taken bound to recognise the lease, or, if he
afterwards voluntarily homologated it. It is to be regretted
that no judgment has yet been given in Scotland fixing the
utmost length of lease that shall be available against sub¬
sequent purchasers. All, we believe, that can be safely
said on this subject at present is, that a lease for twice
nineteen years, is usually regarded as suitable where im¬
provements are contemplated ; and that in coal or mi¬
neral, and building leases, owing to the great expenses
involved,. an enlarged period, in order that the tenant
may be indemnified, is usual. Liferent leases seem to
be unobjectionable. feometimes a lease declares that
part of the rent shall be expended in necessary improve- Lease
ments on the subject leased, and such a lease will be bind-
ing against a purchaser, provided the improvements be exe¬
cuted subsequent to the date of his purchase, as they en¬
hance the value of the subject: but if they were executed
prior to the date of his purchase, they will not form a claim
of abatement from the rent, because it is to be presumed
that the purchaser paid an increased price for the improved
subject. In this last case the tenant’s claim for indemnity
will lie only against the seller or his heirs. If improve¬
ments to be executed after the date of the purchase, are
of an extraordinary character, such as the building of a new
house, the purchaser mav prevent their being executed,
leaving to the tenant his claim of damages against the seller.
A power of assigning a lease, or sub-letting the subject,
is not implied, unless the lease be for more than nineteen
years, or is given to the tenant in liferent, or unless the
subject leased be an urban tenement. An assignation and
a sub-lease require for their completion to be followed by
possession. The shortest lease, however, may be attached
by the tenant’s creditors, by what is called adjudication,
unless it contain a clause expressly excluding assignees
and sub-tenants ; and then neither voluntary nor judicial
assignees can be received.
When a lease has reached its natural termination, unless
it be a liferent lease, it is still held to exist from year to
year on its original terms, by what, in Scotland, is called
tacit relocation, until either the landlord shall intimate to
the tenant, or the tenant shall intimate to the landlord,
his intention to have it terminated; and such intimation
must be made forty days before the term of Whitsunday
of the year in which it is meant to bring the lease to a
close. This intimation is called a warning. It may be
given many ways. One mode, proceeding on a precept
from the landlord, is regulated by the Scotch statute 1555,
c. 39. Another mode is regulated by an Act of Sederunt
of the Court of Session, dated 14th December 1756. By
a recent statute regulating sheriff-court procedure, the
length of the warning required by the Act of Sederunt has
got six days added to it. Even where there is a regular
lease, in which there is generally a clause binding the tenant
to remove at its expiry without warning, he is entitled to
rely on the lease being continued by tacit relocation, till
he receive a regular warning. On such a lease it is com¬
petent, prior to the forty days, to give a charge in vir¬
tue of letters of horning to remove. A lease may be
brought to a close before its natural term, by the ten¬
ant’s desertion, or failure to pay his rent. In such a case
the landlord should apply for judicial authority to let the
lands for the unexpired portion of the lease. It is also
competent to proceed by a summons before the sheriff',
concluding to have the tenant ordained, within a certain
time, to stock and plenish the farm, and labour and manure
it in terms of his lease ; or if the lease be silent as to the
mode, according to the rule of good husbandry ; and failing
his doing so, that he should be removed, and the landlord
found entitled to resume possession. The tenant may be
removed by a like form of process, if he have subset the
farm contrary to the provisions of the lease, or if he have
suffered two years’ rent to remain unpaid. This last ground
of irritancy is provided for by the Act of Sederunt 1756 ;
and unless the arrears be paid before judgment is pro¬
nounced, the lease is at an end. Even where a tenant
falls into one year’s arrear of rent, or deserts his farm at
the usual time of labouring it, the landlord may, by the
same Act of Sederunt, sue the tenant to find security for the
arrears, and the rent of the five following years, within a
certain time, to be limited by the sheriff) under pain of
compulsory removal. Of course a written lease may be
terminated at any time by a written renunciation executed
by either party, and accepted in writing by the other.
LEA
LEA
305
Leather. In urban tenements a warning to remove is sufficient
if it be proved to have been given verbally, or by a pecu¬
liar form called chalking the door by a burgh officer.
The rights of the feudal superior of the subjects remain
always unaffected by any transaction between landlord and
tenant.
Leases in general require an ad valorem stamp. Leases
in consideration of a premium, without any yearly rent, or
with a yearly rent under L.20, are charged the same
amount, with the exception of leases and tacks for lives, not
exceeding three; and leases for a term absolute, not ex¬
ceeding 21 years, granted by ecclesiastical corporations,
aggregate or sole, when the duties on such leases would,
under 13th and 14th Viet., c. 97, amount to 3os. or upwards.
Stamp Dctt.
Rent not exceeding L.5
Above L.5, and not above 10
10, ... 15
15,
20,
25,
50,
75,
20
25
50
75
100
Exceeding L.100, then for "j
every L.50, and for any \
fractional part of L.50... J
Term not,
exceeding 30
years,
L. s.
0 0
0 10 0
0 5 0
Above 30
and not
above 100.
L. S. d,
0 3 0
0 6 0
0 9 0
0 12 0
0 15 0
1 10 0
2 5 0
3 0 0
1 10 0
Exceeding
100 years.
L. s. d.
0 6 0
0 12 0
0 18 0
14 0
1 10 0
3 0 0
4 10 0
6 0 0
3 0 0
In the case of a lease under thirty years, if the rent be
under L.20, and a fine, premium, or grassum be paid, then
the duty is to be the same as on a sale; and if the rent be
above L.20, both the lease-duty and sale-duty are exigible.
In the case of a lease, to which the second and third
columns apply, where there is a fine, premium, or grassum,
and whatever the amount of rent, both the lease and sale-
duty are exigible. See 13th and 14th Viet., c. 97, and 17th
and 18th Viet., c. 83.
LEATHER. The skins of various animals, in their fresh
state, are flexible, tough, and elastic, and appear to be ad¬
mirably adapted to the purposes of clothing. But in dry¬
ing they become hard and horny, and, on exposure to mois¬
ture, putrid. The art of restoring the supple qualities to
skins, and rendering them durable, appears to have been
discovered at an early period of man’s history; and the word
leather, from the Saxon lith, lithe, or lither, indicates the
quality of suppleness.
Leather is formed by the chemical union of the dermis,
corium, cutis, or true skin of an animal, with an astringent
vegetable principle, known as tannin or tannic acid. The
word tan, from the French tanner, to tan, appears to be de¬
rived from the low Latin tanare. Leather may, however, be
prepared by impregnating the skin with alum, oil, or grease.
In the animal hide or skin, the outer part, which is co¬
vered with hair or wool, is called the epidermis or cuticle,
below which is the reticulated tissue, and then, in contact
with the flesh, is the dermis, or true skin, which is the only
part which admits of being tanned. It varies in thickness
in different parts ; the mane, the back, and the rump, being
thicker than the belly. The skin is converted into gelatine,
or glue, by the action of boiling water.
Varieties of Leather.—The leather tanned in England is
generally divided into three kinds, namely, hides, kips, and
skins, and these yield different varieties of leather, such as
butts and backs, which are made of the stoutest and heaviest
ox-hides. Fig. 1 will show bow the butt is formed by cut¬
ting off the cheeks, the shoulder, and a strip of the belly on
each side, the skin of the head Having been previously re¬
moved for the use of the glue-maker. For backs, the cheeks
and belly are cut off, but the shoulder remains. Hides are
similar to butts with the bellies on, and are made cut of cow-
vol. xnr.
Pig. 1.
hides, or the lighter ox-hides. When hides are tanned
whole for sole leather, they are called crop hides. Skins
produce the lighter varieties
of leather. Large quantities
of hides, dry or salted, are im¬
ported into the United King¬
dom from South America and
different parts of Europe, from
the Cape of Good Hope, Mo¬
rocco, &c. Calf skins are im¬
ported from the Baltic, and the
calves being killed younger
than in this country, the lea¬
ther prepared from them is
used for bookbinding, gloves,
and ladies’ shoes.
The stoutest leather is made from butts or backs. Buff
leather was formerly made from the hide of the buffalo, but
it is now furnished by cow-hide, and is used chiefly for sol¬
diers’ belts. Bull-hide is thicker than cow-hide, while that
of the bullock is intermediate. Calf-skin supplies the great
demand for the upper part of boots and shoes. Sheep¬
skins form a thin cheap leather; lamb-skins are used for
gloves; goat and kid skins form a light leather of fine qua¬
lity ; deer and antelope are usually shamoyed, or dressed in
oil; horse-hide is prepared for harness-work, &c., and this,
with seal-skin, is used for making enamelled leather; dog¬
skin makes a thin tough leather, but most of the gloves sold
as dog-skin are made of lamb-skin. Hog-skin makes a
thin porous leather, and is used for covering the seats of
saddles. There is a large import trade in skins. The great
demand for leather for the best gloves is supplied by lamb¬
skins from Italy, Spain, the south of France, and other
parts, where, in consequence of the lamb being killed earlier
than with us, the skin is small, fine, and thin, and is used
instead of kid; but it is neither so strong nor so glossy.
I he skins of lambs that die soon after their birth are some¬
times dressed with the wool, and are used for lining gloves
and shoes. The best kid-skins are from the south of Franee:
they are also imported from Germany, Switzerland, Italy,
and Ireland. It is said that as soon as the kid begins to
feed on herbage, the skin suffers in fineness and delicacy,
and is no longer suitable for the best gloves. The best
morocco leather is made from Swiss goat-skins, another
kind is from Mogador and East Indian goat-skins, which
are often made into black morocco, known as “ Black
Spanish leather,” from the circumstance of our first supplies
having been obtained from Spain. The leather from the
Cape sheep-skin is nearly equal to morocco. Hippopotamus
hides are imported from South Africa, and when tanned with
oak-bark, they make an extremely thick and compact leather.
Tanning Materials.—The vegetable substances used in
tanning have of late years become almost as numerous as
the varieties of hides and skins on which they are employed.
The active vegetable principle tannin varies somewhat
according to the source from which it is derived; but it is
always marked by an astringent taste, a bluish-black, or
dark green precipitate, in aqueous solutions, by admixture
with a solution of one of the salts of peroxide of iron ; while,
with a solution of gelatine, it gives a dirty white or brown
precipitate. A cold aqueous solution of tannin, mixed in
certain proportions with one of gelatine in the form of glue,
size, or isinglass, forms a substance which is known as
tanno-gelatine, which may be formed by the application of
heat into a viscid elastic mass, resembling India-rubber.
By the action of ether, containing a little water, on gall-
nuts, pure tannin may be procured. The etherial solution
separates by repose into two layers, the lower one, which
is of an amber colour, being a solution of tannin in water;
while the upper layer contains gallic acid, mixed with other
substances. On gently evaporating the aqueous solution,
2Q
Leather,
306 L E A T H E R.
Leather, nearly pure tannin is procured, to the extent of from 35 to
40 per cent., from galls. Obtained in this way, it is a
shining, porous, uncrystallizable mass : it is soluble in water,
and then exerts the properties of an acid. By exposure to
air it absorbs oxygen, and gives off carbonic acid; two new
products, gallic acid and ellagic acid, being formed at the
expense of the tannin, the latter being insoluble. Tannin
may be precipitated from its solutions by sulphuric and
some other acids: by boiling the precipitate with sulphuric
acid for a few minutes in a dilute solution of the same acid,
gallic acid is formed, and crystallizes in cooling. Gallic
acid exists in gall-nuts, sumach, vallonea, tea, and other
substances, and probably arises from the decomposition of
tannin. It does not combine with gelatine, and is, there¬
fore, useless in tanning. Some tanners, however, imagine
the gallic acid of the waste liquor to be useful in swelling or
raising the hides, preparatory to removing them to a stronger
liquor. It is important to the tanner to understand the
circumstances under which tannin is converted into gallic
acid: they are numerous and somewhat complicated, and
their investigation belongs to the scientific chemist, to whom
the manufacturer already owes so many obligations.
During a long period the principal tanning material in
this country has been oak-bark. That which is stripped in
the spring is the most esteemed, for it then contains a larger
quantity of tannin than that stripped in autumn, and this
more than the bark stripped in winter. The best bark is
obtained in a warm spring, from coppice trees about 12
years of age. Oak-bark contains from 5'6 to 6'0 of tannin,
which is contained in the inner white layers next the albur¬
num, as in the case of other astringent barks. The tannin
of bark is probably not identical with that of galls, as it does
not yield pyro-gallic acid, when subjected to destructive
distillation. From 4 to 6 lb. of oak-bark are required for
every pound of leather. A load of oak-bark, consisting of
45 cwt., delivered in London, varies from L.15 to L.16, 10s.
After the stripping, the bark is stacked to dry. Should the
season be rainy a portion of the tannin may be washed out,
and the bark be thus deteriorated. There is no doubt that
the peculiar excellence of the sole leather of England is
due in great measure to the superior oak-bark which we
possess. Oak-bark imparts firmness and solidity to leather,
while other sorts give softness ; thus the peculiar softness of
French curried leather is referred to the bark of the ever¬
green oak, with which the better kinds are tanned, while
the other tanning materials next to be named give each its
peculiar quality with respect to colour, scent, toughness, or
the power of resisting moisture and decay.
The other tanning materials, used chiefly for fancy
leathers, are as follows:—Sumach, consisting of the young
branches and powder of the leaves of Rhus Cotinus, Venus
sumach, or the wild olive, and Rhus Coriaria, Sumach
varies in its amount of tannin from 16’4 per cent, in Malaga
and Sicilian specimens, to 10 and 5 in Virginia and Carolina
sumach. The solution is liable to fermentation. Divi, or
divi-divi, is the pod of a South American shrub, Ccesalpinia
Coriaria. The pod is dark-brown, about 3 inches long, and
curled up as if by heat. It is rich in tannin, the whole of
which is found in the rind below the epidermis. Vallonea,
consisting of the acorn cups of Quercus JEgilops, or prickly-
cupped oak, growing in the Morea. A smaller kind, called
carnata, containing a larger proportion of tannin, is for the
most part used by the silk-dyers. About 2 lb. of vallonea
are required for making 1 lb. of leather. Vallonea and oak-
bark may be mixed together with good effect. Catechu,
cutch, Terrajaponica, or terra, are the inspissated aqueous
extracts of the bark, wood, and leaves of the Acacia Catechu,
and Uncaria gambicr. The two varieties are known in
commerce as catechu, or gambier, and cutch; that from Bom¬
bay is richer in tannin than that from Bengal. Myrohalan
is a name given to the fruit of several East India trees ; the
husk, being the portion valuable to the tanner, is separated Leather
by bruising the nut which it incloses. Mimosa or Wattle-
bark is furnished by different species of Mimosa growing in
Australia and New Zealand. Cork-tree bark is the inner
bark of the cork oak, the outer or dead bark being the well-
known substance, cork. It is obtained from Corsica, Spain,
and a few other countries, and contains twice as much tan¬
nin as average oak-bark. Larch-bark is sometimes used
for tanning sheep-skins, and Willow-bark for kid and lamb
skins. The last named bark is used in making Russia
leather, but its peculiar odour is given by means of the oil
of birch-tree bark.
In addition to the tannin contained in the above sub¬
stances, there are mucilaginous, colouring, and other matters
which have an influence on the kind of leather produced.
The tannin itself may also vary in different materials ; thus,
catechu and divi give a more porous leather than oak-bark
or vallonea, while larch-bark gives a very inferior leather to
that prepared from oak-bark. The colouring matter in some
excellent tanning materials prevents their use, since it is
the custom to sell both upper and sole leathers of a yellow¬
ish-fawn colour, and anything which interfered with the
production of this tint would be objected to ; thus, catechu
and cutch would be among the cheapest of tanning mate¬
rials, were it not that they impart to the leather a reddish-
brown colour, which would in no way interfere with the
dressing or currying.
The tanner frequently judges of the strength of his infu¬
sions of bark, technically called ooze, by means of a kind of
hydrometer called a barkometer. It is graduated to the stand¬
ard of pure water, and when placed in a specimen of ooze,
the strength of the latter is judged of by the position of the
stem above or below the water-mark. But as a bark or other
tanning material may contain several soluble substances be¬
sides tannin, the barkometer obviously cannot be relied on.
Some tanners judge of the strength of ooze by the taste,
the amount of astringency determining the strength. The
usual test for tannin is a solution of glue or isinglass, which
being mixed with a known weight of a solution of tanning
material, a precipitate of tanno-gelatine is produced which is
filtered, dried, and weighed: the proportion of tannin is
thus ascertained. As, however, some kinds of tannin pro¬
duce larger precipitates of gelatine than other kinds, and as
the composition of tanno-gelatine varies with the strength
both of the solution of gelatine and of tannin, this method is
not reliable. Sulphate of quinine is said to afford a better
test; a solution thereof, acidulated with a few drops of sul¬
phuric acid, will, it is said, precipitate tannin completely
from the solution. A good method of testing the value of
tanning material is to digest a piece of dry prepared hide or
skin in a known quantity of the infusion, until the whole of
the tannin and other matters be separated. The skin is
then taken out, slightly washed, dried, and weighed, when
the increase of weight is supposed to be the weight of tan¬
nin and of the other matters required.
Tanning of Thick Leather.—The first operation to which
the hides and skins are subjected is depilation, which re¬
moves not only the hair, but also the scarf-skin. This is
effected variously in different countries. In England the
most common plan is to throw the hide or skin into a strong
watery ley of slaked lime, with lime in excess. Here, in a
few days, more or less according to the proportion of lime
present, the hair is easily detached, the hair-sheath hav¬
ing been dissolved; the scarf-skin with the hair are then
scraped off upon a sloping rest, with a species of knife
with two handles. The lime has also combined with the
fat of the hide to form a calcareous soap, to dissolve which,
and the excess of lime, it is well washed, sometimes in a
running stream. The hide is fleshed, or deprived of the
loose or extraneous flesh or cellular tissue ; and if butts are
to be made, the head, shoulder, and bellies are cut off, as
LEA'
Leather, already noticed. The central part, or butt, weighs about
two-thirds of the whole leather. The hair was formerly
taken off by making a sour liquor from fermented vegetable
matter, in which the hide lay for several days; they were
also smoked in a damp state for the same purpose ; but
both those methods are now abandoned. They are still
sometimes sweated, that is, they are laid in heaps, and kept
wet and warm ; but in America the sweating is performed
cold; the hides are hung up wet in a damp underground
cellar, and are kept moist for ten days or a fortnight, a plan
which is still adopted in this country for skins. In either
of the three last processes, incipient putrefaction takes place
sooner or later, when the hair and scarf-skin are easily re¬
moved ; but the fatty matter remains, and in some cases
prevents the hide from taking the tan. The tanning either
follows at once, or is preceded by what is called abating or
grainermg. For this process, a quantity of pigeon’s dung
is dissolved in water. In this mixture the hides are steeped
for a week or ten days, with occasional removals and strik-
ings. The theory of this process is obscure; but it has
been explained on the supposition that the uric acid of the
dung removes the excess of lime, and that the ammonia
generated by the putrefaction of the mixture tends to form
an ammoniacal soap with any remaining fat of the hide ; but
as the gelatine of the hide exists in two states,—one, the
principal, hard, or fibrous portion, and the other (which is
more soluble) contained between the fibres, and more
affected by agents and putrefaction—this softer portion is
removed by grainering, and the leather, when tanned, is
light and porous, and more readily permeable to water.
Some tanners are anxious that their leather should look
thick when completed. To “ raise” the hide, they use a
solution of sulphuric acid, containing ^^th part of acid ;
in this the hides remain ten or twelve hours, when they are
found to be thickened, or to have substance; but as nothing is
added to the gelatine by the process, it is only the appear¬
ance which is altered, and no difference of thickness is found
in the leather after it has been under the shoemaker’s hammer.
1 he hide or skin thus prepared is ready for tanning.
It was formerly the practice in England, as it now is on the
Continent, to tan by the process of stratification, for which
purpose a bed of bark is made upon the bottom of the pit;
upon this is laid the hide, then bark, then a hide, and so
on, until the pit is full; water is sometimes pumped in, and
the pit left for some months ; it is then emptied, and the
• same hides returned with fresh bark and water for a few
months longer ; this is repeated again and again, until the
tanning is completed; the time varying from one to four
years for heavy leather.
About the end of the eighteenth century, Seguin pro¬
fessed to give a theory of tanning. He showed that astrin¬
gent solutions contained gallic acid, which precipitated sul¬
phate of iron black, but did not precipitate gelatine; whereas
the tannin present threw down gelatine as well as sulphate of
iron; and from this he deduced that leather was a compound
of gelatine and tannin. Upon this he founded a new pro¬
cess. He recommended that the hides should be subjected
to the action of solutions of tannin, made by pumping water
successively upon the vegetable used, contained in latches
or spenders, until it arrived at as great a degree of strength
as the series of spenders permitted. In this way he was
continually throwing away some bark as expended, and re-
placing it with fresh, which was next to be the strongest tap.
1 his is the plan generally followed in England; but in
practice it is varied, some using ground bark only, others
Terra japonica, vallonea, or divi-divi, or mixtures of two or
moie; some using steam to facilitate the solution, others
steaming only the backward latches; and some using only
cold water. In some yards clean water only is used to
extract the soluble matter, while in others the ooze, ex¬
hausted as much as it can be by the hides, is made to per-
r H E R. 307
form the office instead of water. Every tanner has also his Leather,
own particular strength of liquor to work at, the strongest V ^ ^ >
being about sixty degrees, while others do not go beyond
ten degrees. It is these variations which cause so great
a variety among the samples of leather in the market.
I his improvement of Seguin was of importance in
shortening the period of tanning to about half of that pre¬
viously occupied. The principal difficulty experienced in
its use occurs in the estimation of the real quantity of tan¬
ning material actually in solution. He proposed the use of
a solution of gelatine, isinglass, or glue, which was to be
dropped into the fluid as a test of the presence of the
tannin. In the hands of an experienced chemist this is a
tolerable means of arriving at the quantity ; but it proved
too difficult for the tanner of the day. He therefore judges
by the astringent taste of the solution, and its darkness of
colour ; or depends upon its strength from a certain weight
of bark, &c., which may have been used. The use of the
barkometer has been already referred to.
In trying the quantity of tannin by Seguin’s process, that
is, by precipitating it with the solution of gelatine, 480
grains of the bark in coarse powder should be acted on by
half a pint of boiling water. The mixture should be fre¬
quently stirred, and suffered to stand twenty-four hours;
the fluid should then be strained through a linen cloth, and
mixed with an equal quantity of solution of gelatine, made
by dissolving glue, jelly, or isinglass, in hot water, in the
proportion of a dram of glue or isinglass, or six table-spoon¬
fuls of jelly, to a pint of water. The precipitate should be
collected by passing the mixture of the solution and infu¬
sion through folds of blotting-paper, and the paper exposed
to the air till its contents are quite dry. Every 100 grains
of precipitate contains 40 grains of tannin nearly.
When the hide or butt has been brought from the beam-
yard, it is introduced into a poor and milky liquor, in which
it is handled for four or five days; that is, it is lifted by
hooks from the pit, laid with other hides in a heap on the side,
where it is allowed to drain, and is then returned into the
pit. The lime is intended to be taken out here by the
gallic and acetic acids of the poor ooze, as it is found in
practice that the presence of lime tends to darken the
colour of the future leather, an effect produced by all alka¬
lies and alkaline earths. The hide is next successively
handled into and out of all the handlers, increasing in
strength; and in this way at length, having after some
months got to the strongest handler, it is found to be
stained through, though not tanned, when it is removed to
the pits which contain still stronger liquors; these it suc¬
cessively passes through, being handled at longer intervals.
Upon arriving at the end of this series, the hides are laid
away in a pit called a layer, where they are interstratified
with powdered bark or vallonea; the pit is then filled up
with very strong ooze. When the process is deemed com¬
plete, each hide, on being taken out, will be found to be
converted into leather ; and a portion of its gelatine which
has been dissolved from its interior is, by combination
with a portion of tannin from the strong solution, depo¬
sited upon its surfaces, where it is found in the form of
a yellow deposit, technically known as bloom, or pitching,
which disguises the under colour of the leather, just as if it
were covered with yellow paint. This, prejudice says,
must be on its surface, or it is not saleable; but it is so
much quality and weight lost to the consumer, as he pays
for it on the outside of his leather, to be scraped off by the
shoemaker in the operation of buffing ; and the leather is so
much the worse, as, if it had remained incorporated with
the leather, this would not have been so porous, or so per¬
meable to water. The health of the wearer of the shoe is
perhaps sacrificed by wet feet, occasioned by the desire of
his shoemaker to see a yellow paste on his leather, which
in work he scrapes off with a piece of glass.
308
L E A T H E K.
Leather. The theory of the formation of the bloom is this. As
I m- W — J soon as ooze has penetrated into a hide, it loses its tanning
material, but by capillary attraction is detained; this ex¬
hausted ooze acts by maceration on the finer and more
soluble interstitial gelatine, and dissolves it. In handling,
about one-twelfth of this flows out; the remaining eleven-
twelfths accompany the hide into the next stronger solu¬
tion, of which only one-twelfth is absorbed directly, and a
small portion is slowly exchanged by endosmosis and exos¬
mosis. The small portion of strong solution which passes
into the pores of the hide contributes to tan the hard fibrous-
portions not dissolved; and the small portion of weak solu¬
tion passing out of the hide by exosmosis, gives up its dis¬
solved gelatine to the tan of the stronger solution outside,
to form tannate of gelatine, which partly adheres to the
surface as bloom, and partly falls to the bottom of the pit
as pitching. It is to be hoped that such an exposition will
tend to lead to the adoption of some system of tanning
in which the exhausted ooze may be so quickly removed
by pressure as not to allow it to dissolve the finer and bet¬
ter portions of the skin. Some years since, Mr Spilsbury
endeavoured to introduce a new principle in tanning, by
which some part of this action should be prevented, by
bringing strong ooze at once into contact with the inside
of the hide. He obtained a patent for a plan of tanning by
infiltration. He fastened two hides in clamps, so that the
frame represented four sides of a box, and the two hides
two sides. By filling this box with strong tanning ooze, and
forcing it through the pores of the hides by the pressure of a
column of the fluid, he expected to tan them promptly and
well ; but he was not aware that a large excess of tannin
dissolves gelatine, and thus tannate of gelatine was found
on the outside of his box in long masses of slime, while the
leather had lost as much in weight, was porous, and was
tanned very much more in the thin than the thicker parts,
as the fluid always passed through the easiest channel.
Many other inconveniences attending the process caused it
to be abandoned; but the erroneous principle upon which
it was founded not having been made public, three other
patentees followed in the same track. Mr Drake of Bed-
minster sewed hides together, so as to form a bag, which
he olaced inside a hollow frame-work of wood to support
the oag, and then filled it with ooze. Mr William Cox of
Bedminster sewed up a hide in the same position as it was
on the animal’s back, laced a canvas support round, and then
filled it with ooze ; and Mr Chaplin sewed his hide into a
bag, filled it with ooze, but laid it in a reclining position,
turning it periodically.
Seguin’s process of tanning by solutions, although a great
improvement upon the old method, is still tedious and ex¬
pensive. Where warm oozes are used, it requires six or
seven months for sole-leather; where cold oozes are in use,
it extends to twelve months; consequently the tanner can
turn his money only once a year: he must have capital
enough to pay for twelve months’ hides, bark, &c., labour,
and contingent expenses, besides keeping a stock of leather ;
and when his capital has been turned at the end of twelve
or more months, it must pay him, in one single profit, the
interest, &c., of twelve months. This has confined the
trade to a few wealthy individuals, who look upon tanning
as an investment for capital rather than as a business which
might be improved by science. Hence tanning has been
more stationary than any other manufacture, and the few
improvements which have been made in it have not been
made by tanners. Another patent has occupied consider¬
able attention. It is founded upon the principle adopted
in washing a sponge. The old tanner takes his sponge
(the hide) full, or nearly so, out of one ooze, and inserts it
nearly full into the next. The patentees of the roller and
belt system squeeze, by a simple and self-feeding press,
their hide, before they drop it into the fresh ooze; and this
simple modification would seem to promise well for the Leather,
improvement of the art of tanning. Messrs Herapath and V—
Cox of Bristol, the patentees, say that, to tan 100 butts per
week, they erect in a tanyard, capable of tanning 50 per
week, six or eight large pairs of rollers, one pair over each
pit. The lower roller is 30 inches in diameter, and is
covered with horse-hair cloth; the top one 18 inches, with
levers for weights, covered with woollen cloth. For each
pair of rollers there are from 50 to 100 hides, connected
together head to head and tail to tail, each by about four
strings. Now the first butt or hide is inserted between
the rollers loaded to the proper pressure ; and upon turn¬
ing the bottom roller (which requires very little force, as it
is a slow motion), all parts of the butt are pressed as they are
pulled through by the rollers; the next comes in order by the
assistance of the strings ; and so on, until the whole of the
hides in the belt have been pressed, and deposited in the
fluid on the other side of the pit. By a detent the motion
is now reversed, when the belt is again pressed, and re¬
turned to its original position for a fresh supply of ooze
(see fig. 2). This
simple plan brings
strong ooze so fre¬
quently into the
interstices of the
hide, that the cen¬
tre of a stout
butt is not only
stained through,
but tanned, in
between one and
two months; calf¬
skins and kips are
tanned in from
twenty to thirty
days; and the
liquors are so ra¬
pidly exhausted.
1 ig-2.
that they are reduced from 45° to nothing in thirty-six
days, losing at first more than 2° per day; and the short¬
ness of this exposure to the air prevents much of the tan¬
nin from being decomposed. It was stated at the time
when this patent was taken out, that at Nailsea. near Bris¬
tol, 100 butts per week were tanned, with six latches, six
rolling pits, twenty-four handlers for the offal, and six
layers ; one horse-power driving the rollers, and two boys.
managing them. The following were given to us as the
results produced in the first yard which was put entirely on
the patent plan, as compared with those of the same yard
on the old plan :—Double the work was done, and half the
capital drawn out as useless. The saving on bark, labour,
and general cost of manufacture was l^d. per lb. The in¬
crease in the weight of butt leather was as 34 lb. to 28 lb.;
46J lb. of leather being produced from a 60 lb. wet salted
hide. The butts were sent to market within four months
from the time the hides were delivered to the yard. The
profits from quick return, great weight, and small expense,
were eight times as great as on the old plan, at similar
prices of hides, bark, and leather. The leather w^as also
said to be more elastic, and more impervious to wet, than
any other that is made. Notwithstanding all these brilliant
results, the plan seems to have failed. An extended expe¬
rience with the new method seemed to prove that the lea¬
ther was more brittle, and in other respects inferior to that
produced by the old method, which still continues in opera¬
tion at most tanneries.
We must notice Bordier’s method of making leather by
means of metallic or earthy substances. The hides are
washed, unhaired, and swelled as before, when they are
immersed in a solution of sub-sulphate of peroxide of iron,
or sulphuric acid, with excess of the peroxide. The solution
L E A T H E R.
Leather, may be prepared as follows 2 cwt. of bruised sulphate of
iron are dissolved in 15 gallons of boiling water, in a copper
boiler. The solution is run off into a shallow vessel of the
capacity of 44 gallons, then 44 lb. of sulphuric acid, sp. crr.
1*848, are stirred in, together with 44 lb. of black oxide*of
manganese in powder; but the latter must be added gra¬
dually, the whole being stirred up so long as gas is disen¬
gaged, and afterwards, at intervals, until the solution is cold.
It may then be diluted with water to the required strength.
% digesting hides and skins in this liquor, they become im¬
pregnated with an insoluble sub-sulphate of peroxide of
iion, while there remains in the liquor free sulphuric acid,
sulphate of manganese, and a small quantity of proto-sul¬
phate of iron. It is stated that hides in the course of six or
eight days, and skins in three or four days, become con¬
verted into leather, which is as imputrescent and as imper¬
meable to water, as leather tanned in the usual manner.
Splitting.—In the preparation of certain kinds of leather,
the hides, after immersion in a weak ooze for from ten to
fourteen days, are split into two portions, after which the
halves are tanned separately, The upper, or grain half, is
used for covering carriages, and the flesh half for enamelling.
I he principle of the machine used in the splitting will be
understood by referring to fig. 3, in which D represents a
309
a straight handle at one end, and a cross handle at the Leather,
other, in the plane of the blade. The edges of this knife are i . .
first made very keen, and are then turned over so as to form
a wire edge by means
of the thicker of the
two straight steel tools
shown in fig. 5, which
wire edge is preserved
by drawing the thinner
steel tool along the in¬
terior angle of the wire
edge from time to time
Fig. 4.
Fig. 3.
mahogany drum, 4 feet in diameter, and about 6 feet in
length : the tail end of the hide or skin is fixed into a slot
in the drum at a, by means of wooden wedges ; ^ is a steel
knife of the length of the cylinder, attached by means of
screws s, s to the bottom of a cast-iron carriage C, c. Rapid
motion is given to the carriage by means of a crank, by
which the knife is made to vibrate rapidly backwards and
forwards in a plane parallel to the axis A of the drum.
The hide h is kept flat to the cylinder by means of a thin
plate of steel G, called a governor, placed in front of the
knife, and, being pressed down by a weighted lever, smooths
out the wrinkles. As the hide h is thus cut, one-half f,
which is the split flesh side, passes over the knife, while the
other half, consisting of the split grain side g, adheres to
the drum. The thickness of the split may be regulated by
means of a screw I at each end of the drum, which screw,
acting upon a lever L/, raises or depresses the axis of the
cylinder, and thus diminishes or increases the thickness of
the split grain side of the hide.
Currying.—The skin of leather as it leaves the tanyard,
is a comparatively rough article, and requires the manipu¬
lations of the currier in order to fit it for the shoemaker,
the coach-maker, the harness-maker, and other numerous
trades m whic.i leather is employed. Let us suppose that
a tanned calf-skin is to be prepared for use. It is first
made pliable by soaking in water, after which it is shaved
on the flesh side, whereby the loose rough portions are re¬
moved, and a tolerably smooth surface is produced. This
operation is carried on at a beam or strong frame of wood
supporting a stout plank faced with lignum vital, and set
vertically, or nearly so. The knife (fig. 4) is a double-
edged rectangular blade, about 12 inches by 5 inches, with
as required, for which purpose the man holds this smaller
tool between his fingers, together with the beam-knife.
The skin being thrown over the plank, the man presses his
body against it, and leaning over the top, holds the knife by
its two handles, almost perpendicularly to the leather, and
proceeds to shave it; shifting it from time to time, so as to
bring all the parts under the action of the knife, and fre¬
quently passing a fold between his fingers to test the pro¬
gress of his work. The skin is then placed in cold water,
and removed to a mahogany or stone table, to which the
wet flesh side adheres, and is worked with a tool called a
stretching-iron, or slicker S (fig. 5), consisting of a flat rect¬
angular piece of iron, copper, or smooth hard stone, fixed
in a handle. With this tool, a man scrapes the surface of
the skin, exerting a strong pressure with both hands, and
dashing water upon it from time to time, by which means
lumps and inequalities are made to disappear, the leather is
equalized and extended, and the bloom is brought to the
surface. I he superfluous moisture is now slicked out, and
a stuffing or dubbing of cod-oil and tallow is rubbed into
both sides of the skin, but chiefly the flesh side, by means
of a brush, or with the woolly side of a piece of sheep-skin.
1 he skin is now dried in a loft, and as the water only eva¬
porates, the dubbing sinks into the pores. A stove heat is
sometimes employed for the purpose, and the neighbour¬
hood is unpleasantly reminded of the fact, by the currier
using shavings of leather as fuel. When dry enough for
the purpose, the skin is boarded, or worked with a graining
board or pom¬
mel C (fig. 5),
the effect of
which is to
bring up the
grain, or give
a granular ap¬
pearance to the
leather, and Fig. 5.
also to make it supple. 1 he pommel is a piece of hard
wood, grooved like a crimping-board, and attached to the
hand by means of a strap, whence the word pommel, from
the French paumelle, or palm of the hand. The leather
passes through various manipulations, each having its dis¬
tinct name; thus graining consists in folding the skin with
the grain sides in contact, and rubbing strongly on the flesh
side; bruising, or rubbing the extended skin on the grain
side ; whitening, or passing a knife with a very fine edge
over the skin at the beam, so as to clean the flesh side, pre¬
paratory to loaxing, w hich is done just before the skins are
sold; for at this point the currier stores his skins, as they
can be kept best in the state offinished russet, as it is called
previous to waxing. Waxing consists of tw'o parts: the
first is the laying on the colour, or blacking of oil, lamp¬
black, and tallow, which is well rubbed in on the flesh side
with a hard brush; secondly, the skin is black-sized with
stiff size and tallow, laid on with a sponge or a soft brush,
and thoroughly rubbed with a glass slicker, a finishing gloss
being given with a little thin size. The curried skin is now
said to be black on the fiesh, or waxed, in which state it is
used for the upper leathers of mens’ boots and shoes. The
I'
310
LEATHER.
Leather, leather which is curried on the hair or grain side, is called
black on the grain, and is mostly used lor the upper leathers
of ladies’ shoes. In preparing such leather, the waxing is
performed as follows:—A solution of sulphate of iron, called
copperas-water, or iron-liquor, is applied to the grain side
of the wet skin, when the salt, uniting with the gallic acid
of the tan, produces an ink dye ; stale urine is then applied
to the skin, and when dry, the stuffing is applied. The
grain is raised, and when dry the skin is whitened, bruised,
and again grained ; after which a mixture of oil and tallow
applied to the grain side, completes the process.
Varnished and Enamelled leather.—For man}7 years
it was found difficult to cause a bright varnish to adhere to
leather without cracking, an effect which is now produced
by means of boiled linseed oil, mixed with vegetable black
and Prussian blue. This composition, of the consistence
of a thick paste, is rubbed upon the surface of the leather,
and then dried at a temperature of from lo0° to 170° Fahr.
The process is repeated from three to seven times, and
when quite dry, the varnish adheres very firmly, and will
bear considerable flexure and tension without cracking.
By mixing coloured pigments with the varnish, enamelled
leather of various colours may be produced.
Thin Leather.—The process of tanning differs consider¬
ably in the mode of treatment with the kind of skin and the
result desired. A large number of thin leathers which are
intended to be dyed, are tanned in various ways. White
leathers are not tanned but tawed, or treated with alum, salt,
and some other matters. Wash leather is dressed with oil,
or shamoyed. But whatever may be the subsequent treat¬
ment, the preparatory steps somewhat resemble each other,
whereby hair, wool, grease, and other matters, are removed,
and the skin is reduced to the state of a gelatinous membrane
called pelt. The hair is removed from kid and goat skins,
by means of cream of lime; the wool is generally removed
by the fell-mongers before the skin is passed to the tawers.
Foreign lamb-skins, which are received with the wool on, are
washed, scraped on the flesh side, and sweated in a close
room, until, in consequence of the putrefactive fermenta¬
tion, the wool can be easily removed. After this, fatty
matters are got rid of by subjecting the skins to hydrostatic
pressure ; they are next worked at the beam, and pared
into shape, treated with lime, and next with dogs’ or
pigeons’ dung if the skins are to be tanned, and with bran
and water if they are to be tawed, the object being in either
case to get rid of the lime. During these operations the
skins are worked a few times at the beam, and are finished
by washing in clean water.
Morocco leather is prepared by tanning goat-skins with
sumach, and dying on the grain side. Inferior moroccos are
prepared from sheep-skins similarly treated, for which pur¬
pose each skin of pelt is sewed up into a bag, the grain side
outermost, distended w ith air, and placed in a mordant of
tin or alum. They are next placed in a warm cochineal
bath for red, indigo for blue, orchil for purple, and are
worked by hand until the dye has properly struck. For
certain colours the tanning precedes the dyeing. The tan¬
ning or sumaching is carried on in a large tub, containing
a weak solution of sumach in warm water; another and
stronger solution is contained in an adjoining vessel, a por¬
tion of which, together with some sumach leaves, is poured
into the bag; some of the weak solution is then added, the
bag is then distended with air, and the skin thrown into the
vat. In this way about fifty skins are treated, and are
kept in motion a few hours in the sumach tub by means of
paddles worked by hand or by machinery. The skins are
then taken out and heaped up on a shelf at the side of the
tub, the pressure thus produced causing the liquor to escape
slowly through the pores of the skin, the bags being shifted
about from time to time. The bags are next passed into
a second vat containing a stronger solution, where they re¬
main for nine hours. The bags are now opened and washed;
fine red skins being finished in a bath of saffron. All the
skins are next struck on a sloping board until they are
smooth and flat, and in order to improve their appearance
in the currying a little linseed oil may be rubbed on the
grain side. They are then hung up in a loft to dry, when
they become horny, and are in the crust, as it is called.
I hey next pass through much laborious friction with the
pommel, and with a glass-ball; while the peculiar ribbed
appearance of morocco is given by means of a ball of box¬
wood, on which is a number of narrow ridges. Sheep-skin
morocco is prepared from split skins; the skin-splitting ma¬
chine resembles in principle that already described, only as
the membrane is thinner certain variations are required.
Instead of stretching the skin on a drum, it is passed be¬
tween two rollers, the lower one of gun metal and solid,
and the upper made of gun-metal rings ; while between the
two rollers, and nearly in contact, is the edge of the sharp
knife, which is moved by a crank, as already mentioned.
When a skin is introduced between the two rollers, it is
dragged through against the knife edge and divided, the
solid lower roller supporting the membrane, while the upper
one, being capable of moving through a small space by
means of its rings, adjusts itself to inequalities in the mem¬
brane ; where this is thin the rings become depressed,
and where it is thick they rise up, so that no part escapes the
action of the knife. The divided skins are not sewed up into
bags, as from their thinness they can be sumached quickly.
In preparing white leather by tawing, the pelt is made as
pure as possible; the best kid leather being prepared from
kid skins, while sheep or lamb skins make the inferior kinds.
They are first fed with alum and salt in a drum or tumbler
made like a huge churn ; about 3 lb. of alum, and 4 lb. of
salt being used to 120 skins of medium size. The alumina
of the alum probably forms some definite compound with
the gelatine of the skins, while the salt serves to whiten
them. When taken out the skins are washed in water,
then allowed to ferment in bran and water, to remove the
surplus alum and salt, and to reduce the thickness. They
are next dried in a loft, and become tough and brittle, but
they are made soft and glossy by means of a dressing of 20
lb. of wheat flour, and the yolks of eight dozen eggs. By
rotating the skins in the drums for some time the dressing
is absorbed, and scarcely anything but water remains. This
dressing is usually repeated, and the skins are hung up to
dry. The beautiful softness and elasticity of this leather
is now given by manipulation. The skins are first dipped in
clean water, worked upon a board, and staked upon a
stretching, or softening iron, consisting of a rounded iron
plate fixed to the top of an upright beam, by which the
skins become extended and made smooth. They are
finished by being passed over a hot iron.
When a skin, properly cleaned and soaked in water, has
oil or grease forcibly rubbed into its pores, the oily matter
combines with the fibres, and renders the skin permanently
soft. Water only evaporates during the drying, and the
result is a kind of leather called chamois, shammy, or
shamoyed, from the fact that the skin of the chamois
appears to have been the first treated in this manner.
When such leather is dyed, it wall bear washing, and hence
it is also called wash-leather. The best leather of this
kind in Great Britain is prepared from doe or sheep skin,
while for inferior kinds the flesh side of a split sheep-skin
is used, the grain side being tawed for skiver, sucb as is
used for hat-linings, &c. Where the whole skin is em¬
ployed, the grain is removed by frizing or scraping with
pumice-stone or with a round knife. The skins are now
placed in bran liquor, wrung out, spread upon a table,
sprinkled with a small quantity of oil, rolled up into balls,
four skins to the ball, and beaten with wooden hammers in
fulling stocks. After two or three hours’ beating they are
Leather.
L E B
LEG
311
Lebailea taken out, exposed to the air, again oiled and beaten, which
I! operations are repeated several times. After this the skins
Lecce. are ]lung Up jn a warm room, where they undergo a kind
of fermentation which promotes the union of the oil with
the fibre. They are next scraped with a blunt concave
iron, scoured in weak lye to get rid of superfluous oil,
washed in w'ater, dried, smoothed, and made supple by
means of the stretcher-iron or rollers.
By a variation of the processes of shamoying and tawing,
a stout leather, well adapted for driving-bands for machinery,
has been produced by Preller’s process. The hides and
skins being unhaired, &c., are smeared with a paste consist¬
ing of starch, oil or fatty substances, salt, and saltpetre, and
are then agitated in a drum. After two or three smear-
ings and agitations and drying, the process is complete.
In a leather thus formed the fibre of the skin is preserved,
and an increased toughness consequently gained.
Recent Improvements in Tanning.—The tanner has not
of late years shared in the benefits which the rapid advance
of chemistry has conferred on other arts. Mechanical im¬
provements, however, have been introduced, such as the
splitting-machine already referred to: the steam-engine is
also generally used, and is applied in various ways for grind¬
ing bark, for softening foreign hides, and for giving motion
to machines for washing, glazing, and finishing leather. The
hydrostatic press is also in use for expressing the grease from
sheep-skins, the effect of which is to allow the skin to take a
more brilliant dye. The abolition of excise duties, improved
means of transport, and more liberal commercial relations Lecco
with other countries, have all tended to the improvement II
of the leather trade. Lectoure.
Statistics.—The quantities of untanned hides imported “~v~“''
into the United Kingdom during the years 1853, 1854, and
1855, were respectively, 231,761, 184,024, and 188,844
cwts. of dry hides; and 518,548, 417,175, and 426,933 cwts.
of wet hides: while during the same years there were im¬
ported of hides tanned, tawed, curried, or dressed (except
Russia hides), 7,286,602, 4,180,315, and 4,368,111 lb. Of
leather manufactures, the principal article of import is gloves,
which, during the three years above named, amounted to
3,476,341, 3,781,624, and 3,612,639 pairs. The next con¬
siderable article of import is boot-fronts, of which, in the
year 1855, there were imported 538,604 pairs. Of men’s
boots and shoes there were only 33,115 pairs; of women’s
boots and goloshes, 26,975 pairs; of women’s shoes of silk,
satin, stuff, or leather, 111,054 pairs. During the three
years above named, there were exported from the United
Kingdom, of untanned hides, dry, 70,295, 94,562, and
123,309 cwts.; of wet hides, 15,521, 17,369, and 38,405
cwts.; while of tanned, tawed, curried, or dressed hides,
the quantities were respectively, 29,746, 135,241, 338,422
lb. Of foreign leather manufactures, the only article of
export is gloves, of which the number of pairs were re¬
spectively, 327,645, 390,987, and 217,458. During the
three years above mentioned, the exports of British produce,
in leather, were as follows :—
Description.
Leather, unwrought...
Wrought, viz., gloves.
Of other sorts 
Saddlery and harness..
Quantities.
1853.
23,740 cwt.
31,214 lb.
5,404,402 lb.
1854.
29,601 cwt.
34,102 lb.
4,841,987 lb.
1855.
31,034 cwt.
28,420 lb.
3,462,765 lb.
Declared Value.
1853.
L.195,525
25,250
1,057,716
300,104
1854.
L.250,370
28,312
896,077
329,614
1855.
L.256,678
21,151
637,348
226,662
The gross receipts of customs’ duties on leather manu¬
factures imported into the United Kingdom during the
years 1853, 1854, and 1855 were respectively, L.58,427,
L.61,497, and L.59,984. (c.T.)
LEBADEA, or Lebadeia (modern Livadhid), a town
of Boeotia, near the frontiers of Phocis, between Chseronea
and Mount Helicon. It is famous as the seat of the oracle
of Trophonius; and in the time of Pausanias it seems to
have been the most prosperous city of Bceotia. The town
was twice plundered by Lysander; and by Archelaus, the
general of Mithridates.
LEBRIJA (the ancient Nebrissa), a town of Spain,
province of Sevilla, near the left bank of the Guadalquivir,
and 29 miles S. by W. of Sevilla. Being situate in an
extensive and marshy plain, the town is unhealthy, espe¬
cially in summer. The manufactures are cloth, sacking,
glass, earthenware, soap, bricks, tiles, &c. It has remains
of an old castle of considerable extent. The parish church,
built of the materials of an old mosque, is a mixture of the
Arabic, Roman, and Gothic styles. Pop. 6300.
LECCE (the ancient Lwpice), a town of Naples, province
of Perra di Otranto, on the road from Brindisi to Otranto,
about 22 miles distant from each, and 8 miles from the
Adriatic. It is fortified by walls, ditches, and towers, and
is farther defended by a castle or citadel. The space occu¬
pied by the town, it is said, would accommodate double the
present population, and hence it has a rather deserted ap¬
pearance. It is, however, one of the best built towns in
the kingdom, having wide and regular streets, and many
handsome buildings. The cathedral of St Oronzio has a
wooden roof richly carved and gilt. Lecce is the see of a
bishop, and contains a royal college. It has manufactures
of woollen, cotton, and silk goods, lace, and snuff; and
carries on an active trade in the products of the surrounding
country,—silk, wool, flax, cotton, oil, wine, gum, &c. Lupioe
was an ancient Salentine city, said to have been founded by
Malennius, a Salentine king. It is seldom mentioned as a
Roman town, though it seems to have been a municipal
town of some importance. Augustus remained there for
some days on his return to Italy, after hearing of the death
of Caesar. No ancient remains are now visible, but they
are said to have been numerous in the fifteenth century.
Pop. about 16,000.
LECCO, a market-town of Austrian Italy, province of
Como, on the Lago di Lecco, the S.E. branch of the Lago
di Como, 17 miles E. by N. of Como. It contains about
5000 inhabitants, chiefly engaged in the manufacture of
iron and copper ware, silk, cotton, and woollen stuffs; in
which articles it carries on a considerable trade.
LECTISTERNIUM, a sacrificial ceremony observed
by the Greeks and Romans on occasions of extraordinary
solemnity, when the statues of the gods were placed in a
reclining posture on couches, and a feast was spread on
tables before them. This ceremony, according to Livy,
was first observed in the year of Rome 354, on account of
a destructive murrain among cattle. At first a distinction
was made between the gods and goddesses, as at the Epu-
lum Jovis held in the capitol, where the statue of Jupiter
was laid in a reclining attitude, while those of Minerva and
Juno were set on chairs. Afterwards this distinction seems
to have been neglected, as may be inferred from a repre¬
sentation on the carved handle of a Roman lamp engraved
by Bartoli.
EEC 1 OURE (the ancient Lactord), a town of France,
capital of a cognominal arrondissement in the department
of Gers, stands on the summit of a steep isolated rock, near
312 LEG
Lecture the right bank of the Gers, 20 miles N. of Auch. The main
II street is wide, regular, and well built, but the others are
Lee. irregular, dirty, and old-fashioned. The chief buildings
are,—a handsome Gothic church, built by the English, an
hospital, which occupies the site of the ancient castle, and
the old episcopal palace, now the town-hall. Lectoure
carries on a considerable trade in cattle, wine, brandy, and
agricultural produce, and has some manufactures of coarse
woollens, serge, and leather. It was long possessed by
the Counts of Armagnac, the last of whom having revolted
against Louis XL, was besieged in the town, and surren¬
dered conditionally. The count, however, was faithlessly
murdered, and the inhabitants massacred. Pop. (1851)
6030.
LECTURE, a name given to any discourse read by a
professor to his pupils, but often applied to every kind of
viva voce instruction. See Uniyeusities.
LEDA. See Dioscuri.
LEDBURY, a market-town of England, county of
Hereford, on a declivity near the Malvern Hills, 15 miles
E. of Hereford. It consists, for the most part, of two streets,
which cross each other. It contains an old parish church
of Norman style, an hospital for the aged, founded 1232,
and several chapels and schools. The manufactures are
unimportant, consisting chiefly of ropes and sacking. A
brisk trade, however, is carried on in hops, cider, perry,
and limestone, the products of the neighbourhood. The
Gloucester and Hereford Canal passes the town. Pop.
(1851) 3027.
LEE, Nathaniel, a dramatic poet, was the son of a
clergyman, and born about the end of the seventeenth cen¬
tury. He was educated at Westminster School, and after¬
wards at Trinity College, Cambridge. After quitting the
university, and remaining for some time an unsuccessful
dangler about court, he began to write for the stage, and
between 1675 and 1681 produced a new play every year.
Poverty and a wild imagination, however, overturned his
reason, and he was confined in Bedlam for four years. In
1688 he resumed his pen, and, though subject to recurring
fits of insanity, he completed two plays between that period
and his death, which happened in 1690, as Cibber says, dur¬
ing a night frolic in the street. In the latter part of his
life he was dependent upon charity. Of his eleven trage¬
dies, Theodosius, Alexander the Great, and Lucius Junius
Brutus have alone taken a respectable position on the
stage. His genius for tragedy, commended highly by
Addison and other contemporary writers, is completely over¬
borne by the wildness of his imagination, which often leads
him into extravagant metaphor and turgid bombast. These
faults, however, are partially redeemed by a graceful elo¬
quence and true tenderness in describing the softer feel¬
ings of nature. Lee was an imitator of Dryden, whom he
assisted in writing sBdipus and the Duke of Guise.
Lee, Rev. Samuel, D.D., Regius Professor of Hebrew at
Cambridge, was born at Longnor, in Shropshire, 14th May
1783, and was educated at a charity school in that village.
Apprenticed to a carpenter at the age of twelve, he began
early to display that power of application which charac¬
terized him all through life, and at the age of seventeen, he
commenced to study Latin, purchasing books with his scanty
savings. To an intimate acquaintance with this language,
the knowledge of Greek, Hebrew, Chaldaic, and Syriac,
was soon afterwards added. In 1810 Archdeacon Corbett,
hearing ol his wonderful acquirements, obtained for him
the mastership of Bowdler’s foundation school in Shrews¬
bury. He entered Queen’s College, Cambridge, in 1813,
and took the degree of B.A. in 1817. In 1819 he became
Professor of Arabic at Cambridge, and in 1825, Rector of
Bilton with Harrowgate. He received the degree of B.D.
in 182/, and became Regius Professor of Hebrew in 1831.
1 wo years afterwards the degree of D.D, which he had
LEE
obtained in 1822 from the University of Halle, was again
conferred upon him by his alma mater. Lie died in 1852.
His principal works are the following:—Events and Times
of Visions of Daniel and St John, 8vo, London, 1851 ;
Hebrew Grammar, 1830; Hebreiv, Chaldee, and English
Lexicon, 1840; An Inquiry into the Nature, Progress, and
End of Prophecy, 8vo, Cambridge, 1849; The Book of
Job, translated from the original Hebrew, 1837.
LEECHES. See Helminthology ; Earn. II., Gen.
Sanguisuga.
LEEDS, a town of England, in the W. Riding of York¬
shire, the metropolis of the woollen manufacture, and, in
point of population, only exceeded by London, Manches¬
ter, Liverpool, and Birmingham. Leeds is situate nearly in
the centre of the W. Riding, in the wapentake of Skyrack,
and in the pleasant and well cultivated valley of the River
Aire. The surrounding country possesses much cheerful
beauty; and the view from Woodhouse Moor, one of the
most elevated parts of the borough, is not exceeded in any
part of the Riding. For manufacturing and commercial
purposes, the situation of Leeds is highly advantageous,
especially since the introduction of railways. It is now the
terminus of the two great lines from London—the Midland
and the Great Northern—and is, besides, the terminus of the
North-Eastern, and the Manchester and Leeds Railways;
whilst it stands in close connection with the E. Riding,
through the York and North Midland, and the Leeds and
Selby Railways. It has also connection with Cheshire,
through the London and North-Western Railway; and
with Scotland, through the North-Eastern, via Darlington
and Newcastle; andwa Lancaster, with the western route
to Carlisle and Glasgow. It has also canal transit to Liver¬
pool by the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, and to LIull by
the Aire and Calder navigation; these means of transit,
combined with the railways, giving Leeds the highest
facility for the transmission to the principal seaports of
England of its various manufactures, and for receiving at the
lowest rate of charge the various kinds of raw material used
in those manufactures. Leeds is the centre of a great
bed of iron and coal mines. All the advantages for the
successful working of machinery are, therefore, within its
reach, and hence it has become the seat of several impor¬
tant manufactures, especially woollen, flax, and iron and
machine-making.
Though regarded as the capital of the great manufactur¬
ing district of the W. Riding, Leeds is not in its centre,
but on its border. Eastward and northward the country is
wholly agricultural. Westward and to the S.W., in all
the valleys, and on all the hills betwixt Leeds and the long
and high range that separates Yorkshire from Lancashire,
the populous villages resound with the shuttle and the
steam-engine. In this district is carried on a woollen
manufacture of great extent and of considerable antiquity;
a worsted manufacture of extraordinary vigour (a graft on
the woollen manufacture) ; and latterly the iron manufac¬
ture, and machine and steam-engine manufacture, besides
a manufacture of flax, which has sprung up within the pre¬
sent century, and now constitutes one of the staple trades
of Leeds.
Cloth is the staple trade of the town, although the
manufacture itself is not the leading one within the bo¬
rough, being carried on, to a large extent, in townships
out of the parish and borough of Leeds. In the town,
however, the trade centres, and there the cloth is finally
prepared for consumption, by what is technically termed
finishing or dressing,—a department so distinct in Leeds
from that of the manufacturer, that the persons respectively
engaged in them know very little of the art practised by
each other. In this respect the Yorkshire cloth trade
differs essentially from that of the W. of England; the
practice in the latter being for the manufacturer to conduct
Leeches
II
Leeds.
Situation
and com¬
merce.
Industry.
LEEDS. 313
Leeds, the two operations of making and finishing the cloth
within the same premises, and so to control and direct the
entire process, from the sorting of the wool to the delivery
of the finished cloth. Several firms in the borough of
Leeds, conduct their business on the W. of England model;
but, as the rule, the order of the trade is as follows :—The
great bulk of the cloths sold in Leeds are produced either
in the out-townships of the borough, or in the villages lying
W. of Leeds, and principally in Pudsey, Parsley, Rawden,
Yeadon, Horsforth, and Guiseley, which are all in other
parishes, within an extreme radius of 10 miles from Leeds.
The cloths so manufactured are sold in the unfinished or
balk state to the merchants of Leeds, by whom they are put
out to the cloth-dressers or finishers, whose special craft it
is to raise the pile or nap on the face of the cloth, and to
complete it for the purposes of the tailor and the final
consumer.
A very large proportion of the business betwixt tb«> manu¬
facturer and the merchants is conducted in the cloth halls,
which are held on Tuesdays and Saturdays from 9 to 11
o’clock. Of these halls there are two—the Coloured Cloth
Hall, erected in 1758, and the White Cloth Hall, erected in
1775. Both are built in the form of a square, with double
streets, each street having a double range of stands for placing
the cloths, behind which the manufacturers take their place,
and invite the merchants to purchase. The whole length
occupied by these stands is very considerable; and in the
two hours during which the halls are open on the market-
days, the amount of business transacted is exceedingly large.
Within the last 20 or 30 years, however, a great change
has taken place in the method of transacting business be¬
twixt the manufacturer and the merchant. The latter
orders goods of specific weights, colours, and qualities of the
former, and these are delivered direct to him, without be¬
ing exhibited in the halls. It is, in fact, very probable
that more cloths are now made and delivered direct to order,
than pass through the halls. The large manufacturers of
the surrounding villages very rarely take stands in the halls,
their principal business beinga direct onewith the merchant.
At one period it seemed probable that the business of the
cloth trade would assume the West of England type. Mr
William Hirst, a very skilful manufacturer, introduced goods
of superior texture and quality, and by his success induced
many capitalists to erect mills on a large scale, in which all
the processes of the manufacture and finishing were con¬
ducted. The change was, however, only temporary. Many
of these mills are now occupied for finishing only, and some
have been devoted to other branches of the local manufac¬
tures. This economy of the cloth trade seems likely to
continue some time yet. If the spinning and weaving of
woollen goods by power should become practicable to the
extent now practised in the manufacture of worsted and
cotton goods, there would, of course, be a great alteration
in the entire economy of the trade. But there are pecu¬
liarities in the formation of the woollen thread which have
baffled, hitherto, the ingenuity of the mechanist to meet by
mechanical appliances only. Hence, the old hand-jenny,
and the hand-loom continue in extensive, and, indeed, pre¬
ponderating use, in the woollen trade, though they have
been almost superseded in the other textile manufactures.
The spinning of flax by machinery was commenced in the
township of Holbeck (in the borough of Leeds), more than
eighty years since, by Mr John Marshall, who was one of
the first to apply the principle of Sir Richard Arkwright’s
water-frame, invented in the cotton manufacture, to the
spinning of linen yarn.
J he works of Messrs Marshall and Company are very ex¬
tensive, and one portion of them is an object of attraction
to all strangers visiting the town. It is a vast room, 400
feet by 220, filled with machinery, all of which is turned by
shafting, which requires two coupled engines of 350 horse
VOL. XIII.
pow'er to impel it. The building is lighted by glass cupolas, Leeds,
which admit of ventilation, and in summer are shielded by
linen blinds. The whole building is held together by a
double series of iron ties, uniting the iron pillars which sustain
the many-arched roof. The external form is Egyptian ;
perhaps the only instance of the adaptation of the style and
hieroglyphic symbols of Egypt to the purposes of manu¬
facture presented in any part of Europe.
The spinning of worsted yarn and the weaving of worsted
goods were, twenty or thirty years ago, carried on to a con¬
siderable extent in Leeds, but have now nearly died out;
Bradford, Bingley, and Keighley, with the villages imme¬
diately adjoining, having attracted almost the entire trade.
The mercantile department of the trade, technically called
the stuff trade, long remained more extensive in Leeds than
in Bradford, even after the latter town had all but mono¬
polized the manufacture. Within the last ten years, how¬
ever, nearly all the stuff merchants transferred their estab¬
lishments to Bradford, though still continuing to reside in
Leeds. The stuff trade of Bradford, notwithstanding, is still
largely connected with Leeds, the wool-staplers and dyers
of the latter having extensive dealings with the manufac¬
turers and merchants of the former town. It is, indeed,
probable that more persons are now thus employed in
Leeds in this indirect connection with the stuff manufac¬
ture, than were ever employed directly in the spinning and
weaving of worsted stuffs.
Amongst the smaller branches of the textile manufac¬
tures carried on in Leeds, must be enumerated those of
silk and carpeting, neither of them unimportant, though
falling far short of the flax and woollen trades.
The establishments for the casting of metals, the manu¬
facture of steam-engines, and of machinery of every kind,
are on a large scale; and it has, besides, establishments for
the manufacture of mechanical tools, which won consider¬
able premiums at the last Paris Exhibition. It is by no
means improbable, that the various branches of the forging
and casting of iron, and the manipulation of that most im¬
portant metal into machines and engines for the manufacture
of the various fabrics which minister to modern luxury, may
before long constitute a more important branch of the local
industry than the old and staple manufacture of woollens.
In addition to these principal branches of manufacture,
Leeds produces largely in nails, tobacco, snuff, pottery, and
glass.
The number of persons employed in mills within the
borough of Leeds in 1835, as given by Mr Baker, sub-in¬
spector of factories, was—woollen, 9312; flax, 5926; wor¬
sted, 1420. By the census of 1851, those employed in wool¬
len and worsted manufactures amounted to 13,231 males, and
5112 females—total, 18,343; in flax manufactures, 2464
males, and 6722 females—total, 9186; machine-makers and
workers in metals, 5734. The total number of persons en¬
gaged in some employment was 83,465, out of an entire po¬
pulation ofl72,170. Of 38,468, the number of males under
twenty years of age, 12,626 were employed; of 45,246 males
above twenty, there were 41,836; of 38,987 females under
twenty, 9682 ; and of 49,569 females over twenty, 19,321.
These numbers show a very active condition of the industry
of the borough. They show, also, that the proportion of males
under twenty, and of females, who follow some occupation,
is not so great in a large manufacturing borough like Leeds
as is commonly believed; especially when it is considered
how very large a proportion of the felhales who are re¬
turned as following some occupation are domestic servants.
Out of the 19,321 females above twenty engaged in some
occupation, 12,959 are either domestic servants, or follow
some trade or employment in their own dwellings ; leaving
only 6362, or about 22 per cent, of the females of the ope¬
rative class above twenty years of age, who follow out-door
employments, chiefly in the mills.
2 R
314
LEEDS.
Leeds.
Religious
statistics.
The mechanical and other appliances of industry in the
town of Leeds are on a large scale, as evidenced by the
number of chimneys that crowd the view, belonging to
mills, foundries, dye-houses, and machine and steam-engine
establishments. Steam-power is universally employed where
practicable ; and the whole effective steam agency employed
in Leeds is probably not less than 12,000 or 15,000 horse¬
power.
The census of religious worship of 1851 supplies the fol¬
lowing particulars:—
Places of Total
Worship. Sittings.
Church of England  38 25,436
Independents  11 8,305
Baptists  13 5,781
Society of Friends  1 1,100
Unitarians  3 1,240
Wesleyan Methodists    26 20,475
Methodist, New Connection  7 2,717
Primitive Methodists  13 3,900
Wesleyan Association  10 4,354
Do. Refjrmers  4 200
New Church  1 850
Brethren   2 250
Isolated Congregations  5 280
Roman Catholics  2 1,220
Jews  2 140
Latter-Day Saints  1 240
Leeds.
Appropriated.
10,193
6,255
3,981
550
12,871
2,075
2,293
2,916
700
100
820
50
Total.
137 76,488
42,804
The supply of sittings is, in relation to the popidation,
46 per cent. The extension of religious appliances during
the last fifty years has more than kept pace with the pro¬
gress of the population. The extent of Sabbath-school in¬
struction in Leeds is as follow's:—
Schools. Scholars.
Church of England  46 9,292
Independents  14 2,894
Baptists  11 1,881
Wesleyan Methodists  31 6,387
Primitive Methodists   10 1,388
Wesleyan Methodist Association  11 2,226
Other denominations  24 4,693
Total  147 28,761
Education. The appliances for general education taken from Mr
Mann’s able report to the Census Commissioners are as fol¬
lows :—
Public Day Schools.
Schools.
Workhouse and military schools  3
Collegiate and grammar schools  2
Other endowed schools  7
Denominational Schools,—
Church of England  36
Other denominations  28
Private day schools  295
371
Scholars.
485
242
635
6,892
4,922
8,658
21,834
Literary The preceding figures, in reference to day and Sunday-
institu- schools, show that the proportion of day scholars to popula-
uons. tjon js one jn antj 0f Sunday scholars one in 6.
The educational means of a higher order, and for literary
and scientific purposes, in Leeds, are extensive. The
Old Library, founded in 1768, at the recommendation of
the celebrated Ur Priestley, contains a very valuable selec¬
tion of hooks. The New Subscription Library is on a
smaller scale, but is, nevertheless, a very useful institution.
Besides these, there are several small libraries, chiefly con¬
nected with the several religious bodies in the town. In
connection with the Leeds Literary and Philosophical So¬
ciety, established in 1820, occasional lectures are given both
by members of the society and by public lecturers. The
building contains a laboratory, lecture-room, and a museum,
with many fine specimens in natural history, geology, and
antiquities. The Leeds Mechanics’ Institute, established in
1825, was originally limited to the purposes of a library, and
supplying evening instruction in arithmetic, mathematics,
and mechanical and chemical science. The institute was
largely indebted to the. liberality of the late Benjamin Gott,
Esq., and John Marshall, Esq., for a valuable donation of
books on literary and scientific subjects. In 1842 it was
united with the Literary Society (founded 1834), under the
title of the Leeds Mechanics’ Institution and Literary So¬
ciety. By means of an exhibition in 1839, and again in
] 842, the Mechanics’ Institute had become possessed of a
handsome building, originally built as a music saloon. The
principal room (the upper one) serves all the purposes of
a lecture, reading, and news room and library. By the
union of the societies, an excellent collection of books lias
been formed, and the number of newspapers and periodi¬
cals provided is very large. There are day and evening
classes in connection with the society, and the curriculum
of the education given is of a high order. The School of
Art, originally established by the government, is also an
adjunct of the society, and is well frequented. The num¬
ber of members of the literary department solely, was in
1856, 1776; ahd of boys and others in the day and evening
schools, 258. The income of 1855 was L.1700, allowing
a very frequent supply of lectures, &c. The institution is
in a very flourishing condition. Besides this one central
and principal mechanics’ institute, there are many sub¬
sidiary ones in the out-townships, and in various parts of
the township of Leeds. Within the last two years also, a
Young Men’s Christian Institute, much on the model of the
Literary Institution, has been founded, and already numbers
500 subscribers.
Of the charities of Leeds, the older are chiefly the dwell- Charities,
ings for aged widows, now tastefully rebuilt, and the
“ Pious Use Property.” The annual income of the seve¬
ral endowed charities is about L.5000.
The Infirmary, established in 1767, and finally completed
in 1792, stands near the Coloured Cloth Hall. It is a large
but plain building of red brick, forming three sides of a
quadrangle, and with a large open space laid out in walks
and flower-beds, to which the late Richard Fountayne Wil¬
son, Esq. added a munificent grant of 4000 yards, thus leav¬
ing a clear and open space down to the Wellington Road.
The House of Recovery was opened in 1804, hut, being in
an unfavourable locality, a new building was erected in
1840, near the present Industrial School, in a very salu¬
brious neighbourhood, and, from the style of the architec¬
ture, constituting it an ornament to the town. Besides
these are the Benevolent or Stranger’s Friend Society, the
Dispensary, the Eye and Ear Infirmary, the Church Visit¬
ing Society, and the Leeds Guardian Society.
The town and borough of Leeds was incorporated by The muni-
letters patent, 2d Charles L, but this charter was cancelled cipality.
or surrendered. A new charter was granted, 13th Charles
II., under the style of mayor, aldermen, and burgesses of
the borough of Leeds. The corporation consisted of a
mayor, twelve aldermen, twenty-four assistants, and a staff
of thirteen officials. The Municipal Act of 1834 gave
Leeds a corporation of sixteen aldermen and forty-eight
councillors, which has effected great improvements in the
management of local matters. In addition to the powers
granted to it by the Municipal Reform Act, the town
council has acquired, through successive improvement acts,
extensive control over the construction of dwelling-houses,
the height of rooms, and the width of streets. It lias large
power to enforce the consumption of smoke, and to deter¬
mine the height of furnace and engine chimneys, and for
the abatement or removal of nuisances of every kind. The
corporate expenses for 1856 amounted to upwards of
L.25,000.
The management of the highways in the township of
LEEDS.
Leeds.
Places of
amuse¬
ment.
Public
buildings.
Leeds is in the hands of a board of highway surveyors,
^ having under their charge twenty-two miles of paved streets,
and ten mi-Ies of roads, and who expended, in 1855-56,
L.6809. The administration of the poor law in the town¬
ship of Leeds is in the hands of a board of guardians. In
the out-townships, the overseers levy, collect, and administer
the rate. The expenditure, in 1855-56, for the township
of Leeds, was L.26,693, 5s. 3d., a very small amount, con¬
sidering the population, and considerably less than in many
former years; the amount paid in 1843 being L.31,982
7s. 2d., and, in 1848, L.40,/84, 16s. 3d. The aggregate
annual charge of public rates, estimating the poor and high¬
way rates of the out-townships at L.10,000, does not fall far
short of L.95,000 to L.100,000 per annum. The rates are,
in fact, between 6s. and 7s. in the pound on the assessed
rental of the borough,—the assessed rental being taken at
fths of the actual rental. The supply of water for the
township ot Leeds is under the management of the town
council, who, in virtue of a power reserved to it when the
Leeds Water Works Company was incorporated in 1837,
have assumed the property of that company. The capital
thus assumed, and which is all raised on mortgage given by
the town council on the property, is L.270,031, 14s. 9d.;
which will be further increased by the works at Arthing-
ton, on the River Wharfe, ten miles from Leeds, from which
an additional supply of 2,500,000 gallons per day can be
obtained. The water is to be pumped from the river by
steam power into reservoirs at Arthington, and from thence
forced by steam power also, through iron pipes of large dia¬
meter, to the reservoir situate at Eccup, a small village 6
miles N. from Leeds. This extension is estimated to
cost L.14,000. The supply of water from the existing
works being 1,600,000 gallons; the total supply after
Arthington Works come into operation will be 4,100,000
gallons per diem. Leeds is supplied with gas by two com¬
panies, having an aggregate capital of L.224,487. The
value of the gas annually supplied is upwards of L.50,000;
or, including the gas manufactured by mill-owners for the
use of their mills, about L.55,000.
Of the places of recreation in Leeds, the principal is the
Music Hall, built in 1792. It is a plain structure, and is
used far oftener for public meetings than tor musical per¬
formances. I he New Town Hall, provided with an organ
and orchestra, it is expected, will almost entirely supersede
the Music Hall, which has no organ, and is besides much
too small. I he Assembly Rooms, over the north end of
the White Cloth Hall, were opened about 1780, and are
not much used. I here are two theatres, and a casino.
The Royal Gardens, situate at Headingly, 2 miles from
Leeds, in a delightful locality, were originally laid out for
botanical and zoological purposes, but are now converted
into a place of public amusement. The place of largest
public resort is W oodhouse Moor, a bare common N.W.
of Leeds, and about a mile from the centre of the town.
It is an elevated spot, and commands an exceedingly fine
view S. and W. In the summer evenings it is generally
thronged with cricket-players, norr and spell players, and
others in quest ot healthful amusement.
I he external appearance of Leeds has been greatly im¬
proved within the last twenty or thirty years. At the com¬
mencement of the century it had only one plain stone
bridge over the Aire, now it has six new ones within the
borough, two of which are of stone and four of iron, and
by no means inelegant structures. The railway approaches
and termini have greatly altered the appearance of the
place. I he latter, though on a large scale, have not yet
(185,-) assumed the form finally contemplated. The streets
of Leeds, under the operation of the Improvement Act,
have undergone large alterations, and, since the new sewer
was constructed, at a cost of L. 150,000, are laid down
with a pavement of great strength, and with causeways of
315
the amplest dimensions. Within the present century an Leeds,
unsightly pile of buildings, including the old Moot Hall, or '
Court House, has been removed from the northern end of
the principal street, Briggate; as also has the old Market
Cross; and although the shops and houses are many of
them of a remote date and very paltry, the whole view of
the street is imposing. Under the Act of Improvement
obtained 1856, the town council are empowered to open
up a new and spacious street from the front of the New
I own Hall to Wellington Street. The greatest change
hitherto produced in the town has arisen from the erection
of public markets, the rebuilding of churches and chapels,
and other public edifices, and its rapid extension of houses
west and north, in which quarters the houses have been built
in a style far surpassing that of the older portions of the
town. Leeds has four market-places—the Leather or South
Market; the Central Market, which is, in fact, a great
cluster of shops; the Covered Market, in the Vicar’s Croft
(just completing), for vegetables, &c., at a cost of L.14,000;
and an extensive cattle and sheep market, on a very exten¬
sive scale, in the North Town End. The parish church is
a very ornamental structure; some of the other churches
are also in an excellent style of architecture. There is also
a jail, erected at a cost of L.43,000,
The Town Hall is a parallelogram of 250 feet by 200, and
65 in height, of Corinthian architecture. The Great Hall
is the largest room in England, except that of St George’s
Hall, Liverpool. It is 161 feet long, 71 feet wide, and
73 feet high, and is calculated to hold 8000 persons. The
orchestra is placed at the north end. The town council
have voted LA000 for an organ, and L.8500 for the pur¬
pose of erecting a tower or dome over the vestibule. When
the new street is opened from this point to Wellington
Street, the view in ascending from the latter will be very
striking. A large bronze statue of the Duke of Welling¬
ton is already placed in the front area, and will be flanked
by a statue ot Sir Robert Peel, in the same material, which
now stands at the south angle of the present court-house.
A statue of the late Edward Baines, Esq., formerly M.P.
for Leeds, will also be placed in some suitable part of the
building, or in the area. These statues were erected by
public subscription, at an aggregate cost of upwards of
L.4200.
I he history of Leeds has been written by two antiqua¬
rians—Ralph Thoresby, F.R.S., a learned and pious native
ot the town, w ho published \\\s Ducatus Leodiensis 'm 1714,
and the Rev. Thomas Dunham Whitaker, LL.D., F.S.A.,
who republished Thoresby’s work and added another vo¬
lume, under the title of Loidis and Elmete, in 1816. The
latter work deserves high praise for its ability and antiqua¬
rian learning; but it is miserably deficient in its notice of
the trades and manufactures of the place, and treats them
with the most prejudiced contempt. More recently the
civil, ecclesiastical, literary, commercial, and miscellaneous
history of Leeds, and the surrounding towns and villages, has
been written by the late Rev. Edward Parsons, of Halifax,
in 2 volumes—a work which brings down, very completely,
the history of Leeds to the year 1834. A more recent
work by James Wardell, Esq., deputy town-clerk of the
town of Leeds, brings down the municipal history of the
borough to the year 1846. Both these works are of great
value to the historian and antiquarian ; but it is no dispar¬
agement to the authors to say, that the changes produced
by the repeal of the Corn Laws, the adoption of railway
transit, and other social and municipal changes in the laws,
have rendered necessary a new history of Leeds. It is
difficult to realize the contrast betwixt the Leeds of 1832,
the time of the passing of the Reform Bill, and Leeds as it
now' is; and it is quite possible that ten years hence the
historian of Leeds may smile at the modest tone in which
Leeds, commercially and nationally, is now spoken of.
316 L E E
Leek Leeds has been distinguished for the last sixty years by
1! the energetic action of the public generally, on all political
Leeward qUesti0n^ including the slavery question, Reform Bill, Ca-
Islands, Emancipation, repeal of the Corn Laws, repeal of the
Test and Corporation Acts, and the repeal of the East India
monopoly. The newspapers published in Leeds are, the
Leeds Mercury, an influential journal published three times
per week; the Leeds Times, more radical in its tone than
the Mercury ; and the Leeds Intelligencer, which is Con¬
servative.
The borough and parish, which are co-extensive, mea¬
sure in their longest diameter upwards of 7 miles, with a
circumference of 30, cover 21,470 acres, and comprise, be¬
sides the township of Leeds (properly so called) ten out-
townships, nearly all engaged in the staple manufactures
of woollen cloth, flax, or iron. Chapel Allerton, Potternew-
ton, and Headingley are, however, mere suburbs of Leeds,
a very large proportion of the inhabitants of those townships
being persons whose places of business are in the town ot
Leeds. The population of the township of Leeds, and of
these ten out-townships, in 1851, was as follows:—Leeds
township, 101,490; Armley, 6190; Beeston, 1973 ; Bram-
ley, 8949; Chapel-Allerton, 2842 ; Farnley, 1722 ; Head¬
ingley, 6105 ; Holbeck, 14,152 ; Hunslet, 19,466 ; Potter-
newton, 1385; Wortley, 7896—total, 172,170.
The value of real property in the borough of Leeds as¬
sessed in 1843, consisting of lands, houses, tithes, quarries,
mines, and ironworks, was L.342,937, 9s. lOd.; or, includ¬
ing the out-townships, L.544,272, Is. Id. The present
value is probably about L.626,000.
The census of 1851 showed that there were 36,165 in¬
habited houses in the borough of Leeds, 1646 uninhabited,
and 259 building. Since the passing of the Reform Act,
Leeds returns two members to parliament. (t. p.)
LEEK, a market-town of England, county of Stafford,
on an eminence above the Churnet Water, an affluent ot
the Trent, 31 miles S. by E. of Manchester, by railway.
The only public buildings are, the parish church, erected
in 1180, the town-hall, and chapels. The silk manufac¬
ture has long been carried on here in its various branches
of silk thread, buttons, ribands, handkerchiefs, &c. Mar¬
ket days, Wednesday and Saturday. A navigable cut from
the Caldon and Uttoxeter Canal approaches to within a
short distance of the town, while by railroad it has com¬
munication with all the manufacturing districts of central
England. Coal and lead are found at Bluehills, in the
neighbourhood, the former in considerable quantities. Pop.
(1851) 8877.
LEER, a town of Hanover, landdrostei of Aurich, on
the Leda, about a mile above its junction with the Eras,
and 14 miles S.S.E. of Emden. Vessels of 150 tons bur¬
den come up to the town, and hence a considerable traffic
is carried on, chiefly in agricultural produce. Chief manu¬
factures, linen, hosiery, soap, beer, vinegar, and brandy.
Pop. 6500.
LEE U WARDEN, a town of Holland, capital of the pro¬
vince of Friesland, on the Ee, and on the great canal uniting
the Zuider Zee and the Ems, 32 miles W. of Groningen.
It is surrounded by an earthen rampart and ditch, and is
intersected by numerous canals, the banks of which, and
the ramparts, being planted with trees, and forming agree¬
able promenades. The town is well built, and is the seat
of a large trade. The chief manufactures are linen goods
and paper. Among its public buildings are the town-hall,
the palace of the Prince of Orange, exchange, house of
correction, several handsome churches, and a Jewish syna¬
gogue. Pop. (1854) 24,461.
LEEWARD ISLANDS, a name frequently applied to
those of the West India Islands lying between N. Lat. 15.
and 19., and W. Long. 60. 30. and 65. 40. The group
comprises the British possessions of Antigua, Dominica,
LEG
Montserrat, Nevis, St Christopher’s, Anguilla, Barouda, Lefkosia
and the Virgin Islands, which are all included under one ||
government. The French, Dutch, Danes, &c., have Leghorn,
also possessions in the group. There are twenty-three
islands, besides numerous islets, having in all an area
of about 1700 square miles, and a population of about
321,000.
LEFKOSIA, the capital of Cyprus. See Nicosia.
LEGATION. See Diplomacy.
LEGATES, amongst the Romans, an ambassador, or
lieutenant-general. Legati were of three kinds,—1, Those
sent by foreign nations on an embassy to Rome; 2, Those
sent from Rome on an embassy to foreign countries or the
provinces; 3, Those who served under Roman generals
during war, or under the proconsuls and praetors in the
provinces.
1. Foreign ambassadors, on approaching Rome, sent into
the city the name of their nation, and the object of their
embassy. If they came from a hostile people, they were
either obliged to leave Italy unheard, or were admitted to
an audience from the senate, who assembled for that pur¬
pose in the temple of Bellona, without the city. If their
nation was friendly, they were received into the city, and
deposited their names with the quaestors at the temple of
Saturn. If they were persons of distinction, or came from
an ally, one of the inferior magistrates, sent by the senate,
met them on their landing in Italy, and accompanied them
to Rome. All ambassadors were treated as public guests,
and considered inviolable.
2. A Roman ambassador was elected by the senate from
persons of high rank only; had the sacred character of a
priest, and the power of a magistrate; was supported at the
public expense during his journey; and if he died during
his embassy, was honoured with a public sepulchre.
3. A lieutenant-general was generally a person of high
military skill, and was appointed by the consul, praetor, or
dictator, under whom he was intended to serve. His no¬
mination, however, was not legal until sanctioned by the
senate. His duty was to aid his superior officer, by advis¬
ing him in all great emergencies, by acting as his substitute,
both in civil and military affairs, and by assuming his in¬
signia, as well as authority, during his absence. In the last
case, he was called legatus pro prcetore. The number ol
legati under one superior differed in proportion to the im¬
portance of the war, or the extent of the province.
LEGENDRE, Adrien Marie (1752-1833). See
Sixth Dissertation, § 95.
LEGHORN (Italian Livorno), a free seaport-town on
the W. coast of Italy, grand duchy of Tuscany, is situate
at the extremity of a low and partly marshy plain, in N.
Lat. 43.32. 40., and E. Long. 10. 20.; 12 miles S.S.W. of
Pisa, 54 miles W. of Florence by railway, and 85 miles
S.E. of Genoa by sea. It is built nearly in the form of a
square, surrounded by walls, with five gates, and inter¬
sected by regular, wide, and well-built streets. The old
town of Leghorn, fronting the harbour, was long separated
from the newer portions by a wall, and hence the streets
here are narrower, and the buildings more crowded than
in other parts of the town. It is traversed, however,
by the noblest avenue in the city, the Via Grande, a wide
street stretching from the Arsenal to the Pisa Gate, and
having a large square in its centre, where many of the
public offices are situate. To the N. and N.W. of the
old town is what was formerly a suburb, called New A enice,
but now incorporated with the rest of the city. It is in¬
tersected w'ith canals, by means of which the various mer¬
chants’ warehouses are supplied with their goods direct from
the harbour. On the other side of the old town, to the
S. and S.E. of it, a new part, now also included in the city,
contains many elegant streets and mansions, the residences
of the more opulent merchants. Leghorn cannot boast of
LEGHORN.
317
Leghorn, many fine edifices. Those most worthy of notice are as
follow :—The Duomo, or cathedral, the oldest church of the
town, standing in the Piazza Grande. There is nothing
remarkable in its architecture, while its accommodation is
so limited that a new and larger cathedral has been com¬
menced, to supply the want. The Tower of Marzocco, or
painted lion ; the palace of Count Lardarel, containing a
valuable collection of paintings; and the statue of Fer¬
dinand I. de Medici, which stands close to the quay. Be¬
sides these, there are several parish churches, two Greek
churches, a rich Jewish synagogue, and an English Pro¬
testant place of worship. Of the convents, the most famous
is that situate on Monte Nero, which has in its possession
a portrait of the Virgin, said to have floated from the island
of Negropont to the Italian shore, unscathed by the vio¬
lence of the sea. Water is brought into the town by a
great aqueduct from Colognole, 12 miles distant. The
accommodation of the harbour, however, is not in keeping
with the size and importance of the town. Although pos¬
sessed of two quays, neither of them have sufficient depth
of water for large vessels, nor room for all those which are
able to enter. This has been caused partly by the great
quantities of sand washed in by the Mediterranean, and
partly from want of due care on the part of the authorities.
The port possesses two harbours. The outer and larger
one is protected by a stone pier about 3000 feet long, and
can be entered by ships of about 100 tons; while the
inner harbour, which stretches into the town, has been so
filled up that it is used only by small craft, and as building
and repairing docks. A new harbour is, however, in course of
construction south of the present one, and, when completed,
will have sufficient depth of water for the largest vessels.
At present large ships have to discharge their cargoes in the
roadstead, which lies between the shore and a sandbank
W.N.W. of the harbour, 4 miles in length by 2 in breadth,
and having from 3 to 18 feet of water over it. The hold is
good, and every facility is afforded for landing goods and
passengers by means of lighters. A lighthouse, standing
on a rock close to the mole, is seen many miles at sea.
The lazaretto accommodation here is unequalled in Europe.
There are three houses, for vessels with clean, foul, or com¬
promised bills of health respectively.
The trade of Leghorn has been for many years in a
flourishing condition, greatly owing to the privileges ex¬
tended to the port by the Tuscan authorities ; for, with the
exception of thefew government monopolies, goods can enter
here more cheaply than perhaps at any town on the conti¬
nent. Indeed, in some cases, articles of British manufac¬
ture are to be had in Leghorn at a lower rate than in Eng¬
land itself. But, besides the port privileges, the municipal
laws are so framed that persons of all creeds and religions
can live here in the enjoyment of their respective religious
services. The English cemetery of Leghorn—the resting-
place of Smollett and others known to fame—was long the
only Protestant burying-ground in Italy. The effect of
these wise measures is manifest in the number and variety
of the shipping which resort to this port. There are an¬
nually about 4000 vessels, with about 400,000 aggregate
tonnage, entering its harbour, while the clearances are nearly
the same. Of these, the largest number are Italian coasters.
The others, in the order of the importance of their trade,
are British, French, Greek, American, Austrian, Spanish,
Dutch, Swedish, and Ottoman ships. The articles of trade
are numerous, Livorno being the great emporium of Tus¬
cany and the adjacent states. Its articles of export and
import comprise all the Italian products and manufactures,
such as argol, borax, grain, fish, straw hats, hemp, olive oil,
rags, seeds, silk, skins, marble, tallow, timber, wool, vermi¬
celli, and maccaroni. Besides these, the articles peculiar to
the Levant and N. coast of Africa for many years found
their way to Western Europe, in great part, by way of Leg¬
horn ; but, as of late the British and American traders have
gone direct to these parts, this traffic has fallen off, and that
of the Peninsula become the staple trade. The following
table of the chief imports into Leghorn, during the three
years 1850, 1851, 1852, is taken from Macculloch’s Com¬
mercial Dictionary:—
1850.
Chief Imports. lbs.
Coffee  3,023,000
Cotton...,  211,500
Indigo  275
Pepper  298,500
Sugar, Brazil  602,000
Crushed  13,374,000
... East India and Santos.. 1,512,800
Havanna  3,400,000
... Loaf.  18,500
1851. 1852.
lbs. lbs.
4,439,000 3,610,000
650,700 138,900
259 384
635,000 836,000
135,000 89,000
7,536,000 15,132,000
129,000 966,000
1,149,000 2,510,000
6,000 37,000
The next table shows the quantity and value of the
principal articles exported from Tuscany to Great Britain
in the years 1853 and 1854, from the Government Deport
of Trade and Navigation:—
Principal Quantity. Computed Value.
Exports to Britain. 1853. 1854. 1854.
Anchovies  lb. 223,062 222,966 5,972
Boracic Acid  cwt. 20,768 23,709 106,691
Corn, all kinds  qr. 46,081 9,275 33,389
Marble, manufactured cwt. 4,555 8,863 11,079
rough  solid ft. 70,510 106,601 66,627
Olive Oil  tuns 1,474 885 68,853
Rags for Paper  tons 996 2,002 51,051
Seeds, Flax and Lin¬
seed    qr. 3,256 20,650 63,240
Skins, Lamb and Kid,
undressed  No. 1,237,138 934,984 46,839
Straw, articles of  lb. 43,664 26,796 38,068
Vermicelli and Macca¬
roni  cwt. 1,444 1,607 3,750
Wheatmeal and Flour cwt. 70,291 55,594 60,690
The total value of the imports into Leghorn, during
the years 1852-3, and 1854-5, commencing October 1,
was, in the former year, L.4,508,000, and in the latter,
L.5,690,000; while the total value of exports for these
years was L.2,848,800 and L.3,120,000 respectively. In
1856 there were 112 vessels, with an aggregate burden of
27,059 tons, and 414 small craft, with an aggregate of 7879
tons, belonging to the port.
The early history of this city is, to a great extent, en¬
veloped in obscurity. The first mention we have of it is by
Cicero, who calls it Labro. It was, however, in his time,
and for many centuries after, but an insignificant fishing
station, situate about 4 miles to the S. of Portus Pisanus,
which then occupied the commercial position now held by
the modern Livorno. In the fifteenth century it acquired
its first importance as an Italian seaport, after having passed
from the hands of the French to the Genoese, and from
them to the Florentine Confederation. A harbour was
constructed by the latter immediately after their acquisi¬
tion, and town walls built. Stronger and more extensive
walls were commenced in the year 1577 by Francesco I.,
and public buildings were afterwards erected by his suc¬
cessor, Ferdinand I. This wise ruler was, in reality, the
great founder of the Livorno trade. He was the first to
pay no respect to creeds or religions ; but, on the contrary,
invited all those who were anxious to prosecute commerce
honourably and with perseverance, whether they happened
to be Roman Catholic, Protestant, Greek, Jew, or Moham¬
medan. Under his liberal government the port of Leg¬
horn became the only town where freedom of opinion was
recognised, and formed a leading principle at that time.
From the end of the sixteenth century until the year 1796,
when the town was taken by the French, its trade and
commercial relations increased and extended; but with the
French occupation commerce and freedom were virtually
at an end. After the conclusion of peace, however, in
Leghorn.
318 LEG
Legion 1814, the port recovered its traffic, and has now gained the
I! highest position as a seaport in the Peninsula. Its progress
Leibnitz. wag slightly checked during the revolution of 1848 and
^ 1849, when the Austrians seized it, and occupied it for some
time, a proceeding which, fortunately, had a less prejudicial
effect on the trade than might have been expected. The
custom-house officers were more strict in searching vessels
for arms, but otherwise traffic was not impeded.
The manufactures of Leghorn are unimportant. Those
most worthy of mention are ropes, woollen caps, alabaster
and coral ornaments. Many boats belonging to the port are
sent annually to the coral fisheries off the coasts of Sar¬
dinia and Barbara. There are several mineral springs in
the neighbourhood of the town. Pop. (1855) 79,962, many
of whom are Jews. The government, or province of Leg¬
horn, including the island of Gorgona, has an area of 24,320
acres, with a population of 92,200 persons.
LEGION. See Roman Army, under Akmy.
LEGITIMACY. See Parent and Child.
LEIBNITZ, Gottfried Wilhelm, was born at Leipsic
on the 3d of July 1646. At the age of six he lost his
father, Frederic Leibnitz, the Professor of Ethics in the
University of Leipsic, from whom he inherited a consider¬
able fortune and a valuable library. The latter part of his
heritage proved the more useful, for with its aid he may be
said to have educated himself, although he attended from
his early years the Nicolai School of his native city. Im¬
patient of the slow progress at school, he began to read in
private all the Latin and Greek authors that fell in his way,
with so much profit, that before he was twelve (as he says
himself), he “ understood the Latin writers tolerably well,
began to lisp Greek, and wrote verses with singular suc¬
cess.” For logic, which he began to study soon afterwards,
he showed as great an aptitude. In his fifteenth year he
entered the University of Leipsic, where, though his prin¬
cipal study was law, he devoted himself to many other
branches of knowledge, and especially to mathematics and
philosophy. After passing a year in the study of the former
science, under the celebrated EJirhard Weigel at Jena, he
returned to Leipsic, and took tire degree of Bachelor in
Philosophy in 1663. About this time he began to peruse
with ardour the writings of Plato and Aristotle, and he used
to spend entire days in a wood near Leipsic in the vain at¬
tempt to reconcile their systems. His acquaintance, how¬
ever, with Greek philosophy was evinced by his metaphysical
dissertation, De Principio Individuationis, which was read
in 1664, when he graduated as Master in Philosophy. In
his twentieth year, being refused at Leipsic, on account of
his youth, as a candidate for a Doctor of Laws, he repaired
to the University of Altorf, where he took his degree.
His exercise on this occasion, which was afterwards pub¬
lished under the title De Casibus in Jure Perplexis,
elicited great general applause, and procured for him the
offer of a law professorship at Altorf. This he declined,
and repairing to Nuremberg,, chose rather to enter a society
of alchemists, which he found existing there. Collecting
all the current terms in books of alchemy, he wrote a letter,
which, though unintelligible to himself, so favourably im¬
pressed the society, that he was forthwith introduced into
their meeting, and chosen secretary. About this time the
Baron de Boineburg, chancellor to the Elector of Mentz,
came to Nuremburg, and was so captivated by the learning
and genius of Leibnitz, that he advised him to devote himself
to jurisprudence and history, and with that intent to re¬
move to Frankfort-on-the-Maine, where he promised to
obtain for him some office under the elector, his master.
This advice Leibnitz followed; and the result of his studies
at Frankfort appeared in his Nova Methodus discemhe do-
cendceque Jurisprudentice, published in 1667. In 1668, at
the request of Boineburg, he wrote a treatise, supporting
the claims of the Prince of Neuburg to the elective throne
LEI
ofPoland, which was then vacant, and sought by a crowd Leibnitz,
of candidates. This work, though elaborately written
in Latin, and containing sixty propositions rigorously
deduced from a series of axioms, did not attain its direct
object. Neuburg was rejected; but, as a reward for his ser¬
vices, Leibnitz was nominated, through the influence of
Boineburg, an electoral councillor. With an ever-active
ingenuity, he formed a project at this period of re-casting
the Encydopcedia of Alstedius, by rendering it more com¬
prehensive, by introducing the articles in the order of the
subjects, rather than in the order of the alphabet, and by
appending to the treatise on each science a condensed
account of its origin and progress, and of the authors who
have treated it in detail. This design, one of the favourite
ideas of the rest of his life, was never executed. In 1670,
for the purpose of vindicating the works of Aristotle, he
followed the unusual plan of editing a work of Nizoli
against Aristotle, and expressing his own views in the preface
and notes. His bold but paradoxical treatises, Theoria
Motus Abstracti, and Theoria Motus Concreti, appeared in
1671. In the same year he was employed by Boineburg
to write a defence of the doctrine ol the Trinity against
the attacks of the Pole, Wissowatius, and he produced his
Sacrosancta Trinitas* per nova Argumenta logica defensa.
In 1672 Leibnitz accompanied the son of his patron
Boineburg to Paris. Here, amid distractions of every kind,
he devoted his time almost exclusively to mathematics, a
study in which he confessed himself to have been hitherto
merely a tyro. His newly-formed intimacy with Huygens,
and his eager perusal of the works of Galileo and Descartes,
inspired him with ardour in his new researches; and he
attempted, with great ingenuity, but with little success, to
reconstruct and render perfect the arithmetical machine of
Pascal. An offer made at this time, by the Academy of
Sciences, to admit him into their body as a pensioner, on
condition that he embraced the Romish faith, was declined.
On the death of Baron de Boineburg in 1673, being re¬
leased from his duties at Paris, he visited England, and was
received at once into the society of Boyle, Oldenbuug,
Collins, Wallis, Gregory, and Newton, and was elected a
member of the Royal Society. The death ot the Elector
of Mentz in 1674, which left him without a patron, induced
him to communicate his embarrassments to the Duke ot
Brunswick-Lunenburg, who immediately tendered him
the office of a councillor, with a pension and the liberty ot
non-residence. Leibnitz accordingly returned to Paris to
prosecute his, mathematical studies. After a brief sojourn,^
he paid a second visit to England, and repaired, by way ot
Holland, to the court of his new patron at Hanover, in 1676.
Here he lived in a style highly congenial to his taste, em¬
ployed in enriching the ducal library with valuable works
and manuscripts, and receiving the full sympathy and assist¬
ance of his benefactor. About the same time, he was
engaged in writing his De Jure Suprematus et Legationis
Prineipum Germania, and in furthering the plan of pub¬
lishing the Acta Eruditonum, the first volume of which ap¬
peared at Leipsic in 1682.
On the death of the Duke, in 1679,. his successor, Prince
Ernest Augustus, afterwards George I. of England, retained
the same favour for Leibnitz, and employed him to write
the History of the House of Brunswick. In pursuit of mate¬
rials for this task, he spent three years travelling through
Franconia, Bavaria, Suabia, Austria, and Italy, searching
libraries, archives, tombs, convents, charters, old manu¬
scripts, and rare books, and amassing, in addition to the
documents requisite for his History, materials available for
philology, geology, and the philosophy of history. The first
digest of some of these materials was his great work Codex
Juris Gentium Diplomaticus, published in 1693, and fol¬
lowed by a second volume in 1700. This book, though a
mere collection of manifestoes, treaties, declarations, and
LEI '
Leibnitz, other public documents, is accompanied by an able preface,
containing, amid many original views on the principles of
nat ural law, his system of ethics. His accumulations sup¬
plied the matter of another work, Accessioncs Historicce,
published in 1698; but not until the publication of the
Scriptores lierum Brumvicensium in 1707-11, did they
appear to be applied to the purpose for which they had been
intended. Even this latter work was designed merely as
an introduction to his History, of which he left nothing but
a bare outline, published after his death in the Acta Erudi-
torum for 1717. In this outline he proposes to begin the
History by a dissertation on the-state of the globe, and spe¬
cially of Germany, before the creation; and after an account
of the manners and languages of the various tribes that suc¬
cessively settled in that country, to end with the real His¬
tory of the House of Brunswick, including, among less im¬
portant subjects, a notice of all their intermarriages and
alliances with other families. His general opinions on the
first of these subjects were published in his Protogcea, a
posthumous essay, which entitles its author to be calied the
Founder of geology.
In 1699 lie became a member of the Royal Academy
of Sciences at Paris. In the following year he co-operated
with the Elector of Brandenburg (afterwards Frederic I. of
Prussia), in organizing a Royal Academy of Sciences at
Berlin, and was rewarded for his valuable counsel with the
office of President of the new institution. To the Miscel¬
lanea Berolinensis, which the Academy afterwards pub¬
lished, Leibnitz contributed many valuable papers. A cor¬
respondence which he had for a long time maintained with
Bossuet touching a plan for the reunion of the Catholics
and Protestants came about this time to an unsuccessful
termination. He was also engaged in a vain attempt to
construct a universal language; but of his long and deep
meditations upon this subject, nothing remains except a
few hints found among his papers after his death.
In answer to the sceptical views of Bayle on the origin
of moral evil, Leibnitz, in 1710, published his most complete
work, the Theodicee, containing his chief opinions on meta¬
physics and theology, and, among others, his doctrines of
pre-established harmony and optimism. So courteous and
tolerant was he, in this work, towards his opponents, that
several eminent men unjustly suspected him of favouring
the doctrines he refuted. In 1711, Peter the Great, re¬
questing an interview with him at Torgau, consulted him
regarding the civilization of his empire, and, along with a
pension, conferred upon him the dignity of a privy council¬
lor. His latter days were embittered by his vehement
controversy with Newton, touching the discovery of the dif¬
ferential calculus. For some time he had been grievouslv
afflicted by fits of the gout, and having, amid his multifarious
acquirements, a slight knowledge of medicine, he tried a
remedy on the 14th of November 1716, which, after pro¬
ducing violent spasms, caused his death in less than an hour.
His tomb is marked by a monument in the form of a small
temple, and bearing the inscription Ossa Leibnitii.
Leibnitz was about the middle size, and had a spare hut
vigorous frame, a pleasant countenance, and keen eyes.
His early-formed habit of incessant study had given him an
habitual stoop, and changed his hair prematurely to gray.
Invariably pursuing his studies far into the night, he some¬
times denied himself the repose of his couch, and after
sleeping a few hours in his chair, resumed his labours with
the returning light. I his abstinence he is said to have
piactised for several successive weeks; and some of his
deep meditations kept him fixed in his chair, with scarcely
an intei mission, for several days together. He was equally
fond of reading and contemplation. Perusing books on
almost every subject, he assisted his recollection by taking
short notes of their contents; but even this small aid was
often unnecessary. So accurate and tenacious was his
LEI
319
memory, that at the age of seventy he could recite long Leicester,
passages from Virgil without committing a single mistake; ^v-» >
and so well assorted was his extensive information, that
George I. was wont to call him a “living dictionary.” His
correspondence, which comprised the most illustrious names
in Europe, and extended even to China, occupied a great
portion of his time. Preferring solitude to society, he was,
nevertheless, as animated and eager in conversation as in
study; ready and fluent in expressing his thoughts; easily
irritated, but as easily appeased. Though a zealous advo¬
cate of some of the great doctrines of Christianity, he was
chaiacterized by a wide religious tolerance, which, more
than the character of his recorded opinions, laid him open to
the charge of a secret leaning to the Roman faith. This
chaige, founded on an unfinished manuscript of his, which
was afterwards published under the title of System a Theolo-
gicum, has been shown by Dr Guhrauer, in his life of Leib¬
nitz, to be inconsistent with the life and previous writings
of Leibnitz. Krug and Schulze have also written elaborate
apologies on the subject, and the charge is now wholly
abandoned. For his philosophy and opinions, see Disser¬
tations I., II., and IV.
rI he principal sources of the biography of Leibnitz are,—
his Life by Brucker, in the Historia Critica Philosophies;
his Eloge by Fontenelle, in the Hist, de l'Acad, des Sciences
de Paris, 1716; Bailly’s Eloge de M. de Leibnitz, 1769;
Kastner’s Lobschrft avf Leibnitz, Altenb. 1769; but more
especially his Biographies by Guhrauer, 2 vols. Breslau,
1842, and by Vogel, Leipsic, 1846. The works of Leib¬
nitz have been singularly unfortunate in point of editing.
His miscellaneous papers seem an exhaustless mine from
which new treasures are continually brought to light. Four
quarto volumes of posthumous works were published by
Raspe in 1765 ; but these find no place in the Opera Om¬
nia, published by Dutens in 1768. Of recent editions the
most worthy of notice are those by Erdmann, Berlin,
1839-40;^ the Deutsche Schriften by Guhrauer, Berlin,
1838 ; (Euvres de Leibnitz par M. A. Jacques, Paris, 1842 ;
and the Gesammelte Werke, edited by Pertz, Hanover,
1847-56, not yet completed.
LEICESTER, the chief town of the county of that name,
97 miles from London by road, and 103 by railway. It is
pleasantly situate in a gentle hollow, on the bank of the River
Soar. It is a very ancient town, founded, it is said, by a British
king,—the King Lear of Shakspeare,—and was a Roman
station, known by the name of Ratee. Afterwards it formed
one of the five Danish burghs, or commonwealths. It was a
populous city at the time of the Norman conquest. A parlia¬
ment was held here in the reign of Henry V.; and Richard
III., defeated and killed at Bosworth, was buried in a Fran¬
ciscan convent, which then stood near St Martin’s church.
'I he town was at one time fortified, and had a strong castle ;
but nothing remains of the latter except the mound or earth¬
work of the keep. The principal streets intersect each other,
and contain some good houses : indeed Leicester, as a whole,
is a handsome town. The public buildings are,—the Theatre,
the Assembly Rooms, the Temperance Hall, the County
Lunatic Asylum, the Infirmary, the Railway Station, the
Collegiate School, and the Banks, and some of them are
very fine edifices. The county jail, situate at a little dis¬
tance from the town, resembles a baronial castle, having
portcullis and flanking towers, and turrets on the boundary
walls, which inclose three acres of ground. There are nine
churches, chief amongst which are St Martin and St Mary,
and twenty-six dissenting chapels. Leicester is the principal
manufacturing town in the county; more stockings are made
here than in any other English town, with the exception of
Nottingham. Yet, when stocking-knitting was first intro¬
duced, at the time of the Revolution, it was so unpopular,
that it became necessary to carry it on by stealth. The
other branches of industry are wool-combing and dye-
S20 LEICESTERSHIRE.
Leicester- jn<r? and the manufacture of all kinds of fancy hosiery.
shire. Steam power is largely used in the town, coal being easily
v'—obtained by railway and canals communicating with the
neighbouring coal-fields. Leicester contains ten parishes,
antfsome extra-parochial places. It is divided into seven
wards, and governed by a town-council, consisting of a
mayor, 14 aldermen, and 42 councillors. It returns 2 mem¬
bers to parliament. The population was, in 1821, 31,036;
1831,40,639; 1841,50,853; 1851,60,642.
LEICESTERSHIRE, an inland county of England,
bounded on the N. by Nottinghamshire, N.E. by Lincoln¬
shire, E. by Rutlandshire, S.E. by Northamptonshire, S.W.
by Warwickshire, and N.W. by Derbyshire. Its name is
derived from Leire, the ancient name of its chief river, the
Soar. Its greatest length is, N. and S. from the junction
of the counties of Lincoln and Nottingham with Leicester,
to Lutterworth, 44 miles; and its greatest breadth is, E.
and W. from near Rockingham to the neighbourhood of
Ashby-de-la-Zouch, 40 miles. It contains 514,164 statute
acres, and is the twenty-eighth of the English counties in
size.
The surface of the country is a series of gentle undula¬
tions, with full and sluggish rivers winding through rich
pastures intersected with hedgerows. It is a table-land, and
the highest ground consists of the Charnwood Hills, in the
N.W. part of the county, generally called the Forest, though
now destitute of trees. It is a group of hills exhibiting
sharp distinct prominences of a rugged character. The
highest of them, Bardon Hill, between Ashby-de-la-Zouch
and Leicester, is 852 feet above the level of the sea, and
commands, perhaps, a more extensive view than any other
elevation in this country : the eye ranging as far as Lincoln,
60 miles off in one direction; the Dunstable Hills, 80 miles
off in another; to the Malverns in Worcestershire, the
Wrekin in Salop, the Peak of Derbyshire, and the moun¬
tains of North and South Wales. This expanse comprises
one-fourth of the surface of England and Wales.
The county belongs to the basin of the River Trent,
which forms part of its northern boundary. It is nearly
equally divided between the lias and sandstone formations;
the former occupying the greater part of the eastern, and
the latter the western side of the county. The coal for¬
mation exists to a considerable extent on the W., and
clay-slate in the Charnwood Hills. The soil varies, but it
may be described as consisting either of clay or loam, as
there are very few portions of it that are calcareous, sandy,
or gravelly. It is, for the most part, strong and stiff. The
climate is mild.
The rivers of the county are,—the Soar, 40 miles long,
rising on the S.W. edge of the county, between Hinckley
and Lutterworth, and falling into the Trent, below Kegworth;
the Wreak, 25 miles long, rising near Oakham, in Rutland¬
shire, and falling into the Soar, near Mount Sorrel ; and the
Anker, the Sence, the Mease, the Swift, and the Devon.
These belong to the system of which the Trent is the
trunk. There are, in addition, the Avon, a tributary of
the Severn, and the Welland, which also passes out of
the county. The Soar is navigable for i miles from its
junction with the Trent, and this part of it, as well as a part
of the Wreak, is incorporated with the system of navigation
which overspreads the county. I he canals are, one from
Leicester to Loughborough, 11 miles long, and rising 45
feet; one from Leicester to Melton-Mowbray, 11 miles
long; one from Leicester to Foxton, 17 miles long, or, in¬
cluding its branch to Market-Harborough, 21 miles, having
a rise of 120 feet; one from Foxton to the Grand Junc¬
tion Canal, 8 miles of it being in the county ; one from
Melton-Mowbray to Oakham ; and one from Ashby-de-la-
Zouch to Nuneaton, Warwickshire. These canals, being
connected with the general system of navigation, give the
county access to all the great towns of the country, and to
the eastern, western, and southern sea-coasts. Ihe rail- Leicester-
way communications consist of a line from the Ashby shire.
Canal to Moira ; a line running N.W. from the River Soar, ■v'"'*'’'
near Leicester, to Swannington, 15^ miles long, having
four branches, and principally used for the conveyance
of coal; the Midland Counties Railway, traversing the
county from S. to N., entering the county near Lutter¬
worth, and passing by Syston, Leicester, and Loughborough
to Derby ; and the Syston and Peterborough Railway,
running N.E. The London and North-Western Railway
also skirts the south and south-eastern boundary of the
county.
Nearly two-thirds of the county are in permanent pas¬
ture, the greater part of which lies on the lias formation,
while the corn land is almost entirely limited to the sand¬
stone formation. The quantity of waste land is very small,
and the open fields, from the existence of which it became
a great hunting county, have nearly disappeared. The
richest pasture is the low ground along the course of
the rivers, and these are frequently held in conjunction with
arable farms, the stock being wintered on the latter, and
fattened in summer on the former. Much of the inferior
grass land is employed for dairy purposes, and a large
quantity of full-milk cheese is made for consumption in
the N. of England. The richest cheese in the world, that
called Stilton, from having been sold first in that town, is
also made to a large extent in the neighbourhood of Mel¬
ton-Mowbray. The mode of its manufacture was long
kept a secret in a few villages ; its richness arises from one
quantity of milk being skimmed, and the cream taken from
that being added to more milk, so that the cheese has
double the usual quantity of cream in its composition. The
average yield of ordinary cheese of a dairy, on moderate
land, is estimated at about 3 cwts., and on better land as
high as 5 cwts. for each cow. The land is much subdivided,
the greater part of it forming estates of from 50 to 500
acres each, belonging to yeomen who cultivate the land
themselves. The size of the dairy farms varies from 100
to 500 acres. Rent is very high, owing to the proximity
of large towns, the facilities of communication which are
afforded by the canals, railways, and good roads traversing
the county, and the crowd ot men of fortune which is at¬
tracted thither during the hunting season, a sport for which
the county has long been famous, and for which it is still
admirably adapted. The land, on the whole, is imperfectly
cultivated, and draining and other improvements have made
little progress ; indeed, like most grass countries, it has
slept upon its natural riches. The arable crops average
from 3 to 3^ quarters of wheat, and from 2 to 4 quarters
of beans per acre. The county has, how’ever, produced
an eminent farmer, Bakewell, from whose farm, Dishley
Grange, near Dishley, emanated the great art of transform¬
ing breeds of domestic animals, one of the most valuable
conquests of human genius. The race of sheep introduced
by him—the Dishley, or New Leicester breed, as it is called,
—excels all other known races for precocity, producing ani¬
mals ready for fattening in one year, and full-grown in two
years. Bakewell also improved the cattle of the county,
and though his success was not so great as it was with sheep,
he has led to the modification of every breed of horned
cattle throughout the kingdom. He also improved the
breed of horses, and his black horses; of the cart kind,
originating principally from mares which he brought from
Flanders, were the first in this part of the country to plough
two horses abreast. Notwithstanding the decided supe¬
riority of the New Leicester sheep, the old breed is still
reared, as well as a race of forest sheep, still more in¬
ferior. The Old Leicesters are heavy, slow to fatten,
and give a coarse wool.
The mineral productions of the county are coal, free¬
stone, limestone, coarse slate, clay for making bricks, gypsum,
L E I
Leicester- an(j a spCCies of red granite, locally used for pavin"
v shlr^ 7 streets, and building houses. Bredon Hill is composed of a
valuable kind of limestone, which forms an excellent cement
in water, and which was used in the erection of the pier at
Ramsgate. Thereare two coal-fields, one to the N.E.ofAsh-
by-de-la-Zouch, six or seven miles long, the other S.W.,
and extending 11 miles; these terminate the English coal¬
fields in the direction of the German Ocean. One of the
beds is fiom 1 < to .21 feet thick, and the mines are worked
at an average depth of 750. Leicestershire is also a con¬
siderable manufacturing county ; its productions are stock¬
ings, and all kinds of fleecy hosiery, bobbin-net lace, felt-
hats, and carpets. Six-tenths of the stockings are of the
coarse kinds, audit is estimated that 20,000knitting-frames,
^ and 35,000 persons are employed in this branch of manu¬
facture. A large number are also occupied in wool-comb¬
ing, and in spinning woollen and cotton yarn. Leicester,
Loughborough, and Hinckley are the chief localities of
manufacturing, but it is carried on very generally through¬
out the towns and villages of the county.
Leicestershire was anciently part of the territory of the
Coritani, and was afterwards included in the Roman
province of Flavia Caesariensis. It contained several
Roman stations, but the only traces of them remaining are
those of JRatce (Leicester). Under the Saxons the county
was incorporated with the kingdom of Mercia. In the
seventh or eighth century it was the seat of a bishopric,
which in the ninth was united with the see of Lincoln.
In 878, in accordance with a treaty between Gothrun the
Dane, and Alfred the Great, the county became part of the
Danish territory ; but in the reign of Edward the Elder, it
was conquered by the Saxons, and restored to the kingdom
of Mercia. William the Conqueror divided the county
amongst his relations and friends, and they built castles
upon their possessions ; but these edifices have perished, all
that remains of them being a few fragments of Ashby and
Groby Castles. Belvoir Castle was destroyed by Lord Has¬
tings, in the wars of the Roses. The present edifice, the
noble residence of the Dukes of Rutland, is of modern date.
Leicester Castle wTas captured by William Rufus, in the
struggle with Robert Duke of Normandy. The county
was a battle-field in the contests of John and Henry III.;
and in 1485, the war of the Roses ceased in the defeat and
death of Richard HI. at the battle of Bosworth Field, near
Market-Bosworth. A tablet has lately been set in the
gable of a new building at Bowbridge, Leicester, com¬
memorating the fact that the “crooked-backed tyrant” lies
buried near the spot. The county was again much dis¬
turbed in the civil war between Charles I. and the Parlia¬
ment. Leicester was captured by the king in 1645, and
the decisive battle, which led to his dethronement and exe¬
cution wras fought a fortnight afterwards, on the borders of
the county at Naseby, Northamptonshire.
The antiquities of the county are a tumulus at Rad-
chffe on the Wreak, 350 feet long, and 120 broad, attri¬
buted to the Celts ; a remarkable parallel embankment near
Leicester, locally called the Raw Dykes, and supposed to
be the bounds of a British race-course ; traces of the Ro¬
man loads, the Watling Street, the Via Devena, and the
Fossway ; a Roman wall, called the Jewry Wall, at Leices¬
ter, built of alternate courses of ragstone and brick, and
having several arches turned with tiles; tessellated pave¬
ments at Rothley and Wanlip; and remains of encamp¬
ments, supposed to be Roman. Coins of the Roman em¬
perors Titus, frajan, Diocletian, Constantine, Constantius,
Hadrian, and others, have been found at different times
and places. The Gothic remains are those of the Abbey
of Leicester, of the Nunnery of Grace Dieu, Ulvestoft
Priory, Laund Priory, the castle of Ashby-de-la-Zouch
the churches of Hinckley and Melton-Mowbray, and the
chapel of Market-Harborough.
LEI
The pulpit and part of the vestments of the great refor¬
mer Wickliffe are still preserved in the church of Lutter¬
worth, of which he was the pastor. He was buried there
in the year 1387; but in 1428, by order of the Council of
Senna, his bones were taken up and burnt, and the ashes
thrown into the river. Thus, to use the words of Fuller,
“ the Swift conveyed them to the Avon, the Avon into the
Severn, the Severn into the narrow seas, and they into the
wide ocean,” foreshadowing the dispersion of the Bible
which he first translated into English, over the whole world’.
1 he county is divided into 6 hundreds and 206 parishes
Ihe population was, in 1821, 174,571; 1831, 197 000-
1841, 220,304; 1851, 234,938. ’ ^ ’
The chief towns are,—
321
Leigh,
Edward
. I!
Leighton.
Population.
Ashby-de-la-Zouch  3,762
Castle Donnington 2,729
Hinckley 6,111
Loughborough  10,900
T .. . Population.
Lutterworth  2 446
Melton-Mowbray  4 391
Market-Harborough  2,325
Leicester 60,584
VOL. XIII.
The amount assessed to the property and income tax
within the county in 1851 was L.1,364,270.
Ihe number of places of worship in the county in 1851
was 650, viz.,—Church of England, 289 ; other denomina¬
tions, 361. The total attendance at the services in the
morning, afternoon, and evening was,—Church of England
157,982 ; other denominations, 147,802.
The number of day schools was 709, with 28,257 scho¬
lars, viz.,—Public schools, 278, with 19,392 scholars ; pri-
vate schools, 431, with 8862 scholars. Sunday schools,
432, with^36,280 scholars, viz.,—Church of England, 227
schools, 17,217 scholars; other denominations, 205 schools
19,063 scholars. c \ ’
LEIGH, Edward, a learned theological critic, ivas born
at Shawell in Leicestershire, in 1602. After studying at
Oxford, where he enrolled as a commoner of Magdalen
Hall m 1616, he became a student of law in the Middle
emple. He then devoted himself to his professional duties
and literature till 1636, when he entered parliament as
member for Stafford. He became a colonel in the parlia¬
mentary army during the civil war, and soon afterwards a
member of the Assembly of Divines. Being favourable to
a reconciliation with the king, he was turned out of parlia¬
ment along with the Presbyterian party in 1648. From
this time, till his death in 1671, he was engaged in the study
of theology, and published the following works:—A Body
of Divinity, London, 1654; Annotations on the Five Poeti¬
cal Boohs of the Old Testament, London, 1657 ; Annota¬
tions upon all the Neiv Testament, London, 1650; A Trea¬
tise of the Divine Promises, London, 1633 ; Critica Sacra,
Ins most important work, London, 1662; A Treatise of
Religion and Learning, and of Religious and Learned
Men, London, 1656.
LEIGH, a manufacturing and market-town of England,
county of Lancaster, on the Wigan Canal, 12 miles W. of
Manchester. It consists of two principal streets, from which
several smaller ones diverge in different directions. The
only public buildings are, an old parish church, the town-
hall, and several chapels. The inhabitants are chiefly em¬
ployed in the manufacture of cotton, silk goods, cambrics,
muslins, and fustian, especially the two first. In the neigh¬
bourhood cheese and glue are made to some extent. The
factories are plentifully supplied with coal and lime from
the surrounding country, which abounds with these minerals.
Market-day, Saturday. Two annual fairs are held here,
where cattle and cheese form the staples of trade. Lendl
has railway and canal communication with all the manu¬
facturing and mining districts of Lancashire. Pod. (1851)
5206. 1 V ;
LEIGHTON, Robert, Archbishop of Glasgow, was
born in the year 1611. His father, Alexander Leighton,
2 s
322 L E I G H T 0 N.
Leighton, & descendant 0f tiie ancient family of Ulyshaven in Forfar-
* shire, commenced his academical studies at St Andrews,
and afterwards repaired to Leyden, where he took the de¬
cree of M.D. Having fixed his residence as a medical
practitioner in London, he met with strong opposition from
the College of Physicians. In order to publish his Sions
Plea against the Prelacie, he retired to Holland ; and in
1629 became minister of the English church at Utrecht.
But his conscientious scruples in regard to the observance
of festivals, induced him to resign his charge within a few
months. His book having been printed in the course of
the preceding year, he returned to London. Two copies
were presented to parliament two days before the dissolu-
lution ; and he was immediately arrested by two pursui¬
vants of the high commission, and conducted to the house
of Laud, then Bishop of London, and inquisitor-general of
England. On the bishop’s warrant he was committed to a
loathsome dungeon in Newgate, and only after fifteen weeks
did the inquisitors permit his wife to visit him. In the in¬
terval his house had been ransacked and robbed by Laud’s
emissaries, who by their brutality so frightened one little
boy of five years old, “ that he never recovered it all
his days.” By flattering promises, one of Laud’s agents
prevailed upon him to confess that he was the writer of the
book; but neither threats nor entreaties could induce him
to betray any one of his friends and adherents. Before the
court of Star-Chamber he repeated the admission, that he
was the author of the book, but denied all criminality of
intention. No counsel dared to plead his cause, and he
returned to prison to await his doom. It was the opinion
of four physicians that poison had been administered to him
in Newgate. He had been seized with a violent distemper,
which was accompanied with loathsome symptoms, and his
strength was so completely exhausted that he could not be
produced before this atrocious court. In his absence, he
was sentenced (4th June 1630) to pay a fine of L.10,000;
it was also ordained that the high commission should de¬
grade him from his ministry; that he should be brought to
the pillory at Westminster, should be whipped, have one of
his ears cut off, one side of his nose slit, and his face branded
with the letters S. S., denoting a sower of sedition ; that
he should then be carried back to prison, and, after a few
days, should again be pilloried at Cheapside, should then
likewise be whipped, have his other ear cut off, and the
other side of his nose slit; and should then be detained in
close custody in the Fleet prison for the remainder of his
life. When this sentence was pronounced, it has been
stated that Laud pulled off his cap, and gave thanks to the
God of mercy.1 Before the execution of the sentence,
Leighton made his escape from prison; and two of his
countrymen, named Anderson and Elphinstone, were each
fined L.500 for aiding and abetting him in his flight. He
was, however, retaken in Bedfordshire, and endured the first
part of his punishment on the 26th of November; it was
inflicted with the most unrelenting severity; the second
part followed after a short interval; and thus miserably
mutilated, he lingered in prison for nearly ten years.2 In
1640 he presented a petition to the Long Parliament, re¬
citing the direful persecution to which he had been sub¬
jected, and he now obtained such redress as could be af¬
forded to him; “ but,” as Dr Benson has too truly re¬
remarked, “ no sufficient reparation in this world could Leighton,
possibly be made to a man so highly injured.”3 ^
Robert Leighton, the eldest son of this learned and
persecuted individual, is commonly represented as a native
of Edinburgh ; but as Burnet speaks of his father having
sent him to be educated in Scotland, it has been inferred
that he was born in London.4 He entered the University
of Edinburgh in 1627; and, though even at that time re¬
markable for his piety, was censured for writing an epigram
on the provost of the city. He made uncommon progress
in his studies, and took the degree of A.M. in 1631. After
he left the university he travelled on the Continent, and,
among other places, visited Douay, where some of his rela¬
tions were then residing. In France he spent several
years. Returning to the land of his fathers, he became, on
the 16th December 1641, Presbyterian minister of New-
battle, a parish within 7 miles of Edinburgh. He had now
attained the age of thirty, and was qualified by his natural
endowments, as well as by his acquired knowledge, to ap¬
pear with singular advantage in his public capacity. His
large and tolerant views, however, made him withdraw
from the society of his brethren, and his retiring disposition
caused himself seldom to let his voice be heard beyond the
precincts of his parish. Bishop Burnet, who speaks with
enthusiasm of Leighton’s style of preaching, tells us that
he had “a very low voice, and could not be heard by a
crowd.”
In 1648 Leighton declared in favour of the Engagement
for the king, and thus exposed himself to the hazard of
being subjected to heavy penalties. When some of his
parishioners, who had been concerned in the unfortunate
expedition to England, were enjoined to make a public
profession of their repentance, he studiously avoided all
mention of the grounds of the war, but admonished them
that “ they had been in an expedition in which, he be¬
lieved, they had neglected their duty to God, and had been
guilty of injustice and violence, of drunkenness, and other
immoralities, and he charged them to repent of these very
seriously.” The Earl of Lothian, who resided in his parish,
and entertained a high esteem for his character, had suffi¬
cient influence to protect him from any serious annoyance.
It is, however, evident that he found himself placed in a
very uncomfortable situation: and his uneasiness must in
no small degree have been increased by the differences
which unhappily ensued between the Resolutioners and Pro¬
testers. He was at length induced to resign the pastoral
charge of Newbattle in 1652.
On the 17th January 1653, Leighton was elected principal
of the University of Edinburgh, and was persuaded to accept
an office for which he was so eminently qualified by his
character, his talents, and his attainments. Being ex officio
primarius professor of divinity, he often preached to the
students in Latin, with such animation and purity of style as
to draw crowded audiences. His conversation and piety had
an equally good effect upon the youth under his charge.
He also increased the temporal prosperity of the university,
by soliciting and obtaining from Cromwell an annuity of
L.200 to increase its funds, which were then very Iowg
During the vacations, he made occasional excursions to
England, and even to Flanders. He had an opportunity
of observing the character of the eminent men who fre-
1 Even in the solitude of his prison, Laud seems to have entertained a deliberate opinion that Dr Leighton’s punishment had fallen
short of his deserts. “ In which book of his,” he remarks very coolly, “ were many things, which in some times might have cost him
dearer,, (Hist, of the Troubles and Tryal of Laud, vol. i., p. 198).
2 Rushworth’s Historical Collections, part ii., p. 58. Oldmixon’s Hist, of England during the Reigns of the House of Stuart, p. 110.
Pierce’s Vindication of the Dissenters, p. 177 ; Neal’s Hist, of the Puritans, vol. ii., p. 209, Toulmin’s edit.; Brook’s Lives of the Puritans,
vol. ii., p. 476; Brodie’s Hist, of the British Empire, vol. ii., p. 308.
3 Benson’s Brief Account of Archbishop Laud’s cruel Treatment of Dr Leighton, inserted in the third edition of his Collection of
Tracts, p. 224, Lond., 1748, 8vo.
4 Murray’s Life of Robert Leighton, D.D., Archbishop of Glasgow, p. 42, Edinb. 1828, 12mo.
LEIGHTON.
323
Leighton, quented the Protector’s court; but in his continental tours
\ found more congenial society in the Jansenist divines, who
seemed to be struggling for that primitive simplicity on
which his own heart was set. At his restoration Charles II.
tried to force Episcopacy upon Scotland, as he considered
that form of church government most favourable to his de¬
spotic opinions. The politic apostate Sharp, the willing tool
of the king, was appointed Archbishop of St Andrews and
Primate of Scotland; and, chiefly at his recommendation,
three bishops were nominated. One remained to be chosen,
and Leighton was pointed out as a proper person. His
brother, Sir Elisha Leighton, who had embraced Popery,
and become secretary to the Duke of York, commended
him to Lord Aubigny, and on account of his celibacy and
ascetic mode of life, falsely represented him as fostering a
secret favour for the Romish faith. At this nobleman’s
suggestion, Charles appointed Leighton one of the five
bishops. Leighton, who was then in London, on his return
from Bath, where he had been residing for the benefit of
his health, was persuaded, after considerable difficulty, to
accept of the bishopric of Dunblane, a small diocese, as well
as a small revenue. He had previously cultivated an ac¬
quaintance with several Episcopalians, and, among others,
with the father of Bishop Burnet. No person of ordinary
candour can impute his change to any unworthy motive.
Considering church government as a matter not determined
by any positive injunctions, but open to the adjustment of
bodies of men varying in their opinions, and placed in a
variety of circumstances, he also cherished the hope (as he
himself says) “ of reconciling the devout on different sides.”
Of the four bishops-elect, only two had received epis¬
copal ordination ; but before the consecration of the other
two, Sharp and Leighton, it was considered as absolutely
necessary to ordain them deacons and priests, since they
could not be considered as really presbyters: an opinion
which was by no means prevalent previous to the ascend¬
ancy of Laud, and which has since been ably refuted by
Bishop Stillingfleet. To this idle ceremony of re-ordina¬
tion, Sharp, who had “ swallowed down greater matters,”
submitted with no small reluctance, but Leighton had good
sense enough to know that it was a matter of no consequence
whether he submitted to it or not. These two were pri¬
vately ordained deacons and priests; and on the 15th
of December 1661, all the four were publicly conse¬
crated in Westminster Abbey. The good Bishop of Dun¬
blane was scandalized at the feasting and jollity which fol¬
lowed this religious ceremony. They travelled towards
Scotland in one coach ; and Leighton stated to Burnet that
he believed his associates were weary of him, for he was very
weary of them. When he found that they intended to enter
the metropolis with some degree of pomp, he left them at Mor¬
peth, and saved himself from a triumphal entry by reaching
Edinburgh a few days before them. When parliament as¬
sembled in the month of April 1662, most of the bishops
took their seats, but Leighton did not appear among them ;
and he still retained enough of presbytery to refuse the title
of Lord. With his new associates Leighton could mingle far
less than with the intolerant presbytery of Newbattle ; and
as they carried their relentless schemes into his diocese,
he quickly lost heart and hope. In 1665 he announced
to the clergy of Dunblane his intention of resigning ; and
with a tale of sorrow, which moved even the heart of the
king, he supplicated for leave to retire from his bishopric.
The king, however, persuaded him to retain his office, pro¬
mised the adoption of a more lenient policy, and suspended
the functions of the ecclesiastical commission. But most
of his Scottish ministers were so destitute of principle and
humanity, that no material improvements ensued. The
Presbyterians were subjected to intolerable grievances;
and at length, in 1666, had recourse to arms, when their Leighton,
military proceedings were very speedily terminated at the
battle of Pentland Hills.
In the midst of these scenes of persecution, the gentle
spirit of Leighton must have been heavily afflicted. He
opposed all the violent methods of producing a formal com¬
pliance with the established mode of worship, and made
great exertions to secure a general and permanent tolera¬
tion. With this view he repaired to court in 1669, and
had two audiences of the king. One of those who seconded
his endeavours was Dr Wilkins, Bishop of Chester. The
proclamation of indulgences complicated the politics of
both parties, and for his zeal against the measure, Dr Alex¬
ander Burnet, Archbishop of Glasgow, found it expedient
to retire to a private station, with the provision of an annual
pension. It was not without much reluctance that Leigh¬
ton was induced to accept of the vacant office; and, as his
translation was attended with some informalities, he became,
according to the strictness of ecclesiastical law, not arch¬
bishop, but administrator of the bishopric.1 He removed
to Glasgow in 1670, and in the course of the preceding
year his friend Dr Gilbert Burnet had been elected pro¬
fessor of divinity in that university. They appear to have
lived upon terms of great cordiality ; and to Burnet, who
became Bishop of Salisbury, we are indebted for a copious
and most interesting record of his evangelical virtues.
Soon after his translation, he held a synod of his clergy,
who uttered many complaints of being deserted by the
people; but Leighton only exhorted them to lay aside all
desire for revenge and to humble themselves before God.
“ This was a new strain to the clergy. So they went home,
as little edified with their new bishop as he was with them.”
Accompanied by the professor of divinity, he afterwards
visited some of the most eminent of the indulged ministers in
different districts, with the view of persuading them to listen
to terms of accommodation. In the presence of the Earls of
Lauderdale, Rothes, Tweeddale, and Kincardine, he held a
conference at Edinburgh with six of the Presbyterian clergy;
but his arguments in favour of Episcopacy produced no effect
upon those to whom they were addressed, and a second con¬
ference was attended with the same result. Leighton tried
also to obtain some mitigation of the acts against conven¬
ticles. In reference to one of them, he declared to the
Earl of Tweeddale, that the entire tenor of it was so con¬
trary to the common rules of humanity, not to say Chris¬
tianity, that he was ashamed to participate in the councils
of those who could frame and pass such laws. Nor must
it be forgotten that these atrocious laws were not suffered
to continue a dead letter.
In the course of one year, four bishoprics became vacant,
and the choice of them was offered to Dr Burnet. Leigh¬
ton was authorized to recommend such individuals as he
thought most worthy of promotion ; but as neither Burnet,
Charteris, nor Nairne, could be induced to undertake the
office, he found himself beset with new discouragements.
Having failed in his endeavours to conciliate the Presby¬
terians, being suspected and hated by the Episcopalians,
and in utter despair of securing any benefit to others or
satisfaction to himself, he repaired to London in 1672, and,
not without considerable difficulty, obtained the king’s per¬
mission to resign his preferment, after an interval of one
year. He, however, retained it till the year 1674, and Alex¬
ander Burnet was then restored to his former dignity.
After residing for some time within the precincts of the Uni¬
versity of Edinburgh, Leighton retired to England, and
spent the remainder of his life with his sister Sapphira, the
wife, and finally the widow, of Mr Lightwater of Broadhurst,
a demesne in the parish of Horsted Keynes, and county of
Sussex. His time was chiefly spent in devout seclusion,
A.
1 Keith’s Catalogue of the Scottish Bishops, p. 267, Russel’s edit.; Pref. to Symson’s Life of Sharp, p. xlviii.
Leine
324 LEI
Leighton- but he frequently officiated in the parish church, and in
Buzzard, some others of that vicinity. In the year 1679, at the sug-
gestion of the Duke of Monmouth, the king was induced
to request that he would again fix his residence in Scotland,
and use his endeavours in reconciling the ecclesiastical ani¬
mosities which still prevailed in that country. But the
Duke soon afterwards ceased to have any influence in the
affairs of either kingdom, and this negotiation seems to have
made no further progress.
In 1684 Leighton was urged by Dr Burnet to make a
journey to London, for the purpose of meeting the Earl of
Perth, Chancellor of Scotland, who had expressed an earnest
wish to see him. When he reached the metropolis, Burnet
was surprised to see him look so fresh and active at his
advanced period of life: his hair was still black, and he
retained much of his former vivacity, with the same quick¬
ness of conception and strength of memory. He, however,
spoke of his work and journey being nearly finished at the
same time; he was next day seized with a pleurisy; on
the following day he suddenly fell into a state of insen¬
sibility, which continued for about twelve hours, when he
expired, June 25, 1684, at an inn in Warwick Lane, in
the seventy-fourth year of his age, ten years after he had
ceased to be Archbishop of Glasgow. His remains were
deposited at Horsted Keynes. A great portion of his in¬
come had been devoted to deeds of charity and bene¬
volence ; and by a will, dated on the 17th of February, he
had destined the residue of his property to charitable uses.
1 o his sister, and to her son, Edward Lightvvater of Broad-
hurst, he only left a small token of grateful acknowledge¬
ment of the great kindness with which they had treated
him while he was their guest. His library he bequeathed
to the Cathedral of Dunblane, where it is still preserved.
The grave learning, piety, and charity of Leighton has been
described by Bishop Burnet in very striking colours. His
gentle nature was never ruffled with bursts of angry passion ;
and in those troublous times his loving spirit was never
known to gratify itself in laughter, and very seldom was he
even seen to smile. Of his indifference to fame we have a
sufficient proof in the fact of his never having committed
any of his works to the press.
The following is a list of his writings:—Sermons, Lond. 1692,
8vo; Prcelectiones Theological, Lond. 1693, 4to. Of a very recent
date, there is a more correct edition, published under the title of
Roherti Leighton, S. T. P. Archiepiscopi Glasguensis, Prcelectiones
Theological; Parceneses; et Meditationes in Psalmos iv., xxxii.,
cxxx., ethico-criticce. Editio nova, recensente Jacobo Scholefield, A.M.
R.S.L.S. Grcecarum Literarum apud Cantabrigienses Professore Regio,
et Collegii SS. Trinitatis nuper Socio, Cantabrigiae, 1828, 8vo. An
English translation of the prelections and exhortations had been
published with the title of Theological Lectures, Lond. 1763, 8vo;
A Practical Commentary upon the First Epistle General of St Peter,
^ ork and Lond. 1693-4, 2 vols. 4to; An Exposition of the Creed,
Lord s Prayer, and Ten Commandments ; with two Discourses, on St
Matth. xxii. 37, 38, 39, and Heb. viii. 10 ; to which is annext a short
Catechism, Lond. 1701, 8vo; Tracts, including Rules for a Holy Life,
a Sermon, and a Catechism, Lond. 1708, 12mo. After a consider¬
able interval appeared Select Works of Archbishop Leighton, some of
which were never before printed; to which is prefixed an Account of
the Author s Life and Character, Edinb. 1746, 8vo. This publication
was soon followed by The Expository Works and other Remains of
Archbishop Leighton, some of which were never before printed ,• revised
ty P. Doddridge, D.D., with a preface, Edinb. 1748, 2 vols. 8vo.
" here are many other editions of a subsequent date, but among
these we shall only specify that of Lond. 1825, 4 vols. 8vo, which
las been reprinted several times, and contains a life of the author
by the Rev. John Norman Pearson.
t, I;?I?1HTON-BUZZARD, a market-town of England,
edfordshire, on the Grand Junction Canal, 40 miles N.W.
o ondon by railway. Its streets are ill laid out, and the
sewerage is defective. An elegant pentagonal cross, two
storeys in height, and said to have been erected in the
ourteent i century, stands in the market-place. The pa-
nsn church, built in the early part of the thirteenth century,
LEI
has been so frequently repaired that it has in a great mea¬
sure lost its original appearance of early English architec- II
ture. There are, besides, in the town a new town-hall, a LeiPslc-
literary institute, and several chapels, schools, and charities.
1 he trade is partly dependent on straw-plaiting and lace¬
making, executed by the women ; and partly on the cattle,
horses, timber, and wool of the neighbourhood. Cattle are
reared here in large numbers for London consumption.
Market-day, luesday, chiefly for cattle; and five fairs take
place during the year, the July one for wool exclusively.
Pop. (1851) 4465.
LEINE, a river of N.W. Germany, rises in Eichsfeld,
flows N. by W. through Prussian, Brunswick, and Ha¬
noverian territories, receives on its right the lluhme and
Innerste, on its left the Kaspau, and joins the Aller
(a tributary of the Weser) on the left, near Hudemiih-
len, after a course of about 130 miles. The chief town
on its banks is Hanover, where the river becomes navi¬
gable.
LEINSTER, the most eastern province of Ireland,
bounded by Ulster on the N.; by St George’s, or the
Irish Channel, on the E. and S.; and by the provinces of
Connaught and Munster on the W. The capital city of
this province and of the kingdom is Dublin. It contains
twelve counties, viz., Carlow, Dublin, Kildare, Kilkenny,
King’s County, Longford, Louth, Meath, Queen’s County,
West Meath, Wexford, and Wicklow. It comprises an
area of 4,876,211 acres, being, therefore, with the excep¬
tion of Connaught, the smallest province of Ireland. The
general elevation of its surface is also less than that of the
other provinces, excepting Connaught.
LEIPSIC, or more correctly Leipzig, one of the four
circles into which Saxony is divided, comprises the N.W.
part of that kingdom, and is bounded on the N. and W. by
Prussia, S. by Saxe-Altenburg and the circle of Zwickau,
and E. by the circle of Dresden. Area, 1336 square
miles. The country is generally level, and lies lower than
any other part of Saxony. It is most elevated in the S.,
where some offsets of the Erzgebirge appear, but do not
attain any great height. Leipsic belongs to the basin of
the Elbe, and is principally drained by its tributaries the
Elster and Mulda. The soil is fertile, and in general well
cultivated. The principal crop is corn. The rearing of
cattle, and especially of sheep of a superior breed, is much
attended to. Tobacco is extensively grown. There are
no metals; but limestone, marble, potters’ clay, fullers’
earth, and peat are abundant in various parts. The manu¬
factures in this circle are flourishing, and include woollen,
cotton, and linen goods, and earthenware. Pop. (1855)
454,262.
Leipsic, or Leipzig, the capital of the above circle, and
the second city in the kingdom, is situate in an extensive
and fertile plain, on the White Elster, here joined by the
Pleisse and Parde, 72 miles W.N.W. of Dresden by rail¬
way. The fortifications which formerly surrounded the
town have been converted into beautiful walks and gardens.
The houses are chiefly old-fashioned stately buildings, fre¬
quently six storeys in height, besides three or four addi¬
tional ones in the pyramidal roof, and exhibiting much
carved masonry. The streets are narrow, and from the
height of the houses, have rather a dingy appearance, but
are well paved and clean. The suburbs, however, of which
there are four, are of recent date, and more regularly built.
In the centre of the town is the great market-place or square,
which has a very picturesque appearance from the quaint
architecture of buildings which surround it. One of these
is the town-house, built in 1556, where the allied sovereigns
met to congratulate each other after the battle of Leipsic.
Here, too, is the Konigshaus, formerly a residence of the
electors and kings of Saxony, and occupied by Napoleon
during the battle of Leipsic. Near this is Auerbach’s Cellar,
L E I
Leiria. a spirit-vault said to have been frequented by Dr Faust,
and here Goethe has laid a scene of his celebrated tragedy.
The poet, not less than his hero, is said to have frequented
this place when a student. The old castle of Pleissenburg,
which, during the Thirty Years’ War, withstood the attacks
of Tilly for several weeks after the town had surrendered,
stands in the S.E. part of the town. The lower part of it
is now used as a wool warehouse, and the tower as an ob¬
servatory. Several of the churches are handsome build¬
ings, as those of St Nicholas, St Thomas, and St Paul.
Among the other public buildings are the university, cloth
hall, booksellers’ exchange, post-office, and theatre. The
University of Leipsic, founded in 1409, is one of the first
in Germany. In 1853-4 it had 113 professors and teachers,
f and 807 students. Besides faculties of theology, law, medi¬
cine, and philosophy, it has a library of 150,000 volumes,
and 2000 MSS., an anatomical theatre, clinical institution,
botanical garden, observatory, chemical laboratory, mu¬
seums, &c. The Augusteum, a very elegant building con¬
nected with the university, was erected in 1836, and named
after King Frederick Augustus. It is three storeys in
height, and contains the library, lecture-rooms, &c. In the
Paulinum, another elegant building, are the museums of
natural history and anatomy. This university is rich in
endowments for stipends to scholars. Leipsic is well sup¬
plied with other educational and literary institutions. It is
connected by railways with Dresden, Magdeburg, Berlin,
and Altenburg, and is the centre of a very extensive trade.
The celebrated Leipsic fairs are held here thrice a year,—■
on the 1st of January, at Easter, and at Michaelmas. They
usually last for three weeks, and are attended by merchants
from all parts of Germany, England, France, America, Rus¬
sia, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Persia, &c. The goods com¬
prise all kinds of woollen, linen, and cotton stuffs, silks, lace,
hardware, jewellery, watches, toys, paper, books, leather, &c.
The value of the goods brought to these fairs in 1855 was
estimated at about L.l l,000,000sterling. On these occasions
the town presents the greatest bustle and confusion—the
streets and squares are occupied by temporary booths in
addition to the ordinary shops, while the population of the
town is nearly doubled. The Easter and Michaelmas fairs,
particularly the former, are famous for the vast number of
new publications brought there for sale. The Easter fair
is attended by booksellers from all parts of Germany, and
even from other countries, sometimes to the number of 600.
Prospectuses and specimens of new publications are brought
here for circulation, annual accounts are settled, and pur¬
chases made. In the Easter fair catalogue for 1856 the
number of new works announced as published in Germany
during the preceding year was 9540, as forthcoming 1171.
Leipsic is also of considerable importance as a manufac¬
turing town. It has large type-foundries, oil-mills, paper-
mills, and manufactories of silken goods, stockings, leather,
hats, hardware, musical, optical, and mathematical instru¬
ments. There are about 150 publishing establishments in
the town; and in 1853 there were 36 printing offices, with
58 steam, and 164 hand presses. Leipsic was the scene
of a tremendous conflict on the 16th, 17th, and 18th of
October 1813, between the allies under Prince Schwart-
zenberg, and the French under Napoleon, in which the
latter were totally defeated. See History of France.
Pop. (1855) 69,986.
LEIRIA, a town of Portugal, capital of a cognominal
administration, in Estremadura, is situate in a fertile val¬
ley on die right bank of the Liz, at its junction with the
Lena, to miles N. by L. of Lisbon, and 15 miles from the
Atlantic. An old castle, founded in the twelfth century,
occupies a commanding position on a rock in the centre of
the town. Leiria is the see of a bishop, and contains a
cathedral of comparatively modern date, several churches
and convents, besides a college, an hospital, and small
LEI 325
theatre. The chief articles of trade are glass and fine tim- Leith,
her, the former being manufactured largely in the adjacent v—
village of Marinhas, while the latter is brought from the ex¬
tensive forests in the neighbourhood. There are some
warm and medicinal springs near the town. At Leiria, in
1466, the first printing-press in the Peninsula was set in
motion. The poet Rodriguez Lobo was born here about
the middle of the sixteenth century. In July 1808, the
town was seized by the French under General Margarot,
after a feeble resistance, and many atrocities committed.
Pop. about 3000.
LEITH, although an independent burgh, may be consi¬
dered the seaport of Edinburgh, from which it is only about
a mile and a half distant. The Water of Leith, at its con¬
fluence with the Firth of Forth, divides the town into two
parts, called respectively, North and South Leith. The
first mention made of Leith is in the charter of erection of
Holyrood Abbey, founded by David I. in 1128, where it is
styled Inverleith. The magistrates of Edinburgh obtained
a grant of the harbour and mills from Robert I. in 1329,
and they subsequently purchased, from Logan of Restalrig,
all the other rights and privileges. Its municipal govern¬
ment and admiralty jurisdiction continued in their hands
until the year 1833, when the Burgh Reform Act conferred
on Leith the right of electing its own magistrates, and the
management of its own municipal affairs.
From the earliest times down to a recent period there
existed a petty rivalry between the inhabitants of Leith and
Edinburgh, an evidence of which was given so early as the
year 1485, when the magistrates of Edinburgh, to prevent
the citizens of Leith competing with them in trade, passed
an act ordaining that no merchant of Edinburgh should pre¬
sume to take into partnership an inhabitant of Leith under
the penalty of 40 shillings Scots, and the loss of the free¬
dom of the city. The civil and political history of Leith
is thus so united with that of the metropolis that most of
the leading events are described in the account of the latter.
Its importance as the principal channel for the admission of
troops and supplies made the possession of it an object with
the conflicting parties during the turbulent period of the
Reformation, and the subsequent contests for ascendancy
between the supporters and enemies of the Stuart family.
As Edinburgh was the stronghold of the Protestant party,
Leith was that of the Roman Catholic party, who, headed
by Mary of Guise, then Regent of Scotland, and assisted
by a body of French soldiers, sustained within it, in the
year 1560, a siege of two months.
The modern streets of Leith are spacious and well built,
but the older ones are irregular and contracted. The prin¬
cipal buildings are the Exchange, the Custom-house, the
Town-house, the church of South Leith (one of the few
ancient Gothic buildings now used in Scotland for public
worship), and the Forts, one of the military stations of the
United Kingdom for a small body of artillery.
The chief manufactures of Leith are ropes, sailcloth,
locomotive engines and machinery, glass, soap, ale, refined
sugar, and oil-seed cakes. Iron and timber ship-building is
also carried on to a considerable extent.
Various efforts have from time to time been made to
overcome the natural obstacles that lay in the wray of Leith
as a shipping port. In 1720 a dock was formed on the E.
side of the river, and in 1777 a small quay called the Cus¬
tom-house quay was built. Between 1800 and 1817, two
wet docks were constructed, each measuring 750 feet in
length by 300 in width, and having a united area of about
10 acres. In 1831 two great additional works were under¬
taken, viz., an addition to the old or E. pier of 500 yards,
and the formation of a covering bulwark, by means of which
the water in the channel was deepened about two feet.
There were still, however, only 17 feet of water over the
bar at its mouth at high-water spring tides, and no vessel
326
Leith.
LEITH.
of above 400 tons could enter the harbour without lighten¬
ing. Farther improvements were commenced in 1848, and
completed in 1855. These included theformation of the Vic¬
toria Dock, equal in extent to either of the others ; the new
western pier and low-water landing slip; the extension of the
eastern pier 1000 feet seaward. The length of the E. pier
is now 3530 feet, and of the W. 3123 feet. They are un¬
surpassed by any in the kingdom; and, in addition to other
important purposes, afford the means of a healthful and
pleasant promenade. By means of these improvements, a
depth of 26 feet water has been obtained in the new har¬
bour at high-water spring, and of 21 feet at neap, tides.
The Victoria Dock has 25 feet water at spring, and 20 feet
at neap, tides, upon the gate sill, and two feet more within
the dock ; and the two old docks have 18 feet at spring,
and 13 feet at neap, tides. Vessels of upwards of 2000
tons burden, of 320 feet in length and 58 feet in breadth,
can be accommodated in the Victoria Dock.
There are also five dry or graving docks at Leith, of
the following dimensions : —
A new graving dock of greater capacity is proposed to be
made on the E. sands, and to enter the present new harbour
a little to the N. of the entrance to Victoria Dock. The
following are its proposed dimensions. Length of floor
300 feet, at top 330 feet; width of floor 45 feet, at
top, 80 feet; of caisson, 72 feet; depth of water over sills at
high-water springs, 24 feet 5 inches.
Besides having regular steam communication with Rot¬
terdam, Hamburg, Hull, London, Newcastle, and the
north of Scotland, Leith trades largely with the Baltic, Me¬
diterranean, North America, and Australia. The exports
are principally coal, iron, spirits, ale, paper, linen yarn,
&c. Of coal and iron the quantities exported during the
last three years were as follows :—
Length
O 'or. At top,
ft. in.
160 0
173 0
166 0
117 6
ft. in.
174 0
177 0
172 0
121 6
Of floor. At top. Of gates.
ft. in.
45 0
32 0
36 9
41 0
ft. in.
70 6
58 0
49 6
51 0
ft. in.
36 0
36 0
30 9
33 9
Depth of
water over
dock sills at
high-water
spring tides.
ft. in.
16 6
13 8
12 5
12 6
Exports.
Dates.
15th May 1853 to 15th May 1854
1854 ... 1855
1855 ... 1856
Coals.
Tens.
29,773
35,093
30,898
Pig-iron.
Tons.
24,072
33,094
29,220
Malleable
iron.
Tons.
2008
1196
2352
Imports.
Dates.
15th May 1853 to 15th May 1854.
1854 ... 1855.
1855 ... 1856.
Wheat.
Qrs.
277,256
271,917
254,006
Barley.
Qrs.
89,541
105,731
149,970
Oats, &c.
Qrs.
86,203
94,427
106,524
Flour.
Bags and
Barrels.
30,637
46,898
35,700
Timber from
Baltic &
other
ports.
Loads.
36,350
19,539
25,544
North
America.
10,547
15,234
13,089
Guano.
14,183
14,294
14,861
Number and Tonnage of Vessels Arriving at Leith.
Dates.
15th May 1853 to loth May 1854.
1854 ... 1855.
1855 ... 1856.
British Sailing
Vessels.
No.
3406
3314
3289
Tons.
192,936
193,431
194,739
British Steam
Vessels.
No.
643
626
630
89,111
86,052
88,0641
Foreign Vessels.
No.
863
816
774
Tons.
87,452
78,481
81,138
Total.
No.
4912
4756
4693
Tons.
369,499
357,964
363,941
Number and Tonnage of Vessels Sailing from Leith.
Dates.
15th May 1853 to 15th May 1854...
1854 ... 1855...
1855 ... 1856...
British Sailing
Vessels.
No.
3410
3316
3303
Tons.
191,300
194,284
195,227
British Steam
Vessels.
No.
630
625
628
87.504
85,899
87,663
Foreign Vessels
No.
842
778
842
Tons.
85,218
73,486
88,585
Total.
No.
4882
4719
4773
Tons.
364,022
353,669
371,475
The amount of customs duties received at Leith for the
last four years were,—1853, L.485,915 ; 1854, L.455,403 ;
1855, L.462,917 ; and 1856, L.498,172. The vessels re¬
gistered as belonging to the port on 31st December 1855,
were,—sailing vessels, of and under 50 tons, 71; tonnage,
2218 : above 50 tons, 80 ; tonnage, 17,058 ;—steam vessels,
of and under 50 tons, 14; tonnage, 289 : above 50 tons, 23 ;
Leith.
The principal import is grain, of which the quantity im¬
ported during the last three years is given in the following
table. After grain and timber the chief articles of import
are hemp, flax, wool, linseed, oilcakes, guano, agricultural
seeds, butter, cheese, fruit, corkwood, wines, spirits, oil,
sugar, tea, &c.:—
tonnage, 6654. The recent war with Russia has checked
the increase in the trade that would otherwise have re¬
sulted from the greatly enlarged accommodation.
Leith is governed by a provost, 4 bailies, and 10 coun¬
cillors ; and unites with Portobello and Musselburgh in re¬
turning a member to Parliament. Pop. (1851) 30,919;
constituency, 1375.
1 The increase would have been much greater had not most of the Leith steamers being employed as transports. Since the peace
the increase has been very decided. During the seven months ending 31st December 1856, 565 steam vessels, of 81,090 tons, entered;
and 558, of 78,727 tons, left the port.
LEI
LEI 327
Leitmeritz
II
Leitrim.
I
LEITMERITZ, a town of Austria, capital of a co^no-
minal circle in Bohemia, on the right bank of the Elbe,
here crossed by a long bridge, and on the Prague and
Dresden Railway, 48 miles N. by W. of the former, and
69 S. by E. of the latter. It is the see of a bishop, and
contains a cathedral of the eleventh century, a town-house,
hospital, a college, and a theological school. Coach-build-
in<r, and the making of straw hats and musical instruments,
are carried on. It has also a brisk trade in the wine and
grain of its fertile neighbourhood. Pop. 7100.
LEITRIM, a county of the province of Connaught, in
Ireland, bounded N. by the bay and the county of
Donegal, E. by the counties of Fermanagh and Cavan, S.
by those of Longford and Roscommon, and W. by Ros¬
common and Sligo. Its only claim to be considered a
maritime county is the possession of 3 miles of coast on the
Bay of Donegal. In shape it has been compared to an
hour-glass, broad at both ends, and contracted in the centre.
Its greatest length, measured from S.E. to N.W., is 52
miles ; its breadth where broadest is 20, and where narrow¬
est not more than 7 miles; extending over an area of 613
square miles, or 392,363 acres, of which 249,350 are arable,
115,869 uncultivated, 3396 in plantations, and 23,748 are
under water. Of the 116,000 acres of uncultivated land,
55.500 are coarse pasture above 800 feet over sea level,
60.500 coarse pasture below 800 feet, including flow bogs,
&c.; 30,000 are improveable for cultivation, 36,000 improve-
abl'e for pasture, and 50,000 acres are incapable of improve¬
ment.
The county, which derives its name from an ancient but
now obscure village on the Shannon, is supposed to have
formed part of the region inhabited by the tribe of the
Nagnatae in the time of Ptolemy. The Irish chroniclers
distinguish it by the name of Hy-Brune-Brefine, or Brennie.
The family of O’Rourk, which derived its descent from
Roderic, King of Ireland, held in it the rank of chieftains ;
and under them were the O’Murreys, M‘Loghlins, M‘Glan-
chies, and M‘Granells. It was made shire-ground, together
with the other counties in Connaught, during the reign of
Queen Elizabeth; and is now divided into the five baronies
of Carrigallen, Dromahaire, Leitrim, Mohill, and Rosclogher.
These baronies are subdivided into seventeen parishes, of
which ten are in the diocese of Kilmore, and seven in that
of Ardagh. The county is in the Connaught circuit, and
the assizes are held at Carrick-on-Shannon, which is the
station of the county inspector of constabulary. For poor-
law purposes, Leitrim is divided into the unions of Manor-
Hamilton, Mohill, and Carrick-on-Shannon, and small por¬
tions are included in the neighbouring unions of Bawnboy
and Ballyshannon.
The climate is not only colder than the more southern
counties, but also more moist, owing to the number and
height of the mountains with which the greater part, of its
surface is overspread. The whole of the northern part of
the county is mountainous. Lugnacuileagh, the most ele¬
vated of the mountains, rises to the height of 1485 feet;
Benbo is 1365 feet high ; Lacka, 1315; the Green Moun¬
tain, 950 feet. More southerly are Slieve-an-Ierin and
Bencroi. Large tracts of ground comparatively level are to
be found in the southern part of the county, the greater part
of which is well wooded, fertile, and abounding in pictur¬
esque scenery. The soil in general is stiff, heavy, cold, and
wet. The tops and sides of most of the hills are covered
with a thin ferruginous loam, based upon a hard gravel.
The valleys, which are in general well watered, are of a
quality superior to the hills, deeper in mould, and much
more fertile. The more level tracts, already noticed, are a
dark rich soil on a limestone bottom.
The county is not more remarkable for its mountains
than for its lakes. The principal is Lough Allen, situate
in its centre, where narrowest. It is 8 miles long from N.
to S., and 4 where broadest, and may be looked upon as the Leitrim,
great reservoir and distributer of all the running water in
the county, and the embryo feeder of every canal that may
be made to traverse it. Squalls on this lake are violent, and
render boating on it hazardous. Lough Allen is not in itself
an interesting, or beautiful, or picturesque lake; neither
is the scenery on its banks sufficiently bold to make the
smallest approach to grandeur; it is merely wild and soli¬
tary. It is embosomed in hills of moderate elevation, not
picturesque in their outline, nor clothed with wood, and
contains a few islets. A few miles to the N. is Lough Clean,
or Belhovel Lake, which covers an area of 345 acres, and
discharges its waters into Lough Allen by a stream of some
magnitude. Several smaller sheets of water are scattered
throughout the southern baronies. On the borders are
Lough Gill, Lough Melvyn, Lough Cane, and Lough
Boffin. 1 The source of the Shannon is a matter of doubt
among the local topographers; by some it is placed in the
recesses of the Leitrim Hills, where it is said to spring with
nearly its full power from a vast gulf, the depth of which has
not yet been ascertained ; and almost immediately expand¬
ing, forms Lough Allen, of which the area is 8900 acres.
Issuing from the southern extremity of Lough Allen, this
noble river, which is here but 146 feet above the level of the
sea, forms the western boundary of the county. The Bonnet
rises near Lough Clean, and after a course of about 15
miles through picturesque scenery, falls into Lough Gilly.
The small rivers, Bundrows and Brinduff, which separate
Leitrim from Donegal and Sligo, contain between their
mouths the scanty line of sea-coast belonging to the county.
Many other streams, too small to be particularly noticed,
and discharging themselves into some of the numerous
lakes or larger rivers, afford a copious and perennial supply
of water.
The central parts of the county form part of the great
Connaught coalfield, which occupies also large portions of
the counties of Roscommon, Sligo, and a part of Cavan in
Ulster. Before a committee of the House of Commons,
Mr Griffith stated that there are three beds of coal in the
Lough Allen district, the upper 9 inches, the second 3
feet, and the third also 3 feet. The quality of the coal is
not so good as that of either Whitehaven or Newcastle ; it
is a kind of medium between the open burning, or quick
blazing coal of Scotland, and the caking coal of White¬
haven, and is very good for culinary and manufacturing
purposes. The principal vein in this county is in Bencroi
Mountain, the summit of which is bog. Iron-ore abounds
in the Slieve-an-Ierin, or Iron Mountain, so called from
the stores of this valuable metal which it contains. On its
northern side, where its flanks have been torn by winter
torrents, the metal shows itself in considerable quantities,
imbedded in strata of limestone. Alternations of shale
and sandstone, containing beds of coal, succeed on this and
other mountains of sufficient altitude; for it would appear
that such a formation had originally extended over the en¬
tire district, and that the absence of those members from
the lower mountains has been owing to their removal by
some abrading and denuding force. At present they re¬
main only on the summits of Slieve-an-Ierin, Lugnacuil¬
eagh, Lackagh, and the highest part of the Munterkenny
range; and the occurrence of coal in lumps through the
sandstone, gravel, and blue clay hills ol the south and
south-eastern parts of the county, confirms the supposition
that a portion of the coal formation has been removed, and
points to the N.W. as the direction from which the denud¬
ing agent must have proceeded.
The ore in this county is considered as richer than that
found in the Arigna valley in Roscommon. It was at one
time attempted to be worked, but the failure of timber, and
the want of a regular supply of mineral coal, put a stop to
the operations. Indications of the same ore are to be found
328
L E I T R. I M.
Leitrim, in several other parts of the mountainous district, and even
in the interior of the plain country, near the Shannon. Lead
has been found near Lurganboy. Upon the N. side of Benbo
Mountain are pits whence copper has been extracted. Man¬
ganese is also found in considerable quantities, as is pipe¬
clay, yellow ochre, white and brown chalks, clays of various
hues, and sand suited for the manufacture of glass. The
substratum of the parts of the county N. and S. of the coal
and iron district is chiefly limestone, interspersed occa¬
sionally with sandstone. Benbo is granitic. The quantity
of bog is estimated to occupy 7234 acres. Its general
depth is 30 feet, and it rests on a stratum of marl or blue
clay. The highest level of any of the bogs above the
Shannon at Lough Reagh is 114 feet, that of the lowest
29. All are so far elevated as to admit of drainage. There
is a sulphureous spa at Drumsna, formerly in high repute for
cutaneous disorders, and considered more effective than that
of Swranlinbar. There are also others of the same quality
at Annaghduff, Meelock, and Attymanus, and in some other
places. Cavan Spa is a chalybeate, issuing from the southern
part of a peninsula in the N. of Lough Allen. Oakfield Spa,
likewise chalybeate, is near the sea. Both are visited for
their supposed sanative qualities.
The population, like that of every other part of Ireland,
was progressively on the increase ever since any series of
systematic observations have been directed to ascertain it,
until the last decennial period. The following are the most
authentic statements:—
1760   De Burgho  26,142
1792  Beaufort  50,000
1813  Parliamentary census  94,095
1821  Ditto  124,785
1831  Ditto  141,524
1841  Ditto  155,297
1851  Ditto  111,841
It appears, therefore, that between 1841 and 1851 the
population of Leitrim decreased 28 per cent., or 8 per cent,
more than the decrease which took place in the whole of
Ireland.
This population was represented in the Irish House of
Commons by six members,—two for the county at large,
and two for each of the close boroughs of Carrick-on-
Shannon and Jamestown. At the Union the boroughs
were disfranchised, and compensation to the amount of
L.15,000 awarded to the Earl of Leitrim for Carrick-on-
Shannon, or, as it was then called, Carrick-Drumrushe ; and
for Jamestown, L.7500; to Gilbert King, Esq., and to the
Rev. John King, archdeacon of Killala, and the sovereign
and burgesses of the burgh of Jamestown, L.7500. Since
the Union no change has been made in the number of re¬
presentatives, and the county now sends but two members
to the imperial parliament.
The state of public education, as collected from the par¬
liamentary inquiries in 1821 and 1824-26, maybe inferred
from the following table :—•
Year- B°-V3- Gir,S' ascertained. Total-
1821  3580 1609 ... 5,189
1824-6  6736 3627 772 11,135
Of the numbers in the latter of these returns, 2147 were
of the Established church, 27 were Dissenters, 7757 Ro¬
man Catholics, and 1204 whose religious persuasion could
not be ascertained. The total number of schools was 242,
of which twenty-one, educating 1181 pupils, were main¬
tained by grants of public money; sixty-four, educating
3113, derived their support from private contributions ; and
the remaining 157 schools, educating 6841 pupils, were
supported wholly by the fees of those who received instruc¬
tion in them.
The number of pupils attending each description of school.
in 1851, was ascertained, by the Census Commissioners, to
have been:—
Leitrim.
Schools.
National 
Church Education.
Private  
Free  
Mission  
Workhouse  
Gaol  
Total
No. of
Schools.
93
17
52
4
6
4
1
177
Number of Children.
Males. Females. Total
2,449
295
731
41
41
453
67
4,077
2,024
254
535
114
102
622
3,651
4,473
549
1,266
155
143
1,075
67
7,728
These numbers state the average attendance of pupils
during one week; but from the family returns it appears,
that the number actually receiving instruction was 12,303 ;
i.e., 6423 males, and 5780 females. The condition of the
entire population of the county, above five years of age, as
regards rudimentary education, in 1851, was ascertained to
be as follows:—
Degrees of Education.
Males.
Females.
Total.
Who could read and write 
Who could read only  
Who could neither read nor write
18,460
9,225
22,537
8,940
11,395
29,558
27,400
20,620
52,095
The quantity of land under tillage is small, and the
plough little used, excepting in the champaign districts. In
the other parts the mode of culture is still, to some extent,
by the loy, a narrow spade with a long handle. The hills
are generally steep, and, though abounding with stones, are
tough, and retentive of moisture. The loy penetrates into
this species of soil more easily than the common broad
spade, and the length of its handle serves as a lever to
overcome the resistance of the tenacious soil. Potatoes
are planted with a steveen, which is a stake about four feet
long and three inches in diameter, tapering to a point at the
lower end, near which a cross piece is fixed to rest the
foot on whilst pressing the implement into the ground.
The seed is dropped into the hole thus made, which is
then filled up with mould. Oats are the general crop;
barley is but little grown ; rye and wheat still less. Flax
forms a part of the usual rotation of crops. There are
about 14,400 holdings above one acre in extent, and of
this number more than 11,500 contain less than 30 acres.
There are also about 500 cottiers, or persons holding less
than one acre of land.
The extent of land under crops, and the number of acres
under each species of crop, in 1854, 1855, and 1856, was
as follows:—
Crops.
1854.
1855.
1856.
Wheat   
Oats  
Barley, Bere, Rye, Beans, and Pease
Potatoes   
Turnips  
Other green crops  
Flax  
Meadow and clover 
Total extent under crops .
293
26,959
323
23,666
988
1,626
1,022
27,748
82,625
291
28,780
587
23,537
1,075
1,193
718
28,598
84,779
85,500
Tillage farms are small; those for grazing are of con¬
siderable size, and are sometimes held by several tenants in
common. The grasses are mostly natural, and in general
excellent, producing flit and well-flavoured meat, and excel¬
lent milk and butter. Dairies of large size are seldom to
C
LEI
Leitrim, be met with, but every small farmer produces butter to dis¬
pose of at some of the neighbouring markets. Green food
is seldom used. The cattle are housed in some parts from
December to May, whilst in others they are left out during
the winter.
The quantity of each of the chief descriptions of live stock
in the county, in 1854, 1855, and 1856, was:—
The usual fence is a drain, backed at one side with a
bank of clammy aluminous earth, 3 or 4 feet high. The
ditch thus made soon hardens into a consistency nearly
equal to brick, and answers every purpose of fencing,
except against sheep, in which case it is topped with brush¬
wood. Stone walls are few. Hawthorn hedges are to be
met with in some parts. Manures are rich and abundant.
Every part has a command of limestone, either solid, or in
gravel or marl. The farmers living upon the confined
verge of sea-coast within the county industriously take ad¬
vantage of the sea-weeds, shells, and gravel found there.
Much attention is paid to the collection of every kind of
manure. The farm-houses are generally long, narrow build¬
ings, of one storey high, with a yard before them, of which
the offices form the sides. The repairs are usually made
by the landlord, a custom very uncommon in other counties.
Leases are generally for three lives, or thirty-one years. Non¬
alienation clauses are common, and the tenant is sometimes
bound down to manure a certain portion of the land.
The manufactures are confined to that of coarse linen,
the weaving of which is carried on to some extent. Manu¬
factories of coarse pottery exist about Leitrim and Droma-
haire. The only navigable river by which an inland trade
can be carried on is the Shannon, the navigation of which,
consisting of a series of lakes, short canals, and the magni¬
ficent river itself, forms a water communication from Lough
Allen to Limerick, and to Dublin by its connection with the
Royal Canal at Tarmonbarry. “ The proposed most im¬
portant line of inland navigation which would connect the
Ulster Canal and Lough Erne with the Shannon at Lei¬
trim has not been undertaken. The importance of this con¬
nection may be estimated by a glance at the map, when it
will be seen that the network of inland navigation of the
N.E. of Ireland, is separated from the water communica¬
tions of the S. and centre by the tract which this canal
would intersect, and that, consequently, the two systems of
traffic, now isolated, would by it be placed in connection.
Limerick would thus come into direct communication with
Enniskillen and Ballyshannon, on the western, and with
Belfast on the eastern coast of Ulster, and a total line of
716 miles of inland navigation be opened out.” {Industrial
Resources of Ireland, by Sir Robert Kane.)
1 he general food of the peasantry is potatoes and oaten
bread, with butter and eggs occasionally, and flesh meat at
the great festivals. The clothing is neat, clean, and sub¬
stantial ; the coat usually of native frieze, and the waistcoat
and breeches of corduroy. In their general demeanour the
peasantry are kind and warm-hearted. They are, like those
of most other parts of Ireland, singularly attached to pecu¬
liar places of interment. One of the most frequented of
these is on a small island near the entrance of the Shannon
into Lough Allen, where are the remains of a church. It
has been from time immemorial the burying-place for the
residents in all the surrounding country ; and when access
to it is prevented by the stormy state of the lake, the friends
of the deceased remain on shore by the putrefying corpse,
until the weather become favourable, rather than remove it
VOL. XIII.
LEI 329
for interment elsewhere. Tlie frequent occurrence of fatal Leixlip.
accidents in these funereal voyages induced a neighbouring v v -»_ >*
gentleman to have a piece of ground upon the adjoining
mainland consecrated as a cemetery, but to no purpose.
1 he survivors preferred awaiting all chances of weather
rather than relinquish the idea of depositing the bones of
their departed friend with those of his forefathers. The
mountainous districts are thickly peopled, but have few re¬
sident proprietors. The lowest classes there speak Irish, a
language which is understood by about thirteen per cent,
of the entire population of the county. The vicinity of the
three counties of Leitrim, Cavan, and Sligo to each other
formerly gave frequent occasion to party feuds between
hostile clans or factions, that seldom terminated without
bloodshed, and not unfrequently with loss of life.
There are butfewremainsof ancient Irish antiquities in this
county. The most remarkable are two druidical altars ; one
very large near Fenagh, the other of smaller dimensions at
Letterfyan. They are called by the natives Leaba Dearmud
is Graine, or Darby’s and Graine’s bed. The principal
monastic buildings, of which any vestiges can now be traced,
are the following Creevelea, near the River Bonnet, built
by Margaret, widow of O’Rourk, in 1509. The walls, which
are nearly entire, have on them some curious figures, and
contain several antique monuments. Fionagh, in Fenagh
parish, still exhibits a window of fine workmanship; the
place was anciently celebrated as a school of divinity, and
was resorted to by students from many parts of Europe.
A Franciscan friary, at Jamestown, was remarkable, in the
eventful period of 1641, as being the place where the Ro¬
man Catholic clergy assembled, and nominated commis¬
sioners to treat with such foreign powers as were willing to
assist them in their struggle against the English government.
Clone, near a small river of the same name in Mohill barony,
has still some ruins to point out its site. Mohill Abbey, An-
naghduff, and Drumleas, have been converted into parish
churches. Some others are known only by name. Amongst
the military antiquities may be noticed O’Rourk’s Hall, at
Dromahaire, near the Bonnet, the destruction of which was
expedited by using its materials for the construction of the
neighbouring castle of Dromahaire, supposed to have been
built by Sir William Villiers in the year 1628. Other
castles, built by various members of the O’Rourk family,
are those of Longfield, Cloncorrick, Castle Cor, and one on
the banks of Lough Gill. Woodford House is built on the
site of another of the O’Rourks’ castles. Manor-Hamilton
Castle, built by Sir Frederick Hamilton in 1641, but now
in ruins, was by much the largest, best built, and hand¬
somest in the county. Castle John stands on an island in
the little lake called Lough Scur. Dunganbuy Castle, near
the sea, is of the era of Elizabeth.
The population of Leitrim may be said to be wholly rural:
no town in it contains 2000 inhabitants. Carrick-on-Shan¬
non, the county town, where the assizes are held, and all
the public business transacted, contains no more than 1366
inhabitants. Though well circumstanced for inland trade,
from its situation on a fine navigable river, no advantage
is derived from its position. Its only public buildings are
a court-house, a jail, a chapel of ease, and a barrack. The
mail-coach road to Sligo passes through it. The only other
towns whose population exceeds 1000 souls are, Mohlil,
which contains 1223, and Manor-Hamilton, which has 1227
inhabitants. (n. s—r.)
LEIXLIP, a post and fair town of Ireland, pleasantly
situate on the River Liffey, in the county of Kildare, about
ten miles from Dublin. Near it are the ruins of the church
and castle of Confy. The castle of Leixlip is beautifully
situate on the banks of the Liffey. In the immediate neigh¬
bourhood is situate the well-known waterfall, called the
Salmon Leap, which consists of a succession of rocky ledges,
on the Liffey, over which the fish dart at one bound. * A
2 T
330
L E L
L E M
Leland mile from this is Castletown, the magnificent seat of Mr elected a scholar in 1741, and a fellow in 1746. In 1/63 Lely
John Conollv. he was nominated professor of poetry. In 1768 the Lord- II
II LELAND, John, a famous English antiquary, was born Lieutenant appointed him his chaplain, a prebendary of St Lem CT8'y
Leland, London, towards the close of the reign of Henry VII. Patrick’s Cathedral, andvicar of Bray. In this new capacity, ^
Thomas. ^ ^ orpi,an at a very early age, he was befriended by a Mr his energetic and perspicuous eloquence soon rendered him
^Thomas Myles, who placed him at St Paul’s School, under the most admired preacher in Dublin. He died in 1785.
Lily, the famous grammarian. He studied first at Christ’s His works are:—Translation of Demosthenes, London,
College, Cambridge; and a few years afterwards at All 1777; History of the Life and Reign of Philip of Macedon,
Souls’ College, Oxford. After residing for some time in London, 1805; A Dissertation on the Principles of Human
Paris, to increase his acquaintance with Latin and Greek, Eloquence, London, 1764; Sermons, 3 vols., Dublin, 1788;
and to acquire French, Italian, and Spanish, he returned to and History of Ireland, London, 1773.
England, and, entering into holy orders, became chaplain to LELY, Sir Peter, a celebrated painter, was the son of
Henry VIII., who appointed him, in 1530, to the rectory a captain in the garrison of Soest, in Westphalia, and was
of Popeling, in the marches of Calais, made him his libra- born in that town in 1617. His father, a native of Holland,
rian, and in 1533 honoured him with the title of the king’s was originally called Van der Vaes; but the nick-name of
antiquary. By a commission given along with this title, he Le Lys or Lely, by which he was generally known, was
was empowered to search for all records, manuscripts, and adopted by his son as a proper surname. After studying for
relics of antiquity, in the cathedrals, colleges, abbeys, and two years under Peter Grebber, an artist of some note at
priories throughout England. Accordingly, being allowed Haarlem, Lely, induced by the patronage of Charles I. for the
by a special dispensation to supply his place at Popeling fine arts, removed to England in 1641. Here he soon be-
with a curate, he set out on a tour which lasted six years, came so eminent in his profession as to be employed by
and afforded him ample and varied materials for study dur- Cromwell to paint his portrait. At the Restoration, his
in<>- the remainder of his life. On his return in 1542, he genius and gentlemanly manners won the favour of Charles
was rewarded by the king with the rectory of Haseley in II., who made him his state-painter, and afterwards knighted
Oxfordshire; in 1543 he was presented to a canonry in him. To improve himself by the study of the most excel-
Kino-’s College (now Christ’s Church), Cambridge, and lent specimens of his art, he made his famous collection,
about the sa*me time to the prebend of East and West the best of his time, containing drawings, prints, and paint-
Knowle in the Cathedral of Sarum. Leland now withdrew ings by the best masters. His great example, however, was
to his house in the parish of St Michael le Querne, London, Vandyck, whom, in some of his most successful pieces, he
and devoted himself exclusively to the digesting of his in- almost rivals. Lely’s paintings are carefully and delicately
formation. Shortly after the death of Henry VIII. in 1547, finished, warm and clear in colouring, and animated in de-
he fell into a state of insanity, which continued until his sign. The graceful posture of the heads, the delicate
death on the 18th April 1552. Some of Leland’s papers, rounding of the hands, and the broad folds of the draperies,
after passing through several hands, were deposited by are admired in many of his portraits. His most famous
Burton, the historian of Leicestershire, in the Bodleian w'ork is a collection of portraits of the ladies at the court
Library at Oxford in 1632. Others came into the posses- of Charles II., preserved at Hampton Court, and known
sion of Sir Robert Cotton, and are now, along with the rest of by the title of the “ Windsor Beauties.” Of his few histo-
his books, in the British Museum. Leland gained additional rical pictures, the best is “ Susannah and the Elders,” at
fame in his own day as a linguist and a poet. His princi- Burleigh House. His “Jupiter and Europa,” in the Duke
pal works are,—A Newe Yeare’s Gift to King Henry VIII. of Devonshire’s collection, is worthy of note. Lely was
in the 37 yeare of his Raygne, Lond. 1549; Commentarii nearly as famous for crayon painting. Towards the close
de Scriptoribus Britannicis, edited by Anthony Hall, Oxon., of his life, he often retired to an estate which he had bought
1709, 2 vols. 8vo; The Itinerary, published by Thomas at Kew, in Surrey. Fie died of apoplexy at London in
Hearne, Oxford, 1710-12, 9 vols. 8vo, and reprinted in 1680, and was buried at Covent Garden church, where a
1770; and De Rebus Britannicis Collectanea, edited by monument was afterwards erected to his memory.
Hearne, Oxon., 1715, 8vo, and reprinted at London in LEMBERG (Pol. Lwoiv, Lat. Leopolis), a city of
] 770. Austrian Poland, capital of the kingdom of Galicia, is situate
Leland, John, D.D., an eminent Christian apologist, in a narrow valley on the Peltew, a small tributary of the
was born at Wigan, Lancashire, in 1691 ; but soon after- Bug, 185miles E.S.E. of Cracow, and 365 E.N.E. of Vienna;
wards removed, along with his family, to Dublin. At an N. Lat. 49. 51. 40; E. Long. 24. 2. 45. Lemberg was
early age, he was appointed minister of a congregation of formerly an important fortress, but its fortifications have
Presbyterian Dissenters in Dublin. He received the de- been destroyed, and its ramparts planted and laid out in
gree of D.D. from the University of Aberdeen. In 1733 public walks. The town itself is small, but it has four
he published a pamphlet in reply to Tindal’s Christianity large suburbs, each of which surpasses it in size. Within
as Old as the Creation. In 1737 he answered The Moral the town the streets are irregular and narrow, and the houses
Philosopher of Dr Thomas Morgan ; and in 1742 Dodwell’s old; but the suburbs are well laid out, and contain many
Christianity not founded upon Argument. Flis remarks handsome buildings. I he houses are built of fieestone,
on Bolingbroke’s letters on History appeared in 1753. and usually two or three storeys in height. Lemberg is the
In the following year, his calm scrutiny of objections, his seat of three archbishops, belonging to the Roman Catholic,^
learning, and solidity of argument, were shown to advan- the Armenian, and the Greek church; and the numbei of
tage in his View of the Principal Deistical Writers that its ecclesiastical edifices, with their steeples and cupolas,
have appeared in England. Towards the close of his life give it, especially when viewed from a distance, an air of
he wrote an elaborate treatise on The Advantage and Ne- grandeur. Besides the 3 cathedrals, it has 13 Roman
cessity of the Christian Revelation, shown from the state of Catholic churches, 2 synagogues, one of which is the most
Religion in the ancient Heathen World. Leland died in splendid in the Austrian dominions, a Protestant chapel,
1766, leaving behind him a reputation for charity and can- and several Roman Catholic and Greek convents. In the
dour, unembittered by a long life of controversy and Dominican church is a monument, by Thorwaldsen, to the
dispute. " Countess Dunin-Borowska. The University of Lemberg
Leland, Thomas, the translator of Demosthenes, was has faculties of theology, law, medicine, and philosophy,
born at Dublin in 1722. Entering the university of that and is attended by about 1500 students. The library con-
city as a pensioner of Trinity College in 1737 he was tains about 50,000 volumes. Among the other educational
L E M
L E M
331
Lemgo institutions are two gymnasia, a Roman Catholic, and a
II Greek ecclesiastical seminary, a normal school, and a school
Lemon. arts ancj scjences. There is a public library of 60,000
~ 1 volumes, particularly rich in Polish literature. Lemberg is
more a commercial than a manufacturing city, though it
carries on some manufactures of cotton and woollen stuffs,
leather, &c. It is the principal trading town in Galicia,
though it is chiefly limited to carrying and commission
business, arising from its situation on the high road from
Odessa to Silesia and Warsaw. Several important fairs
are held here, the most important of which is that called
Drei Konigs Messe, which lasts for six weeks from the 14th
of January. A great trade in corn and cattle is also car¬
ried on. Pop. (1849) 75,000, of whom about 20,000 were
Jews.
LEMGO, a town of Germany, principality of Lippe-
Detmold, on the Bega, 6 miles N. of Detmold. It has an
antique appearance, and is surrounded by an old wall with
seven gates. The Rathhaus and the church of St Nicholai
are admirable specimens of Gothic architecture. It carries
on a trade in wool, linen, leather, and meerschaum-pipes,
especially the last. Pop. 4200.
LEMNOS, or Stalimene, an island in the Aegean Sea,
belonging to Turkey, and situate in N. Lat. 40., E. Long.
25. Its surface is very rocky, and displays distinct traces
of volcanic action. Area about 150 square miles. Its
general form is that of an irregular quadrangle, but it pre¬
sents the outline of two peninsulas connected by a narrow
isthmus. The two indentations at the point of junction are
the principal harbours, that on the N., St Antonio, affording
safe mooring for large ships. A third indentation, the Bay
of Kudia, on the S. side of the western peninsula, is also of
some importance. The interior of the island is exceedingly
barren, with the exception of some small narrow valleys in
the S. and W. Where productive, it yields corn, wine, oil,
and some fruit.
Lemnos is supposed to have been first peopled by
Thracians; and it is recorded that it was subjugated by
Miltiades, after he had taken the Chersonesus. It is fabled
as the spot on which Vulcan fell when Jupiter cast him
from Olympus; and its volcanic appearances have given rise
to the fiction that there the ejected god established his work¬
shop. An argillo-silicious earth, called Terra lemnia, men¬
tioned by Galen, has attained great celebrity as a medicine,
and is still much esteemed by Turks and Greeks. Pliny
mentions a labyrinth with 150 columns, the remains of
which existed in his day.
The Greek Church is the church of the people, a bishop
of which resides at Lemnos, the capital (the ancient My-
rina). This town stands on the W. coast, and has three
Greek churches, a harbour, and a building-dock. It is
protected by a citadel. Pop. of the island from 10,000
to 12,000.
LEMON, the fruit of Citrus Limonum (see Botany,
Index), is a native of Asia, and was brought to Europe by
the Crusaders. Like most of its tribe, the lemon produces
under cultivation a great number of varieties. Several are
known in commerce. The principal are,—the Wax Lemon
{Citrus Limonum ceriescum of Risso): this is the smooth-
peeled one, most generally found in the markets; its rind is
thick. 1 he Bignette Lemon { Citrus Limonum JBignetta
of Risso) is a thinner-peeled fruit than the wax lemon,
less oval in shape, and more blunt at the point; the colour
of the rind is less clear, and is usually tinged with green.
It is cultivated more largely than any other variety, as it
yields a larger quantity of juice, and is a most abundant
bearer. I he Clustered Lemon {Citrus Limonum race-
mosum of Risso) is the least oval of the imported lemons,
but the nipple-like point is fully developed. The rind is
thick, and has a bright yellow colour. The pulp is less
agreeable than the varieties previously mentioned. One
or two other varieties, as the Imperial and Gaeta lemons, Lemon
are occasionally brought to this country, but not in any II
considerable quantities. Lemon
The lemon is extensively cultivated in Sicily, Italy,
Spain, Portugal, and the S. of France. By far the greater ~~
number imported come from Messina and Palermo. The
average imports into Great Britain are about 4000 boxes, or
5000 bushels.
Besides the fruit, the rind of the fruit comes either pickled
in salt or already candied. From Sicily, Naples, and
Lisbon we receive nearly 70,000 lb. of the essential oil of
lemon, yielded so abundantly by the flavedo of the peel.
In order to obtain it, the flavedo is grated off, and being
put into a horse-hair bag, a yellow turbid oil is forced out
by pressure; this, after standing some time, deposits a thick
sediment, and is then decanted and afterwards filtered.
Lime juice is another of the products of the lemon, and
is of great value as a preventive and cure for scurvy. It is
received either fresh, as expressed from the fruit, in which
state it is a turbid light yellow coloured liquid; or in a state
of cencentration from boiling. This concentrated lime juice
is a thick coffee-brown coloured liquid, and is chiefly con¬
sumed in the manufacture of the crystallized citric acid,
which exists in greater abundance in the lemon than in any
other fruit.
Citric acid is separated from the juice with great ease,
owing to the readiness with which it enters into combina¬
tion with chalk, forming citrate of lime. To this sulphuric
acid is added, and forms the insoluble sulphate of lime,
from which the citric acid is easily obtained by washing,
and subsequent crystallization. Citric acid used in the
manufacture of various pharmaceutical preparations, in com¬
bination with iron, quinine, potash, &c. (t. c. a.)
Lemon, Salt of, a term improperly applied to bin-oxa¬
late of potass, or salt of sorrel. It is prepared, in Swit¬
zerland and the neighbouring countries, from wood-sorrel;
about 60 or 70 lb. of the mature plant yielding about 5 oz. of
the crystallized salt. Some persons, deceived by the vul¬
gar name, have used this substance to acidulate punch ; but
it is a dangerous practice, for the binoxalate of potass is an
active poison. It is best known in this country as a means of
removing ink-spots from linen. When an ink-spot is washed
with an alkaline soap, it forms a yellow iron-mould, as it is
called, in consequence of the oxide of iron, which is the
basis of the ink, attaching itself to the cloth, while the tan¬
nic acid of the ink is removed by the alkali of the soap.
The oxalic acid of the binoxalate of potash unites readily
with most of the metallic oxides; and in the case of an iron
mould, forms a colourless oxalate of iron, which being
soluble, is readily removed from the linen. (c. t.)
LEMONNIER, Pierre (Claude) Charles, a diligent
and accurate astronomer, born at Paris, on the 23d of No¬
vember 1715, was the son of Peter Lemonnier, of St Sever,
in the province of Normandy.
His father was a professor of philosophy in the College
d’Harcourt, and member of the Academy of Sciences. He
distinguished himself, as a teacher, by his activity in pro¬
moting the introduction of mathematical reasoning into the
Cartesian philosophy. Under such auspices, the son might
have enjoyed facilities for the cultivation of any of the
sciences; but he soon showed a decided preference for as¬
tronomy, and began to be a practical observer before he
was sixteen. In the month of November 1732, Mr Fouchy
procured him the use of a mural quadrant of 3 feet radius,
and he soon applied himself with diligence to the deter¬
mination of the sun’s greatest equation, an investigation
which he continued for many years ; and in 1741 he ibund
the equation to amount to i° 55' 31"; a quantity differing
only by 7" from Delambre’s latest determination.
He presented to the Academy of Sciences, in 1735, an
elaborate map of the moon, accompanied by some remarks ;
332 LEMONNIER.
Lemon- in the month of April of the following year, before he
nier‘ was twenty-one years old, he was made a member of the
Academy, in the character of adjunct geometrician. He
continued to be a constant contributor to its Memoirs for
more than fifty years. The winter of 1736 and 1737 he
passed at Torneo, with Clairaut and Maupertuis, as a mem¬
ber of a committee appointed by the Academy for measur¬
ing a degree in Lapland; and he was not less zealous than
any of his colleagues in the execution of that arduous un¬
dertaking.
He is considered as having effected, in conjunction with
Lacaille, a complete reformation in the practical astronomy
of France. He entered very early into correspondence
with the English astronomers of the day ; they had carried
their instruments and modes of observation to a higher de¬
gree of perfection than their neighbours ; and Lemonnier
was of great use to the science in making known to his
countrymen the practical methods of Flamsteed, and in in¬
troducing the instruments of Graham and Bird. In April
1739 he was made a foreign member of the Royal Society
of London, and for the last twelve or fourteen years of his
life he is said to have been the senior member of the society.
He was the first that introduced the effects of nutation,
then lately discovered by Bradley, into the solar tables;
and he complained bitterly of Lacaille’s injustice in not
giving him due credit for the improvement.
The Due de Noailles made him known to the King of
France, who was fond of his company, and showed him
many kindnesses. In 1742, he gave him apartments at the
Capucins in the Rue St Honore, where he continued to
live till the Revolution. On another occasion, when he
had taken great pains to fix an accurate meridian at St
Sulpice, the king made him a present of 15,000 livres,
which he expended in the purchase of instruments, as the
greatest luxury that he was capable of enjoying.
The places of the stars, which he determined in 1740,
served Lalande for the purpose of computing their proper
motions, though they differed a little from the results of
Bradley’s observations. About 1746 he was much en¬
gaged in examining the inequalities of Saturn, produced by
the attraction of Jupiter ; and Euler employed his compu¬
tations in the theory which obtained a prize in 1748; each
confirming the accuracy of the other. He continued to ob¬
serve the moon, without intermission, for fifty years, though
a small part only of his observations was published.
In the year 1748 he went to England, partly for the
purpose of obtaining further information from a personal
acquaintance with the astronomers and opticians resident
in London, and partly in order to observe the solar eclipse
of that year, in a situation where it would be very nearly
annular. He proceeded, accordingly, to Scotland with the
Earl of Morton, accompanied by Short the optician, and
they observed the eclipse together at Aberdour, an an¬
cient residence of Lord Morton’s, in Fifeshire. They ob¬
tained their time from the College at Edinburgh, where
there was a transit instrument, by means of the flash of a
cannon fired from the castle at twelve, and another five
minutes after. Lemonnier was particularly anxious to mea¬
sure the moon’s diameter, which “he found 29' 47-|",”
agreeing precisely with the computed diameter, and not
requiring any correction for the supposed effects of irradia¬
tion. A similar remark was made by a very accurate prac¬
tical astronomer in the eclipse of 1836.
In order to verify the position of his mural quadrant,
which was of eight feet radius, and made by Bird, Lemon-
mei felt the advantage of having a moveable one to com-
paie with it, and he procured a block of marble 8 feet by
6, and 15 inches thick, turning on an axis, to which he
fixed his smaller instrument of 5 feet radius, in order to be
able to reverse its position. He devoted a considerable
portion of his time to the investigation of the laws of mag¬
netism, and especially to the variation of the compass; and Lemon-
he endeavoured to ascertain the effect of the moon’s in- nier.
fluence on the winds, and on the atmosphere in general.
Lemonnier had long disputed the accuracy of the Parisian
base, measured by Cassini and Maraldi, but he was at last
convinced that his objections were groundless. He was
originally a most zealous friend and patron of Lalande ;
but afterwards, having taken offence at some slight cause,
he refused to see him for many years. In fact, he appears
to have been somewhat obstinate and irritable; but he is
said to have had genius, zeal, activity, and intelligence, as
well as credit in the world, and reputation among men of
science. He was a voluminous writer; he had much learn¬
ing and sagacity, but he often wanted precision in his lan¬
guage and his reasoning. In November 1791 he had a
paralytic attack, which terminated his scientific career,
though he survived it till the 2d of April 1799, when a
second stroke carried him off, at Herd, near Baieux. He
was made, in the meantime, one of the 144 original mem¬
bers of the National Institute, as a testimony to the merit
of his past labours.
He had married, in 1763, Mile, de Cussy, a lady of very
respectable family in Normandy. He had three daughters ;
the first married M. de Parfouru, who was an early victim
of the Revolution ; the second the celebrated Lagrange;
and the third her uncle, Lemonnier the physician, who was
also a man of considerable science, and a member of the
Royal Society of London.
From 1735 to 1790 there were very few volumes of the
Memoirs of the Academy without one or more of Lemon-
nier’s papers; but though not unimportant in the aggre¬
gate, they are somewhat uninteresting in the detail. They
relate almost exclusively to astronomical observations;
eclipses, occulations, appulses, oppositions, and conjunc¬
tions ; solstices, longitudes and latitudes, with some accounts
of astronomical instruments and apparatus. There are also
some memoirs relating to the sun’s equation and diameter,
and on his place, as compared with Arcturus: on the motion
of Saturn, and on his fifth satellite; on the expansion of
wooden measures; on the transit of Venus, and on the
diameter and the tables of that planet; on Euler’s formula
for parallax ; on the variation of the needle; on lunar alti¬
tudes ; on the tides; on horizontal refraction ; on Saturn’s
ring: and on some currents of wind. He also published
separately some extensive works, which acquired consi¬
derable celebrity.
1. The first was his Histoire Celeste, 4to, 1741, comprehending the
interval from 1666 to 1685, and containing an account of a transit
instrument of Graham’s construction.
2. Thiorie des Cometes, 1743, in 8vo, including a translation of
Halley’s work on comets, together with a method of computing the
orbit from three observations.
3. Institutions Astronomiques, 4to, 1746 ; an improved translation
of Keill’s Astronomy, which long continued to be the best elementary
treatise in the French language. It contains also solar tables, and
a variety of other additions derived from observation.
4. Observations Astronomiques, part i., 1751; ii., 1754 ; iii., 1759;
iv., 1775.
5. A Letter on the Theory of the Winds, in Halley’s Tables, pub¬
lished by Chappe.
6. Houveau Zodiaque, reduit d 1755, Paris, 1755, in 8vo, con¬
taining 31 pages of charts, much more complete than those of Senex,
and superseded by some very late publications only.
7. A History of Astronomy in the Traite d’ Aberration of Fontaine
des Crutes.
8. Observations pour la Mesure du degre entre Paris et Amiens
8vo, 1757.
9. AbregS du Pilotage, par Goubert, 1766, in 4to, with additions.
10. Astronomie Nautique Lunaire, 8vo, 1771.
11. Exposition des Moyens les plus faciles de resoudre plusieurs
questions dans VArt de la Navigation, 1772, in 8vo, employing very
generally a table of verse sines, and greatly recommending the use
of Gunter’s scale for nautical computations.
12. Essai sur les Maries, 1774, in 8vo, particularly describing the
effects of the tides at Mont St Michel, and on the neighbouring flat
I
L E N
Lena sands, and including also some considerations on refraction and on
i| magnetism.
Lennep. 13- Description et Usage des principaux Instrumens d'Astronomic,
! 1774, folio, forming part of the collection of Arts et Mitiers.
14. Atlas celeste de Flamsteed, 1776, in 4to, revised.
15. Lois du Magnetisme, 2 parts, 8vo, 1776-8, with an elaborate
chart.
16. Traite de la Construction de Vaisseaux, par Chapman, 1779,
folio, from the Swedish, and said to be less perfect than the trans¬
lation of Vial du Clairbois.
17. Memoires concernant diverses questions d'Astronomic et de Phy-
sique, 4 parts, 1781-84-86-88, in 4to.
18. De la Correction introduite pour accourcir la Ligne seche du
Lock de dix-huit pieds, 8vo, 1790.
19. Lettre au sujet d une Eclipse, Paris, 1791; together with some
remarks on navigation, and on the currents of the South Seas, all
apparently from the Memoirs of the Academy. The eclipse, which
t was observed as annular in China, should have been total, according
to the computed distance of the luminaries concerned. (t. y.)
LENA, a large river of Eastern Siberia, rises from a
small lake among the Baikal Hills, about 50 miles N.E. of
Irkutsk, and falls into the Arctic Ocean by several mouths
between N. Lat. 72. and 73., and E. Long. 125. and 130.
Its source is more than 2000 feet above sea-level, and its
length is estimated at about 2400 miles. For the first 1000
miles to Yakutsk it flows from S.W. to N.E., and receives
as tributaries on the right the Vitim and Olekma. It then
turns round to the N.W., receives the Aldan on the right,
and the Vilhouion the left, and afterwards takes a northern
but winding course to its entrance into the sea. The
Lena, as its name signifies, is a “ sluggish” river, with steep
banks and great depth. It is said to be navigable at Ka-
chuga, only 50 miles from its source. It is frozen over for
nine months in the year, when sledges are employed as
excellent substitutes for boats. Islands are very numerous
in its course, as well as at its embouchure, and obstruct the
navigation exceedingly. The upper valley of the Lena is
covered with pine forests, affording excellent timber for
boat-building; but as the river approaches the sea its shores
become sterile, flat, and dreary, and thinly peopled. Near
its mouth the river is from 3 to 4 miles in width, and,
according to Ritter, its entire basin covers an area of about
800,000 square miles.
L’ENFANT, Jacques, a French Protestant divine, the
son of the Protestant pastor of Chatillon-sur-Seine, was
born at Bazoches in Beause, a district of the ancient pro¬
vince of Orleannois, on the 13th April 1661. After
studying at Saumur and Geneva, he completed his theolo¬
gical course at Heidelberg, and, receiving ordination in
1684, was appointed pastor of the French Protestant
church in that city, and chaplain to the Dowager Electress
Palatine. In 1688, on the descent of the French under
d urenne into the palatinate, L’Enfant, who had incurred
the dislike of many of his countrymen by two letters which
he had written against the Jesuits, retired to Berlin. Here
Frederic, the Elector of Brandenburg, afterwards King of
Prussia, appointed him one of the ministers of the French
Protestant /church, an office which he held till his death.
Visiting England in 1707, it is said that he had the honour
of preaching before’Queen Anne, and of being requested
by her to enter the Church of England, and become her
chaplain. Declining this offer, he returned to Berlin, and
in 1710 became chaplain to the King of Prussia, and coun¬
cillor of the high consistory. In search of materials for
his historical works, he visited Helmstadt in 1712, Leipsic
in 1 /15, and Breslau in 1725. Through the influence of
the King of Prussia he had also access to the archives of
the corporation of Basel. He was one of the chief sup¬
porters of the Biblwtheque Germanique, which was begun
in 1 "2°. and wrote the preface. On the 29th of July,
1(28, he was suddenly attacked with paralysis, which caused
his death on the 7th August following.
LENNEP, a manufacturing town of the Prussian pro¬
vince Diisseldorf, capital of a cognominal circle, on the
LEO 333
Lennep, a tributary of the Wipper, 21 miles E. by S. of Lennox
Diisseldorf. Woollen and cotton stuffs are manufactured in II
considerable quantities, and a trade in wool, iron, and wine Leo
is carried on to some extent. Pop. 7064. ^ ^ "
LENNOX, or Dumbartonshire, a county of Scotland.
See Dumbartonshire.
LENNOXTOWN, a town of Scotland, Stirlingshire,
at the foot of the Campsie Hills, 12 miles N. of Glasgow
by railway. It has several calico-print and alum works,
besides bleachfields, collieries, and lime quarries in the
neighbourhood. Pop. (1851) 3108.
LENT, the name of one of the festivals celebrated in
the Roman Catholic, and many of the Protestant churches.
It derives its name from an Anglo-Saxon word, signifying
spring. As a religious festival, it is intended to commemo¬
rate the fasting of our Saviour forty days in the wilderness.
It lasts for forty days before Easter, and is therefore move-
able with that term. See Easter, Calendar, &c., &c.
LENTIL, the seeds of Ervum lens (natural order Le-
guminosce). The lentil is closely allied to the tare, and is
probably the most ancient of all the food products which
man derives from the pea-tribe. The red pottage in Gen.
xxv. 34, is the small lentil decorticated, as it is sold at the
present day in the bazaars of India.
Pliny mentions two kinds of lentils grown in Egypt, one
rounder and blacker than the other. These were, probably,
only varieties resulting from cultivation. Three such are
cultivated in France, where, as in most Roman Catholic
countries, this kind of pulse is extensively used during
Lent; to which season, as some suppose, it gives its name.
The lentil is a native of Europe, Asia, and Northern
Africa ; or, at all events, it is naturalized in those parts of
the world. It is cultivated occasionally in some parts of
England, but chiefly as a fodder plant. The ripe seeds are
very nutritious, and contain a large proportion of gluten.
They are frequently imported from Alexandria for cattle¬
feeding ; whilst, for culinary purposes, the larger and
lighter-coloured varieties are imported from France and
Germany, where considerable attention is paid to their cul¬
tivation and harvesting. In Egypt the lentil forms a large
proportion of the general food of the inhabitants, and the
haulm is used for packing purposes.
The empirical preparation called Revalenta Arabica, has
been proved to be nothing but the meal of decorticated
lentils; a food by no means well adapted to all constitu¬
tions, especially those of infants.
The quantity of starch in the lentil is very considerable;
and, in addition to the gluten, renders this pidse one of the
most nutritive of vegetable food products. Lentils are,
however, heating if used much. The starch, according to
Einhoff, is nearly one-third its weight.
The importation of lentils is very irregular ; but 2000 qrs.
is the largest quantity imported in one year. (t. c. a.)
LENTINI (the ancient Leontini), a town of Sicily, in¬
tendency of Syracuse, on the River Porcari, 20 miles N. W.
of Syracuse. It was founded in the first year of the thir¬
teenth Olympiad, by a colony of Chalcidians, and, when taken
by Marcellus, was one of the chief places in Sicily. It re¬
tained its importance till the earthquake of 1693, by which it
was completely ruined. The neighbourhood is productive, but
unhealthy. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in fishing on
the neighbouring lake of the same name. Pop. about 5000.
LEO L, Flavius, surnamed the Great, and the Thra¬
cian, was born about a.d. 400, in the country of the Bessi,
in Thrace. On the death of the Emperor Marcianus, in
457, being then only a military tribune, he was recommended
by the patrician Aspar to the soldiers, who proclaimed him
emperor. His election was ratified by the senate, and he
was crowned by Anatolius, Patriarch of Constantinople, thus
introducing the custom, which afterwards became so pre¬
valent, of Christian princes receiving their crowns from the
Jtfli
334 LEO
Leo III. hands of bishops. No sooner had Leo ascended the throne,
v—^ than he resisted the influence which Aspar sought to exer¬
cise over him, by telling him that “ it was unbecoming for
a prince to resign his own judgment and the public interest
to the will of a subject.” In 466 the Huns, invading Dacia,
were defeated by his generals, Anthemius and Anagastus,
with the loss of their chief; Dengizec, son of Attila. In 468
Leo, in concert with Anthemius, now Emperor of the West,
equipped a large naval armament against the Vandals of Africa,
who, under their king, Genseric, had long been the scourge of
Italy and the Mediterranean. His fleet, consisting of 1113
ships, having each 100 men on board, was intrusted to the
command of his brother-in-law, Basiliscus, who, after a pro¬
sperous passage, disembarked his troops safely at Cape Bona,
about 40 miles from Carthage, the capital of the enemy.
Genseric, feigning a desire to submit, requested and ob¬
tained from Basiliscus, a truce of five days. During that
interval, favoured by the wind and the darkness of night, the
fleet of Genseric, with several fire-ships in tow, attacked the
Roman vessels, burnt and sunk one-half of them, and thus
caused the entire failure of the expedition. A public
opinion that Aspar had in some way effected this disastrous
defeat, afforded Leo a pretext of getting rid of this dangerous
king-maker. Taking advantage of a burst of public odium
against Aspar, he ordered him, and one of his sons, to be
put to death, and thus left a foul stain upon his own memory,
Under pretext of revenging this murder, the Goths invaded
Thrace, and, though overpowered after two years, disturbed
the last days of Leo. He died in 474, leaving the crown
to Leo, the infant son of his daughter, Ariadne. Though
scarcely deserving of his surname, the Great, Leo was active,
enlightened, and prudent; and though illiterate himself, was
a liberal patron of learned men.
Leo HI., Flavius, surnamed the Isaurian, Emperor of
Constantinople, was born in Isauria, and was originally
called Conon. His father, a wealthy grazier, emigrated
from Asia Minor to Thrace, and obtained for his son the
rank of a spatharius in the army of Justinian II., where
his eminent abilities soon excited the jealousy of the em¬
peror. From Anastasius II. he received the command of
the troops in Asia; and when that emperor was deposed in
716 by Theodosius III., Leo, marching to Constantinople,
compelled the usurper to resign, and the vacant crown was
conferred upon himself, by the suffrages of the soldiers, in
March 718. Soon after his accession, the Arabs, in large
hordes, invested Constantinople so closely by land and sea,
that the final capture of the city was considered certain.
The Emperor, however, sailing out of the Golden Horn
with his galleys, burnt some of the hostile vessels by means
of his fire-ships, and threw the rest into confusion. After
sustaining severe losses, in two other naval engagements
and in one land battle, the Arabs in 720 were obliged to
raise a siege which had lasted two years. Meanwhile, the
deposed Emperor Anastasius II., expecting the downfall of
Leo, had formed a treasonable conspiracy which was dis-.
covered in 721, and punished capitally. Shortly before this
period the dislike entertained by the Mohammedans and
Jews against image-worship had gradually spread among
the Eastern Christians, and had originated the sect of
the Iconoclasts, or image-breakers. Adopting the views of
this sect, Leo issued a general edict commanding the re¬
moval of images from all the churches of the empire. His
chief object was to reform the church; but he also un¬
doubtedly aimed at drawing the Jews and Mohammedans
within the pale of Christianity, and thus increasing the
strength and splendour of the empire of the East. I his
edict met with general opposition. Instigated by Pope
Gregory II., the Italians refused to obey, and when Paulus,
exarch of Ravenna, was ordered to employ force, resisted,
and repulsed him. Peloponnesus and the Cyclades re¬
belling, sent a fleet to invest Constantinople, but were
LEO
worsted in a sea engagement, and compelled to submit. In Leo. V.
Constantinople, also, an insurrection arose, which, after ||
causing much bloodshed, was quelled by the capital pun- LeoofBy-
ishment of the ringleaders, and the deposition of the zaDtlun)^
Patriarch Germanus. In 731 a council held at Rome by
Gregory III. condemned the Iconoclasts; and incited in
Italy so much opposition to Leo, that he sent a powerful
armament against that country. The armament failed,
and Ravenna and the exarchate were seized by the Lom¬
bards. Leo in revenge transferred, in 734, Greece, Mace¬
donia, and Illyria from the patriarchate of Rome to that of
Constantinople, an act which eventually caused the schism
between the Greek and Roman churches. The re¬
mainder.of his life was disquieted by a protracted war with
the Arabs. He died of dropsy in 741.
Leo’s character, much depreciated by the advocates of
image-worship, is best elucidated by the facts of his life.
His rapid rise from obscurity to the pinnacle of power, his
firm and successful administration, amid foreign assaults
and domestic plots, and his resolute prosecution of the re¬
formation of the church, all indicate a wise and provident
policy, great vigour, and decision of will. His early mili¬
tary life, although it rendered him cruel and obstinate, did
not taint the purity of his manners.
Leo V., Flavius, surnamed the Armenian, was of Arme¬
nian descent, and son of Bardas Patricius. Serving as a
general under Nicephorus I., he was banished for treachery,
but in 811 was recalled, and appointed dux Orientis by the
succeeding emperor, Michael I. This favour was repaid
with ingratitude; for Leo, after gaining some reputation in
his wars with the Arabs, accompanied his sovereign, in 813,
on an expedition against Crum, King of the Bulgarians,
and taking advantage of the disaffection of the army during
a battle with the enemy near Adrianople, withdrew with the
forces under his command, and left Michael to total defeat.
Having thus stripped the emperor both of power and repu¬
tation, Leo was called upon by his army to mount the
throne; and when he pretended to hesitate, his friend,
Michael the Stammerer, confronted him with his naked
sword, exclaiming, “ With this sword will I open the gates
of Constantinople, or plunge it into thy heart, if thou re-
fusest any longer to comply with the just wishes of thy com¬
rades.” Leo marched into Constantinople, and was crowned
in 813, without any opposition. In 814 the Bulgarians
threatening the capital, were defeated at Mesembrya;
and, in the following year, Leo again repulsing them, in¬
vaded their territory, and effectually subdued them. In
the peace that ensued, all his efforts were exerted to effect
the equal administration of justice, and the suppression of
image-worship; but his punishment of the latter offence
was so severe and unrelenting, that even his best friend,
Michael the Stammerer, became his enemy. Having or¬
ganized a conspiracy, Michael was betrayed, tried, and
condemned to be burnt. On Christmas Eve he was dragged
to the place of execution; but when about to meet his fate,
was remanded to prison at the entreaty of the empress, who
was unwilling that the sacred season should be profaned by
such a horrible death. During the night, his friends having
formed a plot, appeared at the palace chapel on the ensuing
morning, in the garb of priests, and while the emperor, as
was his custom, began the chant, they fell upon him, and in
spite of his desperate defence with the large cross, murdered
him, a.d. 820. He was succeeded by Michael the Stam¬
merer. Unlettered, and ignorant of the laws of government,
Leo erred in introducing into his civil administration the
severe and condign punishment of military discipline.
Leo of Byzantium, an historian of the time of Philip,
and probably of Alexander, occupied an important office in
the Byzantine commonwealth, during its invasion by Philip.
According to Hesychius of Miletus, he was general of the
forces. During the siege of his native city, or shortly after
LEO ' LEO 335
Leo Dia- it, he was sent on an embassy to Athens. Byzantium, when
conus on the eve of being captured, was succoured by the Athe-
I! nian auxiliaries under Chares, B.c. 340, and afterwards under
Thessalo P^oc*onJ ant* was compelled to withdraw. After
nlca.°' this repulse, the king, according to Suidas, accused Leo to
i ^ y his fellow-countrymen of having designed to betray the city
for money; and Leo, afraid of falling a victim to popular
fury, hanged himself Llesychius of Miletus, however,
states that he died during the siege, before the arrival of
the Athenians under Chares. On both of these statements
considerable doubt is thrown by Suidas and Eudocia repre¬
senting Leo as the author of two works,—Ta Kara ‘PcXur-ov
kcli to Bv^dvrior ( The affairs of Philip and the Byzantines');
and To. kut 'AXe^avSpov ( The Exploits of Alexander). The
, other works commonly attributed to him are,—TevOpavLKov
(Teuthranicum) ; THepi BrjadXov or Brjcraiov {Be Besalo or
Besceo); 'O iepos noXepos (The Sacred War) ; and TIept
o-racraov {Be Seditionibus, or Be Statibus). None of his
works are extant.
Leo Biaconus, or the Beacon, an historian of the tenth
century, was born at Caloe, a town of Asia Minor, pro¬
bably about a.d. 950. From his history we learn that
he was studying at Constantinople in 966 ; that he was in
Asia in 973 or 974, when Basilius I., Patriarch of Constan¬
tinople was deposed, and that in 981 he accompanied the
Emperor Basilius II. on his expedition against the Bulga¬
rians. We infer also, from some of the events he men¬
tions, that he must have lived at least till 993. His works
are,—Tcrropia, Oratio ad Basilium Imperatorem, and IIo-
milia in Michaelem Archangelum.
Of these, the two last exist only in manuscript. His His¬
tory was first published at the expense of Count Nicolas
liomanzof, Chancellor of Russia, accompanied with a pre¬
face, a Latin version, notes, and engravings from ancient
gems, by C. B. Hase, Paris, 1818. This edition, without
the engravings, was reprinted in the Bonn edition of the
Corpus Historice Byzantince, 1828.
Leo Grammaticus, a Byzantine historian of the tenth
century, is said to have been governor of Cibyra under
Constantine VII. His work, entitled Xpovoypapux ra twv
ve(DV BacrtAeW Trepd^ovaa {A Chronography, comprising the
Acts of the more recent Emperors), is a continuation of
Byzantine history from the accession of Leo V., the Ar¬
menian, a.d. 813, to the death of Romanus I. in 948.
Published along with Theophanes, under the superinten¬
dence of Combefis, Paris, 1655, in the Parisian edition of
the Corpus Historice Byzantince, it was reprinted at Venice,
1729. Leo probably wrote his History in the time of Ro¬
manus II.
Leo of Thessalonica, surnamed the Philosopher, a learned
ecclesiastic of the ninth century. The date and place of his
birth are unknown. He studied grammar and poetry at
Constantinople, and arithmetic, rhetoric, and philosophy in
the island of Andros, under Michael Psellus. By exploring
all the monastic libraries in continental Greece, and perus¬
ing their valuable contents, he amassed a large stock of
general information, and, returning to Constantinople, be¬
came a teacher. One of his pupils having been captured
in war by the Moslems, and becoming known through his
geometrical acquirements to the caliph, who was a patron
of learning, extolled the attainments of his master Leo so
highly that he was despatched with a letter to the Philo¬
sopher inviting him to Baghdad. Afraid to correspond with
an enemy, Leo contrived that the letter should be laid be¬
fore the Emperor I heophilus, and was thus recommended
to royal patronage. 1 he emperor appointed him public
teacher or professor, and afterwards ordered the Patriarch
Joannes, the celebrated Iconoclast, and a kinsman of Leo’s,
to consecrate him Bishop of Thessalonica. On the death
of the emperor, and the instalment of his widow Theodora
in the regency, he was deposed from his see for his icono¬
clastic opinions, but was afterwards appointed to the man- Leo X.
agement of a mathematical school, established in Constan-
tinople by the Csesar Bardas. The latest period of Leo’s
life of which we have any notice is 869. The date of his
death is unknown.
The only extant works that can with any probability be
ascribed to Leo the Philosopher are several astrological
MSS. existing in various European libraries.
Leo X., Pope, the second son of Lorenzo de Medici, was
born at Florence in December 1475. His original name
was Giovanni or John. Plaving taken the tonsure at the
early age of seven, he was presented with two rich abbeys,
through the influence of his father with Louis XL of France,
and Pope Sixtus IV. Many other benefices followed; and,
in 1488, when only thirteen, he was raised to the rank of
cardinal by Innocent VIII. Hitherto he had been under
the tuition of Chalcondylas, the famous Greek historian, and
Angelo Poliziano; and, being naturally sedate even in his
youth, he had evinced that love of classical learning for
which he was afterwards so noted. He was now sent to
Pisa to study theology, and, on his return in 1492, was in¬
vested with the purple, and soon afterwards went to reside
in Rome as a member of the sacred college. On the ac¬
cession of Pope Alexander VI., wdiose election he had
opposed, he returned to Florence, and remained there until
the invasion of Italy by Charles VIII. of France obliged his
family to flee in 1494. Repairing to Bologna, he after¬
wards, in 1499, travelled through France and Germany,
enjoying the society of learned men, and indulging his love
of literature and the liberal arts. Returning to Rome, he
lived in strict seclusion until the accession of Julius II. in
1503. Having recommended himself to the pope by his
activity in public affairs, he was appointed governor of Peru¬
gia ; and, in 1511, for his fidelity in this administration, he
was rewarded with the high office of commander of the
papal forces in the holy league against France. At the
battle of Ravenna, in 1512, he was taken prisoner and con¬
veyed to Milan, but, recovering his liberty soon afterwards,
he returned to Bologna, where he governed the district as
papal legate.
The death of Julius IL, in 1513, recalled him to Rome,
and in March of the same year he was elected his successor
in the pontificate, and assumed the title of Leo X. No
sooner was he seated in the papal chair, than the invasion
of the north of Italy, by the French troops of Louis XIL,
summoned him to exercise his talent in the field. Mainly
by means of Swiss auxiliaries the French were defeated at
Novara, and Louis XII. was forced to seek absolution
from the papal power. The peace that followed was spent
by Leo in patronizing learning and the fine arts. Not
long after his accession he had appointed Bembo and Sa-
doleti papal secretaries. He revived the Roman Univer¬
sity by means of rich presents and valuable endowments,
and by attracting to it eminent professors from different
lands. A Greek press wTas also established ; and by offering
large rewards, he incited a search for ancient manuscripts in
all the libraries and cloisters of Europe. In 1515, however,
Leo’s attention was diverted to the French, who, under the
command of their young monarch, Francis L, had invaded
Italy with the intent of retaking Milan. The Swdss auxi¬
liaries of the pope were defeated at Marignano, 14th Sep¬
tember 1515, and the French entered Milan, and seized the
duchy. Seeing his own power in jeopardy, Leo, w ith char¬
acteristic prudence, and despite the advice of his cardinals,
hastened to the king at Bologna; and there was concluded
the concordat in which the pope, in return for the ceding
of Parma and Piacenza to the French, shared with the
king the rights of the Gallican church. During this crisis
the Duke of Urbino, w ho was receiving the pope’s pay, had
proved treacherous; and in 1516 Leo, after a hard struggle,
stripped him of his duchy, and, by conferring it upon his
336 LEO
LEO
Leo,
Leonardo
II
Leoben.
own nephew, increased the influence of his family. In
1517, alarmed at a conspiracy that had been formed to
poison him, he created thirty-one cardinals in the same
day, chiefly from among his own relations. To furnish
money for his extravagant pleasures, in the same year he
authorized the sale of indulgences, a practice that first roused
the opposition of Luther. Desirous of recovering Parma and
Piacenza, which he had ceded to Francis I., he formed, in
1521, a league with Charles V., stipulating, as one of the
conditions, that Luther should be deprived of the emperor’s
protection. The allied armies were successful; the French
were driven out of Milan, and Parma and Piacenza re¬
taken. Leo, soon after receiving the welcome tidings at
his favourite villa Malliana, returned to Rome, and there,
amid the festivities and rejoicings on account of the suc¬
cess, was attacked by a sudden malady, which, after eight
days, closed his career on the 1st December 1521.
Leo X. has been happily named by Ranke a child of
fortune. After his auspicious birth and influential patrons
had started him on the highway to preferment, a fair
amount of prudence and conduct easily led him to his
exalted position; and common policy, with little effort,
enabled him to hold his seat. His greatest weakness was
his excessive devotion to pleasure; and this being chiefly
intellectual and aesthetical, was the cause, perhaps, of his
greatest virtue—his liberal patronage to men of genius.
During his autumnal residence in the country, the intervals
between hawking, hunting, and fishing, were pleasantly
squandered in listening to musicians, and improvisator!.
When theatres and festivals failed to please in winter, the
writings of Machiavel, the poems of Ariosto, and the paint¬
ings of Raphael, were sources of new and equally eager
pleasure. Even his political activity, never following mat¬
ters into details, and exercising only the nobler mental
faculties, gratified his ruling passion. His heavy debts
rendered him unpopular; while his neglect of religious
duties, and his refusal of the sacraments on his death-bed,
gave, perhaps, sufficient reason for the current belief that
he was a sceptic. Flis chief claim to remembrance is
founded on the striking events of the age in which he lived.
(Roscoe’s Leo. X; Sismondi’s Literature; Ranke’s Popes.)
Leo, L^eonardo, one of the most distinguished composers
of the Neapolitan school of music, was born at Naples in
1694. He studied for several years at Rome under the
celebrated composer G. O. Pitoni, who was also the master
of Feo and Durante. On his return to Naples in 1717,
Leo was appointed chapel-master of the church Santa Maria
Solitaria, and afterwards became master of the conservatory
La Pieta, and finally of the conservatory of Sant’ Onofrio,
in which last school several of the greatest composers of
the eighteenth century were his pupils. Some writers have
stated that he died in the year 1742, but the Abate Giuseppe
Bertini, in his Dizionario Storico, See., 1814, says that
Leo died in 1745. A later writer refers to the inscription
on a portrait of Leo, preserved in the Royal College of
Music at Naples, according to which Leo’s death occurred
in 1756. He died of apoplexy, and was found dead with
his head leaning on his harpsichord. Alessandro Scarlatti,
and his successors Durante, Leo, and Feo, share the honour
of having founded the great Neapolitan school of musical
composition. Leo was a voluminous composer for the
church and for the theatre, and his music is always beau¬
tiful and expressive, as well as original and scientific. Dr
Burney speaks highly of Leo’s music, and alludes to the
Miserere in eight real parts, which was performed by more
than forty voices at the Pantheon, London, in 1781. That
Miserere, for two choirs without orchestra, was published
at Paris, by Choron, in 1808. (g. f. g.)
LEOBEN, a town of Austria, in Styria, in the circle and
9 miles W.S.W. of Brack, on the River Mur, 1670 feet
above the sea-level; N. Lat. 47. 23.36., E.Long. 15.0. 25.
It is surrounded by a wall with three gates, and has exten¬
sive barracks, and several elegant public buildings, as the
town-house, deanery church, and theatre. Some trade is
carried on, principally in coal, iron, and salt. A treaty of
peace was signed here between France and Austria on the
18th of April 1797. Pop. 2500.
LEOGHARES, an Athenian sculptor, is mentioned by
Pliny as living b.c. 372. In c.c. 352, he was one of those
employed to erect the famous mausoleum in honour of
Mausolus, King of Caria. He was engaged, along with
other artists, in commemorating Philip’s victory at Cha?ro-
neia, B.c. 338, and produced, for that purpose, his famous
portrait statues of Philip, Alexander, Amyntas, Olympias,
and Eurydice. I he time of his death is unknown. His
masterpiece was the Rape of Ganymede, by the bird of
Jove, a bronze statue, which was much admired in its own
time ; and though now known only through very imperfect
marble copies, still charms by its blended grace and dignity.
The best copy is in the Museo Pio-Clementino. Of his
other statues, the most famous are his Jupiter Tonans, cha¬
racterized by Pliny as “ ante cuncta laudabilem" and his
Autolycus.
LEOMINSTER, a municipal and parliamentary borough
and market-town of England, county of Hereford, on the
Lugg, a tributary of the Wye, 12 miles N. by W. of Here¬
ford, and 137 miles W.N.W. of London. The town-hall, or
“ butter cross,” is a quaint-looking structure of wood and
plaster, erected about two centuries ago. The parish church
is a handsome edifice, exhibiting the architecture of various
periods, and surmounted by a tower 100 feet high. A free
grammar school, founded by Queen Mary, has ceased to
furnish gratuitous instruction, and is now a private school.
Leominster has a considerable trade in wheat, hops, cider,
and wool; and some manufactures of woollens, leather, hats,
and gloves, for which last it was once noted. The borough
is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen, and 12 councillors,
and returns 2 members to parliament. Registered electors
551. Pop. (1851) 5214.
LEON, one of the old kingdoms of Spain, lying between
N. Lat. 40. 10. and 43., W. Long. 4. and 7., and divided
into the modern provinces of Leon, Zamora, and Sala¬
manca. It is bounded by Asturias on the N., Old Castile
on the E., Estremadura on the S., and Galicia and Portu¬
gal on the W.; area 15,027 square miles. The whole
region is included in the basin of the Douro, with the ex¬
ception of a small portion at the N.W. angle, which is
drained by the Sil, an affluent of the Minho. Leon is
inclosed by the two great mountain ranges that pass along
its northern and southern frontiers. The Asturian Moun¬
tains on the N. form part of the great Pyrenean chain, and
send off various offshoots into Leon, especially one great
chain extending in a S. and S.W. direction through the
northern part of the province, and separating the basin of
the Douro from that of the Minho. The southern range
forms part of the great central chain of the peninsula, and
the highest of its summits, the Sierra de Credos, rises to
the height of 10,552 feet. There is a small range which
leaves the southern chain, and runs N.W. across the
southern part of the province. From these hilly regions flow
down a considerable portion of what constitutes the volume
of the Douro, including the Esla, with its tributaries, from
the mountains of Asturias, and the Tormes from the
southern range. Iron is the chief mineralogical produc¬
tion, and is manufactured in various ways. The soil is
good, but much in want of irrigation. The mountainous
parts of the province are richly wooded, and its oaks
are reputed the best in Spain. The plains are very fertile,
and produce abundant crops of wheat, maize, flax, &c.,
though the agriculture is very imperfect. The inhabitants are
chiefly employed in tending sheep and cattle. The mules
and asses of the province are celebrated throughout Spain.
’zr—.r-r:- ^
k'-V.Mr
LEO
Leon. The Leonese are a hardy set of people, inured to moun-
tain life, and jealous of any innovation that comes from the
plains. They are ill-housed, ill-educated, and ill-fed. In¬
dustry is altogether in a wretched state, and consequently
there is very little trade. The means of communication
are few and bad, the roads being in a barely passable con¬
dition. Pop. (1849) 708,833.
Leon was anciently inhabited by the Vettones and Cal-
laici, and formed part of Hispania Tarraconensis. In the
eighth century it was consolidated into a kingdom by Don
Pelayo and his successors, and in the eleventh incorpo¬
rated with the kingdom of Castile by Ferdinand the Great.
After some fruitless attempts to regain its independence, it
was finally subjugated in the thirteenth century by Ferdi¬
nand III.
The modern province of Leon comprises the northern
part ol the old province, and is bounded on the N. by Astu¬
rias, E. by Old Castile, S. by Valladolid and Zamora, and W.
by Galicia. Its greatest length is 120 miles, and its mean
breadth 60 miles. The surface is hilly, and generally
affords good pasturage for cattle, and it is traversed by a
number of streams, of which the most considerable are
Upper Douro, the Esla, and Sil. Area 5871 square miles.
Pop. in 1849, 288,833.
Leon (the ancient Legio, so called from the Legio sep-
tima Gemma having been stationed here), a city of Spain,
capital of the above province, situate in the angle formed
by the junction of the Torio and Bernesga, 176 miles
N.W. of Madrid, in N. Lat. 42. 30.; W. Long. 5. 35.
The town is surrounded by old decayed walls, and though
containing many magnificent buildings, presents everywhere
the appearance of ruin and decay. The streets are narrow"
and dirty, conveying the idea of great poverty. Some of
the edifices are exceedingly handsome. The cathedral,
founded about 1199, was formerly one of the most graceful
and elegant buildings in the world. It is built in the
pointed Gothic style, of a warm cream-coloured stone, and
is remarkable for its lightness and proportion. The grand
west entrance from the Plaza Mayor has three portals,
richly ornamented with elaborate sculpture, a noble rose
window, surmounted by a pinnacle, and a tower on each
side. I he south front has also a plaza and three arched
doorways, richly sculptured. The north facade has been
deformed by balustrades and candelabra; the east is cir¬
cular and Gothic, with flying buttresses and pinnacles. The
interior is also remarkable for its lightness and simplicity,
but has been greatly deteriorated by modern attempts at
improvement. It contains much carved wrork, and many
monuments and relics of interest. Most notable among
the other buildings are,—the church of San Isidoro, a huge
structure, also Gothic, founded in 1063 ; the convent of San
Marcos de Leon, once the property of the order of San-
tiago ; the town-house, built in 1585 ; the episcopal palace ;
public library, contained in an old nunnery; and a palace
called La Casa de los Guzmanes. There are many insti¬
tutions for educational and benevolent purposes, including
a diocesan seminary ; the gymnasium ; primary, normal, and
other schools ; and four hospitals. W eaving linens, knitting
caps and stockings, and making gloves, are the principal
occupations of the people. What trade there is is mainly
owing to two weekly markets and three annual fairs, which
last for several days.
Leon was founded prior to the reign of the Emperor
Galba, and was taken by Leovigildo in a.d. 586. On
being recovered from the Moors, who held it for some time,
it became for three centuries the residence of the kings of
eon. Under Don Pedro it lost this honour, by the trans¬
ference of the court to Seville. It was sacked by Soult in
ecembei 1808. Remains of the ancient Roman wall are
still extant. Pop. about 5500.
Leon, a town of Central America, capital of Nicaragua,
VOL. xni.
LEO
337
in N. Lat. 12. 25., W. Long. 86. 50.; 90 miles N.W. of Leon, Isla
Grenada, and 10 from the Pacific Ocean. The town is
laid out on a regular plan, with spacious streets and squares,
and occupies a large space. The houses are chiefly built of
unbaked bricks, and seldom higher than one storey. Its public
buildings are among the most beautiful in Central America.
Pre-eminent stands the cathedral, with a lofty dome and
two towers with pyramidal tops; it has the appearance of a
fortress, and was at one time surmounted by thirty guns:
there are on its walls marks of repeated bombardments.
The bishop’s palace has an elegant portico and fine gardens
attached to it. Many of the churches are fine structures,
the principal being those of La Merced, Recoleccion, and
Calvario. The other most prominent buildings are the
Tridentine College of St Ramon, once an important esta¬
blishment, but now decayed; the government-house; and
the hospital, formerly the convent of San Juan de Dios.
Its suburb, Subtiaba, or Old Leon, has also some fine build¬
ings, the chief of which is its church, consisting of three
naves, with columns of cedar, and crowned by beautiful
towers. Dressed leather and cutlery are the staple manu¬
factures of Leon; its commerce is inconsiderable, and is
confined to the neighbourhood. It was originally founded
in 1523 on the spot now occupied by Old Leon, and was
removed to its present position in 1532. The revolutions,
of which the country has often been the theatre, have al¬
most all severely visited Leon, and plenteous traces of
these visitations are still to be seen. Pop. about 25,000.
Leon, Isla de, an island on the S.W. coast of Spain, pi’o-
vince ot Cadiz, separated from the mainland by a narrow but
deep strait, called Santi Petri, is about 12 miles in length
from S.E. to N.W., and from 1 to 3 miles in breadth. Tne
broadest portion is next the mainland, while the narrowest
part, which forms a long spit, juts into the Bay of Cadiz.
On the extremity of this peninsula stands the city of Cadiz,
cut oft’ from the rest of the island by a fortification called
La Cortadura. The surface of Isla de Leon is flat and
covered with saline marshes, from which large quantities of
salt are extracted by the inhabitants. Communication with
the continent is effected by means of an ancient bridge
thrown over the Santi Petri. The chief towns on the island
are Cadiz and San Carlos.
Leon Nuevo, a Mexican state. See Mexico.
LEON, Peter Cieja de, author of the History of Peru.
He left Spain, his native country, at thirteen years of age,
in order to proceed into America, where he resided seven¬
teen years, and observed so many remarkable things, that
he resolved to commit them to writing. His history was
begun in 1541, and completed in 1550. He was at Lima,
the capital of the kingdom of Peru, when he put the finishing
stroke to the work, and was then thirty-two years of age.
The first part was printed at Seville in 1553.
LEONFORTE, a walled town in the interior of Sicily,
province of Catania, 37 miles W.N.W. of the town of that
name, is situate in a mountainous district near the right
bank of the Dittaino. It consists, for the most part, of a
large square, with two main streets diverging therefrom.
The inhabitants trade in grain, wine, oil, silk, sulphur, and
asphaltum; the two las| existing in large quantities in the
neighbourhood. An annual fair is held here. Pop. about
11,000.
LEONINE VERSES, were Latin compositions, con¬
structed according to the laws of the classic metres, but also
elaborately decorated with rhyme. Though possessing no
great merit, they were very popular in the middle ages. The
name is probably derived from Leoninus, a canon of Paris,
and subsequently monk at Marseilles, in the twelfth century.
Other derivations have been proposed, but with little plau¬
sibility. These verses have been traced as far back as the
third century, at which era Commodianus wrote a piece of
1200 jingling verses. Two centuries ufter this, Latin
2 u
338 LEO
Leopardi rhyme appears to have been introduced into the hymns
sung in the churches. (See Hymns.) St Augustine and
the”venerable Bede are amongst the number of leo-
nizers. The poem of the former against the Donatists
contains 270 lines, all of which rhyme to the letter E. One
of the most popular works of the eleventh century, Regi¬
men Sanitatis Salernilanum, which proceeded from the
physicians of Salerno, belongs to the same school. The
history of the first Crusade, and the adventures of Richard
Cceur de Lion, were celebrated in similar strains.
The proper leonine consists of a couplet rhyming at the
end. But the line or two lines may have the rhyme dis¬
tributed throughout in a great variety of ways. When the
verse is divided into twro members, each member, not only
of the line, but of the couplet, may rhyme. Or, as in the
following, the corresponding pauses in the couplet may
rhyme:—
“ Si tibi grata seges—est morum, gratus habm's;
Si virtutis egcs—despiciendus ms.”
But the greatest amount of variety was produced by divid¬
ing the verse into three pauses, e.g.—
“ 0 miseratrix—0 dominatrix—praecipe dictu ;
Ne devastemur—ne lapidemur—grandinis ictu.”
Sometimes the three members rhymed—sometimes the
whole verse of the couplet; and even farther than this,
leonines occur in which every word of the one line rhymes
to every wrord in the second. As in the case when the
line was divided into two members, so here the rhyme
might be manifested in the corresponding pauses of the
couplet. Another device of the leonizers was that of mak¬
ing a pause supply the place of a common introduction to a
number of lines following. Thus, in the rules to be ob¬
served at meals,—
( vultus hilares habeatis;
“ Dum manducatis < sal cultello capiatis;
[ quid edendum sit ne petatis,&c.
and so on for eleven lines, each ending in ads. The vigo¬
rous literature which arose at the time of the Reformation
almost entirely banished the taste for Iconizing.
LEOPARDI (Giacomo), Count, eldest son of the Count
Monaldo Leopardi and the Marchioness Adelaide Artici, was
born at Recanati, in the march of Ancona, June 29, 1798.
In early childhood he was taught Latin and the grammar
of his own language by two priests; and in his tenth year
he began, without assistance, the study of Greek. Until
his fourteenth year, he had no other instructor than the
extensive library which his father, himself a literary man,
had inherited from his ancestors.
The first part of his short career was entirely devoted to
philology, in which his attainments were so great as to secure
him a place among the most eminent philologists of his day,
at an age when most men are still studying at college. In
August 1814, when just sixteen years of age, he completed
his commentary on Porphyry’s Life of Plotinus, from which
Creuzer has extracted the addenda, to be found in the third
volume. In the same year, Leopardi wrote his commen¬
taries—Sulla vita e gli scritti di taluni retori del II. secolo,
a book of such merit, that, when Cardinal Mai published an
edition of Fronto’s Zetfers, in the fallowing year, he availed
himself of Leopardi’s annotations ; and not long after, when
editing Dionysius of Halicarnassus, he quoted his letter to
Giordani as an authority. Leopardi’s next work, Saggio
sugli errori Popolari degli Antichi, published in 1815,
astonished the learned by the variety and amount of erudi¬
tion displayed by a youth of seventeen. De Sinner, in his
Excerpta ex schedis criticis Jacobi Leopardi Comitis, Bon-
nse, 1834, lauds the ■“ admirandce lectionis et eruditionis
opus.” Another essay, Sulla riputazione di Oraziofra gli
Antichi, which appeared in 1816, show’s how deeply he w as
imbued with the feelings of the ancients. The Osservazioni
sulta Batrachiomachia (1817) were reprinted by the learned
LEO
Bothe, in his celebrated edition of Homer’s Odyssey (Leipsic, Leopardi.
1834), and by Berger de Xivrey, in his second edition of
the Batrachiomachia (1837). The Annotazioni alia Cro-
naca di Eusebio, published by Mai and Zorhab, the disser¬
tation on Moschus and Bion, the translation of their Idyls,
and a number of valuable researches, remarks, and essays,
on other Greek and Latin authors, followed each other in
rapid succession during the years 1816-17.
Leopardi’s knowledge of the dead languages, added to
his own fine intellect and quick perception, enabled him so
to identify himself with the ancient world, that his Hymn to
Neptune, which he gave as a translation of a newly-discov¬
ered Greek poem, and two Greek odes, which he passed off
as Odes by Anacreon, published in 1817, remained for some
time undetected forgeries. Another forgery (in 1826), the
translation of a Martyrdom of the Holy Fathers of Mount
Sinai, was accepted by Cesari, and admired as a testo di
lingua. A dissertation on the Titanomarhia, from the
Theogony of Llesiod, and some very fine translations from
Simonides, terminated the first epoch of his life.
From his constant researches into the social, political,
and heroic elements of antiquity, he had acquired an enthu¬
siastic elevation of character, which, added to his retired life
and his simplicity of manners, seemed to remove him en¬
tirely from his own age, and to connect him wdth the great
men of ancient Greece and Rome. Thus inspired by the
noble deeds, and tempered by the severe beauty of his mo¬
dels, his poetry burst forth with a pathos and energy that has
led an enthusiastic critic to affirm, that Italian poetry began
with Dante and ended with Leopardi. His first canzone was
dedicated to Italy, his second to Dante, his third to Cardinal
Mai. With the political feeling common to all the modern
poets of Italy, there breathes in Leopardi’s verses a spirit
of sublime scorn, such as an ancient Roman might be sup¬
posed to feel when writing to an audience of his degenerate
countrymen.
At the age of twenty, he had a reputation throughout
Italy for the finish of his style, the vigour of his sentiments,
and the Attic elegance of his versification. He was then at
the zenith of his fame. A year before, he had said, in a
letter to one of his friends,—“ I do not wish to live with
the multitude : mediocrity frightens me.” But the preco¬
cious genius already carried within him the germs of disease
and death. He w7as soon after assailed by a severe illness,
and, in 1819, his sight was so much impaired, that he was
forbidden to read; and an affection of the spine brought
with it acute pain and deformity. He was then, for the first
time, compelled to leave his home at Recanati. The snows
of the Apennines made his residence there injurious; while
political disagreement between him and his father added
mental to physical suffering. He went to Rome, where he
became acquainted with Niebuhr, who spoke and wrote so
highly of him, that the Chevalier Bunsen, when in that city,
went to visit him, and was surprised to find the philolo¬
gist and poet in a poor chamber, “ pale and shy, a mere
youth, of weakly figure, and obviously in bad health.”
Niebuhr offered him a professorship in the University of
Berlin, but this he declined. Bunsen remained his warm
admirer to the last. At this period, he contributed to the
Effemeridi Letterarie di Roma his annotations on the Ar¬
menian Philo of Aucher, a translation of Virgil’s Moretum,
and some learned papers on Cicero’s De Republica ; at the
same time, he was intrusted with the arrangement of the
Greek manuscripts in the Bibliotheca Barberiniana.
It w’as now that he fell into that desponding state of mind
which casts a peculiarly mournful shadow over his poetry.
The contrast between the great men of antiquity with whom,
in his library at home, he may be said to have lived, and
the meanness of those with whom he now mingled in daily
life, swept away the bright illusions of his youth, and made
him feel a stranger in the world. To the political, social,
L E P
Lepanto. and religious misfortunes of his country, which affected him
deeply, there were added personal difficulties and struggles,
which made his life a burden. He travelled from Rome
to Milan, thence to Florence and Bologna, and then re¬
turned to Rome again ; but his moral illness seemed even
more incurable than that of his body, and nothing could over¬
come his growing disgust of life. Amid his misfortunes he
met with one consolation, the friendship of Antonio Ranieri, a
Neapolitan, who invited him to his house at Naples, where
he remained seven years. While there, Leopardi passed
his time alternately at the foot of Vesuvius, where he ut¬
tered the last and most plaintive of his songs, La Ginestra, o
il Fiore de' Deserti, and on the Hill of Capodimonte, where
he died of dropsy, 16th June 1837.
As a philologist Leopardi belongs to that class of patient
investigators who have thrown that light of sound criticism
on classic literature by which Germany has so justly ac¬
quired her learned reputation. The Italians, however, to
whom Europe is indebted for the preservation of the trea¬
sures of ancient culture, have not, in the midst of adverse
circumstances, forgotten the traditions of their ancestors,
and the Niebuhrs, Creuzers, Bothes, Theils, &c., find their
rivals in the Marinis, Mais, Giordanis, Cancellieris, &c., to
whom we must now add the name of Leopardi. As a poet,
Leopardi has written some of the most painfully eloquent
passages to be found in any language. His passion is spon¬
taneous, deep, and true—never exceeding the modesty of
nature. He stands almost alone between Alfieri, Parini,
and Foscolo, on one side, and Monti and Manzoni, on the
other. The Paralipomei della Batrachiomachia exhibit
a fair example of his power of satire; in this style of com¬
position he is neither so delicate as Parini, nor so original
as Giusti; yet he is more impassioned than the one, and
more correct than the other. He is, however, more a
Lucian than a Juvenal. Among his poems may be found
some charming sketches from nature, calm, delicate, and
highly finished. Such are 11 Sabato del Villaggio, La
sera del dl di Festa, &c. As to his prose, when his Opere
Morali, Detti Memorahili di F. Ottonieri, and his l)ia-
loghi appeared in 1827, Manzoni exclaimed, “ This is the
best written prose that has appeared for many years.”
Leopardi’s friend, Ranieri, erected in the little church of
St Vitale, in Naples, near the Grotte di Posilippo, not far
from the last resting-place of Virgil and Sannazzaro, a
tomb of marble to his memory. The whole of his works
have been translated into German by Karl L. Kannegiesser,
while another translation of a part of them was published
by Bothe, the learned editor of Homer. (See Opere di
Leopardi raccoltede ordinate per cura di Ranieri, Giordani,
Pellegrini e Viani, Firenze, 1845, which is the last and
most complete edition in Italian; Sainte Beuve, Portraits
Contempornines, vol. iii., Paris, 1846; Be Montlaur G.
Leopardi, Moulins, 1846; Reinische’s Museum, Bonn,
1834 ; Schulz in the Italia, a German selection of vari¬
ous writers, Rome, 1840; Blessig-Augsburger Allgemeine
Zeitung, 1840; and the Quarterly Review, London, 1849—
50, vol. Ixxxvi. (e. f.)
LEPANTO, the ancient Naupactus, called by the Greek
peasants Epakto, a town of Northern Greece, province of
Etolia, situate on the River Morneo, about 4 miles E.N.E.
from the Castle of Roumelia, in N. Lat. 38. 21. 50., and
E. Long. 21. 46. It stands in the midst of a fertile terri¬
tory, covered with olives, vineyards, and corn fields. Viewed
from the sea, it is of a triangc^ar form, receding up the slope
of a hill, crowned by a fortress, from which a wall, diverging
on either side, runs down to the shore, and shuts it in.
Several walls run across the inclosure, with gates for inter¬
communication. I he modern town is confined to the
lowest inclosure, in which is also the harbour, which,
although once available for ships of great size, is now na¬
vigable only by small craft.
LEP 339
The name Naupactus is said to have originated with the Lepidi
Heraclidas, who are reported to have built there the fleet II
with which they invaded the Peloponnesus. After the Leprosy.
Persian war it fell into the possession of the Athenians,
who settled in it the expatriated Messenians. The Athe-
niaas made it their chief military station in Western Greece
during the Peloponnesian war. At its close, Lepanto was
taken by the Locrians, and afterwards passed in succession
through the hands of the Etolians, Macedonians, Achaeans,
and Romans. In 1475 it was invested by the Turks, who,
after the loss of 30,000 men in four months, were forced
to raise the siege. Within the Gulf of Lepanto, in 1571,
was fought the great naval engagement between the Otto¬
mans and the Christian powers of the Mediterranean, under
Don Juan of Austria, in which the former lost about 200
galleys, and 20,000 men. Cervantes, the author of JDon
Quixote, distinguished himself in this conflict.
LEPIDI, a Roman family, one of the most distinguished
of the ^Emilian clan, whose names frequently occur in
Roman history.
Marcus FEmilius Lepidus, was one of the three Roman
ambassadors sent to the Egyptian court in 201 b.c., be*-
came one of the pontiffs in 199, was elected sedile in 192,
praetor in 191, and consul in 187. In 180 b.c. he was
created pontifex maximus, in 179 censor, and in 175 elected
consul a second time. After having been six times ap¬
pointed jormce/w senatus, he died in 152 b.c.
Marcus FEmilius Lepidus Porcina, becoming consul in
137 b.c., waged war with the Vaccaei in Spain, without the
sanction ot the senate, and for this offence was degraded from
his proconsulship in 136 b.c. He was augur in 125 b.c.
Marcus sEmdius Lepidus, father of the triumvir, was
praetor in Sicily in 81 b.c. In 79 b.c. he was the rival of
Sulla for the consulship, and through the influence of
Pompey was successful. Having raised an army for the
purpose of overthrowing the aristocratic constitution esta¬
blished by Sulla, he was declared a public enemy by the
senate in 77 b.c., and having been defeated and driven from
Italy, he died shortly afterwards of a broken heart.
Lucius FEniilius Paulus, son of the preceding, accused
Catiline in 63 b.c., was quaestor in Macedonia in 59 b.c.,
and endeavoured to effect the recal of Cicero from banish¬
ment in 57 b.c. He was aedile in 55 b.c., and praetor in
53 B.c. Becoming consul in 50 b.c., he opposed the
ambitious designs of Caesar, but a bribe from the latter
changed his conduct. In 43 b.c., along with others of the
senators, he declared his brother, the triumvir, a public
enemy. He died soon afterwards.
Marcus FEmilius Lepidus, the triumvir, was appointed
interrex in 52 b.c., for the purpose of holding the comitia.
At the commencement of the civil war in 49 b.c., he
espoused the cause of Caesar, who appointed him, in 48 b.c.,
proconsul of Hispania Citerior, and in 46 B.c. named him
his colleague in the consulship. In 43 b.c., in concert with
Octavian and Anthony, he formed the first triumvirate,
which was renewed in 37 b.c., and dissolved in 36 b.c. by
Lepidus being deprived of all power, and sent into private
life. He died in 13 B.c.
Paulus JEmilius Lepidus, the son of L. iEmilius Paulus,
and nephew of the triumvir, became consul in 34 B.c.,
and censor in 22 b.c., and died while holding the latter office.
LEPROSY, a chronic cutaneous tubercular disease,
prevalent, from the earliest historical times, among the
ancient Jews and Egyptians, and a malady that was very
common during the middle ages in the different kingdoms
of Europe, and which still exists to a great extent in
many quarters of the old and new world. Leprosy is
one of the most incurable and most loathsome of human
maladies. When speaking of the cases of it which he
saw in Syria, in the seventeenth century, the old Eng¬
lish traveller Maundrell describes it as a “distemper so
340
LEPROSY.
Leprosy.
noisome that it might well pass for the utmost corruption
of the human body on this side the grave.” In many
medical works, from the time of Aretaeus, yEtius, and the
later school of Greek physicians, down to our own days, the
affection is described under the name of elephantiasis, or
elephant disease, because, to quote the words of Aretseus,
“ It is disgusting to the sight, and terrible in all respects
{et visu fcedus et in omnibus terribilis), like the beast of the
same name.”
When leprosy, or the elephantiasis of the Greek physi¬
cians, is fully developed, it is characterized by the presence
of dusky red, or livid tubercles of different sizes upon the
face, lips, nose, eye-brows, ears, and extremities of the
body. The skin of the tuberculated face is at the same
time thickened, wrinkled, and shining, and the features
very greatly distorted. The hair of the eye-brows, eye¬
lashes, and beard falls off; the eyes are often injected, and
the conjunctiva swelled; the voice becomes hoarse and
nasal; the sense of smell is impaired or lost; and that of
touch, or common sensation, is strangely altered, for, whilst
the tuberculated and other affected parts are, in the first in¬
stance, sometimes supersensitive, latterly, in the course of
the disease, they become paralyzed or anaesthetic. As the
malady proceeds onwards in its course, the tubercles soften
and open ; idcerations of similar mucous tubercles appear in
the nose and throat, rendering the breath extremely offen¬
sive ; tubercular masses, or leprous tubercles, as shown by
dissection, begin to form also internally upon various mucous
membranes, and on the surface of the kidneys, lungs, &c.;
cracks, fissures, and circular ulcers appear on the fingers,
toes, and extremities, and joint after joint drops off by a
kind of spontaneous gangrene. Sometimes the upper and
sometimes the lower extremities are specially affected by
this mortification and mutilation of parts. Dr Halbesk, in
looking down from a neighbouring height into the large
leper hospital of Hamel en Arade, tells us that he noticed
particularly two of the leper inmates sowing pease in the
field. “ The one had no hands, the other had no feet—
these members being wasted away by disease. The one
who wanted the hands was carrying the other who wanted
the feet upon his back, and he again carried in his hands
the bag of seed, and dropped a pea every now and then,
which the other pressed into the ground with his foot; and so
they managed the work of one man between the two.” The
duration of tubercular leprosy from its first commencement
to its fatal termination is usually about nine or ten years.
An endless variety of medical measures has been tried
with the hope of arresting or curing tubercular leprosy
with little or indeed no success. But though the disease
in individual subjects seems to be beyond the power of me¬
dical control, yet the malady, as affecting individual com¬
munities and kingdoms, has sometimes been more or less
completely arrested in its course and prevalence.
Leprosy still exists in Palestine and Egypt, the countries
from which we have the first accounts of it. On the re¬
puted site of the house of Naaman at Damascus, stands
at the present day an hospital filled with unfortunate pa¬
tients affected, like him, with leprosy. Outside the Zion
gate at Jerusalem there is still a leper village, the inhabi¬
tants of which yet speak to you “ afar off,” as they did in
the time of Christ. But the same disease is now almost
unknown at the present hour in the central and western
kingdoms of Europe, and yet in the middle ages it prevailed
in one and all of them, to a frightful extent. Laws were
enacted by almost all the princes and courts of Europe to
arrest its diffusion among their subjects; the pope issued
bulls with regard to the ecclesiastical separation and rights
of the infected; a particular order of knighthood was insti¬
tuted to watch over the sick; and leper hospitals or lazar-
houses were everywhere instituted to receive the victims of
the disease. I he number of these houses has certainly
been often erroneously stated, in consequence of a strange Leprosy
mistake committed by Ducange, in quoting from Matthew V*
Paris a passage in which that historian contrasts the respec¬
tive possessions belonging in the thirteenth century to the
Hospitalarii, Knights Hospitallers, or Knights of St John, as
they were termed, and the Knights Templars. The 19,000
lazar-houses in Christendom, as interpreted by Ducange,
mark in Matthew Paris’s work merely the number of manors
or commandaries of the Hospitalarii, and have no reference
whatever to leprosy or lazar-houses. But still, that an im¬
mense number of leper-houses existed on the Continent
at the period mentioned, is abundantly shown in many of
the historical documents of that age. Louis VIII. promul¬
gated a code of laws in 1226 for the regulation of the
French leper hospitals; and these hospitals were, at that
date, computed to amount, in the then limited kingdom of
France, to not less than 2000 in number {deux mills lepro-
series). They afterwards, as is alleged by Velley, even in¬
creased in number, so much so, that there was scarcely a
town or burgh in the country that was not provided with a
leper hospital. In his history of the reign of Philip II.,
Mezeray uses the same language in regard to the prevalence
of leprosy and leprous patients in France during the twelfth
century. Muratori gives a nearly similar account of the
extent of the disease during the middle ages in Italy ; and
the old Scandinavian historians amply prove that the in¬
habitants of the kingdoms of Northern Europe equally
became its unfortunate victims.
In England and Scotland, during the middle ages,
leprosy was as rife as it was on the neighbouring continent
of Europe. Almost every large town in Great Britain had
a leper hospital or village near it, for the reception and
separation of the diseased. Some cities were provided with
more than one. There were six leper hospitals in Norwich
or its immediate vicinity, and five at Lynn Regis.
The ancient leper hospitals of this and other countries
w'ere intended for the isolation of the infected, not for their
cure. They were charitable, hygienic, and religious, rather
than medical institutions. A few of them, indeed, were
well endowed, as that of Sherburne, Maiden-Bradley,
Burton lazars, and others in England, and Kingcase in
Scotland; but the greater part of these institutions were
supported by voluntary charity; and the principal subsis¬
tence of the inmates seems to have been derived from casual
alms. By some of the old forest laws of England, game
and animals found dead in the wood and fields were sent to
the nearest leper hospital; and in Scotland the fish left
putrid and unsold in the burgh markets, were adjudged to
them. The lepers were usually, by law, restricted as to the
districts and places in which they presented themselves to beg
for subsistence. According to the Scottish “ Burrow Lawes,”
it was ordained that lepers “ sail not gang fra dure to dure,
but sail sit at the ports of the burgh, and seek almas fra
them that passes in and furth;” and the Scottish parliament
of 1427 enacted, that they should not be allowed to sit and
beg, “ neither in kirk nor in kirk-yairde, nor other places
within the burrowes, but at their owrne hospital.” In the
leper hospital of Edinburgh, the inmates begged alter¬
nately for the general community, sitting for this pur¬
pose at the door of the hospital; but they w^ere ordered there
not to “cry or ask for alms, utherways then be thair clap¬
per.” For the inmates of this and other similar institutions
in this and other countries, were usually obliged by law to
warn those approaching them of the presence of an infected
fellow-mortal, by using a rattle or wooden clapper ; whilst,
at the same time, they held in their hand a “cop,” or re¬
ceiving dish, into which the charitable might drop their
alms.
In Great Britain, as on the Continent, those affected, or
supposed to be affected, with leprosy, were obliged to se¬
clude themselves from society, or enter a leper hospital,
L E P LEE 341
Leprosy, both by general custom and usage, and by direct legal
enactments in regard to them, made both by the court and
church. Besides, according to the tenor of various old
civil codes and local enactments in this and other countries,
when a person became affected with leprosy, he was con¬
sidered as legally and politically dead, and lost the privileges
belonging to his right of citizenship. The church also took
the same view, and on the day on which he was separated
from his fellow-creatures, and consigned for the remainder
of life to a lazar-house, they performed over and around the
yet living sufferer the various solemn ceremonials for the
burial of the dead, and the priest terminated the long and
fearful formula of his separation from his living fellow-
creatures, by throwing upon the body of the poor outcast a
shovelful of earth, in imitation of the closure of the grave.
The ritual of the French church retained, till a very late
period, the various forms, prayers, and ceremonies of social
isolation and banishment, to which the leper was thus sub¬
jected on the day of his living funeral. But in France, as
in most other parts of Central Europe, the ceremonial is no
longer required, as the malady has entirely, or almost en¬
tirely, disappeared. Isolated cases of it still occasionally
occur in some villages on the shores of the Mediterranean,
near Marseilles. It has been seen also during the pre¬
sent century in several sea-board localities in Spain;
and one of the Greek islands, at the present day, continues
to form a leper hospital. In Europe, however, the disease
is now principally confined to Norway; but in that small
kingdom, at the last census, there were found to be upwards
of 2000 of its population affected with leprosy ; and more
than one hospital yet exists for it in Iceland. In Great
Britain, no indigenous case of the disease was seen from
the end of the last century till a few years ago, when one
or two cases occurred in the old haunts of the disease among
the western islands of Scotland,and elsewhere; and it is quite
possible that it may yet revisit us again to some extent.
One or two hospitals for the reception of lepers have lately
been built in Canada.
Few or no physicians at the present day hold that leprosy
is a disease which spreads from the infected to the healthy
by contagion. But there is ample reason for believing
that the affection is often transmitted hereditarily from
generation to generation. Further, there are local or en¬
demic causes in certain parts of the world capable of pro¬
ducing it; as we see it sometimes attack Europeans who
have been residing for a succession of years in districts in the
West Indies, and other countries where the disease is preva¬
lent. What these endemic causes or conditions are, we know
not. The frequency of the malady in former times has been
confidently ascribed, by different authors, to peculiarities in
the diet, dress, personal and domestic habits, &c., of our fore¬
fathers ; and, certainly, their mode of life was, in many re¬
spects, specially calculated to generate derangements and
eruptions of the skin. The good old Saxon practice of bathing
appears to have become forgotten after the date of the Nor¬
man conquest; and in the subsequent history of these early
times, we might trace various indirect and direct causes of
cutaneous disease, in the close hovels and unventilated
dwellings of the period; in the habits of personal unclean¬
liness ; in the rough straw-bedding then generally in use,
and which “ hard lodging” Hollinshed describes as still
used by the servants in his day, “ with seldome (he adds)
anie sheete vnder their bodies to keepe them from the
pricking straws that run oft through the canvas, and rase
their hardened hidesand probably, also, in the articles
of diet on which the general community were obliged to
subsist, in times before the improvement of agriculture, and
the intioduction of that “ schamefull intemperance,” as old
boece fanatically terms it, “ when na fische in the see, nor
foule in the aire, nor beast in the wod, may have rest, but
aie socht heir and thair to satisfy the hungry appetit.” For
the investigation of this and other allied questions in the Lerida.
history of the production of our older epidemic and endemic v—
diseases, the works of Hollinshed, Strutt, Henry, Chalmers,
Macpherson, and others, contain a great and available mass
of materials. We will only, however, here pause to ob¬
serve, that we believe it would be no easy matter to point
out the exact differences in those physical conditions of the
inhabitants of this country, in former and in modern times,
which may have led to the prevalence of the disease amongst
our ancestors, and to its disappearance amongst us. If po¬
verty in diet, or personal wants, and filth and wretchedness
in their deepest degrees, could generate the malady, there
are certainly still numerous spots in continental Europe, and
even in our own land, where, unfortunately, all these ele¬
ments of disease are, in our own day, in full and active
operation, without any such specific result following. The
alleged causes are present without the alleged effects.
In order to obtain anything like satisfactory results of
the supposed physical causes of leprosy in Europe in
former times, the whole question would require to be tho¬
roughly investigated in connection with two others,—viz.,
the allied physical circumstances, firstly, of the inhabitants
of those countries in which the disease, in the same way,
formerly raged; and, secondly, of those districts of the world
in which it is still prevalent. It is only by following such
a line of inquiry that we could hope, if at all, to separate
mere matters of opinion from matters of fact, and at last to
obtain, by a kind of reasoning by exclusion, the exact phy¬
sical condition or conditions of a people that are capable of
originating or of spreading this particular species of disease.
The difficulty of the problem may be easily appreciated by
glancing for a moment at the diversified geographical loca¬
lities and circumstances under which the tubercular leprosy
is known at the present day to prevail. In modern times it
has been found existing, to a more or less limited extent,
in places the most distant and dissimilar in regard to tem¬
perature, climate, situation, soil, &c., as in Sumatra, under
the equator, and in parts of Iceland almost within the verge
of the arctic circle; in the temperate regions of both
hemispheres, as (in the southern) at Hamel en Arade, in the
Cape district, and (in the northern) at Madeira and Morocco ;
in the dry and arid plains of Arabia, and in the wet and
malarious districts of Batavia and Surinam ; along the shores
of Guiana and Sierra Leone, and in the interior of Africa,
Hindostan, Asia Minor, and Asiatic Russia; on the sea-
coast, as at Carthagena; and thousands of feet above the
level of the ocean, as on the table-land of Mexico; on
some of the islands in the Indian, Chinese, Caribbean, and
Mediterranean seas ; and at many sites far in the interior of
the continents of Asia, Africa, and America. (j. y. s.)
LERIDA (the ancient Ilerda), a town of Spain, pro¬
vince of Catalonia, situate partly on a hill, and partly on
the adjoining plain on the right bank of the Segre, here
crossed by a handsome stone bridge, 85 miles W. of Bar¬
celona. It occupies a position of great natural strength, and
was in ancient times an important military station. In the
Punic wars it took part with the Carthaginians, and suf¬
fered much from the Roman arms. In its immediate neigh¬
bourhood, Hanno was defeated by Scipio, b.c. 216; and it
afterwards became still more famous as the scene of
Caesar's arduous campaign against Pompey’s lieutenants,
Afranius and Petreius, in the first year of the civil war
(b.c. 49). Under the empire it was a very flourishing city,
and a municipium, but it subsequently fell into decay. In
the middle ages it again rose into importance, and in modern
times it has sustained numerous sieges. It was taken by
storm in 1707, during the war of the succession, and was
again taken by the French in 1810. Lerida is the second
city of Catalonia, and is strongly fortified. The principal
street is nearly a mile in length, and consists of one long line
of white houses, with red and green balconies, but the rest
342
L E It
L E S
Lenns 0f the town is generally crow ded and ill built. The old
II cathedral presents some beautiful Gothic, with other styles.
Lesbos. jt wag kupt by James I. of Aragon, but often repaired. It
is now first going to decay, having never been used for reli¬
gious purposes since 1707, when the French made it a for¬
tress. The new cathedral, built in the reign of Fernando
VI., is an imposing structure, of Corinthian architecture,
surmounted by two handsome square towers. Pop. 12,472.
LERINS, two small islands in the Mediterranean, off
the coast of France, about 2£ miles from the shore at
Cannes, and belonging to the department of Var. The
larger one, called Ste Marguerite, is well wooded, and is
defended by a fort which for many years was the prison of
the mysterious “ Man of the Iron Mask.” The other islet,
called St Honorat, contains the remains of a fortified con¬
vent. The former was the Leron, and the latter the
Lerina of the Romans.
LEROS, or Eero, a small island of the Grecian Archi¬
pelago, belonging to Turkey ; situate off the W. coast of
Anatolia, opposite the Gulf of Mandelyah, N. Lat. 37.10.,
and E. Long. 26. 50. It is irregular in shape, and moun¬
tainous, about 9 miles in length from S.E. to N.W., and
from 1^ to 4 miles broad. The valleys are very fertile,
and the harbours numerous and excellent. The chief pro¬
ducts are grain, olives, wax, honey, and wool. The towm
of Lero is situate on a bay on the E. side of the island.
Leros was originally colonized by Milesians about 500 b.c.,
and continued under the government of Miletus until that
city fell into the hands of the Romans. The goddess Ar¬
temis Parthenos had a temple here, the site of which is
said to be now occupied by a convent which bears her
name. Pop. about 2000.
LERWICK, a seaport town, capital of the Shetland
Islands, is situate on Bressay Sound, on the E. side of the
mainland. It has a very irregular appearance, consisting
chiefly of a number of rather poorly built houses, of from
two to three storeys in height, disposed along the winding
margin of the bay. Considerable improvements have,
however, been recently made, and it now contains many
good shops and substantial dwelling-houses. The only
public buildings are the parish church, a free church, and
two dissenting chapels. The fort was built in 1665 to
protect the fisheries, and repaired in 1781, when it was
named Fort Charlotte. Its bastions have 12 embrazures;
and it is now in charge of one or two artillerymen. It has
no manufactures of any extent. The harbour is very spa¬
cious, and is entirely landlocked by Bressay Island. The
import and export trade is considerable. The number of
vessels registered at the port on 31st December 1855 was
52, having an aggregate burden of 1581 tons. During
1855, 162 vessels, of 19,402 tons, entered; and 143 vessels,
of 18,235 tons, left the port. The chief exports are fish,
butter, hides, rabbit skins, and stockings. The inhabitants
are chiefly employed in the fisheries.
LESBOS (Mitylene), in Ancient Geography, a large
triangular island in the Aegean Sea, is situate about 7
miles from the coast of Mysia, at the mouth of the Gulf of
Adramyttium, between N. Lat. 38.58. and 39. 24. It has
three chief promontories,—Argennum on the N., Malea
(Zeitoun Bouroun) on the S.E., and Sigrium (Sigri) on
the W. On the S. W. coast, two creeks stretching far in¬
land form two spacious harbours,—the Portus Hieraeus
{Port Hiero), and the Euripus Pyrrhaeus {Port Caloni).
The island is in general hilly, and has three principal moun¬
tains,—Ordymnus in the W., Lepethymnus in the N., and
Olympus in the S. In ancient times it was famed for its
delightful climate and wholesome wines, for its agates and
variegated marble. It had six principal cities,—Methymna,
Mitylene, Arisba, Antissa, Eressus, and Pyrrha. Each of
these constituted an independent government, and had its
own distinct territories. The first two, the one on the N.
and the other on the E. shore, facing the mainland, are by Lesina
far the most important in the history of the island. Ac- II
cording to tradition, Lesbos wras successively peopled by Lesley,
Pelasgians, lonians, and Allians, under their leader Les- 0 D’
bus, who gave his name to the island. In the Pelopon- ^
nesian war, the Lesbians joined the Lacedaemonians ; and
as a punishment all their lands, except those of Methymna,
who had not acted in concert with the other cities, wrere
seized by the Athenians. Soon after the battle of Phar-
salia, it became a Roman province. It was the birthplace
of the musicians Terpander and Arion, and the philoso-
sophers Pittacus and Cratippus. Its chief glory, how¬
ever was derived from the lyric poetry of Alcaeus and
Sappho.
LESINA, an island in the Adriatic, belonging to the
circle of Spalatro in Dalmatia, separated from the peninsula
of Sabbioncello by the Straits of Narenta. It is about 40
miles long, by from 2 to 6 broad, chiefly mountainous, but
containing, especially on the N. side, a considerable area of
fertile arable land. Its climate is remarkably mild ; and it
produces wine and oil, figs, almonds, and other fruits. Corn
is also grown, though the quantity is insufficient for the
consumption of the inhabitants. It has considerable num¬
bers of sheep, and an anchovy fishery of some importance.
Pop. 12,000. The town of Lesina, situate on the S.W.
coast of the island, is the see of a bishop, and seat of a court
of justice. Pop. about 2000.
LESLEY, John, Bishop of Ross, was born on the 29th
of September 1527. In an account of his life, for which
he must himself have supplied the materials, he is said to
have been born of honourable parents. Knox has clearly
stated that he was the son of a priest; and the illegitimacy
of his birth is sufficiently ascertained from a dispensation
rendering him capable of receiving holy orders. Keith
conjectures, with great probability, that he was the son of
Gavin Lesley, rector of Kingusie, and likewise, as he sup¬
poses, official of that diocese.
Lesley prosecuted his studies in King’s College, Aber¬
deen, where he took the degree of A.M. In the twentieth
year of his age he became a canon of the cathedral churches
of Aberdeen and Elgin. Having afterwards studied at
Paris, Poictiers, and Toulouse, he returned to his native
country in April 1554, and was soon after appointed
professor of the canon law in the University of Aber¬
deen.
The progress of Protestantism, however, soon disturbed
his peace ; and in Knox’s history we have an account of a
conference between selected champions on either side, in
which Lesley is described as making a sorry figure. Lesley’s
version is, however, somewhat different, and it is even
affirmed that he and his associates were imprisoned in Edin¬
burgh. On the death of Francis the Second, Lesley was
despatched to France by the Earls of Huntley, Crawford,
Athole, Sutherland, and Caithness, the Archbishop of St
Andrews, the Bishops of Aberdeen, Moray, and Ross, with
the view of enlisting Mary in their cause. He attended
the queen on her return to Scotland, and was soon after
admitted an ordinary judge of the Court of Session, along
with a preferment to the abbacy of Lindores, and the
bishopric of Ross.
To the fortunes of the queen Lesley adhered with un¬
shaken fidelity; and he is supposed to have been the in¬
dividual who suggested an expedient for granting to the
Earl of Bothwell an indirect pardon for the murder of the
king; a crime to which there is the strongest moral evi¬
dence that the queen was an accessory, before as well as
after the fact. On her escape from Lochleven she sent
for him ; but the battle of Langside crushed her hopes; and
it was not till the following September that he visited her
at Bolton Castle, and afterwards bore an important part in
the negotiations between her and Elizabeth.
L E S
Lesley, The scheme of a marriage between Mary and the Duke
John, of Norfolk involved many of their adherents in danger and
—difficulties. Lesley was repeatedly examined before the
English queen and council, and was confronted with the
Earl of Leicester, who had likewise been implicated in the
same transaction. Under suspicion of being accessory to
the rising of the Earls of Northumberland and Westmore¬
land, he was placed under arrest, and was detained in cus¬
tody for six weeks before he was subjected to any exami¬
nation. Fresh evidence of his complicity in other transac¬
tions equally obnoxious soon after came to light, and after
a long course of sickness and misfortune he was sent to the
Tower, where he was subjected to the most needless cruelty,
as well as harassed by the most inquisitorial investiga-
t tions.
The condemnation of the Duke of Norfolk brought
Lesley into fresh troubles. Of all the most material charges
the proof seems in a great measure to have rested on what
are described as the bishop’s confessions, that is, the answers
emitted during his repeated examinations after he had
himself been taken into custody. On perceiving that their
designs were discovered, Lesley had become more commu¬
nicative, and had thus contributed to the ruin of a man
whom he had so much contributed to entangle in dangerous
schemes of ambition. While he was beset with such perils
in England, the Regent sent Nicholas Elphinstone with a
demand that he should be conveyed to Scotland; but the
Duke of Montmorency brought instructions from France
to intercede for his release ; and this application was so far
successful as to procure his removal to Farnham Castle, the
seat of the Bishop of Winchester. During his confinement
in the Tower, he had sought for consolation in study and
meditation. There he had composed his Pice Consola-
tiones ; and he was now permitted to transmit them to the
queen, who devoted some of her prison hours to the task of
translating a portion of it into French verse. He was in¬
duced to prepare a similar work, Animi tranquilli Muni-
mentum, which he sent her in October 1573. In the mean¬
time, he was not free from the apprehension of personal
danger; the Earl of Morton having twice sent a diplomatic
agent, Captain Cockburn, for the purpose of renewing the
demand for the delivery of his person. Having some re¬
liance upon his own eloquence, he now addressed to Eliza¬
beth a Latin oration for the recovery of his liberty; and,
whatever might be the effect of his classical pleading, he
was soon afterwards released from his tedious confinement.
The Bishop of Winchester, on receiving the necessary
order, conducted him to London on 11th November. On
the 16th he was brought before the council, at the house
of the lord treasurer, and was informed that he would be
permitted to proceed either to Scotland or France. The Eng¬
lish statesmen seem to have been much inclined to treat him
as they ultimately treated Mary herself; but although he
was subjected to a long and arbitrary imprisonment, the
ministers of Elizabeth never ventured to bring him to a
formal trial.
In January 1574 he landed in France, where he re¬
mained till the following year, when Mary sent him on a
mission to Gregory XIII., with the view of prosecuting
her scheme of conveying her son to a Catholic country,
and uniting him in marriage either with a daughter of the
Emperor of Germany or the King of Spain. Lesley, how¬
ever, was more usefully employed in preparing for the press
his general Jiistory of Scotland, which was published at
Rome in 15/8. About this time hopes were entertained
that through the influence of the Duke of Athole, the re¬
ligion of Rome might regain its old footing in Scotland,
and Lesley was despatched to the neighbouring coast of
France to gain intelligence of any symptoms of a spreading
change. He had the mishap, however, to be imprisoned
by mistake at Falsburg, and he arrived in France (April
L E S 343
1579) only to learn the death of the nobleman on whose Leslie,
exertions Mary and her party had built all their hopes. It Chari63*
was some consolation that the Cardinal de Bourbon, Arch-
bishop of Rouen, soon afterwards appointed him suffragan
and vicar-general of that diocese. In this station he con¬
tinued for the space of fourteen years, and, principally for
his intrepid conduct during the siege of Rouen, he was re¬
warded in 1594 with the bishopric of Constance, in Nor¬
mandy. But from this preferment he appears to have de¬
rived no advantage; and the unhappy situation of public
affairs in France induced him to seek another place of refuge.
Directing his course towards Flanders, he reached Chateau
d’Aussy, in the province of Artois, in the month of March,
and afterwards proceeded to Brussels, where he experienced
a friendly reception from the Archduke Ernest, governor
of the Netherlands. By this prince he was rewarded with
a pension of fifty crowns monthly, and the promise of a
bishopric. The death of Ernest, however, frustrated this
latter plan, and fast increasing sickness brought Lesley to
the grave before he could reap any advantage from the
favour of his successors. He died at Brussels 31st May
1596.
Of the works of Lesley we subjoin a catalogue:—
1. A Defence of the Honour of the right highe, mightye, and nolle Prin-
cesse Marie, Queene of Scotlande, and Dowager of France, imprinted
at London, 1569, 8vo. 2. A Treatise concerning the Defence of the
Honour, &c., made by Morgan Philippes, Bachelor of Diuinitie, an.
1570, Leodii, 1571, 8vo. This treatise he afterwards translated into
Latin, as well as into French. 3. Joannis Lcslcei Scoti, EpiscopiRossen.
pro Libertate impetranda, Oratio, ad serenissimam Elizabetham An-
glice Reginam, Parisiis, 1574, 8vo. 4. Joannis Leskei Scoti, Episcopi
Rossen. libri duo : quorum uno, Pice afflicti Animi Consolationes, di-
vinaque Remedia ; altero, Animi tranquilli Munimentum et Conser-
vatio, continentur, Parisiis, 1574, 8vo. 5. De Origine, Moribus, et Re¬
bus gestis Scotorum libri decern, Rorme, 1578 and 1675, 4to. 6. Con-
gratulatio serenissimo Principi et illustrissimo Cardinali Alberto Ar-
chiduci Austrice, &c., de fausto ac fdid ejus Adventu ad Regimen Pro-
vinciarum Inferior is Germanice, Bruxellae, 1596, 8vo. 7. A Discourse
conteyninge a perfect Accompt given to the moste vertuous and excel¬
lent Princesse, Marie Queene of Scots, and her Nobility, of his whole
Charge and Proceedings during the time of his Ambassage, from his
entres in England in September 1568, to the 2Qth of March 1572 ; in
Anderson’s Collections relating to the History of Mary Queen of
Scotland, vol. iii., Edinb. and Lond. 1727-8, 4 vols., 4to. 8. The His¬
tory of Scotland, from the death of King James I., in the year 1436,
to the year 1461, Edinburgh, 1830, 4to, edited by Thomas Thomson,
from a MS. belonging to the Earl of Leven and Melville.
LESLIE, Charles, the author of a Short and Easy
Method with the Deists, was born in 1650, in Ireland,
where his father was Bishop of Raphoe, subsequently Bishop
of Clogher. He graduated at Trinity College, Dublin. On
his father’s death, in 1671, removing to England, he enrolled
as a student of law in the Temple, but soon after turned
his attention to theology,'and received orders in 1680. In
1687 he was appointed Chancellor of Connor, and began a
long career of controversy by a debate with several popish
champions, chosen for their office by Patrick Tyrrel, whom
James II. had installed into the see of Clogher. His suc¬
cess on this occasion led him deeper into conflict with the
government, and by implication with the king. Strange as
it may appear, Leslie, although a bold advocate for the su¬
premacy of law, was himself a firm believer in passive
obedience ; and declining at the Revolution to take the
oaths of allegiance, was deprived of his benefice. In 1689
the growing commotions in Ireland induced him to remove
to England, where he devoted himself to the defence ot
non-resistance, in several controversial pamphlets, and
encountered, amongst other opponents, Burnet, Bishop of
Salisbury. His incessant activity also led him into con¬
troversy with the Quakers, Jews, and Socinians. His best
known work, A Short and Easy Method with the Deists,
appeared in 1699; and in 1706, led to his being charged,
somewhat paradoxically, with being vicious in argument,
in such a way as to favour the progress of Popery.
344
LESLIE.
Leslie, in 1709 he was sent by several Jacobite gentlemen of
Sir John. fortune on a mission to Bar-le-duc, to convert the Pre-
tender. That prince, however, foiled all his attempts, by
forbidding him to converse about religion either with him¬
self or with his priests. With the view of spreading Jaco¬
bite principles, Leslie addressed a letter from Bar-le-duc to
a member of parliament in London, which was printed and
circulated among the Jacobites in England. After the
failure of the Pretender’s expedition, Leslie accompanied
him into Italy. Returning to England in 1721, he removed
to Ireland, and died at Glaslough, Monaghan, 13th April
1722.
His principal works are,—A View of the Times, their
Principles and Practices, London, 1750; The Massacre
of Glencoe, London, 1703 ; The Axe laid to the Root of
Christianity, London, 1706; Querela Temporum, London,
1695 ; Theological Works, 7 vols., Oxford, 1832, contain¬
ing, among other controversial treatises, his Short and Easy
Method with the Deists.
Leslie, Sir John, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the
University of Edinburgh, the son of a poor joiner or cabinet¬
maker, was born at the village of Largo, in the county of
Fife, on the 16th of April 1766. In his early youth, being
of feeble health, he was sent, when four years old, to a school
kept by an old woman, and afterwards to a higher school.
He received his first lessons in mathematics from his father
and his eldest brother, and a slight knowledge of Latin at
a school in the neighbouring town of Leven, which he at¬
tended for six months. The first person of any note who
observed his precocious attainments, was Mr Oliphant, who
became minister of Largo about the time when the boy had
reached his eleventh or twelfth year. Struck with his know¬
ledge of mathematical and physical science, he kindly lent
him some scientific books; and he also strongly urged him,
but without avail, to resume the study of Latin, for which
he entertained at this time a strong aversion. He also be¬
came known to Professors Robinson and Stewart of Edin¬
burgh ; and by their advice he was, in his thirteenth year,
sent to the University of St Andrews to study mathematics
under Professor Vilant. On examination by the professor,
he was found already qualified for the second or senior
class; and at the close of the session he obtained a prize,
and attracted the notice of the Earl of Kinnoull, then chan¬
cellor of the university, who proposed to his father to de¬
fray the expense of his son’s education, on the condition
that he should study for the Church. The proposal was
readily embraced; and as a knowledge of Latin was now
imperative, he commenced doggedly to study it, and, by the
aid of a private teacher, qualified himself for entering the
Humanity class. He also seems to have got rid of his strong
dislike to the language; for no trace of it remained in his
after life, and he is extremely fond of introducing classical
quotations in his writings. His continued success during his
second session secured the continued patronage of the chan¬
cellor, who invited him to Dupplin Castle. About the same
time began his acquaintance with Playfair and Dr Small.
In 1783 or 1784, he quitted St Andrews, and, along with
his fellow-student, James Ivory, proceeded to Edinburgh,
where, though he formally entered the Divinity Hall, he
contrived to devote his first session to the sciences, parti¬
cularly to chemistry. In fact, he seems early to have relin¬
quished all thoughts of the Church: a resolution, perhaps,
hastened by the death of his patron, the Earl of Kinnoull,
soon after his removal to Edinburgh. He continued to study
here till the close of the session of 1787; and, as is cus¬
tomary with students of his limited means, devoted part of
his time to private tuition. Acting as tutor to a young man
nearly related to Adam Smith, he thus became known to
that philosopher, who treated him kindly, and occasionally
favoured him with directions as to his own pursuits. His
first essay, “ On the Resolution of Indeterminate Problems,”
composed about this time, was read to the Royal Society of Leslie,
Edinburgh by Mr Playfair, in 1788, and published in their 8ir John.
Transactions for 1790.
In 1788 he accompanied, in the capacity of tutor, two
young students of the name of Randolph, to Virginia. Here
his agreeable and profitable sojourn was brought to an end,
after the lapse of little more than a year, by the death of
the father ot his young friends ; and after visiting New York
and Philadelphia, he returned to his native place towards
the close of the year 1789.
From some letters to his family, written about the time
of his leaving America, he seems to have meditated trying
his fortune in India, probably as a civil engineer; a notion
that recurred afterwards without leading to any results. In
January 1790, carrying, among other letters of recommen¬
dation, one from Adam Smith, he repaired to London, chiefly
for the purpose of ascertaining what success he might expect
from a course of lectures on natural philosophy; and the
information he received soon satisfied him, as he says in a
letter to one of his brothers, that “ rational lectures would
not succeed.” He therefore employed himself for some time
in writing for the Monthly Review, and in executing literary
jobs delegated to him by his countryman, Dr William Thom¬
son, author of the continuation of Watson’s History of Philip
the Third. In April 1790, he became tutor to his former
fellow-students, the younger Wedgewoods of Etruria, in
Staffordshire, where he remained till the close of 1792, in
the enjoyment of a liberal salary, and of society at once
agreeable and intelligent. He was at the same time assi¬
duously employed in experimental investigations, and in
completing a translation of Buffon’s Natural History of
Birds, which he had previously undertaken for a London
bookseller. It was published in 1793, in 9 vols. 8vo. Though
executed with fidelity and vigour, it was valued by himself
in after life solely for having, by the sum which it procured
him, laid the foundation of that pecuniary competency which
his industrious and prudent habits soon enabled him, in a
moderate degree, to attain.
In 1794, after a sojourn of some months in Holland,
during which he acquired the German language, he returned
to Largo. Here he remained for about two years, devoted
to experimental researches, in the course of which he in¬
vented and perfected his Differential Thermometer: a con¬
trivance suggested during his attempts to construct an ac¬
curate Hygrometer, and the parent, as it may be called, of
his subsequent inventions,—the Llygroscope, Photometer,
Pyroscope, iEthrioscope, and Atmometer. At a later pe¬
riod, when his name had attained a high degree of celebrity,
he was accused of having plagiarized this invention, if not
from Van Helmont, who died in 1644, at any rate from
John Christopher Sturmius, who died about sixty years later.
But it is nowr, we believe, allowed, that this is just one of
those curious cases so frequently found in the history of
science, in which the inventor of a contrivance, partially
anticipated by another, shows, by his skilful and fruitful
employment of the disputed invention, how much he sur¬
passed, and how little he needed the help of, him whom he
is ungenerously supposed to have robbed of his legitimate
honours.
In the spring of 1796, Mr Leslie accompanied his friend
Mr Thomas Wedge wood on a tour through the N. of Germany
and Switzerland, during which, as on all similar occasions,
he was no less observant of the social, moral, and economical
condition of countries he visited, than of their geological,
meteorological, and physical aspects. On his return, he
was probably engaged in his experimental pursuits, and
divided his time chiefly between London and Largo, to
which place, and to the society of his family, he ever was
fondly attached. Early in the summer of 1799, he set out
with an old college acquaintance on a tour through Den¬
mark, part of Norway, and Sweden, and returned to Eng-
Leslie,
Sir John
the Absorbent Powers of the Different Earthsand “ Ob¬
servations and Experiments on Light and Heat, with Re¬
marks on the Inquiries of Dr Herschel on these objects.” A
series of more extended investigations, which he carried on
while residing at Largo, resulted, in 1804, in the publication
at London of his Experimental Inquiry into the Nature and
Propagation of Heat; a work which may be considered as
a development of his essay on Heat and Climate, read at
two successive meetings of the Royal Society of London
in 1,93. 1 he originality and boldness of the peculiar doc¬
trines of the Inquiry, and the number of new and impor¬
tant facts disclosed by its ingenious experimental combi¬
nations, conspired to render it an object of extraordinary
interest in the scientific world ; and, indeed, it must ever be
viewed as constituting an era in the history of that branch
of physical science which forms its subject. The Royal
Society of London unanimously adjudged to its author the
Rum ford Medal, appropriated as the reward of discoveries
m that recondite province. Although paradoxical in many
of its theories, defective in its arrangement, and over-ambi¬
tious in its style, this work is almost unrivalled in the entire
range of physical science, for its indication of vigorous and
inventive genius.
Pievious to this period of his life, Leslie had twice ap--
peared as a candidate for an academical chair; first in the
University of St Andrews, afterwards in that of Glasgow,
and on both occasions without success. Early in the year
1805, he became a candidate for the mathematical chair at
Edinburgh, vacant through the promotion of Playfair to the
chan- of Natural Philosophy. His principal competitor, Dr
1 ho mas Macknight, a man of respectable attainments, was
one of the ministers of Edinburgh, and was supported by the
majority of the city clergy. These, blinding perhaps their
better judgment by an excessive zeal for the cause of their
fellow-minister, fastened on one of Leslie’s notes, in his
essay on Heat, in which, after complimenting Hume’s phi¬
losophical talent, he says, “ that the unsophisticated notions
of mankind are in perfect unison with the deductions of
logic, and imply nothing more at bottom, in the relation of
cause and effect, than a constant and invariable sequence.”
Alleging that the town-council were bound, according to
the fundamental charter of the college, to act with the ad¬
vice of the ministers \n electing professors, they preferred a
foimal protest, accusing Leslie of having, in this note, “ laid
a foundation for rejecting all the argument that is derived
horn the works of God, in proof of His Being or Attributes ”
.he patrons neglected their advice ; and Leslie, to the "reat
joy of all liberal minds, was, in March 1805, elected to the
Mathematical chair. The case, however, was carried before
the General Assembly; and after a memorable debate of
two days, was dismissed, on the 23d of May, “ as vexatious.”
When Leslie was informed of the charge, lie exculpated
nimself in a very pointed letter, which was laid before his
opponents, by stating, that, his observations “ referred en¬
tirely to the relation between cause and effect, considered
as an object of physical examination.”1 This- was a suffi¬
cient defence of his orthodoxy, and ought to have stopped
the prosecution before the Assembly.
Entertaining lofty notions of the dignity and utility of his
new vocation, he discharged its duties with great ardour.
Though the bent of his genius lay more to physics than to
pure mathematics, he had cultivated the study of geometry
with kindred relish, and with an admiration," in particular,
of the analytical investigations of the ancient geometers,
vrluch led to his happiest essay in that science. Of his
Course °f Mathematics, the first volume, comprising Ele-
on Geometrical Analysis, has been extolled by the most
unsparing critics of the first part, and was speedily trans¬
lated into French and German. He reproduced it, in 1821,
w ith considerable emendations, in the second volume of his
llathematical Course, which also contains the Geometry of
Curve Lines. I he want of a third volume* on Descriptive
Geometry and the Theory of Solids, which was part of his
original design, left his Mathematical Course incomplete.
An abridgement of the first volume appeared in 1828, under
the title of Rudiments of Plane Geometry, including Geo¬
metrical Analysis, and Plane Trigonometry. In connec¬
tion with his mathematical works, we may here mention the
profound and learned treatise, published in 1817, on the
Philosophy of Arithmetic,—a republication, with consider-
, £ alterations and additions, of one of the numerous ar-
tides contributed by him to the Supplement of this Ency¬
clopaedia.
Notwithstanding the labours of the Mathematical chair,
Leslie continued his experimental inquiries; and in June
1810, some experiments previously suggested in the course
of his researches with his Hygrometer, led him to the dis¬
covery of that beautiful process of Artifical Congelation,
by which he was enabled to produce ice, and even to freeze
mercury at pleasure. This process consists in a combina¬
tion of the powers of rarefaction and absorption, effected by
placing a very strong absorbent under the receiver of an
air-pump. Some endeavours w^ere made, as in the case of
the Differential Thermometer, to transfer the merit of this
new discovery to a gentleman of the name of Nairne. The
claim for him was founded on a paper published in 1777,
m the Transactions of the Royal Society of London; from
which it appeared that he was acquainted with the facts, that
evaporation produces cold, and that sulphuric acid, the absor¬
bent employed by Leslie, imbibes moisture. The best vin¬
dication of Leslie’s claims is furnished by the admitted fact,
that with Nairne’s paper before them for a long course
of years, the scientific world remained utterly ignorant of
any such process till the date of Leslie’s discovery ; and
even after his description of that process the most distin¬
guished experimentalists of the capital failed in their trials
of it, till it was performed there by himself in the ensuing
summer! °
In 1811 he performed the experiment in London before
a meeting of some members of the Royal Society, and
others. I he discovery was announced in the same year,
in the Memoirs of the French Institute ; and the process
itself was afterwards exhibited in presence of that body, by
M. Pictet and M. Gay-Lussac. His experiments and views
on this subject in 1813 he explained at considerable length
in a small volume published at Edinburgh, and entitled, A
Short Account of Experiments and Instruments depending
on the Relations of Air to Heat and Moisture. Closely
connected with the subject of this treatise, was an ingenious
paper, published in 1818, in the Transactions oil the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, under this title : On certain Impres¬
sions of Cold transmitted from, the higher Atmosphere; with
a description of an Instrument adapted to Measure them.
The Althrioscope is the instrument here alluded to.
In the autumn of 1814, Leslie travelled through France
and the Netherlands, where the ever-fresh beauty of the
scenery, combined with the meeting of such men as Hum¬
boldt, Laplace, Berthollet, and Baron Zach, tended to
render that short tour of six weeks more than usually
agreeable. J
The celebrated Supplement of this Encvlopsedia, com¬
menced in 1815, and completed in 1824, was greatly in-
VOL. XIII.
1 See Professor Stewart’s Short Statement, p. 36, and Report of the Debate in the General Aeeemblv, p. 16.
2 x
346
Leslie,
Sir John.
L E S
L E S
debted to Leslie for his valuable contributions, and for the
ever-ready counsel which his extensive and minute infor¬
mation could afford to its editor. He also contributed seve¬
ral articles to the Edinburgh Revieiv, the principal of which
are those on the Physical and Chemical Memoirs of the
Society of Arcueil; on the History of the Barometer ; on
Delatnbre's work on the Arithmetic of the Greeks; on Von
Buck’s Travels ; on Humboldt’s Physical view of the Equa¬
torial Regions, and on His Travels ; and on the Attempts to
discover a North- West Passage to Asia.
In the year 1819, on the death of Playfair, he was pro¬
moted to the chair of Natural Philosophy, a sphere more
propitious to his peculiar genius. One of the first cares of
his new situation was the extension of the apparatus for
that greatly enlarged series of experiments which he thought
necessary for the illustration of the course. This, indeed,
was an object from the first to the last year of his incum¬
bency ever present to his mind; and it was through his
exertions that the means of experimental illustration, in the
Natural Philosophy Class, were for the first time made
worthy of the place. As a teacher both of mathematics
and of natural philosophy, he wanted that sequence of ideas
and perspicuity of exposition which can alone lead an un¬
disciplined intellect through complicated doctrines, and
thus attain the highest success in tuition. Still, his numer¬
ous experiments, the celebrity of his name, and his well-
known extraordinary powers, concurred, with great simplicity
and affability of manner, to secure the respect of his stu¬
dents, and to sustain the fame of the University. In 1823
he published, chiefly for the use of his class, his Elements
of Natural Philosophy ; being the first volume of a course
intended to extend to three, and to exhibit a comprehen¬
sive view of the principles of that congeries of sciences
which we are accustomed to class under the above term.
A second edition of this volume, the only part of the plan
ever completed was published in 1829, with corrections and
additions.
In the summer of 1823, he accomplished his long-che¬
rished design of visiting Italy, and especially Rome; but
these objects of his tour appear to have disappointed his
expectations. Two years after this, another tour which
he made on the Continent, seems to have been confined to
France, the Netherlands, and Holland, which for the most
part he had traversed before.
The only important production of Mr Leslie’s latter
years, and his crowning benefaction to this work, was his
Discourse on the Progress of Mathematical and Physical
Science during the Eighteenth Century ; which constitutes
the Fifth Dissertation in the first volume of this present
edition. His arrangement of his materials, and his view of
the whole subject, is comprehensive, vigorous, and spirited;
while the greater ease and perspicuity of its style render
this the most agreeable of all his writings.
The volumes of the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal,
published between 1824 and 1829, contain some small con¬
tributions from him, entitled Remarks on the Light of the
Moon and of the Planets ; Enumeration of the Instruments
requisite for Meteorological Observations; Letter on the
Goniometer; and Observations on the Theory of Compres¬
sion, applied to discover the Internal Constitution of our
Earth. Even these small treatises display all the character¬
istic boldness and poetical dress of his speculations.
Early in the year 1832, on the recommendation of Lord
Brougham, then Lord High Chancellor, he was created,
along with several other eminent men of science, a Knight
of the Guelphic Order. He was also a member of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, and in 1820 had been elected a cor¬
responding member of the Royal Institute of France, the
only distinction of the kind that he valued.
For a few years before this period, he had passed all his
intervals of leisure at Coates, a small estate which he had
purchased near Largo, and which he loved to decorate and
improve. In the last days of October, whilst engaged in
superintending some improvements on his grounds, he ex-
posed himself to wet, and caught a severe cold. 1 his was
followed by erysipelas in one of his legs, which, owing to
his contempt for medicine, and an excessive confidence in his
strength and durability, he neglected, and again imprudently
exposed himself in the fields. He soon afterwards became
dangerously ill, and expired at Coates, on the evening of
Saturday, Nov. 3, 1832, in the sixty-seventh year of his age.
Surpassed by a few of his contemporaries in the same
walks of science, in profundity of understanding, in philo¬
sophical caution, and in logical accuracy, he rivalled them
all in that creative faculty, which discovers often by an
intuitive glimpse the hidden secrets of nature, and in that
subtilty and reach of discernment which seizes the finest
and least obvious qualities and relations of things, and mini¬
sters to new and unexpected combinations of her powers.
Possessing the powers of judgment and reason in less effi¬
ciency, he was often led, in his speculations, to results glar¬
ingly inconsistent. His credulity, often shown in affairs of
ordinary life, induced him too often to indulge in unwar¬
rantable applications of mathematical reasoning, to subjects
altogether foreign to that science. For example, he finds
an analogy between circulating decimals and the length¬
ened cycles of the seasons ! False, however, though many
of his theoretical notions may be, his exquisite instru¬
ments, and his experimental combinations, will ever attest
the utility, no less than the originality of his labours, and
continue to act as aids to farther discovery. His informa¬
tion, ample and accurate, not only in science, but in the
general range of subjects, and especially in Scottish histoiy,
becomes more remarkable from its co-existence with his
great power of invention,—a union by no means common.
His conversation, unlike his writings in point of expression,
was simple, unaffected, and correct. It had no wit, little
repartee, and no fine turns of any kind; but it had a strongly
original and racy cast, and was replete with striking remarks
and curious information. His moral character was slightly
blemished by a tendency to avarice, unbecoming in a phi¬
losopher, and by an occasional reluctance to acknowledge
kindred merit; but these defects were more than counter¬
balanced by his child-like simplicity, social disposition,
warmth of affection, and, unchanging serenity of temper.
He was never married. In person he was somewhat under
the middle size, and corpulent, but strong and well limbed;
and though his face was large and florid, there were about
his eyes and forehead the distinct traits of no ordinary man.
There is a bust of him by Joseph; a portrait, of the ordi¬
nary size, taken a few years before his death, by Wilkie;
and a head, drawn at an earlier period, by Henning, which
presents a striking likeness.
See Sixth Prelim. Dissertation, chap, vi., § 5.
Besides the works already mentioned, Leslie wrote Ob¬
servations on Electrical Theories, published, in 1824, in
the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal; and the articles in
the seventh edition of this Encyclopaedia, on Achromatic
Glasses; Acoustics; Aeronautics; Andes; Angle, and
Trisection of Angle ; Arithmetic ; Atmomeler ; Barome¬
ter ; Barometrical Measurements; Climate; Cold and
Congelation ; Dew ; Interpolation ; and Meteorology.
LESLIE, a manufacturing town and borough of barony
of Scotland, county of Fife, on an eminence on the left
bank of the Leven, 10 miles S.W. of Cupar. It is neatly
built, consisting chiefly of one street, and contains a parish
and free church, and several dissenting chapels. The in¬
habitants are chiefly employed in flax spinning, bleaching,
cotton spinning, &c. Pop. (1851) 1342.
LESSING, Gotthold Ephraim, was born 22d January
1729, at Camenz, in Saxony, where his father, a pious and
staunch Lutheran, was minister. He was the eldest son
L eslie
Lessing.
Lessing,
Gotthold
Ephraim,
of a numerous family, and received his early education at
home. At the grammar school of Meissen,'where he re-
^ ceived the surname of “ admirable,” he distinguished him-
self, not merely by extensive reading, but by clear and
independent thought. A paper sent to his father, at the
new year of 1743, when he was only a boy of fourteen
and which was entitled, On the Similarity of one Year to
another, discusses such high themes as the possibility of a
golden age, and the doctrine of human deterioration. From
Meissen he v/as sent to the University of Leipsic, where
his parents designed that he should study theology. The
lectures of Ernesti and Gellert, however, were spent on
mm in vain. Along with Christoph Mylius, his early bosom
friend, and several other gay companions, he conceived a
violent passion for the drama, and gave himself up to fen¬
cing, dancing, the theatre, and debt. Some torn pages of
a comedy, however, found their way to Camenz in his box
at Christmas, and the young dramatist was ordered home.
1 o soothe his mother’s anxieties, he laid his comic studies
aside, and kindly wrote her a sermon. At Easter, he re¬
turned to college, with the view of studying medicine ’r but
his old passion broke out anew, and carried everything before
it. Finding his debts now grudgingly paid, and the sup¬
plies in hourly danger of being cut off, he followed his friend
Mylius to Berlin, where they began a dramatic quarterly
(Beitrage zur Historic des 1 heaters'), which, however, only
reached its fourth number. So little conscious was he of
the peculiar service which he was destined to render to the
literature of his country, that we find him about this time
busily engaged in translating Klopstock’s Messiah into
Latin.
At the request of his parents, he resided for some time
at Wittemberg with his brother, who was studying for the
church; but he soon returned, unchanged in the bent of
his genius, to Berlin, where, with Moses Mendelssohn and
Nicolai, he plunged into a life of incessant literary activity.
With the former he wrote his essay on Pope as a meta¬
physician (Pope als Metapkysiher), and with both he started
the Bibliotkek der Schbnen Wissenschaften. In 1755 he
removed from Berlin to Leipsic, whence he intended to
travel into England; but he got no farther than Holland,
and he retraced his steps to Leipsic soon after. In 1759
appeared those Letters on Literature, written in conjunction
with Mendelssohn and Nicolai, which may be said truly to
form an epoch in German literature. In 1760 Lessing went
to Breslau, as government secretary to General Von Tauen-
zien, probably with the view of recruiting his health by
change of scene, but more directly to fill his purse, which,
even in its emptiness, had been generously open to his bro¬
ther s wants. A new passion for gambling, however, robbed
him of all, except his taste for study. After the drudgeries
of his office were over, the busy writer oi'Laokoo?i might be
seen bending over the faro-table, the perspiration starting
from his. brow, as he rushed into the thankless game with a
strange impetuosity of mingled despair and superstition. In
1769 he went to Hamburg, as director of the theatre;
but his love for the stage was now too cold to be rekindled,
and most of his time was spent in antiquarian research.
Here he wrote hi& letters to Klotz, and here he formed his
intimacy with the pastor Gotze, with whom he afterwards
fought Ins most memorable polemic. All his exertions in
this capacity scarcely kept poverty at bay, and he had serious
lougits of quitting Germany, to beg or starve more plea-
Srbly;lRome> when his friend Ebert procured him the
office of librarian of the Wolfenbuttel Library. This lifted
him to a sudden affluence of 1,90 per annum, with a free
house, and firewood. Of the rare treasures of the library
he has himself given an account; and he was scarcely in-
stalled in office, when he stumbled on a manuscript, by
Berengar of Tours, in which he defends his opinions against
Lanfranc; and its publication set at rest the doubts and
LESSING.
denials of his existence, long eagerly circulated in the
Church of Rome. --«■
In 1774 began the publication of the Wolfenbuttelsche
Fragmente, a series of papers by an unknown hand, in which ^
the writer attacks the historical basis of Christianity with a
phalanx of arguments, which have since been spread out
into a thin line by Strauss. These papers were long attri¬
buted to the pen of the librarian himself; but Samuel Rei-
marus, on his deathbed, set the question at rest by claiming
them for his own. After a short and unsatisfactory visit to
Italy and Vienna, Lessing returned to Wolfenbuttel; and,
in 17/6, he married Madame Konig, a lady whom he had
betrothed at Hamburg, in hope of better days to come.
His happiness, however, was not of long duration. She
died in childbirth, in the spring of 1778, and left him to
drown his grief in incessant literary toil. His old friend
Gotze, who had stepped into the arena with a pamphlet
against the Fragments, was the first to feel the edge of his
sharp, clear, nervous prose; and so fierce was the assault,
that the ministry of Brunswick, in alarm, prohibited the
prolongation of the contest. Lessing, however, continued
for some time to evade the prohibition by printing at Berlin,
but hit at length upon a more deadly expedient. When a
youth at college, he had been bold enough to introduce
upon the stage scenes and personages foreign to the drama
of his country. Per Freigeist; Per Mysogyn (the woman-
hater); and Pie Juden, are among the titles of plays written
by him when a student at Leipsic. These were followed,
in later life, by Miss Sarah Sampson; Emilia Galloti;
Philotas; Minna von JBarnhelm; and several others. Un¬
willing now to leave the sacred retreat of Wolfenbuttel,
a martyr to a single mode of controversy, he dressed his
opinions for the stage, and, in the mask of Nathan the Wise,
spoke his estimate of Christianity with Brahminic calmness
to the world. In this dramatized theology, he has probably
given to his country a more powerful impress than any of
its mighty thinkers from Luther to Schleiermacher. The
Education of the Human Pace (Erziehung des Menschen-
geschlechts), and one or two minor works, all posthumous,
were the only contributions which he made, after its publi¬
cation, to the progress of opinion.
With slow and leaden steps, exhausted and cheerless,
Lessing sank into the grave. His few hours of activity were
alternated with long and dreary fits of somnolency, from
which he struggled in vain to free himself, till death some¬
what prematurely closed his career, 15th February 1781.
His works have been several times collected. The best
edition is that by Wendelin von Maltzahn, Leipsic, 1852,
and not yet (1857) completely published. The principal
sources ot information in regard to his life, are to be found
in a short sketch by his nephew, and in the voluminous but
somewhat undigested biography of Danzel.
Lessing stands as one of the great landmarks in the lite¬
rary history of Germany. He followed Klopstock in evok¬
ing a national literature, which retained its elastic freedom
till Goethe once more subjected it to foreign chains. While
Klopstock, however, only pointed the way, Lessing led the
advancing host; and the sublime tranquillity of the one was
soon lost in the restless activity of the other. Lessing can¬
not be called a poet, and he is perhaps scarcely more entitled
to be called a philosopher. He is more like a border chief
treading restlessly the confines of both with fearless famili¬
arity and a sublime but solitary lawlessness. Freely to rove
in every path of human inquiry was to him a more royal pre¬
rogative than to wield the sceptre of a fixed dominion. In
his athletic scepticism we see his superstitious horror of rest
on its tiagic side ; but even in his most playful dramas and
critiques there is a suppressed dialogue in every sentence, an
undertone of conflict, generally faint as a dream, but swelling
often into a wild and painful distinctness. In this respect he
betrays a hidden nature immeasurably nobler than Voltaire,
347
Lessing,
Gotthold
348 L E S
L’Estrange whose careless wit Lessing despised while wielding at will
|| a keener wit of his own. No exposition of his opinions
Leuca. can more adequately represent the spring of his life than a
v—saying which he repeated more than once, “ that if God
should hold truth in his right hand, and in his left, doubt,
or the chase after truth, with the danger of wandering to
and fro for ever in its search, and should bid him choose
between the two, he would grasp the left hand and beg for
doubt, with the words, ‘ Father, give me this—pure truth is
for thee alone” and no comment can be more striking than
the fact revealed by Jacobi, that when body and mind were
both failing, the author of the Education of the Human
Race was secretly resting his faith on the pantheism of
Spinoza.
L’ESTRANGE, Sir Roger, a political writer of the
seventeenth century, was the youngest son of Sir Hamond
L’Estrange, of Hunstanton Hall, Norfolk, and was born at
the family seat in 1616. After receiving a liberal educa¬
tion, he commenced his public career by attending Charles I.
on his expedition against the Scots in 1639. During the
civil war he was a zealous royalist, and in 1644, having re¬
ceived a commission from the king, appointing him gover¬
nor of Lynn, he endeavoured to wrest that town by sur¬
prise from the parliamentary forces, but was betrayed by
two of his accomplices and lodged in prison. He was tried
before the city court-martial, was condemned to death as a
traitor, and sent to Newgate. As he had friends, however,
in both houses of parliament, he was reprieved ; and after
lying in prison for nearly four years, was allowed to escape
beyond the sea. Availing himself of the Act of Indemnity
that had been passed in 1632, he returned to England in
1653; and after loitering about Whitehall for some time,
and making personal application to Cromwell, he was al¬
lowed to live unmolested. This tampering with the ruling
party was afterwards a galling weapon in the hands of his
enemies, and was perhaps one of the reasons why the only
reward he received from Charles II., after his restoration,
was the invidious office of licenser ol the press. Never¬
theless, in several pamphlets which he published about this
time, and in the Public Intelligencer, a newspaper wdiich
he started in 1663, he was a slavish supporter of the crown.
His other paper, the Observator, begun some time after
the Popish plot, was the organ of the Tory party, then on
the ascendant, and was designed to exculpate the king from
the charge of leaning towards Popery. On the accession
of James II., he was knighted for “ his unshaken loyalty
to the crown,” and sat in the parliament of 1685. When
the king propounded his doctrine of toleration, L Estrange,
hesitating for the first time to agree with royalty, discon¬
tinued his Observator. At the Revolution, he was de¬
prived of the office of licenser of the press ; and shortly after¬
wards becoming imbecile, he died on the 11th of Decem¬
ber 1704.
His political pamphlets, intended as they were, to suit
the taste of the common people, swarm with vulgarisms
and coarse and abusive epithets. He wrote also transla¬
tions of the following works:—Josephus Works, Ciceros
Offices, Seneca's Morals, Erasmus's Colloquies, JEsop's
Fables, Quevedo's Visions, Bona's Guide to Eternity, Five
Love-Fetters from a Nun to a Cavalier.
LETTERKENNY, a market-town and river port of
Ireland, county of Donegal, on the Swilly, 18 miles S.W.
of Londonderry. It consists of a single street and a square,
and contains an Established church, a Roman Catholic, and
several Presbyterian chapels; a national and other schools,
a fever hospital, dispensary, and bridewell. Considerable
trade is carried on, chiefly in agricultural produce, at the
weekly market on Friday, and in exportation by the Swilly.
Pop. (1851) 2180.
LEUCA, Capo di {Salentinum Promontorium), a cape
on the coast of Naples, province of Terra di Otranto, forming
LEU
the extreme S.E. point of the Italian peninsula. N. Lat. Leucadia
39. 48., E. Long. 18. 22. .11
LEUCADIA, originally part of the mainland of the
Greek continent, forms now one of the Ionian islands, being ~ v
separated from the coast of Acarnania by a narrow artificial
channel. The original inhabitants of the peninsula were
Teleboae and Leleges, but it was afterwards peopled by
Acarnanians. In the seventh century before Christ, a new
town called Leucas, a name derived from its white cliffs,
was founded by the Corinthians under Cypselus, in the
N.E. of this island near the isthmus. These colonists cut
the channel through the isthmus, converting the peninsula
into an island. This canal was afterwards choked up with
sand, so as to prevent the passage of ships, which had ac¬
cordingly sometimes, during the Peloponnesian war, to be
conveyed across the isthmus. We learn from Polybius,
that it was in this state in b.c. 218, but it was subsequently
restored, and a stone bridge thrown across it,—one probably
of the many works of Augustus, for facilitating communi¬
cation throughout his extensive empire.
The Leucadians had three ships at the battle of Salamis,
and, like most of the Dorian states, sided with the Lace¬
daemonians in the Peloponnesian war. In the contest be¬
tween Philip of Macedon and the Romans, it took part with
the former, but was reduced by the Romans after a gallant
defence. It long continued to be a place of considerable im¬
portance, and was very early made the seat of a Christian
bishopric. In a.d. 1467 it was seized by the lurks, by
whom it was ceded to the Venetians in 1 718. In 1810,
the fort, called Santa Maura, was taken from a French gar¬
rison which had occupied it, after a siege of several weeks,
by a detachment of English troops. I he fort, which was
originally built by the lurks, was ruined by an earthquake
in 1825, and has not since been repaired. I he island still
continues in the possession of the English.
Leucadia is about 20 miles in length, by from 5 to 8 in
breadth, for the most part of a rugged and uncultivated
aspect, but rather more fertile and populous in the southern
districts. It consists of a range of limestone mountains, the
highest ridge rising about 3000 feet above the level of the
sea, terminating in a bold headland on the N.E., whence
the coast runs in a S.W. direction to the celebrated pi'°_
montory of Sappho’s Leap, the ancient Leucates. 1 he
island is visited by a rather serious earthquake about once -
in twenty years. Slight shocks occur almost every month.
The present chief town of Leucadia is Amaxichi, situate
a mile and a half to the N. W. of the ancient city of Leucas.
It is an ill-looking town, built in the most unhealthy part
of the island, on the edge of a large lagoon ; the houses, on
account of the frequency of earthquakes, being seldom
more than two storeys high. Its population is about 4000.
LEUCIPPUS, the founder of the Atomic Theory in
Greek philosophy. The period in which he lived is un¬
known, but is generally supposed to have been in the fifth
century before the Christian era. Elis, Abdera, and Miletus,
have been severally assigned by different authors as his
birthplace. According to Diogenes Laertius, he was
the teacher of Democritus. By others he has been called
the disciple of Pythagoras, of Melissus, and of Zeno the
Eleatic. Aristotle, however, is not alone in asserting that
the first principles of the atomic theory, though evolved
by Leucippus, were particularly expounded by Democri¬
tus. In explaining the creation of the universe, they
supposed that the two great principles in nature were
a vacuum and a plenum. The plenum consisted of atoms
infinite in number, and, as their name implies, indivisible.
As a necessary consequence of their being many and not
one, the atoms floated in the midst of the vacuum. Pos¬
sessing, also, as their essential qualities, motion, solidity,
and form,—in virtue of the first they began a rotatory
movement; in virtue of the second they were prevented
LEU
Leuctra from merging into one simple body ; and in virtue of the
U third, those of similar figure attracted each other. The
Lhoeckn" atoms that were sPlierical> and consequently more move-
, °eC r > able, meeting together formed fire; those that were not
spherical formed, in their aggregations, the other three
elements, air, earth, and water. The subtlest and most
refined of the fire-atoms constituted the soul. Life, too,
having been identified with respiration, was explained as
being merely the flux and reflux of these spherical atoms.
Here Leucippus seems to have stopped ; but Democritus,
following out these principles to their natural results, arrived
at his system ot Psychology, and at his theory of the First
Cause, which he rather obscurely csl\\& Destiny. The opi¬
nions afterwards became identified with the doctrines of
Epicurus. See Epicurean Philosophy.
LEUC FIl A, a village of Bceotia, situate between Thes-
pia and Platiea, in the territory of the former, celebrated
as the scene of the great battle between the Spartans, com¬
manded by Cleombrotus, and the Thebans, under Epami-
nondas, in which the former were defeated, and the supre¬
macy of Sparta finally overthrown. See Sparta.
LEUK, a village of Switzerland, canton of Valais, on
the right bank of the Rhone, 15 miles E.N.E. of Sion. Seven
miles N. of this village, at the head of the Dala torrent,
and 4500 feet above sea level, are the Baths of Leuk, much
resorted to by invalids. They are supplied with water from
some hot springs which issue from the earth here at a
temperature of about 124° Fahrenheit. The waters are
slightly saline, and owe their value more to the mode of
using them than to any intrinsic property of their own. Pop.
of village, 620.
LEUSDEN, John, a celebrated biblical writer, was
born at Utrecht in 1624. After he had studied languages
and mathematics at Utrecht, he repaired to Amsterdam to
perfect his knowledge in Hebrew, by conversation with the
rabbin. Here his attainments in oriental languages soon
became so conspicuous, that in 1649 he was appointed
Professor of Hebrew in his native city. After gaining the
reputation of being one of the best Hebrew scholars of his
day, he died in 1699.
His most important works are,—Philologies Hebrceus,
editio tertia, Utrecht, 1686; Philologus Hebrceo-Mioctus,
editio quarta, 1739; Philologus Hebrceo-Grcecus, editio
secunda, 1685 ; Onomasticum Sacrum, Leyden, 1665 and
1684; Claris Hebraica et Philologica Veteris Testament^
Utrecht, 1682; Novi Testamenti Claris Grceca cum
Annotationibus Philogicis, Utrecht, 1672; Compendium
Biblicum Veteris Testamenti, 1694; Compendium Grce¬
cum Novi Testamenti, London, 1680; Jonas Illustratus,
Utrecht, 1652 and 1692 ; Joel Explicatus per Paraphra-
sim Chaldaicam, Utrecht, 1657.
LEU1SCHAU, a town of N. Hungary, capital of the
county of Zips, an affluent of the Hernad, 120 miles N.N.E.
of Pesth. The town is ill laid out, with narrow and irregular
streets. The chief public buildings are the town-house, con¬
taining a gallery of paintings, the church of St Jacob, with
an organ said to be the largest in Hungary. There are a
Roman Catholic and a Protestant gymnasium, the latter
the oldest in Hungary. Mead and linen are made here;
and a trade in fruit, saffron, and hops is carried on to some
extent. Pop. 5500.
LE UWENHOECK, Anthony Van, a famous natu¬
ralist, was born at Delft, in Holland, in 1632. At first he
was well known as a grinder of optical glasses; and though
destitute of a liberal education, was induced to use the ex¬
cellent microscopes which his skill had made, in examining
t le textuies and fluids of animal life. His success in ana¬
tomy and physiology was soon so marked, that an account
ot some of his discoveries was published through the influ-
ence of Dr Grew in the Philosophical Transactions of the
Eoyal Society of London, of which he became a Fellow
LEV 349
in 1680. His numerous contributions to the records of Leuze
that society are comprised between Nos. 94 and 380. In 11
1697 he was elected a corresponding member of the Aca- Lcvea*
demy of Sciences at Paris; and in the following year, his
fame had become so far-spread, that Peter the Great, when
passing through Delft, sent for him and requested to see
his “ admirable microscopes,” and the wonderful secrets
which they revealed. The naturalist showed him the cir¬
culation of the blood in the tail of an eel. Leuwenhoeck
died at his native place on the 26th of August 1723.
One of his most important investigations was that by
which he discovered, in 1690, that the arteries and veins
were continuous, an opinion, however, which he had con¬
tradicted in a memoir communicated to the Boyal Society of
London in 1686. The theory of the fermentation of the
blood then universally held, he refuted by proving expe¬
rimentally, that there were no bubbles ofair in the blood, and
therefore there could be no fermentation. He experimented,
but with little success, on the form of the globules of the
blood, and likewise on the brain and nerves, which he showed
in 1717 to be of fibrous texture, with blood-vessels inter¬
spersed between the fibres; a view which has since been
discovered to be very nearly correct. Another object of
his study was the crystalline lens, the different coats of
which he described with accuracy, illustrating his descrip¬
tions with figures. He also examined the spermatic ani¬
malcules, and asserted that he had discovered them; a claim
which was contested with Ludwig, Hamm, and Hartsaeker.
Others of his investigations ended in mistakes, owing partly
to his deficient erudition, and partly to a certain native
stubbornness, which led him to consider a confession of error
to be degrading.
Leuwenhoeck contributed 26 papers to the Memoirs of
the Academy of Sciences. A collection of his works,
printed (for the most part separately) in Dutch at Delft and
at Leyden, were translated into Latin under the title of
Arcana Naturce delecta, Delft, 1695-1699. The best col¬
lection of his works, translated into Latin, consists of his
Correspondence, 2 vols. 4to, Leyden and Delft, 1719; and
Arcana, 2 vols. 4to, printed at Leyden in 1722.
LEUZE, a manufacturing town of Belgium, province of
Hainault, on the Tournay and Ath Railroad, 12 miles E.
of the former. The town is well built, and its streets are
clean. It manufactures cotton stuffs, linen, and hosiery ;
andjias breweries, bleaching and dye works. Pop. (1850),
LE\ AN 1 (Italian Levante, the East), a term originally
used by the Venetians and Genoese to designate the coasts
of the Mediterranean E. of Italy; but now commonly ap¬
plied to the coasts of Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt, on the
Mediterranean. See Mediterranean.
LEVANTE, a Sardinian province. See Genoa.
LEVAN TO, a seaport and fortified town of the king¬
dom of Sardinia, on the E. shore of the Gulf of Genoa, 12
miles N.W. of Spezia. The town, though dirty, contains
several fine edifices, the chief of which is the church conse¬
crated in 1463, and built after the style of the Genoa cathe¬
dral. Wine and oil are exported hence in considerable
quantities. The former is made at Vernazza, an adjoining
village. Pop. 4600.
LEVEE (French, lever, to rise), is the name given to
the ceremonial of receiving visitors on state occasions. The
name is derived from the fact of the visit taking place in
the morning, i.e., shortly after rising. A levee may be for
gentlemen only, or for ladies only; whereas at a “ drawing¬
room ” both may be present.
LEVEL, and Levelling. See Surveying.
LEVEN, a burgh of barony and sea-coast town of Scot¬
land, Scoonie parish, Fifeshire, on the Firth of Forth, and
at the mouth of the Leven Water, 18 miles N.N.E. of
Edinburgh. T lax spinning and the manufacture of linen
350
LEV
LEV
Leven and sailcloth form the chief occupations of its inhabitants.
|| There are also iron-foundries, bleaching-works, brick and
Levites. tile works, an ochre manufactory, and a rope-walk, with
v>—collieries and stone quarries in the vicinity. The harbour
is supplied with a quay, and admits vessels of 300 tons at
high sprin" tide. By railway the town has communication
with Edinburgh, Perth, and Dundee. Pop. (1851) 2083.
Leven, Loch, an arm of the sea on the W. coast of Scot¬
land, branching off from Loch Linnhe eastwards, and sepa¬
rating the counties of Argyll and Inverness. It is 12 miles
in length, and from half a mile to 1 mile in breadth.
Leven, Loch, a lake of Scotland, Kinross-shire. See
Kinross-shire.
LEVITES, the descendants of Levi, through his sons
Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, whose descendants formed
so many sub-tribes or great families of the general body.
In a narrower sense the term Levites designates the great
body of the tribe employed in the subordinate offices of the
hierarchy, to distinguish them from that one family of their
body—the family of Aaron—in which the priestly functions
were vested.
In the wilderness the office of the Levites was to carry
the tabernacle and its utensils and furniture from place to
place, after they had been packed up by the priests. In
this service each of the three Levitical families had its
separate department; the Gershonites carried the hangings
and cords of the tabernacle, for which they were allowed
two wains, each drawn by four oxen. The Kohathites
carried the ark, the table of shew-bread, the candlestick,
the two altars, and such of the hangings as belonged to the
sanctuary; for this they had no wains or oxen, the whole
being carried upon their shoulders. The Merarites had
charge of the substantial parts of the tabernacle—the boards,
pillars, bars, bases, &c., and also all the ordinary vessels of
service—for which they were allowed four wains and eight
oxen. In this manner they proceeded in their journeys;
and when they settled in a place, and had erected the
tabernacle, the different families pitched their tents around
it in the following manner: the Gershonites behind it on
the W., the Kohathites on the S., the Merarites on the N.,
and the priests on the E. They all assisted Aaron and his
sons in taking care of, and attending on the Tabernacle,
when it was pitched ; but they were allowed to take no part
in the services of the altar.
This was the nature of their service in the desert: but
when they entered the land of Canaan, and the tabernacle
ceased to be migratory, the range of their service was con¬
siderably altered. While part attended at the tabernacle,
the rest were distributed through the country in the several
cities which were allotted to them.
In the time of David, when the number of the priests and
Levites had much increased, a third and very important
alteration was effected. Like the priests, the Levites were
also divided into twenty-four courses. In the Book of
Chronicles we have four times twenty-four courses of
Levites mentioned, but all their employments are not dis¬
tinctly stated. The most conspicuous classification is that
of twenty-four courses of porters and servitors, and twenty-
four of musicians.
The office of the porters was to open and shut the doors
and gates of the temple courts, at which they also attended
throughout the day to prevent the entrance of any harmful
or unclean person or thing. They had also the charge of
the treasure-chambers in their respective wards; for we find
four of the chief porters holding this trust in 1 Chron. ix. 26.
Besides acting as porters and servants during the day,
we learn that they were also the guards of the temple.
Minute particulars with reference to the second temple are
given by the rabbinical and other authors; and, so far as
they are correct, which they seem to be in substance, they
may be supposed to apply equally well to the first temple,
from which they must have been in the main transmitted.
The whole number of guards to the temple at night is
stated to have been twenty-four, of whom three were
priests. These are described as having been under an
overseer, called “ the man of the mountain of the house.”
Thus one division of the Levites was employed as porters
during the day, and another as guards during the night: a
third division served as musicians. A catalogue of these is
given in 1 Chron. xxv. 1-9, according to their employments;
and another, according to their courses, in 1 Chron. xxv.
9-31. On grand occasions, when a full band was formed,
the family of Heman sung in the middle (1 Chron. vi. 33-38),
the family of Asaph on the right hand (vi. 39-43), and the
family of Ethan on the left. The ordinary place for the
musicians was at the east end of the court of the priests,
between the court of Israel and the altar.
It seems that the singers could never be under twelve,
because that number was particularly mentioned at their
first appointment (1 Chron. xxv. 9); but there was no
objection to any larger number. 'Ihe young sons of the
Levites were, on such occasions only, allowed to enter the
court of the priests with their fathers, that their small voices
might relieve the deep bass of the men (Gemar. tit. Succah,
ch. v.); and for this authority was supposed to be found in
Ezra iii. 9.
At thirty years of age they became qualified for every
part of the Levitical service. This was under the taber¬
nacle ; but when the temple was built, and bodily strength
was less required, the age was reduced to twenty. After
fifty they were no longer called upon to serve as a matter
of obligation; but they might attend if they thought proper,
and perform any usual service which was not considered
burdensome. Thus, in the wilderness, they ceased at that
age to carry any part of the burdens when the ark and
tabernacle were removed. In addition to the more menial
duties before described, the Levites doubtless assisted the
priests in the important work of the education of the people.
The subsistence of the Levites was provided for in a
peculiar manner. It consisted, first, of a compensation for
the abandonment of their right to one-twelfth of the land of
Canaan ; and, secondly, of a remuneration for their services
in their official capacity as devoted to the services of the
sanctuary. The territorial compensation lay in the 48 cities
which were granted to the whole tribe, including the priests.
These cities were scattered among the different tribes, as
centres of instruction, and had 1000 square cubits, equal to
above 305 English acres, attached to each of them, to serve
for gardens, vineyards, and pasturage. It is obvious, however,
that this alone could not have been an adequate compensa¬
tion for the loss of one-twelfth of the soil, seeing that the
produce of 305 acres could not in any case have sufficed for
the wants of the inhabitants of these cities. The further
provision, therefore, which was made for them must be
regarded as partly in compensation for their sacrifice of
territory, and as a remuneration for the dedication of their
services to the public. This provision consisted of the tithe,
or tenth of the produce of the grounds allotted to the other
tribes. The simplest view of this payment is to regard it,
first, as the produce of about as much land as the Levites
would have been entitled to if placed on the same footing
as the other tribes; and also as the produce of so much
more land, which the other tribes enjoyed in consequence
of its not having been assigned to the tribe of Levi.
When first numbered after the Exodus, the Levites
amounted to 22,300, of whom 8580 were fit for service.
Just before entering Canaan, they had slightly increased,
viz., to 23,000. In David’s time there ivere 38,000 fit for
service (1 Chron. xxiii. 3-5), which, at the same ratio as
above, would give a total of about 96,000. After the revolt
of the ten tribes, they joined themselves to Judah and
Benjamin. The restoration of the house of David in Joash
Levites.
LEV
LEW 351
Leviticus was mainly effected by the Levites (2 Chron. xxiii. 1-11).
II After the edict of Cyrus, only about 350 of them returned
^ Lew1^ y to Jerusalem. During the captivity they seem to have
lost, in a great measure, a proper sense of their obligations
and duties, for many ot them married idolatrous wives
(Neh. x. 9-13). In the apocryphal books the Levites are not
spoken of, and only a few notices of them occur in the New
Testament, where they are also called scribes and lawyers.
Godwyn’s Moses and Aaron; Witsius, Dissert. II. de
Theocrat. Israelitar.; Jennings’ and Brown’s Antiquities ;
Carpzov, Apparat. Grit.; Saubert, Comm, de Sacerdot. et
Sacris Hcebr. personis ; Gramberg, Krit. Gesch. der Reli-
gionsideen des Alien Test.
LEVITICUS. See Pentateuch,
i LEWES, a parliamentary borough and market-town of
England, county of Sussex, on the Ouse, here crossed by a
stone bridge, 8 miles N.E. of Brighton, and 50 miles S. of
London by railway. It stands on a declivity sloping down
to the water side, and is surrounded by hills. Tffe inhabi¬
tants are principally employed in rope-making, brewing,
tanning, and lime-burning, as well as in the grain, malt, and
cattle trade. By the River Ouse, which becomes navigable
2 miles above the town, goods are sent down to Newhaven
for shipment to London and other places.
Lewes is one of the oldest towns in England, and nume¬
rous remains of Roman art have been excavated in the
town and neighbourhood. It was strongly fortified by the
Saxons; and after the Norman conquest, when it fell to
the lot of William de Warren, son-in-law of William L, a
castle, the ruins of which occupy a commanding position
above the town, was erected to keep the inhabitants in awe.
Earl de Warren also founded a monastery here, now a ruin.
In May 1264, the famous battle between Henry III. and
the barons under Simon de Montfort was fought in the
vicinity, when the latter were victorious. Lewes has re¬
turned two members of parliament from the time of
Edward L Pop. (1851) 9533.
LEWIS, the northern portion of the largest and most
northern of the islands of the outer Hebrides, lying off the
W. coast of Scotland, from which it is separated by the
Minch, a sea about 30 miles across. The name Lewis
(Celtic, Leodhus) is probably derived from Leod or Leodus,
son of Thorfin, the last Orcadian viceroy that swayed the
Norwegian viceregency of this island. Leodus allocated
Lewis to his eldest son Torquil, and Harris to his younger
son Norman. These were the first M‘Leods, and the an¬
cestors of the Siol Torquil and Siol Tormaid, who so long
held these respective properties. Harris, the southern por¬
tion of this island, is much the smaller of the two, and is
appended to Inverness-shire, whereas Lewis forms part of
Ross-shire. The boundary line between the two divisions
extends from Loch Resort on the W. to Loch Seaforth on
the E., where the island is only about 6 miles in breadth.
Lewis is triangular in form, having its base towards Harris,
while its apex extends northward, and terminates in the
Butt. It is 45 miles in length, by 15 in average, and 30
in extreme breadth; between N. Lat. 58. and 58. 33., and
W. Long. 6. 10. and 7. 10. Area, 417,460 acres. The
coast is deeply indented by branching arms of the sea,
many of which are very capacious, and afford secure anchor-
age. On various parts ot the coast and in these estuaries
are numerous small islands which yield excellent pasturage.
The chief promontories of Lewis are the Butt, Tiompan,
Chicken, Kebuck, and Gallan Heads—all bold and pre¬
cipitous cliffs rising abruptly from the sea to a great
height.
Lewis and Harris are distinct not only in name but also
in their general features. The latter consists mainly of an
irregular group of comparatively lofty mountains, some of
them rising to the height of 3000 feet, rugged and precipi¬
tous on their eastern sides, but generally verdant on their
western declivities. That portion of Lewis bordering upon
Harris partakes of the same mountainous character, attain¬
ing a height of 1400 feet in the Peak of Swaineval, and 900
in the Hill of Roineval. Alluvial straths of fine pasturage,
and vales of romantic beauty interrupt and variegate this
hilly district, which may be regarded as terminating at a
line extending from the head of Loch Roag on the W., to
that of Loch Shell on the E. Northward from this line Lewis
presents a somewhat monotonous undulating expanse of
table-land, interrupted only by a few elevations, the loftiest
of which, Monach, does not exceed 810 feet. Throughout
the interior, hill and dale are alike clothed by vast accumu¬
lations of peat-moss, varying from 2 to 18 feet in depth—
studded with numerous lakes, and intersected bv silent
streams and quiet rivulets. This dark-grounded interior is
bordered all along the sea coast by a fringe of arable land,
varying in breadth from half a mile to 3 miles, and dotted
over with populous villages. The arable soil consists gene¬
rally of decomposed moss, varying in quality and fertility
according as it is intermixed with and based upon siliceous
or shelly sand, alluvial till, gravelly loam, or marly clay.
T he fundamental substratum of Lewis consists of gneiss.
On the W. shore it is traversed by veins of granite, and
assumes various curves and contortions from granitic dis¬
turbance. Near the Butt there are rock masses of orange-
red felspar containing laminar scales of argillaceous schist,
and beds of green compact felspar. Partial deposits of
limestone occur at several places on the N.E. coast.
Quantities of bog iron ore protrude in many places, and its
prevalence is indicated by the ferruginous impregnation of
numerous chalybeate springs. In Harris, Dr Macculloch
found those rather rare minerals, Sahlite, and dark green
Coccolite, in serpentine imbedded in limestone.
1 he climate of Lewis is mild and equable, and its humi¬
dity is much under the average of that of Scotland. From
its flatness and the absence of high hills, it often escapes
the contents of condensed clouds ; and the entire surface is
exposed to the action of the dry N.E. winds which prevail
in spring, and often till midsummer, when the moors are
thoroughly exsiccated. The great mildness of the climate,
however, is no doubt chiefly due to the influence of the
gulf stream. I he temperature, even in the interior, rarely
continues long at the freezing point, and snowfalls are of
very brief duration. Observations taken for nearly four
years at Stornoway, in N. Lat. 58. 12., give the mean an¬
nual temperature of the—
.... , _ . Average an-
xear. Winter. Spring. Summer. Autumn. nual fall of
Rain.
46° 5' 40° 8' 40° 5' 51° 1' 51° 6' 30-2 inches.
I he extremes of temperature rarely extend over more
than 30 degrees from 35° to 65°. The animal kingdom in
Lewis is especially rich in the ornithological department.
I he swan, grey goose, rain-goose, eider-duck, teal, widgeon,
heron, snipe, woodcock, red grouse, ptarmigan, are among
the most important. Otters and seals abound on the rivers
and shores ; and deer and hares are common.
The most remarkable ancient remains are the so-called
Druidical standing stones, or Temple of Callanish, perhaps
the most perfect in Britain. They are 43 in number, ar¬
ranged in a cruciform manner, with a circle at the intersec¬
tion. The long leg of the cross extends N. and S. 600
feet, and the transverse line at right angles measures 200
feet. Both measurements include the circle, which is 63
feet in diameter, consisting of 12 stones, ranging from 7 to
9 feet in height, with a central obelisk 15 feet high. The
N. extremity of the long leg of the crucifix is formed into
an avenue by two parallel lines of 16 obelisks, generally
from 5 to 6 feet in height, the loftiest being 13 feet. They
all rest on a causewayed base, in which they are firmly im¬
pacted by small stones. On a lower eminence, half a mile
from the Callanish lemple, there is another cluster of
Lewis.
352
LEWI S.
Lewis, standing stones disposed into two concentric circles. They
—v/—^ are nearly uniform in height, but are deeply imbedded in
growing moss. In its vicinity there is another irregular
semicircular group of erect stones; and throughout the
country there are various specimens, single and in pairs,
of those standing obelisks, probably erected as tombstones
or cenotaphs, commemorative of the downfall or achieve¬
ments of noted warriors. Rounded conical tumuli and
monumental cairns are abundant. Belonging to a later age
are many remains of circular duns or round towers, the most
perfect of which are those of Bragar and Carloway. The
latter was originally upwards of 30 feet high, constructed of
unhewn stones, with a double dry wall, containing spiral
passages, from which the besieged could aim their arrows at
assailants. It is very broad at the base, gradually narrow¬
ing and tapering towards the summit. We find also here,
particularly on the W. coast and towards the Butt extre¬
mity, numerous small chapels and religious cells, generally
insignificant in size, but strongly built of stone, cemented
by a shelly mortar, which still retains its hardness and tena¬
city. The most perfect in design and architectural integ¬
rity is M‘Leod’s Chapel at Oreby, dedicated to Saint Mo-
lonach, and which was till recently much frequented by in¬
curables for the healing virtues believed to be inherent in
its consecrated precincts.
Since Lewis came into the hands of the present pro¬
prietor, Sir James Matheson, in 1844, large sums have
been expended in carrying out improvements on the estate,
as well as ameliorating the physical, social, and intellectual
condition of the people. In the short space of seven years,
the sums so spent equalled the purchase price of the pro¬
perty, L.190,000. The erection and endowment of educa¬
tional institutions; the introduction of improved modes of
cultivation, and improved breeds of horses, sheep, and cattle;
and the institution of cattle and horticultural shows, are
among the means that have been adopted. Besides improv¬
ing and repairing 80 miles of roads formerly constructed,
the present proprietor has formed about 100 miles of new
roads, with several bridges. The great proportion of the
arable land is in the hands of small crofters holding allot¬
ments varying in extent from 3 to 8 acres ; and to show
how much the inhabitants are dependent for food on exter¬
nal supplies, it may be mentioned, that in the seven months
from 1st January to 31st July 1855, no less than 18,932
bolls of meal, costing about L.20,825, were imported, and
that in consequence of only a partial failure of the potato
crop of 1854. The total failure of the potato crop of 1846
entailed an outlay (borne, in the first instance, solely by
the proprietor) of L.29,079 for meal alone. To obviate, in
some measure, the evils arising from over-population, the pro¬
prietor has from time to time furnished free means of transit
to other parts to such as were willing to accept of them ;
and, accordingly, in 1851-52 and 1855, about 1800 souls
left the island for various parts of Upper and Lower Canada.
An opportunity of free transit is now annually provided.
Great efforts are being made to introduce scientific modes
of cultivation ; and, with that view, about 2000 acres of pre¬
viously untilled moorland and meadow pasture have been
reclaimed, and a great portion of it converted into large
model-farms, held by skilful lowland tacksmen, who exhibit
the practical value of the most improved modes of cultivation.
At the cattle shows, prizes are annually adjudged to the best
specimens of every variety of farm stock and produce.
Lewis is divided into four parishes, each having its own
church, school, and manse. Of late years the districts of
Cross and Knock have been converted into quoad sacra
parishes, having 2 churches. There are 8 Free churches, 5
of which have settled pastors, while the other 3 are sup¬
plied by probationers; and there are several Free Church
schools in each parish,— the whole island numbering 38,
showing an annual attendance of 2505 pupils. The few
Roman Catholics on the island receive periodical visits from
an ecclesiastic of that persuasion. Here, as in most parts
of the Highlands of Scotland, only a small fraction of the
people remained with the Established church at the Dis¬
ruption. More than 19-20ths of the inhabitants of Lewis
belong to the Free Church.
The fisheries are the most important branches of industry
carried on here. In 1855, 294 boats were engaged in the
herring-fishery at the various stations; 35,227 barrels of
herrings were cured, and 4000 taken and consumed un¬
cured, the probable value of which was about L.56,840.
In that year 903 tons of cod, ling, or hake were cured, and
250 tons taken and consumed uncured, the probable value
being about L. 17,043. The number of fishermen and
boys employed in manning the boats was 2982 ; persons
employed in gathering bait, baiting lines, as carters, &c.,
2900. An improved slip for the launching of boats is now
in the course of erection, under the direction of the pro¬
prietor and Scottish Fishery Commissioners, at the port of
Ness, the great centre of the Lewis deep-sea fishing. The
quantity and estimated approximate value of the exports
from Lewis, in 1855, were as follows:—
Articles. Quantity. Value.
Smoked Haddocks barrels 800 L.1,600
Herrings  „ 40,000 60,000
Cattle  ,....  No. 1,700 6,800
Horses   ,. „ 100 400
Sheep and Lambs  „ 4,000 3,000
Eggs   „ 1,507,400 2,617
Cod and Ling fish     tons 900 13,500
Salmon  boxes 400 800
Lobsters  No. 41,900 1,396
Rags, Bones    tons 80 800
Wool     ,, 90 5,400
Whilks  ,, 22 110
Oil   „ 20 800
Hides   No. 650 450
Old Cordage and Canvastons 30 420
Total,
L.98,093
Stornoway, the only town of Lewis, and the capital of
the Western Hebrides, is situate at the head of a bay on
the E. side of the island. It is well and regularly built,
and its streets are lighted with gas. The most prominent
of its buildings are the parish church, Free church, and
Episcopal chapel; several of the schools, jail, and the ma¬
sonic lodge. On an eminence, overlooking the town, is the
magnificent mansion of the proprietor, recently erected in
the castellated Tudor style. The castle grounds are exten¬
sive, and laid out with great taste. The industrial female
seminary in Stornoway is a neat and commodious building,
erected and endowed by the proprietor and his lady in
1847, at a cost of more than L.2000. It is attended by
about 150 girls of the poorer classes, who are instructed in
Ayrshire flowering needlework, domestic millinery, and
laundry work, as well as the elemen tary branches of educa¬
tion. The masonic lodge contains elegant assembly rooms,
reading rooms, and a public library. Stornoway has a
branch office of the National Bank of Scotland, custom¬
house, a savings hank, Sailors’ Home Hospital, and gas and
water works. There are also commodious piers, and a
building-dock, with a Morton’s patent slip, worked by steam,
and fitted to haul up ships of 800 tons burden. The
entrance to the harbour is marked by a lighthouse and
beacon. Near Stornoway there is an extensive tilery, for
manufacturing bricks and tiles, erected at considerable ex¬
pense by the proprietor. He has also introduced the tussac
grass pertaining to the Falkland Islands, which appears to
thrive remarkably well in the vicinity of the Castle of Stor¬
noway. On 31st December 1855, the number and tonnage
of vessels registered as belonging to the port were,—not
above 50 tons burden, 38 ; tonnage, 989: above 50 tons,
12 ; tonnage, 1245. During that year the number and
LEW
Lewis, tonnage of vessels that entered and left the port were,—
Matthew coastwise, sailing vessels, inwards, 98; tonnage, 4564: out-
Gregory wards, 38; tonnage, 1418: steam-vessels, inwards, 85; ton-
lexington na£e’ 16’961: outwards, 87; tonnage, 17,102;—colonial
' < k ' trade, sailing vessels, inwards, 2 ; tonnage, 63;—foreign
trade, sailing vessels, inwards, 13 ; tonnage, 832: outwards,
42; tonnage, 2119. Pop. of Stornoway (1841), 1354;
(1851), 2440. Pop.ofLewis(1755), 6386; (1831), 14,541;
(1841), 17,037; (1851), 19,711.
LEWIS, Matthew Gregory, author of The Monk,
was the son of the Deputy Secretary-at-War, and of a daugh¬
ter of Sir Thomas Sewell, Master of the Rolls, and was
born at London in 1773. While attending Westminster
school, he early evinced that taste for theatrical displays,
f and for books of romance and mystery, which his after
years so inveterately confirmed. After studying for a
short time at Christ Church, Oxford, he repaired to Ger-
many, with the design of acquiring the language of that
country ; and there the perusal of the drama, and the wild
fictions of the Germans, quickened his own invention, and
he produced, in 1795, his most celebrated work, The Monk.
Full of supernatural horrors, and scenes of blood and de¬
moniacal cruelty, this novel presented a feature of fresh
interest to the English public, and became speedily popu¬
lar ; but his coarse and minute handling of the lower pas¬
sions verged on licentiousness, and nearly brought him
under the punishment of the law. The fame thus acquired
enabled him to obtain a seat in parliament for Hindoo ;
but his talents were not those of a statesman, and he never
ventured to address the House. His play of the Castle
Spectre, produced on the stage in 1797, rivalled the repu¬
tation even of his Monk. An interview which he had with
Sir Walter Scott at Edinburgh, in 1798, led to the con¬
tribution of several noble ballads by the latter to the Tales
of Wonder, published by Lewis in 1801. On the death
of his father, Lewis inherited a laige sum of money, and
plantations in the West Indies, which he visited in 1815.
After securing the affection of his slaves by his kindness,
and evoking many public demonstrations of their regard,
he returned to England in 1816. But the mismanagement
of his affairs recalled him to his estates in the following
year ; and on his homeward journey he died of fever in the
Gulf of Florida, in July 1818.
His novels and numerous plays all exhibit the same ex¬
travagant taste for deeds of horror and mystery as his
Monk ; and their popularity, great on their first appearance,
speedily declined on the advent of a purer public taste. His
poetry, which consists chiefly of songs and ballads, inserted
in his prose works, is deficient in passion and imagery;
but along with elegance and lucidness of diction, possesses
a finished and a musical flow of versification, which drew
forth the warm commendation of Sir Walter Scott. The
best, however, of all his productions is his West India
Journal, written during his first voyage, and published in
1833, a work which evinces a talent in describing man¬
ners, that might have earned for its authoramore during fame
than that of his early days. His discretion, good feeling,
and unselfish generosity, are shown to great advantage in
uis Life and Correspondence, \)\\h\\s\\e<\ in London in 1839.
Next to the Monk, his most popular novel is the Bravo
of Venice, 1804, which has since been reprinted. Of his
numerous plays, Hie Castle Spectre alone is still acted.
His ballads of Alonzo the Brave and Burandarte are the
most popular of his poems.
LEXICON. See Dictionary.
LEXINGTON, a town of the United States of N.
America, capital of Fayette county, Kentucky, is situate
on Town Pork, a feeder of the Elkhorn, 65 miles E of
Louisville by rail. Its streets are well laid out, and the
surrounding country, which is undulating and highly fer¬
tile, contains many elegant mansions. The chief public
YOL. XIII. 1
LEY
edifices are,—Transylvania University, the State Lunatic
Asylum, the public library, and churches. Besides these,
there is a graceful monument erected to the memory of
Henry Clay, who resided for some time at Ashland, a short
distance from the town. The legal and medical depart¬
ments of the 1 ransylvania college have become important
institutions. In 1854, the latter had 1351 graduates, form¬
ing the third largest number among the colleges of the
United States. The manufactures of the town are im¬
portant, including ropes, bagging, iron machinery, and car¬
riages. In 1850 there were 15 factories engaged in hemp
manufacture, employing 600 persons, and making yearly
2,500,000 yards of bagging, and 2,000,000 lb. of rope;
while in the neighbourhood there were nearly as many es¬
tablishments engaged in the same work. Hemp is grown
largely in the state. By rail the town is connected with
Louisville, Danville, Cincinnati, and other large towns.
Lexington, the second oldest town of Kentucky, was
founded in 1776, and for sixteen years continued to be
the capital of the territory, when, in 1792, the government
was transferred to Frankfort, the present state capital. In¬
corporated 1782. Pop. (1854) about 12,000.
LEYDEN {pnc. Lugdunum Batavorum), a celebrated
city of Holland, province of South Holland, on the Rhine,
or rather on that branch of it that retains the name, 10
miles E.N.E. of the Hague, and 23 miles S.W. of Amster¬
dam, with both of which it is connected by railway. It is
surrounded with a rampart, outside of which is a wet ditch
crossed by eight bridges leading to as many gates. The
River Rhine flows through the heart of the town; and, like
other Dutch towns, Leyden is traversed by numerous canals
which divide it into about fifty small islands communicat¬
ing with each other by a great number of bridges. The
streets are usually long, broad, and well paved; and the
houses are generally of a superior class. The Breede Straat
is nearly two miles in length, and is reckoned one of the
finest streets in Europe. I he town-hall is a picturesque
old building, founded in 1574, and containing a valuable
collection of paintings. St Peter’s church, built in 1315,
is the largest and finest in the city, and contains among its
monuments one to the celebrated physician Boerhaave.
The remains of a round tower, called the Burg, stand on a
slight eminence in the centre of the town, and from the
walk round the top the finest view of the city and neigh¬
bourhood is obtained. It is said by some to have been
built by Drusus, though others ascribe it to Hengist about
a.d. 450. Near the Burg stands the church of St Pancras,
built in 1280, and containing the monument of the brave
burgomaster Vanderwerff, who defended the city against
the Spaniards in 1574. The University of Leyden, long
one of the most distinguished seats of learning in Europe,
was founded by the Prince of Orange in 1575, to reward
the inhabitants for their bravery in defending the town
against the Spaniards. Among its professors were Scaliger,
Heinsius, Gomarus, Arminius, Boerhaave; and among its
students Grotius, Descartes, Goldsmith, and Fielding. It
has faculties of theology, law, medicine, science, and litera¬
ture ; and has usually from 600 to 700 students. It has also
a valuable library, botanic garden, observatory, museums,
&c. (See article Holland.) There are likewise many fine
private libraries and museums, among which may be men¬
tioned the Japanese collection of Dr Siebold. The manu¬
factures are unimportant, but it carries on some trade in
grain, butter, and cheese. Historically, Leyden is chiefly
noted for the gallant and successful defence made by the
inhabitants in 1574 against the Spaniards under Valdez.
The siege lasted for about five months, during which the
inhabitants endured the greatest suffering from famine and
pestilence. Pop. (1855) 37,029.
LEYDEN, John, a celebrated linguist, antiquary, and
poet, was born on the 8th of'September 1775, at Denholm, a
353
Leyden
II
Leyden,
John.
354
LEYDEN.
Leyden, village on the banks of the T evict, in the pariihof Cavers, and
John. county of Roxburgh. His father was a shepherd, and was
descended from a long line of farmers who had lived on the
estate of Cavers. From his second to his sixteenth year,
Levden lived with his parents in a retired cottage near the
foot* of the * stormy Ruberslaw,17 where he was taught to
read by his father’s mother, and where his favourite books
were the Metrical Histories of Bruce and Wallace, the
Poems of Sir David Lindsay, the Arabian Eights’ Enter¬
tainments, and Paradise Lost. He learned writing, arith¬
metic, and the elements of Latin grammar, during a short
attendance of three years at the school of Kirktown ; and
after studying Latin and Greek for two years under Mr
Duncan, a Cameronian minister at Denholm, he entered the
Universitvof Edinburgh in November 1790. There, though
his knowledge was at first very inaccurate, and the language
in which he expressed his ideas so awkward as to set his
fellow-students in a rear, he soon became noted for his at¬
tainments, not only in the prescribed studies, but in French,
Spanish, Italian, German, and the ancient Icelandic. The
vacations were seneraily passed in his native wilds amongst
his own relations, with the exception of the summer of 1 < 92,
when he acted as assistant, with little success, in a school
at Whitebanklee or Clovenfords, a village on the skirts of
Ettrick Forest- At this time his appearance was very pre¬
possessing. He was ruddy and fair, with a frame rather deli¬
cate than robust, and an expression of great good nature
and gentleness in his features.
In November 1793 he began the study of divinity, but
at the same time devoted much of his attention to historical
research, to philology, to metaphysical speculations, and to
natural historv and medicine. He was a member ot various
debating societies, in all of which he distinguished himself
by the fluency and copiousness of his unpremeditated ha¬
rangues, rather than by any graceful or polished eloquence.
In one of these institutions, he contracted an intimacy with
Henry (now Lord Brougham, and with Dr Thomas Brown
and Francis Horner. About the same time he formed an
acquaintance with Dr Robert Anderson, editor of the British
Poets, and Thomas Campbell.
When he had completed his theological education, he
accompanied the two sons of Campbell ot Fairfield to St
Andrews in 1797, where he attended the lectures of Dr
Hunter, professor of humanity, and of Principal Hill, one
of the divinity professors. He also entered the Theological
Society, and was soon considered the best speaker, among
such members as Professor Duncan of St Andrews, Lord
Campbell, and Dr Chalmers. From the presbytery of St
Andrews he received license to preach in May 1798; and
returning to Edinburgh he preached frequently, but without
attracting any popular admiration.
In the winter of 1798 he attended some of the medical
classes, and at this period inflicted a lasting injury on his
health, and nearly lost his lite, by his rash and unskilful
treatment of a complaint which he believed to be an attack
of colic, but which proved to be enteritis. In addition to
his duties as resident tutor in the family of Mr Campbell,
he had been engaged as a writer in the Acre I.ondon Re¬
view ; and, amongst other articles, contributed those on
Horne Tooke’s Diversions of Parley, on Dr Thomas
Brown’s Observations on Zoonomia, and on \ allancey’s
Sanscrit History of Ireland.
In the summer of 1799 he published A Historical and
Philosophical Sketch of the Discoveries and Settlements of
the Europeans in Xorthern and Western Africa, at the close
of the Eighteenth Century. This interesting work, although
written in about six weeks, whilst the author was in bad
health, and at a distance from books, exhibits proofs ot ex¬
tensive information and scund reflection. An enlarged edi¬
tion of it was published in 1817 bv Mr H. Murray-
Through Mr Richard Heber, to whom he was intro¬
duced by Mr Constable, he became acquainted with the
most distinguished literary characters in Edinburgh, and,
amongst others, with Sir Walter Scott, whom he greatly v
assisted at this time in editing the Minstrelsy of the Scottish
Border, by recovering old ballads from oral tradition, and by
communicating spirited imitations of the ancient bards, and
valuable materials for the notes.
In 1800 a plan formed to establish him as assistant and
successor to the minister of his native parish, failed, in con¬
sequence of the reluctance of the incumbent to agree to it.
Soon afterwards, an attempt which he made to obtain the
professorship of rhetoric and belles-lettres in Edinburgh,
was also frustrated.
About this time he made two successive tours through
the Highlands, and collected much curious information,
which was never published. He wrote several poems,
founded on the remains of Celtic story, one of which, the
beautiful ballad of The Mermaid, has been inserted in the
Border Minstrelsy. In 1801 he contributed to Lewis’s
Tales of Wonder, and published an edition of The Com-
playnt of Scotland.
In 1802 he contributed many articles to the Scots Maga¬
zine, of which he had been newly appointed editor. He
was also employed in collecting the papers of the High¬
land Society for publication; and be edited a volume en¬
titled, Scottish Descriptive Poems, with some Illustrations
of Scottish Literary Antiquities. Early in this year he of¬
fered to the African Society to explore the interior of that
continent, in which so many Europeans have perished. His
friends, alarmed at this, became eager to obtain for him
an Indian appointment; and, through the interest of Mr
William Dundas, he was nominated assistant-surgeon in
the Company’s service, on condition that he should take a
surgical degree. After intense study for six months, he
received the necessary diploma. The degree ot Doctor ot
Physic was conferred upon him by the University of St An¬
drews. on the 7th August 1802. Meanwhile, he had finished
his longest poem, Scenes of Infancy.
Leyden, after spending the winter in London, sailed from
Portsmouth on the 7th of April 1803, and soon after his
arrival at Madras, was attached as surgeon and naturalist
to the commission for surveying the districts of the Mysore.
In this latter capacity he was expected to turn his atten¬
tion, not only to the natural history of the country, but to
the manners, institutions, and language of the inhabitants.
His labours hurting his constitution, obliged him to remove
to Prince of Wales Island. Here he was befriended by the
governor, Mr Dundas, and here, too, he procured the chief
materials of the Essay on the Languages and Literature of
the Indo-Chinese Nations, contained in the 10th volume
of the Asiatic Researches.
He removed in 1806 from Prince of Wales Island to Cal¬
cutta, where, through the favour of the governor-general,
Lord Minto, he was appointed one of the professors in the
Bengal College, but was soon transferred to the office of
Judge of the Twenty-four Pergunnahs of Calcutta. In 1809
he was appointed a Commissioner of the Court of Requests
in Calcutta; and, in the end of the following year, having
resigned this office, he obtained the office of Assay Master
of the Mint. Soon afterwards, he accompanied Lord Minto
upon the expedition to Java, for the purpose of collecting
information touching the learning and institutions of the
native tribes, and assisting the governor-general in negoti¬
ating with the local authorities, and in adjusting the future
government of the country. After the British troops took
possession of the city of Batavia, he caught fever from having
ventured rashly into an ill-aired library, supposed to contain
many Indian manuscripts, and died on the 21st of August
1811, after an illness of three days.
Shortly after Leyden’s death. Lord Minto and Sir John
Malcolm both publicly expressed their high estimation ot
LEY LIB 355
Levte his extensive erudition, his unwearied pursuit after know-
edge, and his exemption from all sordid vices. A few per-
I.ibanins. foibles, such as his egotism and awkward deportment,
' did not render him less endearing to his friends. His Poetical
Remains were published in 1819, with a memoir by the
Rev. James Morton; and in 1826 appeared his posthumous
work, entitled, Memoirs of the Emperor Baber. An Essay
on the Life of Leyden is contained in Scott's Miscellaneous
f forks.
LEYTE, an island of Australasia, one of the S. Philip¬
pines, between Bohol and Samar, 130 miles in length from
N. to S., by 40 miles in breadth. Its surface is mountainous,
and subject to volcanic action ; but the soil is rich, and the
climate fine for so low a latitude. The products comprise,
of minerals,—sulphur, iron, and asbest; and of vegetables,
—bananas, tobacco, sugar, palm-oil, and fine woods. There
are also large quantities of horns, tortoise-shell, hides, and
wax, exported to Europe and the United States. Pop. about
100,000, of whom nearly 70,000 are under Spanish control.
See also Philippines.
LHUYD, Edward, a celebrated antiquary, was the son
of Charles Lhuyd, Esq. of Lhanvorde, Shropshire, the de¬
scendant of an ancient Welsh family, and was born in
Wales about 1670. Having entered Jesus College,
Oxford, in 1687, he applied himself to the study of na¬
tural history, and particularly of fossils, under Dr Plot,
whom he succeeded, in 1690, as keeper of the Ashmolean
Museum. He took his degree of Master of Arts in 1701.
Bent upon discovering the antiquities of the primitive Bri¬
tons, he made several journeys through Wales, Cornwall,
Scotland, Ireland, and Basse-Bretagne, perusing old manu¬
scripts, transcribing the ancient charters of monasteries, and,
in addition to the particular information he desired, collect¬
ing many curious notes on natural history, and other subjects,
which were afterwards inserted in the Philosophical Trans¬
actions. Many of his researches concerning Wales were
inserted by Bishop Gibson, in his edition of Camden’s
Britannia. The great mass, however, of his discoveries
was published at Oxford in 1707, under the title of Ar-
chceologia Britannica, an account of the language, histories,
and customs of the original inhabitants of Great Britain,
which contains an Irish-English Dictionary, the outline of
a larger one which he left in manuscript. His work
Lithophylacii Britannici Ichnographia, was published at
London in 1699, and reprinted by Mr Huddesford in 1760.
Lhuyd died in 1709.
LIBANIUS, a celebrated sophist and rhetorician, was
bom at Antioch in Syria, in a.d. 314. After receiving
his elementary education in his native city, he repaired to
Athens, and while under the public tuition of several emi¬
nent masters, cultivated in private a taste for the classical
writers of Greece. Leaving Athens, after a stay of four
years, he travelled about for a short time, and finally settled
in Constantinople, where his fame as a teacher of rhetoric
attracting great numbers of students, drew upon him the
envy and malice of the public professors. Through their
influence with the Prefect Limenius, he was expelled from
the city, and removed to Nicomedeia about a.d. 346.
Here his great success in teaching, coupled, no doubt, with
the native vanity of his character, was once more the
cause of great hatred in his rivals. Driven by a plague
from Nicomedeia, he returned to Constantinople, and lived
there harassed by the enmities of his fellow sophists, yet
refusing to leave it upon the offer of the chair of Rhetoric
at Athens, until his declining health forced him to retire to
his native Antioch. In his latter days, he was honoured
with the notice of the Emperors Julian, Valens, and Theodo¬
sius. Chrysostom, and probably St Basil, were his pupils
in eloquence; and towards these, as well as other Chris¬
tians, his own paganism did not prevent him exercising
tolerance. He died at some period after a.d. 391. A suc¬
cessful imitator of Demosthenes and the ancient orators, Lilnnus
he excelled all the rhetoricians of the fourth century; but
his excellence in refining his diction is often attained by v
the loss of strength and precision of thought.
Of the extant works of Libanius there is no complete
edition. The best edition of his Jlporp:uraxT/idrb,v cropa-
Say/iara (Examples for Rhetorical Exercises), his Adyoc
(Orations), and his McXcnu (Declamations), was published
by J. J. Reiske, Leipsic, 1791-97. The best edition of his
’Ettio-to/W (Epistles) is by J. C. Wolf Amsterdam, 1738.
Prefixed to Reiske’s edition is an autobiography of Libanius.
LIBANUS, or Lebanon. See Syria.
LIBAU, a Baltic seaport-town of Russia, government of
Courland, at the mouth of a cognomina! stream, 54 miles
N. of Memel; N. Lat. 56.30., E. Long. 20.5S. It is sur¬
rounded with walls, but its streets are irregular and ill paved.
The houses havegenerallybut one storey, and are constructed
of wood. The chief public buildings are.—an hospital, an
orphan asylum, and three Protestant and one Catholic
church. The trade of the port is considerable, embracing
the products of Courland, such as flax, hemp, grain, leather,
and timber, which are exported to Western Europe in Large
quantities; and including as imports, coal, salt, sugar, ma¬
chinery, herrings, and wine, sent hither chiefly from Bri¬
tain and America. The harbour of Libau is formed by a
lagoon, with only 12 feet of water at the bar, which obliges
large vessels to anchor in the roadstead about two miles
from the town, and receive their cargoes by means of
lighters. The total value of imports into this town
amounted in 1851 to L.25,563, and in 1852 to L.21,S00;
while the total value of exports in 1851 amounted to
L.165,750, and in 1852 to L.142,034. Of the latter, goods
to the value of L.8291 were shipped coastwise* in sixty-
three vessels. Pop. (1852) 8961.
LIBEL, a word which has many different meanings, but
is chiefly known in this country as the name of a depart¬
ment of the law, which, from incidental circumstances, has
come to include the naturally distinct heads, of written
slander, sedition, and outrage against religion. Towards
all its separate and sometimes trivial meanings, the word
may be traced through history and usage from its original
meaning of a little book (libellus) consisting of a set of
leaves stitched together, and thus distinguished from a roll,
or liber, as we distinguish a pamphlet from a volume at the
present day. Certain accusatory pleadings in the courts of
justice were, in Roman practice, presented in stitched
leaves, which were called libelli accusatorii ; and it is from
this original use as a document, containing an accusation,
that the word libel has wandered into all its wide and varied
significations. After it had acquired its well known signifi¬
cation as a transgression of the law, it continued to retain its
original technical meaning as a part of the form of process
in the various systems of law derived from Rome. In the
practice of the Vatican, Du Cange finds libellus anathe-
matis as the equivalent to a bull of excommunication. In
English ecclesiastical practice the complainant’s grounds of
complaint, or accusation, are set forth in a libel systemati¬
cally divided into three parts. 1. The major proposition,
which shows a just cause of the petition; 2. Ti e narration
or minor proposition; 3. The conclusion, or conclusive
petition, which conjoins both propositions. The accusation
or indictment by which in Scotland a person is act used of a
crime before a court of criminal justice, is in the same
syllogistic form—derived from the practice of the scholastic
divines, and is called a Libel. The term is of frequent use
in a like sense in the Presbyterian ecclesiastical courts of
Scotland. It is there employed as a verb as well as a sub¬
stantive ; and when one is “ libelled" in a presbytery, it is not
meant that some rash or malicious charge has been levelled
against him, but that he has been subjected to a forma! ac¬
cusation.
356
LIBEL.
Libel.
It is this use of the word libellus to mean especially a
^ document of accusation, that has made it the root of the
whole law of libel. It acquired its modern meaning of a
rash or malicious accusation early in the history of the
Roman law, where we find the authorsof UbeUifamosi visited
by heavy punishments, sometimes with death. But we
have few lights on the nature of the libel law of Rome,
probably from the rare occurrence and limited importance
of an offence which required the art of printing to give it
a great social influence. The 36th title of the ninth
book of the Justinian Code is devoted to libelli famosi, and
refers to them rather as writings hidden in private places,
for the purpose of creating an under-current of suspicion
difficult to be refuted, than as accusations deriving their
mischief from their publicity. The person who finds such
a libel—called a chartula—and does not bum or destroy it,
but, on the other hand, mentions its contents to some one,
becomes as guilty as if he had been the author of the libel.
In the tenth title of the 47th book of the Pandects, De
Injunis et Famosis Libellis, there are remedies for a variety
ot petty injuries. Among these, unjust attacks on reputa¬
tion are mixed up, in a manner that would seem at the pre¬
sent day very incongruous, with such offences as trespasses,
the unjustifiable castigation of slaves belonging to other
people, assaults by slaves on each other, the interruption
of public rights, sharp or oppressive practice against poor
debtors, sending smoke or filth into a neighbour’s house,
and the like,—an incongruous and unconnected catherinir
of incidental matters which appear not to have found any
place in the great divisions of the law. Amonff these in¬
juries for which there is praetorian redress, is included the
bringing disgrace or ridicule on a citizen by contumelious
action, or the handing to a ruler or other influential person
a libel/us containing an attack on a citizen’s good fame.
These scattered morsels of law served as precedents in the
countries which adopted the Roman system. The sup¬
pression of libelles defamatories is a frequent object of the
old French ordonnances. The laws on the subject increased
in number and precision in the sixteenth century, when
the rapid progress of the art of printing made work for
them. Indeed, it is generally observed by the French
jurists, that until this period the maxims of the Roman
law on defamatory libels had lain dormant. But from the
days of Calvin downwards France has been the theatre of
a relentless struggle, in which a press, restless and auda¬
cious—too often at the same time proflisate—has fought
with a succession of repressive laws, varying according to the
various powers which have from time to time held absolute
rule in that country. The French jurists notice, from an early
period, how the laws for the suppression of libels cannot
fail to be an irksome restraint on the genius of those au¬
thors whose strength lies in sarcasm, and greatly to curtail
the enjoyment of those whose chief solace it is to read witty
and epigrammatic remarks on the vices or follies of their
fellow men. All who are accustomed to the perusal of that
vast series of works of genius coming under the general
term of memoires.must be conscious how little w ould remain
behind, if, even in the periods of the strongest and most
suppressive governments, all that is w ith us railed libellous
matter were suppressed. The vehemence with which
those who were themselves not inclined to speak gently of
their opponents or rivals, sought the aid of the arbitrary laws
against libel, is very instructive. Voltaire was noted for
his attempts to obtain legal redress for sarcasms on him¬
self which were but a faint imitation of those which he had
launched against others. How entirely the machinery for
Me punishment ot libels was in the hands of those who had
great personal influence, is shown by a curious anecdote
narrated by Marmontel in his life of himself. He was
charged with libelling, in the Jlercitre, an influential courtier,
v. no prevailed on Choiseul, the prime minister, to commit
him to the Bastile. Marmontel says he proved his inno- Libel,
cence to the complete satisfaction of Choiseul, who re- ^
gretted what had occurred, but said he must keep his wurd
to his distinguished friend, to whom he had pledged his
faith that Marmontel should go to the Bastile; and Mar¬
montel submitted to his fate as a necessity, expressing his
gratitude for the comfortable accommodation and the luxu¬
rious table by which his prison life was alleviated.
The course of events through which the law of libel
which we have seen to be a creature of the Roman juris¬
prudence, found its way into the common law of England,
where every gift from that quarter was eyed with suspicion,
forms a curious little episode in constitutional history.
Offences against religion were tried in the ecclesiastical
courts, which took their form of procedure from the civil
law. As they became unnerved after the Reformation, the
notorious Star Chamber took up their functions, adding to
them a jurisdiction in minor political offences. The Star
Chamber thus became the tribunal where both branches of'
the public law of libel were adjudged upon the Roman sys¬
tem. As its power waxed strong in the reign of Charles I.,
its political functions in administering the law of libel be¬
came more conspicuous, attracting at length a degree of
public indignation before which this growing fabric of arbi¬
trary judicial power finally fell. It was here that Prynne
was condemned to the loss of his ears, and the pillory, for a
collocation in the index of an unreadable volume, which
seemed to point with scorn to the gaieties of the queen; and
that he was a second time condemned, after his ears wTere
more closely shaven, to be pilloried with Burton and Bast-
wick.
On the fall of the Star Chamber this branch of jurisdi
tion, along with its foreign name, was, with much adroitness
appropriated by the courtsof common law. To give a remedy
in a court of law to a person who was slandered and maligned,
and even to one who was needlessly held up to contempt or
scorn, was a simple and natural process. From this point
a step onward was taken by the public prosecution of those
who maligned or insulted their neighbours, on the ground
that the sense of injury sustained by those who suffered
from their accusations, was likely to lead to excitement and
turbulence. The circle of offences thus created widened
indefinitely. Censorious remarks on the people who go¬
verned the country, or on the system of government itself
or the national religion, wrere to be punished, not as in
themselves wrong, but as acts which, by the provocation
which they were calculated to excite, led to a breach of
the peace. I he process of reasoning by which the law for
the protection ot private character was made a means of
punishing state offences, cannot be better explained than
in the words of Sir Edward Coke : —“ Every label (which is
called famosus libellus, or infamatoria scripturd) is made
either against a private man, or against a magistrate or pub¬
lic person. It it be against a private man, it deserves a
severe punishment; for although the libel be made against
one, yet it incites all those of the same family, kindred, or
society to revenge, and so tends per consequence to quar¬
rels and breach ot the peace, and may be the cause of shed¬
ding of blood, and of great inconvenience. If it be against
a magistrate or other public person it is a greater offence,
for it concerns not only the breach of the peace, but also
the scandal of government; for what greater scandal of
government can there be than to have corrupt or wicked
magistrates to be appointed and constituted by the king to
govern his subjects under him ? and greater imputation to
the state cannot be, than to suffer such corrupt men to sit
in the sacred seat ot justice, or to have any meddling in, or
concerning, the administration of justice.
“ Although the private man or magistrate be dead at the
time of the making of the libel, yet it is punishable ; for,
in the one case, it stirs up others of the same family, blood,
LIBEL.
Libel
• or society to revenge, and to break the peace ; and, in the
^ other, the libeller traduces and slanders the state and o-o
vernraent which dies not.” (The case Be Libellis Famosis
Rep. iii. 254.)
When these doctrines ivere promulgated, the growing
fiction of law had not so far ripened as to be applicable to
pure enunciations of opinion on politics or religion. Stron0-
expressions of political opinions, offensive to the govern¬
ment, were generally punished under the laws of high trea¬
son, as in the instance of Algernon Sidney, against whom
the doctrines expressed in a manuscript paper found in his
lepositories, was the most effective evidence; and expres¬
sions deemed offensive to religion, if they were not reached
by the statutes passed for the special protection of the
Church of England, might be counted blasphemy, and so
punished at common law\ (See Blasphemy.) In the
earlier cases in which the comparatively new law of libel
was applied to public offences, it always rested on the state¬
ment at least of some private person having suffered an in¬
jury ; and in the case of Sir Charles Smedley, prosecuted
for one of the brutal acts of public profligacy for which the
courtiers of Charles II.’s reign were notorious, some com¬
mentators have been at pains to show that there was an
actual assault caused by his indecent exhibition, and that
it was for having given occasion to that assault—not for
the vague offence of outraging public decorum—that he was
punished.
It was not until the case of Curl in 1728, that the fiction
of the attack being made on some person, and therefore
dangerous to the state, as an incentive to a breach of the
peace, appears to have been dropped as tending to hamper
the law. The prosecution in that case was for the publi¬
cation of an indecent book, quendam turpem iniquum et
obscoenum libellum, tending to corrupt the subjects of the
realm. It was not the act in itself as immoral, but its ten¬
dency “to disturb the civil order of society,” that was the
ultimate reason for awarding punishment, which in this in¬
stance was the pillory. But there was still a difference of
opinion on the bench on the competency of the common
law to reach such cases, and Justice Fortescue said,—“ I
ow-n this is a great offence, but I know of no law by which we
can punish it. Common law is common usage, and wdiere
there is no law there can be no transgression. At common
law, drunkenness and cursing or swearing were not punish¬
able, and yet I do not find the spiritual court took notice of
them. This is but a general solicitation of chastitv, and
not indictable.” (Strange’s Reports, ii., 789.)
In this manner the Jaw of libel came to comprehend a
vast range of legal remedies, from the punishment inflicted
on the public offender whose acts bordered on high treason,
t(Lthe damages incurred for mere personal slander. The
different degrees of the offence were in some measure
classified by the form of procedure. A public libel might
be prosecuted on indictment presented by a grand jury,
or on official information by the Attorney-GeneraL In other
cases where the private wrong was maintained to be of a
public and flagitious character, the nominal concurrence of
the crown with the private prosecutor was obtained in the
s.iape of an information by the master in the crown office
in the Court of King s Bench. The two classes of actions,
t ic one really or nominally for a public offence, the other
a mere action of damages for private injury,—came to be
wtZ’ffi /rr/Th °ther in the imP°rtant feature,
whether the truth of the statement was or was not a vindi¬
cation. It was held that in private actions the truth of the
charges made in the published document complained of,
m ghi be pro (1 for t ie purpos 0f showing that the prosed
cutor had suffered no harm, and was entitled to no damages.
Bu m proceedings by indictment or information, evidence
of the truth could not be received, because it could not affect
the question professedly at issue, whether the publication was
357
calculated to create a breach of the peace ? And, indeed, it
was a common exercise of jurisprudential ingenuity to main¬
tain the paradox,—that the truth of the statements could be
nothing but an aggravation of the libel, since the person who
could not defend his character by the general good opinion
of his fellow-citizens, or by a civil action, wTas all the more
likely to punish his assailant by violence. The effect of
such doctrines was, however, so far restrained in practice,
that the Court of King’s Bench w'ould not, in the general
case, grant an information for a libel to a person using that
form of procedure in a prosecution virtually private, unless
he made affidavit that he was innocent of the charge imputed
to him. r
A noted peculiarity of the English law of libel is its
vagueness and uncertainty. Except from the very flagrancy
of the matter, no one can tell whether certain expressions
are or are not libellous, whether in a political or a pri¬
vate sense. It has thus been an arena in which the party
for the time in power has used its strength in conflict with
the party in opposition, and in which, sometimes, a popular
opposition has found means of striking a blow against ad¬
herents of the government. This dubiety is in ftself cer¬
tainly an evil; but the great range which the law of libel
takes in this country, is owing to one of the most valuable safe-
guardsof the liberty of the press—the absence of a censorship.
In countries where this restraint exists, the institution corre¬
sponding to our law of libel may occupy very narrow limits.
If a work be published without the authority of the royal
licenser, the presumption is against it; if it have received an
imprimatur, its innocence is already pronounced. It was
the total absence of even a modified restraint of this cha¬
racter that made De Lolme search among the English law
books for those laws which secured the liberty of the press,
and feel puzzled by the discovery that the whole department
was a blank. The censorship existed of old in this country
as well as others, and its disappearance is materiallv con¬
nected with the history of the law of libel; hence the evils
of this law have, in a great measure, been the compensa¬
tion paid by the public for a relief from the greater evils of
the licensing system.
When the power of the printing press became first ma¬
nifest as a political engine, the various governments and
powers throughout Europe seemed to think that it was as
much their own, and as little to be freely used by indivi¬
dual citizens, as the military force. The freedom to print
such works as the established government might not object
to, was deemed rather a concession than a restraint. In the
eighteenth century, even the authors of the Bictionnaire de
Iravoux, speak of it as an important element of superiority,
that the Christian states license the printing of books,
while in the Mohammedan they are not licensed but pro¬
hibited. The licensing power as a prerogative in the mon¬
arch was broken up in various ways in the European states.
I he ecclesiastical order claimed its own share for the papal
hierarchy. Licensing powers were deputed to universities
and other corporations; and in countries like France, and
the larger German states, works on science, or otherwise
disconnected with politics or divinity, thus obtained a virtual
exemption from minute examination. Censorship of the
press exists to a greater or less degree in nearly all the
European states. Its history in the British Empire is instruc¬
tive. That printing ought to be exercised under the con¬
trol and by the direction of the government, seems no more
to have been doubted in England in the sixteenth century
than in Spain or Austria. By the Reformation, the com¬
mand of the press was more strongly concentrated in the
crown of England than in that of any other kingdom, be¬
cause it ceased to be divided,—the portion whielTbelonged
to the popedom, vesting, as part of his ecclesiastical supre¬
macy, in Henry VIII. The Bible and other religious
books were printed under letters patent. The use of prmt-
Libel.
358
LIBEL.
Libel.
ing presses was limited to the Company of Stationers, who
were tjae servants of the government, subjected to strict x-e-
gulation in the Star Chamber. “ These regulations,” says
Hallam, “ not only limited the number of presses and of
men who should be employed on them, but subjected new
publications to the previous inspection of a licenser” {Const.
Hist. ch. xiii.). Even the Histriomastyx, for which Prynne
suffered, had been licensed; and it seemed to aggravate the
wrath of the authorities, that, by his pertinacity in ever in¬
creasing the bulk of the unreadable mass as he sent it up to
be licensed, Laud’s chaplain, whose duty it was to examine
it, permitted it, in despair, to pass without perusal. Dur¬
ing the civil war there was a luxuriant profusion of contro-
vei'sial pamphlets; for either side launched the artillery of
its press, as it employed its other foi'ces, against its adversary.
The Long Parliament did not scruple, by stern ordinances,
to suppress dissent from its authority in the press within its
reach. Immediately after the Restoration, the censoi'ship of
the press was established by a memorable statute. The act
11 for preventing abuses in printing seditious, treasonable, and
unlicensed books and pamphlets, and for regulating of print¬
ing and of printing presses,” commences with the preamble,
“ Whereas the well government and regulating of printers
and printing presses, is matter of public care and of great
concernment, especially considering that by the general
licentiousness of late times, many evil disposed persons
have been encouraged to print and sell heretical, schisma-
tical, blasphemous, seditious, and treasonable books, pam¬
phlets, and papei's, and still do continue such their unlaw¬
ful and exoi'bitant pi'actice, to the high dishonour of Al¬
mighty God, the endangering the peace of these kingdoms,
and raising a disaffection to his most excellent xuajesty and
his government; for prevention whereof no surer means
can be advised than by reducing and limiting the number
of printing presses, and by oi'dering and settling the said
art or mystery of printing by act of parliament.” The
act, though long and intricate, gives its essence in the short
clause which provides that no private person shall print a
book or pamphlet unless it be entered in the Register of
the Stationers’ Company ; and “ unless the same book and
pamphlet, and also, all and every the titles, epistles, pre¬
faces, proems, preambles, introductions, tables, dedications,
and other matters and things thereunto annexed, or there¬
with to be imprinted, shall be first lawfully licensed and
authorized to be printed by such person and persons only
as shall be constituted and appointed to license the same.”
This is followed by a classification of literature according
to the licensers. At the head come “ books concerning the
common laws of this realm,” which are placed under the
Lord Chancellor, or the other heads of the law in the order
of their rank. Books of history, the affairs of the realm,
or matters of state generally, are to be licensed under the
authority of the Secretary of State. The next class in the
order of importance contains books of heraldry, which are
to be licensed by the Earl Marshall or the Kings-at-Arms.
Last in order are “ all other books to be imprinted or re¬
printed, whether of divinity, physic, philosophy, or whatso¬
ever other science or art,” to be licensed by the Pri¬
mate or the Bishop of London, or by one of the universi¬
ties if the printing were to be at the univei’sity press.
The chief licenser appointed under the act was Roger
L’Estrange, himself a celebrated pamphleteer and libeller.
At the revolution he was, of course, superseded by a sup¬
porter of the new settlement. For the protection of that
settlement, howrever, the House of Commons, ever on the
watch for the promulgators of counter-revolutionary opinions,
whom it punished for breach of privilege, wras a better cham¬
pion than any licenser; and at length the zeal and rivalry of
the House in the performance of this function drove the
licenser out of the field. In the year 1693 the office was
held by Edmund Bohun. He was a Tory and High
Churchman, but had argued himself, or professed to have Libel,
argued himself, into a thorough support of the new dynasty,
on the very peculiar ground that King William and Queen
Mary were entitled to the throne by right of conquest.
Charles Blount, an unscrupulous author, who hated him,
laid a trap to ensnare him by means of his eccentric politics,
and laid before him as licenser, a work called William and
Mary Conquerors. It was clevei'ly adjusted so as not to
be too flagrant for the licenser’s sympathies, and yet to be
flagrant enough to excite the revolution party to fury. The
wrath of the House of Commons fell on Blount, and on his
office. The licensing act was a temporary measure, renew¬
able fi’om time to time, and when the bill carne up for renewal,
two years afterwards, the Commons, by a special vote, sti’uck
it out of the list of the temporary acts to be continued. In
a confei’ence with the Lords, who desired to renew the act,
they gave in a paper containing the reasons for thfeir vote.
“This paper,” says Mr Macaulay, “completely vindicates
the resolution to which the Commons had come. But it
proves, at the same time, that they knew not what they
were doing—what a revolution they were making—what a
power they were calling into existence. They pointed out
concisely, clearly, forcibly, and sometimes with a grave irony
which is not unbecoming, the absurdities and iniquities of
the statute which was about to expire. But all their ob¬
jections will be found to relate to matters of detail. On the
great question of principle—in the question whether the
liberty of unlicensed printing be, on the whole, a blessing
or a curse to society—not a word is said.” The only
vestiges now remaining of restraints on the press are the
obligation on every pi'inter to put his name on his book, an
arrangement advocated by Milton in his plea for a free press;
and the obligation on the pi’oprietors of newspapers to register
themselves, and to give bond for the payment of any pen¬
alties to which they may become amenable.
At several periods, and especially during the anti-i'evo-
lutionary fervour created by events in France, the liberty
of the press was threatened, and temporarily affected.
The general principle, however, outlived all these dan¬
gers, and it was felt tlxat in the present reign the law of
libel might be safely stripped of some of its asperities.
The law was regulated in 1843, by an act professing to be
passed “ for the better protection of private character, and
for moi'e effectually securing the liberty of the press”
(6th & 7th Viet., c. 96). It gives weight to any apology
or reparation which the utterer of a libel may have offered,
and particularly, when it has appeared in a newspaper, to
an apology published in the same manner. Libel had
been excepted fi'om those actions in which the defendant
might pay into court the damages tendered by him ; but by
this act, when the absence of malice, and the publication oi
an apology are pleaded, the defendant may tender damages.
On an indictment or information, the defendant is autho¬
rized to enter a general plea of not guilty; and it will be
justified if he prove the truth of his statements, and that it
was for the public benefit that they should have been pub¬
lished. This neutralizes the old principle, which refused
to admit evidence of the truth when the trial was on indict¬
ment or information. As a partial protection to the editors
of newspapers, the defendant might prove that the publi¬
cation was made without his consent or knowledge. The
act does not extend to Scotland; it was extended to Ireland
in 1845.
In Scotland, the word libel, though used, as we have seen,
to express a formal accusation, in the practice of the courts
of law, was not indigenous in the sense in which it has been
chiefly used in England. The law equivalent to that of
political libel was, until lately, in a very unsatisfactory con¬
dition. Of old, it was called leasing-making, as the ci’ime
of falsely representing the conduct of governors towards the
people. Alter the Union, this vernacular term dropped
359
LIB
Liberia
out of use, and the nomenclature of the civil law sup¬
plied the word sedition in its stead. In the years 1793 and
1794, the vague character of the law enabled the govern¬
ment to carry out, in Scotland, severities which the strict
barriers protecting the freedom of the subject at once checked
in England. The punishments at that time inflicted on men,
some of whom were merely pursuing such a course of free
criticism on the practical condition of the constitution as all
parties have in later times practised and encouraged, has
received a general condemnation, which renders it un¬
necessary to reeal the particulars of the several cases.
Iheir most offensive feature was this, that sentences of
transportation to the penal colony of New South Wales
were passed, avowedly in the administration of old laws,
adopted when Scotland had no colonies, and when trans¬
portation was impossible, although they doubtless sanctioned
banishment, or the driving of the culprit out of the country.
I his vague character of the law, which, in a time of terror
and excitement, had shown itself so liable to abuse, was
collected by statutes which imposed fine and imprisonment
as the punishments of sedition.
Fortunately, of late years, the law of political libel has
dwindled almost out of existence, as a disease in the vital
frame disappears before progressive health and vitality. The
leverberations of the great continental revolutions of 1848
did not pass over Britain without commotion ; but the safety
of the country was sufficiently secured by suppressing acts
of violence without too curious an inquiry into the tendency
of opinions. As to the law of private libel, both in Encfland
w lere it grew, and in Scotland, to which jury trial virtually
transplanted it, the width and vagueness of its character
are the objects of continued complaint. Perhaps a means
may be some day found of correcting this defect; but in
the meantime, it must be viewed as the price paid for the
Jibeity of the press and for freedom of discussion generally.
It is quite true, that no lawyer can give a definition of libel
as he can of theft or forgery ; that, according to the general
descriptions of a libel supplied by the law-books and the
cases, there are many people every day unconsciously com¬
mitting the offence ; and that there are multitudes of whom
it may be said, that they owe it not to their keeping within
the law, but to the forbearance of their fellow-citizens, and
that freedom from vindictiveness so honourable to the British
character, that they are not attacked with prosecutions. But
the answer to all this is, that the reliance is well bestowed
Every man is in the hands of the public, and in the long run
they see fair dealing. ^J> H ^ \
LIBERIA, a free negro republic on the W.’ coast of
Afnca, extending in a S.E. direction from Sierra Leone
along the coast for about 500 miles, and having an average
breadth of about 40 miles; between N. Lat. 4. 20. and 7.20.
rnil'es"011^' 6' ^ ^rea afr°ut 20,000 square
-The republic of Liberia owes its existence mainly to the
ettoi ts of a few benevolent citizens of Washington, who, in
.b, termed themselves into a society called the “ Ame-
ncan Colonization Society,” for the purpose of rescuing the
rec people of colour from the degradation and misery to
which they were condemned in America. In 1817 a de¬
putation of the society visited England, and was received
it i much cordiality by Wilberforce, and other friends of
the anti-slavery movement; and with their advice the
agent of the society was sent out to the W. c&Stfof Africa for
the purpose of making a careful survey of the country and
reporting as to its suitableness for a negro colony. Vie
site first chosen was the small island of Sherboro situated
near the coast, about 120 miles S. of Sierra Leone and the
first colonists arrived there in the early part of 18^0 The
situation a low, densely-wooded island, proved unhealthy
of t T6’ 1° 1 f mi rU1'Se °f a fe'v months most
of the agents who attended the expedition, and many of
lib
the negroes, fell victims. A less deadly climate had, there- Liberia,
fore, to be sought for, and an agent was again sent out by ^ r-
the society for that purpose. Cape Mesurado, on the
mainland, about 300 miles S.E. of Sierra Leone, and risino-
about 150 feet above the general level of the shore, seemed
to promise a suitable locality for the settlement. With
difficulty the native chiefs were induced to dispose of a
tract of land here; and on the 25th of April, 1822, the
American flag was planted on Cape Mesurado; the settlers
of Sherboro, who had been removed for a time to Sierra
Leone, having been transferred to their new settlement.
Iheir numbers were speedily augmented by fresh arrivals,
but the colony was long in a very precarious and unsatis¬
factory condition. 1 he settlers lived in continual fear of
the fierce and treacherous tribes by whom they were sur¬
rounded, who not unfrequmitly attacked them at a disad¬
vantage and inflicted considerable loss. They were also
on several occasions reduced to the greatest distress by
scarcity of provisions, and a failure of ammunition ; and the
climate, though less fatal than formerly, still proved very
injurious. By degrees, however, these difficulties were
overcome, and as their numbers increased they became
better able to maintain their ground against the encroach¬
ments of the neighbouring tribes. The weaker tribes now
became desirous of being received under their protection
and they were in every case received on condition of their
becoming Liberian citizens. Partly by this mode of annex¬
ation, and partly by the occasional purchase of small por¬
tions o territory the boundaries of the settlement were
gradually extended. New settlements were made, new
TOWiSQonUllt’ trad.e increased> and agriculture flourished,
n 1839 a constitution was framed, and a governor ap¬
pointed by the Colonization Society; and in 1847 the
independence of the colony was formally declared, and a
republican constitution adopted. The British and French
governments promptly recognized the new government,
and framed liberal treaties with it. The constitution is pro¬
fessedly a copy of that of the United States. The executive
power is vested in a president, who must be at least thirty-
five years of age, have resided five years in the country,
and be in possession of an income of 500 dollars. He
is elected for two years, but may be indefinitely re-elected.
Ifie senate and house of representatives exercise the legis¬
lative power. The senate consists of six members, at least
twenty-five years of age, having resided in the colony for
three years, and possessed of an income of 200 dollars.
hey are chosen for four years. The representatives are
chosen for two years, and are required to be twenty-three
years of age, to have resided for two years in the colony,
and to be possessed of an income of fifty dollars. The
number of representatives is 28. The judicial power
is lodged^ in a supreme court, and several inferior tri¬
bunals. I he rights of citizenship belong exclusively
to people of colour. The climate of Liberia, although more
healthy than that of Sierra Leone, is still uncongenial
to the white man, though to the blacks it has the cha¬
racter of being very genial. The effect of clearing, drain¬
ing, &c., upon the climate during the last ten years, is said
to be very remarkable. The duration of life among the
colonists is considered to be about the same as in the
United States. The country is characterized as being very
fertile, the hills and plains being covered with a never-
fading verdure. Cotton, coffee, indigo,and the sugar cane
are all spontaneous productions of the forests. Rice, In¬
dian corn, Guinea corn, and numerous species of fruits
may be grown to any extent. Cattle, swine, fowl, ducks’
goats, and sheep, require no care save only to keep
them from straying. Palm oil, camwood, ivory, o-old-
dust, coffee, indigo, ginger, arrowroot, and hides, are the
principal exports. Palm oil is the great staple of Liberia
at present; and the demand for it in England, France, and
B
360 L I
Liberius the United States is rapidly increasing. Coffee, sugar
II and cotton would, with a due application ot capital and
Liberty of ]abour become of the greatest value to the state. A con-
the Press, s^erable coasting trade is carried on, as well as a large
' trade with the interior. The exports to foreign countries
are said to average upwards of L.100,000 annually. Pop.
estimated at about 200,000, of whom about 10,000 are free
blacks from the United States. Schools and places of
worship have been established over the country. Liberia
is divided into the counties of Mesurado, Bassa, and Since.
The chief town is Monrovia, containing about 2000 inha¬
bitants.
The “ Maryland Colony,” on Cape Palmas, in the S.E.
of Liberia, was founded in 1834, by the “State Coloniza¬
tion Society,” and consists of free coloured emigrants sent
thither from the state of Maryland. Till very recently this
colony remained dependent on the parent society, but,
according to the latest accounts we have received, it too
had declared its independence, though it seems very doubt¬
ful if so small a republic can exist in that part of the world ;
and it would unquestionably be for the advantage of both
it and Liberia that they were conjoined.
LIBERIUS, Bishop of Rome, succeeded Julius I. in
352, during the dominancy of the semi-Arians Soon
L I B
after his accession, it is said, he excommunicated Atha- Liberty of
nasius, the great antagonist of Arianism; but when the thePress^
councils of Arles and Milan, overawed by the Emperor
Constantius, deposed that bishop in 355, Liberius, chang¬
ing his policy, could not be induced, either by compulsion
or blandishments, to sign the deposition. Hurried in
secrecy from Rome during the night, and carried before
the Emperor in Milan, he still remained faithful to Atha¬
nasius, and was banished to Bercea, in Macedonia. Alter
an exile of two years, however, he withdrew his protest,
and signed the semi-Arian creed of Sirmium. The Em¬
peror, overcome by the pertinacious petitions of the ladies
at Rome, then permitted him to share the management of
his see with Felix, who had succeeded during his banish¬
ment. The latter was forced to flee from popular violence,
and Liberius, left in the peaceful possession of his dignity,
expiated, it is said, his defection from orthodoxy, by a sincere
recantation. He died in 366.
Liberius is the reputed author of twelve epistles, pub¬
lished in Coustant’s Epistola Pontificum Romanorum,
Paris, 1721 ; and he is said to have built the Basilica, on
the Esquiline Mount, which from him has sometimes been
called Liberiana, but is now known as the Santa Maria
Maggiore.
LIBERTY OF THE PRESS.
I. nature and objects of the inquiry.
The task of pointing out which of the acts, capable of
being committed by the press, it would be expedient to
prohibit under penalties, we trust will be found to be greatly
diminished, by what has been already established in the
articles Government and Law.
There is scarcely a right, for the violation of which,
scarcely an operation of government, for the disturbance ot
which, the press may not be employed as an instrument.
The offences capable of being committed by the press are
indeed nearly co-extensive with the whole field of delin¬
quency.
It is not, however, necessary to give a separate defini¬
tion of every such violation or disturbance, when commit¬
ted by the press ; for that w ould be to write the penal code
a second time, first describing each offence as it appears
in ordinary cases, and then describing it anew for the case
in which the press is the particular instrument.
If, for the prevention of the violation of rights, it wrere
necessary to give a separate definition, on account of every
instrument which might be employed as a means of pro¬
ducing the several violations, the penal code would be end¬
less. In general, the instrument or means is an immate¬
rial circumstance. The violation itself, and the degree of
alarm which may attend it, are the principal objects of con¬
sideration. If a man is put in fear of his life, and robbed
of his purse, it is of no consequence whether he is threat¬
ened with a pistol or with a sword. In the definition of a
theft, of a fraud, or of a murder, it is not necessary to in¬
clude an account of all the sorts of means by which these
injuries may be perpetrated. It is sufficient if the injury
itself be accurately described. The object is to prevent
the injury, not merely when produced by one sort of means
or another sort of means, but by any means.
From these illustrations, it sufficiently appears, that, if
an accurate penal code were composed, defining the viola¬
tions of rights, and the disturbances of the operations of
government, to which penalties were to be annexed, every
offence capable of being committed by the press would be
defined without mentioning the press. It is no less evi¬
dent, that if we include in the term libel, as, to the great
encouragement of confusion, is generally done, all the of¬
fences capable of being committed by the press, we include
in the definition of libel all the definitions of the penal code.
As far as persons and property are concerned, the gene¬
ral definition of the acts by which rights are liable to be
violated, has always been held sufficient; and has been re¬
garded as including not less the cases in which the instru¬
mentality of the press has been employed, than those in
which any other means have been employed to the same
end. Nobody ever thought of a particular law for restrain¬
ing the press on account of the cases in which it may have
been rendered subservient to the perpetration of a murder
or a theft. It is enough that a law is made to punish him
who has been guilty of the murder or theft, whether he has
employed the press or any thing else as the means for ac¬
complishing his end.
There can be no doubt, however, that the press is an in¬
strument peculiarly adapted for the commission of injuries
against reputation, and for eftecting disturbance to the
operations of government, while it has no peculiar adap¬
tation for the commission of other offences. Here, too,
there is the greatest disposition to restrain the press within
improper limits. It is demanded of us, therefore, upon this
part of the subject, to enter into greater detaih
We are then to inquire, in the first place, What are the
acts of the press with respect to private reputation; and
next, What are the acts with respect to government, which
it is desirable that punishment should be employed to re¬
strain.
XI.—OFFENCES OF THE PRESS, WITH RESPECT TO PRIVATE
RIGHTS.
Agreeably to the principles which have been already
considered in the article Law, no act can be regarded as
an offence with respect to an individual, which is not a vio¬
lation of some of his rights.1
1 In the description which follows of that violation of rights which is most liable to be committed by the press, and of the mod*
LIBERTY OF THE PRESS.
liberty of In considering the rights which ought to be established
the Press. Mith respect to reputation, one proposition maybe assumed;
that every man should be considered as having a right to
the character which he deserves ; that is, to be spoken of
according to his actions.
Such Offences should be defined.
In what manner the definition of this right, which would
form a part of the civil code, should be expressed, is not
now the question ; it is evident there is no peculiar difficul¬
ty in the matter. As words, not thoughts, are the object of
legal cognizance, the right can only have respect to security
against certain words ; words, imputing to the individual
actions which he has not performed, or a disposition to cer¬
tain actions, without evidence that such a disposition exists.
Suppose that one man has instituted a suit against an¬
other, for the offence of having violated, through the press,
his right to some part of the reputation which he deserves.
In his ground of complaint he must affirm that the man has
imputed to him either the performance of actions which he
did not commit, or a disposition to certain actions, where
no evidence of such disposition can be given.
T. he words are produced; and the first question is, whether
they do or do not impute the actions which, in the com¬
plaint, or bill of accusation, they are alleged to impute ?
It is to be observed, that they who oppose the attempt
to define the offences, which, for shortness, we call the of¬
fences of the press, make use of such occasions as this to
raise their objections. How, they ask, can all the forms of
expression be defined, by which the imputation of such and
such actions may be, either more openly, or more covertly,
conveyed ? J
It is very evident that the question, on such an occasion,
whether the words do or do not impute such or such ac¬
tions, is a question of fact. The law says, that such and
wi ac^ons n°t be imputed, defining the actions.
Whether such and such a man has imputed such actions,
and whether by one set of words, or another set of words,
are questions of fact.
The law, when it said that such and such acts should
not be imputed to a man, could not determine whether A,
who is accused by B of having imputed to him one of those
acts, did so or not. That is to be determined by evidence
beaiing upon the point. One, and in general the main
article of that evidence, are the words which have been
used. What is the import of these words, or, which comes
to the same thing, what is the degree of proof involved in
them, is to be determined, as all questions respecting the
weight of evidence are, in each instance, to be determined,
by the tribunal before which the accusation is brought.
I he interpretation of words rests upon the same footing in
this, as in all other cases, that, for example, of a will. The
Jaw determines, that whatsoever disposition a man has made
with respect to his property, shall take effect after his
death. But whether A has left his manor of Dale to B, is
a matter of fact to be determined by evidence applying to
that particular point; principally by that arising from the
words of the will.
It may still be argued, by persons who do not easily re¬
nounce an opinion to which they have once given their
support, that the actions, the imputation of which, the le¬
gislature means to prohibit, cannot be defined.
But this is a position which cannot long be maintained,
t is huitful to a man, if he is believed to have com¬
mitted some actions, or to have a disposition to commit
them ; it is not hurtful in the case of others. Evidently it
361
is by imputation of the first sort alone, tnat any right with Liberty of
respect to reputation can be infringed. the Press.
I he acts which a man receives injury from being be-v~~Y~^/
lieved to have committed, or to be disposed to commit, are
either those to which the law has annexed penalties, or
those to which the penalties of public disrepute and dislike
are annexed.
With respect to those acts to which the law has annexed
penalties, as theft, murder, perjury, and so on, it will not
be pretended that there is any difficulty; the law has al¬
ready defined them, or ought to define them, and they may
be marked with perfect precision by a few words.
Those acts which it is hurtful to a man, solely on account
of the disrepute and dislike which they produce, to have it
believed that he has committed them, mav also be with
sufficient accuracy determined.
Compensation should be made to the Individual for Injuries
sustained by Offences of the Press.
The ends to be attained by punishment are, Reparation
to the individual to whom injury has been done, and Pre¬
vention of similar acts in future.
In the idea of all punishment, effectual reparation to the
injured individual is a necessary and essential ingredient.
Suppose, then, it were declared by the legislature that
every imputation to a man of acts which bring the evil
of dislike and disrepute upon him who has committed them,
that is, every false imputation, shall be punished at least
by reparation to be made to the party injured ; the term
evil is to this purpose perfectly precise. It would remain
with the complainant to show what kind and degree of in¬
jury he had received; which is a matter of fact, to be esti¬
mated, in each instance, from the evidence adduced, by
the tribunal before which the question is brought. If the
injury sustained is a pecuniary injury, the question coin¬
cides exactly with the question of damages, decided regu¬
larly, in English courts, as a question of fact, by the jury.
Injuiies of the kind which we are now considering can
affect a man only in two ways; either by lessening the
pecuniary value which he might otherwise have enjoyed,
or by lessening the marks of respect and affection which
he would otherwise have received. What the loss is, in
this latter instance, is also evidently a question of fact. It
has nothing, therefore, to do with the legal definition of the
offence, the business of the legislature. It is a question,
which, like other questions of fact, must of necessity be
determined upon evidence by the tribunal before which it
is brought. It is no doubt a question of delicacy, and
considerable difficulty, because the evidence must often
consist of very fine and minute circumstances, which can
seldom be precisely ascertained. But this is not the only
class of judicial questions, the determination of which de¬
pends upon such evidence as it is very difficult accurately
to collect and to weigh. What is of greatest importance,
on this occasion, to remark, is, that all the difficulty lies in
the matter of fact. There is no doubt or obscurity in the
law, which says, that whatsoever hurt a man has sustained
through actions or dispositions falsely imputed to him,
he shall receive compensation for. Difficulties, however,
arising either from the complexity of the matter of fact,
or the obscurity of the evidence, no legislative enactments
can prevent. These are confided to the skill and integrity
of the judge.
The compensation which ought to be made to a man
for the diminution of those marks of respect and affection
which he would otherwise have received, is a question for
Ihe^ind of t^reVder^f'the^arf^t"thfverv brfe/0™ Juris?rudenf ' in the arJicle Law; are understood to be present to
e not>tne very brief exposition here given will not be understood. o
MKJLf All I, r/4
362
LIBERTY OF THE PRESS.
Liberty of the legislature. Let us suppose that a soldier has been
the Press. accused of cowardice, in such a manner as to create a
^ general belief of the truth of the accusation; that a man
of honour has been accused of mendacity, or of some of
those irregular propensities to which the horror of the
public is attached ; it is evident that money is not, in such
cases, an appropriate compensation.
When a man, through the offence of another, has been
deprived of a certain amount of money, or of money’s
worth, we say that he has received compensation, when
he is placed in the same situation in which he would have
been if the offence had never taken place.
According to this idea of compensation, a man, against
whom an unfavourable opinion has been created by the
act of another man, has received compensation, when he
is placed in the same situation with regard to the opinion
of those with whom he is connected, as if that act had
not taken place. This, therefore, is the object which it
ought to be the endeavour of the legislature to effect.
One expedient is perfectly appropriate. It is, that the
man who has falsely propagated an unfavourable opinion
with respect to another, should be made to do whatever
is in his power to remove the impression he has made.
To this end, he should publish the sentence of the judge,
declaring that the action or disposition which he had im¬
puted to the individual injured, he had imputed to him
falsely. He should at least be made to publish it in every
way in which he had published the imputation. Frequent¬
ly a more extensive publication might be required.
In some cases, it will be allowed, that thus much would
suffice. It may, however, be affirmed, that often the im¬
pression would be too profoundly struck, to be effaced by
a mere knowledge of the sentence of the judge. In such
cases, something more in the way of compensation would
be required. On this, it is of importance to be observ¬
ed, that if the impression produced by an imputation,
which, after solemn inquiry, the judge has declared to be
false, should not, by that declaration, be completely ef¬
faced, it implies necessarily one of two things ; either that
the public have evidence of the truth of the accusation,
which was not adduced to the judge, and then the remain¬
ing impression is not owing to the imputation which the
judge has condemned, but to the evidence; or, secondly,
that the public mind is in a state of gross ignorance and
imbecility, capable of forming opinions, even on the clearest
subjects, not only not according to evidence, but in oppo¬
sition to it. If the public mind, however, is in such a de¬
plorable condition, it is the fault of the legislature; and
for the rectification of this evil, the best course undoubt¬
edly is, to take effectual measures for the instruction of
what are the motives by which men are incited to make Liberty oi
false imputations on the characters of others. t*ie ^ress-
These motives may be of three different sorts. A man
may derive pecuniary profit., he may derive comparative
distinction, or he may satisfy his desire of vengeance by
blackening the character of his neighbour.
In the case in which a man has by calumny wrongfully
intercepted the pecuniary receipts of his neighbour, the
obligation of making satisfaction to the party injured would,
it is obvious, alone suffice, provided the machinery of the
laws were sufficiently perfect to render the execution of
them certain. Seldom would any man calumniate his
neighbour for the sake of placing L.20 in his own pocket,
if he were sure that, next day, or next week, he would
have to restore it, with all the profit which might have
been made by the use of it, and with the disgrace besides
of having committed an action which other men abhor.
Sometimes, however, a man may derive pecuniary pro¬
fit from calumniating persons whom he has not by that
means deprived of any pecuniary advantage ; by the sale,
for example, of a slanderous publication ; when the satis¬
faction due to the individual may not be of a nature to
counteract the motive which leads to the offence. The
expedient in this case, also, is sufficiently obvious, and
sufficiently simple. It is necessary to ascertain the whole
of the gain which has been made by the offender, and to
take it away from him. This, together with the satisfac¬
tion which he ought to make to the injured individual,
would, if it were certain, create a surplus of motive to ab¬
stain from the injurious act.
In both of these cases, if the execution of the law is uncer¬
tain, an additional punishment may be necessary, sufficient
to compensate for the chance of escape. The allowance
to be made on this score must depend upon the imperfec¬
tion of the laws; while one important fact is to be kept
in remembrance, that as severity of punishment, beyond
a certain point, is increased, certainty of execution is di¬
minished. The true expedient, therefore, is to render
the machinery of the laws so perfect, that the penalties
which they denounce may always be sure of execution;
and then hardly any thing beyond compensation to the
individual, and the abstraction of any additional gain which
might have been made by the propagation of slander, would
be necessary to repress all offences against the reputation
of others, to which the motive was constituted by pecu¬
niary gain.
The two remaining cases are still more simple. If a
man propagates a falsehood, for the sake of injuring the
character of a man by whom his own consideration is
eclipsed, it is only when he expects to obtain by that
the"' people, which instruction would soon place them be- means a permanent advantage. If he knows that imme-
yond the danger of such delusions. In the mean time, if diately the law will take its hold upon him; that he will
something more than the publication of the sentence of be compelled to re-elevate the character of his neighbour,
the judge were necessary to restore a man to that degree and to proclaim his own disgrace, he will see that, to at-
of consideration, of which the false imputation had de- tempt depressing the character of another man by calum-
prived him, governments have numerous ways of raising ny, is the very worst of all expedients for giving a com-
the consequence of individuals; and no legislature would parative elevation to his own. The same is the result in
be at a loss for a gradation of expedients suited to the the case where vengeance constitutes the motive to in¬
scale of demand. ' jure ^ie reputation of another. To render this proposition
manifest, the most obvious illustration will suffice. No
Means tvhich should be used for preventing the Violation of
Rights by the Press.
We have now illustrated that part of this question which
regards compensation to the injured individual. It re¬
mains to inquire what is best to be done in this case, for
the attainment of the other object of punishment, namely,
the prevention of similar offences in time to come.
To devise a punishment sufficient to prevent an offence,
is to provide a motive sufficient to counteract the motive
which leads to the offence. We have hence to consider
man, to gratify his malignity to another person, would kill
his ox or his ass, provided he were sure that immediately
he would be obliged to make him full satisfaction; and in¬
stead of injuring the man whom he hated, to injure only
himself. No, the rudeness and inefficacy of the law,
holding out a chance of escaping the duty of making re¬
paration, is the sole origin and cause of all offences of this
description ; and if the law were placed in a state but
approaching to perfection, hardly any thing beside the
obligation of making satisfaction would be necessary to
repress the whole of this order of crimes.
b ptjr °f '^ie^ier ony Imputation by which Truth is not violated,
thePress^ should be considered an Offence by the Press.
LIBERTY OF THE PRESS.
363
We have now made considerable progress in this im¬
portant inquiry. We have ascertained, we think, with
sufficient evidence, all that is necessary to be done for
preventing injuries to the reputation of individuals; pro¬
vided the rights of reputation are not, by the civil code,
made to extend beyond the boundaries of truth. Whether
or not they ought to extend farther, and individuals ought
to be protected from the disclosure of acts which they
may have committed, is, we confess, a question highly
worthy of solution ; upon which, therefore, before we pro¬
ceed to any of the subsequent topics, we shall offer the fol¬
lowing reflections.
There can be no doubt that the feelings of the indivi¬
dual may be as painful, where actions of a disreputable
nature are truly, as where they are falsely, imputed to
him. It is equally certain, that no painful feelings ought
to be wilfully excited in any man, where no good, sufficient
to overbalance that evil, is its natural consequence.
We have already shown, that reputation is injured by
the imputation of acts of two different descriptions ; first,
those to which the law annexes penalties ; secondly, those
to which disrepute and the dislike of others are annexed.
With respect to those acts to which the law annexes
penalties, there is no room for uncertainty or dispute.
Unless the law is a bad law, which ought to be repealed
(this, we confess, constitutes an exception, and one which,
in very imperfect codes, extends a great way), the law
ought not to be disappointed of its execution. The man
who gives information against a murderer, or a thief, by
the press, or without the press, renders a public service,
and deserves not punishment, but reward.
It appears, therefore, that the question, whether a man
ought to be protected from the imputation of actions which
he has really committed, refers solely to those acts which,
without being punishable by the law, are attended with
disrepute ; acts, in other words, which the members of
the society disapprove and dislike.
The prospect of the immediate and public exposure of
all acts of this description, would be a most effectual ex¬
pedient to prevent their being committed. Men would
obtain the habit of abstaining from them, and would feel
it as little painful to abstain, as at present it is to any well
educated person to keep from theft, or those acts which
constitute the ill manners of the vulgar. The fable of
Momus has always been understood to carry an important
moral. He found grievous fault that a window had not
been placed in the breast of every man, by which, not his
actions alone, but his thoughts, might have been known.
The magnanimity of that Roman has been highly applaud¬
ed, who not only placed his residence in such a situation
that his fellow-citizens might see as much as possible of
his actions, but declared a wish that he could open to all
eyes his breast as well as his house.
If the hatred and contempt of the people, therefore,
were always rightly directed, and rightly proportioned,—
if they never operated against any actions but those which
were hurtful, either to the individual himself, or toothers,
and never, but in the degree in which they were hurtful,—
the case would be clear; the advantage which would be
derived from the true exposure of any man’s actions of
any sort, would exceed beyond calculation the attendant
evl. The great difficulty of insuring the practice of mo-
rahty, in those numerous and highly important cases to
which the legal sanction, or the security of pains and pe¬
nalties, does not extend, consists in the want of a motive
always present, and powerful enough to counteract the
instant motive which urges to the instant offence. That
motive almost every man would derive from the know¬
ledge that he had the eyes upon him of all those the good Liberty of
opinion of whom it was his interest to preserve; that no the Press,
immoral act of his would escape their observation, and a
proportionate share of their hatred and contempt. It is
in this view that the aid of religion has been sometimes
regarded as of importance to morality, suggesting the
idea of a high and constant observer. All motives, how¬
ever, are feeble, in proportion as the pains and pleasures
upon which they depend are distant, vague, or uncertain.
Divines agree with all other men in complaining of the trif¬
ling effect of religious motives upon the lives of the greater
number of men. From the nature of the prospect on which
these motives depend, they could not be less feeble than
they have been thus described. The case is not the same
with the motives arising from the sentiments which we
know we shall inspire in the breasts of our fellow-crea¬
tures. It is a matter of daily and incontrovertible expe¬
rience, that these are among the most powerful which
operate upon the human mind. The soldier rushes upon
death, and endures all the hardships and toils of his cruel
profession, that he may enjoy the admiration and escape
the contempt of his fellow-men. On what else is founded
the greatei part of all human pursuits ? How few, even
of those who toil at the meanest occupations, but exert
themselves to have something for show, something to make
an impression upon the eyes of those who surround them ?
I he very subject of the present inquiry derives from this
source the whole of its importance. The value of repu¬
tation is, indeed, but another name for the value which
we attach to the favourable and unfavourable sentiments
of our fellow-men.
It is, however, true, that their unfavourable sentiments
do not always fall where they ought; and this, we confess,
is a consideration of the highest importance. It very of¬
ten happens that men’s antipathies are excited to actions
from which no evil ensues, either to him who performs
them, or to any body else. If any man derives a pleasure
from such actions, it is to limit his sphere of innocent en-
joyment to debar him from them. And if the press ex¬
poses him to the antipathies, the hatred, and contempt of
his fellow-creatures, on account of those actions, it pro¬
duces an evil, uncompensated by the smallest portion of
good. lo an Indian .Brahmin, if he were known to have
eaten, even when starving, a morsel of food which had
been prepared by a Christian, the consequences would be
dreadful. Where the Roman Catholic religion is in vi¬
gour, a man who should indulge himself in animal food on
forbidden days would be regarded with horror. The use
of wine, however moderate, would render a Mahommedan
execrable to the whole of his tribe.
Ibis misdirection of the favourable and unfavourable
sentiments of mankind; in other words, this perversion
and corruption of their moral sentiments, has, in by far
the greater number of instances, been the work of priests,
contriving the means of increasing their influence. In
some very important instances, such, for example, as the
prejudices of birth, at one time in Europe so powerful as
to make men of low birth objects of the greatest contempt,
men of elevated birth objects of the highest veneration,
the perversion of the moral sentiments is evidently the
work of the aristocratical class, securing to themselves a
more easy dominion over the rest of their fellow-creatures.
It is, therefore, evident, that where antipathies, religious
or aristocratical, should prevail, the press would be hurt-
fully employed in giving notoriety to the facts which would
expose a man to the operation of either.
We have now ascertained the cases in which it would
not be good that men should be protected from the decla¬
ration of truth by the press, and also the cases in which it
ivould be good that they should be so protected.
What, upon this view of the subject, would be desirable,
LIBERTY OF THE PRESS.
though we perceive, that, to a considerable extent, there Liberty of
are cases, in respect to which it would be vain to hope for the Presn.
agreement in drawing the line of distinction between whats/'—
is hurtful and what is not, we are persuaded that prin¬
ciples might be laid down in which all would agree, and
which would serve to mark out certain cases for exception
with sufficient exactness. If any such cases could be se¬
parated, either of actions, which, though injurious to no¬
body, excited antipathies, or of facts, as those of birth, for
which, though a man was in no respect worse, he might
be regarded as worse; the exercise of truth, with regard
to them, might, on the express ground that they were ac¬
tions innoxious, or facts which ought to be of no import¬
ance in the estimate of human worth, be forbidden, when
injurious, under the penalty of at least making reparation
for all the injury of which it had been the cause.
is sufficiently clear. It would be desirable that, in the one
set of cases, the declaration should be allowed, in the other
it should not be allowed. Are the two sets of cases, how¬
ever, capable of being accurately distinguished ?
If the comparison is made with any attention, it will not
be difficult to determine that the evil to be incurred by the
loss of truth in the set of cases in which the declaration of
it would be useful, is much greater than that which would
arise from permitting the declaration in the cases in which
it would be hurtful.
In the first place, the set of cases in which the declara¬
tion would be useful are much more numerous, and much
more important, than those in which, in any tolerably civi¬
lized state of society, it would be hurtful. Those in which
it would be useful embrace the whole field of morality, all
those acts, the performance of which, on account of their
singular importance, has been elevated to the rank of vir¬
tues. Every body believes and proclaims, that the univer¬
sal practice of the moral virtues would insure the highest
measure of human happiness; no one doubts that the
misery which, to so deplorable a degree, overspreads the
globe, while men injure men, and, instead of helping and
benefiting, supplant, defraud, mislead, pillage, and oppress
one another, would thus be nearly exterminated, and some¬
thing better than the dreams of the golden age would be
realized upon earth. Toward the attainment of this most
desirable state of things, nothing in the world is capable of
contributing so much as the full exercise of truth upon all
immoral actions, that is, all actions, the practice of which is
calculated to lessen the amount of human happiness. Ac¬
cording to this view, the justice of which it is impossible to
dispute, the evil incurred by forbidding the declaration of
truth upon all immoral actions is incalculable. That which
would be incurred by the antipathies of misguided minds
against actions innocent in themselves, nobody, we should
imagine, would so much as think of placing in comparison.
In our own country, for example, the classes of actions
which, though they injure nobody, expose a man to the
unfavourable sentiments of others, are not numerous. The
number of persons who would be exposed to inconvenience
on account of the declaration of truth in regard to them,
would be small in comparison with those who would bene¬
fit by its declaration in the case of all really hurtful acts.
It is, indeed, important to be observed, that a compara¬
tive smallness of number is necessarily implied in the sup¬
position of injury from any unfounded antipathy. Those
who share in the antipathy, of course, abstain from the ac¬
tion. And unless the antipathy were so general as to in¬
clude almost the whole of the society, it would lose its in¬
jurious effect. Besides, all the injury which can be done
to the individuals against whom truth would in this man¬
ner operate injuriously, would be, to make them abstain
from the acts which were thus condemned.
Another thing to be considered is, that the whole of the
evil arising from the exercise of truth is dependent upon
an accidental circumstance, capable of being removed; upon
a mental disease, requiring to be cured, which the legisla¬
ture ought to be constantly endeavouring to cure, and to¬
ward the cure of which truth is likely to operate as the
most effectual of all expedients. If any considerable in¬
convenience were experienced from exposure to unfounded
antipathies, in consequence of the publication of truth, the
groundlessness of these antipathies could not fail in this
case to be so often canvassed, and made to appear, that at
last it would become familiar to the multitude, and the an¬
tipathies would expire.
It clearly, therefore, appears, that, if the cases in which
the declaration of truth would expose to unfounded pre¬
judices could not be clearly defined, and separated from
the cases in which the declaration would be salutary, the
rule of permitting truth ought to be universal. But,
III.—OFFENCES OF THE PRESS WITH RESPECT TO GOVERN¬
MENT.
We have now explained, we trust with sufficient clear¬
ness for the present occasion, the principles upon which
laws should be constructed for protecting the rights of in¬
dividuals against violations committed by the press. The
first part of this inquiry, therefore, we must consider as
completed. In the second part we have to explain the
principles upon which they should be constructed for pro¬
tecting the operations of government.
Exhortations to obstnict the Operations of Government in
detail should, Exhortations to resist all the Powers of
Government at once should not, be considered Offences.
Unless a door is left open to resistance of the govern¬
ment, in the largest sense of the word, the doctrine of
passive obedience is adopted; and the consequence is,
the universal prevalence of misgovernment, insuring the
misery and degradation of the people. On the other hand,
unless the operations of government, instituted for the
protection of rights, are secured from obstruction, the
security of rights, and all the advantages dependent
upon the existence of government, are at an end. Be¬
tween these two securities, both necessary to obtain the
benefits of good government, there appears to be such a
contrariety, that the one can only be obtained by the sa¬
crifice of the other.
As this difficulty, however, arises chiefly from the ex¬
tent of the terms, a close inspection of the cases which
they involve, and which they have a tendency to confuse,
will enable us to discover the course which it belongs to
practical wisdom to pursue.
It is necessary, first of all, to ascertain what sort of ob¬
structions are inconsistent, and what are not inconsistent,
with those operations of government which are necessary
for the protection of rights.
The application of physical force to resist the govern¬
ment in applying to the execution of the laws the physi¬
cal power placed at its disposal by the law, is such an ob¬
struction of the operations of government, as would, if fre¬
quent, render it inadequate to the ends which it is provided
to secure. This application of force, therefore, must be
treated as an offence; and any thing proceeding from the
press, tending directly to produce it, as a similar offence.
This proposition requires to be illustrated. The appli¬
cation of physical force which is here described, and treat¬
ed as an evil, is clearly distinguishable from that resistance
of government which is the last security of the many
against the misconduct of the few. This is an application
of physical force to obstruct the operations of government
in detail; the proceedings, for example, of a court of jus-
LIBERTY OF THE PRESS. 365
Liberty of tice ; the proceedings of the legislative organ, or the pro-
the Press, ceedings of any of the administrative functionaries, in the
execution of the duties with which they are charged.
This is not that species of resistance which is necessary,
in the last resort, to secure the people against the abuse
of the powers of government. This last is not a resistance
to the operations of government in detail. It is a resis¬
tance to all the powers of government at once, either to
withdraw them from the hands in which they have hi¬
therto been deposited, or greatly to modify the terms
upon which they are held.
Even this last species of resistance it may be necessary
to punish, at least in a certain degree, whenever it is not
successful; that society may not be disturbed by commo¬
tions which the majority of the people disapprove. This,
however, is a question which belongs to the penal code
in general, and does not concern the inquiry into the of¬
fences capable of being committed by the press ; because
we think it may be satisfactorily shown, that no operation
of the press, however directly exhorting to this species of
resistance, ought to be treated as an offence.
The reason is, that no such exhortation can have any
immediate or formidable effect; can, indeed, have any
effect at all, except through such mediums as ought to be
at all times perfectly free. Suppose that a work is pub¬
lished, exhorting the people in general to take arms against
the government, for the purpose of altering it against the
consent of its rulers. The people cannot take arms against
the government without the certainty of being imme¬
diately crushed, unless there has been already created a
general consent. If this consent exists in such perfection
as to want nothing to begin action but an exhortation,
nothing can prevent the exhortation; and forbidding it is
useless. If the consent does not exist in nearly the last
degree of perfection, a mere exhortation, read in print,
can have no effect which is worth regarding. In all cir¬
cumstances, therefore, it is useless, and consequently ab¬
surd, to treat this species of exhortation as an offence.
If, on the other hand, it were clearly recognised, that
every man had a license to exhort the people to the ge¬
neral resistance of the government, all such exhortations
would become ridiculous, unless on those rare and ex¬
treme occasions on which no prohibitions and no penal¬
ties can or ought to prevent them. The doctrine of this
paragraph, which will appear somewhat startling and pa¬
radoxical to minds accustomed only to a certain train of
ideas, will receive illustration, and we trust will be amply
confirmed, as we proceed.
Having mentioned this as a grand exception, we now
return to the cases in which not only physical force ap¬
plied to obstruct the operations of government, but the
publishing of exhortations to that obstruction, ought to
be treated as an offence. These relate solely, as above
remarked, to the operations of government in detail. Ob¬
structions, it is evident, may be offered to the operations
in detail of a government which possesses and deserves
the fullest confidence of the community at large ; and the
press may he employed in directly and efficiently exciting
to these obstructions. A hand-bill, for example, distri¬
buted at a critical moment, and operating upon an in
flamed state of mind, in a narrow district, may excite a
mob to disturb the proceedings of a court of justice, to
obstruct public officers in the execution of their duties,
or even to disturb, on this or that occasion, the delibera¬
tions of the legislature itself.
Ihese are clearly hurtful acts ; they may be very ac¬
curately defined; and penalties, of moderate severity,
would be sufficient to deter from the performance of them.
Satisfaction by the party offending to the party injured,
would often, in offences of this description, be out of the
question ; because there would be no definite party to
whom an injury would be occasioned. It would only be liberty of
necessary to ascertain the sorts of motives by which suchthe r>ress-
offences would be liable to be produced, and to apply
skilfully, as in other cases, motives of an opposite ten¬
dency, sufficient to counteract them. This would not be
more difficult in this than in other cases, and it is not,
therefore, necessary to explain at any length the mode of
performing it.
One principle is to be carefully and most religiously
observed, that of not imposing an atom of punishment for
the purposes of vengeance. This is a principle, the just¬
ness and importance of which are so completely recog¬
nised, that we might have expected to be relieved ere
now from the necessity of recommending attention to it.
The fact, however, is, that so long as there are abuses in
governments, so long will the men, who have the means
of profiting by those abuses, exert themselves to multiply
the list of offences against government, and to apply to
them punishments of the greatest severity.
Punishments for contempt of court; punishments to
vindicate the honour of the court, of the government, of
the magistracy ; punishments for the support of dignity ;
punishments severe in proportion as the dignity of the
party offended is supposed to be high, and so on, are
punishments almost always applied for purposes of ven¬
geance, or the protection of the instruments of abuse.
They are punishments, therefore, which will be rigidly
excluded from a code which wisely and steadily pursues
the general good.
Of Exhortations to obstruct the Operations of Government
in detail, there are two Sorts: 1. The Direct; 2. The
Implied, or Constructive.
What the sort of acts are, to which the exhortations of
the press ought not to be applied, has been so far ascer¬
tained. The next point is, to determine with accuracy
what sort of exhortation it is that ought to be forbidden.
To all those who profit by the abuses of government,
that is, more especially, to all those who, in a defective
government, wield any of its powers, it is of great impor¬
tance to leave as undefined as possible the sort of exhor¬
tation that ought to be forbidden. The point of greatest
importance to them is, to keep the people at large from
complaining, or from knowing or thinking that they have
any ground of complaint. If this object is fully attained,
they may then, without anxiety, and without trouble, riot
in the pleasures of misrule: there is no limit to the de¬
gree in which the few may pursue their own advantage at
the expense of the many.
There can be nothing, therefore, in which they have
a greater interest, than preventing the press from being
employed in any such way as will lead the people to
think that they have any thing, on the part of their rulers,
of which to complain. All artifices possible will be sure
to be employed to effect that prevention. And if it is en¬
acted, that exhortations to acts which obstruct the ope¬
rations of government in detail should be punished, with¬
out defining accurately what sort of exhortations, they will
easily find expedients; which will, to a great extent, ac¬
complish their purpose.
Under the sort of constructions which it will be their
interest to apply, every thing which can be done by the
press to make the people know or believe that there is
any thing in the system of their government, or the con¬
duct of their rulers, of which they have to complain, may
be treated as an exhortation to obstruct the operations of
government. Of these constructions our experience af¬
fords innumerable examples. Does not the imputing of
defects to the government, or misconduct to those who
wield the powers of government, tend to bring both “ into
LIBERTY OF THE PRESS.
366
Liberty of hatred and contempt?” And if the people hate and con-
the Press, temn the institutions and rulers of their country, will
they not oppose their operations? The imputing of these
faults, therefore, is it not, in essence and effect, an exhor¬
tation to oppose the operations of government ? And are
we to be governed, in our legislature, by the mere forms
in which a set of words may appear, and not by our know¬
ledge of their nature and consequences ?
This is not only exceedingly plausible, but almost all
the propositions which it involves are true. It is thus,
therefore, the more easy to establish such a mode of in¬
terpreting an indefinite law of the press, as will prevent,
or, where the people cannot yet bear a total prevention,
will go far towards preventing, whatever can lead the
people to believe that any thing is amiss in the manner in
which they are ruled.
There are two species of exhortations, the one explicit
and direct, the other implied and constructive. In the
one, a particular act is pointed out, and the party or par¬
ties addressed are called upon to perform it. In the
other, certain grounds are only laid, from which the opi¬
nion of the addresser, that the act ought to be performed,
may, with more or less certainty, be inferred.
With respect to the first, there is no occasion for doubt.
A direct and explicit exhortation to commit one of those
acts, described above as obstructing the operations of go¬
vernment in detail, should be treated as an offence. The
precise question is, whether any exhortation, which is
only implied and constructive, should be considered an
offence ? In the answer to this question, almost every
thing which relates to the use of the press in matters of
government will be found to be involved.
Exhortations which are Implied and Constructive, ought not
to he punished.
We have already divided the subject of resistance to
government into two parts ; first, that general resistance,
the object of which is some great change in the govern¬
ment at large; and, secondly, resistance to this or that of
its operations in detail.
We have already adduced an argument, which appears
to us to be conclusive, to show that no exhortation, whe¬
ther explicit or implied, direct or indirect, the object or
tendency of which is to produce the first species of re¬
sistance, ought to be subject to legal restraint.
It is necessary here to enter a little more fully into the
grounds of that opinion.
We think it will appear, with sufficient evidence, that,
in the way of indirect exhortation to resistance, that is,
in laying the grounds of dissatisfaction with the govern¬
ment, there is no medium between allowing every thing
and allowing nothing; that the end, in short, which is
sought to be gained, by allowing any thing to be publish¬
ed in censure of the government, cannot be obtained,
without leaving it perfectly free to publish every thing.
The end which is sought to be obtained by allowing
any thing to be said in censure of the government, is, to
censure the goodness of the government; the most im¬
portant of all the objects to the attainment of which the
wisdom of man can be applied. If the goodness of go¬
vernment could be insured by any preferable means, it is
evident that all censure of the government ought to be
prohibited. All discontent with the government is only
good, in so far as it is a means of removing real cause of
discontent. If there is no cause, or if there is better
means of removing the cause, the discontent is, of course,
an evil, and that which produces it an evil.
So true it is, however, that the discontent of the people
is the only means of removing the defects of vicious go¬
vernments, that the freedom of the press, the main instru¬
ment of creating discontent, is, in all civilized countries, Liberty of
among all but the advocates of misgovernment, regarded tlie Press,
as an indispensable security, and the greatest safeguard '
of the interests of mankind.
For what is meant by a vicious government ? or where¬
in do the defects of government consist ? Most assuredly
they all consist in sacrificing the interests of the many to
the interests of the few. The small number, in whose
hands the powers of government are, in part directly, in
part indirectly, placed, cannot fail, like other men, to have
a greater regard for what is advantageous to themselves,
than what is advantageous to other men. They pursue,
therefore, their own advantage, in preference to that of
the rest of the community. That is enough. Where there
is nothing to check that propensity, all the evils of mis¬
government, that is, in one word, the very worst evils by
which human nature is afflicted, are the inevitable con¬
sequence.
There can be no adequate check without the freedom
of the press. The evidence of this is irresistible. In all
countries, the people either have a power legally and
peaceably of removing their governors, or they have not
that power. If they have not that power, they can only
obtain any considerable ameliorations of their govern¬
ments by resistance, by applying physical force to their
rulers, or, at least, by threats so likely to be followed by
performance, as may frighten their rulers into compliance.
But resistance, to have this effect, must be general. To
be general, it must spring from a general conformity of
opinion, and a general knowledge of that conformity.
How is this effect to be produced, but by some means,
fully enjoyed by the people, of communicating their sen¬
timents to one another ? Unless where the people can
all meet in general assembly, there is no other means of
attaining this object, to be compared with the freedom of
the press.
It is, no doubt, true, that in countries where the liber¬
ty of the press is unknown, bad governments are frequent¬
ly overthrown. This is almost always accomplished by the
military force, revenging some grievance of their own, or
falling in with some heat and animosity of the people.
But does it ever enable them to make a new government,
in which any greater security is provided for their in¬
terests than there was before ? In such cases, the people
get rid of one set of rulers, whom they hate, only to ob¬
tain another set, with equal powers of doing them injury.
There are, however, we believe, some people who say,
that though the liberty of the press is a necessary instru¬
ment to attain good government, yet, if it is fairly attain¬
ed, and if legal and peaceable means are in the hands of
the people of removing their governors for misconduct;
if the people of England, for example, really chose the
members of the House of Commons, and renewed their
choice so frequently, as to have the power of removal af¬
ter a short experience of misconduct; the freedom of the
press would be unnecessary.
So far is this from being true, that it is doubtful whe¬
ther a power in the people of choosing their own rulers,
without the liberty of the press, would be an advantage.
Freedom of Censure on the Conduct of their Rulers, is ne¬
cessary for the good of the People.
It is perfectly clear that all chance of advantage to the
people, from having the choice of their rulers, depends
upon their making a good choice. If they make a bad
choice, if they elect people either incapable, or disin¬
clined, to use well the power intrusted to them, they in¬
cur the same evils to which they are doomed when they
are deprived of the due control over those by whom their
affairs are administered.
LIBERTY OF THE PRESS.
Liberty of We may then ask, if there are any possible means by
the Press. which the people can make a good choice, besides the
liberty of the press ? The very foundation of a good choice
is knowledge. The fuller and more perfect the know¬
ledge, the better the chance, where all sinister interest
is absent, of a good choice. How can the people receive
the most perfect knowledge relative to the characters of
those who present themselves to their choice, but by in¬
formation conveyed freely, and without reserve, from one
to another ?
There is another use of the freedom of the press, no
less deserving the most profound attention, that of mak¬
ing known the conduct of the individuals who have been
chosen. This latter service is of so much importance,
that upon it the whole value of the former depends.
This is capable of being rigidly demonstrated. No be¬
nefit is obtained by making choice of a man who is well
qualified to serve the people, and also well inclined to
serve them, if you place him in a situation in which he
will have preponderant motives to serve himself at their
expense.
If any set of men are chosen to wield the powers of
government, while the people have not the means of
knowing in what manner they discharge their duties, they
will have the means of serving themselves at the expense
of the people; and all the miseries of evil government
are the certain consequence.
Suppose the people to choose the members of the le¬
gislative assembly, with power of rechoosing or dismissing
them at short intervals; to what desirable end could
these powers be exercised, without the liberty of the press?
Suppose that any one of those whom they have chosen
has misconducted himself, or promoted, as far as depend¬
ed upon him, the ends of misgovernment, how are the
people to know that the powers with which they had in¬
trusted him had been treacherously employed ?
If they do not know, they will rechoose him, and that as
cordially as the man who has served them with the great¬
est fidelity. This they are under a deplorable necessity
of doing, even to be just; for, as they know no difference
between him and the best, it would be on their part ini¬
quity to make any. The consequences would be fatal.
If one man saw that he might promote misrule for his
own advantage, so would another; so of course would
they all. In these circumstances we see laid the founda¬
tion on which, in every country, bad government is reared.
On this foundation it is impossible that it should not be
reared. When the causes are the same, who can expect
that the effects will be different ? It is unnecessary to
. dwell upon these fundamental truths, because they underlie
every consideration of the theory of government.
Without the knowledge, then, of what is done by their
representatives, in the use of the powers intrusted to
them, the people cannot profit by the power of choosing
them, and the advantages of good government are unat¬
tainable. It will not surely cost many words to satisfy
all classes of readers, that, without the free and unrestrain¬
ed use of the press, the requisite knowledge cannot be
obtained.
I hat an accurate report of what is done by each of
the lepresentatives, a transcript of his speeches, and a
statement of his propositions and votes, is necessary to
be laid before the people, to enable them to judge of his
conduct, nobody, we presume, will deny. This requires
j j USie °i 116 c^eaPest means of communication, and, we
add, the nee use of those means. Unless every man has
the liberty of publishing the proceedings of the legisla¬
tive assembly, the people can have no security that they
are fairly published. If it is in the power of their rulers
to permit one person, and forbid another, the people may
be sure that a false report, that is, a report calculated to
367
make them believe that they are well governed when they Liberty of
are ill governed, will be often presented to them. the Press.
One thing more is necessary, and so necessary, that if
it is wanting, the other might as well be wanting also.
The publication of the proceedings tells what is done.
This, however, is useless, unless a correct judgment is
passed upon what is done.
.We have brought this inquiry, then, to an important
point. From the very theory of government we may see that,
unless the people held in their own hands an effectual power
of control on the acts of their government, the govern¬
ment will be inevitably vicious. We have now seen that
they cannot exercise this control to any beneficial pur¬
pose, without the means of forming a correct judgment
upon the conduct of their representatives. We have like¬
wise seen, that one of the means necessary to enable them
to judge correctly of the conduct of their representatives,
is the liberty to every body of publishing reports of what
they do. It remains to inquire by what other acts the
press can be made to contribute to the same desirable end.
What is wanted is, that all the people, or as many of
them as possible, should estimate correctly the conse¬
quences of the acts proposed or done by their representa¬
tives, and also that they should know what acts might
have been proposed, if the best were not proposed, from
which better consequences would have followed. This
end would be accomplished most effectually, if those who
are sufficiently enlightened would point out to those who
are in danger of mistakes, the true conclusions; and, show¬
ing the weight of evidence to be in their favour, should
obtain for them the universal assent.
How is this to be accomplished ? In what manner are
those wise men to be chosen ? And who are to be the
choosers ? Directly the object cannot be attained. There
are no distinct and indubitable marks by which wisdom,
and less by which integrity, is to be known. And who is
to be trusted with the privilege of pointing them out ?
They whose judgment requires to be directed are not
well qualified to determine who shall direct them. And
if the rulers are to choose, they will employ none but
those who will act in conformity to their views, and en¬
able them to benefit themselves by the pillage and op¬
pression of the people.
As there is no possible organ of choice, no choice what¬
ever ought to be made. If no choice is to be made, every
man that pleases ought to be allowed. All this is indu¬
bitable. I he consequences of denying any part of it are
so obvious, that hardly any man, we suppose, will risk the
imputations to which such a denial would justly expose
him.
I hey who say that no choice ought to be made, say, in
effect, that no limit whatsoever ought to be imposed upon
the liberty of the press. The one of these propositions
is involved in the other. To impose any restraint upon
the liberty of the press, is undoubtedly to make a choice.
If the restraint is imposed by the government, it is the
government that chooses the directors of the public mind.
If any government chooses the directors of the public
mind, that government is despotic.
Suppose that, by the restraint imposed upon the liberty
of the press, all censure of the government is forbidden ;
here is undoubtedly a choice. The government, in this
case, virtually says, the people who might attempt the
task of directing the public mind are of two sorts; one,
those who would censure ; another, those who would not
censure ; I choose the latter.
Suppose that not every censure, but only such and such
kinds of censure, are forbidden ; here, again, is still a
choice, while confessedly there is no party to whom the
power of choosing for the rest can with safety be given.
If not every censure, but only some censures, are to be
368 LIBERTY OF THE PRESS.
Liberty of forbidden, what are those to which the prohibition should
the Press, extend? The answer to this question will elucidate near-
]y aii that yet remains in any degree obscure of the doc¬
trine of the liberty of the press.
It will not be said that any censure which is just should
be forbidden ; because that would undoubtedly be to de¬
tract from the means of enabling the people to form cor¬
rect judgments; and we have, we trust, rendered it indis¬
putable that no source of benefit to society is at all to be
compared with that of correct judgments, on their govern¬
ment and its functionaries, formed by the people, and de¬
termining their actions.
But what censures are just and what are unjust; in other
words, what are the conclusions which ought to be formed
respecting the properties and the acts of the govern¬
ment, is exactly the point to be determined. If you say
that no man is to pass an unjust censure upon the govern¬
ment, who is to judge? It is surely-unnecessary to repeat
the proof of the proposition, that there is nobody who can
safely be permitted to judge. The path of practical wisdom
is as clear as day : all censures must be permitted equally,
just and unjust.
Where various conclusions are formed among a num¬
ber of men, upon a subject on which it would be unsafe,
and therefore improper, to give any minor portion of them
a power of determining for the rest, only one expedient
remains. Fortunately, that is an expedient, the opera¬
tion of which is powerful, and its effects beneficial in the
highest degree. All the conclusions which have formed
themselves in the minds of different individuals should
be openly adduced, and the power of comparison and
choice should be granted to all. Where there is no mo¬
tive to attach a man to error, it is natural to him to em¬
brace the truth ; especially if pains are taken to adapt
the explanation to his capacity. Every man possessed
of reason is accustomed to weigh evidence, and to be
guided and determined by its preponderance. When va¬
rious conclusions are, with their evidence, presented with
equal care and with equal skill, there is a moral certainty,
though some few may be misguided, that the greater
number will judge right, and that the greatest force of
evidence, wherever it is, will produce the greatest im¬
pression.
As this is a proposition upon which everything de¬
pends, it is happy that the evidence of it should be so
very clear and striking. There is, indeed, hardly any
law of human nature more generally recognised, wherever
there is not a motive to deny its existence. “ To the
position of Tully, that if Virtue could be seen, she must
be loved, may be added,” says Dr Johnson, “that if Truth
could be heard, she must be obeyed.” {Rambler, No.
87.) “Je vous plains, mes Peres,” says M. Pascal to
* the Jesuists “ d’avoir recours a de tels remedes. Vous
croyez avoir la force et I’impunite : mais je crois avoir la
verite, et finnocence. C’est une etrange et longue guerre
que celle ou la violence essaie d’opprimer la verite. Tous
les efforts de la violence ne peuvent affoiblir la verite, et
ne servent qu’a la relever d’avantage : toutes les lumieres
de la verite ne peuvent rien pour arreter la violence, et
ne font que I’irriter encore plus. Quand la force combat
la force, la plus puissante detruit la moindre: quand 1’on
expose les discours aux discours, ceux qui sont veritables
et convainquants confondent et dissipent ceux qui n’ont
que la vanite et le mensonge.” {Lettres Provinciates, 12.)—
“Reason,” says Burke, “ clearly and manfully delivered,
has in itself a mighty force; but reason, in the mouth of
legal authority, is, I may fairly say, irresistible.” {Letter
on a Regicide Peace?)
It is of importance to show how many of the greatest
men, of all ages and countries, have borne testimony to
the prevalence of true over false conclusions, when both
are fairly offered to the human mind. “ Truth,” says Mr Liberty of
Locke, “ certainly would do well enough, if she were the Press-
once left to shift for herself. She seldom has received,
and I fear never will receive, much assistance from the
power of great men, to whom she is but rarely known,
and more rarely welcome. She is not taught by laws,
nor has she any need of force to procure her entrance
into the minds of men.” {Letter on Toleration?) The
following is the emphatical language of Montesquieu :—
“ La raison a un empire naturel; elle a meme un empire
tyrannique: on lui resiste, mais cette resistance est son
triomphe, encore un peu de temps, et Ton sera force de
revenir a elle.” {Esprit de Loix, 1. xxviii., ch. 38.) “ It
is noted out of Cicero, by Machiavel, that the people,
though they are not so prone to find out truth of them¬
selves, as to follow custom, or run into error, yet if they
be shown truth, they not only acknowledge and embrace
it very suddenly, but are the most constant and faithful
guardians and conservators of it.” {Harrington?) “ The
labour of a confutation,” says Chillingworth, “ I have not
in any place found such labour or difficulty, but that it
was undertakeable by a man of very mean abilities; and
the reason is, because it is Truth I plead for; which is
so strong an argument for itself, that it needs only light
to discover it.” {Religion of Protestants?) About things
on which the public thinks long,” says Dr Johnson, “ it
commonly attains to think right.” {Life of Addison.)
“ The adversary,” says Dr Campbell, “ is both subtile and
powerful. With such an adversary, I should on very un¬
equal terms enter the lists, had I not the advantage of being
on the side of truth. And an eminent advantage this
doubtless is. It requires but moderate abilities to speak in
defence of a good cause. A good cause demands but a
distinct exposition, and a fair hearing; and we may say,
with great propriety, it will speak for itself.” (Campbell on
?M?iracles, Introd.)
We have, then, arrived at the following important con¬
clusions, viz.,—That there is no safety to the people in allow¬
ing anybody to choose opinions for them ; that there are
no marks by which it can be decided beforehand what opi¬
nions are true and what are false; that there must, there¬
fore, be equal freedom of declaring all opinions, both true
and false ; and that, when all opinions, true and false, are
equally declared, the assent of the greater number, when
their interests are not opposed to them, may always be ex¬
pected to be given to the true. These principles, the
foundation of which appears to be impregnable, suffice for
the speedy determination of every practical question.
All censure thrown upon the government, all censure
thrown either upon the institutions of the government, or
upon the conduct of any of the functionaries of govern¬
ment, supreme or subordinate, has a tendency to produce
resistance to the government.
Of the censures thrown upon government, some may
have a tendency to produce resistance to the operations of
government in detail; others that general resistance which
has in view some great alteration in the government.
Of the first sort would be any such accusation of the
conduct and disposition of a judge as might excite the
people, whose sympathies were roused in favour of the in¬
dividual against whom his sentence was to operate, to res¬
cue him from the officers of justice. We have already
shown that such a rescue ought to be punished, and any
direct exhortation to it ought to be punished. It will now
be evident, we trust, that no censure on the judge, though
capable of being treated as an indirect exhortation, ought
to be punished.
The reason is conclusive. The people ought to know,
if possible, the real qualities of the actions of those who
are intrusted with any share in the management of their
affairs. This they have no chance of knowing, without the
LIBERTY OF THE PRESS.
369
Liberty of unlimited power of censure upon those actions, both in
the Press, gross and detail. To see the full force of these proposi-
tions, it is only necessary to apply the principles which
have been already established.
If the people have not the means of knowing the actions
of all public functionaries, they have no security for the
good conduct even of their representatives. Suppose it is
the duty of their representatives to watch the conduct of
the judges, and secure the perfection of judicature, the
people cannot know whether their representatives perform
this duty, unless they know what the conduct of the judges
is. Ignorance of this would of itself suffice to vitiate the go¬
vernment. A door would be left open, through which the
rulers might benefit themselves at the expense of the
people. All the profit to be made by an abuse of the
power of justice, would thus become the profit of the re¬
presentatives, by whom it would be allowed and encou¬
raged, as far as the knowledge which they could not with¬
hold from the people would permit.
That the people ought, therefore, to know the conduct
of their judges, and when we say judges we mean every
other functionary, and the more perfectly the better, may
be laid down as indubitable. They are deprived of all
trust-worthy means of knowing, if any limit whatsoever is
placed to the power of censure.
All censure consists in the delivery of an unfavourable
opinion, with or without the grounds of it. This is the
essence of censure. But if the conduct of the judge de¬
serves that an unfavourable opinion should be entertained
of it, the more perfectly that is known to the people the
better.
The conduct of the judge, on this occasion, says a de¬
fender, does not deserve an unfavourable opinion. A pub¬
lic expression of such an opinion ought, therefore, to be
prohibited. But there are occasions on which the conduct
of judges deserves an unfavourable opinion. When it is
deserved, there is no security for good government, unless
it is allowed to be made known. How can you allow an
unfavourable opinion to be delivered in the one case, and
not delivered in the other ? To have the benefit of it in
the one case, you must submit to the evil of it in the
other.
f/i matters of Government, undeserved Praise is as mischie¬
vous as undeserved Blame.
As the real point of importance is, to establish correct
opinions in the minds of the people, it is as mischievous to
inculcate a favourable opinion when an unfavourable is de¬
served, as an unfavourable when a favourable is deserved ;
and, in the eye of reason, it is incontrovertible, that, if the
one deserves to be prevented by punishment, so does the
other.
But if an unfavourable opinion is pronounced of any
public functionary—of a judge, for example—would you
have it left uncontradicted ? Would you not grant the li¬
berty of calling in question the truth of the allegations,
and of supporting a different opinion ? If not, the charac¬
ter of no public functionary would be safe, and any man,
however deserving, might be made to appear the proper
object of the most unfavourable sentiments. Why should
not the two cases be treated equally ? Why should not the
favourable, as well as the unfavourable opinion, be open to
contradiction.
It is perfectly certain, that it is not in the power of law
to mark out, by antecedent definition, any sort of men, of
whom it can say, all opinions favourable to such men shall
be punished. It can never be affirmed of any men before¬
hand, that they will certainly perform such and such inju¬
rious actions. It they do not perform them, all declara¬
tions conformable with the matter of fact are good. But
vol. xm.
the question is, whether they have performed them ? One Liberty of
man affirms that they have. Is that to be taken for granted ? the Press.
And is no man to be allowed to affirm the contrary, and to
sift the grounds upon which the allegations of the other
man are supported ? It is by weighing well the evidence
on both sides that a well-founded opinion is capable of be¬
ing formed. And it is certain, that the best security for
having the evidence on both sides fully adduced, and the
strength and weakness of it perfectly disclosed, is by per¬
mitting all those who are attached to different opinions to
do what they can for the support of them.
If it is evident that it ought not to be permitted to speak
evil of public functionaries without limit, while any limit is
put to the power of speaking well of them; it is equally
evident that, for the purpose of forming a correct opinion
of their conduct, it ought not to be permitted to speak well
of them, and oppose any limit whatsoever to the power of
speaking ill of them.
It ought not to be permitted to speak evil of them with¬
out an equal liberty of speaking well; because, in that case,
the evidence against them might be made to appear much
stronger than it was. It ought not to be permitted to
speak well of them without an equal liberty of speaking ill;
because, in that case, the evidence in favour of them
might be made to appear much greater than it really was.
In either case, the people would be misguided, and de¬
frauded of that moral knowledge of the conduct of their
rulers, the paramount importance of which has so fully ap¬
peared.
It may be said (as by the short-sighted, if we did not
anticipate them, it would be said), that if, by limiting the
power of censure, the people are made to judge more fa¬
vourably of their rulers than they deserve, the evil is small;
but if they are permitted to form a very unfavourable opi¬
nion, the consequences are alarming.
We believe it may be rigidly demonstrated, that no
evils are greater than those which result from a more fa¬
vourable opinion of their rulers, on the part of the people,
than their rulers deserve ; because just as far as that undue
favour extends, bad government is secured. By an opi¬
nion of their rulers more favourable than they deserve, is
implied an ignorance on the part of the people of certain
acts of their rulers by which the people suffer. All acts by
which the rulers have any motive to make the people suf¬
fer, are acts by which the rulers profit. When the igno¬
rance of the people extends to material points, all the evils
of bad government are secured. These are the greatest of
all possible evils. To this it will not be said that the ig¬
norance of the people ought to extend. On all material
points, it is admitted, then, that the freedom of censure
ought to be complete. But if it is to be allowed on great
points, on those where it is calculated to excite the great¬
est disapprobation ; what can be thought of their consis¬
tency, who would restrain it on those where it is only cal¬
culated to excite a small ? If it is proper to protect the
people from great injuries at the hands of their rulers, by
exciting a strong, it is good to protect them against small
injuries, by exciting a weak disapprobation.
To public functionaries may be imputed either acts
which they have not performed, or a want of certain qua¬
lifications, moral or intellectual, which they ought to pos¬
sess.
With respect to acts, and even dispositions, which do
not, either directly or indirectly, concern their public func¬
tion, the same protection may be safely extended to them
as to private men.
Acts, in their public capacity, which they have not per¬
formed, may be imputed to them either by mere forgery,
and without any appearance of ground, or they may be im¬
puted with some appearance of ground. From permitting
the former, no good can be derived. They ought, there-
3 a
3'0 LIBERTY OF THE PRESS.
liberty of fore, to be prevented, in the same way as false imputations,
the Press, injurious to individuals in their private capacity. That
there should be no restraint in imputing actions to any
public functionary which he may appear to have done,
flows immediately from the principles already established,
and requires not that any thing should here be added to
its proof. Any appearance sufficient to lay the foundation
of the slightest suspicion, renders it useful to call the at¬
tention of the public to the suspected part, which can only
be done by making the suspicion known. A man may,
indeed, publish, as a matter of fact, what is supported by
appearances which would only justify the slightest suspi¬
cion. In that case, he is sure of incurring the disgrace of
temerity, if not of malignity; and this is all the penalty
which needs or can safely be inflicted upon him.
In imputing inaptitude to a public functionary, on the
score either of intellectual or moral qualities, scarcely any
limitation would be safe. Every man ought to have liber¬
ty to declare upon this subject any opinion which he
pleases, and support it by any evidence which he may
think adapted to the end. If, in supporting his opinion of
the inaptitude of any public functionary, he imputes to him
actions which there is not even an appearance of his hav¬
ing performed, that limited prohibition, the propriety of
which we have just recognised, will strictly apply. With
this exception, freedom should be unimpaired.
We have now, therefore, explained, we hope sufficiently,
in what manner the principles which we have established
require that the use of the press should be regulated in
speaking of the actions of public functionaries, and of their
fitness for the duties which they are appointed to discharge,
whether those functionaries are the immediate representa¬
tives of the people, or others whom it is the business of
those representatives to control.
Freedom of Censure on the Institutions of Government is
necessary for the good of the People.
We have next to inquire in what manner those princi¬
ples require that the use of the press should be regulated
in speaking of the institutions of government. The illus¬
trations already adduced will supersede the use of many
words upon this part of the subject.
Institutions of government are good in proportion as
they save the people from evil. Institutions of government
are bad in proportion as they are the cause of evil to the
people, either by what they create, or what they fail in
preventing.
According to this statement, which it is impossible to
controvert, institutions of government may, in strict pro¬
priety of speech, be said to be the cause of all the evil
which they do not save the people from, and from which
the people would be saved by any other institutions.
It is therefore of the highest importance that the people
should know what are the institutions which save from the
greatest quantity of evil, and how much their own institu¬
tions want of being those best institutions.
Institutions of government are bad, either because those
in whose hands the powers of government are placed, do
not know that they are bad, and, though willing, cannot
improve them; or they are bad, because those who have in
their hands the powers of government do not wish that
they should be improved.
When the rulers are willing, but do not know how to
improve the institutions of government, every thing which
leads to a knowledge of their defects is desirable to both
rulers and people. That which most certainly leads to such
knowledge is, that every man who thinks he understands
any thing of the subject, should produce his opinions, with
tile evidence on which they are supported, and that every
man who disapproves of these opinions should stale his ob¬
jections. All the knowledge which all the individuals in Liberty of
the society possess upon the subject is thus brought, as the Press,
it were, to a common stock or treasury; while every thing
which has the appearance of being knowledge, but is only
a counterfeit of knowledge, is assayed and rejected. Every
subject has the best chance of becoming thoroughly under¬
stood, when, by the delivery of all opinions, it is presented
in all points of view ; when all the evidence upon both sides
is brought forward, and all those who are most interested
in showing the weakness of what is weak in it, and the
strength of what is strong, are, by the freedom of the
press, permitted, and by the warmth of discussion excited,
to devote to it the keenest application of their faculties.
False opinions will then be delivered. True; but w hen
are we most secure against the influence of false opinions ?
Most assuredly when the grounds of those opinions are the
most thoroughly searched. When are the grounds of opi¬
nions most thoroughly searched? When discussion upon
the subject is the most general and the most intense;
when the greatest number of qualified persons engage in
the discussion, and are excited by all the warmth of com¬
petition, and all the interest of important consequences, to
study the subject with the deepest attention. To give a
body of rulers, or any other body of men, a power of
choosing, for the rest, opinions upon government, without
discussion, we have already seen, upon good evidence, is
the way to secure the prevalence of the most destructive
errors.
When institutions are bad, and the rulers would gladly
change them if they knew they were bad, discussion, it
will not be disputed, would be good for both parties, rulers
and ruled. There is, however, another case, and that by
far the most common, where the rulers are attached to the
bad institutions, and are disposed to do all in their power
to prevent any alteration. This is the case with all in¬
stitutions which leave it in the power of the men who are
intrusted with the powers of government, to make use of
them for their owm advantage, to the detriment of the peo¬
ple ; in other words, which enable them to do injury to the
people, or prevent the people from good. This is the
case with by far the greater number of those institutions
by which the people suffer. They are institutions con¬
trived for benefiting the tew at the cost of the many.
With respect, therefore, to the greater number of defec¬
tive institutions, it is the interest of the rulers that true
opinions should not prevail. But with respect to those in¬
stitutions, it is of still greater importance to the people that
discussion should be free. Such institutions as the rulers
would improve, if they knew that they were defective, will
be improved as the rulers themselves become sensible of
their defects. Such defective institutions as the rulers
would not wish to see improved, will never be improved,
unless the knowledge of those defects is diffused among
the people, and excites among them a disapprobation which
the rulers do not think it prudent to disregard.
That the prevalence of true opinions among the people,
relative to those defects in their political institutions, by
which the rulers pr ofit at their expense, is of the utmost
importance to the people, is therefore a proposition which
no improbity will dare openly to controvert. That freedom
of discussion is the only security which the people can
have for the prevalence of true opinions, has already been
proved. It is therefore proved, that freedom of discussion,
in its utmost perfection, they ought to enjoy.
What is included in the term, freedom of discussion, is
evident from what has already been said.
Ireedom of discussion means the pow-er of presenting
all opinions equally, relative to the subject of discussion ;
and of recommending them by any medium of persuasion
which the author may think proper to employ. If any ob¬
struction is given to the delivering of one sort of opinions.
LIBERTY OF THE PRESS.
Libert v of not given to the delivering of another ; if any advantage is
tbe Press, attached to the delivering of one sort of opinions, no^ at-
tached to the delivery of another ; so far equality of treat¬
ment is destroyed, and so far the freedom of discussion is in¬
fringed ; so far truth is not left to the support of her own
evidence; and so far, if the advantages are attached to the
side of error, truth is deprived of her chance of prevailing.
lo attach advantage to the delivering of one set of
opinions, disadvantage to the delivering of another, is to
make a choice. But we have already seen, that it is not
safe foi the people to let any body choose opinions for
them. If it be said, that the people themselves might be
the authors of this preference, what is this but to say, that
the people can choose better before discussion than after;
before they have obtained information than after it ? No ;
if the people choose before discussion, before information,
they cannot choose for themselves. They must follow
blindly the impulse of certain individuals, who, therefore,
choose for them. This is, therefore, a pretence, for the
purpose of disguising the truth, and cheating the people of
that choice, upon which all their security for good govern¬
ment depends.
If these deductions are as clear and incontrovertible as
to us they appear to be, the inquiry respecting the princi¬
ples which ought to regulate the use of the press is drawn
pretty nearly to its close. We have shown that, as far as
regards the violation of the lights of individuals, in respect
to both persons and things, no definition on account of the
press is required. We have shown in what manner the
rights of individuals, in regard to reputation, should be de¬
fined by the civil code, and the violation of them prevent¬
ed by the penal. We next proceeded to what may be con¬
sidered as the main branch of the inquiry, namely, the use
of the press in speaking of the institutions and functionaries
of government. We have found that, in this respect, the
freedom of the press is of such importance, that there is no
security for good government without it. We have also
found, that the use of it, in respect to those subjects, ad¬
mits of but two useful restrictions, that of a direct exhorta¬
tion to obstruct any of the operations of government in de¬
tail, and that of imputing to a functionary of government
a ciiminal act, which there was no ground, nor even an ap ¬
pearance of ground, to impute to him. These restrictions,
of course, it would be very easy to define in the criminal
code, and to find appropriate motives to sanction. In all
other lespects, we have seen that the press ought to be
fiee, that if there is any limit to the power of delivering
unfavourable opinions respecting either the functionaries
01 the institutions of government, and of recommending
those opinions by any media, with the single exception of
false facts, under the circumstances mentioned above, the
benefits which may be derived from the freedom of the
pi ess are so greatly infringed, that hardly any security for
good government can remain.
871
XV. LIMITATIONS TO FREEDOM OF DISCUSSION, WHICH
INVOLVE ITS DESTRUCTION.
• ac^m*n‘strat*on of English law, or rather of what
is called law, upon this subject, without being any thing
better than the arbitrary will of the judges, it is said, that
though discussion should be free, it should be “ decent
and that all “ indecency” in discussion should be punished
as a hbel. It is not our object in this discourse to give an
exposmon of the manifold deformities of the English law
° • 1 ^ I ^ave ^een successful in developing the true
principles which ought to regulate the freedom of the
press, every reader may, by an application of those princi¬
ples, determine what he ought to think of the several par¬
ticulars which there may attract his attention. We shall
confine ourselves to a short notice of those dicta, or doc- Liberty of
trines, which seem most likely to be pleaded, in opposition the Press,
to the principles which we have endeavoured to establish.
The question is, whether indecent discussion should be
prohibited? lo answer this question, we must, of course,
inquire, what is meant by indecent.
In English libel law, where this term holds so distin¬
guished a place, is it not defined ?
English legislators have not hitherto been good at de¬
fining ; and English lawyers have always vehemently con¬
demned, and grossly abused it. The w ord “ indecent,”
therefore, has always been a term under which it was not
difficult, on each occasion, for the judge to include what¬
ever he did not like. “ Decent,” and “ what the judge
likes,” have been pretty nearly synonymous.
Indecency of discussion cannot mean the delivery either
of true or of false opinions, because discussion implies
both. In all discussion there is supposed at least two par¬
ties, one who affirms, and one who denies. One of them
must be in the wrong.
The delivery, though not of all true opinions, yet of
some, may be said to be indecent. All opinions are either
favourable or unfavourable. True opinions that are fa¬
vourable to government and its functionaries will not be
said to be indecent; nor will all opinions that are true
and unfavourable be marked out for prohibition under
that name. Opinions unfavourable may either be greatly
unfavourable or slightly unfavourable. If any unfavour¬
able opinions are exempted from the charge of indecency,
it must be those which are slightly so. But observe what
would be the consequence of prohibiting, as indecent,
those which are greatly unfavourable. A true opinion,
greatlj' unfavourable to a functionary, or institution, of
government, is an opinion that the functionary, or institu¬
tion, is greatly hurtful to the people. You would permit
the slight evil to be spoken of, and hence removed; vou
would not permit the great evil to be spoken of.
If no true opinion can be regarded as indecent, mean-
ing by indecent, requiring punishment, we must inquire if
any false opinion on matters of government ought to be
Heated as such. If all false opinions are indecent, all
discussion is indecent. All false opinions, therefore, are
not indecent. I he English libel law does not treat any
favourable opinions, how much soever false, as indecent.
If all opinions that are false and unfavourable are said to
be indecent, who is to judge if they are false ? It has
been already proved, that the people can confide the
power of determining what opinions are true, what are
false, to none but themselves. Nothing can resist the
following argument. Either the people do know, or they
do not know, that an opinion is false : if thej' do not know,
they can permit nobody to judge for them, and must leave
discussion its free course : if they do know, all infliction of
evil for the delivery of an opinion which then can do no
harm, would be purely mischievous and utterly absurd.
It all opinions, true and false, must be allowed to be de¬
livered, so must all the media of proof. We need not ex¬
amine minutely the truth of this inference, because it will
probably be allowed. It will be said, however, that though
all opinions may be delivered, and the grounds of them
stated, it must be done in calm and gentle language.
Vehement expressions, all words and phrases calculated
to inflame, may justly be regarded as indecent, because
they have a tendency rather to pervert than rectify the
judgment.
To examine this proposition, it must be taken out of
that state of vagueness in which so many things are left
by the English law, and made, if possible, to speak a lan¬
guage, the meaning of which may be ascertained.
YY e have just decided, and, as it appeared, on very sub¬
stantial giounds, that the statement of no opinion, favour-
372 LIBERTY OF
Liberty of able or unfavourable, true or false, with its media of proof,
the Press, ought to be forbidden. No language necessary for that
purpose can be indecent, meaning here, as before, no¬
thing by that term, as nothing can be meant, but simply
punishable, or proper for punishment.
But the only difference between delivering an opinion
one way and another way is, that in the one case it is
simply delivered, in the other it is delivered with indica¬
tions of passion. The meaning of the phrase in question
then must be, that an opinion must not be delivered w'ith
indications of passion.
What! not even a favourable one ?
“ Oh, yes; a favourable one. Merited//rawc ought to
be delivered with warmth.”
Here, then, is inequality, and therefore mischief, at
once. An opinion, meaning here a true opinion, if it is
favourable, you allow, if unfavourable, you do not allow,
to be delivered in a certain way. Why? Because in
that way, you say, it is calculated to make an undue im¬
pression. Opinions favourable, then, you wish to make
an undue impression, and by that confess the wickedness
of your intention. You desire that the people should
think better of the institutions and functionaries of their
government than they deserve; in other words, you wish
the government to be bad.
If opinions, to what degree soever unfavourable, may
be freely and fully delivered, there are two conclusive rea¬
sons why the terms in which they are delivered should
not be liable to punishment. In the first place, the dif¬
ference between one mode of delivery and another is of
little consequence. In the second place, you cannot for¬
bid the delivery in one set of terms, without giving a
power of preventing it in almost all.
First, the difference is of little consequence. If I say
barely that such a functionary of government, or such an
institution of government, is the cause of great injury
and suffering to the people, all that I can do more by any
language is, to give intimation, that the conduct of such
functionary, or the existence of such institution, excites
in me great contempt, or great anger, or great hatred,
and ought to excite them in others. But if I put this in
the way of a direct proposition, I may do so, because then
it will be a naked statement with regard to a matter of
fact, and cannot be forbidden, without overthrowing the
whole of the doctrine which we have already established.
If, then, I give indication of certain sentiments of mine,
and of my opinion of what ought to be the sentiments of
others explicitly, I ought, you say, to be held innocent;
if implicitly, guilty. Implicitly, or explicitly, that is the
difference, and the whole of the difference. If 1 say,
that such a judge, on such an occasion, took a bribe, and
pronounced an unjust decision, which ruined a meritorious
man and his family, this is a simple declaration of opinion,
and ought not, according to the doctrine already establish¬
ed, to meet with the smallest obstruction. If I also state
the matter of fact with regard to myself, that this action
has excited in me great compassion for the injured family,
and great anger and hatred against the author of their
wrongs, this must be fully allowed. I must further be al¬
lowed to express freely my opinion, that this action ought
to excite similar sentiments in other members of the com-
munity, and that the judge ought to receive an appropri¬
ate punishment. Much of all this, however, I may say in
another manner. I may say it much more shortly by
implication. Here, I may cry, is an act for the indigna¬
tion of mankind. Here is a villain, who, invested with
the most sacred of trusts, has prostituted it to the vilest
of purposes. Why is he not an object of public execra¬
tion r \\ hy are not the vials of wrath already poured
forth upon his odious head ? All this means nothing, but
that he has committed the act; that 1 hate him tor it,
THE PRESS.
and commiserate the sufferers ; that I think he ought to Liberty of
be punished; and that other people ought to feel as I do. the Press.
It cannot be pretended, that between these two modes of
expression, the difference, in point of real and ultimate
effect, can be considerable. For a momentary warmth,
the passionate language may have considerable power.
The permanent opinion formed of the character of the
man, as well as the punishment, which, under a tolerable
administration of law, he can sustain, must depend whol¬
ly upon the real state of the facts; any peculiarity in the
language in which the facts may have been originally an¬
nounced soon loses its effect. If that language has ex¬
pressed no more indignation than what was really due, it
has done nothing more than what the knowledge of the
facts themselves would have done. If it has expressed
more indignation than what was due, the knowledge of
the facts operates immediately to extinguish it, and, what
is more, to excite an unfavourable opinion of him who had
thus displayed his intemperance. No evil then is produ¬
ced, or none but what is very slight and momentary. If
there should be a short-lived excess of unfavourable feel¬
ing, we have next to consider what is the proper remedy'.
Punishment should never be applied where the end can
be obtained by more desirable means. To desire any ex¬
cess of unfavourable feeling, all that is necessary is to
show the precise state of the facts, and the real amount
of the evil which they import. All excess of feeling
arises from imputing to the facts a greater efficacy in the
way of evil than belongs to them. Correct this opinion,
and the remedy is complete.
Secondly, you cannot forbid the use of passionate, lan¬
guage, without giving a power of obstructing the use of censo¬
rial language altogether. The reason exists in the very
nature of language. You cannot speak of moral acts in
language which does not imply approbation and disappro¬
bation. All such language may be termed passionate lan¬
guage. How can you point out a line where passionate
language begins, dispassionate ends? The effect of words
upon the mind depends upon the associations which we
have with them. But no two men have the same asso¬
ciations with the same words. A word which may excite
strains of emotion in one breast, will excite none in ano¬
ther. A word may appear to one man a passionate word,
which does not appear so to another. Suppose the legis¬
lature were to say, that all censure, conveyed in passion¬
ate language, shall be punished, hardly could the vices
of either the functionaries or the institutions of govern¬
ment be spoken of in any language which the judges
might not condemn as passionate language, and which
they would not have an interest, in league with other
functionaries, to prohibit by their condemnation. The
evil, therefore, which must of necessity be incurred by a
power to punish language to which the name of passion¬
ate could be applied, would be immense. The evil which
is incurred by leaving it exempt from punishment is too
insignificant to allow that almost any thing should be
risked for preventing it.
Religion, in some of its shapes, has, in most countries,
been placed on the footing of an institution of the state.
Ought the freedom of the press to be as complete, in re¬
gard to this, as we have seen that it ought to be, in regard
to all other institutions of the state ? If any one says
that it ought not, it is incumbent upon him to show where¬
in the principles, which are applicable to the other institu¬
tions, fail in their application to this.
We have seen, that, in regard to all other institutions,
it is unsafe for the people to permit any but themselves
to choose opinions for them. Nothing can be more cer¬
tain, than that it is unsafe for them to permit any but
themselves to choose for them in religion.
If they part with the power of choosing their own reli-
LIB
Liboume gious opinions, they part with every power. It is well
known with what ease religious opinions can be made to
Libraries. embrace everything upon which the unlimited power of
rulers, and the utmost degradation of the people, depend.
The doctrine a?passive obedience and non-resistance was a
religions doctrine. Permit any man, or any set of men, to
say what shall, and what shall not, be religious opinions,
you make them despotic immediately.
LIB 373
This is so obvious, that it requires neither illustration nor Libra
proof. _ i
But if the people here, too, must choose opinions for them- Libraries^
selves, discussion must have its course; the same proposi-
tions which we have proved to be true in regard to other
institutions are true in regard to this; and no opinion ought
to be impeded more than another by anything but the
adduction of evidence on the opposite side. (j. M—l.)
LIBOURNE (the ancient Liburnurri), a town of France,
capital of a cognominal arrondissement in the department
of Gironde, on the right bank of the Dordogne, at the influx
of the Isle, and on the Tours and Bordeaux Railway, 22
miles E.N.E. of the latter town. A handsome brick bridge
of nine arches crosses the Dordogne, while the Isle is crossed
by an iron suspension-bridge. Its port is tidal, and capable
of receiving vessels of 300 tons. This is one of the Baslides,
or free towns, founded by Edward I. of England, and is
remarkable for its neat and regular appearance. It is sur¬
rounded by walls affording agreeable promenades, and lias
extensive cavalry barracks. It is the seat of tribunals of
primary instance and commerce; and has a communal col¬
lege, theatre, and public library of 5000 vols. The manu¬
factures comprise cotton and wmollen stuffs, rope, nails,
leather, &c. Ship-building is also carried on. Its chief
trade is in corn, salt, wine, and brandy. Pop. (1851) 11,552.
LIBRA. See Weights and Measures.
LIBRARIES.
Librarv, in ordinary language, may mean either (1.)
a collection of books, public or private ; (2.) A building or
apartment destined for the reception and systematic arrange¬
ment of such a collection ; or (3.) a series of treatises on a
particular subject,—as, for example, Library of Anglo-
Catholic Theology,—or a series of works on various subjects,
published on some uniform plan, such as Murray’s Family
Library, and the like. It is in the two former senses only
that the term is employed in this article.
Collection (1.) OF THE COLLECTION OF BOOKS BY FURCIIASE.
purchase^ t^ie formation of a Public Library, the first concern of
the founders should obviously be to acquire a distinct con¬
ception of the aims with which it is established, and of the
studies which it is intended principally to facilitate. To a
great national library, indeed, all sorts and varieties of books
are welcome; but a library of this kind is rather a growth
than a formation. The chief libraries of a country ought,
unquestionably, to be encyclopaedical, because even the
“trash ”ofone generation becomes the highly-prized treasure
of another. What a Bodley,at the end of the sixteenth cen¬
tury, calls “ riff-raff,.... which a library-keeper should dis¬
dain to seek out to deliver to any man,”1 a Bodley’s librarian
has to buy almost for its weight in gold at the beginning of
the nineteenth century. For, by that time, it comes to be
apparent that the most obscure pamphlet, or the flimsiest
ballad, may throw a ray of light upon some pregnant fact
of history, or may serve as the key to a mystery in some
life-career which gave to an age its very “ form and pres¬
sure.”
But, besides these great repositories, many libraries are
needed of narrower aims and of more specific character.
Of these, some are professional, such as—Law Libraries,
Divinity Libraries, Medical Libraries, and the like. In
collections of this kind, no country, perhaps, is richer than
our own; and for the formation of new ones, wherever
they may be needed, many and excellent appliances lie
ready to the hand. Far more difficult wrill be the labour of
planning, advisedly and with clear forecast, those public,
provincial, and town libraries in which the United King¬
dom has hitherto confessedly been very deficient. The
steps which have recently been taken, under Mr Ewart’s
Libraries Act, are proofs that public attention is now fairly
roused to the importance of supplying this deficiency in an
effective and thorough manner.
In the formation of a library of this description, it will be
well, we think, for the promoters to fix, at the outset, upon
some particular class or classes of literature, in which it
shall be pre-eminently well provided. What these chosen
subjects shall be, must, of course, depend in each case upon
special circumstances, which will be different in different
places. But be these circumstances what they may, some
one important class, at least, should be selected, in which
the library shall have, as early as possible, a systematic
collection, not a mere chance aggregation of books. In the
instances of the Town Libraries which have been recently
established, the largest sum available for purchases has not
(under very favourable conditions) exceeded L.6000.
Twice that sum would be utterly insufficient for the forma¬
tion of a really valuable library upon all subjects, even if it
were restricted to books in English. But a much smaller
sum than L.6000, if appropriated on the principle of spend¬
ing most of it in the purchase of books on some one leading
subject,—say, for example, on British history,—and the re¬
mainder on the best and most indispensable books, only, on
other subjects of general interest, will lay the foundation of
a library, which, from the beginning, will tend as w-ell to
make students as to help them.
Another point which should receive careful attention, in
the establishment of a library of this class, is the collection
of works illustrative of the local history of the town and
county in which it is placed. Many generations have elapsed
since John Bale expressed2 his earnest wish that in every
shire of England there were “ at least one library for the
preservation of noble works and preferment of good learn¬
ing.” Had effect been given to that desire in his own day,
many more of the choice treasures of the monastic libraries
would have been saved from destruction, and much valuable
material for local topography would have been accessible,
which is now irrecoverably lost. In a Town Library’, every
thing of this kind which is procurable should be stored up
for the future historian. Every book and every fugitive
tract that bears on the history or antiquities, the fauna or
flora, the trade or politics of the district; on the lives of
local worthies, or on local affairs and institutions of whatever
description, should be sought for and preserved. And when¬
ever unprinted materials of this sort are known to exist in
x Letter to Thomas James, printed in Rdiquicc Bodleiance (1703), 278.
2 In his preface to Leland's New Ycar'i Gift to King Henry Till.
374
LIBRARIES.
Collection other libraries or repositories, public or private, transcripts
of books by sllou](l be obtained, so that the Town Library may become
purchase. t]le head-quarters for all seekers into the town history.
's'—If the fund to be expended in book-buying is large, it
will be good economy to make, at the outset, a collection
of bibliographical works and of catalogues. The learned
Gabriel Naude indicated the advantage of this course two
centuries ago (in his curious Arts pour dresser une Biblio-
theque); and his remark still holds good, that “by this means
one may also do a friend service and pleasure, and when we
cannot furnish him with the book he is in search of, direct him
to the place where he may find a copy.” It will also, in many
cases, be good economy to draw up and to print, for circu¬
lation amongst booksellers, lists of the principal books sought
for, and these may be so framed as to serve for a time by
way of provisional catalogues. In the search after the best
editions of our standard writers, their critics, commentators,
and assailants should not be forgotten. Subsidiary works
of this kind are often of very troublesome quest; but they
are valuable, if not for the light they throw upon their
object, at least for that which they reflect upon their age.
The silliest commentator on Shakspeare, however little he
may illustrate his author, will sometimes afford a very useful
illustration of the history of manners, or of the growth of
opinion. Whether works which exist both in separate
editions and in “collections”—such as, the Bibliotheca
Patrum, or the Berum Anglicarum Scriptores—shall be
purchased only in the one form or in the other; or whether
both collections and separate editions shall be sought for,
when the latter possess any special claims to attention,—
is another question which lies on the threshold of book-col¬
lecting for a large library. In general, it may be suggested,
that all the great collections which come within the scope
of the library to be formed, together with the best Encyclo¬
paedias, Lexicons, and Dictionaries of all kinds, should be
amongst the earliest purchases. The Transactions of the
chief learned societies, and the long sets of important perio¬
dicals, should also receive early attention. Books of this
description form the true foundation and framework of a
library; in addition to their more direct uses, they may
render useful help in its subsequent enlargement, and, if
neglected at first, there is usually little likelihood that they
will be properly cared for at a later period.
In a National Library it will be praiseworthy to bestow
pains on the collection of pamphlets, and of the other ephe¬
mera of literature ; and if the prevailing character even of a
provincial or special library be historical, “old tracts” will
need to occupy much of the librarian’s attention, and not
a little space on the shelves. The causes that make them
important are often those that make it difficult to obtain them
when required.
Collection (2.) OF THE COLLECTION OF BOOKS BY LEGAL EXACTION.
legal°exac- exaction, by legal enactment, of copies of books for
tion. deposit in public libraries is both ancient and general. It
obtains in the freest and in the most despotically governed
countries. But in the former it is usually the relic of a
state of things which has almost passed away, and in the
latter it seems racy of the soil. Everywhere it is, or it has
been, connected with a censorship of the press. In France,
the Imperial Library at Paris, and that only, is entitled to
a copy of every work published within the empire.1 In Bel¬
gium and in the Netherlands the deposit of copies is not
compulsory in all cases, but is the necessary condition of
copyright. In Sardinia the Library of the University of
Turin is entitled to a copy ot every book printed within the Collection
kingdom. In Tuscany every public library enjoys a simi-of books
lar right as respects books printed within the city, and the leg“! exac‘
prefecture, in which it is placed. By the law of Sicily, the -v ‘un^y
University Library at Palermo is entitled to a copy of every
book printed in that city ; and by that of Naples, four copies
of every book printed in the capital must be delivered, two
for the Borbonica, one for the Brancacciana, and one for
the University Library. In Rome the printers are enjoined
to sendee copies to the Master of the Sacred Palace, who
is to keep one in his office, to deliver one to the vicar-
general, one to the Vatican Library, another to one or
other of two libraries—the Gymnasium or the “Sapienza”—
and the remaining copy he is to return to the author. In
other parts of the Papal States the practice appears to vary,
and the right, where it exists, to be almost inoperative.
By the law of Spain, the National Library at Madrid, as
respects the whole kingdom, and the provincial libraries,
within the respective provinces, have a right to copies. In
Portugal, the National Library at Lisbon,2 and the Town
Library of Oporto, are each entitled to a copy of every book
printed within the kingdom. If we turn to Germany, we
find similar enactments to be almost universal, with more
or less of modification. The Royal Library at Munich is
entitled to two copies of all books printed in Bavaria. The
Royal Library at Hanover, and the Library of the Univer¬
sity of Gottingen, are each entitled to a copy of every book
printed within the Hanoverian kingdom. In the Hanse
towns a similar privilege is enjoyed by the town libraries of
Hamburg and of Lubeck, but not by that of Bremen.
By the law of Hesse-Cassel, two libraries, and by that of
Hesse-Darmstadt, three libraries, are absolutely entitled to
copies of all books published within the electorate or the
duchy, respectively. The library at Fulda, in Electoral
Hesse, appears to possess this privilege only with respect
to books the copyright of which is secured.^, In Prussia
the Royal Library at Berlin is entitled to a copy of every
work published throughout the kingdom, whilst the Univer¬
sity Libraries have a similar right within their respective
provinces.
In Saxony a practice obtains which is different from all
the usages hitherto noticed. The printer or publisher of
every book is bound to deliver one copy to the appointed
officer, whose duty it is to distribute the books, according to
their subject and character, between the Royal Library at
Dresden and the University Library at Leipzig. In Swit¬
zerland, the Geneva library alone has the copy privilege.
At Berne it ceased in 1830. At Zurich it is matter of
choice and custom with the publishers, but is not compul¬
sory. By the laws of Denmark, the Royal Library of
Copenhagen is entitled to two copies of all books published
in the Danish possessions. The three principal libraries of
Sweden (at Stockholm, Upsal, and Lund).have each a right
to one copy of every work printed in Sweden ; but this right
does not extend to Norway. In Russia, the Imperial Li¬
brary of St Petersburg is entitled to tiro copies of every
work published within the empire.
By an act of the congress of the United States of Ame¬
rica (31st May 1790), which has been continued and extended
by subsequent acts, one copy of every work in which a
copyright is secured must be deposited in the state depart¬
ment at Washington.3 There the books remain, and are
publicly accessible, under certain regulations. At present
they are said to amount to about 10,000 volumes; and the
average annual increase appears to be about 400 volumes.
^ Returns relating to Foreign Libraries, procured through the Foreign Office, and printed in the Commons’ Sessional Papers of 1850,
1851, and 1852. These are the authorities for all the statements relating to the exaction of copies by foreign legislation, unless it be
Otherwise indicated. i J 6 b >
- Castilho Barreto e Noronha, Relatorio a'cerca da Bibliotheca National de Lisboa (1844), i. 28.
Jewett, Notices of Public Libraries in the United States of America (1851), 140.
LIBRARIES.
Collection In England, as early as the year 1609, Sir Thomas
of books by Bodley made an agreement with the Company of Station-
legal exac-erSi which it was provided that one copy of every book
Uon' 'which they should print thenceforward was to be given to
the Bodleian Library, and it appears that this agreement
was fairly observed until the breaking out of the civil wars.1
Long before Bodley’s day copies had been exacted for de¬
livery to the licensers of the press ; but the first parlia¬
mentary enactment by which printers were enjoined to
give copies to libraries was that contained in the Sedition
Act, 14th Charles IL, c. 33. Three copies were to be de¬
livered at Stationers’ Hall, one of which was to be sent to
his Majesty’s Library, and the others to the two universi¬
ties. By the famous Copyright Act of the 8th of Queen
Anne, the exacted copies were increased to ni?ie, and by
the 41st George III., c. 107 (passed after thelrish Union), to
eleven. This last-named enactment continued to be in force
until 1835. The appropriation of the eleven copies was
as follows:—1. Boyal Library {British Museum). 2.
University Library at Cambridge. 3. Bodleian Library
at Oxford. 4. University Library, Edinburgh. 5. Uni¬
versity Library, Glasgow. 6. King’s College Library,
Aberdeen. 7. University Library, St Andrews. 8. Sion
College Library, London. 9. Advocated Library, Edin¬
burgh. 10. Trinity College Library, Dublin. 11. King’s
Inns Library, Dublin.
By the 5th and 6th William IV., c. 110, this privilege
was abolished, as respects six of the eleven libraries above-
named; and a yearly grant of L.3028 was charged upon the
Consolidated Fund by way of compensation, to be distri¬
buted as follows:—
To the Library of the University of Edinburgh L.575
... ... University of Glasgow  707
... ... University of St Andrews  630
... ... King’s College, Aberdeen  320
... ... Sion College, London  363
King’s Inns, Dublin  433
The grant was thus apportioned in accordance with an
estimate of the annual value of the books which each library
had actually received, on an average of a certain number of
years prior to the passing of the act. Thus, the privilege
having been enforced with far greater strictness at Glas¬
gow than at Aberdeen, the former university receives more
than twice the yearly sum assigned to the latter. As the
law now stands, the copy of every book due to the British
Museum must be there delivered, irrespectively of any de¬
mand. The other four copies are due only after demand,
in writing, within twelve months of publication. (54th Geo.
III., c. 156.)
‘ The copy-exaction, even within its present limits, has
always been obnoxious to the great majority of the publish¬
ers, and to no small number of the authors, who have been
chiefly affected by it. Those, especially, whether authors
or publishers, who own the copyright of such illustrated
books as are both extensive and costly, have found the ex¬
action to be oppressive. The popular notion, that this is a
tax which falls on the consumer and not on the producer
(whatever the force of so questionable an argument), is a
fallacious one, although it has been repeatedly put forward
under various forms. It is, in truth, a tax which seriously
enhances the cost of producing precisely such books as it is
most clearly the public interest to facilitate, rather than to
impede, and which takes out of the market precisely those
customers of whose presence there the producers ought
to be most secure. Wealthy universities and prosperous
guilds would figure far more appropriately in the list of sub-
sci ibei s to the L lor a Antarctica, or the History of J.eices-
tershire, or the Birds of Europe, than in the warehouse-
575
book of the Stationers’ Company as leviers of literary black- Collection
mail. The entire system, indeed, of exacting books with- of books by
out payment, belongs to the period when brain products legta.^®xac*
ivere at the mercy of every plunderer, and copyright was a v ‘ ,
passing protection, accorded rather as a concession than as ” v-"-
a right.
It is not surprising, therefore, that the law on this point
has been largely evaded. Up to the present time, the
Library of the British Museum is the only one in whose
favour it has been thoroughly carried out; and even there
it is only during a very few years that it has been so carried
out. In 1854 the total number of books, pamphlets, &c.,
actually received amounted to 19,578. In order to produce
this result, great vigilance and some severity have been
needed. But so long as the law remains on the statute-
book, it ought unquestionably to be strictly enforced.
At Cambridge, during the seven years from 1844 to
1850 inclusive, the total number of books, parts of books,
pieces of music, &c., received by the University Library,
was 52,348, or, on the average, 7478 yearly. The number
for the single year 1850 was 7830.2 At Dublin, during
the same seven years, the total number received was 21,260,
or, on the average, 3037 yearly. The number for the
single year 1850 was 3454. The disproportion between
the receipts at Dublin and those at Cambridge is very great;
Yet it was given in evidence, on the part of both univer¬
sities, that agents are employed in London, with instruc¬
tions to claim every book that is published. Both returns
also profess to give the number of articles, not of volumes,
that are received.
In addition to the objection which, as it seems to us,
may fairly be taken to the principle that underlies the en¬
actment in question, there is another, and a grave one,
which applies to the mode of using it, as respects the great
majority of the participating libraries. Were all these in¬
stitutions open to the public as matter of right, not of
favour, the public would receive some return for the ex¬
action, though an indirect and an insufficient one. It would
still be matter of reasonable complaint that a part of the
community is taxed for the benefit of the whole commu¬
nity. It would still be true that a national advantage ought
to be paid for out of the national purse. But the Libraries
of the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin, are
not national libraries. Of the whole number under both
categories, the British Museum Library is the only one to
which admission is matter of clear public right, although, in
practice, the regulations of the Library of the Faculty of Ad¬
vocates, Edinburgh, and those of the Library of Trinity Col¬
lege, Dublin, are liberally construed. If the three Univer¬
sity Libraries, and the Advocates’ Librarj', should continue
to possess a claim to every book published, reasonable com¬
pensation should be made to the publishers, at the public
charge. Those libraries should be put on as good footing
for its enforcement as that enjoyed by the British Museum.
All the privileged libraries should be made accessible, with¬
out favour, under known rules. All should be bound to
publish, in due concert, an accurate and full descriptive list
of every publication which they have received. The lite¬
rary community would thus obtain a better “ Publishers’
Circular” than has yet existed.
(3.) OF THE COLLECTION OF BOOKS BY DONATION. Collection
Although nothing is more certain than that those who donat^n ^
love books are usually very chary of parting with them, yet °na 10n'
in all the great libraries we find a considerable number
of volumes which have been acquired, sometimes by gift,
but more frequently by bequest. Of the 562,000 volumes
which are now in the British Museum, no less than
1 Dr Hudson s account of the Bodleian, printed in Macky’s Journey through England (1722), 71 et (eqq.
Report, &c., of Cambridge University Commission (1852), 55, 56.
LIBRARIES.
376
Collection 220,000 have been either presented or bequeathed. But
of books by even this goodly number would, in all probability, have
donation, heen greatly increased, if, some, forty years ago, there had
been less narrowness of view as to the necessary qualifica¬
tions for what some have called the “blue ribbon of litera¬
ture”—a trusteeship. This was the great object of ambi¬
tion, both to Richard Gough, the author of the Sepulchral
Monuments of Great Britain, and to Francis Douce, the
author of the Illustrations of Shakspeare. Both of them
had made valuable additions to English literature ; both of
them possessed fine libraries, especially rich in British to¬
pography and history ; but neither of them was either a
peer or a placeman. Both fortunately bequeathed their li¬
braries to the University of Oxford, where they are wor¬
thily lodged ; but of their comparative usefulness to the
public, as they are, and as they might have been, not a word
need be said. Since those days, it has happily become ap¬
parent, even to the official mind, that the dignity of the
trusteeship is not. diminished by being shared with a distin¬
guished geologist or a great historian; and the list is now
graced by the names of Murchison, Buckland, Hallam, and
Macaulay, as well as by those of dukes and chancellors.
Worthy Bishop Huet, in his amusing Commentaries, has
told us, in pathetic terms, of the regret with which he saw
the fine library of the President de Thou disposed of in
bulk (notwithstanding the pains with which the illustrious
owner had entailed it as an heir-loom); but when, at a
later period, it was sold in detail, part of it, he adds, “ came
into my possession; and from this example I was
led to be sensible of the certain destruction that awaited
my library, unless I should make careful provision for pre¬
venting it. Having long and attentively revolved this in
my mind, it appeared to me the best plan for keeping it
entire, in perpetuity, to present it to some stable society of
persons bound to the rules of a religious life.” 1 Of all
“stable” societies, the good bishop, as the result of his
long ponderings, fixed on the Jesuits, and his “ perpetuity”
proved to be less than a century, although a portion of his
collection had the good fortune to be subsequently incor¬
porated (as a portion of the noble library of De Thou had
previously been) with the Imperial Library of France.
Sometimes accident and caprice, at others shrewd ob¬
servation and insight, will determine the fate of collections,
as far as human arrangements can determine anything ; but
it is obvious that those libraries will be likeliest to have a
good share of such acquisitions as combine evident care of
the books they already possess with a wise liberality in
their arrangements for access and profitable use.
There is, however, a class of books—both important and
numerous—with the appropriation of which accident and
caprice should never have anything to do ; those, we mean,
which have been printed at the national expense. Yet
usually, in this country, the distribution of these books has
been pre-eminently capricious. They are under the con¬
trol of various departments and functionaries. Intelligible
rules have rarely been laid down for disposing of them, not¬
withstanding that the cost of their production to the country
is very considerable; and when there has been the sem¬
blance of such, they have rarely been adhered to.
Amongst the works thus produced, which are especially
valuable in libraries, may be mentioned, the collections of
public documents, and of historical materials (such as the
State Papers of the reign of Henry VIII., and the Mo-
numenta Historica Britannica)', narratives of Voyages of
Discovery, and Reports of the naturalists, and other scien¬
tific officers connected with them ; Collections of Astrono¬
mical Observations; and, generally, the various publica¬
tions connected with the Ordnance Surveys, and the Geolo-. Collection
gical Survey ot the United Kingdom. Some of these pub- of books by
lications are under the control of the Home-Secretary, donation,
others under that of the Board of Admiralty, and the Board
ot Ordnance. As respects none of them have systematic
rules of distribution been adopted; and it would be easy,
but can scarcely be necessary, to cite instances of the ca¬
pricious absurdity with which they are sometimes granted
to one library, and refused to another, under circumstances
precisely similar.
I he Reports and Papers of both Flouses of Parliament are
also most important acquisitions for public libraries. The
select committee on the subject of the dissemination of those
of the House of Commons, appointed in 1853,—to preside
over which, with self-denying perseverance, under all the
discouragement of failing health, was the last service of a
true public servant, the late Henry Tufnell,—strongly recom¬
mended a free distribution of these documents to all libraries
which united the two conditions of secured permanency and
unrestricted accessibility; but the recommendation has yet to
be carried out. No objection to it has been advanced which
is not a proven fallacy, and the measure needs only to be
taken up by a vigorous hand in order to its proper settle¬
ment.
(4.) OF THE COLLECTION OF BOOKS BY INTERNATIONAL Collection
EXCHANGE. of books by
Occasional, and sometimes munificent, exchanges of the ti'onal ex-
literary and scientific productions of different countries are change,
by no means of recent origin, but until very lately they
have been accidental rather than systematic; and our own
country has been a laggard in their encouragement. There
is a Treasury minute of 1832, in which “ the Chancellor of
the Exchequer informs the board that there is the prospect of
an arrangement being made .... with the government of the
King of the French, by which an interchange of all new
literary publications will be secured for the use of the li¬
brary of the British Museum in the one country, and the
Bibliotheque du Roi in the other.”2 But the “prospect”
has remained a prospect, except only as regards the very
useful interchange of public documents between the libra¬
ries of the respective legislatures. It appears to have been
about this time that the attention of Mr Alexander Vatte-
mare was attracted to the subject of international exchanges
of books, and there is abundant evidence that he has given
important help in a good work. In 1853 Mr Vattemare
addressed to the “ convention of librarians,” which met in
New York, a report, in which he enumerated upwards of
130 public libraries and other establishments which had
“ participated in the benefits of the system of exchanges
and stated that in this way no less than 61,000 books and
pamphlets had been distributed, during five years, by his
agency, in the United States and in Europe.3 Two years
later, the Regents of the University of the state of New
York, in presenting to the legislature their annual report
for 1855, as trustees of the State Library, spoke in high
terms of commendation of the results in that state of Mr
Vattemare’s exertions.4
A similar agency, on a much larger and rapidly increas¬
ing scale, has been x*ecently established by the Smithsonian
Institution at Washington. On this head it is stated, in
the eighth annual report (1854), that “the institution is
now the principal agent of scientific and literary communi¬
cation between the Old World and the New. Its system
of exchange is established on a reliable basis, namely, that
of the publications of the institution itself. .... The im¬
portance of such a system, with reference to the scientific
1 Iluet’s Commentaries, translated by Aikin, ii., 355-358.
2 Treasury Minute, July 1832, presented to the House ofi Commons.
3 New York Literary Register (1854), 87-93.
4 Report of the Trustees of the State Library of New York (1855), 6.
-
LIBKARIES.
Construe- character of our country, could scarcely be appreciated by
lion, &c., those who are not familiar with the results which flow from
of public an easy an[] certain intercommunication of this kind 1
libraries.
(o.) THE CONSTRUCTION AND FURNISHING OF BUILDINGS
FOR THE RECEPTION OF PUBLIC LIBRARIES.
The first difficulty which a committee, charged with such
a duty, has usually to grapple with is, to reconcile the fre¬
quently conflicting claims of site and of form. A public
library, and above all a Town Library, needs a site as central
as can be obtained. Any library which is to be adequately
kept up should be of such form as shall admit of easy and
considerable enlargement, without entailing the necessity
ol re-arranging the existing contents. Either a cruciform,
a polygonal, or a circular building will, more or less, meet
these requirements, provided always, that additional space
has been preserved to meet the contingency of extension,
or can be readily obtained. But this is precisely the con¬
dition which it is most difficult to secure in the centre of
a town. When one or the other of these advantages must
be foregone, it w ill often, we think, be good economy to
make some sacrifice in site rather than forego the benefit
of an easily expansible 'plan. The circular, or polygonal,
plan is best of all, because the most favourable to complete¬
ness and permanency of arrangement, in union with gradual
and indefinite extension ; and it is quite certain that no
inconvenience of position will prevent a public library from
being well frequented, if it be rich in books, and liberal in
its regulations. This premised, we proceed to suggest
other considerations which should be borne in mind in
planning a library which is to be permanent, and for which
adequate funds are at hand.
1. The site must be dry and airy; the building (whatever its
form) isolated ; and, if placed in a great thoroughfare, it should be
eet back as much as possible.
. 2- The building should be fire-proof. To this end, other mate¬
rials than brick, stone, iron, and slate, should be very sparintrly
admitted into its main structure. Such timber floors as may be
used in any special apartments should be embedded in stucco, upon
a stone flagging, or upon brick arches.
3. The ground-floor should be vaulted, and in all the external
walls there should be ample apertures and channels for ventilation.
If the building be extensive, large water-pipes (fire-mains) should
be carried along the roof.
. Whenever practicable, light should be obtainable from all
sides, but should be provided, as much as possible, from cupolas,
or lantern-lights, which obviously favour the appropriation of the
largest amount of wall-surface for book-shelves within a given area.
5. The principal rooms destined for the reception of books should
be of such proportions, and be so constructed, as to admit of the
greatest possible proportion of the contents being seen at one view.
Every shelf should be accessible without the use of steps or ladders.
By providing light galleries of perforated iron, with breast-high
railings and with spiral staircases at each angle of the room, this
advantage may be secured even in the loftiest rooms. If, for ex¬
ample, the library be 35 feet high in the clear, four tiers of galleries,
placed at intervals of about 7 feet, would admit of every book being
instantly accessible without any loss of space.
6. The reading-room should invariably be separate from the
rooms appropriated to the main collection of books; but it should
be as much in the centre of the building as possible, and should be
shelved for the reception of books of common reference (especially
o such as form what may be fitly termed the bibliographical appa¬
ratus of a library). One or more smaller and adjacent rooms should
e assigned for the use of such readers as need special facilities for
u i j0/1’ C0P)’ing> and other like pursuits. The reading-rooms
shoiUd be provided with a series of shelved closets, for the reception
ot books which are in continuous use from day to day. Such shelves
may e ettered alphabetically, and the books placed according to
the names of the readers who retain them, as has long been the
practice in the British Museum.
♦ ^ ThJere.mUSt,be an ample provision of work-rooms contiguous
to, but distinct from, the rooms appropriated to books and those
377
appropriated to the readers. In any extensive library the following Construc-
separate rooms will be found essential to the thorough working and tion, &c.,
good order of the establishment:—(1.) A receiving and unpacking of public
room. This should have a separate entrance. (2.) A stamping and libraries,
registering room. (3.) A cataloguing and account-keeping room. I r_ _L j
(4.) A book-binding room. If the binding be done within the
library building, this room should, of course, communicate with the
workshop j but if otherwise, there should still be a small separate
room devoted to the business connected with the binding. (5.) A
board-room, or “ committee-room.” (6.) A librarian’s room, which,
in a large library, should have its waiting-room attached. (7.)
Rooms for assistant librarians, &c., according to the extent of the
establishment. (8.) Cloak-rooms, lavatories, &c., in similar propor¬
tion. In a great library, an ante-room, so placed as to afford con¬
venience for the necessary and thorough cleansing of the books from
time to time, will also repay its cost. Even in a small library, the
provision of good and ample work-rooms will be found to be true
economy in the long run. If the regulations of a library, whatever
its extent, prescribe residence within the walls to a librarian or
other oflicer, his apartments should be isolated from the main
building.
8. It may now be assumed as a settled point, that a library of
any size may be safely warmed either by open fire-places2 properly
constructed, or by hot-water pipes carried throughout the building.
If the former are used, there are ample means and appliances for
ensuring their security. If the latter, they should he placed in
grated channels provided in the fire-proof floors, at a distance of
at least 3 feet from the nearest books. Other pipes should be
carried round or near to the lantern-lights and other extensive
glazed surfaces. The boiler-house should be separate from the
library building, and the circulation of the heated water should be
unintermittent.
9. It may also be taken to be another point which experience
has demonstrated, that gas may, with perfect safety, be introduced
into a properly constructed library. The gas-fittings should always
include tubes for carrying off from the burners the vapours produced
by its combustion. The inner tube may be of copper, and the outer
one of opaque glass; and these tubes may, with equal facility, be
made pendant from the ceilings, or projecting from the walls; or,
on the other hand, the lights may all be placed outside of the build-
—a method which may be seen in very successful operation at
University College, London, and elsewhere.
10. Book-presses may be made either of wood, as is usual, or the
shelves may be of enamelled slate, and the backs and uprights of
galvanized and perforated rolled iron. Whatever the material, the
shelves should always be moveable, so that they may easily be ad¬
justed to books of any size. The cases should be perfectly plain
and smooth within, having neither projecting ornament near the
shelves, nor any cavity at the sides. The lowest shelf should be at
least 6 inches above the level of the floor, and there should be a
clear space between the backs of the cases and the walls against
which they stand. It will also be a good plan to make all the
presses and their several parts of uniform dimensions, so that they
may be transferable and interchangeable if necessary. All shelves
intended for choice books should be covered with padded leather.
Glazed table-cases, with sloping frames, should be provided for the
exhibition of rare and curious books, autographs, and the other
select treasures of a library.
11. For books of unusually large dimensions, either special
shelves, on which they can lie flat, or “ trays ” constructed in the
table-cases, should be fitted up. In a great library, other table-
cases or tables should be fitted up with similar “ trays,” or with
drawers in tiers, for the preservation and due arrangement of the
catalogue titles or slips.
12. Reading-rooms should be provided with a special desk for
catalogues, large enough to contain several sets, and with a good
supply of reading-frames of various sizes. The use of these pro¬
tects books of large dimensions from injury, as much as it promotes
the convenience of readers. A very good form of reading-table
and frame conjoined has recently been patented in the United
States, by Mr Folsom of Boston, and will be found figured in the
New York Literary Gazette of 1st June 1854. It is especially suit¬
able for holding books of prints. Book-barrows or trucks, the
tops and end rails of which should be covered with padded leather,
are also very serviceable in a library.
(6.) OF THE PLAN AND PREPARATION OF CATALOGUES. Plan and
An accurate catalogue of some sort, well kept up is a PrePara-
    1 1 ’ tion of
2 R'port of the ItegenU of the Smithsonian Institution (1854), 37-50.
the NeewtReecVoardaOffices.ldeDCe ^ Ml' Braidwood> superintendent of the London Fire Brigade, before the Commons Committee on
3 B
catalogues.
VOL. XIII.
378 LIBRARIES.
Plan and cardinal point in the good management of a library. . The
prepara- question, on tvhal plan the catalogue should be made, is not
tion of ^ very momentous one ; yet very few questions of a literary
catalogues, jiave gjven rjse t0 so many varieties of opinion. Few,
it may be added, have been discussed more elaborately and
sedulously by those who have striven to master them, or
more flippantly by those who have been content to skim
their surface.
The catalogues of public libraries have usually been
either alphabetical or classed. Each plan has its special
advantages and disadvantages. If the alphabetical arrange¬
ment be adopted, the cataloguer has to choose between an
alphabet of authors and an alphabet of subjects. The first
has the merit of being easy of construction, familiar in use,
and eminently serviceable to all such readers as want the
known books of known authors. But here its merit ends.
For a reader who is in quest of all the books, known or un¬
known, avowed or anonymous, which the library contains
upon a given subject, or section of a subject, a catalogue
according to authors’ names is almost useless. It may, in¬
deed, lead him to all the works with which he is already
more or less acquainted, but will do this only after a great
expenditure of time and toil in searching volume after
volume throughout the alphabet. In a great library this
expenditure will be trebled, if (as has been too commonly
the case) the names of authors are mixed pell-mell with
the headings of anonymous books in a single alphabet.
There are subjects on which the best books extant are
anonymous. It is probable that every great national li¬
brary contains more works without authors’ names than
with them. Of these anonymous books, a considerable pro¬
portion will doubtless belong to authors whose names are
either known to, or conjectured, more or less plausibly, by,
the learned bibliographer. But if conjecture be allowed
to govern the place of a book in a catalogue, all reliability
on it ceases.
If, on the other hand, an alphabetical arrangement ac¬
cording to the subject-matter of books be preferred, it
becomes much easier to deal with the anonymous works.
It is certain, also, that a large number of useful references
are thus put at a glance before the student; and the plan
exacts no previous acquaintance with systems of classifica¬
tion. But these merits have to be weighed against grave
defects. Of necessity, such catalogues must deal rather
with the phraseology of title-pages than with the real sub¬
ject-matter of books, and must therefore fail to bring under
one view all, or any near approximation to all, the books
which the library contains on a given topic. In some cases,
one word will have several distinct significations, and then
the reader’s search is obstructed by matter foreign to his
purpose; in others, a subject is expressible by several syno¬
nymous, or at least convertible terms, and then all these
must be turned to before he can be certain that he has the
information of which he is in quest.
The schemes of classification which have been at va¬
rious times propounded are multitudinous. No author has
attempted to describe them all. Collections, however, more
or less extensive, have been made by Peignot (Diction-
naire rahonne de Bibliologie, 1802); by Achard (Cours
Elementaire de Bibliographic, 1806); by Mr Hartwell
Horne (Outlines for the Classification of a Library, 1825);
by Sir John William Lubbock (^Remarks on the Classifica¬
tion of Human Knowledge, 1834); by Brunet (Manuel du
4eme edition, 1845, Introduction)', and by M.
Albert (Recherches sur les Principes Fondamentaux de la
Classification Bibliographique, 1847).
All the schemes which have been propounded, from Ges-
ner’s day down to our own, may be gathered into one or
other of two groups, by far the largest of which, whatever
its other merits, is essentially unsuited to the business of a
library. The schemes which belong to the first group aim
at a systematic and consecutive arrangement of all human Plan and-
knowledge, in accordance with some theory, either of the prepara-
powers and functions of the mind itself, or of the order and of
succession in which the phenomena of the material world v ' ^ ~
may be conceived to present themselves to its contemplation.
The schemes which belong to the second group, with far
humbler pretensions, seek but to sort, after some handy and
convenient fashion, the instruments of knowledge for daily
use. In the former case the system-maker aspires to solve
some of the knottiest problems which have ever puzzled
metaphysicians. In the latter case, he is content if he be
found to have facilitated the buying and selling, the shelv¬
ing and finding of books, by all who handle them.
At the head of the second group, Gabriel Naude has,
perhaps, the best claim to stand. The general character of
his scheme is indicated in the Avis pour dresser une Bib-
liotheque, which he published in 1627, although it was first
developed in the Bibliotheca Cordesiana, which did not
appear until 1643. Naude deserves the credit of having
been a pioneer in the right path; but the real originator of
the system which has the fairest claim to be styled a biblio¬
graphical one, was Ismael Bouillaud, the compiler of the Ca¬
talogue of the Library of De Thou. Bouillaud’s Catalogue
was not published until 1679, a year after the appearance
of the elaborate Systema Bibliothecce Collegii Parisiensis
Societatis Jesu of Father Gamier; but it had been written
several years before it was published, under the editorial care
of Quesnel. Bouillaud makes no display of his ingenuity,
by adding new classes to those of his predecessors, nor of
his erudition, by coining far-fetched and sonorous names for
the old ones; but he lays a firm grasp on five comprehen¬
sive classes:—L Theology; II. jurisprudence; III. His¬
tory; IV. Philosophy; V. Literature ; and brings all the
books with which he had to deal under one or other of
these main divisions. This scheme has the advantages of
simplicity, facility, and expansibility. All itsjnain classes,
with the exception of Philosophy, possess well defined
limits. All may be adjusted, by modifications of mere de¬
tail, to the extent and character of the particular library to
which they have to be applied. It was to be expected,
therefore, that the plan would win the favour, not only of
librarians, but of men who were at once eminent booksel¬
lers and eminent bibliographers, such as Marchand, Gabriel
Martin, Debure, and Brunet. Each of these men improved
some or other of its details. Most of them agreed in sub¬
stituting the class Sciences and Arts for the class Philoso¬
phy, and in employing the latter term as a subdivision of
the former. The class History, too, was usually made fifth
in order, instead of being third. But the substance of the
scheme remained unaltered; and, in course of time, it
came to be embodied in an unrivalled series of catalogues,
which are classics in their kind.
In this country the Paris system is best known in the
form which Mr Hartwell Horne gave to it when cataloguing
the fine library of Queen’s College, Cambridge ; and when
preparing his Outlines for the Classification of a Library,
which were submitted to the trustees of the British Museum
in 1825. Mr Horne’s modifications are bolder than most of
those which have been adopted by French bibliographers,
and some of them possess unquestionable merit. Four out
of the five principal classes he leaves intact. The class
Sciences and Arts he breaks up into two, the first of which
he designates Philosophy, and the second Arts and Trades.
The six classes thus formed he ranks in the following
order:—I. Theology ox Religion; 1\. Jurisprudence ; III.
Philosophy; IV. Arts and Trades; V. History; VI. Li¬
terature. In the subdivisions he introduces several changes.
He removes the section “ History of Religions ” from the
class History, and places it in Theology; and, in like man¬
ner, transfers the “ History of Literature” from the class
History to the class Literature. The vast and rapidly in-
&c., of
libraries.
Internal creasing literature of politics and commerce is joined to
regulation, ethics, and is made a section of the class Philosophy under
®c->ot the general designation of “Moral and Political Philoso-
__ phy ” The first-named change is, we think, one of very
doubtful expediency. It tends to confound the history of
the church with the history of dogmatic theology (obvious
as is the fact, that between such works as Fuller’s Church
History of Britain, and Wall’s History of Inf ant Baptism,
or Heyhn s History of the Sabbath, the resemblance is but
verbal). If, however, there should seem, on mature exa¬
mination, a balance of advantage in favour of this course,
the alteration, it may be thought, ought to involve the
transfer of our military history to the “ Art of War,” and of
our parliamentary history to “ Political Philosophy.” But,
be this as it may, Mr Horne's scheme, taken as a'whole, is
piobably one of the best which is extant, and with it we
must close our brief glance at a wide subject.
(7.) OF THE INTERNAL REGULATION AND FINANCIAL
ECONOMY OF LIBRARIES.
Before they are placed on the shelves, the books of a
public library need not only to be catalogued, but to be
stamped and press-marked. The best mode of stamping
books is by an embossing-press; and the stamp should be
applied to every plate and every map, as well as to the title-
page and the first and last leaves of the volume. The press-
mark, or symbol, which indicates the place of a book on the
shelves, should appear both on the outside and inside of
?v?'7i'I0 um j' ** lettered on the binding itself, it is almost
indelible, and thus involves extra trouble and cost, in the
event of a re-arrangement of the books; but this plan has
greatly the advantage in point of appearance, and if care be
used, the proportion of hooks which may need removal will
be very small. In libraries of no great extent, progressive
numbers are commonly used; in large libraries it is more
usual to give numbers to the several presses, letters to the
shelves, and numbers again to the volumes on each shelf.
Ihus 18 D. 12 will denote the 12th book on the fourth
shelfof press 18. There is no necessity to class books on
the shelves with the minuteness of detail which is requisite
tor a good catalogue, but the main divisions of the catalogue
should be carried out in the practical arrangement. And
by allotting each class a surplus number of presses, provi¬
sion may be made beforehand for considerable additions, in
continuous order, without either interrupting the succession
of the classes, altering the press-marks of the books a’ready
catalogued, or resorting to the unsightly expedient of inter¬
mingling empty shelves with full ones. Thus, for instance,
if the order of the classes be that adopted by Mr Hartwell
claTsne“Tnhpnlhere”b? in«nhe library enough books in the
hil • T;rTol°Sy bH, say twenty-five presses, the
nr *JunsPrudence ” may begin in the twentv-sixth
“ 9GS»b,‘r,thf P1'688 ™ay be numbered “51,” instead of
1 he books added to the class “ Theology ” will of
course belong to “press 26,” and may be placed in any p’art
tehbraiy until they have amounted to an entire pressfull.
xperience has shown that the rapid service of readers
a bookXlf be Pr0™0ted by reT>iring that the demand for
a book shall be written, not verbal, and that the reader in
ordinal y cases, shall be expected to look in the catalogue
Anil Py f,°m 11 P.ress-mark of the book he applies for!
if to affiv TnS °f facilitatin" tbe 8lTply of books threaders
content IfTrJad'688 ^ ^ a brief 8yoopsis of its
1 d reCpUres the 12°tb volume of a Ion-
waste of timlPr By tldngT^llbltlhtV^l1 n§ ^
attendant may .i-duL a^u^n “ Ta
libraries.
379
Tliose in use in the Manchester Free Library, are printed Internal
and varnished, and are placed breast-high in front of each regulation,
press. &c., of
An accurate system of registration and book-keeping is ^ibraries-
of the first importance to the good working of a public
library. The following may be regarded as among the
appliances of this kind which are indispensable. In many
libraries others will be necessary for special purposes. The
account-keeping, which belongs to a lending library, in par¬
ticular, will be referred to hereafter:—
1. An Accession Catalogue, or Register, indicating the date of
each acquisition, and how it was acquired.
2. A Donation-Book, for more ample descriptions of all gifts than
are needed in the Register, in which the briefest indication
will suffice.
3. A Shelf Catalogue, in which every hook is entered in the
shortest form, press by press, and shelf by shelf. This
catalogue should be so prepared as to admit of its being
used in the way of “ stock-taking” from time to time.
4. A Binding-Book for entry of all books delivered to the binder
and for the due chequing of their return.
5. A Report-Book for entering the daily returns of issues to
readers. These issues should be classed in the order which
is used in the general arrangement of the library.
6. A Suggestion-Book for the insertion by readers of books deemed
desirable for addition to the library.
7. A Ledger and Cash-Book of the ordinary mercantile kind, for
receipts and disbursements.
8 An indexed Minute-Book for the board of management, or other
authorities.
., ^',tbe. admi^ion to the library be by way of ticket, as at
the British Museum, an “Admission-book” will be required
lor the registration of readers, and this book should, of
course, have an alphabetical index. If the library be open
to all comers, there may still be a sort of “ Day-book,” in
w uch readers should be requested themselves to enter
their names and addresses. On behalf of the more free
system of admission, there may be adduced its wide-spread
pievaience on the Continent, and the extensive testimony
winch has been recently borne by foreign librarians and
other officers to the absence of any noticeable abuse or mis¬
chief thence arising.1 On the other hand, it has been
a eged, and (at all events, until a very late period) with
much appearance of justice, that the greater facilities and
freedom winch it has been usual to afford in the principal
ntish libraries to readers, when once admitted, warrant
the exaction of some preliminary introduction, by way of
guarantee of their respectability.
Of late, however, the operation of Mr Ewart’s Act in
some of the largest towns in England has brought evidence
to bear on this question which is wholly new. " It has been
proved by experience, that an aggregate issue of 200,000
volumes may be made in one library of a densely peopled
dty, on the principle of unrestricted admission, without the
loss ot a single book. It cannot, of course, be asserted
that such experience is precisely parallel, in any particular,
to the case of a great national library like that of the Bri¬
tish Museum. The wear and tear which, by this plan, falls
on books that chance to be in popular demand is enormous,
and of itself would necessitate restrictions for the protection
ot such as are not easily replaceable. The true deduction
from this recent experience seems, on the whole, to be, that
the metropolis, and every other great city and town in the
empire, should have its free libraries, open to all who choose
to enter; and that the regulations of the old libraries may
with perfect safety, be relaxed under judicious management-
but it does not follow that the same rules will suit all
libraries.
The applicability of Mr Ewart’s Act of 1855 (18th and 19th
Viet., c. 70) extends, first, to all municipal boroughs, the po-
1 ,, . .                 A 0 7 I ^
380
Internal
regulation
&c., of
libraries.
LIBRARIES.
pulation of which, at the last Census that shall have been
taken, shall have been found to exceed 5000 persons;
secondly, to all districts of like population having an Improve¬
ment Board; thirdly, to all parishes of like population ; and
fourthly, to any two or more neighbouring parishes having
an aggregate population of like extent. In order to its
adoption,°a public meeting of rate-payers must have been
duly convened, and the proposition must have been voted
for by tiuo-thirds at least of the persons there present. If
the proposition be so carried, the act comes at once into
operation. The Town Council, or Improvement Board, or
Parish Vestry, as the case may be, become empowered to
levy a library rate, not exceeding one penny in the pound
on the rateable value of the assessable property in the
borough, district, or parish. The library rate may be ap¬
plied wholly to the establishment of a library, or partly to
a library and partly to a museum. The management and
control of the libraries and museums thus established is, in
a city or borough, vested in the Council; in a district, in
the Improvement Board; in a parish, in Commissioners to
be named by the Vestry. Such commissioners must be
rate-payers, and in number not less than three nor more than
nine, the Council, or other body, have powers to provide
books, newspapers, maps, specimens of art and science, and
all other needful matters; and to employ all requisite officers
and servants. It is further enacted, that admission to all
libraries and museums, established under the act, shall be
free of all charge.
Other acts (17th and 18th Viet., c. 64, and 18th and 19th
Viet., c. 40), differing chiefly in their local machinery, make
similar provision for Scotland and for Ireland; but in
Scotland a poll may be demanded by any five qualified
voters, which poll must be taken within two days of the
meeting at which it shall have been demanded.
Almost all the libraries which have been founded under
the act include reference departments, and lending depart¬
ments. In the lending department attached to the Free
Library of Manchester, no person is allowed to borrow a
book from the library without first obtaining the signatures
and addresses of two rate-payers, whose names appear on the
Burgess Roll of Manchester, or on that of Salford, and who,
by a voucher, undertake to replace any book which shall be
lost or materially injured by the person borrowing.
The indispensable account-books of a lending library will
be—1. A Register-Book, in which to enter the number
and short title of every book borrowed, and the name and
address of the borrower. This register should, have a
column for the progressive number of each day s issues
(such number to be marked in the book borrowed, upon a
proper “ issue page” inserted in every volume which the
lending library contains), and another column in which to Internal
mark the due return of the book so entered. 2. An Ap- regulation,
plication and Guarantee Book, in which every applicant is
entered, with the name and address of his “ guarantee.” the ^ ^ -L -/
date of application, and the date and number of the ticket
issued to him. Such book will need two alphabetical in¬
dexes—(1), borrowers; (2), guarantees. 3. A Shelf
Catalogue. 4. A Fines-Book, in which to enter all books
lost or injured, and the sums paid in compensation.
With careful superintendence, uniform enforcement of
the rules, and a stnex periodical calling-in of all books lent,
for due examination, it will be found that a lending library
may be successfully worked on the most liberal terms of
access, in the most populous towns, with a loss so incon¬
siderable (the inevitable wear and tear of an enormous issue,
of course, excepted), as to be unworthy of notice. In the
case of the Manchester Free Library, the lending issue, in
three years, was 236,320 volumes. 1 he total loss to the
library was ten volumes, the collective value of which did
not exceed one and twenty shillings. If the peculiarly
moveable character of a considerable portion of the popula¬
tion of manufacturing towns be taken into account, such an
experience may well be deemed encouraging.
One of the most striking changes in regard to the work¬
ing of popular libraries which has marked the onward course
of years, is unquestionably the disappearance of restrictions
as to the class of books admitted, which were once of almost
universal prevalence. Books on theology, and books on
politics, were, not very many years ago, tabooed, by express
rule, from the shelves of not a few public libraries, and
especially from such as were intended for the humb'er classes
of society ;—in other words, precisely that mental nutriment
which meets the highest spiritual wants, and also that which
deals with the most urgent material necessities of men, were
excluded. Not to exclude them involves, unquestionably,
the circulation of books in which more or less oi error is
mingled with more or less of truth. An eminent statesman
has supplied, in statesman-like words, an answer to the ob¬
jection :—
“ Why not,” said Lord John Russell, at a public meeting on
the 17th Nov. 1855, “permit the free circulation of truth and
error .—leave to truth its own all-sufficient armour, and to
error its own stratagems and delusions,—leave argument to
be met by argument, assertion by inquiry ? If the just
cause suffer for a time, if human credulity embraces error
with ardour, and is cold as ice to truth, w'e may yet rely
that the light of free discussion will in time disperse the
mist of false opinions,—that, however slow the process, the
test of free examination will in time separate the dross from
the genuine ore.” (E* E0
LIBRARIES (HISTORY OF).
In almost all parts of the world where civilization has made
any considerable progress, traces may be discovered of the
existence of libraries. At the period of the Spanish inva-
sion of South America, for instance, emblems or pictorial
representations were employed instead of writing; letters
being wholly unknown: in Yucatan and Honduras there
were books composed of the leaves of trees; and in the king¬
dom of Mexico the natives had, by way of library, histories
and calendars, in which they painted such things as had
proper figures by their natural representations, and such as
had none, by means of various other characters, so that they
expressed in this way whatever they pleased.1 This may
be considered as a library in its earliest stage ; for all those
that are described as having belonged to the ancients were
composed of rolls, which, though different in form from our
books, supplied the place of them, and, when collected,
constituted a library, even in the modern acceptation of that
term.
I.—ANCIENT LIBRARIES.
As the earliest form of the graphic art appears to have
consisted in inscribing or engraving characters on stone,
metal, wood, or other durable substance, so the first public
libraries were composed exclusively of archives deposited in
the temples, that the acts relating to history and public law
might there be preserved. This will be found to hold true
almost universally. Men invariably begin with what is ab-
1 Herrera, decade ii., book ix., c. 4.
L
Ancient solutely necessary to their well-being ; and it is only after
Libraries. the lapse of a long interval that time and the progress of
improvement add the useful to the necessary, and the orna¬
mental to the useful.
Libraries Osymandyas, one of the ancient kings of Egypt, is said
of the t0 iiave been the first who founded a library, and esta-
^gyptians. bbshed it in a division or compartment of the edifice which
has sometimes been called his palace, and sometimes his
tomb. On the entrance was inscribed the words 'PYXHS
IATPEION, The Dispensary of the Soul; whilst the sculp¬
tures upon the walls represented a judge, with the image of
truth suspended from his neck, and many books or rolls lying
before him. Such is the account given by Diodorus,1 who
had himself visited Egypt, but who merely mentions the
edifice, without giving us any information as to its contents.
It probably contained works of very remote antiquity, and
also the books accounted sacred by the Egyptians, all of
which perished amidst the destructive ravages that accom¬
panied and followed the Persian invasion under Cambyses.
Both Wilkinson2 and Champollion3 identify with the build¬
ing referred to by Diodorus the well-known monument,—
usually designated the “ Memnonium,” but preferably the
“ Ramesium,”—on the door-jambs of one of the inner halls
of which may still be seen representations of Thoth, the
inventor of letters, and the goddess Saf, his companion,
with the titles “ Lady of Letters,” and “ President of the
Hall of Books.” In a certain sense, this monument is
familiar to thousands of persons who have never visited
Egypt, as from it was obtained that “ Plead of the young
Memnon,” which has long been so conspicuous an object in
the Egyptian Gallery of the British Museum.
There was also, according to Eustathius and other ancient
writers, a fine library at Memphis, deposited in that temple
of Phtha, from which Homer was idly accused of having
stolen both the Iliad and the Odyssey, and afterwards pub¬
lished them as his own. From this charge, however, the
bard has been vindicated by various writers, and by different
arguments.
But the most superb library of Egypt, perhaps of the
ancient world, was that founded by Ptolemy Soter, at
Alexandria, and enriched by successive sovereigns of that
country. About the year b.c. 290, this Ptolemy, a learned
prince, founded an academy at Alexandria, called the Mu¬
seum, where there assembled a society of learned men, who
were devoted to the study of philosophy and the sciences ;
and for their use he formed a collection of books, the extent
of which has been very variously computed.4 Josephus puts a
speech into the mouth of Demetrius Phalereus, as addressed
to Ptolemy, in which he says, that there were about 200,000
volumes in the library, and “that in a little time there would
be 500,000but the entire story—like that as to the origin
of the Septuagint—is a fable, having no sort of authority.
Demetrius Phalereus was never librarian of the Alexandrian
Library. Ptolemy Philadelphus, an equally liberal and en¬
lightened prince, collected great numbers of books in the
temple of Serapis, in addition to those accumulated by his
father, and at his death left in it, according to the statement
of Eusebius, about 100,000 volumes. He had agents in every
part of Asia and of Greece, commissioned to search out and
purchase the rarest and most valuable writings; and amongst
those which he procured were the works of Aristotle, pur¬
chased of Neleus.0 The measures adopted by Ptolemy
381
Philadelphus, for augmenting the Alexandrian Library, Ancient
were pursued by his successor Ptolemy Euergetes, with un- Libraries,
scrupulous vigour. He caused, it has been said, all books
imported into Egypt by foreigners to be seized and sent Alexan-
to the academy or museum, where they were transcribed drian lib-
by persons employed for the purpose; upon which the rary.
copies were delivered to the proprietors, and the originals
deposited in the library. He borrowed of the Athenians
the works of Sophocles, Euripides, and JEschylus; caused
them to be transcribed in the most elegant manner possible;
retained the originals for his own library ; and returned to
the Athenians the copies which had been made of them,
with fifteen talents6 for the exchange. As the museum,
where the library was originally founded, stood near the
royal palace, in the quarter of the city called Bruchion, the
books, it is supposed, were at first deposited there ; but when
this building had been completely occupied with books to
the number of 400,000 volumes, a supplemental library
was erected within the Serapeum, or temple of Serapis ; and
the books there placed gradually increased to the amount of
300,000 volumes ; thus making, in both libraries, a grand
total of 700,000 volumes.
The Alexandrian Library continued in all its splendour
until the first Alexandrian war, when, during the plunder
of the city, the Bruchion portion of the collection was acci¬
dentally destroyed by fire, owing to the recklessness of the
auxiliary troops. But the library in the Serapeum still re¬
mained, and was augmented by subsequent donations, par¬
ticularly by that of the Pergamean Library, amounting to
200,000 volumes, presented by Mark Antony to Cleopatra;
so that it soon surpassed the former both in the number and
in the value of its contents. Seneca affirms that the Alex¬
andrian Library was rather to be considered a pompous
spectacle for the public, than a place for the studies of the
learned.7 At length, after various revolutions under the
Roman emperors, during which the collection was some¬
times plundered and sometimes re-established, it was utterly
destroyed by the Saracens, under the orders of the Caliph
Omar, when they acquired possession of Alexandria, a.d.
642. Amrou, the victorious general, was himself inclined
to spare this inestimable treasury of ancient science and
learning; but the ignorant and fanatical caliph, to whom he
applied for instructions, ordered it to be destroyed. “If,” said
he, “ these writings of the Greeks agree with the Koran, or
book of Allah, they are useless, and need not be preserved ;
if they disagree, they are pernicious, and ought to be de¬
stroyed.” The sentence of destruction was executed with
blind obedience. The volumes of parchment, or papyrus,
were distributed to the four thousand baths of the city ;
and such was their incredible number, that six months were
scarcely sufficient for their combustion.8
This, at all events, is the I’eceived account of a memor¬
able event, and, although often questioned, it has never
been satisfactorily refuted. But it should be borne in mind,
that the identification of the library destroyed by Omar
with the library which had been established, and perhaps
restored in the Serapeum, is wholly conjectural. The
Temple of Serapis had itself been demolished two hundred
and fifty years before by Theophilus, Archbishop of Alex¬
andria, and it is certain that the library was then pillaged
if not destroyed. Orosius has recorded the feelings of in¬
dignation aroused, towards the close of the fourth cen-
1 Diodorus Siculus, lib. L, c. 2.
vol U^pTsg1’ Mannen and Gustoms °f the Ancient Egyptians, vol. i., pp. 111-116. See also Osburn, Monumental History of Egypt
3 Lettres, 285, as quoted by Kenrick, Ancient Egypt, vol. i., p. 155.
* Joseph. Ant. Jud., lib. xii., c. 2; Encyclopedic, tom. ii., art. Bibliotheque.
8 Tihu™ rn ^ 1-’ c- 4’ ed- S^hw®igh3user- _ 6 Upwards of L.3000 sterling. 7 De Tranquillitate Animi, cap. 9.
o ( eel. and d all of the Roman Empire, vol. ix., p. 440) has endeavoured to disprove the positive account given by Abul-
nf?,?1 uS’ by ™eanS ,°,f nega.tlve arguments. It should be considered, however, that the direct and positive statement of an historian
o such unquestionable credit as Abulfaragius, cannot he set aside by arguments of a negative and hypothetical character.
IBRARIES.
382
Ancient
Libraries.
Libraries
of the He¬
brews.
Libraries
of the
Persians.
LIBRARIES.
tury, by the sight of the still empty shelves. (Aros vidimus
armaria librorum, quibus direptis, exinanita ea a nostris
hominibus, nostris temporibus memorant.1) Besides the
two great libraries which have been already described,
Alexandria possessed a third in the Sebasteum, or Temple
of Augustus, and a fourth of much later date than the others,
attached to its famous “ School.” If the last named collec¬
tion were the object of Omar’s fanaticism, the loss to learn¬
ing may have been less severe than has usually been ima¬
gined.
The ancient Greeks, whose poetry has been to us the
primary source of all our profane literature, had as yet no
other theology than the system which resulted from observa¬
tions made on the theory of the different parts of nature, at a
time when the Hebrews, in the books of Moses, cited by one
of those ancient historians who copied the chronicles,2 read
the account of the creation, and, along with it, a summary
of the traditions of fifteen centuries of continuous history.
These books composed the first collection of the Hebrews ;
but subsequently this people, like most others, had their
archives. Those which Herod caused to be burned, with
the intention of destroying the monuments of the ancient
families, appear to have reached as far back as the very ori¬
gin of the nation.3 But though he consigned the public
records to the flames, those of individuals were beyond his
power, and afterwards served to re-establish the history of
this subjugated people. There also existed libraries, pro¬
perly so called, in Judaea. One in particular is supposed
to have been attached to, if not kept in, the temple of Je¬
rusalem, and the Hebrew authors speak of “the multitude
of booksan expression which seems to imply that the
collection was not confined to the sacred books alone, but
included others, relating probably to the laws and institu¬
tions of Moses, and the history of the Jewish nation. 1 he
books, particularly those of history, had indeed become so
numerous, that Judas Maccabeus caused extracts to be made
and circulated from those contained in the library of Nehe-
miah,4 mentioned in the second book of Esdras, in which
also were preserved the writings of the prophets, the com¬
positions of David, the letters of the Hebrew kings, and the
records of offerings. We know nothing of early Jewish
literature bevond the books which are contained in the
Old Testament. It has been supposed, howrever, that
they had some cities celebrated on account of the sciences
which were there cultivated. Amongst these may be men¬
tioned the town called by Joshua Kirjath-sepher, or the
Citp of the Book, which was situate near the confines of the
tribe of Judah. In later times, the university or school of
Tiberias was not less celebrated. It is probable that this
and other academies of the same description were furnished
with libraries.5
Scripture also mentions a library of the kings of Persia,
which some suppose to have consisted of the historians of
that nation, and of memoirs on the affairs of state, but which
appears rather to have been a depository of the laws, char¬
ters, and ordinances of the Persian kings. In the Hebrew
text it is stated that a search was made “ in the house of
the rolls, where the treasures were laid up in Babylon/’ for
a decree issued by Cyrus ordaining a temple to be built at
Jerusalem ; the ordinance sought for, however, was found,
not in Babylon, but at Acmetha, in Media.0 It appears
that “ the house of the rolls” was not a library belonging
to the Persians, but a collection of the records or archives
of the kingdom. In the recent discoveries in Assyria, in Ancient
the palace at Nineveh, a vast collection of clay tablets, in- Libraries,
scribed with cuneiform inscriptions was found, forming, as
it were, the royal library. The progress made in deci- Tabular
phering the inscriptions,in this cuneiform character, was Lkraries
brought before the meetings of the British Association at°^*he.
Glasgow and at Cheltenham, by Colonel Sir Henry Kawlin-J Sl3'ruin*-
son, in two most interesting lectures. This system of cunei¬
form writing was found to be closely allied to the hiero¬
glyphic expression ; and, although many of the rock in¬
scriptions of Persia were trilingual, each of the languages,
the Chaldee, Assyrian, and Babylonian, being unknown, it
seemed to defy all attempts at translation ; yet this has
been accomplished by a singular combination of learning
and ingenuity. Sir Henry Rawlinson stated that about
20,000 of these tablets, more or less injured by fire, were
now brought to England, and are in the British Museum ;
and that the extensive series, when fully deciphered, would
be the means of furnishing most important additions to our
knowledge of the ancient world. Of these cuneiform in¬
scriptions, lithographic facsimiles are about to be published
by the Trustees of the British Museum; and half of the
impression is to be placed at the disposal of Sir Henry
Rawlinson, who will, at Ins own expense, accompany these
copies with literal translations, in Latin.
Very recently, M. Jules Oppert (to whom has been en¬
trusted by the French government the mission of examin¬
ing and reporting on the acquisitions for which the British
public are mainly indebted to the research and energy of
Mr Layard) has copied a considerable series of these in¬
scribed tablets, and has expressed his conviction that there
is a large class of them to which, in a special and unique
sense, the designation of a “ public library in clay” is ap¬
plicable. These he believes to have been prepared by
command of Sardanapalus V. (about B.c. 650), expressly
for purposes of public instruction ; and he quotes a remark¬
able inscription to this effect: “ Palace of Sardanapalus,
king of the world, king of Assyria, to whom the god Nebo
and the goddess Ourmit have given ears to hear and eyes
to see what is the foundation of government. They have
revealed to the kings my predecessors this cuneiform writ¬
ing. The manifestation of the god Nebo ... of the god of
supreme intellect,—I have written it upon tablets,—I have
signed it,—I have put it in order,—I have placed it in the
midst of my palace for the instruction of my subjects”'1
Amongst the Greeks, as amongst other nations, the first Libraries
libraries consisted merely of archives, deposited, for the sake of the
of preservation, in the temples of the gods. The sacred Greeks*
books, of which mention is made by Dionysius of Halicar¬
nassus, under the denomination of Deltids, were of this
description.
It has been often said that Pisistratus the tyrant was the
first who established a public library in Athens; but the
statement rests mainly on the testimony of Aldus Gellius,
who wrote about seven hundred years after the time of Pisis¬
tratus. In this alleged library, the founder is said to have
deposited the works of Homer, which he had collected with
great difficulty, and at a very considerable expense ; and the
Athenians themselves were at great pains to increase the col¬
lection. The reputed fortunes of this library were various and
singular, if true. It was transported to Persia by Xerxes;
brought back by Seleucus Nicator; plundered by Sylla; and
at last restored by the Emperor Hadrian. The entire story,
1 Orosius, ed. Havercamp, b. vi., c. xv., 421. 3 Hellanicus, apud Justinum, ad Graces Cohortat., p. 18.
3Eusebius, Historia Eccles. lib. 1., c. 7. ,
4 Inferebantur autem in descriptionibus, et commentariis Nehemiae hacc eadem ; et ut construens &t&Zio«Aeeam congregavit de regio-
nibus libros, et prophetarum, et Davidica, et epistolas Regum, et de Donariis. (Machab. lib. ii., c. ii., v. 13.) Considerantes emm mul~
titudinem librorum .... hoc opus breviandi causa suscepimus. {Machab, lib. ii., c. ix., v. 25.)
6 Encyclopedic, tom. ii., p. 229. 6 7 Ezra, chap, v., verse 17 ; and vi. 1, 2.
7 Rapport d M. le Ministre de VInstruction Publique printed in the Archives dec Missions Scientifiqus, Mai, 1856, vol. v., p. 179.
LIBRARIES. 383
Ancient however, is a conjectural one. That Pisistratus was a pro-
Libraries. moter of learning, and that he rendered eminent service by
his Homeric researches, is incontestible. But that he formed
anything which even remotely resembled a library, in the
ordinary meaning of the term, is an assertion unsupported
by adequate evidence ; and just as little foundation is there
for the romantic vicissitudes which complete the tale. Nor
is there much better authority for the statement, that when,
on the invasion of the Roman empire by the Goths (a.d.
260), Greece was ravaged, and in the sack of Athens they
had collected all the libraries, and were upon the point of
setting fire to this funeral pile of ancient learning, one of
their chiefs interposing, dissuaded them from the design,
observing at the same time, that as long as the Greeks were
addicted to the study of books, they would never apply
themselves to that of arms.
Strabo has stated that Aristotle was the first known col¬
lector of a library, and that to him was also due the honour
of having suggested to the Ptolemies the formation of that
great collection, which was scarcely more the wonder of
antiquity than it has been the conundrum of modern scholar¬
ship. Aristotle bequeathed his library, with many of his
own writings, to Theophrastus, who appears to have made
considerable additions to it, and who, in his turn, bequeathed
it to Neleus. The latter, according to Strabo, carried the
collection to Scepsis in the Troad, where it subsequently
fell into disorder, and was at length concealed in a cave,
that it might escape the eager researches of the kings of
Pergamus. “At length,” continues Strabo, “but not be¬
fore the books had been injured by damp and worms, they
were sold to Apellicon of Teos,—rather a collector than a
philosopher (<£iAd/3i/3Aos fxaXXov rj cjuXoacHpos'),—who, by
unskilful attempts at the restoration of defective and muti¬
lated passages in the writings of Aristotle, increased the
injury by corrupting the text.”1 On the capture of
Athens by Sylla, the Library of Apellicon—not that of Pisis¬
tratus—was seized by the conqueror and carried to Rome.
But Strabo’s account of the matter—on which mainly
was founded the absurd story so long current as to the loss
for several generations of the Aristotelian w’ritings—is en¬
tirely at variance with that given by the epitomist of
Athenaeus, according to whom the Library of Neleus had
long before been bought by Ptolemy Philadelphus and
transferred to Alexandria, “ with all those which he had
collected at Athens and at Rhodes.”2 This statement ac¬
cords better with the known existence and publicity of
Aristotle’s works, but has its own difficulties. It is, how¬
ever, at least matter of reasonable probability that, from
whatever cause, part of the collection went to Alexandria,
and part remained at Scepsis. From the rivalry of the
Attalic kings with the Ptolemies, it may well have resulted
that the fame of the acquisition for Alexandria of part of the
library of Aristotle, may have given a keener edge to their
covetousness of what remained.
Library of Next to the Alexandrian Library, that of Pergamus was
wgamus. the most conspicuous, and, according to Plutarch, contained
200,000 volumes. It was founded and successively en¬
riched by the kings of Pergamus, all of whom were zealous
promoters of the arts, and to one of whom we are indebted
for the invention of parchment (Charta Pergamena).
Attains surpassed all his predecessors in magnificence, and
after their example devoted part of his treasures to the pur¬
chase of the principal woi’ks or writings of his age. As
already noticed, the Pergamean Library was presented by
Antony to Cleopatra, in order to form the foundation of a Ancient
new library at Alexandria. Vitruvius makes honourable Libraries,
mention of both these libraries.3 * ^
These particulars, scanty as they may no doubt seem, Places
are nevertheless sufficient to show that the libraries ofwhere
Greece, in ancient times, were both numerous and exten- ma-
sive. But a question of much more immediate interest ^scr^u
here presents itself, viz., whether any of the treasures with supposed
which they were enriched still remain undiscovered, and still to
where these may be supposed most likely to be found. On exist,
this subject various conjectures have been formed, parti¬
cularly in regard to the remains of the ancient Greek his¬
torians. It is well known that many manuscripts had been
collected at a vast expense in Greece for the Library of
Buda, which was destroyed by the Turks in the year 1526.
In this library Alexander Brassicanus had seen the whole
of the Hyperides with scholia, the works of many of the
Greek fathers, and also those of classical writers. From
it issued parts of Polybius and of Diodorus Siculus. A
manuscript of Heliodorus, from which was afterwards
printed the first edition of the JEthiopica, likewise belonged
to it, having been found by a soldier, who carried it to Vin-
centius Obsopams. Neander, speaking of this collection,
says, “ Ex media Graecia inaestimandis sumptibus emerat
Matthias Corvinus rex.”1
Constantinople and Athos have contributed the greater
number of the ancient manuscripts which are still extant in
different parts of Europe. Until a comparatively recent period
there were monasteries full of learned men at Byzantium,
and every monastery had its library. The Turks, on their
conquest of Constantinople, did not indulge in that indis¬
criminate destruction which has sometimes been imputed
to them. Mohammed II. secured the library of the Greek
emperors, which his successors preserved until it was de¬
stroyed by Amurath IV. At Byzantium, Constantine Las-
caris transcribed many of the works which were afterwards
conveyed to the Royal Library at Madrid ; and in this city
were procured those manuscripts which, having been pre¬
sented to Hurtado de Mendoza by Solyman II., were left
by the former to the Library of the Escorial. Possevin has
given partial catalogues of some of the libraries at Constan¬
tinople ; and an early traveller, who visited that city in the
year 1597, mentions a valuable collection which he had
seen there, though without specifying its contents. With
respect to Athos, it appears that there were deposited in one
library alone 200 manuscripts, originally obtained from the
monasteries upon the mountain; and a great part of those
formerly at Moscow had been collected by the monk Ar-
senius, in Athos, at the suggestion of the patriarch Nicon.
Thessaly, Chios, Corfu, Crete, Cyprus, Chalce,5 Rhodes,
and Epidauria, may also be mentioned as places which, at
different times, have supplied manuscripts.
Mr Walpole long since expressed the opinion, that not¬
withstanding the acquisitions which have already been made,
researches in the Levant should not be intermitted. By
these many manuscripts may still, according to him, be
rescued from destruction.6 No care whatever appears to
have been taken to preserve them. Dr Covel mentions
having seen, in the monasteries of Mount Athos and else¬
where, vast heaps of manuscripts of the Fathers, and other
learned authors, all covered over with dust and dirt, many
of them rotten and spoiled, and never in any instance placed
upon shelves or arranged in good order.7 A list of the
theological manuscripts in the Library of Patmos has been
3 ^*'ra^0’ xlL-> PP* 608, 609. 2 Athenaeus, Deipnosophistarum libri xv. (ed. Schweighauser, Argent, 1801-7), lib. 1., 4.
Tertull. Apol. c. 18. Vitruvius, lib. vii. in prcefat. “ Reges Attalici,” says he, “ magnis philologiae dulcedinebus inducti, cum
egregiam Bibliothecam Pergami ad communem delectationem instituissent; tunc item Ptolemaeus, infinito zelo cupiditatisque incitatus
studio, non minoribus industriis ad eundem modum contenderat Alexandriae comparare.” (Argentorati, 1807.)
g P- 5 The island in the Propontis or Sea of Marmora.
Memoirs relating to European Turkey, published in 1817.
7 Covel, Some account of the present Greek Church (1722, fol.)
384
LIBRARIES.
Ancient given by Possevin; and another, copied by the Marquis of
Libraries. g]i,T0 ]ias been published by Mr Walpole. The actual
v/—' catalo<me contains the titles of 92 manuscripts, and about
Researches 40O printed volumes; but the Greek compiler has not
for ancient state(i any circumstance relating to the manuscripts by
Greek MSS. which an estimate 0f their value may be formed. He
gives no information concerning the form of the letters or
that of the manuscripts, or upon any of those subjects by
which a knowledge of their respective dates might be
obtained. But there is one manuscript mentioned in the
catalogue, in regard to which it is impossible not to feel more
than ordinary curiosity. We allude to a manuscript of
Diodorus Siculus, an accurate inspection of which would
probably determine whether the hopes which were oftener
than once entertained, of recovering the lost books of that
historian, were in this instance also to be disappointed.1
But, without dwelling longer upon particulars, we may ob¬
serve, that notwithstanding the sanguine expectations enter¬
tained by the admirers of ancient learning, very few valu¬
able manuscripts have latterly been discovered ; and, with
the exception of the fragments of ancient authors, deci¬
phered from palimpsest, or rescribed manuscripts, it must be
admitted, that those accidentally rescued from destruction
have, in general, been either of comparatively modern date
or of but little consequence. Neither the inquiries which
have been extended to the African states, nor the excava¬
tions and researches made at Herculaneum and Pompeii,
have recovered the lost historians, or indeed brought to light
any works of importance.2 (See Herculaneum.)
The Hon. Robert Curzon, in the charming volume which
describes his Visits to the Monasteries in the Levant, records
his success in Abyssinia, Turkey, and Greece, in obtaining
a number of very early and important MSS. A portion of
these MSS. are described in a Catalogue of Materials for
Writing ; Eastern Writings on Tablets and Stones, Rolled
and other Manuscripts, and Oriental Manuscript Books, in
the Library of the Honourable Robert Curzon, at Parham,
in the County of Sussex (London, 1849, folio). Of this
volume, which contains various interesting facsimiles, only
50 copies were printed. From information communicated
by Mr Curzon as to the existence of ancient Greek scrolls
in the monasteries of the East, the Rev. H. O. Coxe has
recently (1856) obtained leave of absence from the Bod¬
leian Library, at the request of government, to proceed to
the Levant, in search of such MSS.; and a more competent
scholar for such an object could not have been found.
The French government has also turned its attention to¬
wards the same object, and has entrusted a similar mission
to M. Lebarbier, a young but already distinguished student
of the Ecole Francaise d’Athenes. In August 1856, M.
Guigniaut, in the name of a committee appointed to exa¬
mine the works and proceedings of this school at Athens,
read a report to the Academy of Inscriptions, in which the
first fruits of M. LebarbieFs labours are described, with
more especial reference to a library designated by M. Guig¬
niaut the “ Library of the Holy Sepulchre at Constanti¬
nople.” After stating that the library possesses a consi¬
derable number of MSS-, M. Guigniaut proceeds: <4 Bnt,
unfortunately, these MSS. comprise little besides homilies,
prayers, theological and controversial treatises (written at
periods not very remote from our own), translations from
Latin or Italian into modern Greek, .... and works of
like kind. The ancient authors, all long since published,
are for the most part modern transcripts.” . . . . ‘’ But,’ adds
the learned reporter, “ if the Library of the Holy Sepulchre
offers little aid to classical literature, it is rich in documents Ancient
which throw new light on the history of the Greeks after Librariea.
the fall of the Byzantine empire.”3 T bus far, it must be v
admitted, these renewed researches do not present a very
promising aspect as regards that particular department of
literature with which alone we have here to do. But the field
is one in which the discoveries of an hour may possibly
present rich compensation for the toil of years.
Rome was still in its infancy when the archives of the Etruscan
Etruscans contained a continuous collection of public acts, libraries,
and particularly an uninterrupted series of births and
deaths, that enabled that people to fix the unequal duration
of the eight centuries of their previous history, which they
reckoned up to about the middle of the sixth century before
Christ. The details given by Censorinus in Varro, prove
that the Etruscans kept regular registers of births and deaths,
from the epoch of their first establishment in Italy, which
Larcher refers to the year 1344 before Christ; that, the
eighth century thereafter, to which the Etruscan histories
were written, must have been the sixth before the Chris¬
tian era, in which other histories appeared that are no
longer extant, and that, during these eight hundred years,
the most extended term of human life was nearly the same
as at the present day. In the works of Dionysius of Hali¬
carnassus, of Plutarch, and other ancient authors, we also
discover scattered glimpses of the history of Italy in the
most remote times, and learn that the tribes or races by
whom the Etruscans were surrounded had also their histo¬
rical archives. It may even be supposed that the Romans,
in causing their Capitoline marbles to be engraved, fol¬
lowed, amongst others, the example of Praeneste, a city
much more ancient than Rome, and which had long con¬
tinued the practice of classifying, as well as engraving its
municipal records. Such were the sources consulted by
several historians who treated of the antiquities of differ¬
ent Italian nations, particularly Zenodotus of Trcezene,
who composed a history of the Ombrians.
If the ancient Greeks had but few books, the ancient
Romans possessed still fewer. Incessantly occupied in mi¬
litary expeditions, defensive wars, and the aggrandizement
of their empire, that warlike people had no leisure, and,
probably, as little inclination, to cultivate letters. It was
not until they had subdued Magna Greecia that they be¬
gan to emerge out of barbarism, nor until they had accom¬
plished the conquest of Greece itself, that a taste for arts,
sciences, and books was diffused amongst them. They
became civilized by frequent contact and familiarity with
civilization. The immediate consequence of the conquest
of Greece was a more frequent intercourse with the Greeks,
at once their subjects and their masters; and in proportion
as they became acquainted with the literature and arts of
that refined people, the asperity of character and manners
which had distinguished this nation of conquerors began to
disappear.
The first library established at Rome was probably that Libraries
founded by Paul us ^Emilius, b.c. 167. Having subdued in Rome.
Perses, King of Macedonia, he enriched the city of Rome
with the library of this conquered monarch, which was sub¬
sequently augmented by Sylla.4 On his return from Asia,
where he had successfully terminated the first war against
Mithridates, Sylla visited Athens, whence he took with him
that Library of Apellicon the Teian, which has been men¬
tioned already. Lucullus, another conqueror of Mithridates,
was not less distinguished by his taste for books. T he
number of volumes in his library was immense; and they
1 See Mr Walpole’s observations on this subject, published in Dr Clarke s T1/n ,. . vuimcnn Anecdota (Jrceca,
« Memoire, de l'Academic des Inscriptions, tom. vii.; Nouveau Trade de Drplon.aUque par deux Benedimns ; Vdlo.son ^ota^rcBC ,
tom. ii.; Fabricius, Bibliotheca Qrceca, tom. xiv. 3 Journal Genlral de VInstruction Pufc^ ClSoej voL xxv p^iJ.
* Such is the statement of Isidores (Origines, 1. vi., c. 4), though Plutarch (in Vtt. N?miL. tom. n., p. 180, ed. Bryan; expressly says
that he reserved for his sons, who were lettered men, the books taken from the libraiy o ving erses.
LIBRARIES.
385
Ancient were written in the most distinct and elegant manner pos-
libraries. sible. But the use which he made of his collection was still
more honourable to that princely Roman than the acquisi¬
tion or possession of it. His library was open to all; and
the Greeks, who visited Rome, resorted to the galleries
and porticos of Lucullus as to the retreat of the Muses,
where they spent whole days in conversation on literary
subjects. But although both Sylla and Lucullus liberally
gave public access to their literary treasures, still their
libraries can, in strictness, be considered as only ■private
collections. Amongst the various projects which Julius
Caesar had formed for the embellishment of Rome was
that of a public library, which should contain the largest
possible collection of Greek and Latin works; and he had
assigned to Varro the duty of selecting and arranging
them ; but it has been supposed that this design was frus¬
trated by the assassination of the dictator; and that the
establishment of public libraries did not take place until the
reign of Augustus.
The honour of suggesting these valuable institutions is
ascribed by the elder Pliny1 to Asinius Pollio, who erected
a public library in the atrium of the temple of Liberty, on
Mount Aventine Hill. This library, it is added, was formed
ex manubiis, and in it was placed a bust of Varro. It would
seem probable, from the latter circumstance, that Varro
after all may have carried out the plan entrusted to him by
Caesar, and that Pollio may have merely enlarged the li¬
brary thus begun. The exploits that were most likely to
have yielded him the spoils of war, were of a date long
subsequent to that of Caesar’s commission to Varro.2
Augustus, amongst other embellishments which he be¬
stowed upon Rome, erected two public libraries, viz.,
the Octavian and the Palatine. The Octavian Library,
which was thus denominated in honour of the emperor’s
sister, stood in the portico of Octavia; and the charge of
it was committed to Melissus, who had been manumitted
by Augustus. The Palatine Library was added by Au¬
gustus to the temple of Apollo, which he had erected on
the site of that part of the Palatine House which had been
struck by lightning. There were deposited the corrected
books of the Sybils; and, from two ancient inscriptions
quoted by Lipsius and Pitiscus, it would seem that it con¬
sisted of two distinct collections, one Greek and the other
Latin. This library having survived the various revolu¬
tions of the Roman empire, existed until the time of Gre¬
gory the Great, whose mistaken zeal led him to order all
the writings of the ancients to be destroyed.3 The succes¬
sors of Augustus, though they did not equally encourage
learning, were not altogether neglectful of its interests.
Suetonius informs us that Tiberius founded a library in the
new temple of Apollo; and we learn from some incidental
notices, that he instituted another in his own house, called
the Tiberian Library. Vespasian, following the example
of his predecessors, established a library in the temple of
Peace, which he erected after the burning of the city by
order of Nero ; and even Domitian, in the commencement
of his reign, restored at great expense the libraries which
had been destroyed by the conflagration, collecting copies
of books from every quarter, and sending persons to Alex¬
andria to transcribe volumes in that celebrated collection,
or to correct copies which had been made elsewhere. Va¬
rious writers have asserted that there was a library attached
to the Temple of the Capitol; but they have not informed
us by whom it was founded. Lipsius ascribes it to Domi- Ancient
tian ; whilst Donatus refers it to the Emperor Hadrian, by libraries,
whom it was at least enlarged, if not founded, and who
probably erected the Tiburtine Library, at Tibur, in the
vicinity of Rome.4 But the most magnificent of all the
libraries founded by the sovereigns of imperial Rome was
that of the Emperor Ulpius Trajanus, from whom it was
denominated the Ulpian Library. It was erected in Tra¬
jan’s Forum, but afterwards removed to the Viminal Hill,
to ornament the baths of Diocletian. In this library were
deposited the elephantine books, written upon tablets of
ivory, wherein were recorded the transactions of the em¬
perors, the proceedings of the senate and Roman magis¬
trates, and the affairs of the provinces. It has been con¬
jectured that the Ulpian Library consisted both of Greek
and Latin works; and some authors affirm that Trajan
commanded all the books which could be found in the
cities he had conquered to be immediately conveyed to
Rome, in order to increase his collection. The library of
Domitian having been consumed by lightning, in the reign
of Commodus, was not restored until the time of Gordian,
who rebuilt the edifice, and founded a new library, adding
thereto the collection of books bequeathed to him by Quin¬
tus Serenus Samonicus, the physician, amounting, it is
said, to no less than 72,000 volumes. Donatus conjectures
that this library was deposited in the palace of Pompey.5
In addition to the imperial libraries, there were others Libraries
to which the public had access in the principal cities and 1° t^ie Pr0"
colonies of the empire. Pliny mentions a public library v^nces-
which he had founded for the use of his countrymen; and
Vopiscus informs us that the Emperor Tacitus caused the
historical writings of his illustrious namesake to be deposited
in the libraries. But the irruptions of the barbarians who
overran and desolated the western empire proved more
destructive to the interests of literature than either volcanoes
or earthquakes, and soon caused the disappearance of those
libraries which, during several centuries, had been multi¬
plied in Italy.
When Constantine the Great (a.d. 336) made Byzan-Library of
tium the seat of his empire, decorated that city with Ccmstanti-
splendid edifices, and called it after his own name ; de- noPle-
sirous to make reparation to the Christians for the injuries
they had suffered during the reign of his predecessor, he
commanded the most diligent search to be made after those
books which Diocletian had doomed to destruction; he
caused transcripts to be made of such as had escaped the
fury of the Pagan persecutor; and, having collected others
from various quarters, he formed the whole into a library
at Constantinople. On the death of Constantine, however,
the number of books in the imperial library was only 6900;
but it was successively enlarged by the Emperors Julian
and Theodosius the younger, who augmented it to 120,000
volumes. Of these, more than half were burned, in the
seventh century, by the command of the Emperor Leo III.,
who thus sought to destroy all the monuments that might
impede his opposition to the worship of images. In this
library was deposited the only authentic copy of the
Council of Nice; and it is also said to have contained
the poems of Homer, written in gold letters, together
with a magnificent copy of the Four Gospels, bound in
plates of gold, enriched with precious stones; all of which
were consumed in the conflagration.. The convulsions
which distracted the lower empire were by no means favour-
1 “ Q,ui primus bibliothecam dicanrto, ingenio hominum rempublicarn fecit. (Plin. Hist. Nat., lib. xxv., c. 2.) Ovid also ascribes this
honour to Pollio. (Tristia, lib. iii., el. 1.)
® Merivale, History of the Romans under the Empire, ii., 426,
° Plutarch, in Marcello ; Suet, de Illust. Gram., c. 41 ; Idem, in Augitst. c. 29; Lipsius de Biblioth. c. 7; Pitiscus, Lexicon, tom. i p
276 ; Brucker, Hist. Grit. Philosoph., tom. i., p. 20. ’’ 4 ‘
* Suet, in Tiber, c 74, et in Vespas. c. 9; Aul. Gell, lib. xvi., c. 8 ; Lipsius de Biblioth. c. 20 ; Suet, in Domitian., c. 20.
J Euseb. in Commodo ; Capitolinus, in Vit. Qordiani Junioris, c. 18; Donatus, Roma Vetas, lib. iii., c. 8, p. 119 ; Encyclovedie tom ii.,
art. Bibliotheque. * r > >
YOL. XIII. 0
3 C
386
LIBRARIES.
Libraries able to the interests of literature. In the eleventh century
of the mid- learning flourished for a short time during the reign of Con-
dle ages. stantjne Porphyrogenetus ; and this emperor is said to have
employed many learned Greeks in collecting books, and
forming a library, the arrangement of which he himself super¬
intended. But the final subversion of the Eastern Empire,
and the capture of Constantinople in 1453, dispersed the
learned men of Greece over Western Europe, and placed
the literary remains of that capital at the mercy of the con¬
queror. The imperial library, however, was preserved by
the express command of Mohammed, and continued, it is
said, to be kept in some apartments of the seraglio; but
whether it was sacrificed in a fit of devotion by Amurath
IV., as is commonly supposed, or whether it was suffered to
fall into decay from ignorance and neglect, it has been re¬
peatedly asserted that the library of the Sultan contains
only Turkish and Arabic writings, and not one Greek or
Latin manuscript of any importance. The opinions of com¬
petent scholars continue, nevertheless, to be divided on this
point. Even in Germany, where the expectation of im¬
portant accessions from this quarter has confessedly declined,
we find an authority so eminent on such questions as that
of Tischendorff still on the side of the old belief. He thinks
it probable, he says (writing in 1845), “that the seraglio
of the Sultan conceals ancient and valuable MSS., though
complete obscurity prevails as to their contentsand he
proceeds to ask who in our day would have credited the
existence of “ walled-up ” libraries, yet a walled-up library
was very lately one of the mysteries of Cairo.1
Upon the whole, it appears that books were abundant,
both at Rome and at Constantinople, and that learned
men in those cities had at their command greater resources
than might at first be supposed. Some idea of the quan¬
tity of books accessible to persons of study and research
may be formed from the great number of references and
citations to be found in the works of some authors, parti¬
cularly in those of Strabo, Pliny, and some others. It is,
however, to be remembered, while referring to the large
number of books said to have been contained in these an¬
cient libraries, that a very erroneous impression would be
made were they to be reckoned according to modern com¬
putation. Each work being written on separate rolls, the
number would necessarily be greatly increased, when the
books of Livy or Pliny were each reckoned as a distinct
roll, or volume; and Balbi (Essai Statistique, &c., p. 82,
Vienna, 1835, 8vo.) further suggests the comparison that
these rolls of the ancients might be reckoned as so many
parts of books, published by subscription, or of periodicals.
According to this view, the largest libraries in ancient times
might be represented by the contents of a modern library
containing from 50,000 to 100,000 volumes.
H.—LIBRARIES OP THE MIDDLE AGES.
General General epithets and figurative expressions frequently
remarks, convey a meaning which is calculated to mislead. Hear¬
ing constantly of “ the dark ages,” “ the period of intellec¬
tual night,” and “ the season of winter in the history of
man,” we are apt to imagine that, during the time thus
designated, the human mind was utterly palsied, and all
learning extinct. But in fact, throughout that period, rea¬
son, though misdirected, was not asleep; philosophy was
rather bewildered than inert; and learning was immured,
but not lost. In no part of that long period which extends
f rom the reign of the Emperor Justinian, when Greek and
Roman literature everywhere lay open to the light of day,
to the fall of Constantinople and the revival of learning in
the fifteenth century, do we entirely lose the traces even
of the classic authors, much less of sacred literature; for Libraries
in each intervening age, and in every quarter of Europe, of the mid-
there were writers whose works, being still extant, afford ages-
abundant evidence of their acquaintance with most of the
principal authors of more remote times.2 When the em¬
pire of the west sunk under the overwhelming pressure of
barbarian invasion, those institutions which had been founded
and nurtured in the midst of civilization, were, no doubt,
swept away by the torrent which desolated Italy, and
spread its ravages over all parts of the empire. But learn-
ing, though expelled from her ancient establishments, and
forced from her favourite haunts, found an occasional asylum
in the monasteries, which, amidst all the violence and
anarchy that reigned without, were sometimes permitted to
remain in undisturbed tranquillity, respected even by the
barbarians who had overthrown an empire.
It is doubtless true that comparatively little is recorded Libraries,
of the libraries of those ages which intervened between
the fall of the Roman empire and the revival of letters in
Europe, about the middle of the fifteenth century. But,
every age produced learned and inquisitive men, by whom
books were highly prized, and industriously collected. Cas-
siodorus, minister of Theodore, King of the Goths, retired to
a monastery which he had built, and there founded a library
for the use of the monks, about the middle of the sixth
century. At a later period, Charlemagne, distinguished
as a patron of learning, instituted, near Lyons, a library,
which, according to the statements of historians, contained
many books bound in a magnificent manner.
That on the general merits of the monastic institute the Monaste-
most conflicting opinions should still extensively prevail, ries J sys-
cannot be matter of legitimate surprise, if we call to mind tem of.
that monasticism played a great part in the world for a imr-*
thousand years ; and that during that long period the most sue(j there-
incongruous views as to what a monk ought rightly to be in.
and to do were current even within the walls of monastic
communities. But this diversity of opinion extends also
to that more limited phase of cloister life which has relation
to literature. Whilst some writers contend that but for
monks ancient learning would have wholly perished, others
have gone the length of asserting that in monks literature
has always had its worst enemies.
To arrive at any useful conclusion on such a question, it
must be remembered that at no time and in no country was
literature in any of its forms the main object of monastic
life. In the earlier ages, when the embers of Paganism
were still smouldering, the preservation of Pagan poetry
would have seemed a strange employment for the confes¬
sors and missionaries of Christianity. The labours of the
Scriptorium originated not so much in the love of letters as
in the love of souls. As the monk became less of a mere
ascetic, and aspired to become a civilizer, he necessarily
began to be a collector of books, and then their author or
their transcriber. But, for a long time, the books that he
gathered, and those that he composed, were in the main
either theological or ethical. Here and there, however,
individual minds of special energy grew large enough to
perceive classical beauty without relaxing their grasp of such
Christian truth as they had, and became the venerated mas¬
ters of numerous disciples. If monastic literature reflects
but too much of the corruption of mediaeval Christianity, it
remains still undeniable that from Bibles transcribed by
monkish hands, and from the best of the productions of the
fathers of the church, preserved in monkish libraries, the
men who successively wrestled with that corruption, and
were the instruments by which Christianity was kept alive,
drew their inspiration and their solace; and that very cor¬
ruption, in some of its results, as, for example, in the re-
1 Tischendorff, Travels in the East (1847), p. 273.
* Taylor, History of the Transmission of Ancient Books to Modern Times, pp. 86, 87.
LIBRARIES.
Libraries ligious use of a dead language, contributed to the preser-
of the mid' Vation of ancient learning.
die ages. a]most an periods of its history the order of St Bene-
diet stands foremost amongst the cultivators of learning
and of the arts. Yet whilst the rule of the founder con¬
tains much about visiting the sick, relieving the poor, and
keeping the body in subjection, it contains very little in¬
deed about books. Nor is there much more about them in
the various constitutions of the successive “ Reformers” of
the order. But no order was so fortunate in the posses¬
sion of a long line of men remarkable for mental vigour
and force of character. If the early Benedictines are less
conspicuous at periods of comparative enlightenment than
at periods when all around them was gloomy, they were
unquestionably the first pioneers and builders up of Euro¬
pean civilization, and they laid its foundations broad and
deep enough to resist the attacks of their own unworthy
successors. They never sank so low as did most other
orders of monks; and at a long subsequent period, in pro¬
ducing the illustrious congregation of St Maur, a service
was rendered to learning—in the special sense of that term
—which neither has, nor is likely to have, any parallel in
monastic history.
Monte Cassino has been called the Sinai of the middle
ages. It was certainly the cradle of a series of communi¬
ties which spread all over Europe, and of which not the
least famous were our British monasteries, such as Yarrow,
Wearmouth, Bury St Edmunds, Croyland, Whitby, Read¬
ing, St Albans, all of which were distinguished for the
pains taken in them about the collection and transcription of
books. This system of transcription, to which alone we are
indebted for all that remains of ancient learning, was carried
on to an extent, of which those who are unacquainted with
the history of the middle ages can form no conception. We
have already had occasion to advert to the occupation of the
inmates of the monastic establishments on Mount Athos, the
lofty promontory which stretches from the Macedonian
coast far into the ^Egean Sea; and we have also noticed the
immense number of manuscripts which have at different
times issued from these establishments. Many manuscripts
still extant prove that the copying of books was likewise
practised to a great extent during the middle ages, in the
monasteries of the Morea, and in those of Euboea (Negro-
pont), and of Crete (Candia). The latter island seems, in¬
deed, to have been a place of refuge for learned men during
the disastrous period which preceded the fall of the Eastern
Empire; in its monasteries they found an asylum and the
means of subsistence. In Calabria and the kingdom of
Naples, fifty religious establishments have been mentioned,
from which proceeded a large number of the books after¬
wards collected in the libraries of Rome, Florence, Venice,
and Milan.1 In the monasteries of Western Europe, also,
the same system of transcription was carried on. It is
mainly to the labours of these establishments, that we are
indebted for the remains of the classic authors, and the pre¬
servation of the sacred books, which they so carefully tran¬
scribed.
This statement needs no better illustration, or more con¬
clusive proof, than would be furnished by a digest of some of
the more important of those catalogues of monastic libraries
which have come down to us in no inconsiderable number.
But however compressed, it would still be impracticable to
supply in this article even the briefest abstract of such a
summary. We can only indicate to the reader who may
desire to pursue the subject some of the sources of infor¬
mation to which he may resort. And this purpose will
probably be better attained by directing him to books in
which specimens of such catalogues have been printed,
than by any enumeration of those which exist in manu-
387
script, very curious as are some which remain as yet un- Libraries
published. of the mid-
A catalogue of the library of the famous Benedictine vdle ages^
Abbey of Corbey was first printed by Sir Thomas Phillipps,
and has been reprinted in the Leipsic journal Serapeum for
1841. In later volumes of that periodical will also be found
a curious series of ancient catalogues of that of Klosterneu-
burg (a library which still exists, and in recent days has
been magnificently lodged); of Saint Vaast of Arras, and
of some other monasteries of minor fame; together with
many historical notices of monastic libraries (the full cata¬
logues of which are no longer extant), chiefly from the pen
of the accomplished and laborious bibliographer Mr E. G.
Vogel of Dresden. An interesting series of catalogues of
the books of the great monastery of Durham was edited by
Mr Beriah Botfield for the Surtees Society in 1838. The
catalogue of the library of the Benedictines at Whitby is
printed in the Appendix to Mr Young’s History of that town,
as is the Peterborough catalogue in Gunton’s History of
Peterborough., and that of Glastonbury in Hearne’s Appen¬
dix to the Chronicle of John of Glastonbury. Of the
Abbey of Bee, M. Felix Ravaisson published an early cata¬
logue in his Rapports au Ministre de VInstruction Publique
sur les Bibliotheques des departments de V Quest (1841).
Not less interesting, although far more concise than most
of these, is that metrical catalogue by Alcuin of the trea¬
sures of the Augustinian monastery at York, which Ma-
billon communicated to Dr Gale for publication in his Scrip-
tores Rerum Britannicarum.
The reader who may refer to the texts of some of these
catalogues, or who may turn to the many extracts from
similar documents which are to be found in the Spicile-
gium of D’Aehery, the Thesaurus Anecdotorum of Martene,
Durand, and Pez, and in the narratives of the literary
travels of these and of other Benedictines of St Maur, will
perceive that monastic collections were often of no small
extent, and of not inconsiderable diversity; nor will he
feel much difficulty in admitting that but for monks the
dark ages must have been dark indeed.
The revival of learning is usually reckoned to have com- Fourteenth
menced in the fifteenth century ; but even in the four- century,
teenth a decided advancement in almost every department
of literature is discernible. Gross and degrading ignorance
was wearing away from the bulk of the community in seve¬
ral parts of Europe; the educated classes were acquiring
a better taste and more expanded views; and a general
awakening of the energies of the human mind was percep¬
tible. This needs no other evidence than is afforded by
the works of Dante, Petrarch, Boccacio, Chaucer, and
Gower, which were not merely produced in that period,
but extensively read and admired. During no part of that
long tract of time which extends from the decline of learn¬
ing in the sixth century till its revival in the fifteenth, had
there been a total extinction of the knowledge of ancient
literature; and those inestimable treasures which the re¬
ligious houses had saved from the ravages of revolution,
anarchy, and barbarism, now began to be drawn forth and
studied. The continuance of the Eastern Empire till the
middle of the fifteenth century, afforded an uninterrupted
protection to Greek learning during those periods when
Western Europe was laid waste by the Gothic nations; and
hence, on the revival of letters, the study of the Greek au¬
thors first engaged the attention of those individuals whom
an awakening impulse now directed to the cultivation of
learning. But that of the kindred authors of Rome soon
followed ; and the monuments of ancient wisdom and genius
which had been preserved in the monasteries, furnished
ample materials for laying the foundations of a new and
more extensive, if not more perfect, edifice of civilization.
1 Taylor, History of the Transmission of Ancient Books, p. 83.
388
Libraries
of the mid¬
dle ages.
Revival of
learning.
First for¬
mation of
modern
libraries.
Invention
of print¬
ing.
LIBRARIES.
More than half a century before the taking of Constan¬
tinople by the Turks, the learned men of the imperial city,
apprehending the approaching ruimof the empire, began to
emigrate into Italy, where they opened schools, and became
the preceptors of princes, as well as the guides of the pub¬
lic taste, which they directed towards the study of the clas¬
sical writers of Greece and Rome. The fall of Constan¬
tinople, in 1453, filled the Italian cities with these learned
strangers. At this period the Italians required only to re¬
ceive some kind of direction, and to be provided with the
means of study. They had for some time been placed in
those peculiar circumstances which have almost always
proved favourable to the advancement of the human mind.
A number of independent states were crowded upon a nar¬
row space, throughout which the same language, diversified
by dialects, prevailed, exhibiting, in a sort of reflected or
secondary form, that of ancient Italy; whilst the formation
of libraries, suggested or favoured by the importation of
manuscripts from Constantinople, proved the means not only
of making more widely known the works of the Greek au¬
thors (which had never fallen into oblivion), but of prompt¬
ing those researches which issued in the recovery of the
Latin writers, many of whom had long been forgotten. The
appetite for books being thus revived and quickened, neither
labour nor expense was spared in accumulating them ;
learned men were despatched in all directions throughout
Europe, Western Asia, and Africa, to collect manuscripts;
and, in the course of a few years, most of the authors now
known were brought together in the libraries of Rome,
Naples, Venice, Florence, Vienna, and Paris. Aided by
the munificence of princes and popes, the scholars of the
fifteenth century applied themselves to the discovery, re¬
storation, and publication of the remains of Greek and Ro¬
man literature; and, in the course of sixty or eighty years,
most of the works now known were committed to the press.
Since that time additional discoveries have been made ; but
the principal improvements of a subsequent date have con¬
sisted in the emendation of the text of ancient authors,
partly by a more extensive collation of manuscripts than
the first editors possessed the means of instituting, and
partly also by the lights and aids of a cautious and judicious
criticism.1
The invention of printing, by virtually exempting books
from the operation of the law which subjects all human
things to decay, has also greatly promoted the process of
their renovation. By giving to the issue of an edition of
a standard work a degree of importance several hundred
times greater than that which belonged to the transcription
of a single copy, it has called for a proportionally larger
amount of learning, diligence, and caution, in the work of
revision; and, by enabling each successive editor to avail
himself of the labours of his predecessors, all the advantages
resulting from the concentration of many minds upon the
same subject have further been secured. Since the fifteenth
century, therefore, the lapse of time, instead of gradually
impairing and corrupting the literary remains of antiquity,
has incessantly contributed to their renovation ; what was
then unknown or doubtful, imperfect or corrupted, has been
ascertained, restored, and completed; and the learning and
industry of the four centuries which have since elapsed,
being constantly directed towards the same objects, have left
comparatively few questions of literary antiquity open to
controversy.
Several of the great libraries of Europe date their first Libraries
beginnings during the hundred years between 1365, when of the mid-
Charles V. of France had already won renown as a collec- dle aSes-
tor of choice manuscripts, and 1465, when the art of print-
ing had established itself, without having as yet materially
interrupted the labours of the copyists. Within this period
are included the foundation of the Imperial Libraries of
Paris and of Vienna, of the Laurentian Library at Florence,
and of the Library of the Vatican; and the liberal gifts of
books which were made by Sir Richard Whittington to
the Franciscans of London; by Humphrey, Duke of Glou¬
cester, to the University of Oxford; by King Henry VI.
to All Souls College ; and by Niccolo Niccoli to his fellow-
citizens of Florence. It also witnessed the commencement
of those splendid collections of Frederick, Duke of Urbino,
and of Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary, which eclipsed
all preceding libraries, and were counted amongst the mar¬
vels of the age. But, unfortunately, whilst the Urbino
Library has escaped the almost total destruction which befel
that of Corvinus, it has lost much of its value by division.
Its manuscripts are still conspicuous amongst the treasures
of the Vatican, but they are less accessible to students
than they were in the romantic seat of the old dukes; and
the printed books are scattered, some being at Castel Du¬
rante, others in the Library of the “ Sapienza” at Rome,
and others, again, still remaining at Urbino.2
Within the same period, too, is comprised the founda¬
tion of the oldest of those town libraries in which Germany
has become rich. As early as 1413, Andreas von Slommow
established a library atDantzic in connection with the church
of St Mary.3 His example was followed by Conrad von
Hildesheim at Ratisbon in 1430 ;4 by Heinrich Neidhart at
Ulm in 1440 ;5 and by Conrad Kiihnhofer at Nuremberg
in 1445.6 Nor was France far behind in a similar founda¬
tion, although in that country the first step was not followed
up with equal vigour. There is an account of the purchase
of books for a public library by the Common Council of Aix
in the year 1419.7 For any such record, or for any entry
at all respecting such an institution, in the proceedings of
an English municipality, it will, we fear, be necessary to
descend almost two centuries. The striking contrast which
for many generations existed between Great Britain and
some of the continental states, as respects the possession of
libraries publicly accessible, was none the less, but rather
the more, deplorable for the fact that in earlier days it had
been, as there is good hope that in future days it will yet
be, quite otherwise. In that first “ revival of letters” for
which the Europe of the middle ages was so greatly indebted
to the genius and energy of Charlemagne, we find Alcuin
writing to his imperial patron, that nothing so wrought
within him a longing to return to England as the memory of
the books which there had abounded, and of which in France
there were so few. He repeatedly urges the Emperor to
send messengers to England for manuscripts. So highly
were those prized which he had himself brought with him
to the court, that they became the foundation of a special
school of scribes and illuminators in the country round Aix-
la-Chapelle, which for many ages, it is said, remained faith¬
ful to Saxon traditions.
More than five centuries later we find the patron saint of
British book-lovers, Richard Aungerville, Bishop of Dur¬
ham, in the midst of his lamentations at the degeneracy of
morals, and at the supremacy of the lust of power and gain
1 Taylor, Hist, of the Transm. of Ancient Books, p. 106. “ This restoration,” continues Mr Taylor, “ of the remains of ancient works
to their pristine integrity, has not been effected like that of a dilapidated building or mutilated statue, by the addition of new materials
in an imagined conformity with the plan and taste of the original work, but by the industrious collection and replacement of the very
particles of which it first consisted.”
2 Dennistoun, Memoirs of the Dukes of Urbino, vol. iii., pp. 228-232.
3 Petzholdt, Handbuch deutscher Bibliotheken (Halle, 1853, 12mo), pp. 78, 79. * Ibid., p. 314.
6 Serapeum (Leipsic, 1844, 8vo), vol. v., pp. 193-202. 0 Petzholdt, ut sup., p. 280.
7 Rouard, Notice sur la Bibliotheque d'Aix (Aix, 1831, 8vo), p. 40. See also Pitton, Histoire d'Aix, p. 591.
LIBRARIES.
3«9
British over the old love of knowledge, bursting into a cry of tri-
hbraries. umph at the apparent dawn of a brighter day. He quaintly
recalls, indeed, the almost tumultuous pleasure with which,
in his youth, he used frequently to visit “ Paris, the para¬
dise of the world! . . . where are delightful libraries in
cells redolent of aromatics, . . . flourishing green-houses
filled with all sorts of volumes, . . but thinks there are
already indications, that as “ the admirable Minerva once
deserted Athens, and then retired from Rome, she has, in
like manner, given the slip to the Parisians, and has at last
happily reached Britain, the most renowned of islands”1
The good bishop practised what he taught. He is the
first recorded donor of books to the University of Oxford.
His example was followed by several other prelates and
eminent personages; but all these benefactions were de¬
stroyed in the stormy days of the Reformation. Perhaps
of all the incidental losses that were swallowed up, if we
may so speak, in that great gain, there was none more de¬
serving of regret than the loss of a precious opportunity for
adding literary to religious reform. Many of those who
most hated monkish corruptions have borne striking testi¬
mony to the worth of monastic libraries, even after long
years of neglect and injury. That stern opponent of the
Romanists, Bishop Bale, for example, keenly laments that
in “ turning over the superstitious monasteries so little re¬
spect was had to the libraries, for the safeguard of those
noble and precious monuments. . . . Avarice w'as the . . .
dispatcher which made an end both of our libraries and
books, unto the no small decay of the commonwealth.”
And then he adds, in glowing words, that expression of
deep regret that so favourable an occasion had not been
seized for the establishment of county libraries throughout
England, to which we have elsewhere adverted, and con¬
cludes thus:—“ But to destroy all without consideration is,
and will be, unto England for ever, a most horrible infamy
among the grave seniors of other nations.”2
It was not until the reign of James I. that Great Britain
could boast even a “ Royal Library” worthy of the name.
In 1570 Sir Humphrey Gilbert had vainly pressed on the
attention of Queen Elizabeth the superior advantages which
men of letters enjoyed in other countries, and the national
glory which would result from the establishment of a royal
academy and library upon an adequate scale. But what the
monarch failed to do was in process of time undertaken by
some private persons. In 1580 Clement Littill laid the cor¬
ner-stone of the Library of the University of Edinburgh.
In or about 1588, Sir Robert Cotton commenced that noble
collection of manuscripts which long afterwards was to be¬
come not the I'y&’af fruitful germ of our National Museum.
In 1597 Sir Thomas Bodley resolved (to use his own words)
“ to take his full farewell of all state employments, . . .
and to set up his staff at the library door in Oxon ”3 And,
in 1601, a most worthy, though unusual, memorial of mili¬
tary gratitude, laid the foundation of the fine Library of
Trinity College, Dublin.
Our historical summary of the growth and fortunes of
these and of some others of the more conspicuous Euro¬
pean libraiies must needs be a brief one. We arrange it
under the main divisions of (1.) British, (2.) Foreign*(3.)
American and Colonial collections, and begin with those
which are of nearest interest.
(1.) BRITISH LIBRARIES.
thelMtish /library of the British Museum, which is now de-
Museum. ^rvedly consrdered as the great national depository of
science, literature, art, and antiquities, has been composed of
various collections successively obtained, and is not more British
remarkable for its numerous and valuable manuscript acqui- libraries,
sitions than it is for that energy in its recent management,
which within a few years has raised the collection of printed
books, from a position comparatively mean, to one of—to
say the least—substantial equality, with the oldest and most
favoured of the great collections of Europe.
The Museum owes its immediate origin to the bequest of
Sir Hans Sloane, whose collections were purchased agreeably
to the terms proposed, in the name of trustees, for the public
use. T he department of printed books consisted originally
of Sloane’s Library, which was increased by other collections,
including manuscripts of the highest importance. In 1757,
George II., by an instrument under the Great Seal, added
the Library of the Kings of England, the printed books of
which had been slowly collected from the time of Henry
VII., and the manuscripts from a much earlier date, to be
afterwards mentioned. This collection was very rich in the
prevailing literature of different periods ; and it included,
amongst others, the Libraries of Archbishop Cranmer, of
Henry Prince of Wales, and of Isaac Casaubon. His Ma¬
jesty annexed to his gift the privilege which the Royal
Library had long possessed, of being supplied with a copy
of every publication entered at Stationers’ Hall. The
same department was further enriched, in 1763, by a dona¬
tion from George III. of an extraordinary collection of pam¬
phlets and periodical papers (published in England be¬
tween 1640 and 1660, and chiefly illustrative of the civil
wars in the time of Charles I.), which had been formed by
Geo. Thomason, a royalist bookseller in London. These
tracts include a most extensive and singular series of
ephemeral productions on various subjects, and amount, in
the aggregate, to 2220 volumes, containing about 34,000
separate publications or articles. Many of them are single
leaves, or broadsides, with woodcuts and portraits ; and their
value is enhanced in having the dates of publication written
on each, and sometimes their prices. That the old Royal
Library, which had been under the charge of some of the
most learned men in England, should not have been pre¬
served entire, and kept as a distinct portion of the Museum,
is matter of serious regret. But, by ill-advised economy,
the books were not even always preserved, but many of
them, from time to time, sold as duplicates, notwithstand¬
ing the interest attaching to dedication copies to different
monarchs, and to the splendid and curious bindings of the
time, ornamented with the royal arms and cyphers.
It would be vain to attempt a detailed enumeration of all
the additions which have since been made, whether by gift
or by purchase. Amongst the smaller acquisitions may be
mentioned Dr Thomas Birch’s library; two collections of
books on musical science from Sir John Hawkins, and one
from Dr Charles Burney; Garrick’s collection of old Eng¬
lish plays; numerous classics from the library of Thomas
Tyrwhitt, with his manuscript notes; Sir William Mus-
grave’s collection of biography ; a collection of classics, en¬
riched with Dr Bentley’s manuscript notes; a library of
ceremonials, processions, and heraldry, from Mrs Sophia
Sarah Banks ; and a collection of Italian history and topo¬
graphy, from Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Amongst the larger
and more important are, the general library collected by the
Rev. Clayton Mordaunt Cracherode, consisting of books of
great rarity, and in the finest condition; the law library
of Mr Francis Hargrave ; the library of science which
belonged to the Baron von Moll of Munich ; the lib¬
raries of M. Ginguene, author of the Histoire Litteraire
d'Italic, and of the Rev. Dr Charles Burney; and Sir
Joseph Banks’s library of natural history. Four separate
collections of tracts, illustrative of the revolutionary history
1 Philobiblon (Inglis’ version), pp. 53-66.
2 Bale’s Preface to Leland’s New Year s Gift to King Henry VIII., ut supra.
3 Keliquice Bodleiance, p. 13.
390 LIBRARIES.
British of France, have been purchased at different times by the
libraries, trustees, in the exercise of the powers with which they are
invested. One of these is the collection formed by the
last president of the parliament of Brittany, at the com¬
mencement of the revolution ; two others extend gene¬
rally throughout the whole revolutionary period; and the
fourth consists of a collection of tracts published during
the reign of the Hundred Days in ] 815 ; forming altogether
a body of materials for the history of the revolution as com¬
plete in regard to France, as the collection of pamphlets and
tracts already mentioned is with respect to that of the civil
wars of England in the time of Charles I. Another feature
of the Museum Library is its progressive collection of news¬
papers from the first appearance of these publications, early
in the seventeenth century.1 Sir Hans Sloane had formed
a great collection for his day. But to this was added, in
1818, the Burney collection, purchased at the estimated
value of L.1000 ; and, during a long time past, the Commis¬
sioners of Stamps have continued periodically to forward
to the Museum copies of all newspapers deposited by the
publishers in their office.
King's In 1823 the Royal Library collected by George HI. was
collection, presented to the British nation by his successor, George IV.,
and ordered by parliament to be added to the library of the
British Museum, but to be kept for ever separate from the
other books in that institution.2 The general plan of its
formation appears to have been determined on by George
III. soon after his accession to the throne; and the first
extensive purchase made for it was that of the library of
Mr Joseph Smith, British consul at Venice, in 1762, for
which his Majesty paid about L. 10,000. In this purchase
was included the chief portion of a very extensive and
valuable series of drawings and engravings, to be after¬
wards mentioned, which formed a separate and interest¬
ing division of the royal library. In 1768, Mr (afterwards
Sir Frederick) Barnard, the librarian, was despatched to
the Continent by his Majesty; and, as the Jesuits’ houses
were then being suppressed, and their libraries sold through¬
out Europe, he was enabled to purchase, upon the most
advantageous terms, a great number of valuable books, in¬
cluding some very remarkable rarities in France, in Italy,
and in Germany, The entire collection was formed and
arranged under the judicious direction of Mr Barnard, as¬
sisted by Mr George Nicol, bookseller to his Majesty for
upwards of half a century. Many of the rarest books were
secured by him for the collection, at the sale of West’s,
and other libraries. In addition to the purchase of Consul
Smith’s books, there remained, as the nucleus of the library,
those of Charles II., and subsequent monarchs, chiefly pre¬
sentation and large-paper copies, which were not included
in the previous gift of George II. to the Museum. It may
also be noticed, as a matter of regret, that a few of the
more remarkable volumes were retained by George IV. We
know of at least four books that were specially withheld
when the library was transferred to the Museum in 1823.
One of these is a splendid copy, the finest, perhaps, in
existence, of the Psalterium, from the press of Fust and
Schceffer, in the year 1457, being the earliest book known
with a date. It is superbly bound in garter-blue velvet,
having on the sides the royal crown and cypher in solid
gold, with embossed gold corners and clasps. The second
is The Doctrynal of Sapyence, the only book known to have
been printed by Caxton on vellum. A third volume is the
Shakspeare, second edition, of 1632, of no great rarity, but
remarkable in having been presented to Sir Thomas Herbert British
by Charles I., with the king’s autograph and his favourite libraries,
motto, Dum spiro spero. A fourth volume is that rarest
of the Aldine Virgils, a copy of the edition of 1505. These
volumes are now preserved in the Royal Library at Windsor.
I here was likewise retained, and is now deposited at Wind¬
sor, a very extensive and important collection of drawings
and sketches by the old masters, arranged and bound in
volumes, among which are numerous drawings by Leonardo
Da Vinci, Raftaele, Michael Angelo, the Caracci, Guercino,
Claude Lorraine, Nicolas Poussin, and others. A selection
of these in facsimile was engraved and published by Cham-
berlaine, 1797, large folio. Here, also, are those beauti¬
ful and masterly portrait-drawings of illustrious persons in
the court of Henry VIII., by Holbein, of which Chamber-
laine’s imitations are so well known. The Royal Library was
fed, during a period of sixty years, by an annual expendi¬
ture of about L.2000; and it is in itself perhaps one of the
most complete libraries of its extent that was ever formed.
It contains selections of the rarest kind, especially of
scarce books which appeared in the first ages of the art of
printing; in particular, it boasts of nearly forty volumes
printed by Caxton, a larger number than can be found
in any other library, with the exception of Earl Spencer’s.
It is also rich in early editions of the classics, in English
history, and in Italian, French, and Spanish literature ; and
there is likewise a very extensive collection of geography
and topography, and of the Transactions of learned acade¬
mies. The number of volumes in this library is 65,250,
exclusive of a valuable assortment of pamphlets—about
19,000 in number—and it appears to have cost, in direct
outlay, about L.130,000. When the King’s Library was
added to that which previously belonged to the Museum,
the number of duplicate volumes in the two collections was
found to be about 21,000 volumes, of which the committee
of the House of Commons recommended that not more than
12,000 should be parted with; and hence, by the gift of
George IV., a clear addition was made to the National
Library of more than 50,000 volumes.
Another most important addition to the library of the Grenville
Museum was the bequest of the Right Hon. Thomas collection.
Grenville, in 1846. It consists of 20,240 volumes, and
cost upwards of L.54,000. The books are arranged in a
separate apartment; and for rarity, judicious selection, and
beauty of condition, and for the number of copies of books
on large paper, it is equal to any collection of the same ex¬
tent that could be named. Among many choice treasures
that might be specified, we may mention the Mentz Latin
Bible (usually known as the Mazarine Bible), by Guttem-
berg, circa 1455, 2 vols., on vellum; the unique copy, on
vellum, of the first edition of Livy, by Sweynheim and Pan-
nartz, 1469 ;3 that of the first edition of Ovid, by Azzoguidi;
a copy of the Aldine Virgil of 1505 ; a splendid set of De
Bry’s Voyages', an uncut copy of Purchas’s Pilgrims; a
first Shakspeare, 1623, one of the finest known ; and a re¬
markable series of early editions of the Orlando Furioso.
The Grenville collection was not actually deposited in the
Museum until 1847. During that year was also added, by
the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, a very extensive
series of Chinese books, which had been collected by Robert
Morrison, Esq. of Canton. It contains 476 distinct works,
in 11,509 volumes, and is especially rich in the history and
politics of China.4 The other most noticeable additions of
recent years have been,—(1.) The collection of Hebrew
1 The celebrated Armada newspaper of 1588 is now acknowledged to be a forgery, and few forgeries have been so long successful.
The honour of its detection is due to Mr Thomas Watts, of the British Museum. Who was the forger can but be conjectured. The
papers were elaborately concocted, and were found—partly in print and partly in manuscript—amongst the collections of Dr Thomas
Birch,
^ Report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons on the Royal Library, 18th April 1823.
This volume was purchased at Mr Edwards’ sale, in 1815, for 860 guineas.
4 Parliamentary Return of 3d March 1848 (Sess. Paper, 139).
LIBRARIES.
391
British
libraries.
Depart¬
ment of
manu¬
scripts.
literature formed by Dr Michael of Hamburgh (who died in
1846), extending to 8970 distinct works, in 4420 volumes.
This library included about 400 Bibles and Commentaries;
860 scientific works; a series of documents illustrative of
the history of the Jews before and after their expulsion
from Spain, and several fine specimens of early printing
from the presses of Lisbon, Soncino, and Naples and, (2.)
a vast and systematic selection of books in every depart¬
ment of literature and in all languages, chosen with express
reference to the previous deficiencies of the library, as they
were ascertained on a careful survey in 1843, and described
in Mr Panizzi’s elaborate Report of the 1st January 1845,
which was subsequently printed amongst the Parliamentary
papers of that year.
The aggregate of the collections, the most conspicuous
of which we have thus enumerated, augmented by many
minor gifts, by claims, now strictly enforced, under the
Copyright Acts, and occasionally by liberal grants of Par¬
liament for purchases, have placed the library of printed
books in the British Museum on a level with the most
famous European collections, and, perhaps, second only—
even in point of numbers—to that of the Imperial Library at
Paris. The average yearly additions amount to about 13,000
volumes; and the entire library is reckoned to contain
562,000 volumes. When Mr Panizzi, now principal libra¬
rian, became keeper of the printed books in 1837, the num¬
ber of volumes was barely 240,000; so that (exclusively of
the bequest of Mr Grenville), 300,000 volumes have been
acquired, arranged, catalogued, and made accessible to
readers, under the official rule, and mainly by the strenu¬
ous exertions of one keeper, and that, during a term of
office which, compared with many official periods, marked
by no such acquisitions, may almost be designated a brief
one. Nor is this all. Within the same period the whole
of the old library—the royal collection alone excepted—has
been removed from its former habitation, subjected to an
arrangement entirely new, and, to a considerable extent,
has been re-catalogued, without any noticeable interruption
of its public use. Assuredly, in the entire history of
libraries, we meet with no parallel to these achievements;
and to them will soon be added another claim to the grati¬
tude of students, in the provision of a reading-room on a
scale of unequalled magnitude, with appliances worthy of
the library, the public utility of which they are designed to
extend.
The Department of Manuscripts in the British Museum
is not less valuable and important. It embraces several
distinct collections, of which the first to be noticed is,—(1.)
The Royal collection. This contains about 1950 volumes,
which formed the other portion of the ancient Royal Library
of England, presented to the nation by George II., in
1757. These manuscripts date from the reign of Richard
III. to that of Charles II., and are described in a catalogue
by David Casley, printed in 1734 (of which an enlarged
and corrected edition is much wanted). Among these pre¬
cious manuscripts, one of the most remarkable is the Codex
Alexandrinus, a present from Cyril, Patriarch of Constan¬
tinople, to King Charles I. It is in four quarto volumes,
written upon fine vellum, in uncial characters, probably be¬
tween the fourth and sixth centuries, and is believed to be
the most ancient manuscript of the Greek Bible now extant.
Many of the other manuscripts came into the royal collec¬
tion at the time when the monastic institutions of Britain
were destroyed; and some of them still retain upon their
spare leaves the honest and hearty anathemas which the
donors denounced against those who should alienate or re¬
move the respective volumes from the places in which they
had been originally deposited. This collection abounds in
old scholastic divinity, and possesses many volumes, embel¬
lished by the most expert illuminators of different countries,
in a succession of periods down to the sixteenth century.
In it are also preserved an assemblage of the domestic
music-books of Henry VIII., and the Basilicon Doron of
James I., in his own handwriting. It also contains several
chronicles and other volumes, which appear to have been
executed for Edward IV.; a volume of French romances,
presented by Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, to Queen Mar¬
garet of Anjou, and others richly illuminated. (2.) The
Cottonian collection, which was purchased for the use of the
public in 1700, and annexed by statute to the British Mu¬
seum in 1753, is especially rich in historical documents,
from the time of the Saxons to that of James I. These
MSS., to the number of 958 volumes, had been collected
by Sir Robert Cotton, who was born in 1570, and died in
1634. Subsequently to this acquisition for the nation, a
fire, on the 23d October 1731, broke out in Ashburnham
House, where these MSS. were then deposited, when serious
losses were sustained. From the detailed “ Report from
the Committee appointed to view the Cottonian Library,”
&c., printed by order of the House of Commons (1732, folio),
we learn that “114 volumes were either lost, burnt, or en¬
tirely spoiled, and 98 others damaged, so as to be defec¬
tive; so that the said library at present consists of 746 entire
volumes, and 98 defective ones.” Within these few years,
a considerable number of the burnt fragments and damaged
MSS. have been most skilfully restored. The Cottonian
Library likewise contains numerous registers of English mo¬
nasteries ; the charters of Edgar and of Henry I. to Hyde
Abbey, near Winchester, written in gold letters; and the
manuscript called the Durham Book, being a copy of the
Latin Gospels, with an interlinear Saxon gloss, written before
the year 800, illuminated in the most elaborate style of the
Anglo-Saxons, and reputed to have once belonged to the
Venerable Beda. This collection is also rich in ancient
charters, and in royal and other original letters and state
papers, and comprises the correspondence of most of the
great personages, not only of this country, but throughout
Europe, from the earliest periods at which letters were writ¬
ten until the commencement of the seventeenth century.
(3.) The Harleian collection, formed by Robert Harley,
Earl of Oxford (1661-1724), was purchased in 1753 for
L.10,000. It contains 7639 volumes, exclusive of 14,236
original rolls, charters, and other deeds. Although some¬
what miscellaneous in its character, historical literature in
all its branches forms one of its principal features. It is par¬
ticularly rich in heraldic and genealogical manuscripts ; in
the visitations of counties, and in English topographical col¬
lections ; in parliamentary and legal proceedings; in origi¬
nals, copies, and calendars of ancient records; in abbey re¬
gisters; in manuscripts of the classics, amongst which is
one of the earliest known of the Odyssey of Homer; in
missals, antiphonaries, and other service-books of the Ro¬
man Catholic Church; and in ancient English poetry. It
possesses two very early copies of the Latin Gospels, writ¬
ten in gold letters; and also contains a large number of
splendidly illuminated manuscripts, besides an extensive
mass of correspondence. It further includes about 300
manuscript Bibles or biblical books, in Hebrew, Chaldaic,
Greek, Arabic, and Latin ; nearly 200 volumes of writings
of the Fathers of the Church; and many works on the
arts and sciences, amongst which is a tract on the steam-
engine, with plans, diagrams, and calculations, by Sir Samuel
Morland. (4.) The Sloane collection, to the extent of 4100
volumes, consists principally of manuscripts on natural his¬
tory, voyages and travels, works on the arts, and especially
on medicine. It comprises the chief of Kaempfer’s manu¬
scripts, with a portion of the voluminous medical collections
of Mayerne, including the annals of his practice at the court
British
libraries.
1 Parliamentary Return of 20th March 1849 (Sess. Paper, 140).
392 LIBRARIES.
British of England from 1611 to 1649; and it also contains 30
libraries, volumes of Dr Sloane’s correspondence, and a considerable
Vs—~v—^ collection of medical and other scientific documents, with
numerous manuscripts on history, poetry, and miscellaneous
subjects. Some of the drawings of animals in this collec¬
tion are exceedingly rich and accurate; two volumes upon
vellum, are from the pencil of Madame Merian ; and one
relates entirely to the insects of Surinam. (5.) In 1807
the collection of manuscripts formed by the first Marquis
of Lansdowne was added to these libraries, having been
purchased by parliament for L.4925. It is divided into
two parts; the first consisting of 121 volumes of the very
important state papers and correspondence of William Lord
Burghley, during the long reign of Queen Elizabeth ; in the
second there are more than 50 volumes of the papers and
letters of Sir Julius Caesar, Judge of the Admiralty, and
Master of the Rolls ; the collections, in 107 volumes, of Dr
White Kennet, Bishop of Peterborough ; several ecclesias¬
tical registers of English priories; the correspondence of
Henry Cromwell, as Chief Governor of Ireland; various
ancient English chronicles ; and numerous other historical,
genealogical and topographical manuscripts of great impor¬
tance. Amongst the minor volumes is a manuscript of Har-
dyng’s Chronicle, presented by the author to King Henry VI.;
a French version of the sacred Scriptures upon vellum ; five
volumes of Saxon homilies; and a facsimile of the Vatican
Virgil, executed by Bartoli in 1742. To these may be
added, a Chinese map, and nearly two hundred drawings,
in the first style of eastern art, representing the dresses,
customs, and natural history of the interior of China. (6.)
Another large collection of manuscripts, about 500 vo¬
lumes, almost exclusively belonging to the faculty of law,
was purchased in 1813, of the representatives of Francis
Hargrave, and cost L.8000. Amongst these, besides nu¬
merous copies of early reports, is an abridgment of equity,
in 43 volumes, by Sir Thomas Sewell, Master of the Rolls.
(7.) The collection of manuscripts, amounting to 520 vo¬
lumes, chiefly of the Greek and Latin classics, which had
been formed at a vast expense by the Rev. Dr Charles
Burney, was purchased in 1818. Amongst these is the
Towneley Homer, a manuscript of the Iliad, similar to
that of the Odyssey in the Harleian collection ;1 two early
manuscripts of the Greek rhetoricians; a volume of the
mathematical tracts of Pappus; and a Greek manuscript
of Ptolemy’s adorned with maps of the fifteenth
century. (8.) Two Oriental collections have also been
added. One of these, made by Mr C. J. Rich, whilst British
Consul at Baghdad, and purchased by parliament in 1825,
contains, amongst other rare manuscripts, several copies of
the Syriac version of the Scriptures, which are believed to
be of great antiquity. The other, a collection made in
different countries of the East, and consisting chiefly of
Arabic and Persian manuscripts, was bequeathed to the
Museum in the year 1827, by the collector, Mr J. F. Hull.
(9.) In 1829 a small but valuable collection of manuscripts,
partly relating to French history, and partly of a literary
character, was bequeathed to the Museum by the last Earl of
Bridgevmter, accompanied by a small real estate, and a sum
of L.5000 to be invested, and the proceeds, as they became
available, applied in the purchase and binding of manu¬
scripts. A further sum of L.7000 was bequeathed to the
intent, that the interest thence accruing should be paid to
the librarian or librarians having charge of the collection,
n 1838 this “Egerton Fund” was largely increased by the
bequest of L.2872, three per cent, consols, by the late
Loi d r arnborough, expressly as an addition to it, for further
purchases of MSS. (10.) The last distinct collection is that
o t ic Hovjard- Arundel manuscripts, acquired from the
Royal Society in 1831, partly by exchange, and partly by British
purchase, at an estimated value of L.3560. It consists of libraries,
more than 600 volumes, contains many manuscripts of in-
terest in almost every branch of learning, and is rich in
materials for the history of our own country and language.
1 he ancient rolls and charters of the Museum, many thou¬
sands in number, form another division of the department of
manuscripts, with a distinct catalogue. These records and
deeds partly belong to the Cottonian, Harleian, and Sloane
collections, and partly are accumulated additions, being
chiefly illustrative of English history, and of monastic and
other possessions.
These are the larger and separate collections. The Ad¬
ditional Manuscripts, as they are called, consist of smaller
collections, which have either been acquired by purchase,
or are the gifts or bequests of individuals. Amongst these
may be specified, Madox’s collections for the History of the
Exchequer, 94 vols.; Rymer’s materials for his Fcedera,
used and unused, 58 vols. ; Dr Birch’s historical and bio¬
graphical manuscripts, 378 vols.; the decisions of the
judges upon claims made in the city of London after the
great fire of 1666 ; Sir William Musgrave’s obituary ; Cole’s
collections fora History of Cambridge and Cambridgeshire,
with materials for the Athence Cantabrigienses, 92 vols.;
various Coptic and other ancient manuscripts taken from
the French in Egypt; Ducarel’s abstracts of the archie-
piscopal registers at Lambeth, 152 vols.; a long series
of calendars of the Originalia Rolls, from 1 Henry VIII.
to 2 James I.; Sir Andrew Mitchell’s diplomatic corre¬
spondence with every part of Europe during his residence
at the court of Frederick the Great of Prussia; Sir Wil¬
liam Burrell’s and Mr William Hayley’s joint collections
for the History of Sussex, 41 vols.; Mrs Banks’s manuscripts
on heraldry, processions, and archery, 66 vols.; Abbot’s
drawings and descriptions of American insects, in 17 vols.
4to; Wolley’s collections for Derbyshire, 53 vols.; Sir
Joseph Banks’s foreign correspondence; Essex’s and Ker-
rich’s collections on Gothic architecture and costumes, 49
vols.; the Stepney papers; the papers of the Count de
Puisaye, chiefly relating to the Chouan war and the Royalists
of La Vendee, from 1793 to 1825, in 117 vols.; theJermyn
collections for a History of Suffolk, in 51 vols.; and the
still richer collections on the same subject, extending to
about 160 volumes, of the late Mr Davy of Ufford ; the
materials collected by Archdeacon Coxe, whilst employed
in the compilation of his various historical and other works,
in 206 vols.; numerous manuscripts, being 604 vols., illus¬
trative of Italian history, selected from the collection of the
Earl of Guilford ; 310 rolls, commonly known as the Chan¬
cellor’s Rolls, being duplicates of the great Rolls of the Pipe,
between 9 Henry II. and 17 James I.; the smaller King’s
collection, being 440 vols., which formed part of the Library
of George III.; the topographical collections of Samuel and
Daniel Lysons, being chiefly materials for the Magna Bri¬
tannia and Environs of London, 64 vols. ; Egyptian Papyri,
partly purchased from Mr Salt and others, and partly pre¬
sented by Sir J. G. Wilkinson ; an extensive collection of
ancient Irish manuscripts, including copies of the Brehon
Laws; a selection, made at an expense of more than L.2000,
from the manuscripts possessed by Mr Richard Heber; and
the voluminous Indian correspondence of the Marquis of
Wellesley, from 1798 to 1805, in 1351 vols. A general
enumeration of these additional manuscripts will be found
in a useful volume, by Mr Richard Sims, of the Department
of Manuscripts, entitled Handbook to the Library of the
British Museum (1854, 12mo). But valuable accessions
continue to be made; and at present the entire number
of manuscripts, exclusive of original deeds and charters,
1 This manuscript was purchased by Dr Burney, at the price of 600 guineas.
LIBRARIES. 393
"British amounts to nearly 40,000. Among the more important
libraries, additions of the last few years, besides a series of royal
v«—^ and other letters, from the library of Mr Dawson Turner
of Yarmouth, we may notice the splendid Bible, in two vols.,
of Charlemagne ; the celebrated Bedford Missal, executed
for John, Duke of Bedford, Regent of France under
Henry VI. (which was formerly in the Harleian collection,
and is now restored to it, after passing through many
hands) ; a valuable and extensive collection of documents,
illustrative of the Civil War period; the correspondence
and other papers relating to the captivity of Napoleon
at St Helena; and a remarkable series of papers of the
Florentine family of Gualterio, extending to about 400
vols., and rich in materials for Italian history during the
last century.
But no accession to this department, of recent date, can
vie in interest with those venerable fragments of antiquity,
which have been brought from the Nitrian desert, mainly
by the zealous researches of Mr Archdeacon Tattam, and
of which such excellent use has already been made by the
learned author of the Corpus Ignatianum [Ignatius]. The
grotesque custodians of these Syriac MSS. have been de¬
scribed with more than photographic vividness by Mr Cur-
zon, and his pictures of his own experiences in the search
of books, enhance our surprise that so much has been re¬
covered. Three several consignments of MSS. from Nitria
have reached the Museum since the beginning of 1843,
amounting in the whole to about 600 vols. Some of these con¬
tain several distinct works, but a considerable proportion of
them are more or less imperfect. It has, however, repeatedly
happened, that portions of the same work have been received
at different times. Probably the entire collection contains,
either in works or fragments of works, not less than 1200
distinct MSS., of which the earliest are at least as old as
the beginning of the fifth century, and the latest are of the
beginning of the fourteenth. Amongst them are some of
the oldest Biblical MSS. in existence. There is a copy of
the Pentateuch, for instance, dated 464. There are nearly
30 vols. which contain various books of the Old Testament
in the Peshito version, and more than 40 containing por¬
tions of the New Testament in the same version—many
of them of the sixth century. Of liturgical and patristic
works there are great numbers,—some of them palimpsest,
—and of early and curious contributions to ecclesiastical his¬
tory, not a few.1
The catalogues of the Printed Books are in two series;
first, the printed catalogue of 1813-1819, in 7 vols. 8vo.
In the reading-room of the Museum for consultation, is a
copy of this catalogue, inlaid and interleaved with manuscript
additions, between the years 1819 and 1849, in 82 vols. folio.
Another catalogue, still in progress, contains the subsequent
additions, and extends to upwards of 300 volumes in folio.
There are other special catalogues, such as of music, pamph¬
lets, &c. The general printed catalogue, commenced in
1841, by Mr Panizzi, as yet embraces letter A only, and
does not include books acquired since the close of the year
1838. An interleaved copy, with additions, is bound in 16
vols. Of the library of George III. there is a printed
catalogue, 1820-1829, 5 vols. imperial folio. There is like¬
wise a catalogue of the geographical and topographical col¬
lection attached to the library of George III., printed in
one vol. folio, to match the general catalogue of this lib¬
rary, and also in two vols. 8vo, 1834. Of the Grenville
Library, there is an excellent descriptive catalogue, the first
portion prepared under Mr Grenville’s own direction. It
forms 3 vols. 8vo, 1842-48. All the catalogues are alpha- British
betical; and there is yet no general classed catalogue, al- libraries,
though a sum considerably exceeding L.5000 was paid
many years ago by parliamentary grants as “expenditure
on account of a classed catalogue.”2 The absence of a
complete catalogue, in a printed form, either classed or
alphabetical, of a library such as that of the Museum,
is undeniably a public inconvenience. “ As are the cata¬
logues of a library, so will be its utility,”3 is an old and
true adage. No skill or industry can make a catalogue in
MS. fully supply the place of one in print; and we can¬
not doubt that the energy which has already done so much,
will in due time confer on students and on the public at
large this advantage also. The printed catalogues of the
Manuscripts are,—1. That of the manuscripts of the old
Royal Library, by David Casley, 1734, in 4to ; 2. That of
the Sloane and other manuscripts, heretofore undescribed,
by S. Ayscough, 1782, in 2 vols. 4to ; 3. That of the
Cottonian manuscripts, by Joseph Planta, 1802, in folio;
4. That of the Harleian manuscripts, by H. Wanley and
R. Nares, 1808, in 4 vols. folio ; 5. That of the Hargrave
manuscripts, by Sir H. Ellis, 1818, in 4to ; 6. That of the
Lansdowne manuscripts, by F. Douce and Sir H. Ellis,
1819, in folio; 7. That of the Arundel manuscripts, by
the Rev. J. Forshall, 1840, in folio ; 8. That of the Burney
manuscripts, by the Rev. J. Forshall, 1840, in folio; 9.
That of the Oriental manuscripts (by various authors),
published between the years 1836 and 1852, in 6 vols.
folio; 10. That of the Greek Papyri, 1839, 4to; and, 11.
J hat of select Papyri, chiefly in the Hieratic character,
4 parts, folio, 1841-1844. Manuscript catalogues of the
additions in the departments of printed books, and manu¬
scripts to the latest time are kept in the Museum reading-
room. There are also separate manuscript catalogues of
the collection of tracts relating to the civil wars in the reign
of Charles I.; of the Cole manuscripts; of the Chinese
books; of the collections of printed musical works, maps,
charts, &c.
The Library of the Boyal Society consists chiefly of Library of
printed books of science and general literature, which may the Hoy al
be consulted by all the fellows, and from which books may SoClety•
also be borrowed by them under the regulations prescribed
by the statutes ; nor have the Society, at any time that is
remembered, ever refused to lend books or manuscripts to
learned men not belonging to their corporation, who had
occasion to consult them. The foundation of this library
was laid in 1667, by the noble gift which John Evelyn
induced Henry Howard, afterwards Duke of Norfolk, to
make to the Society, “ to dispose thereof as their property,
desiring only that in case the Society should come to fail,
it might return to Arundel House, and that this inscription,
Ex dono Henrici Howard Norfolciencis, might be put upon
every book given them.” This Arundel Library included
a considerable number of books which had formed part of
the magnificent collection of Matthias Corvinus, already
mentioned. Evelyn, whilst speaking of the choice treasures
it contained, goes on to add: “ I should not have persuaded
the duke to part with these, had I not seen how negligent
he was of them, suffering the priests and everybody to carry
away and dispose of what they pleased, so that abundance
of rare things are irrecoverably gone.”4 Maitland, the his¬
torian of London, writing in or about 1755, tells us that, by
a bequest of Mr Francis Aston, made in 1715, and by other
additions, this library had already come to “ excel all the
public libraries of this city in point of goodness and value.”5
• !v.We ln^1fated but a smaH portion even of the most remarkable of these Syriac MSS. Probably the best general account of them
is that published in vol. Ixxvn. of the Quarterly Review (1845).
2 Minutes of Evidence before Select Commitee on British Museum (1835), pp. 134, 179.
® C. G.Heune, Biographisch Dargestellt, von A. II. L. Heeren, Gottingen, 1813.
Diary and Correspondence of J. Evelyn, vol. i„ p. 471. « History of London (2d edit, by Entick), pn. 1286-1288
VOL. XIII. 11
LIB RABIES.
394
British The number of volumes he states at 3625. It has now
libraries, become about 41,000; and the collection is, as it ought to
' be, eminently rich in the literature of the mathematical and
physical sciences. The transfer of the Arundel MSS. to the
British Museum has been already adverted to. The titles
of the books presented to the Society have been inserted at
the end of the latter volumes of their Transactions. A
carefully prepared catalogue of the scientific books was
printed in 1839, 8vo, and another of the miscellaneous
literature, manuscripts, and letters in 1841. There is
also a catalogue in MS. of the maps, charts, drawings, and
Library of engravings, which exceed 5000 in number.1 The Li¬
the Royal brary of the Royal Institution was founded in 1803 by a
Institution. pew gentlemen, for the immediate use of the subscribers to
that establishment; but any person may, upon the recom¬
mendation of a patron, always have access to it. This
collection consists of nearly 27,000 volumes, including the
best and most useful edition of almost every Greek and
Roman classic, with the translations in English and other
modern languages; the class of mathematical science in all
its branches is very full, including the best scientific journals,
and transactions of learned societies; and the historical de¬
partment, founded on the collection of Mr Astle, which was
purchased by the managers at the formation of the library,
is, in its various divisions and subdivisions, exceedingly in¬
teresting. A catalogue, methodically arranged, with an
alphabetical index of authors, by William Harris, was
printed in 1809, in 8vo. Of this catalogue a second edition
appeared in 1821, and a third in 1856. The Library of the
Library of London Institution was commenced in 1805, under the
tiie London direction of Professor Person, and has been admirably con-
mstitution. tjnued under the care, successively, of Mr Maltby, of Mr
Upcott, and Mr Richard Thomson. Next to that of topo¬
graphy, the departments of classical literature, mathematics,
and history are the most amply stocked. It is also rich in
bibliography, there being few works absolutely necessary to
be consulted by the bibliographical student, which may not
be found in this valuable collection.
There is an excellent printed catalogue of this library,
chiefly compiled by Mr Thomson, in 4 vols. 8vo; printed
between the years 1835 and 1852.2 The present number
of volumes exceeds 60,000, and includes a fine series of
tracts on a wide range of topics. Alike as respects com¬
pactness of arrangement and beauty of appearance, this
library is a model which will repay careful study.
Other Li- There are many other libraries in London worthy of
braries in notJce, more especially the London (Subscription) Library',
London. James’s Square, established in 1841, and containing
upwards of 65,000 volumes. A catalogue was published in
' 1853. Valuable Law Libraries are also connected with
Lincoln’s Inn, the Inner Temple, and the Middle Temple.
The first-named collection contains 28,000 vols. of printed
books and 900 MSS., and its earliest beginnings date from
the year 1522. The Inner Temple Library contains
upwards of 16,000 volumes of printed books, and about
500 MSS. The Middle Temple Library was founded by a
bequest of Robert Ashley, Esq., in 1641. A century later
it contained barely 4000 volumes, it now contains about
21,000 volumes. Of all these libraries printed catalogues
are extant. Sion College, London Wall, dates the founda- British
tion of its library in 1630,3 and contains upwards of 40,000 libraries,
volumes; and, like Dr Daniel Williams’ Library, in Red-
cross Street, founded in 1716, and opened in 1729, is rich
in old English theology. Both collections are accessible
to the public. That of Dr Williams, indeed, is open to
all comers, and is the only one in London which is so un¬
restrictedly available. It contains between 20,000 and
21,000 volumes of printed books, and about 200 MSS.
To John Williams, successively Bishop of Lincoln and Cathedral
Archbishop of York, is due the honour of having founded libraries-
the first strictly public library in the English metropolis.
“With strong propension of mind to enlarge the boundaries
of learning,” says his biographer, Bishop Hacket, “ he con¬
verted a waste-room, situate in the east side of the cloisters,
. . . into a goodly library, . . . and stored it with a vast
number of learned volumes ; for which use he lighted most
fortunately upon the study of that learned gentleman, Mr
Baker of Highgate, who . . . had collected the best authors
in all sciences, in their best editions, which being bought at
L.500, . . . were removed into this store-house [apparently
in or about the year 1620]. When he received thanks
from all the professors of learning in and about London . . .
because they had free admittance, ... it compelled him
to unlock his cabinet of jewels and bring forth his choicest
MSS. A right noble gift in all the books he gave to this
Serapeum, but especially the parchments.”4 * The Cathedral
Library of Westminster now contains 11,000 volumes;3
the foundation of Archbishop Williams having been liber¬
ally built upon by many succeeding benefactors. How
choice a collection it is—despite some losses in the time of
Charles I.—a glance at Mr Botfield’s account of it will
quickly show.6 7 And how suitable to its character is the
habitation selected for it by the founder, may be seen in
one of the charming word-pictures of Geoffrey Crayon.'
Books so valuable, and, if lost, so hard to be replaced, must
needs be watched with careful eyes. But it is with regret
we read the stringent official reply to the inquiries of the
Cathedral Commissioners in 1854: “Accessible only to
masters of the school, and to the Minor Canons.”8
Nearly all the Deans and Chapters in England possess
libraries of greater or less magnitude, and many of them
are now liberally opened to the public under proper regu¬
lation. At St Paul’s Cathedra], however, the rule is as
briefly emphatic as at Westminster: “Accessible only to
members of the Chapter,” is the oracular response.9 1 his
Library was founded by Henry Compton, Bishop of Lon¬
don, 1713; the old library of the Chapter having been
scattered or alienated 60 years before, and part of it removed
to Sion College. The Library, not having been very largely
increased (there is no endowment), still carries in its aspect
the impress of Bishop Compton’s vigorous individuality.
The number of volumes has been officially returned as
8000.10
The Cathedral Library of Durham is of almost equal
value with that of Westminster, and is of somewhat larger
extent, possessing about 11,000 printed volumes, besides
520 MSS. of considerable wrorth. It unites, with a portion
of the old monastic library, the liberal benefactions of Dean
1 Weld, History of the Royal Society, vol. ii., p. 474 (1848).
3 This catalogue comprehends, first, a synoptical table of the classes; secondly, a plan of the arrangement, in classes, of the Looks
themselves; thirdly, a general classed catalogue of all the books; fourthly, an index of authors’ names and works; and, fifthly, an
index of anonymous works, and of many different subjects, of which some account is to be found in the library.
3 Repertorium Bibliographicum, p. 93.
4 Hacket, Scrinia reserata (1693), p. 47. We have quoted this conclusive testimony with the more precision, since the very existence
of this public Cathedral Library has been questioned in Notes and Queries for 1856.
6 First Report of the Commissioners on Cathedral and Collegiate Churches (1854), p. 37.
6 Notices of Cathedral Libraries (1849), pp. 433-464.
7 The Sketch Book, vol. i., pp. 227-229 (1823).
8 First Report, &c., ubi supra. e Ibid, p. 4-
Ibid.
LIBRARIES.
British Sudbury, in the sixteenth century, and of the princely
libraries.^ j5jsi10p Cosin, in the seventeenth. It is so well kept up,
that the printed books which Mr Botfield counted in 1848
to be 7259 volumes,1 had increased in 1854 by nearly 4000
volumes; and is so liberally managed, that “ it is acces¬
sible to all persons, without any distinction, religious or
other, who are in such a position as to be deemed fairly
responsible for the safe return of the books entrusted to
them.” At 1 ork, too, part of a more ancient library is
combined with the bequests of the widow of Archbishop
Matthew (1629), of Dr Fothergill, and of Dr Burgh. The
collection is valuable, extends to about 8000 volumes, and
is accessible to the public five days in the week. Canter¬
bury and Exeter have each about 5000 volumes, and both
collections include many books of the highest literary and
antiquarian interest. With respect to Canterbury, there is
a singular contrast between a statement on this point in the
catalogue of 1802, and another made 30 years later, in reply
to the inquiries of the Record Commission : “ This Library
... is rich in MS. materials relating to the civil and eccle¬
siastical history of the country,” says the one.2 “It is not
believed that there is anything in the collection likely to be
of the least public interest,” says the other.3 Lincoln and
LlandafF have each about 4500 volumes ; Norwich, 4350;
Ely, 4000; Worcester, 3600 ; Winchester, 3500; Carlisle,
3174. Most of the others range from 2000 to 3000 volumes;
and many, even of the smallest of these ecclesiastical libra¬
ries, possess books of considerable value, which are not un-
frequently the remnants of once splendid collections. It is
undeniable that access to some of them has, in former times,
been grossly abused, but there is evidence that the mischief
has usually resulted, less from publicity than from want of
proper regulations. At all events, it is certain that the
strictest seclusion may be as destructive to books as the
most lax use of them. That memorable cathedral library,
whence certain jackdaws acquired “ the expensive habit of
using Anglo-Saxon MSS. to line their nests,”—as we have
been lately told by a caustic Edinburgh Reviewer,—was
assuredly not too public, although, in one sense, much too
accessible.4
The Library of Printed Books, founded by Archbishop
Bancroft in the reign of King James I., which, until recently,
occupied the four galleries over the cloisters of Lambeth
Palace, is now more worthily lodged in the noble hall built
by Archbishop Juxon, and skiltully restored under the
superintendence of Mr Blore. The number of volumes
contained in this library is estimated at upwards of 25,000
manuscripts, many of which are of extreme rarity. In
ecclesiastical history and in biblical literature, few collec¬
tions contain so large a number of scarce and curious edi¬
tions. The class of English topography is also extensive
and valuable. The first catalogue of printed books was
drawn up by Bishop Gibson ; it was afterwards transcribed
in a fair hand by Dr Wilkins, and has been continued by
his successors in the librarianship to the present time. The
manuscripts, many of which are extremely valuable, are
arranged in seven sets or divisions, distinguished as Codices
Lambethiani, Whartoniani, Carewani, Tenisoniani, Gib-
soniani, Miscellanei, and Suttoniani. This department,
besides being rich in copies of the sacred writings, contains
Expositions of the Fathers of the Church ; Missals, and
Hours of the Holy Virgin ; a number of papal bulls ; vari-
395
ous treatises of Wycliffe ; manuscripts relating to the history British
of France, and other European nations, particularly Spain, libraries.
Italy, Poland, Germany, and Holland; 17 volumes in folio
of the Shrewsbury correspondence; besides several letters
to and from Charles II.; and certain manuscripts on
heraldry and genealogy, written or corrected by Lord
Burghley. But perhaps the two greatest curiosities in this
collection are the ancient French version and exposition of
the Apocalypse, ornamented with miniature paintings; and
the Latin copy of the Apocalypse, also beautifully illumi¬
nated, which is supposed to have been written in the thir¬
teenth century. A catalogue of these manuscript treasures,
compiled by the Rev. H. J. Todd, the then keeper, was
printed in 1812, in one volume folio, at the expense of the
Archbishop of Canterbury.5 In two separate volumes, the
Rev. S. R. Maitland has given a very accurate list of the
earlier printed books (prior to 1550), and an index of the
English books printed before the year 1600, in the Lambeth
Library.
The different colleges of Oxford and Cambridge have Oxford
libraries of various extent attached to them; but in each libraries,
university there is at least one great or principal library,
as the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and that of Trinity
College, besides the Public, or University Library, at Cam¬
bridge.
1 he Bodleian Library, so called from the name of its Bodleian
illustrious founder, was instituted towards the close of the library-
reign of Elizabeth, by Sir Thomas Bodley, who, having
become disgusted with some court intrigues, resigned all
his employments about the year 1597, and immediately
afterwards, as we have seen, undertook the generous task
of restoring the public library at Oxford, which had been
despoiled of its contents in the reign of Edward VI. With
this view, he despatched from London a letter to the vice-
chancellor, offering not only to restore the building, but to
provide a fund for the purchase of books, and the main¬
tenance of proper officers. This offer being thankfully
accepted, he commenced his undertaking by presenting to
the library a large collection of books purchased on the
Continent, and valued at L.10,000. Other collections and
contributions were also, by his example and persuasion,
presented to the new library. The most important of these,
perhaps, was a considerable portion of the very valuable
library which had belonged to Jerome Osorius (who has
been called the Cicero of Portugal), successively Bishop of
Sylvas and of Algarve, in which last see he died in 1580.
This library having been captured by the Earl of Essex,
in the assault on Faro, in 1596, shortly after the expedition
against Cadiz, part of it was by him presented to Bodley,
in order to enrich the collection he was then forming.6 The
additions thus made soon swelled to such an amount that
the old building was no longer sufficient to contain them.
The edifice was accordingly enlarged; and when Bodley
had succeeded in enriching his collection beyond his most
sanguine expectation, he drew up for its government a
body of statutes, which were subsequently incorporated with
those of the university. The Bodleian Library was first
opened to the public on the 8th of November 1602 ; and
has since found numerous benefactors, more especially Sir
Robert Cotton; Sir Henry Saville; Archbishop Laud; John
Selden ; Sir Kenelm Digby ; Thomas, Lord Fairfax; Dr
1 Botfield, ut supra, p. 91.
- Todd, Catalogue of the Books, etc., of Christ Church, Canterbury (1802), Preface.
3 Appendix to the Report of the Commissioners on the Public Records (1832).
4 Edinburgh Reviexv, vol. xevii., p. 165; art. “ Cathedral Reform” (1853;.
6 Repertorium Bibliographicum, p. 97.
(( 6 Monson, Account of the Wars with Spain, p. 32. Sir William Monson was himself captain of the Earl’s flag-ship in this expedition.
“ The only thing that was afterwards attempted,” he says, “ was Pharoah, a place of no resistance or wealth, only famous by the library
of Osorius, who was bishop of that place; which library was brought into England by us, and many of the books bestowed upon the
new erected library of Oxford.” *
396
LIBRARIES.
British Thomas Barlow, Bishop of Lincoln; Richard Gough;
libraries. Francis Douce; Robert Mason, and others. During the
years 1826-42, inclusive, the expenditure on the acquisition
of printed books was L.24,368, 2s., and that on MSS.
L.1839, 8s.; or, on the average, for both together, about
L.1500 annually. The total expenditure during the same
period was L.61,696, or about L.3600 a-year.1 Subse¬
quently to 1842, the Bodleian has enjoyed, in addition to
its former funds, the proceeds of the noble gift of L.40,000
bequeathed by the Rev. Robert Mason. It would require
a volume to contain an enumeration of the many important
additions which have been made to this library by its
numerous benefactors, or to admit even a sketch of its
ample contents in almost every branch of literature and
science. It is estimated to possess upwards of 256,000
volumes of printed books, and about 22,000 volumes of
manuscripts.2 The Oriental manuscripts are the rarest and
most beautiful to be found in any European collection ; and
the first editions of the classics, procured from the Pinelli
and Crevenna Libraries, almost rival those at Vienna. In
a word, it is exceedingly rich in many departments in which
most other libraries are deficient, and it forms altogether
one of the noblest collections of which any University can
boast; but, for want of a classed catalogue, the general
utility of the collection is materially abridged. The first
catalogue of the printed books was published by Dr James
in 1600, and an enlarged edition in 1620. These were
followed by Dr Hyde’s in 1674, and another, of the manu¬
scripts, was printed in 1697. A fuller catalogue of the
printed books, compiled by Bowles, Fisher, and Langford,
was printed in 1738, in 2 volumes, folio. A catalogue
of the manuscripts relating to Oriental history, drawn up
by Professor Urie, and printed in 1787, folio, has been
continued in two additional volumes or parts by Drs Nicol
and Pusey. In 1795 there was also printed a descrip¬
tive account of first, early, or Aldine editions of Hebrew,
Greek, and Latin works contained in the library, the
articles indicated being all of the greatest rarity ; and in
1812 appeared the first part of a catalogue by Professor
Gaisford, of the manuscript collection purchased by Dr Ed¬
ward Daniel Clarke, in his travels through various parts of
Europe and Asia. Another catalogue of the printed books,
by the Rev. Dr Bandinel, was completed in 1843, 3 vols.
folio; but such is the rapid increase that a large sup¬
plemental volume was printed in 1850, containing only the
additions up to the end of the year 1847. Of the Douce
Library there is a separate catalogue. A valuable catalogue
of part of the Greek MSS. in the Bodleian, by the Rev.
H. O. Coxe, was printed in 1853; and is to be followed
by similar volumes of other divisions of these most impor¬
tant collections. To the great value, the liberal accessi¬
bility (as far as respects men of known attainments and
established position), and the skilful arrangements of the
Bodleian Library, the highest testimony has been repeat¬
edly borne. The courtesy and kindness of its officers have
also long been proverbial. Yet of late the opinion that the
time is rapidly approaching when increased facilities may
reasonably be hoped for has been gaining ground. As re¬
spects far-seeing liberality of expenditure in the promotion
of learning, the University of Oxford need fear comparison
with no institution in the world. But the more eminent
that liberality, the more desirable is it that its fruits should
be widely enjoyed. Nor are evidences wanting that on the
part of the ruling authorities themselves there is a disposi¬
tion to make further improvements in this direction.
The recent inquiries of the Oxford Commissioners gave British
opportunity for the consideration of the general state and libraries,
working of the Bodleian, and of the other Oxford libraries,
of which advantage was taken for the obtainment of much
valuable testimony, but not, unfortunately, including that
of the Bodleian officers, the Commissioners having no power
to take other than volunteered evidence. Of such as was
tendered an able summary is given in the Report? The
conclusions at which the commissioners arrived are briefly
these :—(1.) That all the Oxford libraries should be placed
under the general superintendence of the professorial de¬
legacy previously proposed. (2.) Admitting the cogency
of the objections to any indiscriminate permission to take
out books, they are yet of opinion that, “under certain restric¬
tions, and in peculiar cases,” books, and even MSS., should
be lent; and they refer to the precedent already existing
in virtue of a considerable donation of Anglo-Saxon works
made to the Bodleian, on the express condition that the
Professor of Anglo-Saxon should be permitted to borrow
them. Duplicates, they are of opinion, should be lent
freely. (3.) They suggest an extension of the reading-
room accommodation, and a larger and more accessible
supply of books of reference, strictly so called. (4.) They
recommend an alteration of the period of the official visita¬
tion of the library, so that it shall not take place in full
term. (5.) They advise an increase in the number of sub¬
librarians.4
The commencement of the year 1857 has been marked
at Oxford by a proposal which would both effectively carry
out one of the recommendations we have cited, and (pro¬
bably) benefit that other public library which the Univer¬
sity owes to the genei'osity of Dr Radcliffe. Dr Acland,
present Radcliffe librarian, suggests the conversion of the
well known Radcliffe building into a Bodleian reading-room,
and the removal of the books to the new Museum of Science,
to which in their character they are so closely allied. Of
this collection we need only say that, as a library of science,
it is worthy of its founder, although it has not at all periods
been managed exactly in his spirit. For many years the
sum of L.500 a-year was applied out of the Radcliffe estate
for purchase of books. That sum, a few years ago, was re¬
duced to L.200, and the reduction led to the accumulation
of large arrears in important scientific works, portions of
which were already in the library. Radcliffe bequeathed
L.40,000 in ready money, and L.250 a-year in land for
ever. The value of the bequest has “greatly increased of
late years,” says Mr Strickland,3 “ in consequence of the
‘ railway town ’ of Wolverton (containing 2000 inhabitants)
having sprung up on the Radcliffe estate;” but, he adds,
“ though the Radcliffe trust was specially destined by its
founder to public uses, no balance sheet of receipts and ex¬
penditure is ever laid before the public.”
We have yet to mention, before proceeding to the libra¬
ries of individual colleges, a small but well selected collec¬
tion of foreign literature—French, Italian, and German—
which was commenced in 1847, as part of Sir Robert Tay¬
lor’s “ Institution for teaching the European languages.” It
contains nearly 10,000 volumes, of which about 4000 were
bequeathed by the Rev. Robert Finch, and the remainder
purchased by the University, to all members of which it is
accessible.
The libraries of the different colleges are many of them Libraries
considerable, some of them extensive, and not a few of of Colleges,
them enriched with much that is both curious and rare.
Bishop Rede contributed the first part of the collection of
1 Accounts of the income and expenditure of the Bodleian Library, 1827-43.
2 In a return to an order of the House of Commons, dated January 1849, Dr Bandinel reported the number of printed volumes as
about 220,000, and of MSS. 21,000. During the years 1826-46, the average annual addition of the former was about 4480 volumes.
8 Report of the Oxford University Commission ('1852), pp. 115-117. 4 Ibid., pp. 117-119.
6 Ibid., part iii., p. 105.
L I B R A 1? I E S.
397
British books ill Merton College, which has since been augmented,
libraries, jn manuscripts and in printed books, by the liberality
of succeeding benefactors. University College Library
possesses a considerable collection of printed books and
manuscripts, together with some works of art. Baliol Col¬
lege Library suffered by the depredations of the visitors
appointed by Edward VI.; but the damage was afterwards
repaired by a supply of books from Durham College, and
by successive donations. The Library of Queen’s College
contains some curious manuscripts, chiefly heraldic and po¬
litical, a valuable series of coins, a collection of numisma-
tical works, and a fine orrery. This library has been
largely increased of late years, chiefly in consequence of
the noble gift by Robert Mason of L.30,000, to be ap¬
plied to the purchase of books ; and the additions thus
made appear to have been admirably selected. The books
of New College occupy two spacious apartments, and there
is also a collection of manuscripts. The Library of Lin¬
coln College is chiefly remarkable for a collection of Greek
and Latin manuscripts made by Sir George Wheler in his
travels. That of All-Souls’ College is an excellent collec¬
tion ; it was founded by Colonel Codrington, who left
L.10,000 for the purpose, besides his own library, valued at
L.6000 more; and was admirably arranged, under the super¬
intendence of Sir William Blackstone. It fills a room
nearly 200 feet long. In the Library of Brazen-nose
College, the ancient custom of chaining the books to the
shelves was strictly observed until the year 1780, when
this conservative practice was abandoned. This collection
is of considerable extent and value. The Library of
Corpus Christi College is enriched with a valuable set of
Aldine classics, with many manuscripts and printed books,
of great rarity and in excellent preservation, and with the
manuscripts of Tw'yne and Fulman, the Oxford antiqua¬
rians. The Aldines were collected by the founder, Richard
Fox. In 1 too, Lord Coleraine gave to this librarv a large
and valuable collection of Italian literature. The" Library
of Christ Church would probably have exceeded that of
any contemporary establishment, had Wolsey been able to
complete his original design, which was not only to supply
it with such books as had appeared since the invention of
printing, but also with copies of the most valuable manu¬
scripts in the Vatican. This collection is principally com¬
posed of the extensive and valuable library bequeathed—
the books relating to the British History and Constitution
alone excepted (these being left to his son. the fourth Earl)
by Charles Boyle, third Earl of Orrery, amounting to
10,000 volumes ; of that left to the college by Wake, Arch¬
bishop of Canterbury, consisting of printed books and
manuscripts, with a collection of coins and medals, together
estimated to be worth L.10,000; and of the contributions
of many other benefactors. In 1767 the numismatical
senes was further enriched by the collection of British and
English coins belonging to Dr Barton, and, in 1780, by
that of oriental coins collected by Dr R. Brown, canon and
regius professor of Hebrew. The Library of Trinity Col¬
lege was instituted by the founder, Sir Thomas Pope, who
was also the first contributor of books. The collection was
afterwards enlarged by various benefactions, and is now one
of considerable extent. The Library of St John’s College
contains a valuable collection of printed books and manu-
sc ipts given by Archbishop Laud ; whose zeal on its
behalf seems (once, at least) to have led him to use his
influence for the diversion thither of a rich gift 1 intended
for the Bodleian ; many specimens of natural and artificial
curiosities, and relics of antiquity; with a collection of Greek,
Roman, and English coins, bequeathed bv Dr Rawlinson,
along with his books. In the Library of Wadham College
are many early printed books, and a good collection of classics British
and works on theology, together with French, Italian, and libraries.
Spanish literature. The Library of Worcester College is a
considerable collection, and particularly rich in architec¬
tural books and manuscripts. Exeter College Library,
though of comparatively small extent, is distinguished for
its liberal accessibility. Of the several collections of manu¬
scripts, amounting to 3237 articles, preserved in the different
colleges and halls in Oxford, we are indebted to the Rev.
Mr Coxe for an admirable catalogue, 1852, 2 vols. 4to. A
minute descriptive catalogue of the MSS. in the Ashmo-
lean Museum, by Mr W. H. Black, appeared in 1845, 4to.
In summing up such information as they had gathered
respecting the college libraries, the Oxford Commissioners
suggest that a more liberal use of them may safely and dis¬
creetly be accorded ; and that it is worth while to consider
whether or not a co-operative arrangement might be effect¬
ed to carry out, within reasonable limits, such a division of
subjects as would enable the libraries to supplement, to
some extent, each other’s deficiencies.
The Library of Trinity College, Cambridge, is extensive, Cambridge
and is contained in a very magnificent structure built by Sir bbraries—■
Christopher Wren, being 190 feet in length, 40 in breadth, ,1’rin- Co11'
and 38 in height. The collection is separated into thirty llbrary’
“ classes,” distributed in cases of oak ; and extends to nearly
43,000 volumes. Amongst other literary curiosities, there
are some interesting manuscripts in the handwriting of
Milton. They are contained in a thin folio volume, which
was discovered by Professor Mason amongst the papers of
Sir Henry Puckering, and consist of the original MS. of
the Masque of Comus : several plans of Paradise Lost,
composed at the period when the poet intended to have
made that subject the ground-work of a tragedy ; and the
poems of Lycidas, Arcades, and several others. Here are
also the Arabic manuscripts left by Dr Gale, and the col¬
lection relating to English antiquities by his son Dr Roger
Gale ; Sir Isaac Newton’s copy of his Principia, with his
manuscript notes, and his letters to Roger Cotes; and the
voluminous Shakspeare manuscripts and printed books of
Edward Capel, a catalogue of which was printed by Mr
Steevens.2 More recently Trinity College has received a
collection of special interest and value by the bequest of
Julius Charles Hare,—a man whose heart was as capacious
as his intellect, and whose library, alike varied and choice,
reflected his fine tastes. This bequest amounted to 4300
volumes, and is rich in departments of literature, and more
especially of German literature, which are rarely well re¬
presented in an English library.
To Trinity Library all members of the College have free
access; and undergraduates, under the authority of their
tutors, are permitted to borrow as many as six books at one
time. The books are seldom damaged, say the Commis¬
sioners of Inquiry into Cambridge University (in their
Report of 1852), and they add,—“It is difficult to pro¬
duce a more striking proof of the safety, under the requisite
precautions, of allowing the most liberal use of a great public
library.”3
The University or Public Library of Cambridge is large, University
and contains much that is valuable or curious both in the library,
department of printed books, and in that of manuscripts.
The printed books comprise a fine series of editiones
principes of the classics, and a very considerable pro¬
portion of the productions of Caxton’s press. Its chief
founder was Thomas Scott (or Rotheram, as he is more
usually called, from his birth-place), Archbishop of York.
His earliest donations occurred about 1475 ; and although
some of them have disappeared in the lapse of time,
I betters . . . ■ from the Bodleian Library (Sir K. Digby to Langbaine), vol. i., p. 4.
upertonum i lograp icum, p. 110. 3 Rep0rt 0y Cambridge University Commission (1852), p. 132.
L I J3 R A K I E S.
398
British others yet remain. It is pleasing to notice that one of
libraries, the earliest imitators of his example was a mayor of the
' town, John Harris by name.1 Archbishop Parker was also
a benefactor. But the library suffered many losses; and
although, for a brief period, it enjoyed possession of the Lam¬
beth collection (as it had been left at the death of Arch¬
bishop Abbot), the borrowed treasure had to be restored,
when the Restoration so materially altered the relative po¬
sition of Bishops and Puritans. The University Library
continued to be a very poor collection until, in 1666, Tobias
Ilustat (one of the gentlemen of the king’s bedchamber),
gave L.1000 “ to be laid out in the choicest and most useful
books for the public library.” This sum, with a like amount
given to St John’s College, Oxford, was invested in a Norfolk
manor and advowson, and its proceeds are now L.250 a
year.2 Four years afterwards, Bishop Racket bequeathed
1092 vols., which had cost him about L.1500. But the Rus-
tat fund was the main support of the library3 until in 1715
it made the important acquisition of the fine collection that
had belonged to Dr Moore, Bishop of Ely, amounting to
30,000 volumes, which were munificently purchased for
6000 guineas by his Majesty King George I., who pre¬
sented them to the library, and further gave L.2000 towards
fitting up the apartments destined for their reception.
Bishop Moore’s collection, which is singularly rich in the
productions of the early English printers, had been offered
to the Earl of Oxford for L.6000, and on his refusal, was
purchased and presented as has just been mentioned. Cam¬
bridge may, for more reasons than this, regard its own his¬
tory as affording striking exceptions to the rule of Georgian
indifference to learning, even if due allowance be made for
political sympathy. The benefactions of George I. and of
George II. to this university exceed, in the aggregate,
L. 16,000 of the money of that day. This gift appears to
have increased the number of volumes to 44,000.4 Since
this date the chief benefactors have been the Rev. William
Worts, and the Rev. John Manistre, both of whom left
funds to be applied to the purchase of books, which, together,
produce at present L.850 a-year. The copy-tax gives
about 3300 volumes a-year on the average; and the Uni¬
versity taxes each of its members six shillings a-head to¬
wards the maintenance of the library. This poll-tax pro¬
duced, in 1851, L.2050, subject, however, to the duty on
income.5 A method of classifying the books in the public
library of Cambridge was long ago proposed by Dr Middle-
ton,6 but no catalogue of them has yet been published. The
number of printed volumes in this library is now a little
above 197,000. Amongst the manuscripts—which amount
in the aggregate to 3163—contained in it are,—-(1), the
celebrated copy of the four Gospels and Acts of the
Apostles, known by the name of the Codex Bezee, which
was presented to the university by that distinguished refor¬
mer ; (2), Magna Charta, written on vellum; (3), several
very valuable manuscripts purchased at the sale of Dr
Askew’s collection ; (4), some curious Syriac manuscripts
presented by the Rev. Dr Buchanan; (5), a Coptic manu¬
script written upon long narrow papyrus ; (6), a Koran upon
cotton paper superbly executed ; (7), other Oriental MSS.,
some of which were presented by Burckhardt, and some by
the East India Company; and (8), the celebrated MSS.
relating to the History of the W’aldenses, given by Sir S.
Morland in 1658, several volumes of which Mr Gilly7 asserts
have “been stolen from the University Library within the
last 50 years ;” whilst Mr Power is of opinion that it “ is un¬
certain whether there ever came into the library more than British
those 14 vols. which are there still.”8 Vol. 1 of a general libraries,
catalogue of the MSS, has been recently published (1857).
The Library of Corpus Christi College contains 482 Other li-
volumes of ancient manuscripts. Most of them were col- braries at
lected after the dissolution of the monasteries. They com- Cambridge,
prise works of the Fathers and of the Schoolmen ; a valu¬
able series of documents illustrative of the History of the
Reformation, and of other civil and ecclesiastical affairs, and
the concerns of various religious houses ; and some of them
are in the old Saxon character. They were bequeathed by
Archbishop Parker, and are described in Nasmyth’s Cata¬
logue, 1777. St John’s College Library contains one of
the most valuable and extensive collections of books in the
university, particularly in biblical and classical literature, and
is also enriched with some first editions which came origi¬
nally from the Harleian collection. The Pepysian Library,
preserved in Magdalen College, is so called from the foun¬
der, Samuel Pepys, secretary to the Admiralty in the reigns
of Charles II. and James II., who bequeathed to this
college his very curious library, together with his prints
and drawings. It is remarkable for a collection of old
English ballads, in 5 volumes folio, begun by Mr Selden,
and continued to the year 1700: for a singular collection
of the popular literature of the day, bound up in volumes
as “ penny merriments;” and for two volumes of Scottish
poetry, collected by Sir Richard Maitland, of Lethington,
and known as the Maitland manuscripts. Percy, in his
Beliques, has made a judicious selection from the former;
and, in 1786, Pinkerton published copious extracts from
the latter. Pepys’s collection of prints and drawings, illus¬
trative of the history of London, and his rare British por¬
traits, are particularly valuable.9 A volume entitled, The
Book Rarities in the University of Cambridge, illus¬
trated by original letters and notes, by the Rev. C. H.
Hartshorne, 1829, 8vo, describes many of the more valuable
printed books preserved in the Cambridge libraries. English
As respects Town Libraries of a strictly public char-town libra-
acter, England has always been poorly supplied. Thereries*
are, indeed, a few cities which have long possessed what
ought to have proved the groundwork of such collections,
but in almost every instance these small foundations of the
seventeenth or eighteenth centuries have fallen into ne¬
glect. Since the passing of the “ Public Libraries Act” of
1850 a new era in this matter has begun, but the libraries
that have been founded in pursuance of the legislative
measures then initiated are not limited to one portion of
the empire. Such brief account of them, therefore, as can
here be given will be most fitly placed on a subsequent
page. At present we proceed to notice the more eminent
of those English collections which are private property.
Nearly two centuries ago John Evelyn lamented “theBng]isj1
sad dispersions many noble libraries have suffered in these private
late times ; one auction . . . of a day or two having scat-libraries,
tered what has been gathering many years.” “ Hence it
is,” he adds, “ that we are in England so defective of good
libraries among the gentlemen, and in our greatest towns.”
He then passes in review all the collections of mark that
he had himself known, most of which had already, he says,
“ passed under the spear, owing to some dark influence
and constellation now reigning malevolent to books and
libraries, which can portend no good to the future age.10
Of the collections thus noticed, which were exceptions,
1 Ilartshorne, Book Rarities in the Universitii of Cambridge, p. 11. 2 Hewitt, Memoir of Tobias Rustat (1849), pp. 49-51.
3 Power, Evidence given to the Cambridge University Commission (1851), p. 53.
4 Continuator of Defoe, Tour through Great Britain (2d edit.), vol. i., pp. 110-112. 6 Power, ut supra, pp. 53-55.
' Ribliothecce Canlabrigiensis Ordinandoe Methodus, in the Miscellaneous Works of Conyers Middleton, vol. iv., pp. 74-82 (1755).
7 Gilly, Excursion to the Mountains of Piedmont (4th edit.), 1823, p. 22 8 Power, ut supra, p. 56.
9 Repertorium Eibliographicum, p. 109, art. “ Pepysian Library,” &e.
10 Evelyn, Diary and Correspondence, vol. iii, pp. 302-309.
libraries.
British
libraries
as yet, to the common fate, those of Pepys, to whom
he was writing, of Bishop Moore, and of Lord Berkeley,
have been preserved for the public, as we have seen ; but
not one of those which were left in private hands has, we
believe, survived to our own day, although two or three
curious libraries which had escaped Evelyn’s notice still
exist. A few years later, John Bagford (best known for
his MS. collections on the history of printing), enumer¬
ates1 (besides some minor ones) twenty-one private collec¬
tions of known importance, of which one only seems to have
so continued intact. In 1810, again, we find a list of nine
libraries, described as “ a few of the chief private libraries
in the kingdom.2 Of these six have been sold; one (Mr
Grenville s) has become public, and one we are unable to
trace. Ihe remaining collection, that of Lord Spencer, is
unquestionably the finest private library in Britain, and is,
perhaps, the finest in the w'orld.
Earl Lord Spencer’s Library (the greater part of which is at
Spencer's A1 thorp, Northamptonshire), is eminently deserving of men-
brary. tion, not so much by reason of its extent, although that is
considerable, as on account of the unrivalled treasures which
it contains in several departments of literature, sacred as
well as secular. This library contains more than 50,000
volumes, exclusively of the Cassano collection purchased
in 1820, and was chiefly formed by George John, second
Earl Spencer; the greater part of the old library of Althorp,
so frequently mentioned by Evelyn, having long since be¬
come the foundation of the fine collection at Blenheim.
Dr Dibdin, in his Bibliotheca Spenceriana, has devoted
six volumes (in addition to the Cassano volume) to a bib¬
liographical description of the books printed during the
fifteenth century, or otherwise remarkable, either for in¬
trinsic worth, or for beautiful typography.3 The founda¬
tion of the choicer part of the library was laid by the pur¬
chase, about 1 /90, of the collection of Count Reviczky, a
Hungarian nobleman who had at first occupied himself in
accumulating rare and curious works of a peculiar descrip¬
tion. The choice condition and splendour of the entire collec¬
tion are such as render it unrivalled.4 But, perhaps, its most
remarkable feature is the unexampled assemblage to be
found in it of works illustrating the origin and progress of
typography. It contains several books, consisting of im¬
pressions taken from carved wooden blocks previously to
the invention of metallic types, and thus exhibiting the
earliest specimens of stereotype printing. In others, en¬
graved figures constitute the principal part, to which is
added a small proportion of text, and only one side of the
leaf is employed, the other being left blank. Such is the
At-s Memorandi notubilis per Jjguras Evangelistarum,
supposed to have been thrown off previous to the year
1430, and consisting of a number of rude cuts of the prin¬
cipal events recorded in the Gospels, with text on the op¬
posite page ; and such, also, is the Ars Moriendi, the sub¬
ject of which is a sick man in bed, surrounded by grotesque
and hideous figures of angels and demons. The taste of
the time inclined to the monstrous or the absurd. In the
first-named work St Luke is represented by a bull standing
on his hind legs, whilst St Mark is depicted as a rampant
lion. I he Historia Vetens et Novi Testamenti, sen Biblia
Bauperum, also in this collection, is supposed to have been
executed prior to the year 1400, and is by some considered
as the earliest specimen of block-printing. Amongst the
399
early printed and scarce Bibles in the Althorp Library British
may be mentioned the “Mazarine Bible,” (already noticed libraries,
in our account of the Grenville Library); another Bible, sup-
posed to be the work of Albert Pfister, prior to 1460; Fust
and Schceffer’s Bible, 1462, on vellum ; that by Sweynheym
and Pannartz, 1471; the first edition of the greater portion
of the Old Testament in Dutch, 1477; Prince RadziviPs
Bible in Polish ; besides other early copies in the different
languages of Europe. This collection also contains the
Latin Psalter of Fust and Schoeffer, printed in 1457, being
the first printed book to which a date is affixed; and another
of nearly equal rarity, printed in 1459. Many of the ear¬
liest editions of the classics, beautiful copies on vellum,
and works of all the celebrated printers of the fifteenth
century, add to the value of this unrivalled collection. The
Cassano Library,5 purchased by Earl Spencer in the year
1820, and the greater part of which was soon afterwards
united with his general collection, formed a valuable addi¬
tion to the Althorp Library. Amongst other rarities, it
contained the famous edition of Horace, printed at Naples
in 1474, by Arnoldus de Bruxella, of which there is no
other known copy ; that of Terence, printed by Iliessinger,
without date, but probably not later than 1471 ; the earlier
productions of the Neapolitan press ; rare editions of the
early Italian classics; specimens of early printing at Rome,
including the edition of Juvenal, printed in the smaller
fount of Ulric Han; together with all the rarest editions
of Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and other Roman poets.6 The
far-famed Boccacio’s Decamerone, printed by Valdarfer in
1471, which, at the Roxburghe sale, in 1813, produced
the astounding price, for a single volume, of L.2260, was
afterwards acquired by Earl Spencer for a sum considerably
less than halt that amount. The Library occupies a noble
suite of rooms, the entire length of which is 220 feet.
Many fine and even extraordinary collections have been
both formed and dispersed by public auction within living
memory. Such, for example, were Heber’s, Bindley’s, Sir
Mark Sykes’, Hibbert’s, George Chalmers’,7 the Duke of
Sussex’s, and the Marquis of Blandford’s. Of other pri¬
vate libraries, such as those of the Duke of Marlborough
at Blenheim, ot the Duke of Devonshire at Chatsworth, of
the Earl of Ellesmere at Bridgewater House, and other noble
collections, interesting particulars might be given ; we shall,
however, only notice one other private collection, that of
Sir J homas Phillipps, Bart., at Middlehill, Worcestershire,
which, we earnestly hope, may long escape any such fate.
It is a noble library, far exceeding in intrinsic worth its
relative extent, although the number of volumes approaches library of
50,000. The specialty of the collection consists in the very T'
exceptional fact that the number of manuscripts far exceeds
that of printed books. Its formation has been prosecuted
with energy, and with large outlay, during more than thirty
years, and the result is now a thing which, once seen, will
never be forgotten. The most striking peculiarity of aspect
lies in the long ranges of boxes, tier above tier, and of uniform
size, each with its falling front, in which nearly all the books
are lodged ; not, indeed, for concealment, but by way of safe¬
guard against that terrible foe of libraries—fire. The books
are almost as little visible as are those of the Vatican, but how
different their accessibility is known to a considerable num¬
ber of students who have profited largely by their contents.8
In Scotland, at an early period, there were collections of
3 n!h!und’nfhrTh °-f^ibraries (MS-> 1Iar1-) 2 Monthly Review (1810), vol. Ixiii., p. 4.
J Dibdin! ^JdZ AUhorXZ^A.^ti. 18U'23)’ 4 V°ls' r°yal 8v°’ With three suPPler»entary volumes.
6 S0Cfed1fr°rn ^uk® of Cassano Serra> a Neapolitan nobleman, by whom it was sold to Earl Spencer,
century, &cP(1823) Btbltotheca Spenceriana, forming vol. v. of the Descriptive Catalogue of the Books printed in the fifteenth
President of the Sthftf “ctty.01" °f C1"lm,,rfi’ Librar-T “re ,K™ in th« ver>' '1,"i considerable collection of Mr Jemes Crossley,
w„:^hir,*trrc^ri?e^
400
L I 13 R A R I E S.
Advocates’
library,
Edinburgh
manuscripts belonging to most of the religious or monastic
establishments; and there are preserved brief inventories of
books belonging to some of the cathedral churches.1 We also
find notices of private collections during the end of the four¬
teenth and the following century. But the earliest public
library was that of the University of St Andrews. In a
Prognostication, by Jasper de Laet, printed abroad in 1491,
and addressed to William Schevez, Archbishop of St An¬
drews, who filled the see from 1478 to 1497, the author
celebrates that prelate for his love of science, and for en¬
riching the library with many precious books and manu¬
scripts of all kinds.2 The library still exists, but the plures
codices referred to have long since been dispersed. The
name codex, however, was applied to printed books as well
as manuscripts ; and volumes are occasionally met with
having the name of Schevez, and other early collectors, writ¬
ten or impressed with their arms on the books. The library
of James IV. is alleged to have been carried by the English
from Holyrood in 1547.3 One book, belonging to James V.,
being Bellenden’s Chronicles of Scotland, translated from
Hector Boece, and printed on vellum, about 1541, and
having the royal arms on the sides, is now preserved at
Hamilton Palace; and the original manuscript of the same
work, written in 1536 or 1537, and similarly ornamented, is
at Dupplin. Mary Queen of Scots was also a collector, and
partial lists of her books, including French poetry and ro¬
mances, have been printed, and a few of the volumes are
known and highly appreciated.
The design of forming a library was adopted by the
Faculty of Advocates as early as the year 1680. The
• author and active promoter of the scheme was Sir George
Mackenzie of Rosehaugh. It was originally intended that
it should consist merely of the works of lawyers, and of such
other books as were calculated to advance the study of
jurisprudence. This may be inferred from the inaugural
address delivered by Sir George Mackenzie, when the
library was first opened, and from several other papers re¬
lative to the subject. At its commencement, this library had
no certain fund allotted for its maintenance. It depended
upon and owed its increase to the donations of benefactors,
together with such sums as the Faculty from time to time
placed at the disposal of the curators. In the year 1700,
the apartment where the library was kept being nearly de¬
stroyed by fire, it was removed to the place which, in part,
it still occupies, namely, the ground floor of the Parliament
House. During the nine years immediately following, it
must have increased considerably,4 since by the act passed
in the eighth year of Queen Anne’s reign, the privilege of
receiving a copy of every book entered at Stationers’ Hall
was conferred upon it, along with eight other libraries, four
of which were Scottish, being those attached to the univer¬
sities of St Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Edinburgh.
It is the only library in Scotland which retains this privilege.
The department of printed books comprehends, in a greater
or less degree, almost every branch of science, philosophy,
jurisprudence, literature, and the arts. As might be ex¬
pected, the collection of law-books is very extensive. The
historical collection, also, is exceedingly valuable. The
series of Greek and Roman classics, though it cannot vie
with some others, is also extensive, and includes several
first, and many early editions. The library is rich in modern
poetry and belles-lettres, and, besides the miscellaneous
department, contains a very considerable collection of voy¬
ages and travels. It is defective in the great branch of
mathematical and physical science; in archaeology or anti¬
quities ; in early as well as modern Italian literature; and,
generally, in foreign literature of a recent date. Amongst
the separate collections are, the Astorga Library, the Thor-
kelin collection, and that of old Scottish books. A collec¬
tion of Spanish books, amounting to about 3400 volumes,
which had formed part of the library of the Marquis of
Astorga, was purchased from a London bookseller in 1824,
for the sum of L.3000. The Thorkelin collection, so called
from Professor Thorkelin, to whom it originally belonged,
contains about 1200 volumes, chiefly on northern history,
antiquities, and law. Of the Scottish books, those relat¬
ing to old Scottish poetry are exceedingly rare and cu¬
rious.5 There is also a collection of German dissertations,
amounting to upwards of 100,000, called Count Diedrich’s
collection, which was purchased by Sir William Hamilton,
on account of the library, for the trifling sum of L.80.
This library is not rich i$ typographical rarities; with the
exception of the Mentz or “ Mazarine” Bible, and some
specimens of early printing in Scotland. The total num¬
ber of printed volumes contained in the library was, in
1849, officially returned to the House of Commons, as
148,000.® “ No return,” it was added, “ can be made of
the works received by the Advocates’ Library, under the
copyright acts, no account having been kept.” If, however,
we "assume (1), that the number of volumes yearly added
to the library from this source must nearly correspond with
the average number so received by other libraries having
the same privilege; and (2), that the books received are
preserved ; it will follow that the aggregate number of vo¬
lumes must now (1857) have increased to at least 1 /2,00Q.
As to this copyright increment, there is a passage in the
evidence of Mr Maitland (then Solicitor-General, and sub¬
sequently Lord Advocate for Scotland), before the Select
Committee on Public Libraries of 1849, which has a claim
to be quoted:—“ As the library is the private property of
the Faculty,” said the Solicitor-General, “ it may at first
sight appear difficult to find grounds for legislative inter¬
ference with it. But . . . the possession of the privilege
of Stationers’ Hall gives, in my view, a very sufficient
ground  It could never have been the intention
of the statute to give that privilege to injure authors
and publishers by immediately converting the books so
given to the ordinary purposes of a circulating library.
.... As the books come from the Stationers’ Hall,
they are boarded, and are immediately placed upon
the public tables. In this way, not only .... ephe¬
meral literature, but works of the highest value, published
British
libraries.
A
of the Archives des Missions Scientifiques, published by the French Ministry of Public Instruction, will be in possession of better testi¬
mony than ours on this point. , TOT TOT IKS ICQ
1 Registrum Episcopatus Glasguensis, vol. i., p. xliii.; vol. ii., p. 344. Registrum Episcopatus Aberdonensis, vol. n., pp. 127-137 154 loJ.
= Dunbar’s Poems, by Laing, vol. ii., p. 348, Edinburgh, 1834, 2 vols. 8vo. 3 Archceologia Scotica vol. iv., p. 1-13.
4 In 1707, the library received a large donation of books in natural history, to which many of the most costly and magnificent works
on that branch of science have since been added. . . . .
6 The first productions of the Scottish press preserved in this library should not pass unnoticed. One of these is a unique volume
of poetical tracts, printed by Walter Chepman and Andrew Myllar in 1508 ; of which there exists a limited reimpression m ac-simi e,
4to, 1827. The next is a copy of the well-known Breviarium Aberdonense, of which a careful republication has recently appeared, ims
Breviary was composed by, or under the direction of William Elphinstone, then Bishop of Aberdeen, for the use of his cat e ra , an
printed in the year 1509 ; and it consists of two volumes in small octavo, but of the first volume the title-page and some leaves at tne
end are wanting. The second volume, printed in 1510, has at the beginning a calendar, and at the end these words ‘ Opido Min-
burgensi impresso jussu et impensis honorabilis viri Walteri Chepman ejusdem opidi Mercatoris quarto die Jumi milesimo
decimo.” On the outside of this leaf is a wooden engraving representing a man and woman clothed in skins of beasts, witn tneir
shoulders bare, and their heads adorned with wreaths of flowers ; whilst between them stands a .tree,, from which is suspended a smeia
with W C. in cipher. The most perfect copy known is that preserved in the Library of the University of Edinburgh.
6 Public Libraries: Abstract of Supplemental Return, 9th March 1849 (Sess. No. 18), p. 2.
J
LIBRARIES.
401
British in this country, are immediately converted to common cir-
libraries. culating purposes They do not remain a pub-
' lie deposit, but are, to a great extent, so destroyed by the
mode in which they are used, as to be unfit to be deposited
in a great public library.”1
The department of manuscripts, though not so extensive
as in some other libraries of the same class, is nevertheless
of great interest and value with reference both to the civil,
and still more to the ecclesiastical history of Scotland. Soon
after the foundation of the library, the Faculty appear to
have turned their attention to the collection of MSS.
and this important department now consists of nearly 2000
volumes. The most valuable portion of the MSS. is
that which relates to the ecclesiastical state of Scotland
immediately preceding the era of the Reformation, and
includes, amongst other things, thirteen chartularies or
volumes of records of the different religious houses, vrhich
escaped the general destruction in which the edifices them¬
selves were then involved. Considerable light is also thrown
on the civil and ecclesiastical history of Scotland at a later
period, by the documents and other materials contained in
the collections of Sir James Balfour, Sir Robert Sibbald,
and Wodrow the historian. Balfour’s collection, which con¬
sists of upwards of 150 volumes, was purchased in 1698.
About the half of it consists of original state papers, and
several very curious royal letters written in the times of
James VI. and Charles I. One of the volumes consists of
letters by Anne of Denmark, queen of James VI.; by Prince
Henry and Prince Charles, his sons; by the Princess Eliza¬
beth, his daughter; and by the Elector Palatine and his son
to James VI., entirely of a familiar nature. From these,
some partial selections were made by Lord Hailes, and
printed in 1762 and 1765. Most of these chartularies, as
well as the more important original letters and state papers
referred to, have been published by the Bannatyne Club
and other literary associations. The Annals of Scotland,
compiled by Sir James Balfour, were also printed in 1824,
1825, in 4 volumes 8vo. But there still remain unprinted
some MSS. on genealogy and heraldry, besides a con¬
siderable number of curious documents. Sir Robert Sib-
bald’s collection, consisting of upwards of 30 volumes, was
purchased by the Faculty in 1723. It is chiefly of a topo¬
graphical and literary character. Wodrow’s collection is
much more voluminous, consisting of upwards of 160 vo¬
lumes. It was chiefly from this immense mass of materials
that that laborious writer compiled his History of the Suf¬
ferings of the Church of Scotland; other portions have
been published by the Wodrow Society; but by far the
greater portion of the collection, containing many original
letters and papers, is still unprinted. His correspondence
with many eminent literary characters, embracing a pe¬
riod of more than thirty years (from 1694 to 1726), and
extending to about 30 volumes, is also full of curious
information respecting the literature and history of the
period to which it refers. A collection of original do¬
cuments belonging to the reigns of James V., Queen
Mary, and James VI., was presented to the library by the
Earl of Balcarras. These MSS., consisting, as now ar¬
ranged and bound, of 9 volumes folio, include letters from
James V., and the Earl of Arran, governor of the king¬
dom in the infancy of Queen Mary, to the Kings of Eng¬
land, France, Norway, and Portugal, to the Duke of Guise,
the Earl of Suffolk, and others, from 1539 to 1542; also
original letters by Queen Mary, addressed to her mother
the Queen-dowager, during the early years of that beau¬
tiful but ill-fated princess. This department also contains
Lord Fountainhall s collections, in his own handwriting,
including his decisions, historical notices, diary, and other
matters; from which his published papers have been se¬
lected. We may likewise notice the curious and inter¬
esting papers of James Anderson, Murray of Stanhope,
the correspondence of Gough and Paton, with portions of
the MS. collections of George Chalmers and of Ge¬
neral Hutton, which have been arranged and bound in
several folio and quarto volumes; and also those collected
by the Rev. James Scott of Perth, consisting of about 20
volumes folio, and comprising the Blackfriars’ Charters, in
3 volumes; extracts from the records of the Church of
Perth, in 4 volumes; the records of the Hospital from
1577 to 1732; extracts from the records of the Kirk-ses¬
sion ; a chronicle ; and a register of baptisms and deaths.
The same department includes a number of manuscripts
on heraldry, genealogy, and Scottish law, besides many of
a miscellaneous nature. It also contains several early MSS.
of the classics, and a few illuminated missals. Amongst
the former may be mentioned a very fine copy of Horace,
belonging to the thirteenth century ; the Plays of Terence,
executed in the year 1436 ; a copy of the Epigrams of Mar¬
tial, in perfect preservation, which, from the style of the
writing, may be ascribed to the ninth century, and is sup¬
posed to be one of the most ancient manuscripts of the
Epigrams extant;2 a copy of Valerius Maximus, beautifully
written on vellum, dated 1398; Lactantius, l)e Opificio Dei,
a gem of its kind; the mathematical collections of Pappus
of Alexandria, written in beautiful Greek, with admirably
executed diagrams; besides portions of several classics, as
Cicero, Ovid, Juvenal, and Persius, all of considerable an¬
tiquity. A manuscript copy of St Jerome’s translation of
the Bible, supposed to have been written about the tenth
century, and said to have been found in the Abbey Church
of Dunfermline during the reign of David I.; the Auchin-
leck Manuscript is a collection of ancient English poems
and metrical romances, written about the middle of the
fourteenth century: it is so named after the donor, Alex¬
ander Boswell of Auchinleck, one of the Lords of Session,
in 1744 (from this volume Sir Walter Scott printed the
Romance of Sir Tristrem). Bannatyne’s Manuscript, re¬
bound in 2 vols. folio, being a miscellaneous collection of
Scottish poetry, and “written by Geo. Bannatyne in the time
of his youth, 1568,”3 likewise adorns this department of
the library. It was from Bannatyne’s collection that Allan
Ramsay selected the poems which were printed in the Ever¬
green; and from the same source Lord Hailes extracted a
volume, which was printed in the year 1770. In 1825
about 100 volumes of Icelandic MSS., amongst which
are several ancient Sagas, were purchased of Profes¬
sor Finn Magnuson, of Copenhagen, and added to the
collection ; and in the following year, Mr Elphinstone, and
Mr Erskine, formerly of Bombay, presented to the library
some valuable Persian and Sanscrit MSS. A beauti¬
ful manuscript of the Hebrew Bible, in 2 large folio vo¬
lumes, was purchased in Germany; and the Pentateuch,
besides the original, has also the Chaldaic paraphrase. A
manuscript of the Corpus Juris Civilis, well executed, but
of uncertain date and doubtful authority, and another of
the Pandects, were likewise purchased several years ago.
The library is governed by five curators, one of whom
goes out of office annually by rotation, and another is elected
in his stead from amongst the body of the Faculty. Under
the curators are a principal keeper or librarian, and several
assistants. The library is supported partly by the acquisi¬
tions which it is continually making in virtue of the right
conferred upon it by the Copyright Act, and partly by an
annual sum paid to the curators for the use of the establish-
British
libraries.
1 Minutes of Evidence of Select Committee on Public Libraries, 1849, Q. 1444, p. 94.
® An account of this manuscript was published by Mr Dalyell in 1811, in 8vo, two copies of which were printed in vellum.
Bannatyne s manuscript was presented to the library, in the year 1772, by the Earl of Hyndford.
VOL. Xlir.
402
LIBRARIES.
British ment out of the revenue of the Faculty. Strangers arriv-
libraries. jn„ jn Edinburgh are freely admitted to the library; and
any one who is at all known is never denied the privilege
of resorting to, and of reading or writing in the library.
Very eminent men have been keepers of this collection,
particularly Thomas Ruddiman, David Hume, Adam Fer¬
guson, and Dr Irving, a learned civilian, well known by his
Life of Buchanan, and other works.
The first volume of the general catalogue was begun in
1735, and printed in 1742, under the superintendence of
the learned Ruddiman and Walter Goodall; and this w'as
followed by two others in 1776 and 1807, all in folio; but
the MS. additions which have since been made are at
least equal to other two printed volumes of the same size.
A catalogue of the law books was printed in 1831, in
octavo ; but an entirely new catalogue of the whole con¬
tents of the library has been for several years in course
of preparation.
Library of The Library of the Writers to Her Majesty’s Signet,
the Writers js an excellent miscellaneous collection of books in the
to the sciences, law, history, geography, statistics, antiquities, lite-
lgnet‘ rature, and the arts; and it has recently been rendered
much more accessible by the ample and spacious accom¬
modation provided for it. It is contained in two large and
beautiful apartments, both under the same roof, with small
rooms adjoining. The books are so arranged in classes or
departments as to afford facilities for reference, and to ex¬
hibit, in a general way, the component parts or branches of
the collection. The choice and condition of the books
generally deserve particular notice; and, indeed, this library,
though supported exclusively from the funds of the society
to which it belongs, possesses some of the noblest and
most expensive works ever published, either abroad or at
home. The number of volumes may be estimated at nearly
45,000. There is a classed catalogue, formed on De Bure’s
system, and very skilfully executed, which was printed in
the year 1805 ; but this applies only to a small portion of
the collection, which has been very greatly increased since
the catalogue in question was prepared. An alphabetical
catalogue of the whole collection has been printed, in pro¬
gressive parts, with (1836) a classed index, which, in a
great measure, supplied all the advantages of a catalogue
according to subjects. A classed catalogue of the depart¬
ment “Jurisprudence” has recently (1856) been completed;
and it will probably be followed by other portions of a
general catalogue. The government of the library is vested
in a body of curators, elected by the Society. Here, as in
the case of the Advocates’ Library, the utmost liberality is
shown to strangers, and to literary men generally.
Edinburgh Like most other college libraries, that of the University
University of Edinburgh was founded by a donation ; and, for a long
library. period, the casual contributions of benefactors constituted
its principal means of support, as well as of increase. In
1580, Mr Clement Littill, commissary in Edinburgh, be¬
queathed his library, consisting of about 300 volumes,
chiefly theological, “ to Edinburgh and the Kirk of God,”
and this small collection was afterwards transferred by the
Town Council to the College, which they were then insti¬
tuting. Littill’s bequest thus laid the foundation of the
University Library. But it was subsequently augmented,
partly by the donations of citizens, and still more by the
benefactions of persons who had received their education
in the College. Amongst the latter may be mentioned Dr
Robert Johnston, the Rev. James Nairne, and, above all,
Drummond of Hawthornden, one of the favourite sons of
the Scottish muse. His gift is the more valuable, because,
independently of the high reputation of the donor, the col- British
lection is enriched with many rare specimens of our early libraries,
literature. In 1627 a list of these was printed in Aucia-
rium Bibliothecce Edinburgence; but he gave several other
books in 1628 and 1635. These are now collected to¬
gether. A catalogue of Nairne’s books was also printed in
1678. The acquisition of Dr Andrew Balfour’s collection
in 1697, which served as the foundation of the College
Museum, has been much less fortunate. In 1764 the
Library of the Incorporation of Surgeons was added to that
of the College, in consequence of an agreement, which has
eventually proved eminently advantageous to the former
body, whatever may be the case in so far as regards the in¬
terests of the University. This collection consisted of about
500 volumes, almost entirely professional, and now of very
little value. The principal bequest which the library has
more recently received is that of Dr William Thomson,
who, in 1808, left it about 600 volumes, chiefly on medical
subjects. In a testamentary bequest by the late General
Reid, who was educated at this university, mention is
made of the library, as an object to the improvement and
extension of which his munificent legacy is, amongst other
things, to be applied. The funds by which the library is
maintained, and its progressive enlargement secured, are
matriculation fees, fees on graduation in three faculties, a
donation of L.5 from each professor on his induction, an
annual payment of L.20 by the College of Surgeons, oc¬
casional donations of books, and a grant of L.575 from go¬
vernment, in compensation of its abolished privilege. The
ordinary management of the library is vested in nine cura¬
tors, appointed annually by the Senatus Academicus, four
of whom retire from office every year, and are immediately
succeeded by an equal number of such professors next in
seniority, as are willing to undertake the duty. Four of
these curators are from the medical, one from the theologi¬
cal, and four from the general department, including classes
neither medical nor theological.1 This library consists of
somewhat more than 100,000 volumes, and about 400 MSS.
The accommodation provided for it is of the most magnifi¬
cent description, the library-hall being by far the most spa¬
cious and noble apartment in Scotland. As to the collec¬
tion generally, it contains much that is valuable, and a good
deal that is both curious and rare; but, considered as a re¬
pository of varied information in science and literature, it
is unequal and defective. Its most ample department is that
of medicine, a purely professional one, and more largely re¬
plenished than any other with obsolete matter. Those of
natural philosophy and natural history are tolerably supplied
with the works belonging to them. But in classical literature,
including under that head all that relates to the exposition
and illustration of the ancient authors, there are perhaps
few great libraries more defective.2 It is to be hoped,
however, that every exertion will be made to give to the
collection that character of generality, founded upon the
possession of all that is most useful and interesting in every
branch of knowledge, which constitutes the best recom¬
mendation of a great public library. This it is which has
imparted to the Library of Gottingen its great and acknow¬
ledged excellence. The only catalogue yet printed is one
of the books relating to medicine, arranged alphabetically
according to the names of the authors.3 The library is, of
course, primarily for the use of members of the university,
and of the College of Surgeons. “ But literary gentlemen,
or others, who have occasion to consult or to borrow books,
on application to the curators, or to individual professors,
walling to be responsible for them, are allowed every prac-
2 Report of Commissioners on the Universities and Colleges of Scotland, App. p. 167, et seqq.
2 Edin. Evid., p. 648, quoted in the Appendix to the Report of the Commissioners on the Univ. and Coll, of Scotland, p. 172.
3 Catalogue librorum ad rem medicam spectantium in Bibliotheca Academics Edinburgensis, secundum auctorum nomina dispositus.
Editio altera. Edinburgi, 1798, 8vo.
LIBRARIES.
British ticable facility.1 In addition to the public, there is attached
libraries, to the University a theological library, founded towards the
close of the seventeenth century, and now containing about
5000 volumes. In connection with the New College, esta¬
blished by the Free Church, there is an excellent library
chiefly of works on theology, amounting to nearly 25,000
vols. Among other special libraries in Edinburgh, there
are those of the Royal College of Physicians, founded in
1682, having, according to the printed catalogue in 1849,
9000 volumes ; the Royal Medical Society, instituted 1737,
with upwards of 16,000 volumes; the Philosophical Insti¬
tution ; the Watt Institution and School of Arts ; the Solici¬
tors before Supreme Courts; Solicitors-at-Law; Edinburgh
Subscription Library, 1794; Select Subscription Library,
1800; and Edinburgh Mechanics’ Subscription Library,
l82o.
Glasgow The history of the Library of Glasgow College, though
University curious and interesting, is chiefly a register of the numerous
library. successive donations by which it was gradually formed.
Amongst the names of its early benefactors we find that of
George Buchanan, who, it appears, presented to the college
20 volumes, consisting entirely of Greek works, chiefly
classics,2 and made other benefactions, the extent of which
cannot now be ascertained. This library is stated in the
official return of 1849, to have contained at the close of the
preceding year, 58,096 volumes of printed books, and 242
MSS.3 It receives L.707 a-year from the Consolidated
Fund for the purchase of books, and must now (1857) con¬
tain at least 75,000 volumes. The other funds for its sup¬
port are derived from the interest of certain small sums
bequeathed by individuals, from graduation fees, and from
the contributions of students, including the interest accru¬
ing from the deposit money. Amongst the manuscripts in
this library are several volumes by Wodrow, principally on
biography. A catalogue of the printed books, by Profes¬
sor Arthur,4 appeared in 1791. Two supplements have
since been published in 1825 and 1836.
StAndrews There was at an early date a library in each of the Col-
University leges at St Andrews,—one such library has been referred
library. to already, as the earliest Scottish collection on record,—
but no mention is made of a University Library until about
the commencement of the seventeenth century. At that
period there occurs a notice of such a collection; and a
catalogue of its contents, made at the time, is still extant,
the books being chiefly presents from James VI. and the
members of his family. With this public University Library,
those of St Salvator’s and St Mary’s Colleges came, in pro¬
cess of time, to be incorporated; and, about the year 1780,
that of St Leonard’s College, the best of the collections, was
conjoined with the rest. As now constituted, the library is
supported by the interest of money made up out of the excess
of the receipts above the expenditure of its funds ; the sur¬
plus rent of some teinds and lands held in lease from the
403
whole, an excellent collection. There is a printed alpha- British
betical catalogue to the year 1826, and a progressive manu- libraries,
script one since that time. There is also a classed catalogue
in manuscript. All students attending the University have
the use of the library, free of expense, both for consulting
and for borrowing books. Other persons, whether resident
in St Andrews or elsewhere, if engaged in literary or scien¬
tific investigations with a view to publication, may borrow
books, under guarantee, on application to the Senate, and
free access to the library for the purpose of consulting is
granted to any respectable person.
There is reason to believe, that from the first institution Libraries
of the University of Aberdeen there was a collection ofofAber-
books at King’s College, but no particular record of the lib- deen <^cd'
rary or its management, prior to the year 1634, is now toleses’
be found. The collection contains about 37,000 printed
volumes, and 74 MSS. Amongst the latter are one
of the splendid copies of the Koran said to have belonged
to Tippoo Sahib; a work on Hindu theology, written upon
fine vellum, and rolled on a piece of ivory, like the volumina
of the ancients; and a Shaster in Sanscrit, written on the
leaves of trees. The grant assigned to Aberdeen, in lieu
of the copy-tax, amounts to but L.320 annually, that being
the estimated average value of the books which it had
actually received. The official reply to the inquiries as to
public facilities runs thus:—“ The library is accessible to
all the Professors and Lecturers of this University and of
Marischal College, as well as to all graduates and students
of the former, on depositing the value of the books re¬
ceived.” 6 This state of things has long been unsatisfactory
to Marischal College ; the Supreme Civil Court of Scotland
having long since decided that the books acquired by copy-
tax were to be kept in King’s College, “for the use of both
colleges.” But, as of late the old project for a reunion of
the colleges has been revived, it is probable that this minor
question, with others of greater moment, may be satisfac¬
torily solved. The separate Library of Marischal College
had its origin in a collection of books made at the time of
the Reformation by the magistrates of Aberdeen, and partly
procured from the suppressed monasteries of that city.7
The number of printed volumes in it is about 12,000, and
of MSS., 100. The funds for augmenting this library arise
from fees of graduation, and are of very small amount.
The Library of Trinity College, Dublin, owed its estab- Library of
lishment to a singular incident. In the year 1601 the Trinity
Spaniards were defeated by the English at the battle of College,
Kinsale. Determined to commemorate their victory by DubB11-
some permanent monument, the soldiers collected amongst
themselves the sum of L.1800, which they agreed to apply
in the purchase of books for a public library, to be founded
in the then infant institution of Trinity College.8 This sum
was placed in the hands of the celebrated Ussher, who pro¬
ceeded to London, and there, in conjunction with his friend
Dr Challoner, purchased the books necessary for the pur¬
pose. It is a curious coincidence, that Ussher, whilst occu¬
pied in purchasing these books, met in London Sir Thomas
Bodley, engaged in similar business, with a view to the
Exchequer ; certain fees on graduations ; together with the
grant ot L.630 a-year from the Consolidated Fund. It con¬
tained in 1848, 51,265 volumes of printed books,5 and now
contains about 61,500 volumes, and 63 MSS.; it is, upon the
* Supplemental Return (18491, supra, p. 4.
- Such as the works of Plutarch, Plato, Demosthenes, Apollonius, Aristophanes, Strabo, and Euclid.
Supplementary Return (1849), ut supra, p. 2.
Catalogus impressorum librorum in Bibliotheca Universitatis Glasguensis, secundum literarum ordinem dispositus. Lahore et studio
Archibaldi Arthur, A.M., Glasguai, 1791, folio. A second volume consists of a press catalogue, printed by Andrew Foulis.
5 Supplemental Return, ut supra, p. 2. 6 ibid., p. 3.
These books were retained in one of the churches, under the care of the magistrates, and were called the Town’s Library, and Biblio¬
theca Ecclesiastica. On the 19th of May 1624, Mr Thomas Reid, Latin secretary to James VI., bequeathed his hooks to the college, and
left 6000 merks to the town, the interest of which ivas to be applied as a salary to a librarian. Reid’s collection was afterwards united
to the Bibliotheca Ecclesiastica, and to the books bequeathed by Dr Liddel, and other benefactors; and the whole, forming one collection,
was deposited in the college, of which it now constitutes the public library. (See Appendix to the Report of Commission on the Uni¬
versities and Colleges of Scotland, p. 361.)
8 Parr, Life of Ussher (1686), p. 10. The writer’s words are too striking to be passed over : “ That army,” he says, “ resolved to do
some worthy act that might be a memorial of the gallantry of military men, and of that due respect they had for true religion and learn-
Vcn’c T*16 co^e£e *lad been established nearly ten years before, but no mention of a library occurs in its accounts until the audit of
1605. {Report of Dublin University Commission, July 1852).
LIBRARIES.
404
British augmentation of his famous library at Oxford, and estab-
libraries. ]ishe(l with him a friendly intercourse and co-operation.
^ From this commencement, the Library of Trinity College
was at different periods increased by many valuable acqui¬
sitions, including, after many obstacles and long delay,
that of Ussher’s own collection, consisting of nearly 10,000
volumes. It had been the primate’s intention to bequeath
what remained to him of his noble library to Trinity Col¬
lege, but the loss of his revenue compelled him to leave it
as a provision for his daughter. Both Cardinal Mazarine
and the King of Denmark made liberal offers for its pur¬
chase, but an order of the Council of State prevented its
exportation. “ At length,” says Ussher’s biographer, “ it was
bought by the soldiers and officers of the then army in Ire¬
land, who, out of emulation to the former noble action of
Queen Elizabeth’s army, were incited .... to the like per¬
formance ; and they had it for much less than .... had been
offered for it before.”1 In a few years, its growing magni¬
tude requiring a corresponding increase of accommodation,
the present library-hall, a magnificent apartment of stately
dimensions, was erected in the year 1732. In 1726 Dr
William Palliser, Archbishop of Cashel, bequeathed his
library of 4109 volumes. Ten years later Dr Gilbert gave
his own library of 12,749 volumes, and arranged them, in
person, on the shelves. In 1787 the entire collection con¬
sisted of 36,047 volumes of printed books, and 1111 volumes
of MSS. and prints. When the French invaded Hol¬
land in 1794, the collection of Pensionary Fagel, amount¬
ing to 17,537 volumes, was removed to England, where,
in 1802, it was purchased by the College for the sum of
L.10,000, towards which sum L.8000 was granted for the
purpose by the trustees of Erasmus Smith.'2 Another im¬
portant addition was made to the original collection by the
acquisition of the select and valuable classical and Italian
books which had belonged to Mr Quin; and a consi¬
derable increment of books has also resulted from the
copy-tax, by which the college has profited since the year
1801. Altogether, the Library of Trinity College now
forms one of very high value, and is under admirable man¬
agement. In the department of printed books, the total
number of vols., in September 1851, amounted to 107,650.
When reckoned in August 1856, there were 126,095
printed vols., and 1600 MSS. The Ussher MSS. amounts
to 693, the Stearne MSS. to 135, the Stearne and Alex¬
ander to 77, and those presented by other persons to up¬
wards of 400 volumes. Ussher’s MSS. may be classed
into Bibles, and parts of Bibles, with commentaries; bre¬
viaries, missals, Roman rituals, the works of the Fathers,
and oriental writers; systematic, scholastic, and polemic
writers; catalogues, philosophical, medical, and historical;
and, lastly, Irish histories and genealogies, civil and ecclesi¬
astical. The subjects of the Stearne MSS. are some¬
what similar to these, with the exception that some of them
treat of forensic matters. In this department of the col¬
lection, there is preserved the Gospel of St Matthew, along
with other fragments of Scripture, written in Greek capitals,
and ascribed by Dr Barret to the sixth century. The total
number of MSS. is about 1620. In 1848 a new reading-
room was completed and opened for the use of readers.
As to catalogues, this library will soon be much better
supplied than it has hitherto been. A very elaborate al¬
phabetical catalogue (of which we have seen a portion) has
been long at press, and is now advancing towards comple¬
tion. Of the Fagel collection, the printed sale catalogue
(by Paterson) has always been useful, both from its plan and
its careful execution. There is another and alphabetical British
catalogue of this part of the library in MS., as there is libraries,
also of the collection of MSS. By the library statutes,
access to the reading-room is restricted to graduates, and of
them to such only as shall take the prescribed oath. But
the enacting words, whilst they expressly exclude under¬
graduates, do not, in direct terms, exclude non-members of
the University.3 The heads have accordingly given them,
in practice, a liberal interpretation. No books are lent
from this library ; but a special lending collection has been
provided for the undergraduates. It contains about 3000
well-selected volumes, and has worked advantageously.
Dublin has another library, strictly public in character, Archbishop
which has rendered eminent service to learning, though it Marsh’s
is of small extent, and has narrow funds. Founded by libraJ7»
Archbishop Marsh, about 1694, it was incorporated by actDublin‘
of parliament in 1707, and endowed by the founder’s will
in 1713. Lapse of time, and its results, which, in so many
cases, have largely enhanced the value of endowments, has
here seriously diminished what was formerly a fair mainten¬
ance fund. The library includes Bishop Stillingfleet’s col¬
lection,4 another collection formed by its first librarian,
and a series of nearly 3000 volumes, given by Bishop
Stearne, together with some minor donations, nearly all
of which accrued during the last century. The pre¬
sent number of volumes is about 18,000 printed, and
193 manuscript. Of late years Marsh’s Library has been
under excellent officers, and is very freely accessible, but it
has long been starved for want of means to keep pace in any
degree with the growth of literature. Whilst, on the other
hand, the Library of the King’s Inns, Dublin, which has Library of
always been conspicuous for its restrictive character, has the King's
already received in money, from the Consolidated Fund, I°ns>
L.8780; and, in money’s worth, from authors and publishers,Du in*
a further sum of nearly L. 10,000, without any public equi¬
valent whatever. The naive remark of Mr Duhigg, the
historian of the King’s Inns, that “ the genius of jobbing
occasionally gives birth to a public-spirited establishment,”0
could, by no ingenuity, have been more singularly mis¬
placed.
The number of printed volumes in the King’s Inns Li¬
brary in January 1849 was 30,938, and that of MSS., 150.6
The Library of the Royal Dublin Society, founded in 1731, Libraries
contains about 24,000 printed volumes, is eminently rich in of the Dub-
works on natural history, and has some valuable manuscripts,1111 Soaety
including the important collections of Harris, the historian ^n<^ lr'sl1
of Ireland, which were purchased by Parliament of his
widow for L.500, and committed to the Society’s keeping.
The Royal Irish Academy, founded in 1782, has a library
of 10,500 volumes of printed books, and about 500
MSS., independently of the Betham collection on Irish
archaeology, acquired in 1851 (and not yet completely ar¬
ranged), partly by a public subscription, and partly from the
funds of the academy.7
Both this library and that of the Dublin Society have
been largely aided by parliamentary grants. Both, there¬
fore, are of right, and for some years past have been, in
practice, accessible to the public, under proper regulations.
But, within the last year or two, the disadvantages of thus
separating these storehouses of learning, furnished at pub¬
lic cost, have become increasingly apparent; and powers
have been judiciously taken, in framing the recent Act ofAct of Par-
Parliament for erecting an Irish National Gallery, to com-
bine these collections with that of Archbishop Marsh, on the smaiier
obtaining the consent of their respective guardians, and libraries
into one
1 Parr, Life of Ussher, p. 102. The Ussher collection did not reach Trinity College until after the Restoration. Parr says that, whilst public li-
it was in Dublin Castle, “ many of the books, and most of the best MSS. were stolen away.” brary for
2 Rev. Dr Todd (principal librarian) “Answers to Inquiries of the Dublin University Commission” {Report, &c., pp. 171-178,July 1852). Dublin
8 Statutes Bibliothecas . . . Trinitatis, &c., p. 17. 4 Whitelaw and Walsh, History of Dublin, p. 940. (1854-ooJ-
* Duhigg, History of the King's Inns (Dublin, 1806), p. 525. 6 Parliamentary Return of 1849, ut supra.
7 Estimates for Civil Services, for the year 1852-53, No. 4.
British
libraries.
Free public
libraries in
the United
Kingdom,
established
under the
Acts of
1850-55.
Free lib¬
rary of
Manchester
LIBRARIES.
405
with all due precautions for the strict observance, both of
that prelate’s trust and of the proper associative purposes
of the other bodies concerned. The new incorporation
is to be designated “ The Joint Trustees of the National
Gallery of Ireland and of Marsh’s Library.”1 By this
union of so many scattered public collections a fine library
of nearly 60,000 volumes—including a body of materials
for Irish history of the greatest value—will be at once
created. The duplicates may be made the basis of a good
lending collection ; and should the new institution be wisely
worked under the rate-laying powers of the Irish Libraries
Act, or under such modifications of those powers as may
meet the special circumstances of the case, Dublin may
soon possess a great public library worthy of the name.
With the library of the King’s Inns, Parliament will have to
deal hereafter.
Under the “ Public Libraries Act” of 1850, or under the
supplementary acts that have followed it, of which the
“ Irish Libraries Act” just referred to is one, free rate-
supported libraries have already been established, or are
now maintained, in the following cities and towns, namely,—
Manchester, Liverpool, Salford, Boston, and Warrington
{\n Lancashire)', Oxford; Cambridge; Westminster; Nor¬
wich ; Winchester ; Sheffield; Litchfield; Kidderminster
{Worcestershire)', Leamington {Warwickshire)', Birken¬
head {Cheshire)', Ennis {Clare)', and Dundalk {Louth). At
Birmingham, Cheltenham, Exeter, Haslingden {Lanca¬
shire) ; Hull; in the metropolitan parishes of Islington and
of St Mary-le-Bone; and in the city of London, propositions
for the adoption of the act have been, for the present, nega¬
tived. By the corporations of Bristol, of Newcastle-on-Tyne,
and of Preston {Lancashire), preliminary steps with a view
to the ultimate adoption of the act have been initiated.
Similar steps have also been taken in Aberdeen, at the in¬
stance of the present Lord Provost (John Webster, Esq.,
Advocate) ; and, we believe, in some smaller towns and in
parishes in various parts of the United Kingdom.
The city of Manchester was the first to establish a Pub¬
lic Library under the Act of 1850. Small collections of
books, attached to museums of natural history, had pre¬
viously been established (under Mr Ewart’s “Museums Act”
of 1845), by the town council of Warrington, in 1848 ; and
by that of Salford in 1849 (at the recommendation of the
late Mr Brotherton, M.P., whose attention had been called
to the subject at the sittings of the “ Select Committee on
Public Libraries,” which commenced its inquiries early in
that year). But no power to levy rates, avowedly for the
support of libraries, existed in the United Kingdom until
1850. The movement in Manchester was originated in the
course of that year by Sir John Potter, then its mayor,
and a public subscription was raised, which ultimately
amounted to L.12,823. Out of this sum a building was
purchased and adapted to its new purpose ; and L.4156 was
spent in books. The number of volumes so obtained was
18,028, and the number presented, by various donors, 3292.
A poll of burgesses on the question of permanently main¬
taining the library by rate, under the Act, was taken 20th
August 1852. The ayes were 3962, and the noes 40. The
library was transferred to the Corporation, as an inalienable
public institution, on the 2d September following, and was
then opened as a consulting library to all comers (without
any recommendation, or other preliminary); and as a lend¬
ing library, to all persons producing a sufficient voucher of
responsibility. It was the first library in the kingdom which
offered these facilities ; and during the first four years of its
working, it has issued to readers and to borrowers, collec- British
tively, 584,792 volumes. During the same period, 11,255 libraries,
volumes were added to the library, partly by purchase and
partly by gift. Of the aggregate issue above mentioned,
322,103 volumes were lent to borrowers, and all the un¬
compensated loss which has fallen on the Corporation in con¬
sequence of this unprecedented freedom of circulation,—in¬
dependently, of course, of fair wear and tear,—will be fully
covered by a sum of 25s. The increased library rate of
one penny in the pound will produce, in Manchester, L.4000
a-year, part of which sum will shortly be applied to the
establishment of branch lending collections in other parts
of that city. The total sum hitherto raised by rate amounts
but to L.7485. The total contents of the library, in Oc¬
tober 1856, were 32,573 volumes; the classification of
which is as follows :—I. Theology, 1062 ; II. Philoso¬
phy, 421; III. History, 11,371 ; IV. Politics, 6830; V.
Sciences and Arts, 2885 ; VI. Literature and Polygraphy,
10,004. Thus, it will be seen, 18,000 volumes out of
32,000 are either historical or political. This preference
has been deliberately given, for the reason, that the selec¬
tion of two or three principal departments of literature, as
the main characteristic of the library, will enable the city
council, in course of time, to make the collection one of the
highest class and value, as respects those departments;
whilst, on the other hand, the formation of an encyclopaedi¬
cal library, of equal value in all departments, would have
been an aim too wide to be thoroughly attained. The
library is frequented by all classes of the community, from
those of least, up to those of greatest education. Merchant
and artizan, mill-worker and clergyman, may be seen read¬
ing at the same tables; and as this (in Great Britain) is
one of the most novel, so will it, in its ultimate issues, prove
to have been one of the most pregnant results of rate-sup¬
ported libraries, maintained by the payments of all classes,
for the permanent use, the mental recreation, and the
spiritual elevation of them all.
Liverpool, though second in the start, bids fair to be, in Free lib-
some respects, first at the goal. Its Free Library was esta- ^a.ry of
blished under a special Act,2 which provided alike for the erP001*
library, for the noble museum of natural history, bequeathed
to the town by the late Earl of Derby, and for its botanical
gardens. A sum of L.1400 was subscribed (for the pur¬
chase of books); the further sum of L.21,846 has been
voted by the town council. This library, under regula¬
tions copied from those of Manchester, was publicly opened
on the 18th October 1852, with a collection for use within
the building, of 11,877 volumes ; and, on the 18th October
1853, with two branch collections for the loan of books, in
the northern and southern districts of the town, containing,
together, about 2000 volumes. The reference collection
has now increased to 21,020 volumes, and the two lending
collections to 13,254 volumes, making an aggregate of
34,274 volumes. The total issues from the former have
been 526,801, and from the latter, 364,347 volumes. Out
of the issue to borrowers, but four books have been lost
without replacement by the losers. As to the Reference
Library, “ the conduct of the readers,” says the last Report,
“ and the care taken of the books, have been beyond all
praise. Many of the artisans have expressed their grati¬
tude and high appreciation of the privilege of consulting
the valuable works in their various departments, more espe¬
cially in ship-building, . . . cabinet and iron-work, and
in various branches of practical science.”3
This great success has necessitated the erection of a new
and large building. The town council, early in 1856, ad-
1 An Act for the Establishment of a National Gallery, and for the care of a Public Library . . . in Dublin, 17th and 18th Viet., c. 99.
This act has been amended as to the governing body by the 18th and 19th Viet, c. 44 {Statutes of the Realm, 4to edition, vol. xxiii.,
pp. 211-215,and 584-585; 1855).
2 Liverpool Library and Museum Act, 1852. * Fourth Annual Report to the Town Council of Liverpool (Oct. 1856), p. 5.
40C
LIBRARIES.
British
libraries.
Free lib¬
raries of
Salford and
of Bolton.
vertised for designs for such an edifice, and a collection of
drawings, or sketches, from not fewer than 1 lo architects, was
sent in. A second competition by 16 selected architects
was invited, and the designs received were exhibited in St
George’s Hall. But the assigned limit as to cost was greatly
exceeded by those designers whose projects best pleased the
eyes of the committee. Great difference of opinion existed
in the town council, and a third series of plans was about to
Munificent be invited, when Mr William Brown, M.P. for South Lanca-
gift to Li- shire, offered to take the whole charge of erecting the build-
verpool of ;ng Up0n himself. The plan which he is understood to
W^Brown, jiave appVOvet]) cannot, it is stated, be carried out at a less
cost than L.25,000. The first stone of the new structure
is to be laid in April 1857.
Salford, which had continued to increase the small but
useful reference collection attached to its excellent museum,
opened its Free Lending Library in May 1854. The for¬
mer contained, in November 1856, 12,603 volumes, and the
latter 5952 volumes. The aggregate issues from both col¬
lections up to the date last named, amount to 476,825
volumes. The working of the library has been so satisfac¬
tory that a large expenditure has been incurred to increase
the accommodation for readers, as well as that allotted to the
museum. A total sum of L.7942 has been raised by sub¬
scription, for books and building purposes; and a further
amount, somewhat exceeding L.6000, has been raised by
rate, or voted by the town council. Even in the small town
of Bolton, a sum of L.3195 has been raised by subscription,
and a further sum of L.1500 by rate; a library of 15,000
volumes has been formed, partly for reference and partly
for circulation ; and the aggregate issues in three years
have exceeded 285,000 volumes.
In the cities and towns of the S. and E. of England the
working of the Library Acts has been too recent to afford
results similar to those of which we have thus given an ab¬
stract for some of the towns of the N. But the experi¬
ence of all, so far as it has extended, is highly satisfactory.
There is, however, one point, more especially affecting the
southern and eastern towns, which claims brief notice, inas¬
much as it possesses practical and present interest. We
refer to those few existing town libraries of ancientfoundation,
several of which might usefully be made the ground-work,
and others the adjuncts, of free libraries supported by rate.
In every instance, we believe, save one, these old lib¬
raries have fallen into neglect. Ipswich has a small collec¬
tion which dates from 1580. In Norwich a public library
was founded in 1608, and was afterwards much augmented
by several benefactions.1 In Bristol another was founded
by Robert Redwood in 1615.2 In Manchester, Humphrey
Chetham, an eminent clothier, founded a library in 1653,
and gave it, by his last will, a considerable endowment. A
century later, Dr Shepherd, the biographer of Poggio
Bracciolini, founded a town library at Preston. There are
other small town libraries which cannot here be enumerated.
Parochial libraries—of more than a hundred of which we
have before us a chronological list—must also be passed
over, with the bare remark that a great many of the latter
were intended more especially for the use of the clergy, as
parsonic heir-looms, so to speak; and that it was with a view
to the preservation of these, for succeeding incumbents,
that the Act of the 7th Anne, c. 14 (An Act for the better
preservation of Parochial Libraries in that part of Great
Britain called England), was passed in 1709.3
Both at Bristol and Norwich, the intentions of the foun¬
ders have been utterly set aside by the unwarrantable trans¬
Ancient
town lib¬
raries in
England.
Parochial
libraries.
fer of these city libraries to private societies, composed of
shareholders and subscribers. But, in both instances, a
vote of the municipal councils will suffice to restore them
to their proper purpose. Neither possesses any present
maintenance fund; both contain valuable books, and will
make excellent foundation-stones for free libraries. At
Preston the Corporation is already prepared to take this
step. The case of Manchester is peculiar. Chetham’s Chethanfg
Library is the only town library of the seventeenth century jjbrary>
which possesses a serviceable endowment, but even here the eS”
amount and efficiency of it have been seriously impaired,
partly by reason of the subsisting connection between the
library fund and that of the school of the same founder,—a
school which has been productive of great good to the
district, but which, to some extent, has thriven by im¬
poverishing its neighbour,—and partly by reason of large
expenditure on the restoration of the curious old baronial
hall, of which both library and school are the occupants.
This library possesses 18,200 printed volumes, and 137
manuscripts. It is rich in historical works (up to the
middle of the last century, indeed, it is a fine collection) ;
but its good old books lack those good new books w'ithout
which they lose half their proper value. There is, how¬
ever, some reason to hope that the precedent about to be
set in Dublin will have its due influence in Lancashire, as
well as in Norfolk and Gloucestershire.
(2.) FOREIGN LIBRARIES.
Having described the principal libraries of Great Britain
and Ireland, we shall now proceed to those of foreign coun¬
tries, and, in particular, endeavour to give some account of
the principal collections in France, Spain, Italy, Germany,
Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Poland, Russia, Denmark,
and Sweden. This account, however, must necessarily be
brief and imperfect; for, owing to the magnitude of the sub¬
ject, the space we can devote to the whole would scarcely be
sufficient for an adequate description of the treasures con¬
tained in the Vatican and in the Imperial Library at Paris.
I. FRANCE.
The libraries of France may be divided into those of the Libraries
capital, and those of the departments. The principal lib- of *rance'
raries of the capital are,—the Imperial Library, the Mazarine
Library, the Library of the Arsenal, the Library of St Gene¬
vieve, the Library of the Sorbonne, the City Library, and the
Libraries of the Senate, the Legislative Body, the Council of
State, the Institute, and the Louvre. The libraries of the
departments are 338 in number, exclusively of those which
are specially annexed to learned bodies, to establishments of
public utility, to colleges, and other institutions.
The Imperial Library at Paris is justly considered as the Imperial
finest in Europe. It was commenced under the reign of King bbraty ai
John, who possessed only 20 volumes ; but the number was Far13,
so increased by his successor, Charles V., who constructed
a library in one of the towers of the Louvre, that, at his
death in 1380, they amounted (according to Le Prince)1 to
910 volumes, several of them superbly illuminated by John
of Bruges, the best artist in miniatures of that time. This
precious collection was nearly destroyed during the troubles
in the reign of Charles VII.; but what remained was re¬
covered and greatly improved by Charles VIII., who added
to it the choice books—still to be identified by the curious
1 Llomefield, Essay towards a Topographical History of Norfolk, vol iv., p. 343.
2 Tovey, The Bristol City Library,—its Founders and Benefactors, p. 4; and Barrett, History of Bristol, p. 507.
8 Statutes at large (Raithby’s edition), vol. iv., pp. 18, 19.
r 4 Nssai Historique sur la Bibliotheque du Roi aujourd'hui Bibliotheque Imperiale (nouvelle edition, 1856, 12mo), p. 12. But compare
A an Fraet’s edition of the Inventaire des livres du Roy nostre Sire, estansen son Chattel du Louvre, which was drawn up by Gilles Mallet
in 1373. The original is still visible in the Imperial Library (Fonds de Colbert, No. 83).
LIBRARIES.
407
Organiza¬
tion of the
Imperial
library.
visitor—which he carried off to France, after the conquest
of Naples. Francis I. united it in 1544 with that of Fon¬
tainebleau, which had been enriched by valuable Greek manu¬
scripts brought from the East. Henri IV. was also a muni¬
ficent benefactor. He appointed the celebrated historian
De Thou to be keeper; brought the Royal Library back
to Paris, after an absence of nearly a century (it had been
removed to Blois before its transfer to Fontainebleau); and
added to it the fine collection of MSS.—more than 800 in
number, and chiefly Greek—which had been formed by
Catherine de Medicis. From this period the Royal Library
continued to receive constant accessions. In 1684 it pos¬
sessed 50,547 volumes; at the death of Louis XIV., up¬
wards of 70,000; in 1775 it amounted to 150,000; and by
1790 it had increased to about 200,000. Then came the
enormous, and for a long time almost chaotic accessions
which accrued from the revolutionary confiscations. At
present it contains about 815,000 printed volumes, and
84,000 manuscripts.1
In 1667, Louis XIV., having ordered all the medals and
curiosities contained in the royal residences to be collected
together, caused them to be deposited in this library.
Learned antiquarians, sent into foreign countries, augmented
this collection ; rare and precious objects were successively
acquired; and the library at present possesses the richest
and most varied collection that exists in Europe. The
cabinet of engravings, also founded by Louis XIV., is com¬
posed of paintings on vellum, drawings, and an immense
collection of prints, from the discovery of engraving to the
present time. It contains more than 1,500,000, arranged
in about 12,000 volumes and portfolios. In these numbers
is included a noble series of portraits, exceeding 60,000,
arranged, as far as possible, in chronological order. A second
and still larger collection of portraits, formed by the De-
bures,—nearly 67,000 in number—has been recently pur¬
chased, and arranged in alphabetical order. Large selections
of prints are constantly exhibited to all comers, under glass.
The Imperial Library is at present divided into the follow¬
ing departments, viz.,—ls<,Printed Books; 2d, Manuscripts,
Charters, and Deeds; 3af, Coins, Medals, Engraved Stones,
and other antique monuments ; 4</q Engravings; 5th, Maps,
Charts, and Plans. These five departments form five dis¬
tinct establishments, which, by their importance and the
richness of their treasures, exceed everything of the kind
that is, as yet, to be found in other countries. A decree
of 1556, which fell, or partially fell, into desuetude during
the troubles of the Fronde, but was renewed in 1689, im¬
posed on publishers the obligation of furnishing to the
Library of the King, copies of all works printed with copy¬
right ; and each copy was required to be bound. At pre¬
sent the law prescribes the deposit of copies of all books (as
well as maps and engravings) printed; but the other con¬
dition is dispensed with.
The additions from the Vatican Library, selected by the
French commissioners in 1797, were particularly valuable,
amounting to 501 manuscripts. Of these, 20 were Hebrew ;
40 Syriac; 19 Coptic; 11 Chinese; 133 Greek, amongst
which was the celebrated Codex Vaticanus of the Septua-
gint; 176 Latin, including the famous Virgil, Terence,
Horace, Caesar, Plautus, and other ancient classical manu¬
scripts ; besides many other manuscripts illustrative of the
history of the ninth and tenth centuries. Numerous manu- French
scripts in modern languages were also seized in virtue of libraries,
the compulsory treaty of Tolentino, particularly the Com-
media of Dante, transcribed by Boccacio, the Arcadia of
Sannazaro, Michael Angelo’s Letters, and also those of
Plenry VIII. and Anne Boleyn ; besides 136 early printed
books, 13 Etruscan vases, and 737 ancient coins. To these
were added the manuscripts and early printed books col¬
lected by the French in other parts of Europe, to which
their victorious eagles had penetrated. But the events of
1814 and 1815 were followed by a large restitution of the
literary treasures, as well as of the works of art, acquired
by right, or rather by abuse, of conquest. Of the contents
of this magnificent collection,—named successively Biblio-
theque du Roi, Royale, Nationale, and Imperiale,—it would
far exceed our limits to give any details, or even to enu¬
merate the choicest articles. Of books printed on vellum,
it contains at once the finest and most extensive collection
in the world.2 Dr Dibdin, who visited the library in 1821,
has devoted a considerable portion of the second volume of
his Bibliographical Tour to a description of some of the
chief literary and artistic treasures accumulated in this
library, accompanied with numerous illustrations selected
from some of the most precious manuscripts. Excepting
on Sundays and holidays, the Imperial Library is open daily,
from ten until three o’clock. Every book is brought that can
be found ; and literary men of known respectability are per¬
mitted to take books to their own residences.
Hitherto there has been no complete catalogue of this Catalogues
vast collection. That of Labbe, printed in 1653, in 4to, treats of the_
of some manuscripts, which are divided into historical and I"1Perial
chronological, biblical and theological, epistolary and diplo- 1 rar^'
matic, technical and philological. Anicet Melot’s catalogue
of the manuscripts in the Royal Library was printed at Paris,
1739-1744, in 4 volumes folio. The first volume contains
the Oriental manuscripts; the second the Greek manu¬
scripts ; the third and fourth comprise those in the Latin
language. Besides these, the collection has furnished the
materials for a work, published in successive volumes, by
the Academy of Inscriptions, under the title of Notices et
Extraits des Manuscrits de la Bibliotheque du Roi (or
Nationale) et autres Bibliotheques. The 1st volume is
dated 1787, the 17th, 1851, in 4to. This, however, is
rather a collection of dissertations, and rescriptions of par¬
ticular manuscripts, than a descriptive catalogue. The
French manuscripts are described with great accuracy by
M. Paulin Paris, in his work, Les Manuscrits Francois de
la Bibliotheque du Roi, Paris, 1836-1848, 7 vols. 8vo.
Of the printed books in the then Royal Library, there
appeared a catalogue compiled by the Abbes Sallier, Bou-
dot, Capperonnier, and others, in 6 vols. folio, Paris, 1739-
1750. It contains the classes Theology, Belles-Lettres,
and part of Jurisprudence. After the lapse of a century,
the want of a general catalogue having been felt, the de¬
ficiency is about to be supplied, by direction of the present
Emperor. The task has been undertaken with energy, and
carried on with an amount of success worthy of the collec¬
tions which have accumulated. The new catalogue com¬
mences with the class of French History. It is printed in
large 4to, in double columns, the books chronologically
arranged under the different reigns or periods of govern-
These numbers are based on the official return made in 1850, by General De La Ilitte (then Minister of the Interior), to Lord Nor-
manby, in consequence of an application from the Foreign Office (at the instance of Mr Ewart’s Committee on Public Libraries). This
return says, “ 700,000 printed volumes, and 500,000 tracts.” The latter may be estimated as at least equal to 5,000 volumes. The
oonnoo11 ifemen^5fr0nl C0I)y*tax al°ne; is further stated to be 12,000 volumes. The number of MSS. is reported at “ 8 707 volumes, and
300,000 charters, &c. M. Griin (“ Archiviste de la Couronne”), in his excellent Dictionnaire de VAdministration Francaise (1854), sav
“ More than 800,000 printed books, and 80,000 MSS.” ' J
• 2 ^lle nu"1^ei'Pnnte(i on veilum, contained in the Royal Library at Paris, amounts to 1467, exclusively of those restored
m 814. and 1815. The total number of books of this sort extant does not exceed 2700. Lord Spencer’s collection, which is the
nc est in this country, contains only 108. (Van Praet, Catalogue des Livres imprimis sur Velindela Bibliotheque du Itoi Paris 1822
m b vols. 8vo.) > > >
408
LIBRARIES.
French
libraries.
Mazarine
library.
Library of
the Arse¬
nal.
Library of
St Gene¬
vieve.
ment. The three volumes already published, 1855-56, ac¬
cording to an enumeration prefixed, include 45,729 articles.
The fourth volume, which completes the class, is in the
press, and will be followed by other classes or divisions.
The manner in which the work is executed is worthy of
imitation by the Trustees of the British Museum, and of
all other great national libraries.
This library was founded by Cardinal Mazarine. The
formation of it was intrusted to the learned Gabriel Naude,
who, having first selected all that suited his purpose in the
booksellers’ shops in Paris, travelled into Holland, Italy,
Germany, and England, where the letters of recommenda¬
tion of which he was the bearer enabled him to collect many
very rare and curious works. In 1648 this collection con¬
sisted of 40,000 volumes, and was already a public library
by its owner’s liberality; though that of the king did not
become one until 1737. In 1660, Cardinal Mazarine, by his
will, bequeathed it to the college which he founded, and
which, until the epoch of the Revolution, bore the name
of the founder. At present it contains about 132,000
printed volumes, and nearly 3000 manuscripts. It is re¬
markable for a great number of collections containing de¬
tached pieces and tracts, which date as far back as the
fifteenth century, and exist nowhere else; nor has any
other library so complete a body of the ancient books of
law, theology, medicine, and the physical and mathemati¬
cal sciences. It also possesses a most precious collection
of the Lutheran or Protestant authors. The Mazarine Li¬
brary is habitually frequented by from twenty to eighty
readers, according to the season of the year. It is supported
by an annual grant of about L.1300, provided for in the
budget.1
This library, founded by the Marquis of Paulmy, formerly
ambassador of France in Poland, was, in 1781, acquired by
the Count d’Artois, who conjoined with it a portion of the
Library of the Duke of La Valliere. It consists of more
than 202,000 printed volumes, and about 6000 manuscripts.
It possesses the most complete collection extant of romances,
since their origin in modern literature; of theatrical pieces,
or dramas, from the epoch of the moralities and mysteries;
and of French poetry since the commencement of the six¬
teenth century. It is less rich in other branches, but it has
all works of chief importance, and, in particular, contains his¬
torical collections which are not to be found elsewhere.
The Library of the Arsenal has always attracted the attention
of the learned from all parts of Europe. It is constantly
frequented by from forty to fifty readers, who there apply
themselves to scientific and literary researches. The annual
grant for its support was, in 1850, 36,000 francs, or L.1440.2
The foundation of this library dates from the year 1624,
when Cardinal de Rochefoucauld, having reformed the com¬
munity of Sainte-Genevieve, made it a present of 600 vo¬
lumes of books. In 1687 the abbey is said to have had
already 20,000 printed volumes, and 400 volumes of ma¬
nuscripts. In 1710 Letellier, Archbishop of Rheims, be¬
queathed to it all his books.3 * * At the epoch of the Revolu¬
tion, it possessed 80,000 printed volumes, and 2000 manu¬
scripts; at present it contains nearly 180,000 volumes, and
3500 manuscripts. In it may be found the principal aca¬
demical collections, and a complete set ol Aldines. It is
particularly rich in historical works; and its most remark¬
able manuscripts are Greek and Oriental. Its typographical
collections of the fifteenth century are not more valuable for
their number than for the high state of preservation in which French
they are found. This fine library is daily frequented by libraries,
upwards of 300 persons, including many students in the
different faculties. It is supported by an annual grant from
the public treasury of 75,200 francs, or upwards of L.3000
and has recently been placed in a new and handsome edi¬
fice, erected for its accommodation. The reading-room of
this building is the most convenient and capacious one in
Paris, as the library itself is the most frequented.
The City Library is supported by grants from the funds Other pub-
of the municipal council. The foundation dates but from ^
the beginning of the present century ; Paris having lost
its original City Library, by one of the incidental results of
the Revolution. The first books for the new collection
were obtained, however, in great measure, from the revo¬
lutionary confiscations ; and were afterwards augmented by
the exertions of the Prefect of the Seine, and of some of
the municipal authorities. In 1827 it had grown to 45,000
volumes, and now possesses at least 55,000. The Library
of the Palace of the Luxembourg (formerly that of the
Chamber of Peers), contains nearly 40,000 volumes, and
has allotted to it a sum of 10,000 francs for the purchase
of books and to defray the expense of binding. The Uni¬
versity Library, which is placed in the buildings of the
Sorbonne, consists of 40,000 printed volumes, and 1000
MSS. It is very useful to the students of the different facul¬
ties, who frequent it in the intervals between the lectures.
It expends annually a sum of about L.llOO.0
The nucleus of the present Library of the Institute was Library o
the old City Library (Bibliotheque de la Ville), founded by ^eInsti*
the eminent magistrate, M. Morieau, who died in 1759,
bequeathing to the municipality his collection of 14,000
printed volumes, and 2000 MSS., on condition that it should
be publicly accessible. To this gift a liberal addition was
made by M. Bonamy, the first and eminently learned libra¬
rian. The Library of the Institute having been plundered
during the first Revolution, that of the City was transferred
to it, by way of compensation. At present this excellent
and useful collection amounts to more than 80,000 volumes.
It exhibits the best possible selection of the principal works
in all the important branches of human knowledge; and it
may be truly said that it is kept up to the actual state of
science and learning. In the acquisitions which are made,
the object is not to search for rare editions, but to obtain
such as possess some peculiar merit. Academical collec¬
tions of all kinds and of all countries, magazines and journals
of science and literature in all languages, are to be found
here in greater number than anywhere else. This collec¬
tion is reserved for the members of the five academies of
which the Institute is composed; but all strangers presented
by them are admitted, and it is de facto public.
The provincial libraries of France, as they are chiefly Provincial
supported at the expense of the different cities, are natu- libraries,
rally placed under the immediate direction of the mayors
and municipal councils; but they are not the less on that
account under the superintendence of the superior authority
of the Minister of Public Instruction. Their number, as
already stated, amounts to 338, exclusively of those at¬
tached to societies, colleges, and other institutions. Amongst
the most considerable are those of Strasburg, which, at the
date of the latest official returns, contained about 180,000
printed volumes, and 1589 MS. volumes ; Lyons (120,000
printed, 1518 MSS.); Rouen (110,000 printed, 2355
1 General De La Hitte to Lord Normanby, 18th March 1850 (App. to Report from, Select Committee on Public Li'trams, 1850), pp.
176-259. Of the original formation of this library, some curious notices have been collected in the 6th volume of that valuable work oi
M. Paulin Paris, which we have mentioned on the preceding page. 2 Ibid. t,of111oa+ Woa
B According to the notice of Letellier, by Weiss, published in the Biographic Vniverselle (vol. xxiv., pp. 338-339), his oequesi was
of no less than 50,000 volumes. There is an excellent catalogue of the collection by Nicolas Clement {Bibliotheca Tellenana, ibyo, 10110;,
to which the Archbishop himself prefixed an account of its formation. ..
* Projet de Budget rectifie des Depenses de VExercice 1850 (Paris, 1849), cxxvii. Comp. De Bougy, HUtoire de la Bibhotheque bainte
Genevieve (1847), p. 149. 6 Ibid.
LIBRARIES.
iryi
Foreign MSS.); Troyes (about 100,000 printed, S'OOO MSS.) ; Aix
libraries. (95,000 printed, 1062 MSS.); Grenoble and Besanpon
v'—(each containing about 80,000 printed volumes, and 1500
MSS.) ; Avignon (60,000 printed, 1200 MSS.) ; Versailles
(55,924 printed, 115 MSS.); Amiens (53,000 printed,
600 MSS.); Marseilles (51,219 printed, 1335 MSS.);
Toulouse, Dijon, and Nismes (each with about 50,000
printed volumes, and of MSS., 700, 500, and 207 respec¬
tively); Nantes (45,000 printed, 187 MSS.); Caen (40,107
printed, 226 MSS.) ; Le Mans (40,000 printed, 700 MSS.) ;
Rennes (40,000 printed, 220 MSS.); Arras (36,772 printed,
1137 MSS.); Douay (36,500 printed, 970 MSS.) ; Chau-
mont (35,000printed, 160 MSS.); Colmar (34,859 printed,
481 MSS.); Cambray (33,133 printed, 1254 MSS.); Or¬
leans (33,000 printed, 486MSS.); Rheims,Soissons,Nancy,
Beaune, and Montpellier (each with about 30,000 volumes
of printed books; and with 1300, 293, 265, 160, and
68 volumes of MSS. respectively.1 The MS. collections
of 1 royes (a library founded expressly for public use, as
early as 1651), Grenoble, Besanpon, Aix, Rouen, Nantes,
Rennes, and even those of the comparatively small libra¬
ries of Montpellier and Auxerre, are rich mines of lore
never yet thoroughly explored. The catalogue of the ma¬
nuscripts in the Library of Lyons, 1518 in number, is one
of the most interesting which has issued from the French
press (Paris et Lyon, 1812, in 3 vols. 8vo). The prelimi¬
nary disquisition contains notices of the former libraries of
Lyons; the historical essay on manuscripts contains an ac¬
count of the materials anciently used in writing; the bio¬
graphy of writers who have treated of the subject, though
brief, is worthy of attention ; and the manuscripts are classed
and described with much judgment and learning.2 At Rouen
is the remarkable missal, written by a Benedictine monk,
who died in 1714, the work of thirty years; also, StGuthlac’s
famous missal of the eleventh century, and the still earlier
Benedictionarius?
In the extensive series published at the expense of the
French government, Documents sur VHistoire de France,
we find the commencement (in 2 thick volumes 4to), of a
Catalogue General des Manuscrits des Bibliotheques Pub-
liques des Departements, under the direction of the Minister
of Public Instruction; Paris, 1849-1855, 2 vols. 4to.
I he small Library of Vire,—the antique and craggy little
capital of the Bocage of Normandy,—merits at leasta word
of notice, on account of the singular circumstances which
attended its formation. The founder, Thomas Tyrrel, a
Frenchman by birth, was an Englishman by naturalization
as well as by predilection. He formed his library in Lon¬
don, during a residence of more than twenty years, and
bequeathed it to Vire, his birthplace, by his last will. There
it remained in cases untouched for nearly as long a period,
when, by a lucky accident, it attracted attention, and was
made the nucleus of a useful library.1
409
Spanish.
libraries
II. SPAIN.
The number of public libraries in Spain is greater than
has commonly been supposed; nor have the science and
literature of that country quite sunk to such a state of
Royal depression as some have been pleased to represent. Its
library. principal library is the Biblioteca Real, at Madrid, which is
now lodged in an edifice, once the mansion of the Al- Foreign
canices family, on the Plaza del Oriente. It is open to all libraries,
comers, as far at least as the printed books are concerned. v***-'1
The reading-tables are placed in three spacious apartments,
corresponding to as many sides of the edifice, which is built
round a court, with a fine staircase in the centre; in the
middle of these rooms are rows of tables provided with
writing materials and chairs; and against the walls are the
book-shelves, numbered and tastefully ornamented. The
catalogues are kept in a small room apart, where there are
two or three persons in attendance to answer the inquiries
of the stranger, and to furnish him with the number and
shelf where any particular work may be found. The ser¬
vice of the library is excellent. The Royal Library con¬
tains about 200,000 printed volumes, and from 2000 to
3000 manuscripts, amongst which are many valuable Greek,
Latin, and Arabic manuscripts, and inedited works, chiefly
Spanish. The Monetario, or cabinet of medals, is ar¬
ranged in an elegant apartment, and contains an unrivalled
collection of Celtic, Phoenician, Carthaginian, Greek, Ro¬
man, Gothic, Arabic, and modern coins and medals, in
excellent preservation. “ Le cabinet des medailles de Ma¬
drid,’ says M. h aure, “ est sans doute le plus remarquable
de 1’Europe. Tandis que Paris, qui 1’emporte si incontes-
tablement sur la capitale des Espagnes par les monumens
des arts et de 1’antiquite, n’a que cent mille medailles dans
sa collection, il y en a cent quatre-vingt-trois mille dans
celle de Madrid: cent cinquante mille sont classees dans
1’ordre le plus parfait; trente-trois mille seulement restent
a classer. Ces preuves materielles du passage des Celtes,
des Tyriens ou Pheniciens, des Carthaginois, des Remains,
des Vandales, des Sueves, des Alains, des Goths, des Maures
sur cette malheureuse terre qu’ils se sont arrachee les uns
aux autres, reconcile avec les Espagnols, dont on a d’ail-
leurs tant-d’occasions d’accuser 1’indifference. On trouve
dans cette collection precieuse de quoi applaudir au zele
de ceux qui font formee et de ceux qui fentretiennent
avec tant de soin.”0 A more recent traveller, speaking
of the Biblioteca Real, says, It is one of many insti
tutions which awaken the admiration of the stranger in
Spain, as being at variance with the pervading decay.”6 Mr
Ford, however, tells us that “good modern books are here,
as in most other Spanish libraries, the thing needful.”7
The only catalogue that has been printed is volume first of
the Greek manuscripts, by D. Juan Yriarte (Madrid, 1 769,
folio) ; and no second volume has ever appeared.
There is another extensive but chaotic library, “one of
the many treasures buried in Spanish napkins,” where,
according to Mr Ford, “are left to the worms, some 100,000
volumes,” including the “secret correspondence
of Gondomar, during his embassy to England, with the
identical letters received from the lords, ladies, and gentle¬
men, whom he bribed for Philip III., as Barillon did after¬
wards for Louis XIV. His letters, likewise, on lighter
social subjects are extant. This buried mine of the Shak-
spearian period, which clamours fora Collier,lies unexplored
in the private library of the Crown.”3
The convent of the Escorial, situate upon the southern Library of
declivity of the Guadarrama chain, about half way up the the Esco-
mountain, owes its existence to a vow made by Philip II. rial,
during the crisis of the battle of Saint-Quintin in 1557. It
1854*aml of Prefects of the several departments to the French Ministry of Public Instruction, in the years 1853 and
* Li L “,ep T Waf published in the VInstruction Publique of the loth Nov. 1854 y ^
Meponses aux Questions, &c., App. to Report, ubi supra.
4 From an iLLeitiZ'Y°Li'’ P‘^65' He haS by n° mCanS given an exaggerated account of these volumes.
10 libratleS’ 0MiSlnS‘y «““h*“ bj R- C' <**«•. **■, H-A, Professor of
5 Faure, Souvenirs du Midi, ouVEspagne telle qu'elle est, pp. 43, 44, Paris, 1831, 8vo.
7 i Ti voLl- P-243, et ee^., London, 1831, 8vo.
Hand-book for Spam (3d edition, 1855') n 701
8 Ibid., p. 581. •
VOL. XIII.
3 F
410
Foreign
libraries.
LIBRARIES.
derives its name from San Lorenzo del Escorial,1 to whom it
was dedicated, and has been often described. At present
we have only to do with the literary treasures contained in
this magnificent edifice. The library is 195 feet in length,
32 in breadth, and 36 in height. Its vaulted ceiling is orna¬
mented with arabesques and colossal figures, by Pellegrino
Tibaldi; the book-cases, of cedar, are beautifully carved,
with painting in fresco, by Bartolomeo Carducci, emblem¬
atical of the several divisions of the works ranged upon
the shelves. Of the contents of this library no trustworthy
account is extant; it has been repeatedly said to contain
120,000 printed volumes (unquestionably a gross exaggera¬
tion ; it is probable that at no time has it contained more
than one-third of that number), and between 4000 and 5000
manuscripts, of which 567 are Greek, 67 Hebrew, and 1800
Arabic. The Arabic manuscripts were originally much
more numerous,2 but a large proportion of them was con¬
sumed by the fire which, in 1671, destroyed a great part
of the library, and all that remains is the number just stated.
Besides these, which are extremely curious, there are other
manuscripts of great rarity and value, particularly one,
Codex Aureus, containing the Four Gospels, written on 160
leaves of vellum, in gold letters, and supposed to be of the
tenth century; a treatise by St Augustin, De Saptismo
Parvulorum, said, by Spanish writers, to be in his own hand¬
writing ; the original works of St Teresa; and a parchment
roll containing an original Greek manuscript by St Basil.
The books are placed, with their backs to the wall, so that
the edges of the leaves are turned outwards, and the titles
of the works written thereon. This was the practice of
Arias Montanus (who bequeathed his Greek, Arabic, and
Hebrew MSS. to the Escorial, and his printed books to
Seville); and the same absurd method has continued to be
followed.3 There is no printed catalogue of the books;
Casiri’s very inaccurate catalogue includes only the Arabic
manuscripts rescued from the conflagration of 1671, with a
few others subsequently acquired. This catalogue, however,
is in one respect valuable, inasmuch as each manuscript is not
only enumerated, but its age and the author’s name, when
known, are also given, together with occasional extracts
both in the original Arabic and in the Latin language.4
An excellent catalogue of the Greek MSS. by Miller,
was printed at the expense of the French government, in
1848; for, to the honour of France, under all its changes
of polity and administi'ation, the promotion of learning is
uniformly regarded as one of the public duties of a govern¬
ment, whatever its party complexion, and alike whether the
political barometer may stand at “stormy,” or at “set fair.”
The number of provincial libraries in Spain is con¬
siderable ; but (like too many of the libraries themselves)
unprogressive. There is no official account of them of
later date than 1835, when the more extensive and im¬
portant were then stated to be those of Toledo (30,000
printed books), Salamanca (24,000, with 1500 MSS.), San- Foreign
tiago University at Corunna (17,307, with 41 MSS.), and libraries.
Valladolid (13,250). At Malaga, Peruel, Murcia, Lugo,
Cervero, Oviedo, Palma, and some other places, not to
mention the library of the Asturian Institute, and that of
the Junta of Commerce at Corunna,5 are collections of
books varying from 3000 or 4000 to between 9000 and
10,000 volumes each.
Elsewhere than in Spain, the Columbian library at Seville Columbian
would surely have grown into a very cynosure of book-lovers, library at
At one time, it was so choice a collection as to be worthy ofte,evi e’
the great name it bears; but {cosa de Esparto?) the tinece
and the blattce had it so long to themselves, that they quite
ruined many of its treasures, although it still possesses about
18,000 volumes; and, amongst them, a precious MS. in
which Columbus tried to satisfy the Inquisition that his
discovery had been scripturally predicted; it has also some
books that were his cabin companions, and bear his MS.
notes.6
III. ITALY.
Amongst the libraries of Italy, that of the Vatican, at Vatican
Rome, stands pre-eminent, not more for the grandeur and library,
magnificence of its habitation, than for the inestimable trea¬
sures with which it is enriched. Pope Nicholas V. (1447),
learned himself, and a distinguished patron of letters, is
justly considered as the founder of the Vatican Library;
for of the collections of his predecessors little remained
when he ascended the papal throne, the books having been
either lost or destroyed by the frequent removals from
Rome to Avignon, and from Avignon to Rome. This
pontiff added above 5000 manuscripts to the fragments
of the original collection, placing all in the Vatican;
and Calixtus HI. is said to have enriched it with many
volumes saved from the libraries of Constantinople, when
that city fell into the hands of the Ottomans. The collec¬
tion, however, suffered an almost total dispersion at the
sacking of Rome, by the Duke of Bourbon, in the year
1527. Pope Sixtus V., a man of learning, and a zealous
patron of the arts, rebuilt the library in 1588, and consider¬
ably augmented the collection. From this period it con¬
tinued to increase in steady progression, receiving addi¬
tions, almost every year, sometimes even of whole libraries,
owing not only to the favour of the pontiffs and various
princes, but also to the well-directed zeal of its librarians,
many of whom have been men of eminent talents as well as
of high rank and extensive influence. Under Gregory
XV. an important addition was made by Maximilian, Duke
of Bavaria, who, yielding to urgent entreaties and cun¬
ning devices, presented to that pontiff the old Library of
Heidelberg, belonging to the Elector Palatine, which had
been part of the plunder seized by Tilly at the capture of
1 Escorial is formed from the Spanish word escoria, signifying dross. It is commonly applied to all places where there are old or
exWedfmines. ^ to ^ Em r of Morocco> there were found, it is said, 4000 Arabic manuscripts which were carried to
Paris for sale; but not being prized in that capital, they were transported to Madrid, where about 3000, including the most valuable,
were selected for the Library of the Escorial by order of Philip II. But we do not vouch for the story. ,
3 It is not a little singular, that in the return of the “ Public Libraries and Archives of Spain, made to Lord Palmerston by Mr
Villiers, and printed in the Appendix to the Report on the British Museum (p. 511, ef seqq.), no notice whatever is taken of the Library
of the Escorial: whilst the regulations of a provincial library (that of the Junta of Commerce at Coruna) are inserted at full length
4 The Library of the Escorial has always been difficult of access. Probably no library, containing such treasures, ever rendered so
small service to literature ; and none, perhaps, has suffered more severe losses, not alone by calamity like fire, but from sheer plunder.
When Los Santos wrote his Description breve del Monasterio del Escorial (1657), it certainly contained 18,000 volumes. It received con¬
siderable accessions, but most of them were antecedent to the destructive fire of 1761. Very soon after that event, Beaumarchais visited
the library, and his keen observation detected an agency that was to prove more fatally obstructive of the growth of a great library than
fire could be. The works of all our “ modern philosophers,” he says, are prohibited, and not only all that they have written, but au
that they may hereafter write.” (Letter to the Duke of La Valliere, Madrid, 24th Dec. 1764, published in the Revue des Deux MondeS;)
About 1809 it was removed to Madrid, and when restored by Ferdinand VII., nearly 10,000 volumes, according to Mr Ford, lost tneir
way. Mr Inglis saw it in 1830, and says that it did not then contain more than 24,000 volumes. {Spam in 1830, vol. i., p.
6 See Appendix to the Report on the British Museum, pp. 514, 515, et seqq.
6 Ford, ubi supra (p. 176).
LIBRARIES.
Foreign
libraries.
Heidelberg in 1622. Among other important additions that
have a claim to notice are,—the greater part of the Library
' of Urbino, founded by Duke Federigo; a portion of the
collection of the Benedictine monastery of Bobbin, com¬
posed chiefly of palimpsests; and the books and manuscripts
of Christina, Queen of Sweden, comprising the treasures
taken at Prague, Wurtzburg, and Bremen, by her father,
Gustavus Adolphus. After her death at Rome, they came,
by succession, to the family of Ottoboni. Pope Alexander
VIII., as head of that family, in 1690, placed 1900 of the
MSS. in one of the galleries of the Vatican, and gave it the
appellation of Bibliotheca Alexandrina, in honour of the
Queen, who had received the additional name of Alex¬
andrina on abjuring the Lutheran religion. All the
MSS. in the Vatican, anterior to the ninth century, and
those with the choicest illuminations, to the number of about
500, were selected and conveyed to Paris in the year 1797,
but the greater part were restored in 1815. Of the Pala¬
tine MSS., about 900 volumes, more than nine-tenths of
them German, but among which were some early Greek
MSS., were at length returned (in 1816) to the University
of Heidelberg, where they now remain.1
The magnificent library of the Vatican consists of three
divisions or compartments, besides the vestibule ; the ante¬
room, the double gallery, and the great saloon or hall. The
vestibule contains Chinese works relating to geography and
chronology, together with two columns bearing ancient in¬
scriptions. The anteroom is appropriated to the two
keepers of the library, and the secretaries, or interpre¬
ters, usually seven in number, who speak the principal lan¬
guages of Europe, and who attend for the convenience of
learned foreigners. In this apartment are also accommo¬
dated those engaged in translating from the Hebrew, Arabic,
Syriac, Greek, and Latin languages; and it is open daily
for the use of students, Sundays, Thursdays, and very
numerous holidays excepted. Passing from the anteroom,
the visitor enters a double gallery of 220 feet in length,
on either side of which are arranged the Greek and Latin
MSS. of the ancient Papal collection, which strangers at
first conceive to be the whole library; but at its extremity
there opens up, in almost interminable perspective, another
gallery of about 1000 English feet in length.2 As the visitor
enters this gallery, or “ great hall of the Vatican,” he has
on his right hand the Palatine and Urbino collections of
MSS., and, beyond them, the general library of printed
books; whilst, on his left, extend in succession the Oriental
MSS.,3 4 5 the MSS. of Christina, the Ottoboni MSS., those
bequeathed by the Marquis Capponi, and (last of all) the
choice collection of printed books on the fine arts, nearly
5000 in number, formed by Count Cicognara, and pur¬
chased by Leo XII. for L.4000. These galleries and
apartments, all vaulted and painted with varied effect by
painters of different eras and talents, constitute the recep¬
tacle of this noble library. The books are nearly all kept
in close cases; so that in the Vatican the stranger seeks in
vain for that imposing display of volumes which he may
have seen and admired in other libraries. Their number
has never been officially and precisely recorded; and such
is the discrepancy of the various accounts, that the printed
books, by some reckoned not to exceed SOjOOO1 or 50,000
volumes, by others are stated at ten times these numbers.
This monstrous discrepancy has been occasioned partly by
the want of a catalogue, and partly also by the books being
kept in close cases. Valery, whose statements in other
similar matters we have found to be trustworthy, and who
appears to have had some facilities of access and examina¬
tion, estimated them, in 1840, at 80,000 volumes. We
are not now inclined to reckon them as exceeding 100,000
volumes; as the collection is not increased, like many other
great libraries, by extensive and systematic purchases. Of
the manuscripts, the same author fixes the number at 24,000,
namely, 5000 Greek, 16,000 Latin and Italian (these last only
in small number), and 3000 in various Eastern languages.
The official return of 1850 says 25,000 MSS.
But the importance of a library is not to be estimated by
the mere number of volumes. The great value of the
Vatican Library consists in its manuscripts. Those usually
shown to visitors impress the mind with no ordinary ideas
of their inestimable value and importance, and include
some of the highest antiquity, such as the Virgil of the
fourth or fifth century, written in uncial letters, and illu¬
minated with most curious miniatures; a Terence equally
ancient; another of the ninth century, illuminated with
ancient masks; the celebrated Greek Bible of the sixth
century (Codex Vaticanus), written in capital letters, ac¬
cording to the Septuagint version, and from which all the
subsequent copies have been taken ; and the Gospels of St
Luke and St John written in the tenth century, and bound
in ivory. There is also the palimpsest, containing the
treatise of Cicero Be Republica, discovered by Cardinal
Angelo Mai, conjectured to be of the third century; and
perhaps, in the form of books, this, and the Virgil, are the
oldest manuscripts in existence. Amongst the rare manu¬
scripts in this splendid collection may also be mentioned,
several Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, and Armenian Bibles; a
very large Hebrew BibleJ formerly in the library of the
411
Foreign
libraries.
1 Serapeum (1845), vol. vi., pp. 157-8. The best account of the transfer and subsequent fortunes of the Palatine collection—not the
least curious episode in the remarkable history of the Vatican Library—may be found in Dr Anton Ruland’s elaborate essay, entitled,
2jiiv Geschichte (lev altcn tuzch Rotyi C/itfillirtcyi BibliotheJc zu Heidelberg, which occupied several numbers of the Serupeu'inn in 1856 (vol. wii,,
pp. 185—191; and 193-235). The reader should also consult, besides the well-known work of Wilken (into whose hands the partial
restitution of 1816 was made), Theiner s Schenkung der Ileidelberger Bibliothek . . . und ihre Versendung nach Rom; mit original Hand-
schriften, published at Munich in 1844 ; but, in reading this work of the worthy Oratorian priest, he will do well to have beside him
the keenly critical articles which appeared in the Serapeum of the following year (vol. vi., pp. 1-11; 113-127; 129-159), from the pens of
Dr Dessert (of Munich), and of Dr Bahr (of Heidelberg). Dr F. L. Hoffman has also contributed an interesting paper (including an early
1 alatine catalogue), towards the elucidation of a subject which has always had special attractions for bibliographers, in the same Jour¬
nal for 1850, vol. xi., pp. 161-173 ; 177-188; 193-208). Allatius wrote in Italian a tract on the conveyance of the Palatine Library to
Home, under his direction, which tract was translated into Latin by Quade, and published at Gryphiswald, 1708, 4to. (Leonis Allatii,
Instructio de Bibliothecd Palatind Romam transportandd.) The writer takes pride in the fact that not a leaf of the library was lost on
the road.
Rome in the Nineteenth Century, vol. ii., p. 383, Edinburgh, 1822, 8vo.
3 Of the. Oriental MSS. there is a valuable catalogue by J. S. Assemani, Bibliotheca Orientalis Clementina-Vaticana, Romce, 1719-28,
3 vols.,folio. It is continued by Angelo Mai, in the fifth and subsequent volumes of his Nova Collectio Scriptorum Veterum. In Mont-
faucon s Bibliotheca Bibliothecarum Manuscriptorum nova, Paris, 1739, 2 vols. folio, is given a catalogue of Queen Christina’s manu¬
scripts.
4 Sir George Head, writing of repeated visits made to the Vatican in 1840 and 1841, says roundly, “ The reputed contents of the
whole establishment amount to 30,000 printed books, and 23,580 MSS. (Rome, a Tour of many days, vol. iii., p. 231.) Mr Curzon, on
a7wrl.ter versed in such subjects, and also writing of visits in 1840, says, “ about 100,000 printed books, and about 36,000
MSS. (Notes on Italian Libraries, privately printed in Miscellanies of the Philobiblon Society, 1855, pp. 34, 35). The official return ob¬
tained by our Foreign Office in 1851, runs thus:—“ The present number of printed volumes is about 100,000; of MSS 25 000 The
number of tracts or pamphlets is reported to be incalculable.” ” ’
5 “ They think it to be of great antiquity, but .... it is of a.d., 1294.” (Montfaucon, Diarium Italicum, c. xx.) This visit of Mont-
faucon was in 1698. The MSS. were then, he was told, “ nearly 12,000 in number.”
LIBRARIES.
412
Foreign Dukes of Urbino, for which—though it is so ponderous
libraries. as to require two men to carry it1—the Venetian Jews are
''•V'—' said to have offered its weight in gold ; a Greek manu¬
script containing the Acts of the Apostles, written in gold
letters, and presented to Innocent VIII. by the Queen
of Cyprus; a Missal written in 1118; another adorned
with miniatures by Giulio Clovio, the scholar of Giulio
Romano, and the finest miniature painter of his time ;
a large Breviary, ornamented with beautiful miniatures
and presented to the library by Matthias Corvinus, King
of Hungary; the Annals of Baronins, in 12 volumes,
written with his own hand; several volumes of Eccle¬
siastical History, by the learned Onofrio Panvinio; a
Martyrology, curious on account of its antiquity and its
miniatures; a manuscript of Pliny, with fine miniatures of
animals; a beautiful Dante adorned with exquisite paint¬
ings, begun by the Florentine school, and finished by Giulio
Clovio ; another Dante, the most precious that exists of the
Divina Commedia, in the handwritingof Boccaccio, and sent
by him to Petrarch, thus connecting the three great names
of Italian Literature ; also an autograph manuscript of the
Binaldo of Petrarch, with his corrections; and another auto¬
graph of Tasso, including a sketch of his Gerusalemme
Liberata, written when nineteen years of age. To some
English visitors, the most interesting volumes are the dedi¬
cation copy, printed at London by Pynson, in 1521, on
vellum, of Henry VIII.’s treatise against Luther, Assertio
Septem Sacramentorum adversus Mart. Lutherum, with
this distich in the king’s autograph on the last page,—
“ Anglorum rex Henricus, Leo Maxime, mittit
Hoc opus, et fidei testem et amicitice—
(a work which obtained for that monarch his title of Fidei
Defensor); and his Love Letters to Anne Boleyn, seventeen
in number, nine in French, and eight in English, which
have also found a place in this library. It is rich in early
printed editions, and amongst those on vellum may be spe¬
cified tbe Epistles of St Jerome, printed at Rome in 1468 ;
Aulus Gellius, 1469; the Greek Bible of Aldus, 1518; one
of four copies of the celebrated Polyglot Bible of Cardinal
Ximenes, 1514-1517. This library possesses a very fine
cabinet of medals, which was carried off by the French,
but restored, after the events of 1814 and 1815. There
is also attached to it a room filled with a fine collection of
prints, to which admission can only be obtained by a parti¬
cular order; and in another are deposited the secret archives
of the Vatican, to which, of course, there is no admission
at all. A cardinal is always nominal librarian. Of the
difficult accessibility of this great storehouse, at almost all
periods of its history, it were easy to adduce a long chain
of testimony. Some years since, Cardinal Consalvi some¬
what relaxed the prevailing restrictions, but the liberality
scarcely survived its author. “ Tbe Papal government,”
writes Von Raumer, in 1839, “has returned to the old
seclusion and exclusion.”2 “ Of all the tombs in the world,
the Vatican Library is the most impressive,” says Mr Samuel
Laing in 1842 ; . . . . “ Book-cases well stocked ; no read¬
ers ; no [accessible] catalogue.”3 “The privilege of con¬
sulting books,” says Sir George Head, a year or two later,
“ is merely nominal, in consequence of the imperfect state Foreign
of the catalogue; and, in point of fact, the multitudinous libraries,
volumes on the shelves may be compared to a mine ....
whence only a few particular objects, considered as the
staple curiosities of the region, .... are extracted.”4 Even
the return to the inquiries of the Foreign Office, in 1851,
after describing the authorized regulations as to access,
adds, “ There are few days in the year in which it is open
to the public.”5 In fine, there is ample evidence that this
library has yet to be explored, and that an abundant harvest
awaits those future inquirers who to the requisite skill may
join inflexible perseverance and happy fortune.
The other libraries at Rome, of sufficient importance to other lib-
deserve notice, are the Barberini collection, containing raries of
between 30,000 and 40,000 volumes of printed books, and Home,
about 7000 manuscripts. This collection was formerly
open to the public, but has ceased to be so, “on account of
extensive robberies which took place some years ago.”6 (2.)
The Casanata Library, bequeathed by Cardinal Casanate
to the Dominican convent in the Piazza della Minerva, in
1700, together “ with suitable funds to render it one of the
first in Italy and Europe.”7 It occupies magnificent apart¬
ments. According to the official return of Monsignore
Barardi (1851), “ the number of volumes exceeds 200,000,s
(not counting pamphlets, miscellaneous works, and plays,
which exceed the number of3000.)” The accessibility of the
library is liberal.9 (3.) The Angelica Library, founded by
Angelo Rocca, and the first collection opened to the public
in Rome (1604), containing 84,819 printed books, 2945
MSS., and 60,960 tracts {opuscoli).10 The number of per¬
sons frequenting it—no ticket of admission being requisite
—is stated to be from 30 to 40 daily. It includes the col¬
lections of Pignoria, Holstenius, and Passionei. (4.) The
Alexandrine, or “Sapienza” Library, founded by Alexander
VII., also the founder of the library in the Chigi palace,
(now, we believe, closed like the Barberini, save by special
favour). It appears to contain about 80,000 printed volumes,
and 3000 MSS. The reigning Pope has given permission,
granted to no other library in Rome, for the keeping this
library open to the public in the evening.11 (5.) The Cor-
sini Library, founded by Clement XII., occupies 8 rooms
in the Corsini palace, and is stated to contain about 60,000
printed volumes, and 3000 MSS., wdth 60,000 engravings.
Its manuscript collection is poor in classics, but abounds in
documents illustrative of the history, both political and lite¬
rary, of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.12 (6.) The
Franciscan, or Araccelitana Library, containing, according
to Sir George Head (1841), 18,000 volumes;13 but accord¬
ing to tbe Foreign Office Returns (1851), though “despoiled
of the greater part of its most valuable works after the
French invasion, it has still from 40,000 to 50,000 volumes.14
(7.) The Lancisiana Library, founded in 1721, and placed
in the Hospital of the Floly Ghost, with “from 30,000 to
40,000 volumes.” 15 (8.) The Library of the Roman 6V-
lege (Jesuits), said to contain 70,000 volumes;16 and, (9.)
The Vallice liana Library (sometimes termed Library of the
Oratory); chiefly noticeable for its manuscripts. They
include many ancient classics of interest, and are singularly
rich in materials for French history, especially in respect to
1 Dennistoun, Memoirs of the Dukes of Urbino, vol. i., p. 422.
2 F. von Raumer, Italy, vol. ii., pp. 119, 120. 3 Laing, Notes of a Traveller (1842), p. 423.
4 Head, Rome, a Tour of many days, vol. iii., pp. 222-231.
6 Appendix to Report from Select Committee on Public Libraries, 1851, p. 41.
6 Mr Petre to Mr Scarlett, 2d June 1851 (Foreign Office Returns, 1851, p. 40).
7 4000 Roman crowns (L.833), according to M. Beuchot (art. “ Casanate,” in the Biographic Universelle), is the revenue of this founda¬
tion, part of which is applied to theological tuition.
8 This number is somewhat startling, hut the statement is clear and precise. There is, at all events, no doubt that, as respects printed
books, the Casanata is the largest library in Rome.
3 Head, ut supra, vol. i., p. 317. 10 Foreign Office Returns, ut supra, p. 42. 11 Ibid., p. 43.
12 Archives des Missions Scientifiques, tom. i., p. 376 (1850). 13 Head, ut sup., vol. ii., p. 37.
14 Foreign Office Returns, ut sup., p. 43. 15 Ibid., p. 42. 16 Head, ut sup., vol. i., p. 320.
LIBRARIES.
Foreign the relations which have subsisted between the Court of
libraries. France and the Papal See.1 Thus, if these statements be
trustworthy, the nine chief libraries of Rome contain more
than 41,000 volumes of MSS., and 700,000 of printed
books.
Ambrosian The Ambrosian Library at Milan owes its existence to
Library at the munificence of Cardinal Federigo Borromeo, nephew of
Milan. Charles Borromeo, and his successor in the see of Milan,
(1609). This prelate began to collect books, when a student
at Rome; and enlarging his plan as he advanced in age and
dignities, he, when raised to the archbishopric of Milan
erected an edifice, placed in it his collection, and opened it
to the public under the title of Bibliotheca Ambrosiana.
Some of its choicest treasures carry back the visitor’s
imagination to the remote antiquity of the seventh cen¬
tury, when the monastery of Bobbio was founded by Scot¬
tish and Irish monks in the heart of the Apennines. When,
in 1690, Montfaucon visited the Ambrosiana, it had accumu¬
lated 40,000 volumes, conveyed, he says, “ from Thessaly,
Chio, Corfu, the country of Otranto, and Calabria.”2 * . . .
Two or three years later our own Addison paid a similar
visit, and his first reflection is,—“to show the Italian genius,
they have spent more money on pictures than on books. . . .
Books are, indeed, the least part of the furniture that one
ordinarily goes to see in an Italian library.” ! So vari¬
ously does the same object impress different beholders, and
so true is it that the eye sees what it brings.
This library contained, in 1836, according to the state¬
ment of its librarian, Signor Amati, nearly 100,000 volumes
of printed books, and 4633 volumes of MSS., comprising
about 18,000 separate works or articles.4 5 No numerical
return for the Ambrosiana appears in the Foreign Office
Correspondence of 1850-52. It is, however, very probable
that a similar (and unintentional) mistake was made in
reckoning the number of volumes of printed works in this
library, as that which is known to have been made in its
neighbour, the Brera? and that the former does not really
possess, even in 1857, much more than 80,000 printed
volumes, and 5500 MSS.; and there is annexed to
it a gallery of pictures, statues, antiques, and medals,
comprising many articles of great rarity and value. In
the department of MSS. is a solitary but enormous
volume of the physico-mathematical works of Leonardo da
Vinci, with his designs representing machines, with figures
and notes, collected by Pompeo Leoni; it was presented
by a citizen named Galeazzo Arconati, who generously
refused a vast sum for the precious treasure, and, to secure
the possession of it to his country, consigned it to the
Ambrosian Library as to an inviolable sanctuary. The sanc¬
tuary, however, was violated by the French in 1791, who
seized the cherished relic of Leonardo’s genius, and sent it
to Paris ;6 but what an abuse of victory enabled them to
carry off, the fortune of war at length compelled them to re¬
store. The same department also includes the famous
Virgil, with annotations by Petrarch, in his own handwriting,
with his impassioned note, in eight lines, regarding Laura;
ten letters of Lucretia Borgia, addressed to Cardinal
Bembo; the Missal of Cardinal Borromeo, richly illumi¬
nated ; and, amongst various early Greek manuscripts, a
413
Josephus, translated by Rufinus, on papyrus, written on both Foreign
sides of each leaf. Manuscript books upon this material “brari^s-/
are of the greatest rarity, and this volume, according to v~'"u
Montfaucon, was 1200 years old, or of the fifth century.
The MSS. in this library w^ere chiefly collected from the
suppressed monasteries; and, in particular, those which
came from Bobbio are of peculiar value. Most of the
Ambrosian palimpsests belonged to this collection, including
fragments of Cicero’s Orations, and the Letters of Marcus
Aurelius and of Fronto. There is also a Psalter of the
seventh century, with the Commentary of St Jerome, filled
with Gaelic glosses in the ancient Irish character.7 Cardinal
Angelo Mai, afterwards librarian of the Vatican, formerly
held the same office in the Ambrosian Library at Milan, and
there commenced those researches which have entitled this
distinguished scholar to the lasting gratitude of the learned.
The Brera Library at Milan w^as counted in 1845, and
found to contain 104,298 volumes. In 1847 it contained
108,971 volumes ;8 and in the preceding eleven years the
average annual rate of increase was 2180 volumes; so that
its present numbers will probably be about 125,000 volumes
of printed books, and nearly 1000 volumes of MSS. The
other libraries of chief note in the Lombardo-Venetian
territory are those belonging to the Universities of Pavia
and Padua. These libraries contained, at the end of 1846 :
the first, 70,564, the other 79,226 volumes; and are open
ten months in the year, four hours in winter and six in
summer, every day excepting Wednesdays, Sundays, and
holidays.9
Bologna, celebrated for its scientific and literary institu- Bologna
tions, and its academy for the encouragement and promo- library,
tion of art, boasts likewise a great public library. This
extensive collection is especially rich in the literature of
the natural sciences; and in Oriental MSS. Of Arabic
alone there are 550, including a superb Dioscorides, and a
curious atlas. It consists of above 105,000 printed vo¬
lumes, and about 6000 MSS. ;10 is contained in the Man¬
fred i Palace; and is open to the public six days in the
week, during nearly eleven months in the year {giorni fes-
tivi, of course, excepted). Among the MSS. the most pre¬
cious is a Lactantius, in square quarto, of the sixth century,
written in uncial letters; the Four Gospels, in Armenian,
with charming miniatures, of the twelfth century ; a Greek
MS. of modern date,—a sort of medical commonplace
book,—which is believed to contain some unedited frag¬
ments of ancient authors ;1X and 200 volumes of manuscript
collections of the celebrated naturalist Aldrovandus. Mez-
zofanti was long librarian here; and a visitor who profited
by his polite readiness to exhibit the rarities of the collec¬
tion, has noted that on one occasion he produced a Mexi¬
can MS. which had puzzled all the pundits of Bologna, even
himself included. The other universities of the Roman
states are also possessed of considerable collections of books.
That of Perugia, founded as early as 1320, has a library
of 30,000 volumes;12 that of Ferrara, founded at a much
later period (1646), has a library containing no less than
80,000 printed volumes, and 900 MSS.;13 and the three
universities of Macerata, Urbino, and Camerino, have each
libraries, though upon a smaller scale. The first named
1 Archives, ut supra, p. 374. 2 Montfaucon, Diarium Italicum, c. ii.
3 Addison, Remarks on several parts of Europe, p. 32.
4 Panizzi, Information on Foreign Public Libraries of Printed Books, printed in Appendix to Report of Select Committee on British Mu¬
seum, 1836, pp. 544, 545.
5 Ibid., in Minutes of Evidence before Select Committee on Public Libraries, 1850, p. 53, Q. 724.
6 Eustace, Classical Tour, vol. iv., p. 27, et seqq.
7 No special account of this collection, that we are aware of, has appeared in recent times. Oppicelli’s Monumenta Biblioth. Ambros.
was printed at Milan in 1618, 8vo; and Boscha de Orig. et Statu Bibl. Ambros. was published in the ninth vol. of Grmvius’s Thesaurus
Historiarum Jtdlice. Vander Putten’s Oratio de usu fructuque librorum Biblioth. Ambros. appeared at Leyden in 1623, 8vo.
8 Foreign Ofice Returns, 1850, ut supra, p. 111. 9 Ibid., pp. 38, 39.
10 Ibid., 1852, p. 24. 11 Archives, ut supra, p. 394.
12 Yalery, Voyages Historiques, Litteraires, et Artistiques en Italic, book xviii., c. 6. 13 Ibid., book vii., c. 12.
LIBRARIES.
414
Foreign library, otherwise Mozzictna, contains 12,000 printed vo-
libraries. lumes, and 68 MSS. The second, interesting, as containing
some poor relics of the once noble library of the Urbino
Dukes, is beginning to be cared for, say recent travellers,
with somewhat more of energy than hitherto. The last of
them appears to be tbe smallest and least valuable of all
the papal libraries. The most interesting books in the
Library of Ferrara, are the autograph manuscripts of the
Orlando Furioso, in some places so interlined with changes
and alterations by the author, as to be scarcely legible; and
of the Gerusalemme Liberata.1 It also boasts of a remark¬
able series of the early editibns of Ariosto, now of the
greatest rarity. The Town Library of Ravenna contained,
according to Valery, at the date of his last visit, more than
40,000 printed volumes, and 700 MSS. Amongst the
former are comprised about 700 editions (according to the
same authority), of the fifteenth century, some of them of
the greatest curiosity.2 The once celebrated papyri of Ra¬
venna have nearly all disappeared.
Florentine The public libraries at Florence are the Mediceo-Lau-
libraries. renziana, or Laurentian ; the collection bequeathed to the
public by Magliabechi, by whose name it is distinguished;
the Marucelliana; the Riccardiana, which was purchased,
in 181-5, of the Riccardi family ; and the Library of the Belle
Arti, containing the books which were taken out of the
suppressed convents.
Mediceo- The Mediceo-Laurentian Library, which is contained in
Laurentian the convent annexed to the church of San Lorenzo, was
library. commenced by Cosmo de’ Medici, the father of a line of
princes whose name and age, as Roscoe has said, are almost
synonymous with the restoration of learning. ££ His credit,”
says Gibbon, ££ was ennobled into fame; his riches were
dedicated to the service of mankind: he corresponded at
once with Cairo and London ; and a cargo of Indian spices
and Greek books were often imported by the same vessel.”3
As the natural disposition of this princely merchant led
him to take a very active part in collecting the remains of
classical antiquity, so his wealth and extensive commercial
intercourse enabled him to gratify his taste to the fullest
extent. He enjoined his friends and correspondents, as
well as the missionaries who travelled into remote coun¬
tries, to search for and procure ancient manuscripts in
every language and upon every subject. He availed him¬
self of the services of the most learned men, his contempo¬
raries ; and the situation of the Eastern empire, then falling
into ruins, afforded him an opportunity of obtaining many
valuable works in Hebrew, Greek, Chaldaic, Arabic, and
other languages.4 After the death of Cosmo, his son pur¬
sued the same object with steady perseverance, and added
considerably to the treasures which had been accumu¬
lated by his father. But although the ancestors of Lo¬
renzo de’ Medici had laid the foundation of the Lauren¬
tian Library, the honour of raising the superstructure be¬
longs to Lorenzo himself, whose assiduity and liberality
in enlarging his collection of books, manuscripts, and anti¬
quities, were unbounded. To this object his time and his
fortune, exceeding that of princes, were equally devoted.
Shortly after the death of Lorenzo, however, this match¬
less collection was dispersed by the Florentines themselves.
In the disturbances which attended the expulsion of Pietro, Foreign
and the appx-oach of the French under Charles VIII. (1494), libraries
miserable plunderers openly carried off, or secretly pur-
Joined, whatever they could lay their hands on that was
rare, curious, or valuable. Part of the library, however,
was preserved by the interposition of the magistrates, but
only to encounter new perils. The Florentine treasury
becoming exhausted, the rulers of the day (amongst other
expedients) sold the books to the Dominicans of St Mark.
At this point the history of the Laurenziana becomes
linked with the fortunes of the still older library of that
monastic community, a collection of which Cosmo may be
said to have been the founder, conjointly with Niccolo Nic-
coli. The 800 volumes (or at least the survivors of them)
which Niccoli had bequeathed to his fellow-citizens, and
which Cosmo had redeemed from a lien that had well nigh
annulled the legacy, and had committed to the custody of
the Dominicans, were now united with what remained of
the domestic library of Cosmo himself, and of the more
splendid acquisitions of Lorenzo. But, within two years,
the misdirected zeal of the impulsive Savonarola,—for a
while virtual King of Florence,—scattered with lavish hand
some of the choicest books as presents, and dragged others
with contumely to a vast bonfire in the public square !5
In this wild auto-da-fe, Boccaccios, Petrarchs, and Pulcis,
in all the pomp of their rich illuminations and sumptuous
bindings, mingled their ashes; with this result, amongst
others,—that the frenzied hatred of Dominican monks in
the fifteenth century connects itself with the scarcely less
frenzied love of English peers in the nineteenth, as cause
with effect. Had no Savonarola burnt Decamerons in the
Florence piazza in 1497, assuredly no Duke of Marlborough
would have given L.2260 fo* & Decameron in 1812. After
Savonarola’s death, the Dominicans, falling into embar¬
rassment in their turn, sold their library (1508) to Pope
Leo X., who caused it to be removed to Rome. It was re¬
conveyed to Florence by his successor Clement VII., who,
by a bull dated the loth of December 1532, made provi¬
sion for its future security.6 In 1571 the Grand Duke
Cosmo I. made the library public. This library, the noblest
monument which the Medicis have left of the glory of
their line, contains 6952 MSS., of which a very large pro¬
portion—despite so many losses, and such strange vicis¬
situdes—combine rarity and value. They have been de¬
scribed in a catalogue of thirteen folio volumes, compiled
by the learned Bandini,7 formerly librarian, at the sugges¬
tion of the Emperor Francis I., who presented him with a
sum of money towards the expenses, and made him promises
of further assistance, which, however, were rendered un¬
availing by the death of that sovereign.8
The most celebrated manuscripts in the Laurentian Li¬
brary are,—the Virgil of the fourth or fifth century, the
long missing leaves of which Mai had the good fortune to dis¬
cover in the Vatican ; the famous Pandects of the seventh
century, in two volumes, brought to Florence in 1406; a
Tacitus, translated in the ninth century from one dated in
the year 395; the Decameron, supposed to have been
written in 1384 by Amaretto Mannelli; the Epistolce Fa-
miliares of Cicero, copied by Petrarch; a Tasso, with co¬
pious notes, in the hand of Politian; and many Dante MSS.
1 There are also a few Arabic MSS. Archives, ut supra, (1850), p. 395.
2 Valery, Voyages Historiques, Litt'eraires, et Artistiques, en Italic, book xii., c. 3.
3 Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. xii., p. 136.
4 Bandini, Lettera sopra i principi e progressi della Biblioteca Laurenziana (Fir. 1773), cited by Roscoe, Lorenzo de1 Medici, vol. ii.,
6 Perrens, Jerome Savonarola (1853).
6 Roscoe, Life of Lorenzo de’ Medicis, vol. i., pp. 37, 38 ; and vol. ii., pp. 60, 254, 284, et seqq.
7 Catalogue Codicum Manuscriptorum Bibliothecae Laurentiance, Florentiae, 1764—78, fol.
8 Roscoe, Life of Leo X., vol. iv., p. 181, 8vo ed. See also Bibliotheca Leopoldino-Laurentiana ; sive Catalogue Manuscriptorum qui jussit
Petri Leopoldi in Laurentianam translati sunt, &c. Florentiae, 1791—1793, fol.
LIBRARIES.
Foreign of the highest interest, although but copies (Dante’s auto¬
libraries. graphs have perished)—amongst them the celebrated letter
discovered by Mehus, and published first by Dionisi, and
afterwards by Foscolo.
Of printed volumes, the Laurentian Library possesses
but 1316; having always been pre-eminently, and, until a
recent date, exclusively, a library of MSS. The famous
collection of first editions of Greek and Latin classics,
formed by Count Angelo d’Elci, has worthily created an
exception to the rule. It amounts to 1207 volumes ; and
besides these there are 109 other volumes, which have at
various times been presented by, and accepted from, their
respective authors.
Maglia- Magliabechi, from being a servant to a dealer in vege-
bcchi tables, raised himself to the honourable office of librarian
library. to tjie Grand Duke of Tuscany at Florence, and became
one of the most eminent literary characters of his time.
The force of natural talent overcame all the disadvantages
of the humble condition in which he had been born, and
placed him in a position to make his name known and re¬
spected. But he endeavoured to deserve still better of his
countrymen, by presenting them, some time before his
death in l7l4, with his large and valuable collection of
books, together with what remained of his fortune, as a fund
for its support. This constituted the foundation of the Mag-
liabechian Library, which, by the subsequent donations of
several benefactors, and the bounty of some of the grand
dukes, was so much increased both in number and value,
that it may now vie with some of the most considerable
collections in Europe. The books printed in the fifteenth
century have been described by the librarians, Fossi and
Follini, who dedicated the catalogue1 to Ferdinand III.
Another and larger catalogue was completed in 1856, by
the late learned and laborious bibliographer, Giuseppe Mo-
lini (who died in December of that year), to whom the
Magliabechiana is also indebted for an improved rearrange¬
ment ; but there is no printed catalogue of the library. It
is particularly rich in the early productions of the Italian
press, which are described by Follini alphabetically, with
much accuracy of detail; and to these descriptions are
added brief notices of the lives of the different authors.
The Magliabechian Library is under the same roof with
the Uffizi Gallery. It contains about 140,000 volumes of
printed books,2 and 10,000 manuscripts. Among its richest
treasures are,—the Mentz Bible of 1462, on vellum ; the
first edition of Homer, printed at Florence, 1488, also on
vellum, with miniatures, and presented to Pietro de’Medici;
a copy, on vellum, of the Dante of 1481, embellished with
miniatures within and nielle without, presented by Landino
to the senate of Florence ; a magnificent copy of the An-
thologia of Lascaris, 1494, also a present to Pietro de’ Me¬
dici ; with other vellum copies of singular beauty of the
Florentine history of Leonardo Aretino (Acciaioli’s trans¬
lation, Yen. 1476) ; and of the Argonautica of Apollonius
(Flor. 1496). These are volumes which would give im¬
portance to any library.
Marucel- The Marucellian contains 33,435 volumes of printed
lian Li- books, and 13/5 volumes of MSS.; the Riccardi collection
415
about 20,000 volumes of printed books, and 3600 MSS ., Foreign
many of them of the highest value. The collection of the libraries.
Belle Arti contained, when the official returns of 1835 v'—-v—‘-/
were made, 11,000 volumes.3 There is no mention of it Other Flo-
in those of 1850. The disbursements on account of these rentine an(l
various libraries are made by their respective librarians, jr“scan
under the control of the Minister of the Interior; the sums 1 raries‘
ordinarily expended, however, are but trifling.
The Biblioteca Palatina, or private library of the Grand
Duke in the Pitti Palace, dates but from 1815 ; the old
library of the Pitti having been distributed by Duke Leo¬
pold amongst the various public collections of the city;
the Poggiati collection, and a part of that of Count Revi-
czky having been its groundwork Literary researches
meet with no obstruction, but as it is not public property,
there is no account of its extent in the recent official re¬
turns. Yalery states that, when he visited it, the number
of printed volumes exceeded 80,000, and that of MSS.
was nearly 1500. It is, unquestionably, a splendid collec¬
tion, and in all probability keeps better pace with the pro¬
gress of publication abroad than does any other library in
Florence. Its strength, too, in Italian literature is prover¬
bial. Amongst the Cimelia of the Palatine Library are
the MSS. of Machiavelli, rich in correspondence and in
state papers (although a portion of them has found its way
to the British Museum); and those of Galileo, including a
noble series of letters (now in course of publication), and
of works published by his assistants, and annotated by him¬
self. This collection—which includes the papers of Torri¬
celli, of Viviani, and of other eminent philosophers—
amounts to more than 300 volumes.4 The libraries of the
University of Pisa and of the city of Sienna are valuable,
the former possessing about 62,500 volumes,5 and the latter
about 35,000 volumes of printed books, and 3417 MSS.,6
to which an annual addition of books to the value of 100 scudi
is respectively made. In almost all the provincial towns
of Tuscany, there are also to be found public libraries, more
or less extensive, which are all placed under the control of
the communal magistrates.7
There are four public libraries (or libraries so-called), at Neapolitan
Naples, viz., the Royal Library, the Brancacciana Library, libraries,
the Library of the University, and the Library of the Ora-
torian Priests of St Philip Neri. The Royal Library (Bib¬
lioteca Borbonica) contains about 200,000 printed vo¬
lumes and 4000 MSS.; the University possesses 25,000
volumes; the convent of St Philip Neri has but 18,000
printed volumes, and 60 MSS.; the Brancacciana contains
70,000 volumes of printed books, and about 1000 volumes
of MSS., relating chiefly to Neapolitan history.8 This
library was founded by the bequest of Carlo Brancaccio in
1688. The public have free admission to read in these
libraries, but no books are allowed to be taken away. They
are all professedly open every day, for periods varying from
six hours to two hours daily, excepting on holidays, when
they are closed. But how easily liberality on paper may
be turned into its opposite in practice will be seen by the
testimony of an English visitor towards the close of 1856:—
“ Nominally open from twelve to two o’clock,” he says,
I Cataloguspodd. Seer., xv. impressorum Bibliothecas Magliabechiana, Flor. 1793-95, fol.
Z,0™1 s^mPat^ si possono giudicare circa 140,000, compresi i duplicati che per ordine superiore sono stati gia verificati
para i ( fficia leturns to Foreign Office, 1850, p. 368).” According to Molini, these duplicates amount to 11,000 ; and many of them occu
again an again in other Florentine libraries. This superfluity of books in one direction, combined as it is with paucity of books-
oreign ones especially—in another, constitutes one of his arguments for combining the six libraries of the city into three main collec
‘ 5 6 i6C7 ’ v"-) Legal(3.) General,—containing all the MSS., and all the printed books relating neither to medicine nor to law
t,.1 li. u i qaq q 1 mG ProPoses to enrich the provincial collections. (Progetto di Riordinamento per le Pubbliche Librerie d
irenze, ir., e, bv0> P- o.) The plan has suggestive worth in it, beyond the limits of Tuscany. Some very partial effect has beei
T"SC“ retUr"S °f 1850 “U"Si°" to ‘he Th« ^orenYcS
"Appendix to Report from Select Committee on British Museum, 1835, p. 489.
7 ei^- oyay^’ ut suPra> liy. x-> ch. 18.. 6 Foreign Office Returns of 1850, p. 372. 6 _ oyj
Appendix to the Report of the British Museum, ubi supra. ' 8 Foreign Office Returns of 1851, pp. 31-33. ’’ P*
416
LIBRARIES.
Foreign “ tlie Borbonica is twice a-week closed at one, under pre-
libraries. tence of cleansing, .... and on fete days innumerable 
i y Having entered, the difBculty is to find the books, for there
is scarcely any arrangement,—and why should there be when
so many are prohibited? .... Not only are Filangieri, Ben-
tham, the Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve, for instance,
refused, but the Kosmos. At all events, an express permis¬
sion must be obtained from Rome to read it.”1 'S alery has
mentioned a peculiarity in the arrangements here which is
probably unique: “ One room is set apart for the blind,
who pay persons to read to them The picturesque
image of Dante must be often realized there, ‘ Lo mento a
guisa d’orbo in su levava.’”2 The expenses of the Royal
Library are included in the same grant with those of the
Brancacciana. It is entitled to two copies of all books
printed in the kingdom of Naples; and 4000 ducats (L.687)
are annually appropriated to the purchase and binding of
books.3 The expenses of the Library of St Philip Neri, or
of the “ Girolomini,” are defrayed out of the funds of the
convent to which it belongs. The Brancacciana and Uni¬
versity Libraries are, each of them, entitled to one copy of
every book printed in the city of Naples. This collection
is rich in ancient books. Its special show volume is a
finely illuminated copy of the Tragedies of Seneca. The
Royal Library was originally formed of the old Farnesian
Library, brought from Rome to Naples by Charles III.;
and of those of the Jesuits, and various suppressed convents.
The collection of early printed books is considerable, and
has been described in a catalogue by the Chevalier De Lic-
teriis, Naples, 1828-41, 4 vols. folio.4 Here is a copy of the
Catholicon of 1460, and the Bible of 1472, both upon vel¬
lum; the Petrarch of 1470; the Dante of Mantua; the first
edition of the celebrated mediaeval legist, Bartholus, of
Sasso Ferrato, 1471, the first book printed at Naples, and
other specimens of the early Neapolitan press. But the most
choice book is one of the three or four copies, printed on
vellum, of the first edition of Homer, 1488. The volume
of the Iliad is, unfortunately, defective. Several leaves, on
account, no doubt, of their illuminations, having been ruth¬
lessly torn out of the volume.
The Odyssey \\2l% fortunately escaped, the first page being
illuminated in the best style of Italian art, with the arms of
the proprietor; and there is also inserted one of the most
charming portraits in existence, the full size of the book, of
one of the Farnese family, if not by the hand of Raffaelle,
at least by his master, Pietro Perugino. Among the MSS.,
besides the celebrated Hours of Giulio Clovio, there are
many of great beauty and interest; virtually, however,
they are sealed books. Even eminent scholars, bearing
the commission of the French Ministry of Public Instruc¬
tion, have wasted a fortnight in waiting for facilities which
were, after all, refused. “ The palace of the Studj bears
for its device, Jacent nisi pateant; and for years all the
MSS., and part of the Museum, were locked up.” Such is
the testimony of M.M. D’Aremberg and Renan, in their
report to the minister of 2oth July 1850.5 There are no
public libraries in any of the provincial towns of the main¬
land, excepting Brindisi,6 * which has a small collection be¬
queathed by Monsignor de Leo ; but in every diocese there
is a library belonging to the See, to which, upon application,
admission may at all times, it is said, be readily obtained.'
In Sicily—compared with which Naples has always been a
laggard—the provision of public libraries is somewhat more Foreign
ample, and their management more enlightened. The Libraries.
Palermo collection, called indifferently the University,8 or
the “ Communal” Library, contains nearly 80,000 volumes
of printed books. The Jesuits of Palermo have another
library, reported to contain about 40,000 volumes. The
Library of Messina is stated to contain about 20,000, and
that of Catania, nearly 40,000 volumes of printed books.
Collectively, these four libraries contain upwards of 1200
MSS. There are also libraries of less importance at Gir-
genti, Syracuse, Termini, Nicosia, Caltagirone, and Tra¬
pani.9 The monastery of Monte Cassino retains its library
(of about 18,000 volumes, according to Valery), but with
diminished lustre. The collection, however, still includes
some fine specimens of early typography. Amongst the
MSS., amounting to about 800 volumes, the most an¬
cient is a Latin version of Origen’s Commentary on the
Epistle to the Romans, dated in the year 569; a Virgil of
the fourteenth century, copied from one of the tenth, in
the Lombard character; a Dante of the thirteenth cen¬
tury ; the Offices of the Virgin, with charming miniatures,
executed in 1469 by Bartolomeo Fabio di Sandalio ; and an
extensive series of original letters of Mabillon, Montfaucon,
Muratori, and other learned men of the last century, from
which M. Valery has published an interesting selection.10
In the archives of the monastery there is preserved a very
remarkable series of more than 40,000 deeds and records
of various kinds,11 including many original charters, papal
bulls, and other like documents, from the eighth century.
It is rich in materials for the history of Apulia, Calabria,
and Naples. The archives occupy three apartments ; and,
if it be borne in mind where they have been preserved, and
what they have survived, may well be termed a wonderful
collection.
The Italian libraries which yet remain to be mentioned
are numerous, and some of them considerable, particularly
those of Venice and Turin. The Library of St Mark at
Venice forms the west side of the Piazzeta, or Palazzo
Reale. This library was commenced in the fourteenth
century, the original collection having been begun by Pe¬
trarch, who gave some books to the Republic in 1362.
About a century later, Cardinal Bessarion presented to
the Republic the curious collection of MSS. which he
had formed in Constantinople, in Egypt, and in Greece ;
and further additions were subsequently made to it by
other cardinals. But, strange as it may seem, especially
when we read in Bessarion’s letter to the Doge, which
accompanied the gift (30th April, 1468), the words “vene¬
rable Library of St Mark,” there is not a scintilla of evi¬
dence to show either (1.) that the writer had in his memory
the gift which Petrarch had so ardently wished should
prove the groundwork of a Venetian library; or, (2.) that
the new donation put it into any one’s mind to ascertain the
fate of the old one. Bessarion’s collection became the true
foundation of the present Marciana; and it appears that the
books of Petrarch remained entombed until 1635, when
researches into his biography gave Tommasino a clue
which ultimately set the then procurators of St Mark to
ransack a neglected and dust-choked little room, in near
proximity to the famous bronze horses. Here the MSS.
were found, some petrified into fossils, and others ready to
crumble in the hands of the discoverers. The Library of
1 Letter from Naples, published in the London Athenaeum, 1857, p. 117.
a Valery, ut supra, liv. xiii., c. 6. 3 Foreign Office Returns, 1851, p. 33.
4 Codicum Sceculo xv. impressorum qui in Regia Bibliotheca Bvrimnica adservantur Catalogue. The first volume of a general catalogue
of the printed books appeared in 1832, but has had no successor.
5 Archives des Missions Scientifiques, vol. i., p. 383. 6 Foreign Office Returns, 1851, p. 30.
7 App. to Report, pp. 490, 491. 8 Foreign Office Returns of 1852, pp. 25, 26. 9 Ibid.
1° Correspondance incdite de Mabillon et de Montfaucon avec Vltalie, 3 tom., Paris, 1847.
11 Curzon, Notices of Italian Libraries (Philobiblon Miscellanies, ut supra).
LIBRARIES.
417
Foreign St Mark is now deposited in two apartments, one of
Libraries which is appropriated to MSS., whilst the other contains
the printed books. The number of volumes of printed
books was officially stated at 65,000 in 1822 j1 at 85,602 in
1835 ;2 and at 103,859 in 1848.3 That of MSS. at about
5000, in 1822; and, by Mr Curzon, as amounting in 1840
to nearly 10,000, more than 1000 of which are upon vel¬
lum.”4 Amongst these MSS., it need scarcely be said, but
a very small number of the Petrarch donation is pre¬
served. They include a Homer, translated by Leontio
Pilato, and copied in the handwriting of Boccaccio; seve¬
ral important Greek MSS.; an Evangelarium, accord¬
ing to Morelli, 1000 years old; the Laws of Lombardy,
the most valuable copy known ; and the original manuscript
of Father Paolo Sarpi’s History of the Council of Trent,
corrected with his own hand. Of printed books, several
of great value, on vellum, were carried by the Aus¬
trians to Vienna; but there still remain some choice speci¬
mens of the Aldine press; and a copy on vellum of the
first edition of Homer, unrivalled for beauty of condition.
It was among the spoils restored by the French in 1815,
and Van Praet has expressed his deep regret at seeing
the Royal Library at Paris deprived of this and other
similar works.5 Though small when compared with many
other libraries of the Continent, this collection includes an
unusual proportion of rare and valuable books.6 In the
Armenian convent, in the island of San Lazaro, close to
Venice, there is a small but interesting collection of books
and of Oriental MSS. One of these, the Gospels of
Matthew and Mark, is a square quarto of the eighth cen¬
tury ; another is a complete Armenian Bible of the twelfth
century. The library attached to the University of Turin
contained, in 1846, according to the University historian,
110,000 volumes ;7 and, in September 1849, according to
an official return, nearly 121,000 volumes of printed books,
and a rich collection of MSS., amounting to nearly 3000.s
It is open to the public in general every day except fes¬
tivals, during ten months of the year. Attached to the
University of Genoa, is a library, consisting, in 1849, of
about 39,200 printed volumes, and 800 MSS. Genoa has
three other public libraries, containing in the aggregate about
60,000 volumes.9 The University Library of Padua con¬
tained, in 1847, upwards of 78,000 volumes of printed
books, and 1672 MSS.10 Some other libraries in that city
contain MSS. of interest, as do also the Chapter Libraries
of Verona, Novara, and Vercelli. From a rescribed manu¬
script discovered by Niebuhr, the Roman historian, in the
collection of the Chapter of Verona, was deciphered and
published no inconsiderable portion of the Institutions of
Gaius, which served as a model to Justinian, or rather to
Tribonian, in framing that elementary exposition of prin¬
ciples which is prefixed to the Digest. The writing is in
uncial letters, perhaps of the fourth century, and the super¬
scribed MS. itself—containing the Homilies of Jerome—
can scarcely be older than the seventh. The same collec¬
tion contains a palimpsest Virgil of the third or fourth cen¬
tury, overwritten with the Gregorian Comment on Job, in
a Longobardic hand of the eighth. Mr Curzon looks on
this as anterior to the Medicean Virgil.11 The Library at
Mantua contains upwards of 40,000 volumes of printed
books, and about 400 MSS.12 Some of its books are curious,
and it is very freely accessible.
Foreign
Libraries
IT. GERMANY
The libraries of Germany, taking that name in its widest Libraries
acceptation, are, some of them, of the first order, and many of Ger*
of them extensive and important; but we confine our many-
notices exclusively to the principal collections, which we
shall describe mainly in the order, not of place or of time,
but of their relative magnitude and value.
The Imperial Library at Vienna was long esteemed in- Imperial
ferior only to that of the Vatican and to the Royal Library library at
at Paris for the rarity and value of its contents. It was ^ *enna-
founded, as early as the year 1440, by the Emperor Fre¬
derick III., who spared no expense to enrich it with printed
books, as well as manuscripts in every language. By the
munificence of succeeding emperors, numerous important
and valuable accessions were made to the library, amongst
which may be mentioned the famous collection of John
Joseph Fugger; the collections of Tycho Brahe, of Bus-
bequius, of Cuspinian, and of Hohendorff; the large and in¬
teresting Library of Prince Eugene, and a considerable por¬
tion of the Library of Corvinus. In 1575 it was declared
publicly accessible for the promotion of learning. The Im¬
perial Library occupies eight spacious apartments, and a
ninth is appropriated to a very valuable collection of medals
and other curiosities.13 The Grand Library is a large central
room, the floor of red and white marble, diamond-wise.
The vaulted oval dome, 193 feet in height by 57 wide,
supported by columns of scagliola, with its painted ceilings,
and marble statues, exceeds in splendour any similar room
in Europe. In Dibdin’s Bibliographical Tour there is an
admirable representation of it. The books in this great
room, being for the most part from the fine library of Prince
Eugene, are in rich old morocco bindings, with arms on
the sides. The entire collection, according to the latest
authority, now consists of more than 365,000 volumes of
printed books, and about 20,000 volumes of MSS.14 The
books are disposed according to their sizes, and include
1 Bettio, librarian of St Mark s, as quoted in Balbi's Essai Statistique des Bibliotheques de Vienne, p. 48.
* Panizzi, ubi supra. 3 Foreign Office Returns, 1850, p. 110. 4 Curzon, ubi supra.
6 The privation, however, was far from being complete. A bystander who (in 1815) made some notes of what passed under his eyes,
had opportunities of witnessing the active “ requisitions” of the commissaries of the allied powers, for those literary trophies which had
long been as keenly regretted by the losers, as they were proudly treasured up by the captors. The Prussians pre-eminently distin¬
guished themselves for the fierce assiduity of their quest. But marvellous was the ingenuity which occasionally perplexed the poor com¬
missioners who, catalogue in hand, had to scrutinize, first the books produced, and then the lists of those that had been carried off. Many
travellers who visited the Royal Library, under favourable auspices, while the memory of these things was yet fresh, will recall the sub¬
dued but irrepressible glee with which choice books were sometimes shown,—books that had formerly been shown by other librarians to
other visitors.
6 Balbi, in the appendix to his Essai Statistique, gives some very extraordinary particulars of the Archivio Generate at Venice, to which
great attention is paid by the Austrian government. This unparalleled collection contains, he says, 8,664,709 stitched quires, divided into
1890 departments, and arranged in 298 apartments. But whether its value corresponds with its magnitude, is a point on which we are
very much left to our own conjectures; nor would it be easy to determine to what extent Vienna may have been enriched at the expense
of Venice. See postea, p. 419. r
I Vallauri, Storia della Universita degli Studj del Piemonte, tom. iii., p. 138.
Foreign Office Returns of 1850, p. 341. 9 Ibid. 10 Ibid., p. 111.
la ^0ticet °f.ltalian Libraries, ut supra, p. 43. 12 Foreign Office Returns, ut supra, p. 311.
‘‘Ce cabinet est encore plus remarquable par la collection de toutes les monnoies, qui est unique dans le monde, quoiqu’elle ne soit
pas absolument complete.' ( Voyage de deux Franqais, tom. iv., p. 144, Paris, 1796.) But some fine collections have been formed since
this admiration was recorded.
14 Comp. Petzholdt, Handbuch Deutscher Bibliotheken (1853), p. 384, and the Foreign Office Returns of 1850, p. 109, with their statements
as to annual increase.
VOL. XIII.
3 G
418
Foreign
Libraries
'—-—'
LIBRARIES.
almost a complete series of Incunabula, exhibiting the ori¬
gin and progress of the typographic art. The number of
works printed in the fifteenth century is estimated at 15,000,
of which perhaps 3000 are duplicates. Amongst these,
the first place for rarity and value belongs to those printed
upon vellum, including the Psalter of 1457 ; the Rationale
of Durandus, 1459; the Constitutiones of Pope Clement
V., 1460; the Latin Bible of 1462; S. Hieronymi Ppis-
tolce, 1468 ; Caesar, Apuleius, and Aldus Gellius, each of
them in 1469; the Pliny of the same year, and also that
of 1472, and many others, all in the finest condition.
The Apuleius and the Aldus Gellius were once the pro¬
perty of Cardinal Bessarion, and are comparatively but re¬
cent acquisitions of the imperial collection. The Florence
Dante of 1481, with the commentary of Landino, and the
plates of Baldini, from designs by Botticelli, is likewise in
this library. This is the finest copy extant, excepting that
in Lord Spencer’s collection, and each of them possesses
twenty copperplates.1 The Cimelia, or most remarkable
rarities, are twenty-four in number. Amongst them are a
tablet of bronze, containing the original Senatus-consultum,
or decree of the Roman senate for the suppression of the
Bacchanalians, passed in the year 186 b.c. ;2 the imperfect
Tabula Peutingeriana, a travelling map of the ancient
world, compiled in the eighth century, on parchment;3 and
several palimpsests procured from the monastery of Bob-
bio. About 3000 of the MSS. are on vellum. Some de¬
serve to be mentioned, on account of their singular rarity;
as, for example, (l.) A.Mexican manuscript,—a specimen of
that curious coloured figure-writing which Lord Kings-
borough’s great work has made familiar to students. It is,
as travellers are usually told, on human skin, or, much more
probably, on deer-skin ; (2.) The unique manuscript of the
Fifth Decade of Livy, assigned to the sixth century, and
reported to have been brought from Scotland by St Suel-
bertus, the apostle of the Prisons; (3.) A Psalter {Codex
Aureus), being written in letters of gold, which belonged to
Charlemagne ; (4.) A manuscript of St Mark’s and St
Luke’s Gospels, written in gold and silver characters ; (5.)
A manuscript of Dioscorides, with coloured drawings of
plants, the characters marked with minute accuracy, written
in the year 505, by order of the Princess Julia Anicia, only
daughter of the Emperor Olybrius. This precious manu¬
script was brought from Constantinople in 1550 by the
celebrated Busbequius,1 2 3 4 ambassador from Charles V. to the Foreign
Porte, by whom about 300 other Greek manuscripts were Libraries
collected in the Turkish capital, including a manuscript of
Pliny’s Historia Naturalis, of contemporary date; and,
(6.) An autograph manuscript of the Gerusalemme Libe-
rata of Jasso. Besides these, there are in this collection
fragments of Genesis, in uncial Greek of the fourth cen¬
tury, the letters of gold and silver, on purple vellum,
richly ornamented with miniature paintings; a fragment
on papyrus, containing the decrees of the third council of
Constantinople, held in the year 680 ; the Codex cla-
thratus, or fragments of the most ancient German trans¬
lation of the Gospel of St Matthew, written in the early
part of the eighth century ;5 a German Bible, in six vo¬
lumes folio, richly illuminated, written for the Emperor
Wenceslas, who died in 1419; a French manuscript of
the fourteenth century, written in large letters, accord¬
ing to the ancient orthography, profusely illuminated, and
containing the history of Tristan, the celebrated Knight
of the Round Table ; together with many other rare, curi¬
ous, and interesting w'orks. The Greek MSS. in the Im¬
perial Library have been described by Lambech,6 Kol-
lar,7 and Nessel,8 whose labours were confined to this class ;
and in the important and accurate work of Denis9 may
be found an ample account of many of the Latin, with
a few notices of Oriental MSS., the ages of the different
MSS. being stated where these could be ascertained. Be¬
sides the cabinet of medals, there is also attached to the
library a superb collection of engravings, reckoned to
consist of 300,000, arranged and bound in 590 large
folio volumes, 726 volumes of various sizes, and 322 port¬
folios. The collection of music contains 6000 works, theo¬
retical and practical, in about 9000 volumes; and that of
autographs amounts to nearly 10,000 pieces, classed under
the heads of monarchs and princes, ministers and statesmen,
poets, philosophers and men of learning or science, generals
and renowned warriors, artists, and others.10 The sum al¬
lowed for the purchase of new books, independently of ex¬
traordinary grants, is about L.1100 annually.11 The Im¬
perial Library is open to the public every day, except on
Sundays, holidays, and the vacations.12 Here, however,—
as in most of the greater Continental libraries—it is very
reasonably expected that those who frequent it shall be
students, not idlers, or seekers for mere amusement, and to
1 Dibdin’s Bibliographical Tour, vol. iii., pp. 291, 486, 518. See also his Library Companion, pp. 22, 581, 752.
2 This is the same decree which is cited by Livy (lib. xxxix., c. 18); it was found in Calabria, on the estate of Prince Cigala. {Voyage
de deux Franqais, tom. v., p. 136.)
3 For a long time this Itinerary was believed to be of the fourth century, and was identified with that Theodosian map alluded to in
the well-known epigram of Sedulius,— Hoc opus egregium, quo mundi summa tenetur, &c.,—but the opinion is altogether untenable; al¬
though it is highly probable that its author (whomsoever he may have been) compiled it from ancient authorities, some of them per¬
haps older than the Itinerary of Antoninus. The Peutinger map has otherwise a curious history. Conrad Celtes discovered it at Spires,
whilst searching for books and MSS. on behalf of the Emperor Maximilian I., to be placed in the Imperial Library. He seems to have
looked on this remarkable document as out of the limits of his commission, and to have parted with it, either by gift or by sale, to Peutin¬
ger, who proposed to publish it, but died too soon. It then disappeared. Velser, having vainly sought for it, published Peutinger’s
unfinished transcript. Seven years afterwards (1598), it was found in an old chest. Morelius then edited it, and it was subsequently
republished by Berlius (1618), by Arnold (1682), and by Horn (1686). Then it disappeared again, and was not recovered until 1714.
At length, after the lapse of 200 years, it found a secure place in that Imperial Library to which it should have gone at first; and
thence, in 1753, it was superbly edited by Christ, von Scheyb. To complete these “ Adventures of a MS.,” it may be added, that a frag¬
ment of the missing portion of this most curious work has been recently discovered in the binding of a volume in the Public Library
of Treves. >
4 Of this manuscript Dioscorides, Busbequius himself has given a very interesting account. See Busbequii Epistolce, lib. iv., p. 391.
s These fragments were found in some old bindings of books.
0 P. Lambecii Commentariorum de Bibliotheca Caesarea Vindobonensi libri viii. (1665-79, fol.) The eight books occupy eight volumes.
A fragment of the ninth volume is in Schelhorn’s Amcenitates (tom x., pp. 97-115). It would have taken seventeen more to have worked
out the vast plan of the author. The rarity of the original edition is said to be owing to the avarice of Strellmayer, Lambech’s heir,
who, under annoyance at the slowness of the sale, made a bargain with the War Department at Vienna, when paper was somewhat scarce,
for the conversion of the remaining stock into cartridges. (Struvii, Bibliotheca Ilistorica Litteraria, p. 594.) Kollar published a new
edition in the years 1766-82.
1 Breviarium et supplementum Commentariorum Lambecii, &c. (1690, fol.)
A. F. Kollarii Ad Lambecii Comm, de Bibl. Ccesarea Vindobonensi Supp, (1690, fol.)
^Codices MSS. Theologici Bibl. Coes. Vindobonensis (1795-1800, fol.)
no „ holdt’ Handb^h Deutscher Bibliotheken (1853), p. 384. 11 Foreign Office Returns of 1850, p. 103.
12 Foreign Office Returns, ut supra, p. 96.
LIBRARIES.
419
Foreign this end dictionaries and school-books of all kinds, together
Libraries with works of “ light literature,” are given out only on some
^ literary purpose being assigned for their demand. For
MSS. there is a special reading-room. Books are lent to
the dignitaries and high functionaries of the empire, and to
those scholars and literary men whose known position and
responsibility ensure their safe return.
University jn Vienna, the University Library ranks next to the Im-
nbra°riesrat P61'1?1 Librai7- contained in 1848, according to an
Vienna. official report, 120,609 volumes,1 independently of the special
collection attached to the observatory which occupied the
same edifice. The present University Library dates but
from 1777 ; the former collection—founded in 1435—hav¬
ing been long since incorporated with the Imperial Library.
The University received the collections which had belonged
to the convents suppressed by Joseph II.; and since 1806
it has had a right to a copy of every work printed in Lower
Austria. Amongst what are called the private libraries,
the most important is that of the Military Archives, estab¬
lished in 1801, upon a plan devised by the Archduke
Charles. It contains 22,500 volumes,2 chiefly on military
science and geography; 20 large folio volumes of bulletins,
gazettes, and journals, with an index; 73 atlases, with
more than 3000 charts, maps, and plans of various kinds;
and a small but curious collection of manuscript military
memoirs, amongst which are those of Montecuculi, who
commanded the imperialists opposed to Turenne, and of
Prince Eugene. The Libraries of the Imperial Academy of
Oriental Literature, of the Museum of Natural History, of
the Philharmonic Society, and of the Imperial Archives,
are also of great value. In the last are preserved some
documents taken from the archives of Venice,3 and Marino
Sanuto’s original History of that republic, in 56 volumes,
which was unknown when M. Dam published his celebrated
work. The total number of libraries, public and private, in
Vienna, is said to be fifty-three;4 and most, even of the latter,
are accessible to students furnished with proper introductions,
iloyal The Royal Library at Munich, founded about 1660, by
Munich &c .Albert A’’ ■^u^e Bavaria, is the most extensive collection
lc ’ c‘in Germany, containing probably between 400,000 and
500,0005 volumes of printed books,—exclusive of a large
number of duplicates, which were recently on sale,6—and
22,000 volumes of MSS.7 From a discourse on the
origin and increase of the Library at Munich, delivered
in 1784, by the Canon Steigenberger, then librarian (and
translated into Latin by Vitali), it appears that the Hebrew,
Arabic, Syriac, Greek, and Latin MSS. contained in this
library even then formed a precious treasure; and, since
that period, vast additions have been made to all de¬
partments of the collection. The Royal Library, which Foreign
formerly occupied a college which had belonged to the Libraries
Jesuits, is now removed to a magnificent new building, in
the style of a mediaeval Italian palace. Among its MSS.
we may specify a Greek New Testament, in uncial letters,
of the eighth century; a copy of the Latin Gospels,
of the same age; a New Testament, written in gold and
silver letters, on purple vellum, of the ninth century; an
Evangelarium and Missal, given by the Emperor Henry II. to
the cathedral of Bamberg about the year 1020, most richly
decorated with miniatures of the Byzantine school, the bind¬
ing ornamented with carved ivory; a magnificent copy of
the Seven Penitential Psalms, set to music for the chapel
of the founder, by Orlando di Lasso, and richly illuminated.
Its Oriental, and especially its Hebrew MSS., are both
numerous and choice. The ancient MSS. relative to
the art of music amount to a great number, and are ex¬
ceedingly curious.8 A catalogue of the Greek MSS. in
this library, compiled by Ignatius Hardt, was printed at
Munich in 1804.9 Of printed books of the fifteenth cen¬
tury, the library is stated to possess (besides 50 block-
books,10 some of them from the Haarlem press), 3500 with¬
out date, and 6000 with dates prior to the year 1500.
Munich has also its University Library,—formerly at In-
golstadt, and removed to Munich in 1826,—which con¬
tained, in 1853, about 220,000 volumes of printed books,
and 2000 MSS.11
The King of Saxony’s Public Library at Dresden was Royal 11-
founded in 1555, and now contains 305,000 volumes ofbraryat
printed books, besides 182,000 dissertations, and 2800Dresden-
volumes of MSS.12 The valuable library that formerly
belonged to Count Bunau forms part of this noble col¬
lection, which is most complete in history generally, and
in Greek and Latin classic authors. Amongst the printed
books are some of the rarest specimens of early typography,
including 600 of the Aldine editions, and many on vellum;
besides a copy of the first edition of the Orlando Furioso,
printed by Mazocco, “coif assistenza dell’ autore,” in 1516,
and other rarities. In the department of MSS. are,—
another Mexican manuscript, said to be written on human
skin, and containing, according to Thevenot, a calendar,
with some fragments of the History of the Incas ; Liber de
re militari, on vellum, with superb paintings, in fine pre¬
servation, presented to an elector of Saxony by Matthias
Corvinus; the original manuscript of the Reveries of Mar¬
shal Saxe, bearing at the end that he had composed this
work in thirteen nights during a fever, and completed it in
December 1733. Here also is a manuscript of Wycliffe’s
Testament, of the early part of the fifteenth century, let-
l F°rei9n Office Returns of 1850, p. 110. * Petzholdt, Handbuch, ut supra, p. 371.
laere seems to be ample warrant for this statement, notwithstanding the assertion, elsewhere repeated, that these Venetian archives
nave been secured in perpetuity to the Municipality of Venice” (Quarterly Review, March 1855, vol. xcvi.,p. 356). The very valuable
article Here referred to contains particulars of much interest respecting the present, or recent, state of these archives.
According to the enumeration of the learned and laborious author of the Handbuch Deutscher Bibliotheken (1853). Balbi, in his
^■enn^^noill^'^0 VienneSe llbraries> without reckoning those of small importance. (Essai Statistique sur les Bibliotheques de
° The iatest official return reads thus;—“ 800,000 volumes, including (daritnier) 100,000 Dissertations and Pamphlets, 20,000 MSS.
.ear 7 increase of books, 3000 volumes.” Common as is extreme diversity of statement with respect to the extent of great libraries
ere is no instance quite so extreme as this of Munich. The number of volumes has within a very few years been stated, in works of
th™ 1 SOmetlI?e3 as a little exceeding 400,000 ; sometimes as nearly 800,000. The main cause lies neither in the bad faith nor in
nffif'i-1ir<rr>CSSnfSS+0 'vrit®rs’ but childish vanity which prompts official persons, not merely in conversation, but when drawing up
,, w?°r.S’. o sllr(iud timmselves in expressions of studied vagueness and obscurity, so that they may appear to be imparting infor-
ns Is onm 1C i’ ^ ^ are casting about to withhold. At least as much pains seems to be taken at Munich to mislead inquirers
thntTi?11/ t *en x11 Austrian libraries (for example), to give particulars which shall be minutely accurate. It has thus come to
the enlleetinn rU8tworthy statements about the Royal Library of Munich are precisely the official statements. Yet, in most respects,
6 ' , TT nom6) that it need not shun comparisons strictly truthful and exact.
J Murray s Handbook for Southern Germany, 7th edition (1855), p. 79.
essert, (( imelien der Munchener Bibliothek (Serapeum, vol. v., p. 86 : abridged from the official catalogue).
« Burney’s Present State of Music in Germany, vol. i., p. 129. b '
10 Of eTititied Catalogu,H Codicum Manuscriptorum Bibliothecae Regice Bavarian (Monach. 1804-12, 5 vols. 4to).
Staat^ht^t} ^ m- "a* Dr Massmann has given an admirable account,—a model in its kind,—entitled Die Xylographa der .. .
Staatsbibhothek zu Munchen, &c., and printed in the second volume of the Serapeum, pp. 273-318. P
* Handbuch Deutscher Bibliotheken, p. 274.
Ibid., p. 101, Compare Foreign Office Returns of 1850, p. 347 ; and also the statements as to the average yearly rate of increase.
LIBRARIES.
420
Foreign tered “ Engl. Test, of a Lollarand having the “ Lessons
Libraries anc} Pistles after the use of Salisburia fine copy of the
Koran, taken from a Turk by a Saxon officer at the last
gietre of Vienna, and said to have formerly belonged to
Bajazet II.; a Greek manuscript of the Epistles of St Paul,
of the eleventh century; and a very fine collection of por¬
traits of the most celebrated persons of the seventeenth cen¬
tury, by Rabel, a French artist, the outlines only having
been engraved.1 Ebert’s bibliographical MSS. were ac¬
quired after his death, and form a special collection, called
Eberti Apparatus Literarius. There is a manuscript alpha¬
betical catalogue, in 53 volumes folio; and a classed cata¬
logue in about 120 volumes. The library occupies twenty-
six light and elegant apartments in the Japanese palace,
and the books are separated into classes. The expenses ot
the Royal Library are defrayed by the State. The sum
of 3000 dollars, equal to L.450, is allowed yearly for the
purchase of books, &c.2 There are several other public
libraries in Saxony, of which the most important are the
University and Town Libraries of Leipsic. I he first-named
collection (which dates from 1543) contains more than
120,000 printed volumes, and 2500 volumes of MSS.
The printed Incunabula exceed 2000 volumes.3 The Town
Library was founded by Hulderich Gross, in 1677, and
although, up to 1838, it had received no accessions of strik¬
ing magnitude, it had come to be a very useful collection of
about 40,000 printed and 1500 MS. volumes.4 In 1838
it received a noble gift, in the bequest by C. H. L. Poelitz,
of an excellent political library of 25,000 volumes, with a
fund for its future maintenance. This collection is kept
distinct from the other portions of the Library. In the
aggregate, the Town Library now numbers at least 90,000
printed volumes, and 2000 MSS.5 These libraries are
freely open to the public, except on Sundays and holidays.6
Library of The library attached to the University of Gottingen con-
Gottingen. tajng ^0^ 360,000 printed volumes, and 3000 volumes of
manuscripts.7 But its extent is its least recommendation ;
for it is not only the most complete amongst the university
libraries, but there are very few collections of any kind in
Germany which rival it in real utility. This library is mainly
indebted for the pre-eminence it has obtained to the labours
and exertions of the illustrious Heyne. In the year in
which he came to Gottingen as second librarian, the entire
control of the library was committed to him, and he became
chief. From this moment commenced at once its exten¬
sion and its improvement. When Heyne went thither,
the library already contained from 50,000 to 60,000 volumes,
which, compared with those of most universities, was a con¬
siderable collection. At his decease it had, according to
the most moderate computation, increased, exclusively of
extraordinary acquisitions, to upwards of 200,000 volumes.8 9
The system of catalogues which he established is elabo¬
rate but clear. There are, in fact, four catalogues con¬
nected with each other, and all of them are MSS. Every
addition to the library is first entered in the Manual of the
year, in which are concisely written the title and date of the
book, and the day of its reception. Then the book is entered
with its full title in the Accession Catalogue, which is also
commenced with every year, and forms at its close four
volumes ; the first containing entries of books on theology ;
the second, of books on jurisprudence ; the third, of those Foreign
on history; and the fourth, books in the other classes. These Libraries
two catalogues are intended more particularly for the use of v'—■v*,**/
the librarians ; the remaining two are for readers. The third
of the series is a complete Alphabetical Catalogue, in which
every book is entered under the author’s name, when given,
or, when not given but known, with a reference thereto
under the chief word of the title. Every book of which the
author’s name is not known, is entered under such chief
word of title; and, on one side, are also entered the date
and form, with reference to the entries of the same book
in the Manual and the Accession Catalogue ; on the other
is entered that heading in the classed catalogue to which the
book belongs. Lastly, the book is entered in the Classed
or Scientific Catalogue, according to its subject, and is then
placed in its appropriate division of the library. Thus, the
Alphabetical Catalogue answers the question, whether or not
the known book of a known author, or the anonymous
book of which the title is accurately remembered, is in
the library, and, if there, where it is to be found; and the
Scientific or Classed Catalogue shows what books are con¬
tained in the library upon any given subject. Such is a
brief account of the mechanism of this very useful library.
The Royal Library at Berlin contains nearly 500,000
volumes of printed books, and about 10,000 volumes
MSS. This collection includes works upon almost all
the sciences, and in nearly all languages, but it is per¬
haps most complete in the sciences. Amongst the MSS.
are several Egyptian deeds, written on papyrus, in the de¬
motic or enchorial character, but whether with or with¬
out Greek registries, we have not ascertained. Professor
Kosegarten, in his Commentary on the Ancient Litera¬
ture of the Egyptians* has published facsimiles of a con¬
siderable portion of one of these, and of the exordia ol
twelve others, with interlinear translations in Latin, accord¬
ing to Dr Young’s method of interpretation. Its Oriental
section is very rich, and comprises the entire series of San¬
scrit MSS. which had been formed by Sir R. Chambers,
chief-justice of Bengal. The MS. department also in¬
cludes several MSS. of Veyssiere de Lacroze, the celebrated
author of the Lexicon JEgyptiaco-Latinum, once librarian
here, and, amongst them, his reply to Bergier, in which he
mentions the additions made to the Royal Library, the libra¬
rians, the number of books at the time when he wrote,
and the curious articles contained in the collection. The
Alphabetical Catalogue of this most extensive library is
very complete; and six persons have been regularly em¬
ployed in preparing a revised, or rather a new, classed
catalogue. The former extended, in 1851, to upwards of
650 MS. volumes ; the latter exceeded 250.10 Two volumes
of a new printed catalogue of the MSS. have been published.
The sum ordinarily allotted to acquisitions is about L.1800
a-year; but this amount is sometimes considerably in¬
creased by special grants,—as, for example, on occasion of
the purchase of the Meusebach collection,—and at other
times, when the latter have been of unusual cost, somewhat
diminished.11 There is perhaps no library in Germany which
is now more efficiently conducted. Among early printed
books there are several block-books;—the Rationale of Du-
randus, 1462, on vellum; the Aldine Petrarch, 1501; also,
I Voyage au Nord de VEurope, vol. i., p. 71, et seqq. _ 2 Foreign Office Returns, 1850, p. 345.
3 Petzholdt, Handbueh, ut supra, p. 234. 4 Ibid., p. 229. 6 Ibid., p. 230.
6 Appendix to Report on the British Museum, p. 495.
7 Foreign Office Returns of 1850, p. 262. The official statement runs thus “ In the University Library, there are nearly (ungefdhr)
350,000 volumes of printed books, counting each individual volume, whether it be a [bound] pamphlet of a few leaves, or a volume contain¬
ing 50 or more Tracts or Dissertations bound together.” This is precisely the mode of enumeration which has been adopted at the British
Museum (Panizzi, Evidence before Brit. Mus. Commission, 1849, p. 261); and if it were uniformly followed, would afford a firm and ample
foundation for the comparative statistics of libraries.
8 Foreign Office Returns, ut supra, p. 304; Comp. Petzholdt, Handbuch (1853), p. 36. _
9 De Prisca Egyptiorum Literatura Commentatio I. (Vimariae, 1828, 4to.) 10 Pertz, in Serapcum (1852), vol. xiii., p. -0.
II Pertz, Die Kdnigliche Bibliothek in Berlin in den Jahren 1851-53 (Berlin 1854, Svo), p. 1.
libraries.
421
Foreign on vellum, Luther’s Bible. The collection of historical
Libraries portraits amounted in 1851 to nearly 30,000}
V'"—'' The Public Library at Stuttgart contains about 245,000
Library of printed volumes, and 3230 MSS.1 2 The collection was
Stuttgart, formed—first at Ludwigsburg in 1765, and removed to
Stuttgart ten years afterwards—by the purchase of private
libraries, the union of some State libraries, and those of
suppressed monasteries. It is divided into three depart¬
ments, each of which is under the superintendence of one
of the librarians, who are charged with the purchase and
binding of books, the keeping of catalogues, and other
duties. The general government of the library is vested in
directors, who endeavour, as far as their means allow, to
procure everything that is of real worth. All booksellers in
the kingdom are required to furnish a copy of every work
published by them. To certain persons, and under certain
regulations, books are allowed to be lent out from the
library. The ordinary annual expense of the establishment
amounts to about 9000 florins (L.750), of which about
6000 (L.500) are expended in the purchase of books; and
it is defrayed out of the public treasury. The collection of
Bibles is said to be the largest in the world, amounting to
8544 volumes, in sixty different languages. Such anxiety
is felt to make this Biblical series as complete as possible
that, a few years ago, a set of the Acta Sanctorum of the
Benedictines was given in exchange for a copy of the
famous of 1457. The University Library at Tu¬
bingen contains about 200,000 printed volumes; 50,000
dissertations, and 2000 MSS.3
Other Ger- The present Ducal Library of Wolfenbiittel dates from
rnanli- 1604, and is little inferior to that of Stuttgart; it contains
branes. at ]east 190,000 printed volumes, with more than 4000
manuscripts.4 Its choice treasures, both of MSS. and of
early printed books, are numerous, and have been well
described by Dr Schbnemann.5 Here, too, the collection
of Bibles is large and precious. Besides the libraries con¬
nected with various public institutions, such as the Senk-
enberg Museum, and the Staendel institution for the fine
arts, there is a public library at Frankfort, called the Town
Library, in a handsome modern building facing the river.
In the vestibule are various Roman antiquities found in the
neighbourhood. This collection contains nearly 80,000
volumes of printed books, and 1000 volumes of MSS.,6
of which 20 are Abyssinian, 12 Turkish and Persian,
6 Hebrew, 2 Indian and Burmese, and the rest in Latin,
German, and other languages. No catalogue of this li¬
brary has been published since 1728; but there are good
MS. catalogues. The annual expense, which amounts
to about 5200 florins (L.434), is contributed by the public
treasury.7 8 * 10 * 12 The Library of Naumburg was founded in the
sixteenth century by Julius Pflug, bishop of that place, who
is celebrated in ecclesiastical history as a zealous opponent
of the Reformation, and as one of the three divines deputed
by Charles V. to draw up the plan of the Interim in 1548.
In the seventeenth century this library received a further
augmentation by the purchase of the collection of books
^ Thomas Reinesius. The printed books and
a SS#, fo°ugh few in number, are of considerable value.
Amongst the latter are—the Scholia of Olympiodorus
on several of Plato’s Dialogues, written in the sixteenth Foreign
century; a fragment of Orpheus’s Argonautics, of the fif- Libraries
teenth ; the Olympic Odes of Pindar, of the sixteenth, ap-
parently transcribed from an ancient manuscript, and in¬
cluding critical notes by Richard Croke ; the Cassandra of
Lycophron, with the Commentary of Tzetzes, dated 1438;
and several tracts of Jamblichus on the Pythagorean philo¬
sophy, belonging to the fifteenth century.8 At Nuremberg
the public library—founded by Conrad Kiihnhofer in 1445
—was, in 1538, deposited in the Dominican Monastery,
where it still remains. It possesses more than 50,000
volumes of printed books, 900 of w hich are Incunabula.
The MS. collection amounts to about 800 volumes, and
includes many interesting illuminated manuscripts, with au¬
tograph works of Luther, Hans Sachs, the famous Ger¬
man poet, and Albert Durer. One of the volumes is a Latin
Breviary of the middle of the fourteenth century, richly
illuminated, presented, according to the French inscription,
by Charles, King of France, to Madame the Queen of Eng¬
land. This, says Von Murr, was either Isabella, wife of
Richard II. (1396), or Catharine, wife of Henry V., King
of England. They were both daughters of Charles VI.,
King of France. An account of the MSS. and early
printed books is given in the work of Von Murr, entitled,
Memorabilia Dibliothecarum Publicarum Nurimbergen-
sium et Universitatis Altdorjince, Nuremb. 1786-91, 3 vols.
8vo. Nuremberg also possesses three several church libra¬
ries, all of which were founded prior to 1625, and one of
which—the Fenitzer-Dillherr Library—possesses at least
10,000 volumes. In 1852 the foundation of a new library,
with reference especially to Germanic history, was laid by
the liberality of the Baron Von Aufsess, and is, we be¬
lieve, making progress.9
The Public Libraries of Hamburgh are numerous and
important. Those of chief note are the City Library and
the Commercial Library. The former was founded in
1529, and now contains about 200,000 volumes of printed
books, exclusive of a series of Dissertations, the number of
which is nearly 20,000. The MSS. are about 5000.10 The
Commercial Library dates from 1735, contains more than
40,000 printed volumes, and is unquestionably the best
special collection of its kind in Europe. It has no MSS.
of much importance, save on the history of Hamburgh
itself. On this subject there is a very valuable collection
of books and documents, partly printed and partly MS.
There is also an extensive collection of maps and charts.11
The catalogue of the Commercial Library is according to
subjects, and is printed up to the end of 1853.12 The cata¬
logues of the City Library remain unprinted. Its manu¬
script Alphabetical Catalogue fills 40 volumes in folio.
Among the MSS. is an early Ilomeri Odyssea in Greek,
on charta bombycina; a Latin Alsop, with curious draw¬
ings; the Gospels in Greek from Uffenbach’s Library;
and an interesting series of autograph letters of the Ger¬
man Reformers. Many valuable printed works might
also have been specified, had the limits of this article per¬
mitted.
In Heidelberg, the present University Library dates
from 1703, and now contains about 150,000 printed volumes;
2 Petzholdt, Handbuch (1853), p. 336; Comp. Foreign Office Returns, 1850, p. 356.
1 Serapeum, ut supra, p. 18.
3 Foreign Office Returns of 1850, p. 377.
neoiMlv^at^ after statin# that the number of printed volumes at Wolfenbuttel has been repeatedly but erro-
there is reason to thalt.of. MSS- 10.000. inclines to assign to it about 200,000 of the former, and 5000 of the latter; but
mere is reason to think that even this is an over-statement.
e der Herz- Bibliothek 2U Wolfenbuttel (Hann. 1849, 8vo).
bequest^0the library^ ’ F 126 ’ Comi)are Forei9n Office Returns, 1850, p. 260. The latter account is of a date anterior to the Schlosser
8 Mii 11 or TV fV f ■ n ■ 7 Foreign Office Returns, ubi supra,
duction to BibVograph^^vlvi ManUSCriPtorum in bibliotheca Numb asservantur (1806-1811), as quoted in Horne's Intro-
10 Thin rm 17Q loo. o ’’T . 9 Petzholdt,//ancZfcwcA, supra, pp. 279-283.
n PP- I'9~i89 ^ ComP- F°™9n Office Returns of 1850. p. 267.
12 in Hamlurg (Leipzig, 1849, 8vo), pp. 11-16 ; Foreign Office Returns, ut supra.
Ratalog der Commerz-Ihbhothclc in Hamburg (1841, 4 to); Hit vier Fortsetzungen (1844-53, 4to).
422
LIBRARIES.
Foreign 50,000 Dissertations, and more than 3000 MSS.1 Of the
Libraries latter the most precious are those which had formed part
'''“’V'-"*'' of the ancient Bibliotheca Palatina, and which were re¬
stored under the circumstances we have narrated in our
account of the Vatican Library. Among these are the
famous Greek manuscripts of Xenophon, Thucydides, and
the Anthologia of the tenth and eleventh centuries ; Ott-
fried’s metrical version of the Gospels, of the ninth century ;
and a volume of old German poems and romances. At
Bonn, Breslau, Erlangen, Giessen, Halle, Konigsberg,
Marburg, and Treves, there are also valuable libraries.
Dutch li¬
braries.
V. HOLLAND.
There are many libraries in Holland; indeed almost every
city has one; but the principal collections are the University
Libraries of Leyden and Utrecht, and the Royal Library at
the Hague. The University Library of Leyden was
founded by William L, Prince of Orange, and is justly
celebrated throughout Europe for the many valuable speci¬
mens of Greek and Oriental literature with which it abounds.
To it Joseph Scaliger bequeathed his fine collection of
Hebrew books ; and it was further enriched by the learned
Golius, on his return from the East, with many Arabic,
Turkish, Persian, and Chaldaic manuscripts. In addition
to these, it received the collections of Holmanus ; and those
—still more important—of Isaac Vossius and Ruhnken ; the
former, which had to be removed to Leyden from Windsor,
contained a great number of valuable manuscripts, sup¬
posed to have once belonged to Christina, Queen of Swe¬
den ; and the latter, an almost entire series of classical
authors, with a collection of manuscripts, amongst which
are to be found copies of several that were subsequently
consumed by fire in the Abbey of St Germain-des-Pres.
A catalogue of this library was printed in 1716, with a sup¬
plement in 1749, both in folio.2 In 1852 was published Ca-
talogus Librorum Mamiscriptorum qui inde ab anno 1711,
Bibliotheca Lugduno-Batavce accesserunt, 4to. It describes
1015 articles. Many fine manuscripts might be noticed;
in particular, a Virgil, an Italian transcript of the fifteenth
century, illuminated with some large designs on coloured
vellum; a volume of Monstrelet’s Chronicles, in French, of
the same age, with illuminations; the Psalter, illuminated,
which, according to a French note, was made use of by
St Louis in his childhood. It is apparently of the twelfth
century (although, in the printed catalogue, assigned to the
fourteenth), and written in England, for the English have
that name in the calendar. There are various important
Greek manuscripts ; and among the printed books, the
Justiniani Institutiones, 1468, and the Apuleius of 1468,
upon vellum. There is also a copy of the Bible in Dutch,
printed at the expense of Peter the First, at Amsterdam,
1721, 5 vols. folio, in capital letters. Half of each page is
left blank, and some copies have the Russian text in parallel
columns. Most of the copies are said to have been lost at
sea. The library at Leyden is computed to contain up¬
wards of 70,000 printed volumes, and 3000 volumes of
MSS.,3 many of which, as we have seen, are equally
curious and valuable.4 Of the public library at Amster¬
dam, the official statement is simply this, “ The number of
printed books is 3150 [31,500?], and of MSS., 88 ; a printed Foreign
catalogue appeared in 1796.” Peignot drily remarked of Libraries
this collection, many years ago, that it would be more use-
ful if the books were arranged in better order and method.5
Ot the University Library of Utrecht the precise date of Library of
foundation is not recorded. But there is an entry in the O16 Om*
proceedings of the town-council which directs the bring- ver8ity °f
ing together of the books of certain monasteries and col- utrecht-
leges, in order to the foundation of a Town Library, in
1581, fifty-five years before the establishment of the present
University.6 7 On the conversion, in 1636, of the pre-exist-
ing Athenaeum into a University, the Town Library was
transferred to it. Catalogues were printed in 1670, in
1/18, and in 1834-35. I he last named is alphabetical,
and in 2 vols. folio. The number of printed volumes
has been estimated at 80,000, and of MSS. at upwards of
860, ot which latter there is a written catalogue, well
digested. These numbers, however, are but conjectural.
The only direct statement we can trace is of 1835, at which
date the number of printed works—not volumes—was
27,000/ and that of MSS., 864. The MSS. are not of
much general interest, being chiefly scholastic divinity, or
ecclesiastical records connected with that district of Hol¬
land ; but there is an ancient Greek Gospel of the ninth
century, known as the Codex Borelianus, and a Latin
Psalter of a still earlier period, with curious drawings.
Among the printed books there is a splendid volume on
vellum, Missale Trajectense complectis midtis missis votivis
nunquam antea impressis, printed at Paris by Wolffgang
Hopyl, 1515, and (from its having escaped the researches of
\ an Praet) probably unique. But the chief library in Hoi- Royal lib-
land is the Royal Library of the Hague. In its present shape rary at th*
and character this collection is little more than half a cen- HaSue-
tury old. But it includes what remained of the fine Library
of the Stadtholders, the collection which had belonged to the
States-General, and also some smaller libraries of corporate
bodies. These were brought together in the Mauristhuis,
after the flight of William V., and became the foundation
of the Royal Library, which now possesses more than
100,000 volumes of printed books.8 Amongst these are
comprised, (1.) nearly 1400 volumes from the early presses,
about 500 of them Dutch; (2.) An Elzevirian collection,
amounting to 690 volumes ; (3.) Another special collection
of the productions of the Aldine, Juntine, Stephanine, and
Plantinian presses; and, (4.) A very curious collection of
pamphlets on Dutch affairs, called Bibliotheca JDunca-
niana, after its former possessor. The MSS. amount to
2000. Amongst them is a fine Evangeliary of the tenth
century, which had formerly belonged to the ancient Abbey
of Egmont, and a long series of liturgical and other devo¬
tional MSS. superbly illuminated. The historical MSS. are
very numerous, and contain rich materials for the history of
France, as well as for that of the Low Countries.9
VI. BELGIUM.
At Brussels there are two principal libraries ; both of Belgian
which belong to the government. The first of these is de- libraries,
signaled the Royal Library of Brussels, and was founded on
that which formerly appertained to the house of Burgundy.
1 Petzholdt, ut supra, p. 197. 2 Foreign Office Returns of 1850, p. 300.
3 The quasi-official returns of 1835 referred to in the “ Abstract” appended to Mr Disbrowe’s letter to Lord Palmerston of 6th Nov.
1849 {Foreign Office Returns, 1850, p. 300), says:—“ Nearly 70,000 volumes, and 3000 MSS.” Fourteen years had elapsed between the
two applications for information, but the Dutch functionaries refer to the previous replies—themselves very perfunctory—without indi¬
cating change or addition of any kind.
4 See also the art. Leyden. 6 Peignot, Diet, de Bibliologie, tom. i., p. 99.
6 Buchelius, Descriptio urbis Trajectince (1605), p. 81, as quoted by Grasse, Zur Geschichte der Holldndischen Bibliotheken {Serapeum,
Bd. v., p. 322).
7 “ llet getal boekwerken is aldaar 27,000.” App. to Report of Select Committee on British Museum, 1836, No. 10.
8 Foreign Office Returns of 1850, p. 300.
0 Jubinal, Lettrcs « M. la Comte de Salvandy, sur ... la Bibliotheque Royale de La Haye (1846), pp. 6-39.
LIBRARIES.
Foreign Santander1 lias traced the history of this library through
Libraries its varied fortunes, it having been successively exposed to
the perils of fire, of interment, and of spoliation by French
commissaries. Though it had been restored, in some degree,
to its ancient splendour by the care of Count de Cobentzel,
and of Prince Stahrenberg, minister-plenipotentiary of the
Empress Queen, its prosperity was of short duration. For,
when the French armies overran the Netherlands, and oc¬
cupied Brussels, in 1797, Laurent, the representative of
the people, caused seven waggon-loads of books and manu¬
scripts to be taken from the Burgundian Library ; and some
time afterwards, Wailly, Leblond, and others, deputed to
commit a second spoliation, selected about 200 manuscripts
for the National Library at Paris. In 1797 a place was
provided for the reception of the surviving books belong¬
ing to the Burgundian Library; and in 1798 the collection
was enriched with all that was most valuable from the great
depot of the Cordeliers, which was then broken up. But
the fine library brought together by C. J. E. Van Hulthem,
who died in 1832, has been the most important element in
the composition of the present royal collection. It had been
formed with great judgment, and was especially rich in
Belgian history; nor is it undeserving of record that not a
few of the volumes of this library had (in a very unusual
manner) helped to make Belgian history, in some of its not
least glorious pages ; many a substantial and venerable folio
of Van Hulthem’s having done duty by way of breastwork
for the Belgic volunteers during their obstinate conflict
with the Dutch troops in September 1830. This collec¬
tion amounted to 29,350 distinct printed works, in about
63,000 volumes, and to 1016 MSS. It was purchased by
the government in 1837 for L.11,176, exclusive of inci¬
dental expenses.2 There is a printed catalogue of it, well
compiled by Voisin, in 6 volumes 8vo.3 Two years after¬
wards the conjoined collections, including that of the city,
which had been public from 1794 (as that of Burgundy had
been from 1772), were opened as the national collection of
Belgium. Since that period the Brussels Library has, by
systematic acquisitions, become still more extensive, and at
present it contains nearly 203,000 volumes of printed books,
and about 19,700 MSS.,4 each distinct work or article be¬
ing counted. Nothing,” says a recent reader there, “can
exceed the comfort of the reading-room.”
The Archives Generates du Royaume form the second
of the principal collections of Brussels. They unite the
characters of a Library of MSS. and of a State Paper Office;
the documents they contain extend from the twelfth to the
nineteenth centuries; and in 1838 numbered 130,394, clas¬
sified in fifty-seven divisions.5 The collection is of high
historical importance, and has been well arranged by M.
Gachard. 1 he provincial libraries of Belgium are those
of Antwerp, Bruges, Ghent, Liege, Louvain, Mons, Namur,
Tournay, and Ypres, three of which (those of Ghent, Liege,
and Louvain) are under the direction of the universities
established at these places, whilst the others are under the
superintendence of the local authorities. Of these provin¬
cial libraries, that of Ghent is the largest. It possesses of
423
printed volumes about 64,500 (of which 480 are incana- Foreign
bula), and of MS. volumes 630. Liege has also nearly Libraries
64,000 printed volumes, and 430 MSS. Louvain has about
62,000 printed volumes, and 302 MSS.; Tournay, about
27,700 printed, and 208 MSS.; Antwerp, about 22,000
printed, and 29 MSS.; Namur, about 1 7,700 printed, and
80 MSS.; Mons, about 16,400 printed, and 348 MSS.; and
Bruges, about 12,000 printed, and 550 MSS.
VII. HUNGARY.
Many fragments of that noble library, so rich in valuable Libraries
manuscripts, which had been formed at Buda by the cele- offlungary
brated Corvinus, have been mentioned in our accounts of
the several existing libraries that possess them.6 When
this collection was dispersed, on the capture of Buda by the
Turks, under Solyman, in 1526, Cardinal Bozman in vain
offered the conqueror 2000 crowns to restore this part of
the spoil. If no collection subsequently formed, up to the
end of the last century, could lay claim to the title of a
Hungarian national library, yet since 1804, by the liberality
of Count Sczecheny, Pesth has become possessed of an as¬
semblage of books, admirably chosen, fast increasing, and
well deserving to be styled the library of Hungary. The
books are entered alphabetically in the catalogue and sup¬
plements, and classed in the indices according to sub¬
jects.7 The National Library already contains about 185,000
volumes of printed books, upwards of 10,000 MSS., about
10,000 prints, and 5000 maps. Of the printed volumes
some 36,000 are Hungarian books ; about 20,000 others are
works in foreign languages, but relate to Hungary, as does
also the bulk of the MSS.8 Few libraries, it will be seen,
can possess a better title to be termed “ National.”
Pesth has two other libraries, both of them important.
That of the University owes its foundation to the celebrated
Primate of Hungary, Peter Piizmani.9 From Tyrnau (the
first seat of the University), it was transferred to Buda in
1777, and thence, seven years afterwards, removed to the
other side of the river. In 1853 it possessed nearly 72,000
volumes of printed books, and 1510 MSS. The third
library of Pesth is sometimes called the Teleki Library,
and sometimes the Library of the Hungarian Academy of
Sciences. In the Diet of 1826, Count Joseph Teleki, for
himself and his brothers, presented to his fellow-country¬
men the fine library of 30,000 volumes, which they had
jointly inherited from their father. He also presented the
sum of 5000 florins by way of beginning a maintenance
fund. The example was followed with the old Hungarian
spirit, and amongst the earliest imitators the illustrious
name of Batthyany twice occurs; Count Casimir as the donor
of 2660 volumes, and that of Count Gustavus as the donor
of a library containing very nearly 30,000 volumes. A
collection, especially rich in Hungarian history, was pur¬
chased in 1849 (5000 volumes) ; and, in 1852, Count Joseph
Teleki increased the acquisition fund by a handsome contri¬
bution from the profits of his well-known historical work. In
the following year the library possessed 70,660 volumes.10
Memoire Ilistorique sur la Bibliotheque Publique de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, 1809, 8vo. See also Peignot, Catalogue d'une partie des
hi/res composant la Bibliotheque des Dues de Bourgogne, au XV. Siecle. Dijon, 1841. 8vo.
! Tvf. 0rundun9 der Kbniglich Belgischen Staatsbibliothek zu Brussel, 1842 (Serapeum, Bd. iii., p. 23).
8 Bibliotheca Hulthemiana, 5 tom., Brux., 1836.
4 Foreign Office Returns of 1850, pp. 160,161; Comp. De Reiffenberg, Annuaires de la Bibl. Roy. de Bruxelles; and Alvin, Rapport
General sur la Situation de la Bibl. Roy. de Bruxelles, 1854 {Serapeum, 1855, Bd. xvi., Supp. pp. 25-78).
6 STd’ Ra^Jon sw les Archives Generales du Royaume, p. 57.
, 6 . eSt,TaCC^t 0t)t|17e SUI"v'iv°rs of this famous collection yet published is to be found in Vogel’s Verzeichniss Corvinischer Hand-
^riften moffenthchen Bibhotheken, 1849 {Serapeum, Bd. x., pp. 273-205). The inquirer will do well to glance also at the article “ Cor-
vin, (by M. U4ey,J m the Biographic Universelle,
veterf ^PfraphiK Magno-Varadensis, Pesth, 1801, in 8vo. M. de Miller, librarian to Count Sczecheny, having dis-
8 p , , i ,ra P1’11116*1 at Lroswaradin in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, published an account of them at Pesth in 1804
Petzholdt, Handbuch, ut supra, pp. 293, 294 • 439-440.
nnn^ln0t’ f, Mr.KJ1 has sai.d (Austria, Engl.’Trans., p. 244), to the Emperor Joseph II. This library sustained some iniury—but
none irreparable-m the great inundation of 1838. * * Petzholdt, Handbuch, ut supra,7 *38
424
LIBRARIES.
Foreign
Libraries
VIII. bohemia.
National
Museum
library of
In the city of Prague there is a library in connection
with the National Museum, founded in 1818, consisting
of more than 20,000 volumes of printed books, and 1200
volumes of MSS.1 It is remarkable on account of the num-
Prague, &c. ker 0f early works illustrative of Bohemian history and litera¬
ture, from the first book printed in Bohemia (1462) ; and is
open to all comers. Among other rarities, there is exhibited
an original letter, signed “ Johanes Hus, Magistre in Artibus,
Sacre Theologie Baccalareus.” The University of Prague
has a fine library, which, in its Carolinian germ, dates, like
the University itself, from the middle of the fourteenth
century, and contains some relics of a library still older,—
that of the Celestine Monastery of Oybin, in Upper Lusatia.2
In 1621 both University and library were handed over to
the Jesuits, and the latter, in subsequent years, was largely
augmented by them. It became well known as the Cle¬
mentine Library. Joseph II. restored the University to its
independence, and vested in it the enlarged collection,
which was further increased, first, by the books of dis¬
solved monasteries, and subsequently by purchases. The
University Library is well organized. When Mr Kohl
visited it in 1841, he was shown a catalogue so arranged
that the sum total of volumes could be added up daily. It
was then 99,888.3 In 1848, it was 106,735.4 The present
number of volumes is probably at least 110,000. There
are many curiosities, and amongst them a superbly illumi¬
nated Hussite Hymn Book, the joint-stock production of
the chief families and most eminent guilds of Prague.
Prague has many other remarkable libraries, which we can¬
not °find room even to enumerate. One, however, may
claim a word. The Premonstratensian Monastery of Stra-
how has a library of great value, displayed in an apart¬
ment which, for splendour and elegance, has, it is said,
scarcely its equal either in the Austrian States or in Ger¬
many.5 The number of printed volumes exceeds 50,000
(2000 incunabula), and that of MSS. is about 1000.6
IX. SWITZERLAND.
L'brariesof In Switzerland there are several libraries eminently
Geneva,&c. worthy of notice. We begin with that of Geneva. The
celebrated Bonnivard, prior of St Victor, having promised
to bequeath his books for the foundation of a public library
in Geneva, the council of that city resolved to act upon
this promise, and in 1564 purchased the books which had
belonged to Calvin, and in 1565 those of Peter Martyr.
The progress of the library is detailed in the preface to an
excellent Catalogue de la Bibliotheque Publique de Geneve,
by L. Vaucher, 1834, 2 vols. 8vo, when the library con¬
tained 31,000 volumes. Among Bonnivard’s books are
several rare editions of the fifteenth century, such as
Cicero’s Offices, both editions, 1465 and 1466, on vellum
(the first of them presented by Lord Stanhope) ; the Livre
des Saintes Anges, the first book printed at Geneva, in
1478; the Speculum Vitce Humana}, printed in the Canton
of Lucerne in 1472 or 1473; XheMirouer du Monde, Geneva,
1517, the only known copy printed on vellum. Among
the manuscripts are several richly illuminated. Here also
is that most interesting little volume, La Noble Leyton,
dated in the year 1100, and including two other treatises
and seven religious poems, in the language of the Vaudois ; Foreign
and, above all, the manuscripts of Calvin, and his corre- Libraries
spondence, in many volumes, as described by Senebier in
his Catalogue raisonne des Manuscrits conserves dansja
Bibliotheque de la Vide et Republique de Geneve, 17/9,
8vo. The present number of volumes is about 47,000
printed, and 200 MSS.7 In 1852 Tutor Weizel made his
valuable private collection of German literature publicly
accessible. It is said to amount to 8000 volumes,8 and
may probably become hereafter an important addition to
the Town Library.
Zurich possesses two public libraries,—the Town Library
and that of the Cantonal Schools ;—the former with about
62,000 volumes of printed books, and 3500 MSS.; the
latter with 27,000 printed volumes, and very few MSS.
The Town Library was founded, jointly, by four young
citizens in 1629, on their return from a European tour,
which had made them acquainted with many such institu¬
tions. Amongst its MSS. the most remarkable volumes are
the original letters of Lady Jane Grey and the English re¬
formers to Bullinger, which have been printed for the
Parker Society. In Berne the public library, which dates
from 1548, contains 49,500 printed volumes, and 2303
MSS.9 Of the latter there is a catalogue by J. R. Sinner,
in three vols. 8vo.10
In Basel the University Library possesses several early
Greek manuscripts, such as a copy of the Gospels of the
ninth, and the Epistles of the tenth century; the Acts of
the Council of Basel (142), in several volumes ; original
unedited letters of Erasmus; also a copy of his Monce
Encomium, with spirited sketches on the margins by Hans
Holbein (some of them apparently retouched and injured),
which have been several times engraved ; various drawings
by the old German masters, including several by the Hol¬
beins, and a portrait of Edward VI. when a boy, marked
“H. H.” The total contents of the University Library
amounted in 1853 to 75,000 printed, and nearly 4000 MS.
volumes.11 The library is more especially strong in the
physical and mathematical sciences, in theology, and in the
polite literature of Germany. According to the recent
rate of increase, the number of printed books in this library
must at present amount to at least 78,000 volumes.
The canton of Aargau acquired by purchase, in 1804,
the valuable collection of General Zurlauben of Zug. The
books of secularized monasteries served to augment the
Cantonal Library thus begun, and it has also been occa¬
sionally increased by purchases. In 1846 it contained about
60,000 printed volumes, and 1200 MSS.12 Ihe Cantonal
Library at Lausanne contains about 45,000 vols. of printed
books,13 and, perhaps, 300 MSS. But for a long period, Lau¬
sanne possessed a literary treasure which had more power¬
ful charms for British eyes than anything they could see in
the public library. Few great writers mention their books
so frequentlv or so fondly as does Gibbon ; and it is scarcely
credible that he would have left his beloved authors behind
him with such slender precautions for their safety, had he
departed from Lausanne under circumstances of less ex¬
citement and alarm than those of May 1793. Nor is it less
extraordinary that, after its preservation for many years in
an uninhabited house, his library became the property of
another English author, who, to use his own characteristic
words, “ bought it to have something to read when he passed
I Petzholdt, Handbuch, ut supra, p. 301.
3 Petzholdt, Bibliothek des Ccelestiner-Klosters auf dem Oybin, 1840 (Serapeum, Bd.
3 Kohl, Austria, p. 35.
5 Murray, Southern Germany, seventh edition (1855), p. 459.
1 Foreign Office Returns oi 1850, p. 366 ; Comp. Petzholdt, ut supra, p. 140.
9 Foreign Office Returns, p. 354 ; Petzholdt, p. 428.
10 Catalogue Codd. MSS., Bibliothecae Bernens. annotat. crit. illustratus, Bern., 1760-1762.
II Petzholdt, Handbuch, ut supra, p. 24. 12 Kurz and Weissenbach, Beitrdge zur Geschichte der Stadt Aarau, pp. 10/, et seqq.
13 Petzholdt, ut supra, p. 223.
,, p. 157, et seqq.).
Foreign Office Returns of 1850, p. 110.
6 Petzholdt, Handbuch, ut supra, p. 302.
8 Petzholdt, ut supra, p. 140.
LIBRARIES.
Foreign through Lausanne,”1 shut himself in it from morning till
Libraries night during forty days, and then “ dashed among the moun-
tains,” never to set eyes upon it again (although he sur¬
vived his purchase a quarter of a century), leaving it still
in a house which was usually untenanted.2 At length, forty
years after Gibbon had fled from Lausanne in hot haste,
this precious collection was sold by auction: part went to
America, part to the Cantonal Library. Other portions were
scattered far and wide, carrying with them, however, traces
of two names, suggestive of very different ideas: the one,
a monument of what genius can accomplish when aided by
self-denying labour; the other a monition, that vast wealth,
unusual powers of mind, and refined tastes, may all centre
in one man, and yet leave him at the end of a long life,
a prodigal and worthless egotist.
X. POLAND
Libraries Of Poland it may be said, in a bibliographical as well as
ol 1 oland. political sense, Stat magni nominis umbra. The literary
treasures of that ancient kingdom have gone to enrich its
principal spoiler; and it is at St Petersburg rather than at
Warsaw that we must seek for evidence of what it origi¬
nally possessed. What is called the Royal Library at War¬
saw is said not much to exceed 20,000 volumes, most of
which are modern ; but it contains a manuscript, in 3 folio
volumes, with nearly 200 fine drawings, descriptive of the
antiquities excavated at Velleia, between the years 1760
and 1765. The University of Warsaw, founded by the
Emperor Alexander in 1816, had accumulated a library of
about 150,000 volumes; but after the events of 1830 and
1831, every book or pamphlet in it conceived to be hostile
to the Russian government was removed, and many scien¬
tific works have likewise, it is believed, been abstracted
and sent off to St Petersburg. As late, however, as 1849,
we find mention of this library as being “ said to contain
150,000 [printed] volumes, and a great number of scarce and
curious MSS .”3 If this be not merely a repetition of pre¬
ceding statements, it may suggest the idea that the two
Warsaw collections have perhaps been united. (?) But it is
a significant circumstance, that, although the Russian offi¬
cial returns of 1850 enumerate thirty-eight libraries in
addition to those of St Petersburg4 (some of them con¬
taining less than 500 volumes), there is no mention of any
library at Warsaw. The University of Cracow, founded by
Casimir the Great in 1343, has a library said to contain about
10,000 MSS., amongst which is a Latin Encyclopaedia, in
a large folio volume, written by Paul of Prague in 1459,
and nearly 50,000 volumes of printed books.5 But the most
extensive and valuable collection that has ever existed in
Poland was that which Count Joseph Zaluski and his bro¬
ther had formed, and which, in 1747, was devoted to the
public. The Zaluski Library, afterwards called the Library
of the Republic, consisted of 300,000 volumes, including
425
Foreign
Libraries
upwards of 50,000 duplicates, which wrere subsequently dis¬
posed of; and by the sale of these, together with the losses
sustained by various depredations, the collection was sup¬
posed, in 1791, not greatly to exceed 200,000 volumes. At
length, in 1795, this library was unceremoniously seized
by Suwarof, hastily packed up, and despatched to St Peters¬
burg, to aggrandise the capital of the conqueror with the
literary spoils of Poland.6
XI. RUSSIA.
To this act of spoliation the Imperial Library of St Peters- The Tmpe-
burg owes, if not its existence, at least its first “ acquisi rial li-
tion” of importance. Nor is it needful to dwell upon dates. tjrary at ,c
If, with Bacmeister, we even trace some beginnings of the .Peters’
Imperial Library as far back as the year 1714, we shall still U1^‘
find the sapling of like origin with the graft. The books
of 1714 were seized during the invasion of Courland, just
as the books of 1795 were snatched in the swoop on Poland.
Nor does the courtly academician think fit to affect the
smallest prudery about the matter. “ It was thus,” he says,
“ that Paulus Emilius, the conqueror of Perseus, carried to
Rome that monarch’s books—the first that were seen in the
capital of the world. Thus Sylla, after subjugating Athens,
gathered from Athenian books a library alike extensive
and choice. Peter the Great followed in the footsteps of
these great men.”7 Could Bacmeister have foreseen the
achievements of 1795, his vocabulary would scarcely have
supplied words sufficiently eulogistic. Later writers, how¬
ever, have sometimes thought it desirable to fortify Russian
practice by modern examples. But the parallel limps. The
French, when they conquered Italy and Belgium, stripped
the libraries of those countries, indeed, of some of their
choicest rarities. But the Russians, when they triumphed
over the independence of Poland, carried off, in bulk, the
largest collection of books which that country could boast
of. The library thus seized had been built up with refined
tastes and liberal sympathy. The library into which it was
transformed has often been augmented with lavish expen¬
diture ; but the dominant spirit that has animated its man¬
agement has been narrow, jealous, and servile. The one
was free to all comers;6 the other has been open to every¬
body—who was in no respect obnoxious to the Russian
police.9 In the space of forty-three years Count Joseph
Zaluski had acquired, at his own expense, above 200,000
volumes. His brother, Andrew Zaluski, Bishop of Cracow,
enriched this numerous collection, as well with the books
bequeathed to him by the last descendant of John III.,
King of Poland, as with those which he collected from
the libraries of his uncles, Andrew Olszofski, Primate of
the kingdom of Poland, Prince Andrew Chrysostom, Bishop
of Warmia, and Louis Bartholomew, Bishop of Plock;
and after having joined to these the collection in his own
cabinet, he transferred the whole, in 1742, to a house which
1 “ Recollections of the author of Vathek {New Monthly Magazine, vol. Ixxi., p. 308).
■ Matthews’ Diary of an Invalid (1820), p. 319.
a Murray’s Handbook for Russia, &c., new edition (1849), p. 593.
I Foreign Office Returns, 1850, pp. 339, 340. 6 petzholdt, ut supra, p. 218.
It seems almost too poetically fitting to be literally true (under existing circumstances), that the Zaluski Palace at Warsaw has been
purchased by a wealthy Polish nobleman, the Marquess Wielopolski, for the establishment of a national library. Some of our readers
foTth^asSon^Tdonot know8660 ^ Statement in the newsPaPers early last year (1856). What foundation there may have been
7 Bacmeister, Rssaisur la Bibliotheque de VAcademic des Sciences de St Retersbourg (1776), p. 47.
8 . . . “ In ornamentum Patriae, Civiumque suorum perpetuam utilitatem,
Publicam esse voluit:
Adolescentibus illicium, senibus subsidium,
Otiosis spectaculum, occupatis diverticulum,
Studiosis negotium,
„ Conditori gloriosum monumentum”—
Such were the words of the inscription on the Zaluski Library.
..V* 'you,d> however, be unjust to state thus much of truth as to the past, without adding that there is some reason to believe that
racdterizeetheefutnuremPer0r5 ^ ^ ^ administration of Bai'on von Korff> as chief librarian, greater liberality is likely to ch* .
VOL. XIII.
3 H
426
LIBRARIES.
Foreign had previously belonged to the family of Danilovitch,
.Libraries anci ]ia(i probably come to him by inheritance. In 1747
^ he rendered it public, and settled an annual income or en¬
dowment for its support and increase. In the very year in
which it was thus made accessible, we find it described as
being already “ a splendid, unequalled, and, in regard espe¬
cially to its stores of Polish history, an inestimable library.”1
After the death of this prelate, Count Joseph Zaluski
still further augmented it by the addition of a great number
of volumes, and, by his will, made in 1761, bequeathed it,
along with the house in which it was deposited, to the col-
,. . lege of Jesuits at Warsaw,2 in trust for the public. After
the suppression of that order in 1773, it was placed under
■ J - \ the care of the Commission of Education, and at last seized
and carried off to St Petersburg in 1795, as already narrated.
'This transportation being made by land, and along roads
which the late season of the year rendered almost imprac¬
ticable, many boxes of books suffered from the inclemency
of the weather, others were broken or damaged, and the
works which they contained spoiled, misplaced, or separated,
and the sets broken. The collection was conveyed to the
imperial cabinet in two convoys, and after the inventory had
been completed on the 23d of February 1796, it was found
that the collection still amounted to 262,640 volumes, and
24,573 prints. This library comprised in general all the
best works, up to the middle of the seventeenth century,
in the sciences, the arts, and the belles-lettres. The theo¬
logical, and, after it, the historical and literary branches,
were the most considerable. The theological department
alone comprehended above 80,000 volumes. It was also
rich in topography, especially in the histories of towns ; and
the literary branch included a precious collection of classi¬
cal books and works on bibliography ; but the departments
of philosophy, mathematics, physics, travels, and antiquities
were very incomplete.3 Such was the foundation of the Im¬
perial Library at St Petersburg. But for the spoils of Poland,
that collection, instead of now ranking in the first class, would
scarcely, perhaps, have been entitled to a place in the third.
This library, augmented by various other collections,
and by purchases both extensive and systematic, amounted,
in 1849, to 451,532 printed volumes, and 20,689 volumes
of MSS.4 Of late years, the official reports have been
annually published in the St Petersburger Zeitung, and
reprinted in the Serapeum. We gather from them that in
some years (as in 1855, for instance, notwithstanding the
war), the accessions, from all sources5 together, have reached
15,000 volumes.6 Probably, for the entire period from
1849 to 1857, they will have averaged 8000 volumes a-
year. On this basis the present total would be 519,500
volumes and about 21,000 MSS. Its management is detailed
at length in the Appendix to the Report of the Select Com¬
mittee on the British Museum (p. 449, et seqq.). Supple¬
mentary information of later date will be found amongst
the Foreign Official Returns appended to the Report from Foreign
Select Committee on Public Libraries of 1850 ; to both of Libiaries^
which we refer. “r. Y
The Library of the Academy of Sciences at St P etersburg Library of
was drafted from that early “ Imperial Library,” the origin ^e^-Aca-
of which we have already narrated; and the bulk of which
Catherine L, in 1726, presented to the newly-instituted
society. It continued to increase, by the bounty and by
the enterprise of succeeding czars. Bacmeister (whom we
know already) has minutely chronicled its progress: after
telling of the many collections it had successively absorbed,
he breaks into this philosophical reflection,—“ It is an
astonishing thing that war, which everywhere else has been
fatal to the sciences, has in Russia been advantageous to
them. It was war that favoured the first establishment of
our library, and it is to war that we are indebted for the
chief additions that have been made to it.”7 But, since
Bacmeister’s days, other sources of augmentation have as¬
sisted its growth. In 1802, for instance, it received an
important addition in the library and cabinet of Count
Boutourlin, purchased by the Emperor Alexander. It is
also entitled to a copy of every book printed within the
Russian dominions. This collection contained, on the 1st
January 1849, a total of 112,213 volumes (including MSS.
as well as printed books), of which 24,933 were Russian,
and 87,280 foreign. There were besides 6688 printed
books and MSS. set apart in the “ Asiatic Museum” of
the Academy.8
The third public library of St Petersburg is that of the
“ Roumianzoff Museum,” which became a public establish¬
ment in 1827. It contained, in 1849, 32,258 printed
volumes, 965 MSS., 4620 prints, and 590 maps, £cc.
The Imperial Private Library is in the Palace of the Her¬
mitage. It includes the Library of Diderot, purchased by
the Empress Catherine in his lifetime, with permission to
the vender to become its usufructuary for the remainder of
his days ; and also a considerable collection of the papers
of Voltaire. It is a splendid library of more than 80,000
printed volumes,10 besides its fine MSS.; of the Voltairian
portion of which M. Leonzon-Leduc has given an excel¬
lent account in the report above quoted.
XII. DENMARK.
There are three public libraries at Copenhagen, viz-, Libraries
the King’s Library, the University Library, and Classen’s £ e°nl,en
Library. The Royal Public Library of Copenhagen dates
its first commencement from the middle ot the sixteenth
century. In 1665 Frederick III. established it in its pre¬
sent building, and largely improved the collection. It now
contains—according to the official reports—nearly 408,000
volumes of printed books, and about 15,000 MSS. Jhe
University Library was originally founded prior to 1500;
1 Janozki, Nachricht von dcnen in der Hochgrdflich Zaluskischen Bibliothek sich befindenden raven Polnischen Biichern (Dresd. 1747,
8vo), p. 5.
it til mr-orv nf Z-iluski at Warsaw ” savs Denis, in his Introduction to the Knowledge of Books, “ was opened to the
The celebrated Library of Z . aon’ooo volumes Benedict XIV., in 1752, issued a bull of excommunication against
ktfwtTJuM commit ^
took possession of this treasure, in spite of the attempts made by the Heirs to retain n. v , *
17“7Sc‘m£ ZL,* ,ur la FoadaUon, VAction, « tArraagmmt *!» BibUotKlqm I^riaU, Appendix to Eepor,, p. 457, „
* Foreign Office Returns, 1850, p. 338. , m„nt:on of which runs thusBesides the taxed or censorship copies (CW<r-
6 Amongst these sources we find one, the oincial mention ot . nf 18ri4 nhout 2000 volumes which
Exemplaren), the library received gratis from the officers of customs, in pursuan 55x Jahresbericht der Kaiserl Oeffentlichen
had been confiscated for various reasons {die aus verschiedenen Grunden confisart worden waren ). Jahresbertcht der Katserl. Vejje
Bibliothek zu St Petersburg, fur 1855, § iv. A. 7 Bacmeister, Essai, ut supra, p. 61.
b Jahresbericht, &c., ut supra, § iv. D. g
8 Foreign Office Returns, 1850, p. 339. Ibid., p. . < littrraire en Finlando
10 Rapport adresse a M. de Salvandy, Ministre de VInstmction Publigue, par M. Leonzon-Leduc, charge d une mission Utteraire
et en Russie, &c., Oct. 1847. {Archives des Missions Scientifiques, 1850, tom. 1., p. »•)
11 Foreign Office Returns, 1850, p. 175.
LIBRARIES.
427
Foreign was destroyed by fire in 1730; and soon afterwards restored.
Libraries It now contains nearly 154,000 printed, and 4000 MS.
volumes. Classen’s Library contains about 30,000 printed
volumes, but possesses no MSS. These libraries, consisting
of upwards of 600,000 volumes, printed and MS., are acces¬
sible to all respectable householders, and likewise to strangers
introduced by such ; and the books are, besides, under cer¬
tain restrictions, allowed to circulate. The King’s Library
is general, and about equally complete in all the branches
of human knowledge. The University Library is also to a
certain extent general, but the main body of the collection
has been made chiefly with reference to academical educa¬
tion. Classen’s Library consists principally of books of
geography, travels, natural history, and agriculture. The
administration of these libraries seems to be both econo¬
mical and efficient, and to be conducted solely with a view
to public utility, which, in this case, means public instruc¬
tion.1 Of the principal catalogues of those Danish libraries
we give a list below.2
Royal li-
XIII. SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
The public libraries in Sweden are, (L)the Royal Library,
brary, &c., situate in the northern wing of the king’s palace at Stock-
of Sweden, holm ; (2.) the library called Benzielstjerna-Engestrom,
founded by private individuals, but to which admission is
readily granted on recommendation. These are in the
capital. The Royal Library, which was founded by Gus-
tavus Vasa about 1540, and enlarged by the liberality of
succeeding sovereigns, contains about 96,000 volumes of
printed books, with nearly 4000 MSS.,3 besides 16,500
charters and deeds, and is open to the public every day ex¬
cepting Saturdays, Sundays, and holidays ; books are lent
out on respectable recommendation.
Denmark of many thousand volumes of duplicates selected Foreign
from the Royal Library at Copenhagen, when the exten- Libraries
sive and valuable collection of Count Suhm was acquired.
There are six other libraries of some importance in Nor¬
way,—two of which are in the capital,—besides a very large
number of school and village libraries. Of the former the
most extensive is that of Trondheim, counting 26,000
printed volumes, and 800 MSS. The two smaller Chris¬
tiania libraries have each of them about 12,000 printed
volumes. That called Deichman’s Library, possesses also
320 MSS.9
But the MSS. at Upsal, and those at Stockholm, are
almost the only MSS. in the kingdom of Sweden and Nor¬
way which possess interest of a high order for strangers, as
well as for natives. The Upsal collection includes the
famous Codex Argenteus, containing the Gothic Gospels of
Ulfilas. It was amongst the spoils seized by the Swedes
at the storming of Prague, in 1648; and after passing suc¬
cessively through the hands of Queen Christina, of Isaac
Vossius, and of the Count de la Gardie, was presented by
the latter to the University of Upsal. It is, and in mo¬
dern days has always been, imperfect; but ten leaves of it
are said to have been recovered at the end of 1856. It has
been recently and ably edited by Dr Massman. Amongst
the surviving treasures of Stockholm (the Royal Library
suffered severely by fire in 1697), is a golden book which
has had even stranger vicissitudes than the silver book of
Upsal. The Latin Evangeliary, which is called Codex
Aureus, bears an inscription in Anglo-Saxon, recording its
rescue “ from a heathen war-troop, with our pure treasure,”
by “Alfred, and Werburgh, ins wife.” Long after this in¬
cident it found its way to Madrid, where, in 1690, it was
purchased by Sparvenfeldt, and carried into Sweden. An-
... - . 1 he Library of Ben- other biblical MS. (Cbcfec Giganteus) contains nearly all
zielstjerna-Engestrom contains about 14,500 volumes of the Old Testament, much of the Apocrypha, all the New
n- Testament, except the Pauline Epistles and the Apoca
printed books, and 1200 volumes of MSS., rich in ma¬
terials for Swedish history.4 Besides these, there are li¬
braries attached to the different academies, which are also
accessible. The number of provincial libraries in Sweden,
including those of the Universities of Upsal and Lund, is
nineteen. That of Upsal, which was founded by Gustavus
Adolphus, is the largest in Sweden, and contains more than
135,000 printed volumes, with nearly 7000 MSS.5 A cata-
lypse ; the greater part of Josephus ; and a strange treatise
on magic, adorned with a gilded portrait of the arch-enemy.
Here is also a most curious English medical MS., appa¬
rently of the fourteenth century, somewhat after the fashion
of the Regimen Sanitatis of the famous School of Salerno.
Appended to this part of the Codex, which is metrical, are
various prescriptions and clinical memoranda, which have
logue of the collection, by Professor Aurivilius, was printed sometimes led to its description as a physician’s case-book,
in the vear 1814. in 2 vols. 4to. The Lihrarv nf Lund rru—   .u • n/roo - i . , n ,
in the year 1814, in 2 vols. 4to. The Library of Lund
was founded at the same time as that university (1671)
by Charles X., and possesses upwards of 70,000 printed
volumes, and 2000 MSS.6 These libraries are supported
and increased by an annual grant from the state, and by
a fee paid by each student on entering the universities. In
those provincial towns where large public schools, called
Gymnasia, are established, there are also small libraries.
These collections, which have been founded by private in¬
dividuals, are kept up much in the same way as those
belonging to the universities.7
Libraries in At Christiania, in Norway, the Library of the University
Norway, contains about 115,000 printed volumes, and 600 MSS.8
It was founded, in 1811, upon a donation by the King of
There are other choice MSS., which cannot here find men¬
tion.10 Of the Upsal Library, there is a printed cata¬
logue up to 1814,11 since continued in MS. Of the MSS.
given by Sparvenfeldt, a catalogue was printed in 1706.12
Of the Oriental MSS., the first part of a catalogue, by
Toruberg, was printed in 1849.13
XIY. TURKEY.
Oriental libraries are, usually, but small collections, the Libraries
contents of which are little known to Europeans. Their of the East,
general character, however, will be most satisfactorily indi¬
cated by the description of some of them.
At Constantinople there are, within the walls of the
1 ^PP- to the Report on the British Museum, p. 483.
* Codices Orientales Bibliothecce Regice Haunice, &c. Hafn. 1846, 4to; Description des Manuscrits Francois du Moyen Age de la
B/bl. Roy. de Copenhague, par Abrahams, Copen., 1844, 8vo; Catalogue Bibliothecce Thottiance [by Ebert and Eccard] Haunite,
1789-95, 12 yols. 8vo. Part of the splendid collection of Thott (who had amassed 121,945 printed volumes—6039 of which were printed
anterior to 1530 and 4154 MSS.) wTas added to the Royal Library by bequest, and part by subsequent purchase. The catalogue is so
good, that Brunet has said of it, if it be not one of the choicest, it is certainly one of the most useful books, which a bibliographer could
put into his working collection. Of the Oriental MSS. of the University Library, a portion is described in Westergaard’s catalogue
entitled, Codices Indici Bibliothecce Universitatis Ilaunice.
3 Foreign Office Returns of ±o. 4 Ibid., p. 47. 6 Ibid., p. 48. 6 Ibid., p. 47.
2 Notices sur les Bibliotheques Publiques en Suede, Appendix to Report, ut supra, p. 497, et seqq.
8 Foreign Office Returns of 1851, p. 44. 9 p. 49.
;° ^r!ave}S °/-E--D- Clarice, vol. vi., pp. 279-283 ; Elliott, Letters from the North of Europe; Von Schubert, Reise durch Schweden,
&c. (1817--0); Stephens, Extracts from an old English Medical Manuscript at Stockholm (Archceologia, 1844, vol. xxx., pp. 349-429)
12 Catalogue Librorum impressorum Bibliothecce Regioe Academice Upsaliensis, 1814, fol.
Catalogue Centuries Librorum Manuscriptorum Rarissimorum, &c., 1706. This catalogue was drawn up by Celsius and Benzelius
Codices Arabici, Persici, Turcici, Bibliothecae Regice Acad. Upsaliensis, Upsal, 1849.
-
428 LIBRARIES.
Foreign Seraglio, two libraries, which were founded respectively by
Libraries Achmed III. and Mustapha III., and enriched with hooks
's—■v/-""-'' acquired by themselves or their successors. These libraries
Libraries do not appear to contain more than 60001 volumes, and
of Constan- are seldom increased by purchase, but occasionally by do-
tim pie. nations made to the sultan by his grandees, or by con¬
fiscations of the effects of public officers, amongst which
books are sometimes to be found.2 Much uncertainty has
prevailed, and many erroneous reports have been circulated,
respecting the contents of these libraries. The Abbe Se-
vin, who arrived at Constantinople in December 1728,
failed to obtain admission into the Sultan’s Library; and,
deterred by the assurances he had received, that Amurath
IV. had caused all the Greek MSS. to be burned, he
deemed any further research or inquiry to be hopeless;
whilst succeeding travellers, relying on statements of a
different kind, have—as we had occasion to notice in a
preceding part of this article—confidently asserted that
in these libraries were still preserved the ancient collec¬
tions of the Greek emperors.3 More fortunate than his
predecessors, however, Toderini, after three years’ unre¬
mitting attempts during his residence at Constantinople,
found means to procure transcripts of the catalogues of
the libraries in the Seraglio, through the instrumentality
of a page who clandestinely copied a few lines every
day.4 From the inquiries of the learned Abbate, it ap¬
pears that the merits of these collections had been greatly
exaggerated. The libraries of the Seraglio are much
inferior to some of those which are open to the public.
Commentaries, explanations, marginal notes, and other writ¬
ings on the Koran, form the subjects of the largest portion ;
to which succeed treatises on jurisprudence (also accom¬
panied with notes and commentaries), on philosophy, logic,
astronomy, arithmetic, medicine, and ethics. The histo¬
rical works are few in number, and chiefly relate to the
Ottoman empire. There are some MSS. in the Greek,
Latin, and other European languages ; but no traces what¬
ever have been discovered of the lost decades of Livy, of
the writings of Homer or Tacitus, or of those parts which
are deficient in the works of other ancient authors.5
Besides those of the Seraglio, Constantinople possesses
thirty-nine public libraries,6 * all varying in extent, but more
or less noticeable for the number and value of their manu¬
scripts, which are neatly bound in red, green, or black mo¬
rocco. The Mohammedans have a peculiar method of
indorsing, placing, and preserving their books. Each vo¬
lume, besides being bound in morocco, is preserved from
dust in a case of the same material; and on it, as well
as on the edges of the leaves, the title is written in legible
characters. The books are placed one upon another
in presses ornamented with trellis-work, and are disposed
along the wall, or in the four corners of the library. To
facilitate literary researches, each library is furnished with a
catalogue, containing the title, and giving a short account
of the subject of each volume. Theology, including the
iforara and Commentaries thereon, j urisprudence, medicine,
ethics, and history, are the sciences chiefly cultivated by the
Osmanlees. The books are usually written with the greatest Foreign
care, on the finest vellum; the text of each page is in- Librarie 8
closed in a highly-ornamented and gilt frame work; the
beginning of each chapter or section is splendidly illumi¬
nated ; and the prices of the manuscripts vary in proportion
to the beauty of the characters.' Under the reign of the
late Sultan Mahmoud, the introduction of European dis¬
cipline, and, to a certain extent, of European customs and
manners, has paved the way for still more important inno¬
vations. Recent events must also greatly facilitate the in¬
troduction of European knowledge and civilization, and
the ultimate subversion of those fanatical prejudices, which,
when fostered by ignorance and matured by superstition,
have ever presented the most formidable obstacle to the im¬
provement of nations.
I lie Library of the Convent of Mount Sinai was found by Library of
Mr Burckhardt to contain a great number of Arabic manu- the Ton-
scripts, and some Greek books; but the former proved to be vent “f
of little literary value ; and of the latter, Burckhardt carried j'!011?11
away two beautiful Aldine editions, a Homer and an An- bina1'
thology. The priests refused to show him their Arabic me¬
morandum-books previous to the fifteenth century ; but
from those which he was permitted to inspect, he copied
some very interesting documents concerning the former
state of the country.8
(3.) AMERICAN AND COLONIAL LIBRARIES.
I. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
Scarcely any country in the world has made, within a Libraries
period of ten years, such rapid strides in the provision and of United
improvement of libraries, freely accessible, as have theStates-
United States, since the year 1847. Libraries, indeed, had
been among the objects of early solicitude to the colonists ;
but the work that lay nearest their hand was too stern and
too urgent to admit of much more being done in this direc¬
tion than was plainly and immediately educational. Colle¬
giate libraries were cared for from the first. School libra¬
ries grew up quietly as incidents of school organization.
Men met together to form proprietary libraries of various
kinds, as soon as the comparative completion in the older
parts of the country of the rough pioneer work gave them
a little breathing time, just before the outbreak of the revo¬
lutionary war. When that fierce strife came, libraries were
not infrequently turned into barracks, or into military hos¬
pitals ; nor can it be at all a matter of surprise that occa¬
sionally books found their way into knapsacks (usually of
British manufacture), and suffered an eventual metamor¬
phosis into grog).9 In more peaceful times the old libra¬
ries were sought for and furbished up. Accessions were
made, and a systematic literary intercourse with Europe
was established. Private libraries, too, were formed, with
improving taste, and with a liberality according well with
the great wealth of many of their owners. Two classes of
libraries, however,—each of them the most important of
all within its own sphere,—have sprung up only in recent
1 White, Three Years in Constantinople, 2d edit., 1846 (vol. ii., pp. 182-196). Mr White affirms distinctly that the librarian’s own state¬
ment of the larger of these two Seraglio Libraries, made to himself in June 1842, was, that it contained but 4440 volumes. It had contained
within his memory 6100, but the late sultan had removed some of them to another collection. D’Ohsson has stated that these Seraglio
Libraries contained in his day 16,000 volumes. Recent writers have put them at 20,000. The returns sent by Lord Redcliffe to Lord
Palmerston, in 1850, do not contain the precise number of volumes in any Turkish library, but say generally that the largest of them
“ do not contain more than about 4000 volumes.” [Foreign Office Returns of 1851, p. 50.)
2 D’Ohsson, Tableau general de VEmpire Ottomane, tom. ii., pp. 487-494.
3 It is not a little singular that Dr E. D. Clarke has made no mention whatever of the libraries of the Seraglio, although he has given
a detailed, and, upon the whole, picturesque description of its interior.
4 Catalogo della Libreria della Seraglio, transportato da Constantinopoli a Venezia, dalV Abbate Giambattista Toderini, nel anno 1786,
in 8vo. See also Della Letteratura Turchescha, tom. ii., pp. 53-81.
6 Toderini, Letteratura Turchescha, tom. ii., pp. 51, 53, et seqq.
6 Foreign Office Returns, 1851, ubi supra.; Comp. D’Ohsson, tom. ii., pp. 488, 489; Toderini, tom. ii., p. 32, et seqq.
^ Foreign Office Returns, 1851, p. 51. 8 Burckhardt, Journals in the Peninsula of Sinai, May, 1817.
MacMullen, The Past, Present, and Future of the New York Society Library (1856), p. 5.
I
LIBRARIES.
429
American days. Of the first class, the Astor Library at New York
Libraries, may be considered a type; and of the second, the Free
Public Library of the city of Boston. Our retrospect of
the growth and progress of American libraries, from the
foundation of that of Harvard College in 1638, to the esta¬
blishment of the Boston Free Library in 1852, must be
« compressed into very narrow limits; but will be best ar¬
ranged in the order indicated by their actual succession.
We begin, therefore, with university or collegiate libraries.
Collegiate Almost the entire progress made by Harvard Library
libraries of between 1638 and 1764, was cancelled by the disastrous
the United fire which occurred in the college buildings early in the last
States. named year. By that accident, about 5000 books were
destroyed, and some pleasant links which visibly connected
the memories of many British worthies with the growing
American university were sundered. Among the burned
books were many that had been given by Kenelm Digby,
by John Maynard, by Lightfoot, by Gale, and by Bishop
Berkeley. Vigorous efforts were soon made to form a new
library. The legislative bodies of other States, as well as
that of Massachusetts, contributed. Friends in England,
amongst whom Thomas Hollis was pre-eminent, gave zea¬
lous help. But the war interposed serious obstacles ; and
even in 1790, the collection did not muster more than
12,000 volumes. They were well chosen ; and have now
grown into a library, which (including its ancillary or spe¬
cial collections, such as those of Divinity and of Law) num¬
bers at least 83,000 volumes, and is steadily increasing.
There is a good printed catalogue,1 and the library is freely
accessible for literary purposes. The Library of Brown
University, in Rhode Island, ranks next. Its first begin¬
nings date from 1768.2 It now contains about 30,000 vo¬
lumes ; exclusive of the students’ libraries, which number
nearly 12,000 more. Yale College Library is somewhat
older than the college itself; it being recorded, that at
the second of the preliminary meetings, in 1700, each of
the ten founders brought with him some books, and placing
them on the table, said,—“ I give] these books for the
founding of a college in this colony’' But the real corner¬
stone of the library was laid by Bishop Berkeley thirty years
later.3 He sent over the finest collection of books that had
then been seen in America; and it is owing to his influ¬
ence that Yale College can show in her Donation-Book the
names of Burnet, Kennet, Bentley, Halley, Newton, and
Steele. This collection has grown to somewhat more than
27,000 volumes; besides three subsidiary students’ libraries,
containing, in the aggregate, 33,000 volumes more. The
Library of the University of Virginia dates but from 1825,
and was selected and originally arranged by Jefferson. It
now numbers upwards of 21,000 volumes. There are more
than 100 other college libraries, most of which are yet in
the cradle, but give good promise of growth. The aggre¬
gate number of volumes in all the libraries of this class is
. estimated to exceed 650,000; exclusively of the students’
libraries, which amount, nominally, to nearly 300,000 vo¬
lumes in addition; but collections of this kind must ob¬
viously require large deduction for wear and tear.
Proprie- I he most valuable of the proprietary libraries is also the
tary libra- oldest of them ; “ and was,” says Benjamin Franklin, “ my
State! U‘ firSt pr°jeCt of a Public nature* 1 drew UP the proposals,
. . . and procured subscribers.” This was in 1731. “We American
afterwards,” he continues, “obtained a charter [1742], the Libraries,
company being increased to one hundred; this was the
mother of all the North American subscription libraries.
It is become a great thing itself, and goes on increasing.
These libraries have improved the general conversation
of the Americans; have made the common tradesmen and
farmers as intelligent as most gentlemen from other coun¬
tries, and perhaps have contributed, in some degree, to the
stand so generally made throughout the colonies in defence
of their privileges.”4 James Logan, the friend and coun¬
sellor of William Penn, had formed a valuable collection of
books, and had given them to trustees in Philadelphia for
public use. Another collection formed in England by his
brother served to augment the former; and, in 1792, an
act of the Pennsylvania legislature conjoined the Loganian
collection with the library founded by Franklin. It now,
therefore, under the title of “ Library of the Philadelphia
Library Company,” combines the characters of a public and
of a subscription library ; as a reference collection, it is freely
accessible; as a lending collection, subscribers only may
borrow books. The United Libraries contained in April
1856, 64,195 volumes.5 There is a very good classified
and printed catalogue, up to 1835 (2 vols. 8vo), which has
won the merited commendation of Brunet. (“ We con¬
sider,” he says, “ this catalogue a good model for our own
public libraries.”6) And we have before us some proof-sheets
of a third volume, on the same plan, which contains all the
added books up to April 1856. Next in rank comes the
Library of the Boston Athenaeum, a very choice assemblage
of books, and better stocked with foreign scientific litera¬
ture than are most American libraries, amounting in 1857
to more than 60,000 volumes; and enjoying the eminent
distinction of possessing a portion of the library of Washing¬
ton. The third place belongs to the Mercantile Library
of New York, commenced in 1821, and which, under the
vigorous management of Mr S. Hastings Grant, had grown,
on the 1st August 1856, to 47,082 volumes:7 of this collection
too, there is an excellent catalogue, or index, on the alpha¬
betical plan. The Mercantile Libraries of Boston, Cincin¬
nati, and St Louis are of subsequent date, and contained,
respectively, in 1856, 18,000,8 16,423,® and 12,840 vo¬
lumes.10 The library of the American Antiquarian Society
at Worcester contains the curious collections of its founder.
Dr Isaiah Thomas, the historian of American printing, and
also those of the Mather family. It now amounts to nearly
21,000 volumes. The New York Society Library was
founded about 1700, by the Rev. John Sharp,»the English
chaplain of Lord Bellamont, then governor of the colony,
and was augmented by a small collection bequeathed by an
English rector thirty years afterwards. It now contains up¬
wards of40,000 volumes of printed books, and a few MSS.11
The earliest of the State libraries is that of New Hamp- State H-
shire, founded at Concord about 1770. It now contains Lraries.
little more than 7000 volumes. Ohio has a State library,
founded in 1817, with between 15,000 and 16,000 vo¬
lumes. That of New York, at Albany, is the largest and
best selected of all the State libraries. It dates but from
1818, and was long an inconsiderable collection. The
energetic administration of the late Dr T. Romeyn Beck
i Catalogue of the Library of Harvard University, 1830, 8vo, with supplement.
Jewett, Notices of Public Libraries in the United States (1851), p. 54.
.Jewett, Notices of Libraries in U. States, p. 71. Mr Bancroft has said in his noble history, “Berkeley returned to Europe to endow
a library «n Anode Island, &c, (History of the Colonization of the U. Statesy vol. iii., p. 374); but this would seem to be a verbal over-
sight, although even such oversights are very unusual with that accomplished historian.
Autobiography of Franklin, by Sparks, p. 97. 6 Catalogue of the Books of the Library Comp, of Philadelphia, vol. iii., p. xiii.
Manuel du Libraire, 4emc edit., vol. i., p. 578. 7 Thirty-fifth Annual Report of New York Mercantile Library (1856), p. 17.
° Thirty-sixth Annual Report of the Mercantile Library of Boston (1856), p. 34.
* Twenty-first Annual Report of the Mercantile Library of Cincinnati (1856), p. 6.
Ninth Annual Report of the Mercantile Library of St Louis (1855), p. 12; Tenth Report (1856), p. 15. 11 MacMullen, ut supra, p. 5.
430 LIBRARIES.
American raised it rapidly to an important position ; and it now con*
Libraries, tains 43,634 volumes of printed books,1 and some valuable
MSS., chiefly relating to American history ; amongst them
many early colonial charters and other public documents;
the papers of Sir William Johnson and of Governor Clin¬
ton, and a curious series of letters relating to the affair of
Major Andre. The remaining State libraries, twenty-six
in number, range from 3000 up to 17,000 volumes, and
contain, in the aggregate, nearly 200,000 volumes. These
are of course, in the main, not only political, but Americo-
political in character; and are especially intended for the
furtherance of public business.
Library of The first Library of Congress was destroyed by the
WastiTn 8 at ^r't;'is^ army 'n 1815. The second library was founded on
ton. ^ie basis of that of President Jefferson, and was partially
destroyed by fire in 1851. At the time of this calamity it
contained more than 50,000 volumes, but of these about
20,000 were saved,—including much of the Jefferson col¬
lection, which was strong in American history,—and be¬
came the nucleus of a third library. At the beginning of
1854, 20,000 volumes had been already acquired, chiefly by
purchases, to meet which appropriations have been made
by Congress, amounting to about L.l7,000. Early atten¬
tion was wisely given to the acquisition of,—(1.) The long
sets of important periodicals; (2.) The great antiquarian
and scientific works of the Champollions, llosellinis, Kings-
boroughs, and Humboldts; (3.) Valuable and rare works
on American history. At present the collection, which is
not yet definitively arranged, must number between 60,000
and 70,000 volumes.
Astor li- America cannot be said to have possessed any great
brary at library, formed with especial view to the wants of the higher
New ^ork. c]asges 0p stuc]enj;S) unt;} the bequest of John Jacob Astor
(of 11 four hundred thousand dollars, out of my residuary
estate, to the establishment of a public library in the City
of New York ”) laid a very substantial foundation for such
an one, in the year 1839. The testator died nine years
afterwards, and his trustees were incorporated in 1849.
Their first proceeding was to select a librarian,—indeed,
one had already been virtually selected by Mr Astor’s own
foresight,—and to send him to Europe (with large powers
and wide discretion) for the purchase of books. Dr Cogs¬
well acquitted himself of his task in the manner in which it
had been foreseen he would perform it. He is now at
the head of a well-chosen library, gathered from the best
markets of England, France, Italy, and Germany, already
numbering between 95,000 and 98,000 volumes; and
lodged in a handsomd and fire-proof building—Florentine
in style—which is capable of holding, perhaps, three times
the number. A sum of 180,000 dollars (L.37,500) was
originally invested as a maintenance fund, and has since
been increased. Liberal donations in aid of the library have
also been received from Mr W. B. Astor, son of the founder.2
The library is open to all comers as a library of reference,
and is open to nobody as a lending library, so that students
are certified that all books which the library possesses will
be found within its walls.
Smithson’s The Smithsonian Institution at Washington possesses a
library at library of about 15,000 volumes, the majority of which have
Washing- accrued either by gift or by exchange for its publications,
ton. Founded, as will be rememhered, by the contingent bequest
of James Smithson, an Englishman (. . . . “In case of the
death of my said nephew without . . . children, ... 7 then
bequeath the whole of my property ... to the United States Americarj
of America, to found at Washington, under the name of the Libraries
Smithsonian Institution, an Establishment for the increase
and diffusion of hnoivledge amongst men ”),3 it was incor¬
porated in 1846, and its name and publications have already
become familiar throughout Europe. When the contin¬
gency occurred, the money was put to interest, so that, at
the date of the charter, the fund amounted to nearly
L.160,000. Great diversity of opinion prevailed as to the
character of the appropriation which would best carry out
the testator’s purpose, and most redound to the honour of
the United States. Eventually it was determined that the
plan should include,—(1.) publications, especially such as
should add to science ; and, also, (2.) a library and museum,
But hitherto the first part of the plan has been an Aaron’s
rod to the second part.
The first of those Free City Libraries, which bid fair to Free City
be worked out in the United States with true American libraries,
energy and thoroughness, was that of Boston, organized in
1852 by the city government (by an ordinance of the 14th
Oct.), hut substantially founded on 5th August 1850, by
Mr John P. Bigelow, Mayor of Boston, who then diverted a
subscription of 1000 dollars, intended to be expended on
some mark of the respect of his fellow citizens for himself,
towards “the establishment of a Free Library;” and who
had already received a present of French books, through
the agency of M. A. Vattemare; and presents of American
books from Edward Everett, and from Robert Winthrop,
a descendant of the founder of the Commonwealth of
Massachusetts.
To this beginning Mr Joshua Bates brought a first con¬
tribution of 50,000 dollars (L.10,416), and a second contri¬
bution of an extensive series of books, purchased in Europe
expressly for the library. Mr Jonathan Phillips gave
10,000 dollars (L.2083) to be invested as a book fund; Mr
Abbott Lawrence, an active promoter of the enterprise,
bequeathed a like sum at his lamented decease. This
remarkable liberality was worthily met by the city authori¬
ties. The library was opened for public use in 1853, and
now contains about 25,000 volumes. On its committee
appear the names of Everett, Ticknor, and Story, in whose
report it is described as “ intended to furnish . . . the oppor¬
tunity of completing that education of which the foundations
have been laid in the public schools.”4
The small town of New Bedford quickly followed the
example of Boston. Its library is now in the fourth year of
its existence, and has nearly 10,000 volumes. In the
Fourth Annual Report, the trustees thus express them¬
selves,—“ A Free Public Library is the crowning glory of
the system of public education, which has been, from our
earliest history, the pride of Massachusetts. . . . No act of
the municipal authorities has ever met so universally and
deeply the approbation of the people.”5 6
The most noticeable libraries of the British colonies in British
America are those at Quebec and Montreal. Both are still Colonial
small, but are progressive; and the legislature of Lowerllbrane8,
Canada has recently taken steps for their improvement and • !
extension. In Upper Canada there is nothing which de¬
serves to be called a public library. Even the collection
which belongs to the legislature of that province is utterly
neglected. “ For nearly twelve years,” says Mr Mackenzie,
“in several sessions of the provincial legislature, I made
1 Catalogue of the State Library of New York (1857), preface ; Comp. Jewett, Notices of Public Libraries in the United States (1850), pp.
73-78 ; and Annual Reports of the Trustees of the State Library of New York (1851-1856), 8vo.
2 Reports of the Trustees of the Astor Library, 1854-1856 (Albany), 8vo.
3 Representative Documents of the Congress of the United States (33d Congress, 2d Session), Report, No. 141, p. 5.
4 Boston City Documents, 1853, No. 73 ; 1855, No. 57, pp. 7-10 ; Proceedings on occasion of laying the Cornier-Stone of the Public Library
of the City of Boston, 17th September 1855, pp. 40-64.
6 Fourth Annual Report of the Public Library of New Bedford (March 1856), p. 12.
LIBRARIES.
431
American repeated efforts to improve the library, . . . but the council
Libraries, refused.”1
Libraries of
Brazil,
and of
Mexico.
II. BRAZIL AND MEXICO.
In the Brazils the most important collection is that in the
“National Public Library” of Rio de Janeiro, said to
amount to 70,000 printed volumes, and 851 MSS. When
John VI. carried to Brazil the Royal Library of the Ajuda,
it included 4000 MSS., but these went back to Portugcil on
the declaration of independence. Mexico has three libra¬
ries in its capital (1. Cathedral; 2. University; 3. Gre¬
gorian), with about 12,500, 10,000, 7000 printed volumes;
and 500, 600, 200 MSS. respectively; and also a public
library at Puebla, founded by Bishop Palafox, with about
25,000 printed volumes.
stick into the boxes in which the books are kept, before
putting his hand into them. He illustrates the other de¬
partments of library economy, as practised at Lucknow,
by observing that the “ King’s people” have long been ac¬
customed to count the volumes periodically, but without
any regard to their contents or character. So that the
numbers do not diminish, the superintendents take no note
of any changes in the books. “ I have heard,” he adds,
“ that a late librarian sold in one week 1100 rupees worth of
books to provide funds for the marriage of his daughter.”3
At Calcutta there is a good public library,—freely acces¬
sible for consulting purposes,—which contained in 1848,
upwards of 20,000 volumes, and now contains probably
25,000.4
Indian
Libraries.
III. INDIA.
Indian Of the libraries in India, whether composed of Euro¬
libraries. pean or of native works, the want of information suffi¬
ciently to be relied on prevents us from attempting to give
many details. The following account of the largest li¬
brary at Goa, that of the Augustinian monks, extracted
from the Diary of Sir James Mackintosh, is now of by¬
gone years, but is curious enough to be worth quoting. It
was certainly by no means a flattering description. “ The
books,” he says, “ are about 10,000; chiefly Latin and
Portuguese, with a few Spanish, a very few Italian and
Greek, no French, and of course no English, and none
of any other language. There are not above twenty
printed after the close of the seventeenth century. There
are a few bad editions of classics, but not a complete
edition even of Cicero himself: a great many schoolmen,
casuists, and canonists, wdth some jurists: very little his¬
tory, scarcely any of modern times, except a little Portu¬
guese ; about ten volumes of Portuguese and Spanish
poetry; no morals, but as the handmaid or rather slave of
superstition ; no politics, no political economy,.... no astro¬
nomy, no chemistry, no zoology, no botany, no mineralogy,
and no book even on mathematics, but Euclid. I did not
know before that the world had produced 10,000 such use¬
less and pernicious books, or that it had been possible to
have formed a large library, with so curious an exclusion of
whatever is instructive or elegant.”2 At the different pre¬
sidencies, and in some other parts of British India, col¬
lections, more or less extensive and valuable, are in
course of formation ; but they have not been particu¬
larly described. Of the native libraries of India we know
as little. That of Tippoo Sahib, which fell into the hands
of the British when his capital was taken, consisted of
nearly 2000 volumes, many of them highly ornamented.
A Descriptive Catalogue of the Oriental Library of the
late Tippoo Sultan of Mysore, by Charles Stewart, was
printed at the University press, Cambridge, 1809, 4to.
With the exception of some select manuscripts presented
by the East India Company to public libraries in Great
Britain, these Mysore MSS. were deposited by the Mar¬
quess Wellesley in the College of Fort William, then
newly established. There has recently appeared an elabo¬
rate Catalogue of the Arabic, Persian, and HindustcCny
Manuscripts of the Libraries of the King of Oudh, by Dr
Sprenger, printed at Calcutta, 1854, 8vo. In the pre¬
face to this work, after having described the value of the
collection, and the neglect into which it had fallen, Dr
Sprenger remarks that, unless the travelling Orientalist who
may hereafter visit the collection, should chance to be a
zoologist as well, it will be prudent for him to poke with a
The subjoined statistical table gives a comparative view Statistical
of the numerical contents of the several libraries which t^ble
have been referred to in the course of this article, those ^braries*
of private persons only excepted, and suggests a remark
or two, with which our historical survey may fitly
close. Had such a table been appended to the article
“ Libraries” in the last edition of this work, the com¬
parative place in it of Great Britain would have been far
less creditable than it now is. In point of magnitude, our
national library would have figured as tenth instead of se¬
cond in the scale. In point of accessibility, almost every
considerable library in this empire would have shown disad-
vantageously when compared with many libraries in France,
with some in Italy, with nearly all in Germany. In respect
to the number of libraries, of importance enough to subserve
systematic study and research, our position would have been
in direct contrast to the wealth, the extent, the quiet, the
freedom, and the literary glory of Britain. If, indeed, our
table had been so stretched as to include private collections,
the list would have worn a different aspect, but (with a
small number of honourable exceptions) its additional en¬
tries would no more have presented means of gratification
to the mental appetites of the scholar, than the extension of
his sumptuous bill of fare would have charmed the palate of
the immortal Governor of Barataria, whilst he was under the
wand of Dr Rezio de Aguero. As it now stands, in 1857,
the number, extent, and accessibility of British libraries
show a large measure of progress, but a measure which
should rather be stimulating than satisfactory.
The main desiderata in this respect, as the matter shapes Concluding
itself to us, seem to be,—(1.) Such a revision of the regu-remarks-
lations of existing libraries, and, above all, of those of li¬
braries which in some form or other thrive national aid,—
either directly from the public purse, or indirectly by contri¬
butions levied on authors and publishers,—as shall ensure the
largest amount of public service consistent with safety and
good order. (2.) The preparation and printing of thorough
catalogues of the principal libraries of the country, on as
uniform a plan as may be found practicable ; and the making
of such catalogues accessible to all students. (3.) The re¬
moval of all fiscal obstructions to the production of Eng¬
lish books, and to the importation of foreign books, whatever
the apparent magnitude, the supposed incidence, or the
plausible pretexts of such obstructions. (4.) Such measures,
with respect to the circulation and diffusion of all books, maps,
state-papers, and public documents of every kind, which
are printed at the national expense, as shall both ensure
their presence in all libraries where they are likely to be of
public utility, and transform what has too often been a
matter of petty intrigues and miserable jealousies into a
potent means for the encouragement of science and litera-
^ Mackenzie, Sketches of Canada, p. 383; Comp. Preston, Three Years'1 Residence in Canada, vol. ii., p. 246.
2 Life of the Right Hon. Sir James Mackintosh, vol. ii., p. 85. London, 1836, 8vo, 2d edition.
3 Sprenger, Cat. of the . . . MSS. of the King of Oudh, pref., p. 5 (Calcutta, 1854, 8vo).
4 Circular of the Curators of the Calcutta Public Library, sent to Europe in 1849 ; Comp. Report, &c., p. 1847-8 (Calcutta, 1848, 8vo), p. 5.
432
LIBRARIES.
Concluding ture. (5.) Thorough inquiry into the existence, the condi-
remarks. tion5 an(i tiie means of vivifying such old libraries, founded
for public use, as may have fallen into more or less of desue¬
tude or neglect. And, (6.) Such further amendment of the
“ Public Libraries Acts” as the results of practical expe¬
rience may commend to legislative consideration, with a
view to their increased efficiency, where action under them
shall already have taken place ; to their greater adaptability
to the varying circumstances of different localites ; and to
the removal of obstacles which may have impeded their ex¬
tended adoption.
The measures here roughly suggested, will need time,
patience, and industry for their thorough elaboration. One
means of setting to work in this direction is close at hand;
underlies to some extent every measure which has been in¬
dicated ; and enwraps within itself an amount of latent
power, the full force of which is incalculable. That means
is Publicity. If every library in the country, on which Concluding
the public has any fair claim, could be brought under public remarkB.'
view by a clear and regularly recurring statement of (1.)
what it ; (2.) what it has ; and (3.) what it does ; a long
train of improvements would come into quiet and irrever¬
sible operation. But this is an instrument which, if it is to
produce national results, must be nationally handled. It is
not a matter for any private society or institution, howsoever
patronized. If it were taken up (for example) even by a
society, as useful in its proper sphere as has been the
“ Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and
Commerce,” it will assuredly fail. If it be taken up, on the
other hand, by a public department, such as the “ Com¬
mittee of Council for Education,” or, still better, by an in¬
dividual Minister, possessing due authority and definite re¬
sponsibility, it will'as inevitably tend to make the libraries of
Britain, in course of time, the foremost in the world, (e. e.)
Statistical View of the Principal Libraries enumerated in this Article.
Great Bri¬
tain and
Aberdeen...
Bolton.
Bristol.
Cambridge
Name of Library
and
Date of Foundation.
(• * University (or j 1634
Conditions of
Public
Accessibility.
Canterbury
Carlisle...
Dublin.
Durham.
Edinburgh
Ely 
Exeter.
Glasgow..
Lincoln.
Liverpool...
London &
Westmin¬
ster
< King’s Coll, .
( Marisehal College
(Free Public, 1853 
City. (Founded for
public use, but now
in the hands of a
private society.) ...
^University, 1475. ,
Trinity College  
St John’s Coll., 1530..,
Queen’s College  
Gonville & Caius Coll
Emmanuel College 
Pepysian (Magd. Col¬
lege), 1703 
Pembroke College
Peterhouse 
King’s College, 1577(?)
Cathedral,
Do. ...
{^Trinity College, 1602.
*King’s Inns, 1787 
*Dublin Society, 1731.
Archb. Marsh’s, 1697
*Irish Academy, 1787.
Cathedral 
{^Advocates’, 1680
^University, 1580.,
Signet 
Medical Society, 1737.
Physicians, 1682 
Cathedral 
Do 
{*University, 1473....
Stirling’s, 1791 
Hunterian Museum,
1781   
Cathedral 
fFree Public, 1852 
I *BritishMuseum, 1753
London Institn., 1805
London Subscrip. 1841
Royal Society, 1667...
*Sion College, 1631...
Lincoln’s Inn, 1522...
Royal Institn., 1803....
Lambeth Palace, 1610,
Middle Temple, 1641,
Dr D. Williams’, 1716,
Inner Temple, 1707....
St Paul’s Cath., 1713,
By favour 
Free 
Open to all comers
By favour 
By special perm.
Do 
Do 
Do 
Do 
Do 
Do 
Do 
Do 
Occasionally 
Open to thePublic
By free ticket 
Inaccessible 
Free to consult....
Do 
Do 
Open to thePublie
Do 
Do 
Do 
For members....
Do 
By special perm.
Do. (freely)
Do 
Free access 
No., or Esti¬
mated No. of
Vols.
Printed.
37,000
12,000
15,000
MSS.
74
100
197,000
43,000
26,000
25,000
14,000
17,000
10,000
6,300
Do.
Archb. Tenison’s,1684,
W,
estminst.Abbey,1620.
Open to clergy...
Open to all comers
By free ticket.,
For members.,
Do 
By special perm.
By free ticket.
By special perm.
For members..
By special perm.
Do. .....
Open to all comers
By special perm.
Inaccessible 
j To inhabitants
I of Westmin- j
( ster by right, l
j to others by |
' courtesy '
( Fnd. for pub- )
< lie use, but >
( inaccessible.;
5,000
3,174
126,000
30,938
24,000
18,000
10,000
11,000
172,000
100,000
45,000
16,000
9,000
4,000
5,000
75,000
13,000?
12,500?
4,500
34,274
562,000
60,000
65,000
41,000
41,000
28,000
27,000
25,000
21,000
21,000
16,000
8,000
3,163
700
1,600
150
193
500
520
2,000
400
3,000
11,000
242
40,000
Great Bri¬
tain and
Ireland.
Manches¬
ter and
Salford
Name of Library
and
Date of Foundation,
Norwich...
Oxford.,
St Andrews
Winchestr.
Worcester.
York 
France.
900
1,200
200
500
Aix 
Amiens.
Arras....
Avignon
Beaune.
Besanjon...
Bordeaux
fFree Public, 1852.
Chetham’s, 1653. .
f Salford Borough,1850
(Cathedral 
City. (Founded fo
public use, but now
in the hands of a
private society.
/*Bodleian, 1597..
Radcliffe, 1737....
Taylor Institn.,1847....
Ashmolean Museum..
Conditions of
Public
Accessibility.
Queen’s College 
Christ Church Coll.
All Souls’College...
St. John’s College...
University College.
Merton College 
Baliol College 
Worcester College. (
Open to all comers
Do 
Do 
By permission...
University, c. 1600.,
Cathedral 
Do 
Do 
Caen 
Cambray.
Chaumont
Colmar. ...
Dijon 
Douay 
Grenoble...
Le Mans...
Marseilles.
Montpel- j
lier ... f
Nancy 
Nantes. ...
Nismes. ...
Orleans ...
Paris.
Mejanes, 1418...
Communal, 1791.
Town 
Do 
Do  
Do 
Do. 1738 
By special perm.
Freely granted..
Members of Univ.
Do 
> Respecting the
majority of the
| Oxford Libra-
• ries,H.M.Com.
\ failed to obtain
l accurate infor¬
mation, either
as to extent or
accessibility ;
although they
made repeated
efforts ...J
By perm., freely..,
Open to clergy....
Access on applic.
Free access .
No., or Esti¬
mated No. of
Vols.
Printed.
32,573
18,200
18,553
4,350
256,000
24,000?
10,000
137
22,000
3237
Do 
Communal,1791 
Town 
Do 
Do 
Do. 1767 
Do. 1771  
Do 
Do  
( Do 
\ Fabre, 1837 
Town, 1751 
Do. 1588 
Do 
Do 
, Imperial, 1350 (?) re- 1
organized, 1595... J
Arsenal, 1781 
St Genevieve, 1624. ...,
| Mazarine, 1660 
^ Institute, 1759 
Free access
Do 
Do 
Do  
Do 
Do 
Do 
61,500
3,500
3,600
8,000
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do. sincel737
Do 
Do. sincel790
Do. sincel688
By permission ...
95,000
53.000
36,772
60,000
30,000
80,000
123,000
63
40,107
33,133
35,000
34,859
50,000
36,000
80,000
40,000
51,219
30,000
22,000?
30,000
45,000
50,000
33,000
815,000
202,000
180,000
132,000
80,000
1,062
600
1,137
1,207
160
1,500
320
226
1,254
160
481
500
970
1,500
700
1,335
68
265
187
207
486
84,000
6,000
3,500
3,000
*+TThIJrb-barie-S ^ marked (*) are supported (wholly or partially) by parliamentary grant, or by copy-tax.
t The Libraries thus marked (f) are supported by rate. ^ b , y copy
Libraries.
Statistical
View.
LIBRARIES.
Statistical View of the Principal Libraries, &c.—Continued.
433
Paris
Rennes.
Rheims.
Rouen..
Soissons
Strasburgh
Toulouse...
Troyes 
Versailles.
Spain and
Portugal.
Coimbra...,
Corunna....
Escorial 
Evora ..
Lisbon.
Madrid.
Oporto..
Salamanca
Seville.
Toledo..
Valladolid.
Italy.
Bologna ..
Catania...
Ferrara...
Florence..
Genoa..
Macerata .,
Mantua ....
Messina....
Milan 
Monte
Cassino
Naples....
Novara.,
Padua..
Palermo ...
Pavia 
Perugia ...
Pisa 
Ravenna..
Rimini 
Rome.
Sienna.
Turin..
Venice.
Name of Library
and
Date of Foundation.
C Louvre 
< Luxembourg.,
I Town, 1801 ?.
Town 
Do 
Do 
Do., 1794....
Do., 1531....
Do 
Do 
Do 
University, 1597 
Santiago University...
Royal, 1575 
Town, 1805 
f National, 1796 
< Academy of Sciences )
l 1779 1
National, 1712 (?) 
Royal Public, 1833 ..
University, 1215 (?) ..
Columbian, 1560- 
f Town or Cathedral!?) )
\ 1598 }
Town (?) 
Conditions of
Public
Accessibility.
By permission.
Free access ...
Do.  
Do 
Do 
Do 
Do.  
Do.  
Do.  
Do.  
Do 
No., or Esti¬
mated No. of
Vols.
Printed. MSS
f University, 1690. ..
1 Magnani  
Town  
Do. 1646 
.Laurentian, 1444 
j Magliabechian, 1714...
I Palatine 
% Marucellian, 1753..
Riccardian, 1612...
Library of the FineArts
f University, 1770 (?)..
| Berian, 1791 
<! Franzonian, 1773 ....
Library of Missions
L of St Charles, 1727 .
Comm. orMozzian,1787
Public 
Town 
( Ambrosian, 1604....
( Brera, 1763 
Benedictine Monastery
(Royal Bourbon, 1780(?)
Brancaccian, 1688 
University  
Oratorian 
Chapter   
University, 1629 
Univty. or Communal.
; Jesuits 
University,com.1500;)
reorganized, 1772 j
Town 
University 
Classenianor Town,171*4
Gambalungan, 1619...
'Vatican, 1450 
Casanata, or Min-)
erva, 1700 )
Barberini 
Angelica,-1604   
Alexandrine or ‘ Sa- 1
pienza,’ 1660   j'
Lancisiana, 1720  
Corsini "
Aracoelitana   
Roman College ......!.*
Chigi   
Vallicellana or Ora-)
torian }
Communal, 1758 
University, 1436 
St Mark’s (1362), 1468.
VOL. XIII.
Open to Public..
Do 
By special perm
Free access  
Do 
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do 
Do 
Do  
Do  
Do 
Do 
By perm, freely
Free access  
Do 
Do.
Do.
Do..
Do.
By permission
Open to the pub
Free access  
Do 
Do 
Do.   
By permission.
Nominally free.
Do 
Do 
Do 
On application.
Free access ....
By permission
Do 
Free access ....
Do 
Do 
Do 
Do 
Special permis.
Free access 
( At present in-
( accessible...
Free access .....
Do.
Do 
Do 
By permission.
Do 
( Atpresentin-
l accessible...
By permission .
Free access ...
Do 
Do 
80.000?
40,000
55,000
40,000
30,000
110,000
30,000
180,000
50,000
100,000
55,924
52,000
17,307
40,000?
25,000
86,000
50,000
200,000
48,000
24,000?
18,000?
30,000
13,250
105,000
83,000
40,000
80,000
1,316
140,000
80,000
33,435
20,000
11,000
39,200
60,000
12,000
40,000
20,000
80,000?
125,000
18,000?
200,000
70,000
25,000
18,000
12,000
79,000
80,000
40,000
70,564
30,000
62,500
40,000
23,500?
100,000
200,000
1,000
220
1,300,
2,355
293,
1,589;
700!
3,000
115
35,000
84,819
80,000
35,000?
60,000
40,000?
70,000?
35,000
121,000
103,859
900
41
4,500?
1,800
8,075
10,000
2.500
1,222
1.500
700?
125
6,000
900
6,952
10,000
1,500
1,375
3,600!
"800
400
5,500
1,000
800
4,000
1,000
"60
1,672
Italy.
Vercelli...
Verona ...
Vicenza...,
Name of Library
and
Pate of Foundation.
Germany
and Swit¬
zerland.
Aarau 
Augsburg.,
Bamberg...
Basel 
Berlin
Berne .
Bonn..
Breslau.
700
448
25,000
7,000
2,945
3,000
3,000
3,417
3,000
10,000?
Cassel 
Darmstadt.
Dresden..
Erfurt.
Chapter, or Agnesian..
Town,1802 
Bertolian, 1755?....
Cantonal, 1803 
f Provincial and 
( Town, 1537 
Royal Public, 1611 ....
University, 1530 (?)....
( Royal Public, 1661 ....
1 University, 1830 
Conditions of
Public
Accessibility.
Free access
Erlangen...
Frankfort..
Geneva 
Giessen 
Gotha 
Gottingen..
Greifswald.
Halle 
Hamburgh
Hanover....
Heidelberg
Jena 
Konigsberg
Lausanne...
Leipsic.
Mentz .
Munich ....
Munster ...
Nuremberg
Saint Gall.
Stuttgart.
Treves  
Tubingen .
Vienna..
Town, 1548 
University, 1818 
f Royal and Univer-)
sity,1811 J
( Rhediger, 1575 
j St Mary Mag., 1547,1
l (Public from 1644) )
Ducal,1580 (?) org.1760
Ducal, 1760  
( Royal Public, 1555 ....
< Secundogenitur,1750(?)
( Royal Private 
t Royal, 1716 (reorga
( nised 1816)  
University, 1743 ...
Do 
Open to edu- )
cated pers.... }
Do 
Free access  
( Open to edu- )
\ cated pers. J
! For profs, and 1
I students ... J
Free access 
Do 
Do.
Do.,
Do.
Do 
Do 
Do 
By permission..
Do  
Wolfen-
buttel.
Zurich.
Belgium
and
Holland.
Amster- 1
dam ... J
Antwerp..,
Bruges 
Brussels ..
University   
Town,1564 
University, 1607 
Ducal Public, 1640..
University, 1736 
University, 1604 
University, 1696 
(Town, 1529.. 
1 Commercial, 1735....
Society of Arts and
Manufactures, 1765,
(restored 1843) 
Royal, 1690  
University, 1703 
Do., 1548 
Do., 1544 
Town 
f University, 1543 
| Town, 1677 
Town   
r Royal Central, 1660 ?..
| University, 1575 (at
( Ingoldstadt) 
Pauline, 1588  
r Town, 1445 
{ Fenitzer-Dilherr, 1615-
( 1669 
Cantonal, 830(?) 
Royal, 1765  
Town,1773 
University 
1 Imperial, 1440 
University,.1777 .....
Military Archives,
1801 
Ducal, 1604 
r. Town, 1639  
1 Cantonal, 1835.
Do.
| Open to edu-
( cated pers. J
Do 
Free access  
Do 
Do 
Do 
f Chiefly alend- )
t ing library )
Free access  
Do  
Do 
By permission..
Free access
Do 
Do 
Do 
Do 
Do 
Do  
Do 
Do 
Do..
Do 
Do 
Acesbl. once J
in the week... }
Free to citizens.
Free access 
Do 
Do 
Do 
Do 
Special permis- )
sion ]
Free access 
No., or Esti¬
mated No. of
Vols.
Printed. MSS,
12,000
10,000
36,000
60,000
118,000
70,000?
78,000
500,000?
40,000
49,500
164,000?
350,000
25,000?
15,000?
60,000?
197,000?
305,000
30.300
31.300
135,000
39,200
47,000
92,000
150,000
360,000
59,000
100,000?
200,000?
40,000
6,000
Town 
Town, 1476  
Do., 1798 
(Royal (Burgundian 1
| c. (1400), 1837 /
(Archives 
| Accessible
( twice a week
t Foruseofcan-
t tonal schls.,
Uncertain...
Free access..
Do. ..
Do.
Do.
105,000
150,000?
90,000?
75,000
45,000
120,000
90,000?,
81,000? 1,034
480,000?
200
1,200
394
2,800
4,000?
10,000
2,303
450
2,000
800
1,400
4,000
2,800
300
1,178
1,500
800
200
1,274
5,000
3,000
636
934
5,000
3,000
300
2,560
2,000
220,000?
41,000
50,000
10,000?
19,000
245,000
90,000
200,000
365,000
120,609
22,500
190,000
62,000
27,000
31,500?
22,000
12,000
203,000
[ Sep. arts
L & docts.
3 i
22,000
2,000?
320
800
1,530
3,230
2,120
2,000
20,000
4.000
3,500
88
29
550
19,668
130,394
Libraries.
434
Libraries.
LIBRARIES.
Statistical View of the Principal Libraries, &c.—Continued.
Libraries.
Ghent 
Leyden ....
Liege 
Louvain....
Mons 
Namur 
The Hague
Tournay...
Utrecht....
Belgium
and
Holland.
Denmark,
Sweden,
AND
Norway.
Christiania
Copen¬
hagen
Lund ....
Stockholm
Trondheim
Upsal ...
Hungary,
Bohemia,
and
Poland.
Cracow  
Name of Library
and
Date of Foundation.
University, 1794 ....
University, 1582 ....
University, 1732 ....
University, 1636 ....
Town, 1797 
Town,1797 
Royal, 1795 (?) 
Town, 1637 
University, 1636(?)„
| University, 1811 
) Deichmann’s..., 
(Royal, 1550 
< University, 1731....
( Classen’s, 1800 ? 
University, 1671 
! Royal, 1540 
< Benzelstjerna - En-
(. gestrb m 
Society of Arts, 1767..
University, 1621....,
Pesth....
Posen 
Prague 
Presburgh.
Warsaw ...
Russia.
Odessa 
St Peters-
burgh.
Tamboff..
Turkey.
Constanti¬
nople ...
University, 1343(?).„
1 National, 1804 
Academy or Teleki,
1826..; 
University 
Raczynski, 1828 
{University, 1350 
Premonstratensian
(Strahow) 
NationaiMuseum,1818
Appony,1825  
f Zaluski, 1747(see un- 1
Ider Russia, infra) )
Royal(?) 
University, 1816 
Wielopolski ? 
Conditions of
Public
Accessibility.
Free access.
Do. ...
Do 
Do 
Do 
Do 
By permission.
Free access 
Do 
Open to public..
Do 
Free access ....
Do 
Do  
Do 
Do 
Do..
Do.
Do.
Uncertain...
Free access
Do..
Do 
Open to allcomers
Do 
By permission...
Town, 1830 
f Imperial (Zaluski,)
1747)  }
Academy of Scien-)
ces, 1726  )
Roumianzoff Mu-1
seum, 1827 J
Imperial Private
(Hermitage), 1765...
Town, 1830 
Seraglio Libraries,
1720-1767  
Free access.
Do. ...
Uncertain.
Do. ...
Do. ...
Uncertain ....
Open to Public
Do 
Do.
Special permis- ]
sion !
Uncertain 
No , or Esti-
m ated No.
of Yols.
Printed. MSS
64,500
70,000
64,000
62,000
16,400
17.700
100,000
27.700
80,000?
115,000
12,000
408,000
151,000?
30,000
70,000
96,000
14,500
26,000
135,000
10,000?
10,000
1,510
200
1,000
1,200
50,000
185,000
70,660
72,000
26,000
110,000
50,000?
20,000
50,000
20,000
11,049 None
519,500? 21,000
118,900
630
3,000
430
302
348
80
2000
208
860
600
320
15,000
4,000
2’6bo
4,000
1,200
800
7,000
Special permis¬
sion 
32,258
80,000
12,814
7,000?
Turkey.
Constan¬
tinople
IT. S. op
America.
Albany )
(N. Y.) I
Boston
(Mass.)
Cambridge
(Mass.)
Charlot-
tesv. (V.)
Cincinnati
(Ohio.)
Columbus
(Ohio.)...
Concord
(N. Hamp.)
N. Bedford
(Mass.)
Newhaven
(Conn).
New York
Philadel¬
phia...
j Inc.
1 MSS.
965
f MSS.
) Volt.
None.
Inc.
MSS,
Name of Library
and
Date of Foundation.
Eyoub, 1460; Mos-\
que of Moh. II.,
1470; Mosque of
Bajazet II., 1507;
Selimya, 1527;
Shahzadeh, 1550;
Suleiman I., 1550;
Ibrahim Pacha,
1719; Aya Sofia,
1744: Galata Se¬
rai, 1753 ; Noory
Osmanya, 1755;
Raghib Pacha,
1762; Abdoul Ha-
med, 1781.
New York State, 1818
Athenaeum, 1806.
Mercantile, 1820 ....
Free City, 1853  
Harvard University,
(1638) 1764 
Virginia University,
1825 
Mercantile, 1835 
Ohio State, 1817  
N. Hampshire State,
1770 
Free Town, 1853 
Yale College, 1700 ...
Providence
St Louis) )
(Miss.. )
Washingtn
Worcester..
(Mass.)
Mexico &
Brazil.
Mexico..
Puebla,
i Rio Janeiro
{Society Library, 1700
Mercantile, 1821  
Astor, 1849 
{Philad. Company,1731
American Philoso-1
phical Society, 1742 )
Academy of Natural )
Sciences, 1812 )
Mercantile, 1823 
BrownUniversity,1768
Mercantile, 1846 
{Congress, 1817 
Smithsonian, 1846 
City 
f American Antiqua- !
( rian Society, 1812... }
Conditions of
Public
Accessibility.
Open to Public....
Free access 
{Proprietary,
but free to
consult 
Do. Do....
Open to all comers
Free access.,
Do 
Proprietary...
Free access,.
Do 
Open to all comers
Free access...
No., or Esti¬
mated No.
of Vols.
Printed. MSS,
19, 940
Inch
MSS.
Do. .
Do 
Open to allcomers
Free access 
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
(Cathedral 
University, 1762 
( Gregorian, 1846 
Public (or Palafoxian)
National Public, 1807..
Do 
By permission...
Open to all comers
Uncertain 
Free access....
43,634
60,000
18,000
25,000
83,000
21,000
16,423
15.500
7,000
10,000
(27,000)
"I Ex. of (
( stu. lib.)
40,000
47,082
98,000?
64,195
21.500
16,000?
15,000?
30,000
12,840
65,000
15,000
10,000
21,000
Free access.
Do. ....
Do 
Do 
Do. ....
12,500
10,000
7,000
25,000
70,000
Incl
MSS,
VDo,
500
600
200
851
Numerical Rank of so many of the preceding Libraries as contain 150,000 Volumes, or upwards.
Cities.
1. Paris (1.)
2. London  
3. St Petersburgh
4. Berlin 
5. Munich(1.) ...
6. Copenhagen..
7. Vienna 
8. Breslau 
9. Gottingen 
10. Dresden 
11. Oxford 
12. Stuttgart. ..
Name of Library
and
Date of Foundation.
Imperial, originated j
1350; reorganised >
1595 ‘
British Museum, 1753
Imperial Public, 1795
Royal, 1661  
Royal, 1550 (?) 
| Royal, 1550 ; re- )
( organised, 1665 )
Imperial, 1440 
( Royal andUniver- i
( sity, 1811 J
University, 1736 
Royal Public, 1555...
Bodleian, 1597 
Royal, 1765 
Printed
Vols.
815,000
562,000
519,500
500,000
480,000?
408,000
365,000
350,000
360,000
305,000
256,000
245,000
MS.
Vols.
Total No.
of
Vols.
84,000
40,000
21,000
10,000
22,000
15,000
20,000
2,300
3,000
2,800
22,000
3,230
Cities.
899,000
602,000
540,500
510,000
502,000?
423,000
385,000
352,300
363,000
307,800
278,000
248,230
13. Brussels 
14. Munich (2.) 
15. Paris (2.)  
16. Hamburgh 
17. Naples  
18. Madrid 
19. Tubingen 
20. Cambridge 
21. Rome 
22. Pesth 
23. Wolfenbuttel.
24. Paris (3) 
25. Strasburgh 
26. Edinburgh 
27. Heidelberg 
Name of Library
and
Date of Foundation.
f Royal, orig. 1389 ? 1
{ reorganised, 1830 J
University, 1575 
Arsenal, 1781 
City, 1529 
Royal Bourbon, 1780,
National, 1712 (?) 
University, 1562  
University, 1475 (?)...
Casanata, 1700 
National, 1802  
Ducal, 1604 
St Genevieve, 1624.-
University, 1531 
Advocates’, 1682 
University, 1703 
Printed
Vols.
203,000
220,000
202,000
200,000
200,000
200,000
200,000
197,000
200,000?
185,000
190,000
180,000
180,000
172,000
150,000
MS.
Vols.
19,700
2,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
2,800
2,000
3,163
10,000
4,000
3,500
1,589
2,000
3,000
Total No.
of
Vols.
222,700
222,000
208,000
205,000
204,000
202.800
202,000
200,163
200,000
195,000
194,000
183,500
181,589
174,000
153,000
LIE
Liburni LIBURNI, an ancient people, conjectured by Niebuhr
II to be of Pelasgic race, who inhabited the northern portion of
License. l]lyrjCum, in the neighbourhood of the Sinus Flanaticus.
The country of Liburnia proper was bounded on the one
side by the Titius, and on the other by the Arsia ; but. these
limits were only assigned to it after the Gallic invasion, and
by no means represent the real strength of the Liburnian
people. From a very remote period they had been distin¬
guished as daring seamen, and had spread extensively along
the shores of the Adriatic. Corcyra, Issa, and other islands
in the neighbourhood, were held by them at the time when
the Greeks became masters of these places. The Vindelici
and Veneti are believed to have been of Liburnian origin,
and the city of Truentum, on the E. coast of Italy, was a
Liburnian town. It remained true to the traditions and
nationality of the race amid all the fluctuations of the sur¬
rounding population. Like all their neighbours, the Libur-
nians were noted pirates, and their privateers, with a large
lateen sail, were for centuries the terror of the seas. Their
style of naval architecture was adopted by the Romans in
the second Macedonian war. It was chiefly by means of
their light galleys that Augustus gained the battle of Actium.
The only towns of any importance in Liburnia were Jadera,
the capital, and Scardona, at which a famous congress of
fourteen Liburnian towns was held. When the country was
incorporated with the province of Dalmatia, Jadera was
made a colony by the Romans.
LIBYA. See Africa.
LICENSE, of Excise, is a legal document granting per¬
mission to deal in certain specified articles of trade. A
license is granted annually on application and on payment
of the duty, except in cases where an abuse of privilege has
been proven. Public-house licenses were granted in Eng¬
land as early as Edward VI. (1551); since which period
this mode of imposing duty on excisable articles has been
carried into several departments of trade. The annual re¬
venue from licenses now exceeds L.1,000,000.
The following (from The Business Man's Note-Book for
1857) is a list of the trades which cannot be carried on
in Great Britain without a license, specifying also the rate
of license per annum :—
LIC
435
Auctioneers  L.10 0 0
Brewers of table-beer only—
Not above 20 barrels   0 10 6
50   110
... 100   1 11 8
Above 100     2 2 0
Brewers of strong beer—■
Not above 20 barrels   0
50   1
... 100   1
... 1,000   2
... 2,000   3
... 5,000   7
... 7,500   11
...10,000   15 15 0
...20,000   31 10 0
...30,000   47 5 0
...40,000   63 0 0
Above 40,000   78 15 0
Brewers using sugar    10 0
Brewers for sale by retail, not to be consumed on the
premises   5
Sellers of beer only, not being brewers  3
Beer retailers (publicans) whose premises are rated
under L.20 per annum (England and Ireland only) 1
At L.20, or upwards  3
Retailers of beer, cider, and perry, under 4th and 5th
Will. IV., cap. 85, to be drunk on the premises
(England only)  3
Not to be drunk on the premises  1
Retailers of cider and perry only  1
Retailers of beer, cider, or perry, whose premises are
rated under L.10 per annum (Scotland only)  2
At L.10 per annum, or upwards  4
Dealers in coffee, tea, cocoa-nuts, chocolate, or pepper 0 11 6)
3
12
6 If
2 0A
10 0
4 0
L.O 7 10J
0 15 9
1 3 7£
1 11 6
1 19 4y
2 7 3
2 15 1J
3 3 0
3 10 10£
3 18 9
4 6 7-J
4 14 6
0 7 10£
0 2 7J
20 0 0
10 0 0
4 4 0
110
Maltsters making not above 50 quarters 
100  
150  
200  
250  
300  
350  
400  
450  
500 ...
550  
Above 550  
Beginners (and a surcharge) 
Not above 5 quarters  
Malt roasters 
Dealers in roasted malt 
Paper—every maker of paper or pasteboard 
Passage vessels on board which liquors or tobacco are
sold 
Postmasters’ (Great Britain) licenses to let horses for
hire—
Persons keeping 1 horse and 1 carriage 
2 ... 2  
4 ... 3  
8 ... 6  
12 ... 9  
16 ... 12  
20 ... 15  
Above 15
Above 20 horses, then for every additional 10 horses,
or less than 10, over 20, or any other multiple of
10 horses, the additional duty of    
Postmasters (Ireland) 
and Is. in the L.l thereon.
To kill game (Ireland) 
Race-horse duty 
Soap, every maker 
Spirits, Distillers  
Rectifiers  
Dealers, not retailers  
Spirit-dealers for retailing foreign liqueurs 
Makers of methylated spirits 
Makers of stills (Scotland and Ireland)  
Chemist, or any other person requiring the use of a
still (England)  
... (Scotland and Ireland) ; 
Retailers of spirits whose premises are rated under
L.10 per annum (England and Ireland) 
At L.10, and under L.20 
20 ... 25 
25 ... 30 
30 ... 40 
40 ... 50  
50 or upwards 
Retailers of spirits and beer whose premises are rated
under L.10 per annum (Scotland) 
At L,10, and under L.20 
20 ... 25 
25 ... -30 
30 ... 40 
40 ... 50 
50 or upwards 
Retailers of spirits in Ireland, being duly licensed to
sell coffee, tea, &c., whose premises are rated
under L.25 per annum 
At L.25, and under L.30 
30 ... 40 
40 ... 50 
50 or upwards  
Sweets, retailers (United Kingdom) 
Tobacco and snuff, and manufacturers of not above
20,000 lb  5 5 0
Above 20,000, not above 40,000 lb  10 10 0
... 40,000 ... 60,000   15 15 0
... 60.000 ... 80,000   21 0 0
... 80,000 ... 100,000   26 5 0
Above 100,000   31 10 0
Beginners (and a surcharge on the quantity made)  5 5 0
Dealers in tobacco and snuff  0 5 3
Vinegar makers  5 5 0
Dealers in foreign wine, not having licenses for re¬
tailing spirits and beer   10 10 0
Dealers having a license for retailing beer, but not
spirits  4 8 2J
License.
7 10 0
12 10 0
20 0 0
30 0 0
40 0 0
50 0 0
60 0 0
70 0 0
10 0 0
2 2 0
3 3 0
3 17 0
4 4 0
10 10 0
10 10 0
10 10 0
2 2 0
10 10 0
0 10 6
0 10 0
0 10 6
2 4 1
4 8 2J
6 12 3£
7 14 4
8 16 4f
9 18 5f
11 0 6
4 4 0
5 5 0
9 9 0
10 10 0
11 11 0
12 12 0
13 13 0
9 18 5f
11 0
12 2
13
14
1
6
T
0A
436 LIC
Lichfield Dealers having licenses to retail beer and spirits  L.2 •! 1
Grocers who sell wine not to be drunk or consumed on
Liechten- the premises (Scotland), viz. :—
stein. Every grocer having the justices’ certificate
v j to retail beer, but not spirits  4 8
^ v ^ To retail beer and spirits  2 4 1
Stage carriage, licensed to run (Great Britain)  3 3 0
... supplementary license  0 10
Every mile licensed to travel 0 0 1
Hackney carriage, license to keep (London)  1 0 0
LICHFIELD, an episcopal city, a county in itself, and
a municipal and parliamentary borough of England, Stafford¬
shire, is situate in a fertile valley, 119 miles N.W. from
London. Extensive breweries and carpet manufactories
afford employment to the majority of the population. The
city has a free grammar school, said to have been founded
by Edward VI.; several national schools; hospitals, &c.
The other public buildings are a guildhall, a jail, a theatre,
a market-house, a house of correction, the churches of St
Mary, St Chad, St Michael, and the cathedral, a most noble
structure, partly of early English, and partly of later archi¬
tecture, and surmounted by three beautiful spires. Lichfield
returns two members to parliament, and is governed by a
mayor, six aldermen, and eighteen councillors. To Dr
Samuel Johnson, who was a native of the town, a monument
has been erected in the cathedral. The monument of two
children is one of the fines of Sir F. Chantrey’s works.
Pop. (1851) 7012. See Harwood’s Lichfield.
LICHTENBERG, George Christopher, the famous
illustrator of Hogarth, and caricaturist of Lavater, was born
in 1742 at Ober-Ramstadt, near Darmstadt, where his
father was pastor. He studied at Darmstadt and Gottin¬
gen, at which latter university he was appointed to a pro¬
fessorship in 1 770. Fie was raised to the chair of experi¬
mental philosophy in 1777. Previously to this he had
twice visited Great Britain, and made himself thoroughly
master of English literature. In his declining years he was
subject to fits of depression and hypochondria, which severed
him almost entirely from the world. He died in 1799.
His works were collected by F. G. Kries, in 9 vols., Gbtt.
1800-1806; and his Erkldrung der Hogarthischen Kup-
ferstiche, which remained unfinished at his death, was pub¬
lished in 1794-99.
LICHTENBERG, a principality of Germany, in the S.
of Rhenish Prussia, and on the confines of Rhenish Bavaria.
Area 232 square miles. The surface is mountainous and
well wooded. It was ceded to Prussia by the Duke of
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, in 1834, for an annual rent of 80,000
dollars (L.l 1,583), and it now forms part of the govern¬
ment of Treves. The capital was St Wendel. Pop. about
38 000
LICINIUS Stolo. See Roman History, § 2.
LICTORS. See Fasces.
LIECHTENSTEIN, a small independent state of
Southern Germany, bounded on the W. and S. by Swit¬
zerland, and E. and N. by Tyrol. Area 53 square miles.
The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in agriculture and
cattle rearing. Some wine is produced. This is the smallest
of the states forming the German Confederation, to which
it furnishes a contingent of sixty-four men. It has one
vote in the full council, and, with several of the other small
states, occupies the fifteenth place in the diet. The Prince
of Liechtenstein has also extensive possessions in Austria,
among which are the dependent principalities of Troppau
and Jagerndorf, and which have altogether an area of
2212 square miles, and a population of 600,000. His in¬
come from these possessions amounts to at least 1,500,000
florins annually, while the revenue of Liechtenstein itself
is only about 22,000 florins. Pop. (1853) 7000. Vadutz
or Liechtenstein, the capital, has only about 10,000 inha¬
bitants.
LIE
LIEGE, an important province of Belgium, is bounded Lifcge.
on the N. by Limburg, E. by Rhenish Prussia, N.W. by
South Brabant, S.W. by Namur, and S. by Luxemburg.
Area 1115 square miles. Its surface is level in the N. and
N.W., but in the S. and E. parts it is mountainous, and
covered by extensive woods, including a portion of the
forest of Ardennes. The Meuse, the principal river in the
province, flows from S.W. to N.E., through a long and
fertile plain, and is joined near the city of Liege by the
Ourthe, previously augmented by its tributaries, the Ambleve
and the Vesdre. Liege contains several mineral springs,
the most celebrated of which are those of Spa. The
hot spring of Chaudfontaine is on an island of the Vesdre,
about 5 miles from the city of Liege. Its water, which is
pumped up by means of a wheel turned by the river, sup¬
plies a large bathing establishment, much frequented by
visitors. The climate in the N. parts of the province, al¬
though damp, is in general healthy. In the S. parts the
air is keener and the winter longer. The soil in general
is fertile and well cultivated, especially in that long sweep
of level land traversed by the Meuse, where hops, corn, and
wine are produced in abundance. Large numbers of sheep
and cattle feed on its pastures. The chief minerals found
in Liege are calamine, lead, alum, and iron ores. The coal
mines, however, are the great source of industry and wealth,
and in 1850 amounted, in this province alone, to 116. The
articles manufactured are chiefly woollens, hardware, iron,
and especially fire-arms; and all these, together with cheese,
Spa-water, timber, coal, and minerals, constitute the ex¬
ports of the province. The principal seats of the woollen
manufacture are Herve and Verviers; those of the iron
manufacture are Herstal, Seraing, and Liege. Glous is
celebrated for its straw hats. For the purposes of govern¬
ment, Liege is divided into three arrondissements,—Liege,
Huy, and Verviers, and subdivided into twenty-one cantons.
Previous to 1789, this province was governed by the Bishop
of Liege, who was a prince of the empire. It was after¬
wards subject to the French till the fall of Bonaparte, when
it was incorporated into the kingdom of the Netherlands.
In 1830 it became a part of the kingdom of Belgium. Pop.
(1854) 494,793. See Belgium.
Liege (Dutch Luyk, Ger. Liittich), an important manu¬
facturing town of Belgium, capital of the province of Liege,
situate near the confluence of the Ourthe and the Meuse,
in N. Lat. 50. 39. 22., E. Long. 5. 31. 42.; 54 miles E. by
S. from Brussels. Though in a fine situation, the city is
by no means beautiful and healthy, owing to the smoke of
its numerous manufactories, the narrowness of many of its
streets, and the height of many of its houses. It is divided
into two portions, the upper and the lower town : the former
on the declivity, and the latter at the foot of a hill. The
River Meuse, on entering the town, divides into several
branches, which are lined by quays, and crossed by nume¬
rous bridges. Liege is famous for its manufacture of iron ;
and the fire-arms, cannons, and machinery it produces, are
said to surpass in quality those of all other countries except
Great Britain. The number of cannons and fire-arms sub¬
mitted to the Board of Approval, in 1849, were 405,030;
and in 1850, 432,347. There are large factories at several
of tbe suburbs, especially at Seraing, where spinning ma¬
chinery and steam-engines are extensively produced. The
other manufactories of Liege are,—hardware of all kinds,
woollen and cotten fabrics, hats, glue, tobacco, glass, leather,
and other articles. There are likewise steel-works, brew¬
eries, distilleries, tanneries, and dyeing-houses. The city
has a considerable trade, which is greatly facilitated by the
roads, railways, and canals, that traverse the country in all
directions. The great cause, however, of its prosperity are
the coal-mines that abound in the neighbourhood, and are
extended even under the town and the River Meuse. Be¬
sides coal and iron, the district produces also zinc, lead,
LIE
Liegnitz copper, sulphur, alum, marble, and slate. 4 Lie^e was once
II fortified, but its sole defence now is a citadel erected at the
^servers." N' side of the city’ on St Walburg’s Mount. Its churches
^ 'j are numerous, of which the following are the principal:—■
'r~'' The cathedral, founded in the thirteenth century; the church
of St Jacques, the finest of all the sacred edifices; and the
churches of St Denis, St Bartholomew, St Croix, and St
Martin. The university, erected by the King of Holland
in 1817, comprises the faculties of law, theology, and medi¬
cine ; and possesses a museum, containing, among many
other specimens, a collection of fossils chiefly culled in the
neighbourhood. Besides the Palais de Justice, which is a
splendid specimen of ancient architecture, the other public
buildings are, a theatre, an episcopal seminary, a royal col¬
lege, several schools, a library, containing, in addition to
numerous volumes, many curious manuscripts, an academy
of fine arts, and other educational and benevolent institu¬
tions. Liege is the see of a bishop, and the seat of a superior
court of justice. In the tenth century, the Emperors of
Germany elevated the Bishops of Liege to the rank of in¬
dependent princes. In 1467, the citizens, rebelling against
their liege lord, Charles the Bold, were compelled by him
to raze a great part of their fortifications. Pop. (1851)
81,789.
LIEGNITZ, one of the three governments into which
Prussian Silesia is divided, comprising the N.W. part of
Upper Silesia, and that part of Upper Lausatia which now
forms part of Prussia. It is bounded on the N., N.E.,
and N.W, by the provinces of Posen and Brandenburg,
S.E. by the government of Breslau, and S.W. by Bohemia!
Area 53,000 square miles. The surface is rugged and
mountainous in the S., and traversed by ridges of the
Riesengebirge, several of which exceed 4000 fee* in height.
It then slopes rapidly northward to the great plain ofthe
Oder, which flows from S.E. to N.W. through the govern¬
ment, and forms part of its northern boundary. Besides
the Oder, the chief rivers are its affluents, the Katzbach,
Bober, and Neisse. The soil is generally sandy, and the
corn produced is not sufficient for the wants of the inha¬
bitants. Large numbers of sheep and cattle are reared.
Pop. (1849) 921,002.
LIE
437
Life-Pre¬
servers.
Liegnitz, the capital of the above government, is situate Liegnitz
at the confluence of the Schwarzwasser and Kartzbach, on
the Berlin and Breslau Railway, 40 miles W.N.W. of the
latter town. It was formerly a place of some strength, but
its ramparts are now laid out in public gardens, and only
its four gates remain entire. The town, though old, is
handsomely built and pleasantly situate. Its old castle
has been mostly rebuilt since a fire, which destroyed a great
part of it in 1834. In the Fixrsten Capelle are monu¬
ments of the princes of the line of Piast, a family which,
from i to to 1675, when it became extinct, gave twenty-four
kings to Poland, and 123 dukes to Liegnitz. This town is
the seat of superior, judicial, and other courts for the govern¬
ment ; and has a gymnasium, a Ritter academy for the edu¬
cation of the sons of Silesian noblemen, an orphan asylum,
two hospitals, workhouse, and theatre. The chief manufac’
tures are woollen, linen, and cotton stuffs, starch, beer, and
tobacco. There are numerous gardens in the vicinity, and
the gardeners are reported to be the most skilful of any m
Silesia. Here, on 16th August 1760, Frederick the Great
totally defeated the Austrians. Pop., including: military
(1849), 14,934.
LIERRE, or Lier, a town of Belgium, province of Ant¬
werp, at the confluence of the Great and Little Nethe, 10
miles E.S.E. of Antwerp. It is generally well and regu¬
larly built, and has a large and elegant church, hospital,
prison, barracks, orphan asylum, and several almshouses.
The Nethe is navigable up to the town, and affords it the
means of carrying on a considerable trade in its various
manufactures. These comprise cotton, woollen, and silk
fabrics, lace, soap, leather, cutlery, beer, brandy, tobacco,
&c. Pop. (1851) 14,069.
LIEUTENANT {locum tenens, holding the place of),
in a military sense, means the person second in command:
as, lord-lieutenant, one who represents the prince or govern¬
ing power; lieutenant-general, one who stands next to the
general; lieutenant-colonel, the nexv, .o a colonel; and lieu¬
tenant, the next to a captain, in every company of both foot
and horse, and who takes the command upon the death or
absence of a superior officer. See Army, Commission, &c.
LIFE-GUARDS. See Guards.
LIFE-PEE SEE VERS.
Although it too frequently happens that an accident
which materially endangers the life of an individual, de¬
prives him, in the meantime, of that presence of mind which
alone would enable him to take proper measures for his
safety ; yet to have meditated, in an interval of leisure, upon
the best method of proceeding in case of emergency, must
tend greatly to diminish the embarrassment and confusion
that commonly accompany the accident, even if it should
not be thought necessary to provide any particular apparatus
or the purpose of escaping the danger. There are also many
vvays in which those who are not immediately involved in the
disaster may contribute to the preservation of life, whether
actuated by interest, or by humanity only ; and the modes
of relief will therefore be naturally divided into the internal
and the external, whether relating to fires or to shipwrecks.
nternal i1 ire-Escapes.—Whenever a family establishes
itself in a residence not detached from others, it becomes
o importance to ascertain what facilities the house affords
for ascending to the roof, and for passing to those of the
neighbouring houses. It is scarcely possible that a confla-
gration should extend at once to the contiguous houses on
each-Side, before the inhabitants of the house in question
have had time to escape. But in a detached house, if there
are not two or more staircases remote from each other, and
even in a house contiguous to others, when there is no
facility of communicating by the roof, it becomes highly
expedient to provide some internal means of escaping
through the windows in case of fire, and to have on every
floor a strong rope, with a hook or a loop at the end, by
which it may be fastened to a bed-post, so as to enable an
active person to descend by its help out of the window,
finding from time to time a partial footing in the inequali¬
ties of the wall. This process will be greatly facilitated by
having the rope knotted at intervals of about a foot through¬
out its length ; the knots being nearly as convenient as the
blocks or clips that are sometimes made for the purpose of
retarding the descent, by holding them, and regulating the
friction by the pressure of the hand j1 unless the clip be
attached to a stiong cross bar, on which a person may sit,
while he regulates the position of the clip by its handles’
and allows himself to descend with more or less velocity at
pleasure. The arrangement for this purpose may be made
by a roller, or pipe, sliding on the rope, and pushed down
so as to open the handles of the clip and tighten its teeth
1 Emerson s Mechanics, figs. 228, 229; Leupold’s Theatrum Machinarium, plate liv.
LIFE-PRESERVERS.
438
Life-Pre- when the person holds by the roller and draws h down
servers, (fig. 1) ; and, on the contrary, the
clip may be opened by pressing on
the handles with the other hand, or
with the thighs ; or any other simple
mode of regulating the clip may be
adopted, provided that it be not liable
to be misunderstood, or misapplied, in
a moment of confusion. After all, a
rope-ladder would perhaps be prefer¬
able, as not being liable to be de¬
ranged ; it is often kept ready made
in the shops ; and, in the absence of
any other rope, a common bed-cord
will generally be found strong enough
to support the weight even of a stout
man ; for a quarter-inch rope may be
safely trusted with 2 cwt., and ought
indeed to support three times as much,
if new and of good quality. Pig. i.
In speaking of the duty of providing internal means of
escape, Mr Baddeley remarks,1 that “ egress can sometimes
be made at the top of a house, either by a door or by an
opening made in the roof with a poker for the purpose.
Sheets and blankets tied together and fastened to the bed¬
post, or the bed-cords attached in the same way, afford the
means of descending; the feather-bed, &c., thrown out
serve to break the fall when jumping from the window as
the last alternative. With a little contrivance, women and
children may be lowered by means of the bed-clothes.
Upon these occasions, all depends upon the persons in
danger retaining so much presence of mind as will enable
them to avail themselves of the best means in their power;
and it often happens that pressing danger develops a great
deal more ingenuity and intrepidity in individuals than they
have previously taken credit for.”
External means of escape fromfire.—The external means
to be employed in cases of conflagration must be provided
by the managers of fire-offices, or by other public officers ;
and every ingenious workman whom they may employ will
be able, at his leisure, to devise such apparatus as he can the
most conveniently execute, and to give it a full trial in the
absence of all danger; it will therefore only be advisable
that he should compare for himself the particular inventions
which have been suggested for this purpose, and that he
should choose from among them such as he thinks most
likely to do him credit; and he may, indeed, very possibly
find means of improving on any of them.
In Leupold’s Theatrum Machinarium (plates liv. lv.), we
find the representation of a chair calculated to be drawn up
or down by means of pulleys. Mr Varcourt obtained, in
1761, the approbation of the Parisian Academy of Sciences
for his invention of a hollow mast, fixed in a waggon, and
supporting a stage, with the means of ascending and de¬
scending. {Hist. p. 158.) In the beginning of the pre¬
sent century, a fire-escape of Mr Audibert was approved by
the Parisian Institute. {Mem. Inst, iv.) A committee was
also appointed for examining several similar inventions at
the Lyceum of Arts, and a medal was awarded by it to Mr
Daujon, for his apparatus, which consists of a platform car¬
ried on wheels, supported by three frames, with brass wires,
on which boxes are made to slide up and down for the con¬
veyance of persons or of furniture. {Annales des Arts.
Repertory ii., vol. i., p. 439.) Mr Collin’s invention of
pipes raised by ropes, and affording a centre to a long lever,
is described in the fourth volume of the American Trans-
actions, and in the Repertory (vol. xv., p. 35). In the
thirty-first volume of the Transactions of the Society of
Arts for 1813 (p.244), we have an account of a fire-escape
invented by Mr Adam Young, for which lie received a
medal from the society. It appears to constitute by far the
most portable of ladders, consisting of cross bars or rounds
connected by ropes, and having their ends fitted together,
so as to form a pole, which is readily elevated to the window;
and the rounds being separated, and the hooks at the end
properly fixed to the window-frame, the whole forms itself
into a very convenient ladder of a mixed structure. The
thirty-fourth volume, for 1816 (p. 227), contains a descrip¬
tion of Mr Braby’s fire-escape, consisting of a car made to
slide on a strip of plank fixed to a pole, and governed by a
rope, which is cased with iron, to protect it, in case" of
necessity, from the effect of the fire.
The fire-escape in use in the metropolis is founded on
the invention of Mr John Davies, submitted to the Society
of Arts in 1809. It consists of three ladders connected to,
and sliding upon, each other by means of ropes worked by
a small windlass; a second windlass raises and lowers a
cradle, which is supported by ropes passing over pullies at
the top of the uppermost ladder. This machine is mounted
upon a low four-wheeled truck, and can be drawn by a
horse, or by six men. As improved by Mr Gregory, the
three ladders sliding on each other, when lowered, are
balanced horizontally on a frame, mounted on a light four-
wheeled carriage, so as to be run under low gateways, &c.
The ladders being brought into a nearly vertical position,
are raised by a small windlass in front of the machine to any
height between 10 and 40 feet; when the ladders are in¬
clined towards the window, and the top one made to rest
against the sill. A greater elevation than 40 feet may be
obtained by means of joints fixed at the top, and a cradle
is also used for those who are too timid to descend ladders.
A great many other forms of fire-escape might be noticed,
for it is one of those subjects which readily appeal to the
ingenious mechanic in a large city where fires are numerous;
and every form of fire-escape must at times fail. Hence
there has been a sort of competition among uneducated in¬
ventors, who have displayed some mechanical ingenuity, but
have not, as far as we are aware, developed any new principle.
The modes of extinguishing fires are not precisely the
object of the present inquiry. The engines employed
for the purpose are described under Hydrodynamics.
Within the last fewr years, an apparatus called a Jire-an-
nihilator has attracted some attention ; its object is to
generate a large amount of gaseous matter, which will not
support combustion, and which being injected into the
burning mass, is to extinguish the fire by displacing the
air. The non-supporting gases are generated by means of
chlorate of potash and sugar contained in a perforated cylin¬
der, and ignited, when required, by crushing a small glass
vessel containing sulphuric acid. There is also a contri¬
vance for saturating the gases with moisture.
Many attempts have been made to prevent fires by ren¬
dering houses fire-proof, either by coating the timber with
some uninflammable substance, or by rejecting combustible
substances altogether in building. The Earl of Stanhope’s
method of fire-proofing consisted in the use of non-com¬
bustible materials, with, among, and between the timbers
forming the frame-work of a house. Many other methods
have been proposed for coating the timbers with plaster,
covering the houses with fire-proof paint, soluble glass, &c.
We do not attach much importance to these inventions,
for if the house contain goods and furniture of an inflamma¬
ble kind, and the fire once obtain an ascendency over them,
the house will scarcely escape destruction. In the con¬
struction of floors and roofs, Messrs Fox and Barrett pro¬
pose to substitute for timber joists of iron, and successive
layers of incombustible materials, such as mortar, concrete,
&c., the floors being finished with a smooth and uniform
Life-Pre¬
servers.
1 Hebert’s Engineers' and Mechanics Encyclopaedia.
LIFE-PR E
Life-Pre- surface of lime and sand well trowelled up to a face, and
servers, coated with linseed oil; while the roofs are finished with a
) coating of coal-tar, paper, and sand, instead of the ordinary
timber and slate- Mr Frost proposes for the floors of rooms
to use hollow earthenware tubes, embedded in cement, and
so combined as to cover the whole floor. Mr Loudon re¬
commends that the floors be formed of flat tiles and cement.
Mr Payne proposes to render timber fire-proof by means
of a solution of sulphuret of barium or of calcium, forced into
the timber by appropriate apparatus, and then adding an
acid or a solution of some substance, such as sulphate of iron,
which unites with the barium or calcium, and sets free the
sulphur. Iron joists and girders have been largely used in
the construction of fire-proof buildings; but it has been
shown by Mr Braidwood, that a fire originating in the
goods stored in these so-called fire-proof warehouses some¬
times produces a temperature nearly equal to the melting
point of cast-iron; while the jets of water from the fire-en¬
gines crack and bring down beams and columns of cast-
iron which are used in supporting the upper flooi’s, so as
really to cause a greater destruction of life and property
than timber beams, which resist the fire for a considerable
time, and permit the inmates to escape, and the firemen to
penetrate the building with their branches and water-hose,
which they are sometimes forbidden to do if the building
is known to have iron-girders. A better plan for fire-proof
buildings seems to be the use of groined brick arches, sup¬
ported by pillars of brick laid in cement.
Internal Means of Escape from Shipwreck.—The means
of escaping from shipwreck may be similarly divided into
internal and external, or into the precautions to be taken
by the ship’s company, and the measures to be adopted by
persons on shore. The internal means depend either on
enabling the individuals to swim or float, or establishing
a connection with the shore by ropes; and of the former,
we may first consider those which require no particular
preparation before the occurrence of the accident that calls
them into action, and which are, therefore, the most uni¬
versally applicable.
Of such expedients, the most effectual appear to be
those which depend on the employment of empty water-
casks for assisting the ship’s company to drift on shore. 1.
A paper on the arrangement of water-casks, to serve as
floats in case of shipwreck, appears in the publications of
the Society for the Improvement of Naval Architecture,
dated in 1796 (vol. ii., p. 51). 2. In 1818, Mr Grant of
Bideford obtained a gold medal from the Society of Arts,
for the invention of a life-preserver, consisting of a thirty-
six gallon cask, with some iron ballast fixed on a wooden
bed, and lashed to the cask, and with ropes round it for
the men to hold; and it was found that ten men were
supported by it with convenience in tolerably smooth water,
the bung of the cask being well secured by cork (vol.
xxxvi., p. 63). The ballast could be of very little use,
and a cask simply tied round with a rope, like a common
parcel, would probably answer the purpose equally well.
It would, indeed, be prudent for every ship in a storm, on
a lee shore, to have a few of her casks well emptied and
stopped, and tied in this manner, before the actual occur¬
rence of imminent danger. 3. In the thirty-seventh volume
of the Transactions of the Society (p. 110), there is an ac¬
count of Mr Cook’s life-raft, consisting of a square frame
with canvas nailed across it, supported by a cask at each
corner, for which the gold medal was voted to him. 4. It
is followed by a description of Lieutenant Rodger’s life-
raft (p. 112), which obtained a similar compliment. This
raft has the advantage of requiring only such materials as
are usually found on board of every ship; capstan-bars,
boat-masts, yards, or any other spars of moderate dimensions,
which are tied together so as to make a sort of waggon
frame, with a large cask fixed on each side ; it appears to
SERVERS. 439
afford a very convenient support to the men, but it can Life-Pre-
scarcely possess any great strength for resisting the force servers,
of the breakers. ^
Mr J. Bremner, a clergyman in the Orkneys, had re¬
ceived a medal from the Society in 1810, for his method
of converting any ship’s boat into a life-boat by putting
into it three or four casks lashed to the keel, which is to
have ring-bolts fixed in it for receiving the ropes by which
the casks are fastened; he gives particular directions for
making all the necessary arrangements, in the twenty-
eighth volume of the Transactions (p. 134); he particu¬
larly advises that no use should be made of the natural
buoyancy of the cavity of the boat, but that the bottom
should be perforated without hesitation, wherever the hole
would afford any additional facility for fixing a rope. Cap¬
tain Manby’s jolly-boat, fitted as a life-boat, “at the expense
of three pounds,” seems to be comprehended among those
preparations which are to be made previously to the voyage.
The buckling a soldier’s canteen on his breast as an
assistance to enable him to float, belongs to those tempo¬
rary expedients which may occasionally be employed with
advantage. Tying a hat in a pocket-handkerchief, and
holding it as a float, has been recommended by Mr Law-
son in the Philosophical Magazine (vol. xx., p. 362); he
advises that the crown of the hat should be held downwards,
and observes that a stick may be employed, to enable us
to use two or four hats at once; but this method can only
be adopted when the accident occurs in very still water.
The first and most obvious preparation for enabling a
person to float, is the learning to swim. It is wrell known
that swimming is scarcely ever sufficient to enable a sea¬
man to reach the land from a ship that has been wrecked,
without some assistance; and many have certainly been
drowned from depending too much on their own strength;
but for a momentary support, and to afford courage and
presence of mind to seek for other aid, there is no ques¬
tion but that the faculty of swimming possesses an inesti¬
mable advantage. A boy generally learns to swim by the
help of his schoolfellows better than by any general
rules, and more agreeably than in a school of natation;
but it may be of some use to observe, that the act of div¬
ing to the bottom and re-ascending, in tolerably shallow
water, is much more easily performed by a beginner than
that of simply supporting himself on the surface; and
when he has thus acquired the feeling of the immediate
effect of his arms in propelling and sustaining him, he
soon finds out the means of employing his feet in their as¬
sistance. The art of swimming has, however, been sys¬
tematically treated by Bachstrom, Kunst zu Schwimmen;
8vo, Berlin, 1742; by Thevenot, Art de Nager, Paris 1711,
and by Bernardi, Arte Eagionata del Nuoto, 2 vols. 4to.
Naples, 1794.
It is easy to convince ourselves, by trials in a warm
bath, without reference to Robertson’s experiments {Phil.
Trans. 1757), that a substance possessing a very small
degree of buoyancy is sufficient to enable the human body
to float without effort. In fact, when the chest is fully
expanded, the thinnest and most bony person will com¬
monly float in sea-water; but the effort of keeping the
chest expanded is as fatiguing as any other muscular
exertion; and when the chest collapses, the fattest people
may be in danger of sinking, unless they have learned to
swim. Sir William Hamilton, indeed, tells us that, in
1783, “a woman of Scilla, four months gone with child,
was swept into the sea by the wave ” accompanying the
earthquake, “ and was taken up alive, floating on her back
at some distance, nine hours after; she had been used to
swim; her anxiety and suffering, however, had arrived at
so great a pitch, that just at the time that the boat which
took her up appeared, she was trying to force her head
under water, to put a period to her miserable existence.”
1
440 LIEE-PRE
Life-Pre- In China, a frame of bamboo surrounding the person is
servers. usecl for a float, and the lightness and strength of this
^ substance must well adapt it for the purpose; sometimes
also a gourd is tied to a child, to secure its floating in
case of accident. The inflated goat-skins used from time
immemorial by the Arabs, or the seal-skins employed by
the Chilians, have the disadvantage of being easily rent or
torn by a rock or a spar; an objection which is also more
or less applicable to all substances containing air; for ex¬
ample, to the air-jackets described in Leopold’s Theatrum
Pontificum, published about 1724. A float of a semicir¬
cular form was recommended by Ozanam, the author of the
Recreations; and Bachstrom, in his Art of Swimming,
proposed to float a troop of cavalry, by fixing cork to the
saddles. The cork jacket of Gelacy is described in the
History of the Parisian Academy of Sciences for 1757, and
Lachapelle’s Scaphander, which is considered an improve¬
ment on it, in the volume for 1765. In the year 1764 the
attention of the British public was particularly called to the
floating powers of cork, by some experiments which were
made with cork jackets on the Thames, together with some
comparative experiments on air-jackets; and Dr Wilkin¬
son, in the Philosophical Transactions for 1765, describes
some experiments by which he ascertained that about a
pound of cork was amply sufficient to enable a man of ordi¬
nary size and make to float without effort. It is almost
superfluous to enumerate the multitude of trifling variations
that have been made in the arrangements of cork jackets
and air-jackets, apparently for the purpose of exciting a
momentary interest, though possibly from the best motives.
Mr Bosquet advised a bag of cork shavings to be kept in
readiness by each person ; the Seaman’s Friend was com¬
posed of two pieces of cork, united by straps; the Collinetta
was a hollow vessel of copper, divided into cells ; a “marine
spencer” has been described by Mr Spencer, in the six¬
teenth volume of the Philosophical Magazine, consisting
only of a number of old corks, arranged so as to form a
girdle; and in 1806, Mr T. C. Daniel obtained a gold
medal from the Society of Arts, for the invention of an
apparatus of waterproof leather, surrounding the body,
which, according to the testimonials he produced, had saved
the lives of some persons who had been sailing in a pleasure-
boat on a river. In smooth water, it has been suggested
that throwing a foot-ball, with a small weight tied to it, to
the person immersed, would often afford sufficient assist¬
ance ; and, with respect to floating, there is no doubt that
any of the assistances which have been proposed would be
sufficient if they were at hand : but there is another object,
to which it is necessary to attend, in cold, and even in tem¬
perate climates, that of supporting a temperature compatible
with life and health, if the immersion is likely to be of long
duration ; and an additional provision of worsted stockings,
jackets, and trowsers, will be almost as essential, in such
ases, as the means of obtaining buoyancy.
The invention of India-rubber cloth led to the introduc¬
tion of inflated belts, the advantages of which, compared
with cork, and other forms of belt, are their greater buoy¬
ancy compared with their bulk, and their greater porta¬
bility, for, when emptied of air, they can be folded up, and
packed into a small space. The objections to them are
their liability to get punctured or torn, and to decay, from
being put away damp ; the metal valves by which they are
inflated may also get out of order ; during the hurry and
confusion of a wreck they are liable to be only partially
inflated, and the valves to be only half screwed up, so as
to allow of the escape of the inclosed air.
Commander J. R. Ward, R.N., inspector of life-boats to
the National Life-Boat Institution, has invented a belt with
four compartments, which admit of being separately in¬
flated, thus mitigating the danger arising from puncture or
injury to the inflating valves; it has a buoyancy equal to
SERVERS.
30 lb., and should two of its compartments be disabled, the Life-Pre-
remaining two would be sufficient to float the wearer. servers.
hor the rough purposes of ordinary boat-work, Com-
mander 'W ard insists on the advantages of cork as a ma¬
terial for life-belts, and he has invented a form of belt,
which has been selected by the National Life-Boat Institu¬
tion for the use of its life-boats’ crews. The buoyant
power of each belt is from 20 to 24 lb.; the cork is un¬
covered, so that its quality can be seen, and it is divided
into numerous narrow pieces, each of which is sewed sepa¬
rately to a strong linen or duck belt, which covers the body
from the arm-pits to below the hips. The pieces of cork
are distributed in two rows, one above, the other below the
waist, and the belt is secured closely about the body by
means of strings passed round the waist, between the two
rows of cork. It is further secured by other strings, crossed
over the shoulders. By this arrangement the trunk of the
body is enveloped in cork, attached so as to be quite
flexible, and to allow of the usual movements of the body
without inconvenience, while it protects the body against
injury from blows, and is a warm covering in cold weather.
Various forms of buoyant mattress have been contrived
by Mr Laurie and other’s. As manufactured by Mr Silver,
numerous waterproof tubes are partly distended with horse¬
hair, woollen flocks, or cocoa-nut fibres, so that, should one
or more of the tubes fail, the others may suffice to sustain
the required weight on the water. The tubes are made up
into mattresses, pillows, and floats,—the last to be placed
under the thwarts of boats. A mattress weighing 17 lb.
sustains in the water 284 lb. A pillow sustains 28 lb.
A mattress for emigrant vessels, sold at 9s., was proved at
the Great Exhibition. It sustained 96 lb. in the water dur¬
ing five days, without being injured. Floating mattresses are
also made, filled with cork shavings. In the Great Exhi¬
bition, Mr Rhind had various models of deck seats and
benches for steamers, so constructed as to be readily formed
into rafts, each of which was capable of sustaining eight
persons.
For the second object which is desirable to a ship in dis¬
tress, that of obtaining a safe communication with the shore,
it has been usual of late years to rely principally on the
humane exertions of persons who may be on the coast,
and who may have made preparations for this purpose ; and
with this view, some instructions for properly co-operating
in the measures to be adopted with Captain Manby’s appa¬
ratus have been liberally distributed to all ships when they
received their papers from some of the British custom¬
houses. There are, however, some simple expedients which
may be adopted for this purpose by persons on board of
the ship; for example, the making a kite with a pocket-
handkerchief stretched over a hoop, and causing it to carry
a cord to the lee shore, by means of which a stronger line,
and at last a hawser, may be drawn by persons standing on
the beach. A line may also sometimes be carried on shore
by a cask, allowed to drift before the wind; and a bag has
been recommended to be attached to such a cask, or to a
buoy, in order to act as a sail, and to insure its crossing the
surf. Mr Cleghorn was also rewarded, in 1814, by the
Society of Arts, for the invention of a buoyant line, having
a heart of cork, to obviate the inconvenience which would
arise from its sinking and being dragged on the stones un¬
der the breakers; but he observes, that in heavy storms
there is generally a current along shore which renders the
method almost impracticable. {Transactions, xxxii., p. 181.)
A Mr Wheatley assures us, in Captain Manby’s Essay,
that his own life, and that of eight other persons, was
saved, in 1791, by a lead line, which was carried on shore
by a Newfoundland dog that he happened to have on board,
when two good swimmers had been drowned in the attempt
to swim on shore. It had occurred to Lieutenant Bell, in
1791, that a rope might be thrown from a ship which had
L IFE-P RE S E R VE R S.
441
!-Pre- struck, by means of a mortar carrying a heavy shot, and
servers. Up0n the principle of the gun harpoon ; and he showed the
practicability of the suggestion by an actual experiment,
in which a deep-sea line was carried to a distance of about
400 yards. {Trans. Soc. Arts, xxv., p. 136.) He recom¬
mended that every ship should be provided with a mortar
capable of carrying such a shot, and observed that it might
be placed on a coil of rope to be fired, instead of a carriage.
The line was to be coiled on handspikes, which were to be
drawn out before the mortar was fired. In 1792 he re¬
ceived a premium of fifty guineas from the Society of Arts
{Transactions, x., p. 204) ; and he obtained his promotion
in the Ordnance as an acknowledgment of his merits.
t The shot was to weigh about 60 lb. or more, and the mor¬
tar 5 or 6 cwt. The experiments of the French artillery
at Lafere were subsequent to those of Mr Bell, though
they have sometimes been quoted as the first of the kind.
It has, however, generally been thought impracticable
to manage a mortar with effect under the circumstances of
actual shipwreck; and Mr Trengrouse has preferred a
rocket, as more easily fired, and as having a smaller initial
velocity than a shot, so that the rope would be less in dan¬
ger of being broken by the impulse. He found that a
rocket of 8 oz. carried a mackerel line 180 yards, and a
1 lb. rocket 212 ; and, in some experiments made under the
inspection of the Society of Arts, a rocket 1^ inch in dia¬
meter carried a cord across the Serpentine Iliver in Hyde
Park. The musket is provided with a valve, to prevent
the escape of the materials of the rocket, and it is to be
fired with a little powder, without wadding. The whole
apparatus is packed in a chest, containing from eight to
twelve rockets, the musket, a life-spencer, a chair to tra¬
verse on a rope, a canvas bag, and a ball of wood to throw
to a person swimming. Mr Trengrouse was complimented
with a medal from the Society of Arts in 1820. (Vol.
xxxviii., p. 161.)
External Means of Escape from Shipwreck.—The means
to be employed by persons on shore, in cases of shipwreck,
depend either on projecting a line over the ship, or on the
use of a life-boat. Mr Bell had cursorily observed that a
line might be carried over a ship from the shore by means
of his mortar ; but for the actual execution of this proposal,
in a variety of cases, we are indebted to the meritorious
exertions of Captain G. W. Manby, whose apparatus, accord¬
ing to the report of a committee of the House of Commons,
dated in March 1810, appears “ to be admirably adapted to
its purpose, and to have been attended with the fullest suc¬
cess in almost every instance.” In consequence of this re¬
port, Captain Manby was thought worthy of a parliamentary
reward; and he afterwards published a description of his
inventions, under the title of An Essay on the Preserva¬
tion of Shipwrecked Persons, 8vo, London 1812. He had
previously received a gold medal from the Society of Arts
in 1808 {Transactions, xxvi., p. 209). His success makes
it expedient to extract from his Essay a detailed descrip¬
tion of the apparatus, and it will be easy to make it some¬
what more intelligible by a slight alteration of the order of
arrangement.
1 he method of affixing a rope to a shot, for the pur¬
pose of effecting communication, when projected from a
piece of ordnance over a stranded vessel, was at length suc¬
ceeded in, by introducing a jagged piece of iron, with an
eye at the top, into a shell, and securing it by filling the
hollow sphere with boiling lead; and in another way, by
drilling a hole through a solid ball, and passing a piece of
iron, with an eye to it, as before described, to the bottom,
where it should be well secured by riveting.
do produce the means of connecting a rope to a shot,
and prevent its being burnt, and rendering it ‘ irresistible'
to the powerful inflammation of gunpowder, was the labour
of infinite time, and the number of experiments to aecom-
VOL. XIII.
tmains in every
the
Fig. 2.
platted hide may
plish it is beyond all possible conception,
variety of form and great strength
breaking, proved that it required
not only an elastic, but a closer
connected body. At length,
some stout platted hide (fig. 2),
woven extremely close to the eye of the
shot, about 2 feet in length beyond the
muzzle of the piece, and with a loop at the
end to receive the rope, happily effected it.
“ This method is certainly desirable,
as the rope may, immediately [as] it is
required, be affixed to the loop, and ap¬
plied in service. The form of
likewise be woven
by twisting it in the
manner that the
lashes of whips or
ropes are spun ;
there is another Fig. 3.
method, by passing the rope through a case of leather, taking
the greatest care that ft is so well secured at the eye of
the shot, as to leave no room for the slightest play, as is
represented by the annexed barbed shot (fig. 3).
M hen the crews of the distressed vessel are incapable
of availing themselves of the benefits arising from commu¬
nication, they having previously lashed themselves in the
rigging to prevent being swept away by the sea, which is
repeatedly breaking over them, and when, from long fatigue
and the severity of the storm (on which occasions it too
frequently occurs), they totally lose the use of their limbs,
and are rendered incapable of assisting themselves in the
slightest degree—the advantages of this shot are, that, on
its being projected over the vessel, and the people of the
shore hauling it in, it firmly secures itself on some part of
the wreck or rigging, by which a boat can be hauled to the
relief of the distressed objects ; and by the counterbarbs it
is rendered impossible [that it should] give up its hold, or
slip, while that part of the wreck remains to which it has
secured itself.
liile-Ere-
servers.
“ Among the many that have been saved by this shot,
the following are testimonials of a few of the cases :—‘ We,
the crew of the brig Nancy of Sunderland, do hereby cer¬
tify that we were on board the said vessel when she was
stranded on the beach of Yarmouth, on Friday morning,
the 15th of December 1809, and compelled to secure our¬
selves in the rigging to prevent being swept away, the sea
running so high over the vessel. And we do further de¬
clare and certify that Captain Manby, firing a rope with a
hooked shot, securely holding on the wreck, enabled a boat
to be hauled from the shore over the surf to our relief,
otherwise we must inevitably have perished.’ ” This certi¬
ficate is attested by six signatures.
“ Facilitating communication is at all times of import¬
ance ; but when the stranded vessel is in momentary danger
of going to pieces, this point becomes a consideration of
extreme urgency. I feel a persuasion that this particular
service can only be carried into effect by a small and light
piece of ordnance, the range of which is consequently very
inconsiderable, when compared with that of a large and
heavier piece, as it is weight alone that conveys the rope.
In order, therefore, to increase the powers of a shot pro¬
jected from a small mortar, its natural form must be varied,
so as to give it additional ‘ preponderance.’ The annexed
shape, in the form of a pear (fig. 4), has been used with the
greatest success; for, by the increased weight, the shot’s
momentum and power over the line is in conse¬
quence considerably augmented in its range;
and when made to fit the piece as close as pos¬
sible, a great increase of velocity is likewise
produced from that decrease of windage.
3 k
442
LIFE-PRESERVERS.
Life-Pre- “ Portability in the construction of a piece of ordnance
servers. ^as just described) is the very essence
of this service; and communication
with the stranded vessel or wreck may
be effected with a cord, by which cord
a rope can be conveyed, and by that
rope a hawser or cable sent to the dis¬
tressed vessel; for this purpose the an¬
nexed was constructed” (fig. 5).
“ A person completely equipped with
every necessary apparatus to effect com¬
munication with a vessel driven on a lee-shore .... the
horseman, fully equipped, travelled a mile and a half, the
howitzer was dismounted, and the line projected 153 yards,
in six minutes.
“ The application of a small piece of ordnance likewise
offers particular advantages, capable of being employed
from a boat to go to the assistance of a vessel grounded
on a bar when running for a harbour, the necessity of
which repeatedly occurs, and was twice witnessed at Blake-
ney on the 10th of November 1810, when boats endea¬
voured to go to their relief, and .were enabled to get out
of the harbour on the ebb tide, within 20 yards of the ves¬
sel ; but it was found impossible to approach them nearer.
Had such boats been provided with a piece of this descrip¬
tion, and the same firmly secured on a stout piece of plank,
by the holes left at each corner of the iron bed, they might
have projected a small rope, coiled in a crate or basket
made to the form of the bow of the boat; and the persons
in the boat, so provided, would not have remained the dis¬
tressed spectators of the untimely end of their fellow-crea¬
tures, without being able to afford them the smallest re¬
lief, although so little was then wanted for that desirable
purpose.
“ Although advantages have been pointed out in the use
of these small mortars, it is necessary to be kept in remem¬
brance, that they are produced for particular services; as
the nature of the coast, and circumstances attending the
distressed vessel, will direct what piece is best adapted to
the undertaking. To enable the mind to form a judgment
of what can be effected by other pieces, the following are the
minutes of experiments made with a 5^-inch brass mortar,
stating the quantity of powder used, and distance the ropes
were projected against a strong wind, at the angle of 17
(elevation) : weight of the mortar and bed about 300 lb.:—
Ounces of
Powder.
4
6
8
10
12
14
Yards of inch
and half Rope.
134
159
184
207
235
250
Yards of Deep-
sea Line.
148
182
215
249
290
310
“ With a short 8-inch mortar, the weight of which and
bed was supposed to be about 700 lb.; the angles of eleva¬
tion uncertain:—
Ounces of
Powder.
32
32
32
Yards of Deep-
sea Line.
439
479
Yards of two-inch patent
Sunderland Rope, capable
of hauling the largest
Boat from a beach.
336
“ Directions for using the Apparatus.—When the rope
(which should be pliant and well stretched) is brought on
the beach or cliff opposite to the stranded vessel, the most
even spot, and free from projecting stones, should be se¬
lected to lay it on, and great care be taken that no two Life-Pre¬
parts of it whatever overlay or even touch each other, nor servers,
must it be laid in longer lengths than of two yards. But
to project a small line or cord, it will be necessary, if it is
required, to contract the faker to half a yard at most, to avoid
the jerk received at the end of each right line. The best
method, with such a description of cord, is to lay it on the
ground in the most short and irregular windings, to relieve
it from this powerful impulse. To prove the effect of the
impulse on a rope, if it is faked in lengths of 10 or 15 yards,
it will break each time, as it then becomes a most powerful
pendulum. These precautions are absolutely necessary to
the success of the service.
“ The following has, after various trials, been found a cer¬
tain method of laying the
rope, and placing it into
compartments.” {French
Faking, fig. 6.)
“ A particular attention
to this mode will never fail
with a good rope, when the
impediments are removed
that might otherwise ob¬
struct its rapid flight. Its
advantages are, that it will allow the eye rapidly (yet cor¬
rectly, just before firing, which is absolutely necessary) to
pass over the different compartments, and at once discover
if any fake has been displaced by the storm, or by any other
casualty or accident come in contact with another part,
which would destroy its application by the rope breaking.
“ It may likewise be coiled in the manner used in the
whale fishery, whale lair (fig. 7) ; and in the method called
chain faking (fig. 8) :—
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
“ It is, however, necessary to add, that great attention is
required in laying it agreeably to the two latter methods,
arising not only from the arm being liable to get under
certain parts of the rope, and thereby displace it, but from
the great anxiety of mind natural on these occasions, where
the lives of fellow-creatures are literally dependent on the
correctness with which the rope is laid; it is therefore
extremely difficult, in a moment of agitation, to determine
whether any overlay has taken place, an error that would
infallibly destroy every endeavour, and occasion even the
fate of those whose lives we might be exerting ourselves to
preserve. Could persons in the performance of this service
be always collected, the two latter methods would have a
decided advantage over the first mode of faking, they being
laid in a much less space of time.
“ As all these methods of laying the rope occupy time to
place it with the care necessary; and as it has repeatedly
happened that vessels, very soon after grounding, have gone
to pieces, and all hands perished; it was necessary to pro-
Fig. 9.
duce a method of arranging the rope, so that it could be
immediately projected as soon as it arrived at the spot; and
LIFE-PRESERVERS.
443
none proved so effectual as when brought ready in a bas¬
ket (fig. 9).
“ In this case, the rope should be most carefully laid in
alternate tiers or fakes, no part of it overlaying, and it
should be well secured down, that in travelling it be not
displaced ; but, above all, no mistake must happen in ■plac¬
ing the basket properly. For example, that the end of
the basket, from which the shot hangs in the above figure,
should be previously marked, and must be placed towards
the sea or wreck, that the rope be delivered freely, and
without any chance of entanglement. It will be scarcely
necessary to add, there will be several tiers of the rope
when laid. I he utmost care and attention are required in
laying the rope in tiers with strict jegularity, to prevent
entanglement.”
“ The next is the application of the mortar. If the wdnd
is sideways to the shore, it must be pointed sufficiently to
windward to allow for the slack of the rope lighting on the
object, as the rope will, of course, be considerably borne to
leeward by the effect of a strong wind, and by its being
laid at a low elevation insures the rope falling against the
w'eathermost part of the rigging. While this service is
performing, great care should be taken to keep the mortar
dry; nor should it be loaded until everything is ready;
when that is done, it should be primed ; but as it would be
impossible to do it with loose pow'der in a storm, a tube is
constructed in the simplest manner of common writing
paper (the outer edge being cemented with a little gum) in
this form (fig. 10). It is filled with meal gunpowder,
made into paste with spirit of wine ; when in a state
of drying, run a needle through the centre, and take
care the hole is left open, for, on the tube being
inflamed, a stream of fire darts through the aperture
with such force as to perforate the cartridge. The
mortar should then instantly be fired; and in order
to lessen a difficulty that has often occurred in per-Fig. 10.
forming this service, a pistol may be used, having a tin box
over the lock, to exclude the effect of wind or rain on the
priming; and the muzzle being cut [obliquely], dilates the
inflammation, so as to require but little exactness in the
direction of the aim.
“We will suppose the communication to be secured, al¬
though it is scarcely necessary to offer any other assistance
than that of a rope, as the inventive genius of a sailor will
supply everything else; yet I could expect the people on
shore to get a boat ready for meeting the vessel when
driven on a beach : it is the promptest and most certain
method of relief, as well as the most easy to be accom¬
plished ; for by hauling her off with the rope projected, the
boats head is kept to the waves, and not only insures safety
by rising to the surge, but prevents her upsetting.”
“ W hen the rope attached to the shot (not having barbs
to it), is fired over the vessel and lodges, let it be secured
by those on board, and made fast to some firm part of the
rigg‘ng or wreck, that they may haul off a boat by it; but
should there not be any boat, then haul on board by the
projected rope a larger one, and a tailed block, through
which a smaller rope is rove. Let the large rope be made
fast at the mast-head, between the cap and the top of one
of the lower masts, and the tailed block a little distance be¬
low it, but, if the masts should have been cut or carried
an ay, then it must be made fast to the loftiest remain-
ing part of the wreck. W hen this is done, there will be
supplied from the shore a cot, hammock, netting, basket,
hoop, oi any of the numerous resources of seamen, which
will urn on the larger rope, and be worked by the people on
,oi ^ a used, the men may be so securely
fastened to it as to preclude all possibility of falling out,
and then be brought from the wreck, one by one in perfect
safety.”
“ While communication is gaining, three stakes should
be driven into the ground in a triangular position, so as to Life-Pre¬
meet close at the heads to support each other. As soon as servers,
communication has been effected by the crew of the vessel,
and they have secured the line attached to the shot, made
fast to these stakes, the crew will haul on board by it
a large rope and a tailed block, through which a smaller
rope is to be rove, both ends of which (the smaller rope) are
to be kept on shore. When they have secured these on
board, and the larger rope is rove through the rollers, let a
gun-tackle purchase be lashed to it, then lash the purchase
to the stakes. By the means of the purchase the larger
rope may be kept at a fit degree of tension; for, if care be
taken to slacken the purchase as the ship rolls out to sea,
the danger of the rope being broken will be guarded against;
and, on the other hand, if the purchase be gathered in as
the ship rolls toward the shore, the slackness of the rope,
which would prevent the cot (fig. II) traversing as it ought
to do, and plunge it in the water more than "it otherwise
would, will be avoided.”
Fig. II.
“ Supposing neither boat nor cot apparatus at hand, first
cast off the shot from the projected rope, and with a close
hitch, let it be put over the head and shoulders of the per¬
son to be saved, bringing it close under each arm, draw¬
ing it tight, observing particularly the knot is on the
breastbone; for, by having the knot in that position, on
the people of the shore hauling the person from the wreck,
he will naturally be on his back, consequently, the face will
be uppermost to seize every moment ior respiration, after
each surf has passed over the body. If circumstances com¬
pel recourse to this method, care must be taken to free the
rope from any part of the wreck, and to jump clear away ;
but should there be more than one on board, each man
should make himself fast in the same way, about four feet
from the other, and join hands, all attending to the same
directions.”
“ For giving Relief to Vessels Stranded on a Lee Shore
in a Dark and Tempestuous Night.—It will be requisite,
first, to devise the means of discovering precisely where
the distressed vessel lies, when the crew are not able to
make their situation known by luminous signals ; secondly,
to produce a method of laying the mortar for the object,
with as much accuracy as in the light; thirdly, to render
the flight of the rope perfectly distinguishable to those who
project it, and to the crew on board of the vessel, so that
they cannot fail of seeing on what part of the rigging it
lodges, and consequently have no difficulty in securing it.
“ To attain the first object, a hollow ball was made to
the size of the piece, composed of layers of pasted car¬
tridge paper of the thickness of half an inch, having a lid
on the top to contain a fuze (fig. 12), and it was
then filled with about fifty luminous balls of star
composition, and a sufficient quantity of gunpow¬
der to burst the ball and inflame the stars. The
fuze fixed in the ball was graduated, to set fire
to the bursting powder at the height of 300
yards. Through the head of the fuze were drilled
Fg. 12
444
L I F E-P 11 E S E R V E R S.
Life-Pre¬
servers.
holes, at equal [distances], to pass through them strands
of quick match, to prevent the possibility of any acci¬
dent from the match falling out, or from its not firing the fuze.
On the stars being released, they continued their splen¬
dour, while falling, for near one minute, which allow ample
time to discover the situation of the distressed vessel. Dur¬
ing the period of the light,
a stand, with two upright
sticks (fig. 13), (painted
white, to render them more
discernible in the dark),
was ready at hand, and
pointed in a direct line to
the vessel.
“ A shell affixed to the
rope, having four holes in
it to receive a like num- Kg. 13.
ber of fuzes (headed as before described), and filled with
the fiercest and most glaring composition, which, when in¬
flamed at the discharge of the piece, displayed so splendid
an illumination of the rope, that its flight could not be mis¬
taken.”
“ To get a Boat from a Beach over the Surf.—The im¬
portance of going to the relief of ships in distress at a dis¬
tance from the land, or for taking off pilots, was viewed as
of the highest consequence by the elder brethren of the
Trinity House, and offered to my particular attention by
several distinguished characters. After numerous experi¬
ments to accomplish it in various ways, the mode follow¬
ing was most approved:—About forty fathoms of 2^-inch
rope, made fast to two moving anchors, was laid out
parallel with the shore, at a distance beyond the sweep
of the surf; to the centre of this rope was made fast a
buoy, of sufficient power to suspend the great rope, and
prevent it from chafing on the sand, rock, or stones, as well
as embedding, a circumstance that has rendered it impos¬
sible, on a sandy or shingly coast, to heave out an anchor
with a rope to it from the shore. As this service should
be performed in fair weather (to be prepared for the storm),
it may be regulated with the greatest exactness, and should
take place at the top of high-water, that the upper part of
the buoy may be at the full stretch of its power, and only
seen at that time. Should the shore be extremely flat, it
will be desirable to place another set at a sufficient distance
beyond the first, to insure the operation of this method in
any state of the, tide.
“ The royal mortar being brought to the spot, is to be
pointed in the direction for the buoy, and should be laid at
a very low elevation, but such as to insure the range ; for
the more it is depressed, the less slack of rope there
will be from the parabola formed in the shot’s flight; the
basket with the rope ready laid (having a barbed shot to it)
is to be placed in the front of the mortar; on its being
fixed, instantly haul the slack of the rope in, to prevent the
Fig. u.
effect produced on it by a strong tide; which being done,
let th.e remainder be gently hauled in, to insure the shot’s
grappling with the great rope ; when that is caught and Life-Pre-
hooked, a power will be acquired fully adequate to the servers,
service.
“ As a cast-iron anchor appears particularly adapted to
this method, and would be much cheaper than hammered,
fig. 14 is a plan of one which the Honourable the Navy
Board approved, and allowed me to cast at their expense,
for the purpose of making the experiment.”
“ When a vessel is in that extreme arid perilous situation,
driven under a rugged and inaccessible cliff, and
in danger of going soon to pieces, the most prompt
method I should suggest is, by lowering to the
crew a rope with stiff loops spliced into it (fig. 15),
at the distance of a foot and a half from each loop,
of sufficient size to contain the foot, by which they
can ascend as a ladder.
“ This rope-ladder is capable of being projected;
and one of an inch and half rope was thrown from a
morter 194 yards. It might also, from the simpli¬
city of its structure, be extremely useful in escap¬
ing from a house on fire. By making one end fast
to the leg of a bed or a table, the person would
come down from the window in safety, and with Fis-15*
much less difficulty, and quicker, than with the common
rope-ladder, which is heavier and more unwieldy. It has
great advantages when employed in saving shipwrecked
men in situations just described, when, from extreme cold,
and almost benumbed limbs, it would be impossible for
them to climb up a rock, or ascend it even by the aid
of a common rope. The holds, thus spliced in, will sup¬
port both hands and feet.”
The Report of the Committee of the House of Commons
contains also a paper of instructions for the managers of
Captain Manby’s apparatus on shore, which are somewhat
more minute than the directions published in his Essay.
For example :—
“ If the wind be sideways to the shore, the mortar must
be pointed sufficiently to windwards to allow for the slack
of the rope lighting on the object, as the rope will, of course,
be borne considerably to leeward by the effect of a strong
wind.
“ The distance your judgment decides the vessel to be
from the shore should regulate the charge of powder as
stated in the scale, taking just a sufficient quantity to clear
the object: an attention to this will be more certain of your
effecting communication, and guarding against the danger
of the rope breaking, or any other circumstance that might
prevent the successful performance of the service. The
elevation of fifteen degrees is to be preferred, particularly
if the wind is sideways, pointing the mortar sufficiently to
windward, as the rope would then tall against the weather-
most part of the rigging of the stranded vessel.
“ When a vessel is driven on shore in the night, you will
flash gunpowder as often as convenient on your way; this
will animate the crew, and denote to them you are coming
to their assistance. On getting to the spot where you have
reason to suspect the vessel lies, as you are not able to dis¬
cover her from the extreme darkness, and if the people on
board cannot [make known] their situation by luminous
signals or noises (which they will be directed to make if
possible), you will lay the mortar at a very high elevation,
and fire a light ball.
“Just before you fire (the rope) it would be advisable to
let off a blue light to put the crew on their guard, to look
out, and be ready to secure the rope. The service can be
performed with a carronade.”
In chap. iv. we have a copy of directions to persons on
board vessels stranded on a lee-shore, proposed to be de¬
livered to the masters at the custom-house. It is observed,
that even snapping a pistol, when the powder is wet, may
sometimes afford a signal visible on shore, from the sparks
LIFE-PRESERVERS.
44?>
Life-boat.
of the steel alone. The other parts of the directions will
be supplied by those who understand the principles of the
proposed mode of relief.
Rockets have of late years been much employed instead
of the mortar, in Manby’s apparatus for throwing a line to
a ship in distress. “ Dennett’s Rocket Apparatus” is supplied
to many stations along the coast. The only advantage which
the rocket has over the mortar is its greater portability; for,
being much lighter, it can be used with greater facility
amongst rocky cliffs, and in positions difficult of access.
I he disadvantages of rockets are, that they are somewhat
uncertain, sometimes exploding as soon as ignited, to the
danger of the bystanders; and they are also liable to de¬
teriorate from the effects of damp or of age. Moreover,
being expensive, they cannot be often employed in trials,
so as to keep up the practice of the people employed in
using them. The range of a shot from a 24-lb. mortar,
which is the ordinary size, is about the same as that of a
12-lb. rocket, which is the largest in use. As the manage¬
ment of the mortar and rocket apparatus is much better
understood by the officers and men of the coast-guard ser¬
vice than by ordinary boatmen and fishermen, it has been
almost entirely left in their hands, and is provided by the
Board of Customs. There are in England 132 mortar and
rocket stations; in Scotland, 15; in Ireland, 22.
Several inventions, or variations, in the Manby apparatus
may be just glanced at. M. G. Delvigne uses a howitzer
instead of a mortar, while a portion of the line to be carried
is contained in the projectile. Mr Greener has a method
of discharging a rocket, with a line attached, from a light
harpoon gun. When discharged, the rocket ignites, and is
said to prolong the range to a greater distance than if the
gun or the rocket were alone employed. Captain Jerning-
ham, R.N., has an anchor of a particular form, which he
proposes to fire from a Manby’s mortar, in sufficient num¬
bers to afford the means of hauling a life-boat through the
surf. Mr A. G. Carte employs a war-rocket instead of a
Dennett’s rocket.
The last description of the inventions to be considered,
wdth regard to the preservation of lives in cases of ship¬
wreck, is that of life-boats, which are of such a construction
as to be incapable of sinking, even when filled with water.
The occasional adaptation of the common boats of the ship
to such purposes, by means of empty casks, has been already
noticed. But the boats now in question are supposed to
be kept on shore at proper stations, and manned by active
persons, who are in the habit of exerting themselves for the
relief of seamen in distress.
Mr Henry Greathead, of South Shields, received a gold
medal and fifty guineas from the Society of Arts, in 1802,
and a parliamentary reward of L.1200, besides further re¬
munerations from the Trinity House, and from Lloyd’s
Coffee-House, for his invention of a life-boat, which is de¬
scribed in the Transactions of the Society, vol. xx., p. 283.
The length of this boat is 30 feet, its breadth 10, and its
greatest depth about 3, besides a general curvature, which
nearly doubles the depth, as reckoned from the ends; the
convexity below being intended to give it a greater facility
of turning, and a greater power of mounting on the waves
without submersion of the bow, which would increase the
resistance, though it would not sink the boat; the breadth
is also continued further than usual fore and aft, in order
to contribute to the same property. The gunwale projects
some inches, and the sides below it are cased with pieces of
cork, amounting in the whole to 7 cwt., which are secured
by plates of copper. There are ten short oars of fir, fixed
on pins to the gunwales, and a longer oar for steering at
at each end, both ends of the boat being alike. It is painted
white, in order to be more conspicuous; and a carriage is
provided, for conveying it overland when required. The de¬
scription is accompanied by documents of the preservation
of 200 or 300 men by the boats of South Shields and North
Shields, which w^ere built in 1789 and 1798 respectively.
Mr Christopher Wilson received a gold medal in 1807,
for a life-boat with air gunwales, which was tried at New-
haven, and was said to be lighter and more manageable than
Mr Greathead’s. [Transactions, xxv. 55.)
“ Little is required,” says Captain Manby, “ to establish
the importance and advantages that will result from giving
every boat the properties of a life-boat, particularly when
taken into consideration that it can be produced at a very
trifling expense.”
To illustrate the method of giving the properties of pre¬
servation to any boat,—a man of war’s jolly boat, for ex¬
ample,—we quote the description of the one which was
fitted up to make experiments thereon, by permission of the
Honourable Commissioners of the Navy Board.
“ To give it buoyancy, empty casks were well lashed and
secured in it. For the advantage of keeping it in an up¬
right position, launching from a flat shore, beaching, and to
resist upsetting, it had billage boards of equal depth with
the keel, and when a good sized piece of iron or lead wTas
let into or made fast to the keel, if any accident did upset
the boat, it immediately regained its original posture. A
stout projecting rope, with swellings upon it to increase its
elasticity, surrounded the gunwale, served as a fender, and
prevented it being stoved in lowering down, or when driven
in contact with the vessel it might be going to relieve.
“ The boat thus described had the plug out, and was
filled with water until it ran over the gunwale, when a crew
of four, with myself, tried it in every way, and found, from
the buoyant property of the casks, it kept the boat so much
above the water’s edge, that it was rowed with the greatest
ease, and was capable of performing any service required.”
Mr J. Boyce, in 1814, obtained a medal for his life-boat
and safety-buoy, consisting of hollow cylinders made of
canvas painted and varnished, and connected with each
other. It was tried on a river, and carried a man with
safety [Trans, xxxii. 177); but surely it could not be trusted
among breakers on a lee shore. In 1818 Mr Gabriel Bray
obtained a silver medal for his invention of a boat filled with
air-boxes under the seats and along the sides. (Vol. xxxv.,
p. 172.)
Of late years the subject of life-boats has attracted con¬
siderable attention, from the circumstance of the increasing
number of wrecks, consequent on the rocky nature of our
shore, and the vast and increasing amount of our commerce.
1 he exertions, too, of the National Life-Boat Institution1
have had a powerful influence in directing attention to this
subject. I he attention of the public is also kept alive by
the publication of a journal entitled The Life-Boat, which,
in addition to statistical returns of shipwrecks, contains in¬
formation on every subject connected with the preservation
of life from shipwreck. One of the publications of the so-
This society, founded in 1824, is under the patronage of her Majesty, and the presidency of his Grace the Duke of Northumberland
1 he object is to assist every wrecked person in the kingdom, by such means as the establishment of life-boats and rocket-mortars at all
the dangerous parts of the coast; to assist in the formation of local committees at the chief ports; to confer rewards in the form of
medals, votes of thanks, or pecuniary remuneration to all persons risking their lives for the sake of others ; and also to encourage the
invention of new or improved life-boats, belts, rocket apparatus, buoys, and other means of saving life. This admirable societvls de-
T !°+war-y su^scrlPti'ons for its existence and support. That the society has worked with some success, may be judged of
the/t;<; ’ th,at Slllce lts establishment it has been instrumental in saving the lives of 9682 persons; it has granted 79 gold medal-
ons, and 5o6 silver medals, besides pecuniary rewards, amounting to L.9631.
Jiife-Pre¬
servers.
446
LIFE-PRESERVERS.
Life-Pre- ciety is a Wreck Chart of the British Islands, originally
servers, published by the Admiralty. A vessel wrecked on our
coasts is indicated by a black spot ®, while a vessel so
seriously damaged as to require to discharge her cargo is
indicated by +; and the number of such marks at any one
spot indicates the annual average of wrecks, which may be
large because the coast is dangerous, or because the traffic
is great. Thus, the mouth of the Tyne shows a larger
number of black dots and crosses than any other place;
the mouth of the Tees and the mouth of the Weir occupy
the next places of distinction in this dismal chart: these
three rivers being the outlets of the district by which Lon¬
don is supplied by sea with three million tons of coal every
year, giving employment to several thousand collier ships,
which sail to and fro, and greatly add to the otherwise large
trade of the Northumberland and Durham ports. The
coast of these two counties indicates per annum 180 wrecks,
sinkings, and serious collisions. The mouth of the Hum¬
ber, the coast of Suffolk between Yarmouth and South-
wold, the sandy shoals off the mouth of the Thames, the
Goodwin Sands, the Scilly Isles, Barnstable Bay, and Liver¬
pool, rank as the next dangerous portions of the English
coast. The Welsh coast is also dangerous, especially Gla¬
morgan, Pembroke, and Anglesea. Scotland, except near
the Firth of Forth, is comparatively free from wrecks, the
western coast remarkably so, probably from being less ex¬
posed to the winds, which tend to drive ships ashore on
the eastern coast. In Ireland the E. and S. coasts pre¬
sent about an equal number of wrecks, the smaller number
being on the northern and western. In the year 1855 no
less than 1141 wrecks occurred on the coasts of the United
Kingdom, about one-half of that number belonging to the
E. coasts of Great Britain. The loss of life from ship¬
wreck during that, year was comparatively small, being
only 469, or less than one-third of the loss of the preced¬
ing year, the average loss per annum being between 600
and 700 lives.
Passing over a great variety of proposals for life-boats,
we proceed to notice the boat which the Life-Boat Institu¬
tion recommends and supplies to its stations. Its history is
interesting. A few years ago, a lamentable accident occur¬
red to a South Shields life-boat, whereby twenty pilots were
drowned. This induced the Duke of Northumberland to
offer a reward for the best model of a life-boat. This offer
was responded to by boat-builders and others from various
parts of the kingdom, as well as from France, Holland, Life-Pre-
Germany, and America, so that 280 models and plans v serverB-
were sent in. About fifty of the best of these were ex- v-*-
hibited by his grace in the Great Exhibition of 1851 ; and
he expressed his intention of placing the best life-boats,
with their subsidiary apparatus, on all the exposed points
of the coast of Northumberland. He also caused a report
to be prepared, accompanied by plans and drawings, with
a view to elicit the best form of life-boat; for although
the prize of L.100 was assigned to Mr Beeching of Great
Yarmouth, it was considered that a better boat might still
be produced. Accordingly, Mr James Peake, assistant
master-shipwright in H.M. Dockyard at Woolwich, and a
member of the Life-Boat Committee appointed by the
Duke of Northumberland, was requested to furnish a de¬
sign for a life-boat which might combine as many as pos¬
sible of the advantages, and have as few as possible of the
defects, of the best of the models examined by the commit¬
tee. A boat was accordingly designed by Mr Peake, and
built at the public expense in Woolwich Dockyard. Some
modifications were from time to time made in her, in con¬
sequence of various experiments, and a trial of her capa¬
bilities made in a gale of wind at Brighton. The boat,
with others of the same design, built at the cost of the
Duke of Northumberland, w-as placed on the Northumber¬
land coast in the autumn of 1852. In the course of the
following winter these boats were taken afloat on trial by
the Society’s inspector of life-boats, some of them in
heavy seas and gales of wind, and the result of the trials
was considered to be highly satisfactory. Other boats were
therefore built on the same plan, and we may therefore con¬
sider this as the model life-boat. These boats have been
for the most part of two sizes, viz., 27 and 30 feet in length,
with 7^ to 8 feet beam, and rowing from eight to twelve
oars, double-banked ; their weight averaging two tons. But
as such boats have been found too heavy to be managed
in some localities, where boatmen are few, boats of less
beam and weight, rowing six oars single-banked, but on
the same design in other respects, have been built under
the denomination of second-class life-boats. The former
class of boats have also been somewhat modified since the
description of the boat was first published, so as to be re¬
duced somewhat in beam, and to have less height, and
greater sharpness of bow and stern, to enable them to be
rowed with greater speed against a head gale and a heavy
Fig. 16.
Fig. 17.
sea. They are also built of fir, upon the diagonal principle boats were of elm, and clenched, or clinker-built,
of double planking without timbers, whereas the earlier The accompanying figures show the general form and the
LIFE-PRESERVERS.
447
Fig. 18.
Fig. 19.
nature of the fittings and air-chambers of one of these
boats, 30 feet in length, and 7 feet 6 inches in breadth. In
figs. 16 and 17, corresponding to the elevation and deck-
plans, the general exterior form of the boat is seen, show¬
ing the sheer of gunwale, length of keel, and rake, or slope
of stem and stern posts. The dotted lines of fig. 16 show
the position and dimensions of the air-chambers within
board, and of the relieving tubes. A represents the deck,
B the relieving tubes, 6 inches in diameter, C the side air-
cases, D the end air-chambers. In fig. 18 the exterior
form of transverse sections, at dif¬
ferent distances, from stem to stern
is shown. Fig. 19 represents a
mid-ship transverse section, A
being sections of the side air-cases,
B the relieving tubes, bored
through solid massive chocks ot
wood of the same depth as the
space between the deck and the
boat’s floor; C, C are spaces beneath the deck filled up,
over 6 feet in length, at the mid-ship part of the boat, with
solid chocks of light wood, or boxes of cork, forming a por¬
tion of the ballast; D is a section of a tier below the deck,
with a moveable hatch or lid, in
which the boat’s cable is stowed,!
and into which all leakage beneath
the deck is drained through small]
holes with valves fixed in themi
In some of the later boats a small
draining tier only is placed, having
a pump in it, by which any leakage
can be pumped out by one of the crew whilst afloat. The
festooned lines in fig. 16 represent exterior life-lines, at¬
tached round the entire length of the boat, to which per¬
sons in the water may cling until they can be got into the
boat; the two central lines are festooned lower than the
others, to be used as stirrups, so that a person in the water
by stepping on them may climb into the boat.
The chief peculiarity of a life-boat is its incapability
of being sunk, in consequence of its being fitted with water¬
tight air-cases, or compartments. One of the difficulties
of life-boats has been to decide as to the amount and dis¬
tribution of such air-cases. The necessary space for row¬
ing and working the boat, and for the stowage of ship¬
wrecked persons being secured, the spare space along the
sides within-board should be entirely occupied by buoyant
cases, or compartments, because, on the boat’s shipping a
sea, the water, until got rid of, is confined to the midship
parts of the boat, where it serves to a great extent as bal¬
last, instead of falling over to the lee-side, and destroying
the equilibrium of the boat. Hence, barrels or casks, which
do not conform in shape to the sides of the boat, are not well
adapted to serve as air-cases. In Mr Peake’s life-boat
there is a water-tight deck at the load-water-line, and de¬
tached air-boxes along the sides, closely conforming to their
shape from the thwarts to the deck. Extra buoyancy is
also derived from large end air-cases, built across the bow
and stern, and occupying from 3 feet to 4^ feet in length,
from the stem and stern posts to gunwale height. These
cases are chiefly intended to provide self-righting power ;
but in the event of the boat being stove in, and the space
below the deck being filled with water, these air-cases alone
have sufficient buoyancy to float the boat.
1 he second peculiarity of a life-boat is its power of dis¬
charging, in a few seconds, any water which may be shipped
by the breaking over of the sea, or by the boat being
suddenly thrown on her beam-ends. This property does
not belong to all life-boats, for, in certain cases (the Nor¬
folk life-boats, for example), the plugs which stop up cer¬
tain holes in the floors are taken out during a gale of wind,
or a heavy sea, so as to let the water into them until it is
at the level of the sea. The water thus let in is confined Life-Pre
by the wide side-cases to the mid-ships of the boat, where servers,
it serves as a loose ballast, and the boatmen consider that
it is safest to go off under sail with the boat deeply im¬
mersed. The Liverpool life-boats have no relieving holes,
so that when filled by a sea, the water must be got rid of
by baling. In Mr Peake’s boats there is a water-tight deck
at the load-water-line, and a number of large open tubes,
opening at the surface of the deck, and passing through the
space between the deck and the floor; the bottom orifices
being furnished with self-acting valves opening downwards,
so as to allow any water shipped to escape through them.
The deck being placed at or above the load-water-line,
any water which is above it will be above the outside level
of the sea, so that the water escapes from the deck by its
own weight, and disappears in a few seconds.
As a life-boat has very great buoyant power, it is im¬
portant to her stability and safety to attend to the ballast¬
ing. The Greathead life-boats have usually no ballast,
their great breadth of beam being relied on for stability ;
but some of them have a tank in the midships beneath the
deck which can be filled with water. Beeching’s life-boats
are similarly ballasted ; but accidents, with loss of life, have
arisen from a difficulty in filling the tanks, and preventing
the escape of the water when full; hence solid ballast is to
be preferred. Mr Peake’s life-boats are ballasted with
heavy iron keels, and with solid wood and cork ballast,
stowed under the decks; and should these be stove in, and
the space beneath be filled with water, the wood and the
cork would supply extra buoyancy.
A life-boat ought to be self-righting if upset, a property
which, however, belongs only to Mr Peake’s and Mr Beech¬
ing’s boats, some boat-builders considering that stability is
sacrificed thereby. The fact, however, has been established
in the Life-Boat Journal, that the means employed to pro¬
duce self-righting add to the stability of a boat, and im¬
prove her in other respects. The self-righting power is
thus attained;—“ IsL The boat is built with considerable
sheer of gunwale, the bow and stern being from 1 ft. 6
in. to 2 ft. higher than the sides of the boat at her centre,
and the space within the boat at either extremity, to the dis¬
tance of from 3 to 4^ ft. from the stem and stern posts to
gunwale height, is then inclosed by a sectional bulk-head
and a ceiling, and so converted into a water-tight air-cham¬
ber, the cubical contents of which, from the thwarts upwards,
are sufficient to bear the whole weight of the boat when
she is placed in the water in an inverted position, or keel
upwards. 2d. A heavy iron keel (from 4 to 8 cwt.), is at¬
tached, and a nearly equal weight of light wood or cork
ballast is stowed betwixt the boat’s floor and the deck. No
other measures are necessary to be taken in order to effect
the self-righting power. When the boat is forcibly placed
in the water with her keel upwards, she is floated unsteadily
on the two air-chambers at bow and stern ; whilst the heavy
iron keel and other ballast being then carried above the
centre of gravity, an unstable equilibrium is at once
effected, and the weight of the iron keel falling over on one
side, immediately restores the boat to her proper position ;
in other words, she self-rights” {The Life-Boat, No. 22).
Lateral stability or stiffness, being the tendency to pre¬
serve an upright position in the water, with proportionate
resistance to upsetting, is obtained by breadth of beam or
by ballast—as in Mr Peake’s boats, by an iron keel and other
solid ballast, and by flatness and length of floor, with mode¬
rate beam only. The other qualities to be required in a good
life-boat are speed, strength, and stowage-room, all of which
seem to have been well-considered in Mr Peake’s boats.
A new description of life-boat, invented by the Rev. E.
L. Berthon, M.A., of Fareham, and known as the Fareham
Life-boat, has been made the subject of a patent. Its novel
feature is, that it is collapsible, so that it combines the pro-
448 L I F E-P RESERVEKS.
Life-Pre- perty of the life-boat, with facility of stowage in a small in the lower ferule, bears up the rod and the balance-weight,
servers. Space> Hence, it is well adapted for the use of ships, espe- but which, when unhooked, allows the weight to draw the
v-1^ cially large steamers, emigrant vessels, and troop-ships. Its rod about two-thirds out of the staff. To the head of the
frame-work is of wood, all the timbers extending the whole perpendicular staff' is attached at night a fuse, on a brass
length of the boat, there being no transverse timbers or fuse-plate, the shank of which is secured into a socket by
ribs. The timbers, four on each side of the stem and keel- a thumb-screw. The buoy is secured to the ship by the
piece, are thin, flat, and deep, something like a thin slice chain only, the ring of which hangs on the hook of the
of melon ; they are made without scarfing, by bending sheave of the trigger-plate. Attached to the stern of the
plank over plank till the required thickness is attained, vessel are two iron rods cased with copper tubing, together
They are jointed together at their ends, and to the tops of with the screw-bolts, from which they are suspended; just
the stem and stern posts by a kind of chain hinge. When above the forked stay which keeps the rods parallel, at a
the boat is collapsed, these timbers stand side by side in proper distance from the stern, is the trigger-plate, and the
vertical planes, like the leaves of a closed book ; but when brass fuse-case which covers and protects the fuse on the head
expanded, they stand apart in radial planes, somewhat like of the staff. There is also a brass case for the lock or per-
the segments of an orange. Attached to the edges of all cussion hammer, placed so as to communicate with the
the timbers are the water-proof coverings, of which there fuse-case, by means of the horizontal tube ; all these, toge-
are two, the outer skin being secured to the outer edges, the with the pulleys and guard-iron are, firmly attached to
and the inner skin to the inner edges of the timbers, by the stern of the vessel, inside of which, immediately oppo-
which means the whole body of the boat is divided into site to the pullies, are fixed the cups and handles, the one
eight separate longitudinal cells or compartments, which for firing the lock and lighting the fuse, the other for rais-
become filled with air on expanding the boat. This is ing the trigger-bolt and disengaging the buoy from the ship,
effected and maintained by the bottom boards and thwarts, As soon as the trigger-bolt is raised, the sheave revolves,
which being jointed along the middle line, are made to the stop turns round, and the life-buoy slides off' the rods
stand up at an acute angle when the boat is collapsed, and into the water, bearing on the head of the staff a brilliant
fall down to straight lines when open. The inventor com- flame. The balance-weight, when no longer held up by
pares the principle of extension to that of a carriage-head, the chain, drops upwards of 3 feet below the cross-piece,
the frame of which may be compared to the boat’s timbers, prevents the buoy from upsetting, and affords a place for
and the joints to the thwarts and stretchers of the bottom the man to stand on. This apparatus admits of being lighted
boards ; and as the leathern covering of the carriage shuts and let down into the water in the short space of five se-
in when the head is down, so the coverings of the boat shut • conds. Lieutenant Cook is also the inventor of a plan
in between the timbers. The boat has rather a deep keel, for converting boats used for ordinary purposes into life-
besides twm bilge pieces on each side, and in every other boats at pleasure.
salient point the covering is protected by wood or copper. Mr Miller’s safety-poles for skaters, and Mr Prior’s
The boat is lowered by the following contrivance :—Inside mode of preventing accidents in descending mines, are
the bulwarks is a large, flat, deeply-grooved sheave about mentioned in the Transactions of the Society of Arts
2 ft. 6 in. in diameter; it has two deep, narrow grooves (vols. xxxii. and xxxvi.) Apparatus of the latter kind has
cut nearly to its axis, and in these are wound separately been introduced at different times with various modifications,
the ends of the two falls. From this sheave is a projection In coal-pits, or coal and iron pits, where the men are raised
on which a friction-strap with a powerful lever is made to and lowered in a rectangular iron frame called a cage, the
w ork. This being placed flat against the bulwarks, the rope or chain may break, or the cage may be overwound by
falls are brought to it fore and aft by small sheaves set in drawing it over the framing at the pit’s mouth. Mr Robert
the top-rail: thus the friction of the strap when the boat is Blee of Redruth has introduced w hat he calls a safety-
up is enough to prevent motion ; but by slacking the lan- bucket, and Messrs White and Grant of Glasgow have a
yard by which the lever is secured, it may be allow ed to safety-cage. These inventions depend upon some such ar-
descend rapidly or slowly, according to the pressure applied rangements as the following :—Two pairs of eccentrics are
to the break. Rising and falling derricks are substituted attached to the ends of two parallel shafts, which extend
for davits. across the top of the cage ; the edges of the eccentrics are
The average size of the Fareham life-boat is 32 by 10 toothed, and when the cage is in motion they are free of
ft., it has eight thwarts, besides seats round the stern, and the vertical wooden rails which steady the cage in its mo-
will pull, if required, twelve oars double-banked. tion up and down the pit. Should the rope break, two
Captain Manby’s proposal for throwing ropes from ship volute springs bring round the thick sides of the eccentrics
to ship in cases of accidents may easily be understood from to bear against the guides, and hold the cage securely. To
the methods which he employs for saving lives in shipwrecks, prevent over-winding, the holdfast which connects the rope
The life-buoy by lieutenant Cook, R.N. F.R.S., Professor to the cage is secured by a curved bolt, kept in place by a
of Fortification at Addiscombe College, is related to the strong spring; this bolt moves on a fulcrum, and is con-
same class of inventions ; its object is"to preserve the life tinued as a lever beyond the holdfast; across the framing
of a person falling overboard in the night, by means of a at the mouth of the pit is a bar so arranged that, when the
floating light; and it obtained him a gold medal from the lever comes in contact with it, the bolt becomes disengaged,
Society of Arts in 1818. {Transactions, xxxvi., p. 121.) the cage by the action of the eccentrics becomes fixed, and
He observes that a ship may often have to run half a mile the rope only is drawn up over the pulley. In Mr Blee’s
beiore she can get about and lower a boat, so that it be- safety-cage the catches allow it to move freely so long as there
comes highly desirable to afford a temporary support to the is a vertical strain on them ; but should this cease by the
sufferer. The machine consists of two copper spherical breaking of the rope, the catches become liberated and at-
air-vessels, with a square tapering tube through each, made tached to the iron staves of the ladders placed on either
water-tight, and united together by a cross piece of wood, side of the shaft.
in which are two brass conducting tubes through which is A sketch of the expedients which have been recom-
fixed a perpendicular tubular-staff', with a brass ferule at mended for the preservation of mariners, published in a
each end, and a copper sliding rod, nearly its own length, work entitled Shipwrecks and Disasters at Sea (vol.iii., p.
within it. Attached to the lower end of the rod is a flat 459, Edinb. 1822, 8vo), contains a few further historical
circular balance-weight, bearing a chain by which the life- details relating to some of the inventions which have been
buoy is suspended, and a link which, when hooked to a stud described. (t. y.) (c. t.)
Life-Pre¬
servers.
449
light.
t» SECT. I. HISTORY OP THE SUBJECT.
The nature and properties of the agent on which vision
depends have been objects of philosophical disquisition
from ancient times. The earliest speculations which have
reached us on this subject are those of Pythagoras, who
considered vision as produced by particles continually
emanating from the surfaces of bodies, and entering the
pupil ot the eye. ihe Platonists, on the other hand, con¬
ceived that vision was the consequence of the emission of
something from the eye meeting with certain emanations
from the surfaces of things ; yet, with this very gratuitous
hypothesis, they appear to have detected several proper¬
ties of Light, especially its propagation in right lines, and
the equality of the angles of incidence and reflection when
it falls on bright and polished surfaces. The effects of the
concentration of the sun’s rays by concave specula were cer¬
tainly known to the ancients. Antiquaries have accordingly
supposed, that, in this manner, the Romans kindled their
sacred fire; and thus also it has been alleged that Archi¬
medes destroyed the Roman fleet at the siege of Syracuse.
Aristotle regarded light but as a mere quality of mat¬
ter; and he has some ingenious speculations on the rainbow,
and on other luminous meteors. Ptolemy the geographer
wrote a treatise on optics, which has perished ; but, from
some fragments preserved by other authors, he appears to
have had distinct ideas on the subject of atmospherical re¬
fraction.
A long interval of darkness succeeded his era of specu¬
lation, until the Arabians began to cultivate the learning
of the Greeks, and several of their philosophers treated
of optics. But the earliest Arabian work which has reach¬
ed our times, is the celebrated treatise of Alhazen. In it
we find a description of the eye, and of the uses of its dif¬
ferent parts. Ihe author details many experiments on
refraction, both as exhibited in the atmosphere, and as re¬
gards the modifications of light in passing from one me¬
dium to another of different density. He likewise notices
the magnifying power of segments of spheres of glass; a
hint from which it has been supposed that the important
invention of spectacles originated. We also owe to him the
idea that single vision, with two eyes, is produced by
images painted on corresponding points in each retina ;
and that stars may be seen by refraction, when they are
actually below the horizon ; remarkable speculations for
the twelfth century.
The work of Alhazen was in 1270 commented on by
itellio, a native of Poland, who added a considerable
number of observations on the refractive power of air,
water, and glass, which he reduced into a tabular form.
He made some ingenious attempts to explain the pheno¬
mena of refraction ; and he seems to have conceived the
true idea of burning lenses.
Roger Bacon, the contemporary of Vitellio, was un¬
doubtedly acquainted with the magnifying property of
segments of spheres, and recommended that small seg¬
ments should be preferred for such purpose; adding, et
idea hoc mstrumentum est utile senibus et habentibus oculos
demies. I Ins so plainly indicates the invention of spec¬
tacles, that we cannot doubt that it had then been made.
We know that they became common in the thirteenth
century, and are described by Spina of Pisa in 1313, al¬
though we have no absolute certainty as to the person
who first constructed them. 1
After the revival of letters, one of the earliest cultiva¬
tors of mathematics was Maurolycus of Messina, who made
VOL. XIII.
optics his study. He proved that the crystalline lens of
the eyes of animals converges the rays-of light which enter'
that organ, and transmits them to the retina, in or near
which the foci of the lenses are situated. Hence also he
inferred, that in persons who are short sighted, the defect
is owing to the too sudden convergence of the pencil of
rays before the retina; and that in those who are long
sighted, the foci are placed behind that expansion of the
optic nerve. Maurolycus, however, did not discover that
the images of objects are painted on the retina.
Baptista Porta, the author of Magia Naturalis, a Nea¬
politan of rank, was much addicted to philosophic re¬
search ; to him we owe the first description of the camera
obscura, and its application to the delineation of objects.
His work contains many observations on light, some of
which are accurate; and though some are now found to
be erroneous, his remarks are always ingenious. This
subject also engaged the attention of Lord Bacon, who
complained that the form nod origin of light had been too
much neglected ; but his labours in other branches of phi¬
losophy diverted his powerful mind to different objects.
Ihe true theory of the rainbow was first given by An¬
tonio, bishop of Spalatro, although he could not satisfacto¬
rily explain the cause of the colours.
The next optical discovery of importance was the tele¬
scope, for which we are indebted to Zacchias Jansen, a
spectacle-maker of Middleburg, in Walcheren, in 1390 ;
and this important invention was quickly applied by Ga¬
lileo to physical astronomy, with brilliant success, crown¬
ed by the discovery of the satellites of Jupiter, the struc¬
ture of the Via Lactea, the phases of Venus, the ring of
Saturn, the spots on the sun’s disk, and a knowledge of
numerous sturs unknown to former observers.
Ihe study of light was improved under the auspices of
Kepler, who gave an explication of the effect of lenses on
the rays, and suggested the form of the telescope now call¬
ed astronomical. He treated of refraction, and discovered,
that when light falls within glass at an angle a little above
42 , it is wholly reflected. But his theory of vision is much
more important; for he showed that images of external
objects aie painted on the retina, and appear there invert¬
ed, a fact also ably illustrated by Scheiner. The inven¬
tion of the compound microscope seems also due to Jan¬
sen, and dates from the same period.
Perspective was first scientifically treated by Pietro del
Borgo, Baldassare Perussi, and Guido Ubaldi. To the se¬
cond of these is due the detection of the distance points, to
which all lines forming an angle of 45° with the ground line
are drawn ; to the third, the convergence of all parallel
lines inclined to the ground line, in a point in the horizon¬
tal line, and also that a line drawn from the eye, parallel
to them, will pass through this point. These principles are
the foundation of perspective, which afterwards received
improvements from ’sGravesande, and were completed by
Brooke Taylor. The true law of refraction is undoubted¬
ly due to Willebrod Snell, or Snellius, professor of mathe¬
matics at Leyden. He experimentally showed that the
co-secants of the angles of incidence and refraction are al-
ways in the same ratio. Ibis discovery, we are assured, on
the authority of Huygens, was appropriated by Descartes,
who had consulted the papers of Snell, but gave it as his
own, under a somewhat different form. The successive la¬
bours of Descartes, Kircher, Grimaldi, De la Hire, Hooke and
Huygens, gave to the study of optics a profound scientific
character; and the interesting discoveries of that century
were crowned by the important researches of our immortal
3 l
Light.
450
LIGHT
Light. Newton concerning the optical properties of light. During
—^the last century, our knowledgeof this subject has been steadi¬
ly progressive, by the labours of a multitude of philosophers,
so numerous, that we can afford space for little more than
to record the names of some of the most successful inqui¬
rers into the mysteries of this subtile agent. Amongst these,
Mairan, Dufay, Mariotte, Boscovich, Euler, Mitchell, Mel¬
ville, Canton, Bennet, and Lagrange, stand conspicuous;
nor must we omit the important fact, illustrated by the la¬
bours of Bradley and Roemer, that the velocity of light,
from whatever source derived, whether from the sun, the
fixed stars, the planets or their satellites, is equal, or that
its velocity before and after reflection is the same ; a formi¬
dable objection to the theory of emission. During the pre¬
sent century, the progress of discovery in this field has been
no less brilliant. Very early in it, Dr Thomas Young il¬
lustrated the principle of the interference of the rays of light,
founded on some facts observed by Grimaldi, but first dis¬
tinctly stated in Dr Young’s Memoir in the Philosophical
Transactions for 1803, entitled Experiments and Calcula¬
tions relative to Physical Optics ; and his conclusions have
been demonstrated beyond all doubt by the researches of
Fresnel and of Sir John Herschel. The splendid talents of
Laplace, of Poisson, Biot, Arago, Pouillet, Cauchy, Am¬
pere, and Fresnel, amongst continental philosophers, have
especially illustrated the phenomena and theory of light;
and in our own country, Sir William Herschel, Young,
Brewster, the younger Herschel, Airy, and Whewell, have
pursued these delicate investigations with singular ability
and success. Above all, we must record, as amongst the
most signal triumphs of modern science, the detection and
explanation of the polarization of light, and the singular con¬
firmation thereby afforded of the theory of its propagation
by undulations. See Sixth Dissertation.
SECT. II. NATURE OF LIGHT.
Notwithstanding this long list of splendid discoveries,
the nature of light is still in some degree enigmatical. It
is admitted, that the phenomena of vision depend upon the
agency of a subtile, extremely attenuated matter, set in mo¬
tion by the sun and other luminous bodies. Its materia¬
lity is inferred from its deflection from its rectilinear course,
in passing near various bodies ; from its being arrested by
certain substances, though it passes freely through others;
from its reflection by polished surfaces; from its capability of
condensation and dispersion, in passing through certain me¬
dia ; from its producing chemical changes in certain com¬
pounds ; and from its apparently entering into the composi¬
tion of somebodies, from which it may be again extricated.
Thus far the majority of philosophers are agreed ; but
two opposite theories have been advanced respecting its
propagation, and the mode in which it manifests itself to
our senses.
Some maintain that light is a peculiar matter, which is
projected in all directions from luminous bodies in a rapid
succession of material particles. This theory is sustained
by the illustrious name of Newton, and has been very ge¬
nerally received ; but of late, certain difficulties in the ex¬
planation of the recently-discovered properties of light, es¬
pecially its polarization, have tended to revive the doc¬
trine maintained by Descartes, Huygens, and Euler, viz.
that all the phenomena of light depend on the undulations
of a highly attenuated fluid or ether, universally diffused
throughout space, which, while at rest, is inappreciable by
our senses, but, when acted on by luminous bodies, is thrown
into a succession of waves. Luminous bodies are thus sup¬
posed to act on the universally diffused fluid somewhat in
the same manner that sonorous bodies do on air in the pro¬
duction of sound.
It is true, that all the known facts regarding light may
be explained upon either hypothesis. It must be owned, v
however, that the remarkable coincidence of fact with
theory, and the facility of explanation, favour the theory
of undulations, whilst it scarcely can be said to involve any
greater assumption than the doctrine of direct transmis¬
sion. Both assume the existence of a subtile fluid ; both
admit the influence of luminous bodies; and it does not
seem more difficult to conceive them acting, by causing an
undulation in the matter of light, than by projecting it in a
rapid succession of particles, the minuteness and velocity
of which almost elude the grasp of our imagination.
Whichever hypothesis we adopt, the propagation of light
is a process of astonishing rapidity. Astronomers have
found, from observations on the eclipses of Jupiter’s satel¬
lites, that planetary light requires about fourteen minutes
to cross the earth’s orbit; or, if we adopt the more recent
and probably more accurate determination of Bradley, that
the light of the sun requires about eight minutes to reach
our earth ; and, if we reckon the mean distance of the sun
to be 94,879,956 English miles, it follows, whether we re¬
gard it as an emanation or an undulation, that light must
travel with a velocity of about 200,000 miles per second.
It is difficult to form any adequate idea of such enormous
velocity; but we may approximate it, by comparing this
with the ascertained velocity of a cannon ball. A twenty-
four pounder, with the common charge of powder, accord¬
ing to Robins, discharges its ball with an initial velocity
equal to 1600 feet per second ; yet, if such a ball were to
continue this velocity undiminished, it would require about
ten years to traverse a space which the light of the heavenly
bodies pervades in eight minutes.
This prodigious rate, and the ease with which light can
penetrate manysolid bodies, have been adduced as arguments
against the doctrine of the successive emanation of particles
from luminous surfaces ; but did not the undulatory theory
afford an easier solution of certain recently-discovered pro-
Light.
perties of light, we should not regard such arguments as
conclusive. Now, however, the undulatory theory has been
shown to correspond so exactly with known facts, and has
even enabled us to predict so exactly what experiment has
since confirmed, that it has received the sanction of the
greatest names in modern science. See Chromatics.
SECT. III.—PROPERTIES OF LIGHT.
Whichever hypothesis be adopted, light must be consi¬
dered as a material substance, possessed of certain proper¬
ties, detected by observation and experiment.
1. Light is given out by luminous bodies in all direc¬
tions, and from every point of the luminous surface. This
is proved by its being equally seen from every point of ob¬
servation.
2. It is divisible into homogeneous, independent por¬
tions, like air or water ; the smallest portion we can sepa¬
rate is termed a ray ; and several rays tbrm a pencil of light.
3. Light appears to be absorbed by certain bodies, and
is again given out by them spontaneously. This property
is well seen in the diamond, which, after being exposed to
the sun’s rays, continues for a short time to shine in the
dark. Various artificial phosphori do the same, as the Bo-
lognian stone, calcined oyster shells, and the like.
4. All solids give out light when heated between 700°
and 800° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, and are then said
to be incandescent. All liquids that can be heated to that
point are luminous, as melted metals; and, if the elasti¬
city of their vapours be repressed, other liquids appear ca-
pable of this emission. Gases do not, however, seem to be
capable of incandescence, yet the phenomena attending their
sudden condensation, when they enter into chemical union,
LIGHT.
Light, shows that they contain light. Thus, when a mixture of
oxygen and hydrogen is suddenly and strongly compress¬
ed, the gases unite to form water, and both light and heat
are extricated.
5. Some bodies have the property of arresting the pro¬
gress of light, and are termed opake ; others transmit it,
and are said to be transparent. Yet probably no substance
is either perfectly opake or perfectly transparent. Thus,
gold is one of the most condensed and opake bodies in na¬
ture ; yet if we enclose gold leaf between two plates of
glass, and examine it by transmitted light, it appears of a
decidedly greenish hue, showing the transmission of some
light through the metal. On the other hand, the most trans¬
parent glass, when viewed in a thick plate, and the most
limpid water, when in a deep column, appear greenish.
6. When the rays of light fall obliquely on the surface of
all bodies, whether transparent or opake, solid or fluid, they
are more or less reflected. Smooth and shining surfaces
reflect most light, but the degree also depends on the na¬
ture of the reflecting substance. The reflected rays are re¬
turned from the surface at an angle equal to the angle of
incidence ; and if the reflecting surface be a plane, the pa¬
rallel rays that fall on it are reflected parallel to each other.
When the rays are reflected from a concave surface, the
reflected rays are more inclined to each other than the
incident rays; and if that concave surface be the segment
of a sphere, the parallel incident rays will converge to a
point in the axis of the mirror half way between its surface
and the centre of the sphere of which it is a segment; and
this point is termed its principal focust or focus of the pa¬
rallel rays. If the incident rays be converging, they will
meet the axis between the principal focus and that centre;
if the incident rays be diverging, they will meet the axis
in a point between the principal focus and the surface of
the mirror. From the immense distance of the sun, all the
incident rays may be considered as parallel; and therefore
his rays wall be condensed into the principal focus of such
a mirror, which will in this instance also be that of great¬
est heat. This is the principle of burning mirrors. When
the incident rays fall on a convex mirror, they are all re¬
flected more divergingly, or are dispersed.
The properties of reflected light form the object of the
science of Catoptrics. See Optics.
We are not, however, to imagine that all the light inci¬
dent on bright surfaces is reflected. Many curious expe¬
riments were made on this subject by M. Bouguer. The
quantity of light returned differs with the inclination of
the rays to the reflecting surface. It is generally strong¬
est at small angles of incidence; and the difference be¬
comes excessive wdien the rays impinge on the surface of
transparent fluids with different degrees of obliquity. Me¬
tals, from their opacity and splendour, form the best re¬
flecting surfaces; but even pure mercury, perhaps the most
perfect of reflectors, does not reflect more than three
fourths of the whole incident light.
7. When the rays of light fall on transparent bodies,
they are differently affected, according to the angle of in¬
cidence. When a ray passes from one transparent medium
to another, in a direction perpendicular to their touching
surfaces, that ray will pass through them in a straight line ;
but when the ray passes in a direction oblique to their
touching surfaces, that ray will be bent, or will form an
angle at their junction.
\Yhen the density of a medium is uniform, the rays of
light tiaverse it in straight lines; but in a medium vary-
ing in density, like columns of liquids, or the atmosphere,
in which density increases with the superincumbent pres¬
sure, the passage of the rays will form curves.
When a lay passes obliquely from a dense to a rarer
medium, it is bent or deflected/row a line perpendicular to
their contiguous surfaces. When passing obliquely from a
rare to a denser medium, they are bent toward the perpen¬
dicular. In such instances the light is said to be refracted.
In the first instance, the angle of refraction is always greater
than the angle of incidence; in the latter it is always less.
The study of the properties of refracted light constitutes
the science of Dioptrics. (See Optics.)
8. The refractive power of different media is unequal;
and when the rays of light pass from one medium to an¬
other, it may be measured by the ratio between the sines
of the angles of incidence and refraction ; and the number
expressing the ratio between the first and the last is the
exponent or index of the refractive power of that sub¬
stance.
The refractive power of different substances appears to
be nearly in the ratio of their density; but with inflamma¬
ble bodies, or those containing an inflammable principle,
the refractive power is in a ratio greater than their densi¬
ty’. It was this law which led Newton to his happy con¬
jecture that water and the diamond might contain an in¬
flammable principle ; speculations which have been verified
by modern chemistry. The same opinion as regards the
diamond wTas long before maintained by Boetius de Boodt.
He says that unctuous and fiery bodies are easily united,
but will not mix with watery substances ; and because the
diamond readily adheres to resins, which are of & fiery na¬
ture, and because, like amber, another fiery body, the dia¬
mond, when rubbed, attracts light bodies, the diamond it¬
self must be of an inflammable or sulphureous nature ; an
argument which he considers as confirmed by that gem
being “ produced in a hot, sulphureous climate.” It is ob¬
vious that the deduction of Newton differs widely in its
principles from the hypothesis of De Boodt; but the lat¬
ter must be regarded as a curious instance of a true con¬
clusion derived from unsound premises.
9. If a pencil of light be admitted by a small hole in the
window-shutter of a darkened room, through a triangular
prism of any transparent substance, the white light will be
found to undergo a remarkable change. The rays will be
separated in the prism ; their image w ill be enlarged; and, if
received on a white screen, they will be seen variously colour¬
ed. The colours wall assume a certain determinate order of
juxtaposition; and this appearance has been termed the/im-
niutic spectrum. This coloured spectrum will then be seen
divided into colours, of which Newton enumerates seven ;
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. These, it
is evident, may be resolved into red, yellow, and blue ; for
the boundaries of the colours are not well defined, and the
compound colours which lie between these may be consi¬
dered as made up of the intermixture of contiguous rays.
Ihese rays are not in equal proportions in the spectrum.
If we consider it as divided into 360°, the red occupies 43°,
the orange 27°, the yellow 48°, the green 60°, the blue 60°,
the indigo 40°, the violet 80° ; and it is worthy of remark,
that this division of the scale of colour is a striking ap¬
proximation to the divisions of a chord that would give
the musical intervals of the octave. But as these colours
are not bounded by defined lines, but graduate into each
other, it is very difficult to determine their relative extent
with tolerable precision. The cause of their separation is
the difference of their refrangibility by the prism; the red
being the least, the violet the most refrangible, that is,
turned from the line of the incident pencil of light. The
green ray will be found in the centre of the prismatic spec¬
trum ; and hence its index of refraction is considered as
the mean refraction of the substance of which the prism
consists. Newton employed in his experiments prisms of
different substances; but he seems to have taken it for
granted, that when the mean refraction was the same,
the length of the spectrum was also equal, or that the dis¬
persive power of the bodies in that case was equal. He
considered that prisms and lenses of every kind of glass,
451
452
Light.
LIGHT.
and of all bodies, whether solid or fluid, with the same
'mean refraction, possessed also the same dispersive power,
or formed spectra proportional to their mean refraction.
Hence he was led to conclude that “ the improvement of the
refracting telescope was desperate ” This error has, since
his day, been detected ; and the principle discovered forms
the basis of Dollond’s admirable invention of the achro¬
matic telescope, in which the error of refraction in one spe¬
cies of glass is ingeniously remedied by a correction deriv¬
ed from the different dispersive power of another kind of
glass, so adapted to the first as to form with it one object-
glass. The difference in dispersive power has now been
ascertained in a considerable number of diaphanous bodies ;
and tables of this difference have been formed from the
observations of many philosophers, particularly of Sir David
Brewster. See Chromatics.
The illuminating power of the different rays of the spec¬
trum is different. Sir William Herschel found, that with
a prism of flint-glass, the greatest illumination is towards
the middle of the spectrum ; the yellow rays affording most
light, whilst the illuminating power, diminishing towards
each end of the spectrum, is least in the violet ray. A
series of experiments on this subject by Frauenhofer, a
late celebrated instrument-maker of Munich, showed, that
with the best made prisms, when other light is careful¬
ly excluded, the most luminous point is nearer the red
than the violet end of the spectrum, in the proportion of
one to four; and he states the mean refrangibility to be
between the blue and indigo rays. But one of the most
curious discoveries of this ingenious inquirer is, that the
solar spectrum is traversed by numerous dark lines of un¬
equal thickness, perpendicular to the length of the spectrum,
and parallel to one another. These lines require a fine
prism for their exhibition, a microscope for their detection,
and the exclusion of light, except that of the coloured ray
under examination. He counted 590 of these lines in the
spectrum ; the greatest number of them being towards the
most refrangible end of the spectrum.
It is well known that the rays of the sun communicate
heat as wrell as light; but the heating power of the colour¬
ed rays is very different. Herschel discovered that the
red ray raises the thermometer most; and that the effect
diminishes as we approach the other end of the solar spec¬
trum. I his is sufficiently striking ; but in pursuing his
investigations he made another singular discovery, that the
point of greatest heat is fully half an inch beyond the red
end of the prismatic spectrum. Delicate thermometers
were placed in the different rays, and gave the following
results:—
In the blue ray in 3 minutes it z= 56° F.
Green 3
Yellow 3
Middle of the red 2^-
Outer confines of red 2L
Half an inch beyond the red 2^
These curious experiments were confirmed by Sir Henry
Englefield and Sir Humphry Davy. The inference from
them is, that light and heat are unequally refracted.
The prisms used by these philosophers appear to have
been of flint-glass; but Dr Seebeck has since found that
the position of the point of greatest heat varies w ith the
nature of the refracting prism. Seebeck found, as Herschel
did, that with flint-glass the greatest heat was beyond the
red; with plate-glass, in the middle of the red ; with sul-
phuric acid in a hollow thin glass prism, in the orange; with
water, in the yellow. The sun’s rays wmuld appear to be still
more complex. Early in this century, Ritter of Jena found
that the rays of the solar spectrum possessed different che¬
mical powers. He found that the salts of silver became
soonest black a little beyond the violet end of the spec¬
trum, a little less so in the violet, and still less so in the
58°
G2°
72°
73c
79°
= 73° 5'
blue; and Seebeck, in repeating the experiments, found
that beyond the violet ray muriate of silver became reddish
brown; in the blue, bluish gray; and in the yellow it retained
its white colour, or at most had a yellowish tint; it became
reddish in the red ray, and even when placed beyond it.
Ihese changes might have been attributed to the influence
of heating or illuminating power, had not the greatest de¬
oxidating effect been observed where the heat and illumi¬
nation are the least. Dr Wollaston, who observed these
facts about the same time with Ritter, considers the sun¬
beams as compounded of calorific and deoxidating as well
as luminous rays, all with different degrees of refrangibi-
lity. But if the experiments of Morichini be confirmed,
the sunbeams have also the propertv of magnetizing steel.
In the year 1813 he announced this discovery; it was
repeated by several persons without success, but Mrs
Somervile appears to have succeeded. She covered one
half of small sewing needles with paper, in Morichini’s
method, and exposed the naked half to the violet rays for
two hours, when she found that the needle had thus ac¬
quired a north pole. The indigo ray produced nearly the
same effect, but the effect was feeble in the blue and the
green ; whilst, though exposed in the orange, yellow, and
red, for two successive days, no magnetism was induced.
Similar effects followed when one half of the needle was
enveloped in white paper, and the other half, exposed to
the rays, was covered with blue or green glass, or with silk
of those colours.
10. I he facts already noticed respecting the bending of the
rays toward the perpendicular, when they pass from a .rare
to a denser medium, lead to the inference that the dispo¬
sition of the surfaces of the refracting medium must ma¬
terially influence the direction of the rays of light which
enter and pass through. Accordingly, it is found that if
one or both surfaces be convex, the rays are bent toward
the axis of the medium. If the medium be spherical, or a
segment of a sphere, the ray, falling perpendicularly on its
centre, will pass straight through; but all those that fall
obliquely on the spherical surface will emerge from the
medium in a direction inclined to the central ray (which
may be considered as the axis of the medium), and will
cut this axis in some point, which is termed the refracted
focus of those rays. When the medium has its surfaces
forming segments of spheres, it is called a lens ; and lenses
are divided into convex and concave, plano-convex and
plano-concave, double convex and double concave, ac¬
cording to the form of their surfaces.
When a lens is nearly or really spherical, optical prin¬
ciples will show, that all the emergent rays will not meet
in the same point, and that those farthest from the axis
will meet first. But if the lens be a thin segment of a
sphere, with one or both of its surfaces convex, this error
will not be very conspicuous, and the emergent rays will
meet nearly in one focus.
When both surfaces of a lens are concave, or when one
is concave and the other plane, the emergent rays will be
hentfrom the axis. The mathematical demonstration of
these facts, their application to practical purposes, and to
the explanation of natural appearances, belong to Optics;
to which article attention is directed.
11. Some crystallized bodies have the property of divid¬
ing the rays of light which permeate them into two dis¬
tinct portions, one of which passes in the ordinary direc¬
tion, whilst the other pencil undergoes an extraordinary
refraction, passing at some distance from the other. Hence,
w hen any body is viewred through such a crystal in a cer¬
tain direction, both sets of rays become apparent by giving
a double image of the object. Ibis curious property was
first detected by Erasmus Bartholin, in calcareous spar
brought from Iceland. But the subject was first philoso¬
phically investigated with his usual sagacity by Huygens,
Light.
LIGHT.
453
Light, who proved that the property of double refraction was not
confined to calcareous spar; and it has, since his time,
been shown, that all crystals, the primitive form of which
is neither a cube nor a regular octahedron, possess this
property. Newton attempted to explain this double re¬
fraction i but his explanation was not happy. He ascribed
it to an original difference in the rays of light, by which
some are refracted in the usual manner, whilst others un¬
dergo unusual refraction. Huygens discovered, that when
the ray of light was received through the Iceland crystal
in any direction but one, it was always divided into two
rays of equal intensity; but he remarked with surprise,
that when he received the divided rays through a second
crystal of Iceland spar, the two portions into which each of
them was now subdivided were no longer equally intense ;
that their relative brightness depended on the position of
the second rhomb with regard to the first; and that there
were two positions of the second, in which one of the rays
vanished altogether. This Newton supposed to depend on
the rays having different sides, possessed of different pro¬
perties, each of which “ answers to or sympathizes with
that virtue or disposition of the crystal, as the poles of two
magnets answer to one another.”
I his idea was followed up by Malus. He conceived that
the molecules of this modified light have all their homolo¬
gous sides in the same direction; and be expressed this
modification of light by the term polarization, as he com¬
pared the effect produced to the influence of a magnet,
which directs the poles of a series of needles all to the same
side ; an hypothesis which Biot modified by supposing that
each molecule of light had one axis, similarly placed in
each, and all turned in one direction, in a polarized ray;
whilst the molecules were conceived to have a free motion
round such axes, by which they could assume different po¬
sitions according to the attractions and repulsions they ex¬
perience at the surface of each new medium they traverse.
The term polarization is not certainly very happy, and it
is to be regretted that one more appropriate and less hy¬
pothetical had not been employed.
If the rays, thus divided into two pencils by calc spar,
be received by a rhomb of the same substance, whilst the
axes of both crystals are in the same direction, no new divi¬
sion of the rays takes place ; but if, whilst the first crystal
remains at rest, the second be turned round, by the time
it has made one eighth of a revolution the rays will be
again subdivided, and four images will be produced. By
continuing the motion until the crystal has described one
fourth of a revolution, the subdivision will again disappear.
Malus discovered that an analogous effect was produced
by reflection. If a pencil of rays fall on a polished surface
of glass at an angle of 35° 25', it is reflected at any angle
equal to the angle of incidence. If we now place another
plate of glass in such a position that the rays reflected from
the first shall fall on the second also at an angle of 35°
25', or when the plane of both reflections coincide, the rays
will also be reflected from the second plate; but if the se¬
cond plate be turned round one quarter of a revolution, so
as to make the plane of the second reflection perpendicular
to the plane of the first, the whole of the rays will now be
transmitted through the second plate. When this plate has
described half a revolution, the rays will be reflected as at
rst; and when it has made three quarters of a revolution,
t ley will again be transmitted, that is, when the planes of
reflection are parallel, light is reflected, but when they are
peipendicular, it is transmitted; or light in such circum¬
stances can permeate glass in one direction, but not in an¬
other. Sir David Brewster, soon after Malus, began avast
^enes^.<LXpenmei? t0 determ”->e the angles of polariza¬
tion of different media, and to investigate the general law
which regulates polarization by reflection from transparent
bodies, which was crowned with the beautiful discovery
that “ the tangent of the angle of polarization is equal to the Light.
refractive index'' or that when a ray is entirely polarized
by reflection, “ the angles of incidence and refraction are
complementaryl' In this sketch it would be impossible to
do justice to the investigations and beautiful theoretical
deductions of Fresnel, which have combined the whole
into an inductive science. We must direct the reader to
the article on Optics for his important labours, as well as
for the profound researches of Airy, Poisson, Biot, Arago,
and Cauchy.
Newton rejected the explanation of double refraction
offered by Huygens, because he considered the apparent
polarization of the rays of light as inconsistent with motions
“ propagated through a fluid medium but this arose from
his limiting his ideas of luminous vibrations, as entirely
analogous to those of producing sound in air, in which
they are propagated in the direction of the advance of the
undulations. We owe to the late Dr Thomas Young the first
idea of the vibrations being transverse to the direction of
the luminous wave; an hypothesis which he illustrated by
the propagation of the vibrations of a stretched cord put in
motion at one of its ends. This happy idea has been shown
to be a necessary consequence of the phenomena of the
interference of polarized light, if we admit the theory
of luminous waves. The subsequent investigations of
Arago and of Fresnel have confirmed the speculations
of the English philosopher, which have connected and
elucidated those brilliant discoveries that have conferred
lustre on the names of Malus, Fresnel, and Brewster. See
Optics.
SECT. IV. COLOUR OF OBJECTS.
The discovery by Newton of the colours produced by
the decomposition of the sun’s rays, naturally turned the
attention of that profound philosopher to the cause of co¬
lour in different objects; and he has delivered a theory of
colours, of which we shall now exhibit an outline.
1. Newton regards the colour of natural objects, not as
produced by any modification which light undergoes from
refraction or reflection at their surfaces, but as something
inherent in the rays according to their different degrees of
refrangibility. The same degree of refrangibility invari¬
ably gives the same colour; and when the rays are fully
separated from each other by the prism, he found it im¬
possible to change the colour. Thus he refracted the red
ray with prisms, but found its tint unaltered ; he reflected
it from bodies which in daylight had other colours, but
still it remained red; he transmitted it through coloured
media of different tints, he passed it through the coloured
rings produced by pressing together plates of glass, but
he was unable to convert it into another colour. By con¬
densation or dispersion he could render it stronger or
fainter, but still it remained red. Similar experiments on
the other rays were attended with similar results.
2. He found, however, that by mingling the different
rays of the coloured spectrum, he could produce a sort of
intermediate tint. Thus the intermixture of the yellow and
red rays formed an orange, and that of the yellow and blue,
a green. But this effect was only distinctly produced by the
intermixture of contiguous rays; if they were far removed
from each other in the spectrum, no such effect was produ¬
ced. Thus the orange and indigo rays do not produce an in¬
termediate green.
3. The intermixture of all the rays reproduced white light.
Newton reflected a pencil of rays through a prism into a
dark room, and then interposing a lens of three feet radius
about four or five feet distance from the aperture admitting
the light, he collected the convergent rays upon a paper
screen, and obtained an intense spot of white light. By
454
L I G H T.
moving the paper he could easily find the point of perfect
whiteness; and, by drawing it farther from the lens, he
could reproduce the coloured spectrum in an inverted or¬
der, as the crossing rays diverged farther from each other.
If any of the coloured rays were cut offbefore their con¬
vergence by the lens, the image upon the paper exhibited
colour; and if either of them were made to predominate,
that tint was rendered perceptible. Newton endeavoured
to show the same with mixtures of coloured powders; and
though this method presents mechanical difficulties not
easily overcome, and the mixtures only afford a gray shade,
yet when these were strongly illuminated by concentrated
solar light, they became of a dazzling wffiite ; whilst all co¬
loured objects appeared most splendid in the prismatic rays
of their own colour. From these facts he considered the
colour of objects to depend upon the predominance of the
coloured rays they reflect. Thus minium, or red lead, ap¬
pears red, because it reflects principally the least refran¬
gible rays ; a violet appears of the colour so denominated,
because it chiefly reflects the most refrangible rays; and
what we denominate the colour of an object is merely the
hue of the rays which it most copiously returns to the eye.
On the other hand, transparent bodies which have colour,
when held between the eye and the light, appear so by trans¬
mitting most copiously that ray. Thus, too, we see why a
body not quite transparent may sometimes appear of different
colours by transmitted and reflected light. Such a body
may transmit most copiously the blue rays, and reflect the
green ones; as we often find in coloured liquids, and some¬
times observe in the crystals of fluor spar, and other mine¬
ral substances. This fact is a confirmation of the Newto¬
nian theory of colour; for, were the colour inherent in the
substance itself, it ought to appear equally by either mode
of viewing it.
In transparent coloured liquids the shade often varies
with the thickness of the column through which the light
is transmitted. Thus a clear red liquid in a conical wine
glass appears below of a pale yellowish hue ; higher up it
seems orange, and only has its full red hue when the co¬
lumn is of considerable thickness. This is owing to the
most refrangible rays never being able to penetrate the
liquid at all. The remaining part of these rays gives the
yellowish colour to the thin film at the bottom of the glass;
the separation of part of the yellow rays gives an orange
tint to the next film of liquid; and, when the yellow rays
are wholly stopped by the thicker column, the red, or least
refrangible, come undiluted to the eye of the observer, and
give their colour to the body- of the liquid in the glass.
See Chromatics.
SECT. V. RELATION OF LIGHT AND HEAT.
It is well known that light and heat are intimately mixed
in the beams of the sun ; that some bodies give out both
light and heat during combustion ; and that a high tempe¬
rature causes the extrication of light in all bodies, the gases
excepted. This intimate relation between light and heat
has induced some philosophers to consider them as mere
modifications of each other. Certain it is that they have
many properties in common. They are capable of reflection,
of refraction, of concentration, of dispersion, and of polariza¬
tion ; they radiate between distant objects with great ce¬
lerity, they penetrate solid bodies very readily, they are
absorbed by dark and rough surfaces, are generally reflected
by smooth surfaces, and they are capable of subverting
some chemical combinations.
These properties show very striking analogies ; and the
phenomena of the polarization of heat, so well illustrated by
Professor Forbes of Edinburgh, have undoubtedly rendered
this analogy still more apparent; yet in the present state
of our knowledge, it would be rash to pronounce that they
are absolutely identical. Their total separation, at least as far
as our means of detection extend, in some instances; the very
different substances which permit or retard their progress ;
and the different manner in which they affect our sensations,
have led some inquirers to the opposite conclusion ; and
though it may still be true that they are modifications of
the same kind of matter, it is safest to content ourselves
with pointing out those circumstances in which they differ,
as well as their general agreements.
1. Light and caloric are not intercepted by the same
substances. It we interpose a plate of thin transparent
glass between the face and a bright blazing fire, the inten¬
sity of the light has no apparent diminution, but the calo¬
rific rays seem to be immediately arrested ; and if we make
the experiment with a thin diaphanous plate of ice, they
seem absolutely intercepted. Some recent experiments
of Professor Forbes, with thin plates of ice, afforded an
almost microscopic effect on the galvanometer of Melloni’s
apparatus; but supposing there was no minute hole in the
ice, the difference of the transmission of light and heat
through diaphanous ice is sufficiently striking. The same
takes place with all other species of terrestrial light, though,
as we shall presently see, the calorific rays of the sun in¬
stantaneously pervade ice.
2. The rays of caloric are more powerfully reflected from
a metallic mirror, even of an imperfect shape, than from
the best glass mirror ; whereas the latter very powerfully
reflects light. Dark and dense solids are very readily pene¬
trated by caloric, though they are totally impervious to
light.
3. Light affects the organs of vision in a peculiar manner,
without producing inconvenience to that most delicate or¬
gan, the eye ; but a radiation of heat without light, as from
a vessel of boiling fluid, though the rays entering the eye
may be so powerful as painfully to affect that organ, does
not produce any thing analogous to vision.
In the sun's rays, however, heat and light are so inti¬
mately blended, that we cannot entirely separate them.
The (lifference in their refractive power causes a partial
separation in the coloured spectrum ; but both the heat
and light of the sun’s rays seem to pervade glass or ice
with equal facility. Leslie’s photpmeter, placed behind a
sheet of diaphanous ice, is immediately affected by the di¬
rect rays of the sun, and a lens of transparent ice will con¬
centrate them, so as to fire combustibles ; as was long ago
observed by Jan Metius and Descartes, and has more re¬
cently been proved by Scoresby. The difference between
the calorific influence of the sun and of artificial fires has
been attributed to the different initial velocity imparted to
the calorific emanations in both cases. This is not im¬
probable ; but some have considered the calorific influence
of the sun’s rays as an effect of the condensation or fixa¬
tion of light. This was the idea of the late celebrated Sir
John Leslie, and is the principle of his elegant photometer.
SECT* VI.-—MEASURES OF LIGHT.
Various methods have been proposed for affording com¬
parative measures of light. The principles of these depend
either on the illumination, as ascertained by the distance at
which we can distinctly perceive small objects, such as
printed letters of a certain size; the comparative depths
of the shadows of an opake object; or the heat excited by
the luminous emanations of the bodies compared.
1. The distance at which the same eye can read a parti¬
cular printed paper forms certainly a good criterion of the
comparative degree of light given out by two or more lu¬
minous bodies, at the moment of comparison ; but as it
must greatly vary with the goodness of eye, it obviously
cannot afford the basis of a general scale of illumination,
L I G H T.
by which the same individual can compare his observations
-—v'—'at distant periods, or render the experiments of one per¬
son comparable with those of another. Still it is a conve¬
nient method, and requires but a very simple apparatus;
a tube to admit the light in an uniform manner to the
paper, and a graduated sliding rule to ascertain with ease
the distance of the paper from the eye.
2. The comparison of shadows, which appears first to
have been employed by Bouguer amongst several other in¬
genious contrivances, was the mode recommended by Count
llumford, who, in the year 1794, read a paper on this subject
to the Royal Society of London. It is reprinted in a volume
of his Philosophical Papers, published in 1802. This in¬
strument, though well suited to the object in view, is cum¬
brous, and somewhat complicated. The photometric part
a is a box eight inches wide; its back a plate of glass,
covered by tissue paper, on which the shadows are pro¬
jected. It is supported at a convenient height by a tripod-
stand. The table consists of two narrow arms c d, resting
on b at one end, and kept horizontal by feet at the other,
intended to support the moveable brackets e e, on which
are placed the lights to be compared. The arms are di¬
vided into decimals of an inch; and are here represent¬
ed on a smaller scale than the rest of the instrument.
Rumford’s Photometer.
455
Similar results may be obtained by the following contri- Light,
vance, proposed, we believe, by Dr W. Ritchie. It con-
sists of a rectangular box of brass, a, b, c, d, three inches
long, and 2*2 inches wide. In its centre are two plane
Ritchie's Photometer.
glass mirrors, g g, two inches square, cut from the same
plate, and placed accurately at angles of 45° to the base
of the box, as in the diagram. Each end e f of the box
is open, and has, at equal distances from the mirrors, two
cylindrical wires of brass, h, h, 0-2 inch in diameter, fixed
vertically in the centre of the box. The top of the box
consists of two thin plates of glass, i i, on which is pasted
tissue paper. The inside of the box and the wires are
blackened. When the two lights to be compared are
placed before the ends of the box, and in its axis, the sha¬
dows of the wires will be reflected from the inclined mir¬
rors on the tissue paper. The adjustments of the lights
to the machine may be conveniently made by sliding
brackets, placed on a long and steady table. If one of the
lights be fixed, the other is to be moved backwards or for¬
wards, in the line of the axis of the machine, until both
shadows of the wires shall be of equal intensity. Thus, as
the intensity of the light, in such cases, is inversely as the
square of the distance of the luminous body, the difference
between the position of each light, ascertained either by
a graduated fillet on the table, or by a common Gunter's
scale, will afford a numerical value of the comparative in¬
tensity of each light. The method appears sufficiently ac¬
curate for such experiments, but, like the former mode, is
not susceptible of a fixed scale, unless we could find some
uniform unvarying light to be considered as a standard.
3. The calorific influ¬
ence of luminous mat¬
ter was proposed as the
measure of the light
by Lambert, and was
adopted by Sir John
Leslie as the principle
on which he construct¬
ed his photometer. It
is the author’s differen¬
tial thermometer, with
one of its balls made
of black enamel, whilst
the other is of clear
glass. An instrument
so prepared, when ex¬
posed to a heating
cause, has its balls un¬
equally heated. To
prevent the influence
of currents of air, the
whole is covered with
an air-tight case of
transparent glass. The
black ball absorbs the
calorific rays which im¬
pinge on it, the air with¬
in it expands, and raises
Leslie's Photometer.
456
LIGHT.
-Light, the coloured liquor in the opposite stem of the instrument,
"V"*-'' to which a scale of equal parts being attached, each equiva¬
lent to y^th of a degree of the centigrade thermometer,
affords a numerical result; and if we were sure that the
intensity of the light is always in proportion to the ca¬
lorific effect, the instrument would be a perfect photome¬
ter. But, unfortunately, we now know that this is not the
fact, especially when we compare different kinds of light
by means of this instrument. Thus the influence of a fire,
so dull that it is impossible to distinguish a letter of a
printed page, will affect this photometer at the distance of
several feet, more than the diffused light of day sufficient
to enable one to read the same book with facility; and it
is more affected by radiation from a piece of iron scarcely
incandescent in the dark, than by the intense light of phos¬
phorus burning in oxygen gas. Even with the light of
the sun refracted by the prism, the photometer does not
indicate the point of the maximum of light. The great¬
est illumination is in the yellow rays ; but this photome¬
ter rises highest when in or just beyond the confines of
the red.
But if we employ the instrument for the purpose chiefly
in the view of its ingenious inventor, the measure of the
intensity of solar light, this beautiful instrument appears
to us the most elegant and useful photometer hitherto pro¬
posed. Its delicacy is such, that when freely exposed, in
our climate, to the light of the sky, without being acted
on by the direct solar rays, it generally ranges in summer
from 30° to 40°, and in winter from 10° to 15°. Exposed
freely to the sun-beams at noon in summer, it usually
mounts to between 80° and 90° ; and in the depth of win¬
ter is generally about 25°. In the glowing language of its
inventor, “ the photometer exhibits distinctly the progress
of illumination from the morning’s dawn to the full vigour
of noon, till evening spreads her sober mantle. It marks
the growth of light, from the winter solstice to the height
of summer, and its subsequent decay through the dusky
shades of autumn ; and it enables us to compare, with nu¬
merical accuracy, the brightness of distant countries—the
brilliant sky of Italy, for instance, with the murky air of
Holland.”
SECT. VII. EVOLUTION OF LIGHT WITHOUT APPRECIABLE
HEAT.
The most familiar instance of this phenomenon is in the
rays of the moon, planets, and fixed stars, in the beams of
which the most delicate instruments, even the thermo-
magnetic combinations of Melloni, have been unable to
detect any calorific effect. In the beams of the moon and
planets, the greatest portion of the incident heat would
probably be absorbed by the dark nucleus of those celes¬
tial bodies; and if any heating rays were emanated from
them towards us, they probably are far too attenuated to pro¬
duce sensible effects at our planet. The light of the fixed
stars, though probably like that of the sun, radiates through
too enormous a distance to become sensible to any instru¬
ment for measuring heat hitherto contrived. The luminous
meteors, too, that belong to our atmosphere, have in ge¬
neral no sensible heat; if we except meteoric stones and
condensed electricity or lightning, which has occasion¬
ally fired combustibles. We must not confound the effect
of the aurora borealis on the magnetic needle with heat;
it appears to be altogether magnetic, not calorific. We
find, also, that certain terrestrial bodies have the power of
emitting light, in some instances largely, without a corre-
sponding degree of heat; and such are usually termed
phosphorescent. Some of these have the property of ab-
soibing light when exposed to it, and again visibly emit¬
ting it. Some become phosphorescent when slightly heat¬
ed ; others give out light during their spontaneous de¬
composition. Phosphorescence has been examined by
Bartholini, Fabricius ab Aquapendente, Bayle, Algarotti,
Reaumur, lather Beccari, Father Bourges, Abbe Haller,
Leroi, and Canton.
1. Many bodies, when exposed to light, particularly
that of the sun, absorb it, and emit it immediately on
being removed into a dark place. When a diamond of
some size is thus exposed, it has been observed to give out
flashes of light in the dark for a short period, and it recovers
this property on a fresh exposure. Several other precious
stones, some calcareous minerals, almost all animal and ve¬
getable substances, when very dry, or after solution in ni¬
trous acid, and even snow, are stated by Beccari to pos¬
sess the same property in a greater or less degree. Seve¬
ral artificial compounds, when carefully calcined, have the
same effect. This is particularly the case with the Bolog-
nian stone^ and with Cantons phosphorus. Ihe former is a
calcined sulphate of baryta, found at the foot of Monte
Pateino, near Bologna. Its properties were first discover¬
ed by Vincenzo Cascariolo, a shoemaker of that city, who,
from its weight, mistaking it for a metal, attempted its
reduction. The inventor kept the process secret, but
it appears to have at length transpired. According to
Kircher, the stone was reduced to a fine powder, beaten
up with whites of eggs or linseed oil, and formed into a
paste, which was repeatedly baked in a furnace. The Bo-
lognian stone, as the preparation was called, has a very
powerful phosphorescence, of a reddish colour; and the
Italian preparation generally has this quality in a higher
degree than the imitations prepared elsewhere; but it has
been quite eclipsed by the phosphorus of Canton. Canton
recommends oyster shells which have been long worn on a
sea-beach, as the materials to be employed. They are to
be calcined in a good coal-fire for half an hour. The pu¬
rest parts are then to be collected, and reduced to a fine
powder. Three parts of this, with, one of sulphur, are to
be rammed into a crucible about 1^ inch deep, till nearly
full. Place it in-the midst of the fire, where it must be
kept red hot for at least one hour, and then allowed to
cool, when the contents are to be removed from the cru¬
cible. Ihe fine portions of this, which will be quite white,
are to be scraped off, and immediately enclosed in a bottle
with a well-ground stopple.
When this bottle is exposed for a short time to the light
of day, to any artificial light, or, better, to the direct rays
of the sun, it vvill be luminous for some minutes in the
dark ; and its light will be renewed by a fresh exposure to
the sun. At one time it was a subject of controversy,
whether or not these substances emitted only the light
they had imbibed by exposure, as it was conceived to be
a ready mode of deciding the dispute between the fol¬
lowers of Newton and Descartes respecting the nature of
light. Galeazzo, Zanotti, and Algarotti of Bologna, tried
whether, when exposed to the different rays of the prism,
the Bolognian phosphorus would only show the colour of
that ray to which it had been exposed ; and they thought
that its light was reddish, to whichever ray it had been
previously exposed. But in these experiments its light
was very feeble, and therefore not satisfactory. After¬
wards, however, Father Beccari ot Turin, by exposing
pieces of more powerful phosphori in tubes of different
coloured glass, found that, in the dark, they only emitted
the colour of the light to which they had been exposed.
Van Plelmont appears to have discovered another power¬
ful phosphorus ; and Baldwin of Misnia, in 1677, found
that the residuum of a solution of chalk in aquafortis, after
distillation, formed a phosphorus of considerable power, but
inferior to that of the Bolognian. Du Fay, in 1734, found
that similar properties resided in gypsum, marble, and
topaz, lire emerald, diamond, and many other precious
L I G H T.
Light, stones, he found to have the same property, without cal-
cination, and by mere exposure to light. From the expe¬
riments of Margraaf, all the earthy sulphates have this
property when calcined ; but he thought that neither me¬
tals, metallic ores, nor agates, possess it. The analy¬
sis of topaz shows that it contains fluoric acid; and we
may now generalize the observation, and state, that all
substances capable of becoming phosphorescent by cal¬
cination contain some fixed acid, and probably all mine¬
rals containing such acids are capable of becoming, in
like manner, phosphorescent.
The experiments of Canton are the most complete on
this subject (jP/«7. Trans. Iviii.). When his phosphorus
was, for a short time, exposed to the light of a candle, the
moon, or the diffused light of day, it shone for a consider¬
able time in the dark. When exposed to the direct rays
of the sun, it gave out light for two hours, at the com¬
mon temperature of the air. When it had ceased to shine
in the dark, the application of heat renewed its luminous¬
ness for a short time. If the glass containing the phos¬
phorus be placed in boiling water, its luminousness will
be stronger than in the cold, but will last a shorter time.
When it has ceased to give light in hot water, it will again
give out light on being placed on a hot iron between 4>00°
and 700° Fahrenheit.
2. Some natural bodies become phosphorescent by a
gentle heat. Thus, some kinds of fluor spar, particularly
the coloured varieties, give out a pure greenish or a bluish
light by being heated; and this is finely exhibited by the
green varieties. The mineral called phosphorite, which is
a fibrous phosphate of lime, found principally in Spanish
Estremadura, gives out much light when heated. Some
marbles, some ores of metals, coal, wax, butter, oil, and
several other mineral and vegetable substances, so treated,
become more or less luminous. In some the light is mo¬
mentary, in others it lasts several minutes. It soon attains
its maximum brightness, and then fades away. A stream
of cooler air extinguishes the light for a moment, but it
re-appears on the ceasing of the cool current. Analo¬
gous to this class of bodies in some degree are those sub¬
stances which give out light on percussion ; such as silice¬
ous minerals, either with one another or with steel, hard
porcelain, or the like ; but they also, in such collisions, emit
heat as well as light.
3. Mineral and vegetable bodies, during their decompo¬
sition, often give out light. Fish, mutton, and rotten wood,
are the best known instances of phosphorescent bodies of
this class.
The luminousness of fish is well know n ; and Dr Hulme
has shown that the light of herrings and mackerels begins
to appear whilst the fish is still eatable, and soon arrives at
its maximum, but begins to decrease when they pass to
putridity. To produce this change, the fish should be kept
in a dark and cool place. It is not confined to the skin of
the animal, for if cut into pieces, the surface of each piece
becomes luminous ; and it is often seen within the mouth of
the fish. The luminous matter easily rubs off, and may be
transferred to the hands of him who touches the fish. This
light is not attended by any perceptible heat. When scrap¬
ed off, it forms a gelatinous liquid, that will shine for seve¬
ral days, if preserved in a phial. The addition of fresh wa¬
ter, lime water, water impregnated with carbonic acid, of ve¬
getable acids and alkalies, extinguishes it, as do neutral salts,
infusions of pepper, and camphor, when strong; yet the
same substances, in a weak solution, seem to promote it, and
even render it more durable; but sea-water increases its
splendour. This luminous property is also found in lob¬
sters and in testacea, especially in the Pholas Dactylus,
and its congeners. This animal is luminous w'hen quite
fresh, and is mentioned by Pliny as rendering the mouths
of those who eat it luminous. The light is readily impart-
vou xm.
457
ed to milk and sea-water, but it is extinguished by spirit, Light,
wine, or vinegar. Sea-water, thus rendered luminous, in-
creases in brightness by a gentle heat; but when heated
to 133° Fahrenheit, it is suddenly extinguished, and can¬
not again become luminous. This luminous matter, when
narrowly examined, sometimes appears to give out a sort of
lambent flame, which closely resembles that of a solution
of common phosphorus in oil; and it smells of phosphorus
or of phosphuretted hydrogen. The flesh of Mammalia
undergoes similar changes during its decomposition. This
has often been seen in mutton, beef, and veal. This light
has sometimes been observed on corpses, much to the terror
of the vulgar ; and in vaults where dead bodies have been
deposited, it has sometimes been observed in a glairy mat¬
ter adhering to the vault. This last matter, however, pro¬
bably is the produce of some cryptogamian plant; and it is
well known that rotten wood is sometimes highly luminous.
A light of this kind is stated to have been observed round.
the body of a woman at Milan, but it flitted from the bed
on the approach of the reporter. This appearance has been
more frequently seen around graves, and has obtained in
Scotland the name of elf-candles.
The light from corrupting animal and vegetable matter
requires oxygen in some form for its continuance. It is
soon extinguished in the exhausted receiver of the air-
pump, as Mr Boyle long ago observed ; but it would seem
that the small quantity of air which is contained in water
is sufficient to sustain its luminousness. No perceptible
heat is extricated in any of these kinds of phosphorescence.
Analogous to the light given out by decaying organized
bodies, is the curious meteor termed ignis fatuus, or will-
o'-the-wisp. Its ordinary appearance is like the faint flame
of a taper ; sometimes it resembles the light of a torch, or a
faggot; but it usually recedes as it is approached, and can
rarely be observed near at hand. The colour of the light
is usually pale bluish, and seems brightest when most dis¬
tant. It is most frequent in marshy grounds, in church¬
yards, or where a considerable mass of animal and vegetable
putrefaction is going on. Dr Derham once observed an
ignis fatuus playing round the head of a dead thistle; and,
by cautiously approaching, he got within two or three yards
of it, when a slight movement of the air made it flit; and
when he pursued it, he wras unable to overtake it.
A remarkable appearance of ignis fatuus was, about a
century and a half ago, common in the vicinity of Bologna,
which has been well described by Beccari (Phil. Trans.
vii.). He estimated that two, which at that time appeared
almost every dark night, one to the east, the other to the
north, of the city, gave light equal to an ordinary faggot.
One of them accompanied a friend of Beccari for a mile
along the road to Bologna, giving as much light as that of
the torch carried before him. Sometimes these meteors
divided into several parts, or floated like waves of flame,
dropping small scintillations.
Dr Shaw, the author of Travels in the Holy Land, de¬
scribes a remarkable one which accompanied him, for up¬
wards of an hour, in one of the valleys of Mount Ephraim.
Its shape was at first globular, but it afterwards spread so
as to involve the party of the traveller in a pale inoffen¬
sive blaze, then disappeared; again it re-assumed the glo¬
bular form, and again expanded itself, at certain intervals,
over more than two or three acres of the adjacent moun¬
tains. The atmosphere that evening had been very hazy,
and the dew, as it fell on their bridles, felt unusually unc¬
tuous and clammy ; a kind of weather, says Shaw, in
which sailors observe the balls of fire that flit about the
masts and yards of ships.
The cause of ignis fatuus has been disputed. It can
scarcely be accounted for by the phosphorescence of the
glow-worm, or any species of fire-fly. It differs also from
electric flame, but has the greatest resemblance to the flame
3 M
458 LIGHT.
Light, of phosphuretted hydrogen ; a gas which spontaneously in-
flames, on coming into contact with air, and which is given
out during the corruption of organic matter. This gas is
absorbable by water and by fatty oils, to which last it im¬
parts its phosphorescent qualities ; and perhaps the lumi¬
nousness offish may depend upon the union of this substance
with oily or mucous matter. There is some difficulty in
accounting for the appearance so constant and consider¬
able as that described near Bologna. The ground on which
the largest meteor appeared is a hard clay, very retentive
of water ; whilst in the hilly district, where the Bolognian
ignis fatuus was smaller, the soil was a loose sand. Bec-
cari however states, that they chiefly frequented the banks
of streams. All accounts confirm the absence of sen¬
sible heat from these meteors.
SECT. VIII LIGHT EMANATING FROM LIVING ANIMALS.
A luminous appearance somewhat similar to that given
out by decaying organic matter is occasionally observed to
play round some classes of living animals; and regularly
emanates from the bodies of others, at particular seasons ;
or as a constant concomitant of motion, by another class.
Of the first kind, probably, is that light sometimes observ¬
ed playing around the ears and manes of horses, which,
though by some attributed to electricity, is probably an
emanation from the animal itself; and may perhaps con¬
sist of a phosphuretted gas, disengaged by some unknown
process of the animal economy. A lambent flame, of a si¬
milar nature, has in a few instances been remarked around
the heads of children ; a circumstance which is happily
seized by Virgil in his fine description of the glory that ap¬
peared on the temples of the young Ascanius.
Ecce levis summo de vertice visus luli
Fundere lumen apex, tractuque innoxia molli
Lambere flamma comas, et circa tempora pasci.
Ain. ii. 683.
Living vegetables, in like manner, also occasionally give
out light. This has been particularly noticed in the mari¬
gold, the orange, the Indian pink or lilium bulbosum, aco-
nitum napellus, tropceolum majus, and other plants. But
there are animals in whom luminousness forms a necessary
part of their economy.
The most familiar instance of this is the common glow¬
worm, lympyris noctiluca, and its congeners. The male
of this species is a coleopterous insect, and sports in the air;
whilst the female is apterous, doomed for ever to crawl
amongst herbaceous plants, or to nestle on the leaves of
shrubs ; but when the shades of evening are drawn around,
during the summer months, a spot of lucid yellow light,
generally tinted with a shade of green, emanates from the
extreme rings of her abdomen, and sprinkles the hedges,
in some parts of our island, and the warmer parts of Eu¬
rope, with brilliant stars. The final object of this light is
probably to attract the notice of the male insect, 'who other¬
wise could with difficulty distinguish his wingless mate.
The male of the English glow-worm is generally believed
to be destitute of the apparatus for light; though Mr Wal¬
ler (Phil. Trans, for 1684) asserts, that the male of one
species of English glow-worm has the luminous appendage.
The winged species of glow-worm are common in Italy,
Spain, the south of France, and still more so in equinoctial
America, in which the flickering light of the numerous fire¬
flies affords a pleasing and interesting spectacle. This light
is found to belong to both sexes, though it is most striking
in the females.
But the luminous property of the Fulgora Lanternaria
of South America surpasses that of all animals, in the splen¬
dour of its light. It is a large insect, of the order Hemip-
tera, three and a half inches long. It has a sort of thick Light,
proboscis, about one inch in length, which is the luminous
organ. The light emitted by this species is so splendid
that two or three of them will illuminate a chamber.
In all these animals the light has so much the appearance
of phosphorus dissolved in oil, that probably it may be a
secretion of an analogous nature.
Many animals inhabiting the sea are highly luminous ;
and it is almost established that the luminousness so often
exhibited by the ocean depends entirely upon myriads of
minute phosphorescent animals.
This appearance is not constant, but is very frequent in
most latitudes, and generally, whenever the night is dark,
may be seen exceedingly brilliant around our own coasts.
When the water is still, it is seen as numerous bright points
of a bluish white phosphorescent light of considerable in¬
tensity ; but when the water is agitated, as by the waves,
the motion of a ship, or the dashing of oars, the light ap¬
pears often in flashes so intense as to show the hours on a
watch, or to render legible the pages of a large printed
book. The number of the luminous points varies greatly
at different times and in different places; and often in the
course of a short sail this fluctuation is very conspicuous.
We have observed the coruscations, during a gentle
breeze, like a line of fire several hundred yards in length
from the bows, or in the wake of the vessel. This appear¬
ance is found in every sea, but with some difference in in¬
tensity and colour, as it seems to proceed from various ge¬
nera of animals.
The luminousness of the sea was long ascribed to elec¬
tricity ; but about the beginning of this century it was
proved, in many instances, to depend on the presence of
animalcules in the ocean, particularly of a minute species
of medusa, which abounds in our seas, and seems to be the
same as M. Hemisphcerica of Muller. Several years before.
Sir Joseph Bankes discovered other two animals which
rendered the sea luminous, viz. a sort of shrimp, Cancer
Fulgens, and a large medusa, M. Pellucens, both of which
abound on the coasts of Brazil.
From 1810 to 1814, the writer of this article made
many observations on this subject, both on the coasts
of Britain and in the Bay of Biscay. When the water
was very luminous in that sea, on several evenings he drew
water and carried it for examination into the cabin. Of
course it ceased to appear luminous when viewed by candle
light, but he could distinguish, floating in a glass of sea¬
water, a number of pellucid animalcules, which, when mag¬
nified by the globular form of the containing vessel, evi¬
dently belonged to several species of Medusaria, amongst
which he could observe the genera Noctiluca of Lamarck,
a Cayanea, and a Beroe. The general size of these ani¬
mals was from one twentieth to one thirtieth of an inch in dia¬
meter. That the luminousness of the sea was derived from
these minute animals, appears to be proved by the following
simple experiments. Portions of this sea-water were put
into separate beer glasses, and the number of animalcules
in each was carefully ascertained. They were carried suc¬
cessively to the deck, and when the water was dashed on
it, the number of lucid points was ascertained. In most in¬
stances the number of these points coincided with the
number of animals previously observed in the glass; in no
instance were the lucid points more ; though occasionally
they were not so numerous, probably owing to some of
them adhering to the glass, or having escaped the shock
that stimulated their light-making organs. The same ani¬
mals he has often observed, even more numerous, in the
luminous sea-water of the British coasts; and has obtain¬
ed similar results by a repetition of the experiments. The
luminous points often adhere to the fingers; and on intro¬
ducing such a luminous speck into a glass of non-luminous
sea-water, careful inspection will show a medusary animal
LIGHT. 459
Light, floating in the water. The sea-water, on such occasions,
—■Y'"w'if left at rest in glass vessels on deck, or even if suspend¬
ed in gimbals, would occasionally exhibit luminous points ;
and the author conceives that the light either attends the
voluntary movements of those minute creatures, or is emit¬
ted at their will. When sulphuric or other strong acid is
poured into luminous water, it will produce a considerable
flash of light, either by the effort of the animals to escape,
or the unexpected stimulus it produces. In some climates
the sea exhibits a fiery-red hue. This has often been ob¬
served in the Chinese seas, and in some parts of the Indian
Ocean. It is produced, according to the best authorities,
by myriads of minute animals that emit a reddish light.
Captain Horsburgh and Mr Langstaff have described other
kinds of light occasionally observed in the Indian Ocean.
The latter mentions, that during a passage from China to
New Holland, the sea at night had a faint milky appearance,
as if snow had just fallen on the water. The sailors thought
it was produced by a coral shoal, but seventy fathoms of line
did not find bottom ; and when the water drawn up was
examined, it was observed to swarm with minute globular
bodies, about the size of a pin’s head, linked together, and
of a milky hue, probably some minute species of medusa.
It is well known that the larger fish are scmetimes lumi¬
nous. This has been remarked in the bonito and the
shark ; but whether they are naturally luminous, or only in
consequence of the adhesion of luminous animalcules to
them, is not determined.
Some have ascribed the luminousness of the sea to elec¬
tricity, others to putrescent particles in the water. The
former opinion is not probable, from the appearances ob¬
served ; the latter is supported by the luminous matter of
dead fish being diffusible through water, and imparting to
it luminous qualities; but the known phosphorescence of
many small sea animals, and the coincidence of the number
of scintillations, in the experiments above detailed, with
that of the animals observed, incline us to believe that
the luminous appearance of the ocean depends on the pre¬
sence of minute animals.
SECT. IX CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF LIGHT.
Light appears to be possessed of chemical properties
and energies distinct from those of heat, which may be
considered as further proofs of its materiality.
It is capable of decomposing various metallic salts.
Thus, if a colourless solution of nitrate of silver be expos¬
ed to light, it gradually blackens ; a powder is deposited
which has the same colour, and the salt is found to have
lost a portion of its oxygen. This change is more rapid¬
ly effected by the direct rays of the sun than by the dif¬
fused light of day. The neutral solutions of gold, also,
when exposed to light, in contact with charcoal, with vege¬
table or animal matter, as cotton and silk, are decomposed.
This is the principle of the beautiful process invented
by Mrs Fulhame, for ornamenting muslin and silk stuffs
with flowers and sprigs of gold. The salt of gold parts with
its acid and its oxygen to the vegetable or animal matter
through the agency oflight. The dry salt formed by dis¬
solving gold in nitro-muriatic acid is also slowly decom¬
posed by light under similar circumstances.
Scheele examined the effects of light on metallic solu¬
tions, and discovered that the chemical effects of the dif¬
ferent coloured rays of the prismatic spectrum were differ¬
ent. By enclosing solutions of silver in glasses of differ¬
ent colours, he found, that in red glass there was very little
effect produced, whilst in violet-coloured glass the black¬
ening was speedily produced. These interesting facts
were confirmed by Senebier and by Thomas Wedgwood.
The latter showed, that in the full sunshine, the blacken- Ljght.
ing of muriate of silver was produced in two minutes, and .
in the shade that several hours were required to produce
this effect. The sunbeams transmitted through red glass
have very little blackening effect; yellow and green glass
are somewhat more effectual ; but blue and violet glass
produce the most decisive effects. The discovery of Her-
schel, respecting the different refrangibility of light and
heat, induced Ritter and Wollaston to try the effect upon
the salts of silver beyond the violet ray ; and they found
that the blackening was most decided beyond the visible
boundary of the spectrum at the violet end. In some ex¬
periments of Senebier, muriate of silver was darkened by
the violet ray in 15", by the blue in 29", by the green in
37", by the yellow in 5' 30", by the orange in 12', and by
the red in 20'. These effects are wholly due to light; for
no effect is produced in the hottest point just beyond the
red rays.
Berthollet proved, that during the action of light on
many metallic oxides, as those of gold, silver, lead, and
mercury, a portion of their oxygen was extricated; and
this is supposed to be the change produced in the blacken¬
ing of the salts of silver, viz. a partial reduction of the metal.
Sir Humphry Davy found that tritoxide of lead, when mois¬
tened, and exposed to the red rays, became red, that is,
it lost oxygen, and became a deutoxide. Oxide of mer¬
cury, obtained by mixing potash and calomel, was not
changed by the most refrangible rays, but became red in
the least refrangible rays, which must have resulted from
the absorption of oxygen. The violet rays produced on
the moistened red oxide of mercury the same effect as a
stream of hydrogen gas, that is, a deoxidation. Wollaston
found that these rays produced an oxidizing effect on one
vegetable substance, resin of guaiacum. This resin be¬
comes green by absorbing oxygen ; and he found that it
unaerwent this change in the violet rays, but again ob¬
tained its yellow hue on being exposed to the red rays.
Some of the acids suffer decomposition by light; thus,
if we expose colourless nitric acid to the sun’s rays, in a
flask provided with a bent tube, and terminating in a
pneumatic apparatus, the acid becomes coloured, from the
formation of nitrous gas, and oxygen may be collected in
the trough in the usual w'ay, as Berthollet ascertained.
Light also decomposes some vegetable acids, such as the
hydrocyanic; and to preserve such compounds pure, it is
necessary carefully to exclude light.
Light also in some cases favours chemical combination.
If chlorine which has been collected over water, and
therefore contains water, be exposed to light, the water
is slowly decomposed ; its hydrogen enters into combina¬
tion with the chlorine to form hydro-chloric or muriatic
acid, and its oxygen is liberated. The influence of light
is still more striking on chlorine and on hydrogen. If we
mix equal proportions of these gases, and the access of
light be carefully excluded, no action takes place, or then-
union is very slowly produced ; but if we expose them to
the diffused light of day, combination will take place in a
quarter of an hour. If exposed to the direct beams of the
sun, the union is instantaneous, and with a violent explo¬
sion. Davy found that when such a mixture was exposed
to the red rays only, the gases united without explosion,
yet more rapidly than when exposed to the violet rays;
but that the conversion of a solution of chlorine into mu¬
riatic acid took place most readily at the most refrangible
end of the solar spectrum.
SECT. X.—EFFECTS OF LIGHT ON PLANTS.
The change pioduced on vegetable colouring matter by
light is familiar in the process of bleaching by exposure to
LIGHT.
460
Light, the sun. But the influence of light on living vegetables is
much more remarkable.
If a plant grow in total darkness, its natural green hue
is not acquired ; but it will be white, though in other re¬
spects vigoi’ous. This is familiar in the ctiolcitioti or blanch¬
ing of certain garden-stuffs, as celery, sea-kale, endive, &c.
The late Professor Robison, many years ago, remarked
that plants growing in darkness were not only white, but
that they did not attain the natural form of their leaves,
nor their natural odour. In descending into a coal mine,
he accidentally met with a plant growing luxuriantly, the
flarm and qualities of which were entirely new to him. The
sod on which it grew was removed, potted, and carefully
attended to in his garden. The etiolated plant languished
and died ; but the roots speedily threw out vigorous shoots,
which, from the form of the leaves, and peculiar odour,
he readily recognised as common tansy. He repeated si¬
milar experiments upon plants of lovage, carvi, and mint,
with analogous results.
The green colour of vegetables, and even the form of
their leaves, are materially influenced by light.
Some experiments of Senebier would lead to the conclu¬
sion that it is the violet end of the spectrum which has the
greatest influence in counteracting the effects of etiolation.
This production of the dark colour of plants would appear
to depend upon the decomposition of carbonic acid by the
living vegetable, when acted on by light, and the fixation
of its carbon. That light is necessary to this process, is
proved by the experiments of Priestley, Senebier, Ingen-
houz, De Saussure, Davy, and many vegetable physiolo¬
gists. Growing plants in sunshine give out oxygen by the
decomposition of carbonic acid; but in darkness caibonic
acid is evolved ; and Ellis has demonstrated, in his inteiest-
ing essays, that oxygen, under such circumstances, always
disappears from the air in which vegetation is going on.
Light, then, acts an important part in the vegetable eco¬
nomy, by fixing the most dense and abundant of the tlnee
general elements of vegetable matter. The influence of
light in maturing fruits is well known. The fruits which
when ripe are saccharine, are previously acid; that is, their
hydrogen and carbon are combined with an excess of oxy¬
gen. Light, by favouring the evolution of oxygen, and the
fixation of carbon, converts the vegetable acid into sugar,
and thus provides a suitable food for the embryon in the
seed. On the other hand, the influence of light is not less
conspicuous in another class of vegetables. In an early
stage of the germination of seeds yielding farina when ripe,
the tender rudiment of the seed is enveloped in a slightly
saccharine juice, as may be seen in young wheat and maize.
Now, what is wanted to convert them into farina is the
evolution of oxygen, and the fixation of a larger quantity
of carbon. These two indications are fulfilled by the in¬
fluence of light on the growing vegetables; and thus we
can explain why the sun s influence is so essential in the
one case to the formation of sugar from an acid ; and in the
other, of farina from a saccharine juice. The same prin¬
ciples will explain why a farinaceous seed, when planted
in the ground, becomes again saccharine. Light is now
wanting ; oxygen is absorbed, and partly aids in the evolu¬
tion of the redundant carbon, partly is added to the two
other general elements. This view affords an instance of
the important agency of light in vegetation, and a beauti¬
ful example of the simplicity of the means employed to
produce diversified effects in the works of creation.
SECT. XI. EFFECTS OF LIGHT ON ANIMALS.
The facts noticed in the last section show tne powerful
influence of light on vegetable forms. But its effects on
the exterior of animals, though less striking, are not unim- Light,
portant.
1. The influence of the sun’s rays in deepening the colour,
or in giving a brown tint to the skin, seems to be more
due to the light than to the heat of the sunbeams ; for the
parts of the skin covered by the clothes, though kept thus
hotter than the parts exposed, do not undergo this change.
The pale visage and enfeebled vitality of those who live
much in obscure apartments, in prisons, and in mines, are
well known ; and though probably the most violent symp¬
toms that characterize the anhcemia of miners, in which
the skin assumes a yellowish, waxy hue, and the lips be¬
come bloodless, be chiefly due to breathing a vitiated at¬
mosphere, yet some influence is certainly attributable to
want of light. The anhaemia of persons long confined in
dungeons has often been remarked, and was lately de¬
scribed as strikingly exemplified in the person of Caspar
Hausser, the young man whose mysterious birth, confine¬
ment, and assassination, have hitherto baffled conjecture.
In climates where the heat renders a state almost ap¬
proaching to nudity desirable, all travellers agree that the
development of the human frame is early, and the form has
fewer deviations from the symmetry natural to the race
than amongst northern nations. Deformity is said to be
comparatively rare in hot climates, where the surface is
much exposed; and this has been attributed by Dr Ed¬
wards in some measure to the influence of light. Perhaps,
after making due allowance for the less chance of rearing
sicklv or deformed children amongst barbarous nations, and
for the prevalence of infanticide amongst them in such cases,
there is considerable justice in his remarks on this subject;
without which it would be difficult to account for the fine
muscular and rounded forms so often observed amongst na¬
tions agreeing in nothing except in the prevalence of a very
free exposure of their persons to the full influence of light;
as amongst the Mexicans and Peruvians, the Chaymas and
Muyscas of South America, the Caribbs of the Antilles, the
inhabitants of the numerous groups of the South Seas, or
the free inhabitants of Africa. Probably, too, a part of the
effects attributed to country air, in restoring to health the
sickly child of the city artizan, is due to insolation, or
the exposure to light, which appears to have the property
of invigorating the vital functions, and of elevating the
spirits of those who have suffered a long deprivation of its
cheering influence.
2. The effect of light on the lower animals is more mark¬
ed, and is strikingly illustrated in the curious experiments
of Dr W. F. Edwards upon the spawn of frogs. He enclosed
portions of the spawn of the frog in different vessels per¬
meable to water, some of which w ere perfectly opake, while
others freely admitted light; the temperature was the
same, yet the eggs exposed to light came to maturity; but
those deprived of light were not hatched.
He even found that the development of the perfect form
of such animals depended on light. By enclosing tadpoles
of both frogs and toads in different boxes, some of which
freely admitted light, whilst others totally excluded it, and
placing them in running water, he found that the tadpoles
exposed to light underw ent the change to the perfect form
of the animal, as usual; whilst the tadpoles excluded from
the light, though they seemed perfectly vigorous, did not
undergo the transformation, even though they had increas¬
ed to double or triple their primitive weight. He also con¬
jectures that the Anguine Syren, Proteus anguinus, may
only be the larva of some reptile retained in its imperfect
form by the profound obscurity of the subterranean lakes
of Carniola, in which it is found. In this conjecture, however,
he is mistaken ; for that singular animal has been kept alive
without change a considerable time, under circumstances
favourable to its transformation, if really an imperfect species,
I
LIGHT.
461
Light, by various naturalists ; particularly, as we have been in-
^ formed, by the Austrian archduke John ; and also by the late
Mr Melly, a zealous naturalist once resident in Liverpool.
The facts, however, already detailed, show that the in¬
fluence of light on the animal economy is by no means in¬
considerable. But the most interesting property of light,
in relation to animals, is its effect in producing vision.
3. The rays of light emanating from bodies, or reflect¬
ed from their surfaces, are destined to impress the sen-
sorium through the eye ; an admirable and complex op¬
tical apparatus, in which the rays, after passing through
the transparent cornea, a, sustain various refractions, until
they reach the sentient expansion of the optic nerve,/, call¬
ed retina. The cornea constitutes the front of the eye¬
ball, the rest of its surface is formed of a dense white tu¬
nic, called the sclerotic coat, bb, which joins the cornea by
its edges, forming with the latter an almost globular body,
which contains the more delicate structures of the eye.
Just within the cornea is observed a coloured ring, appa¬
rently formed of diverging fibres, termed the iris, hh. This
ring is perforated by the 'pupil, a circular aperture in its
centre, which is capable of contraction and expansion, by
the action of the fibres of the iris, according to the increase
or diminution of the light. This movement of the pupil
is not under the will of the animal, but is regulated by
the stimulus of light, so as to exclude any quantity that
would be hurtful to the organ. The iris is attached to
the outer coat of the eye, the sclerotic, by the ciliary pro¬
cesses, nn. Within the sclerotic lies a delicately thin vas¬
cular membrane named the choroid coat, having its interior
surface lined with a black secretion termed the pigmen-
tum nigrum, the probable use of which is to aid clear vi¬
sion, by preventing a multiplicity of reflections in the bot¬
tom of the eye.
Still nearer to the centre of the eye lies the retina,
which is continuous with the optic nerve,/, and is the part
of the eye sentient to the impressions of light. Entering
the bottom of the eye, but not just in its axis, is seen a
thick cord, the optic nerve, by which the impressions upon
the retina are conveyed to the brain.
The bulk of the eyeball is made up of three substances,
which have been improperly termed humours. The first
lies just within the cornea, and fills the space between it
and the iris, as well as the smaller space immediately be¬
hind the latter. From its fluidity, it is termed the aqueous
humour, g. The iris divides the chamber of the aqueous
humour into an anterior and a posterior portion. The
posterior wall of this chamber is formed by a delicate,
transparent, capsular membrane, enclosing a lenticular
body, convex on both sides, though more so posteriorly,
which is named the crystalline lens, l. This body consists
of concentric layers, formed of fibres externally less con¬
sistent, but increasing in density towards its centre ; a
structure intended for the purpose of correcting its sphe¬
rical aberration. The capsule of the crystalline lens is
retained in its situation by the ciliary circle or ciliary pro¬
cesses, n ; and it lies imbedded in the most considerable of
all the humours of the eye, the vitreous, m, which consists
of a clear gelatinous substance, that recent anatomical in¬
vestigations prove to be lodged in very delicate membra¬
nous cells. In the healthy state, especially in young
persons, these humours are perfectly colourless and trans¬
parent, but they become coloured by age; and the crys¬
talline lens has been seen in very old persons of a bright
amber colour, though still transparent. Opacity of the lens
forms the disease termed cataract. The obvious use of
the humours of the eye is to refract the rays of light en¬
tering the eye by the transparent cornea, and to concen¬
trate them on the retina. The difference in their consist¬
ence seems intended to make that organ a true and nicely
adjusted achromatic optical instrument.
Light.
The ray from any object falling directly in the centre
of the eye, perpendicular to its surface, will not undergo
any refraction, but pass straight through to the retina;
and its direction may be termed the axis of the eye. All
the rays which fall obliquely on the eye will, by the re¬
fraction of the humours, be bent from their course, and
cut the axis somewhere between the lens and the retina ;
and the refractive power of the humours is such as to
converge on the retina all rays proceeding from any one
point of a visible object, whether these rays fall on the
cornea in a parallel or a diverging condition. But as
these rays have all crossed the axis of the eye by the re¬
fractive power of the humours, it is obvious that the rays
from the upper part of the object will impinge on the lower
part of the retina, and those from the lowest point, on the
upper part of that membrane. Hence the image of the
object will be inverted on the retina. That this actually
takes place we can easily satisfy ourselves, by removing
from the posterior part of the eye of a sheep a portion of
the sclerotic coat with a sharp knife, until it becomes
translucent, when the image of a candle placed before the
cornea will be seen inverted on the back part of the eye
thus prepared.
In the usual state of the eye, its refractive apparatus
is so contrived that all the rays from the same points
of objects at some distance from the eye will converge in
the retina, or the principal focus of the eye will lie in that
membrane; but divergent rays from very near objects
would converge in a point behind the retina, were there
not some power of adjustment in the eye for correcting
the confused image which would thus be formed. This
may be effected in two ways ; either by increasing the
convexity of the cornea, or by bringing the lens to a
greater distance from the retina. Some have attributed
iis adjustment to an alteration in the form of the eye¬
ball, and consequently of the cornea, by the action of the
motor muscles of the organ ; but there is much more pro¬
bability in the opinion that this adjustment is produced
by the contractions and expansions of the iris. This part
462
Light.
L I G II
of the eye is attached to the ciliary ligament, which is
also connected with the capsule of the crystalline lens.
Hence contraction of the pupil would tend to draw for¬
ward the lens, or remove it farther from the retina ; and
thus the rays which have their point of convergence be¬
hind the retina, would meet in that membrane, and a
distinct image would be produced. That some such ad¬
justment is necessary is obvious ; for if, after contemplat¬
ing a distant object, our attention be suddenly turned to
a very near one, it is some time ere the second object is
distinctly perceived ; and the movement of the iris will be
seen to take place before the second image is well defined.
The retina is capable of affording the perception of exter¬
nal objects in its whole extent, except at the insertion of
the optic nerve, a spot about ^'(jth of an inch in diameter
in man. Any image falling on this spot is invisible, as
multiplied experiments have shown. This insensible point
in either eye may be indicated by the familiar optical
experiment of placing three coloured wafers horizontal¬
ly on a wall, on a. white ground, about two feet from
each other. Let the operator place himself about two
feet from the wall, opposite the middle wafer; shut one
eye, and then gradually retire backwards, while he fixes
his open eye on the wafer nearest the closed eye. When
an ordinary eye is distant from the wall about jive times
the distance of the wafers from each other, the image of
the middle wafer will have fallen on the insertion of the
optic nerve, and will no longer be visible.
Two very interesting speculations connected with vi¬
sion have long exercised the ingenuity of physiologists
and metaphysicians, viz. how it happens that animals with
two eyes see objects single, by means of double images on
the retinae; and how they appear erect by means of invert¬
ed images ?
The first has been explained on the supposition of there
being corresponding points in each eye that convey simi¬
lar perceptions to the mind, and that such afford only the
idea of unity. In the natural movements of the eyes, the
images of external objects are supposed always to fall on
such points; but should any cause throw the images on
dissimilar points, then we have double vision. Hence, if
with the finger we push one eyeball slightly out of its pa¬
rallel position with regard to the other, two objects are
perceived. In persons who squint, the parallel movement
of the eyes is lost; and it has been supposed that in cases
where the squinting has come on in adults from imperfec¬
tion in one eye, that habit enables the individual to cor¬
rect the illusion of double vision, and that the person
ceases to notice the impressions made on the least perfect
of the two eyes.
The second fact alluded to is that of erect vision by in¬
verted images. That images of external objects are depict¬
ed inverted on the retina is perfectly well ascertained ; and
philosophers have been much puzzled to explain how the
indications of vision and touch are reconciled. Some have
imagined that at first we really see objects inverted, but
learn by experience and by the sense of touch to correct
the illusion. Other attempts have been made to explain
it by what has been termed the law of visible direction ;
by which it is supposed that when any point of an object is
viewed, the rays proceeding from that point must fall on
the eye with different degrees of obliquity, yet that point
will be only seen in the direction of the central ray of the
cone of light proceeding from that point: And as the lines
of visible direction must necessarily cross each other at the
centre of visible direction, those of the lower part of the
image on the retina must go to the upper part of the ob¬
ject, and those of the upper part of the image to the lower
part of the object; and lienee an erect object is considered
as the necessary result of an inverted image.
This is very ingenious, but it is obviously hypothetical
and obscure. The physiological explication of single vision
by double images suggested by Newton, and since support¬
ed by Wollaston, is based on what has been termed the
semi-decussation of the optic nerves at their commissure,
whereby the right half of the retina of each eye is placed
in direct nervous communication with the right optic lobe,
or right half of that part of the brain termed corpora
quadrigemina, and vice versa. Hence impressions made
on corresponding points in each retina may, in fact, be
impressions on the same points oj the common sensorium,
and therefore co-operate in producing the same perception.
1 he anatomical proof of this is still defective, but many
facts give it probability. Hie subject has engaged the
attention of Professor Alison of Edinburgh, who considers
that this arrangement of the optic nerves is but a part of
the provision by which nature has secured harmony between
peiceptions afforded by sight and touch. His explanation
of one of the most perplexing questions in animal physi¬
ology is so ingenious, that we gladly avail ourselves of his
permission to lay it before our readers.
According to him, the peculiar contorted or involuted
course of the optic nerves (in all vertebrate animals)
around the crura cerebri, until they are lost in the optic
lobes, seems designed to secure that the position of the
impression on the sensorium should be conformable to the
true position of the object.
It is only in those animals intended by nature to con¬
template objects with both eyes at once, as in mammalia
and birds, that the semi-decussation of the optic nerve is
found. The contrivance in fact implies that both eyes
are to be at the same time directed to the same object,
or that both optic lobes are to be constantly employed in
vision at the same time ; the right half of each retina being
in connection with each optic lobe, and the left half of
each retina in like manner connected with the left optic
lobe. Now, the right half of each retina contains the
image of the left half of the field of vision ; and therefore
the impressions made by the left half of the field of vision
fall on the right optic lobe, and have, on their left, the
impression resulting from the right side of the field of
vision ; on which, as both optic lobes are necessarily exer¬
cised together, the attention of the mind is equally directed.
Ur Alison considers that the grand contrivance adopted
by nature to secure harmony between the indications of
sight and touch is the decussation at the pyramids of the
nervous fibres concerned in common sensation and in vo¬
luntary movements; the effect of which must be, that
whilst the right side of the brain is that to which impres¬
sions from the left half of the field of vision are brought,
it is also that on which all the other sensations of the left side
of the body depend ; or, in other words, we both see and feel
what is on our left by the right side of the brain. According¬
ly, it is in those animals only in which the semi-decussation of
the optic nerves exists (namely, in Mammalia and birds)
that the decussation at the pyramids exists, or that the sen¬
sations and voluntary motions of each side of the body
appear to be in connection with the opposite side of the
brain.
As the admirable mechanism of the eye, and its beautiful
adaptation to the necessities and comfort of the animal
creation, afford a striking instance of that wdsdom and be¬
neficence so conspicuous in the handiwork of the Deity;
so the extinction of this exquisite and important organ
must be considered as one of the severest of human cala¬
mities ; a misfortune that perhaps cannot be fully appre¬
ciated by those who have not experienced the loss of sight,
so feelingly deplored by our mighty bard in poetry that
can only perish with the language in which it is express¬
ed.
Thus with the year
Seasons return, but not to me returns
Light.
Light¬
houses.
L I G
Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn,
Or sight of vernal bloom or summer’s rose.
Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine;
' But cloud instead, and ever during dark
Surrounds me, from the cheerful ways of men
Cut off, and for the book of knowledge fair
Presented with an universal blank
Of nature’s works, to me expunged and raz’d,
And wisdom at one entrance quite shut out.
Some of the works that treat oflight are, Aristotelis Ope¬
ra de Anima et de Meteor.; Senecae Opera; Plinii Hist.
Nat.; Euchdis Optica ; Heliodorus Larissaeus De Opticis;
Alhazen, Optica cum Comment. Vitellionis ; Baconis Opus
Majus; Maurolycus De Lumine et Umbra ; Baptista Porta,
Magia Nat. et de Refractione; Bacon’s Works; Antonio
de Dominis De Radiis Visits et Lucis; Borelli De Vero
Telescopii Inventore ; Galileo Galilei, Opere e Vita; Kep-
L I G
463
ler, Paralipomena ad Vitellionem; Schotti Magia Univer- Light-
sahs; Descartes, Opera; Gassendi, Opera; Athan. Kir- houses,
cheri Opera. ; Huygenii Opera, also Snell’s Discoveries;
Newton’s Optics and Principia; Boyle’s Works } Hooker’s
Micrographia, and Posth. Works; Muschenbroeck’s Tenta-
mina et Introd.; Grimaldi De Lumine; Beccaria DelV
Hlettricismo, &c.; Beccarii Comment, de Phosphoris;
Bouguer, Trade d'Optique ; Lambert, Photometric; Mon-
tucla, Histoire des Mathematiques ; Smith’s Optics; Priest¬
ley on Vision; Hutton on Light; Cavallo’s Philosophy;
Leslie on Heat; Biot, Trade de Physique; Muncke, Hand-
buch der Naturlehre ; Treviranus, Beitrdge zur Lehre von
den Gesichtwcrkzeugen und dem Sehen; Memoires de
l Acad. Royale des Sciences ; Memoires de VInstitut, et de
l Acad, des Sciences; Phil. Trans. London ; Phil. Trans.
Edm. (f* ® 'j1 ^
LIGHTHOUSES.
Early
i tory.
his-
llossus
aodes.
of
Lighthouse, and sea-light, are terms which, although not
strictly synonymous, are indifferently employed to denote
the same thing. A Sea-light may be defined as a light so
modified and directed as to present to the mariner an ap¬
pearance which shall at once enable him to judge of his
position during the night, in the same manner as the sight
of a landmark would do during the day.
I he early history of lighthouses is very uncertain ; and
many ingenious antiquaries, finding the want of authentic
records, have endeavoured to supply the deficiency by con¬
jectures founded on casual and obscure allusions in ancient
writers, and have invented many vague and unsatisfactory
hypotheses on the subject, drawn from the heathen mytho-
l°gy. Some writers have gone so far as to imagine, that
the Cyclopes were the keepers of lighthouses; whilst others
have actually maintained that Cyclops was intended, by a
bold prosopopoeia, to represent a lighthouse itself. A no¬
tion so fanciful deserves little consideration ; and in order
to show how ill it accords with that mythology of which it
is intended to be an exposition, it seems enough to quote
the lines from the ninth Odyssey, where Homer, after de¬
scribing the darkness of the night, informs us that the fleet
of Ulysses actually struck the shore of the Cyclopean island
before it could be seen.
’'Ev^ OUT If Tr,v vijirov itTiS^KXtv eiQ$uXfj.o t<riv
Out ouv xv^.tx.T<x. xvXiv'^of/.sva tcotI
’Eiit/X/asi/ vija; VutnriXfj.ou; tunxiXtrui.
Odyss. ix. 146.
There does not appear any better reason for supposing,
that under the history of Tithonus, Chiron, or any other
personage of antiquity, the idea of a lighthouse was con¬
veyed ; for such suppositions, however reconcileable they
may appear with some parts of the mythology, involve ob¬
vious inconsistencies with others. Nor does it seem at all
probable, that in those early times, when navigation was so
little practised, the advantages of beacon-lights were so
generally known and acknowledged as to render them the
objects of mythological allegory.
About 300 years before the Christian era, Chares, the
disciple of Lysippus, constructed the celebrated brazen
statue, called the Colossus of Rhodes, whose height was
upwards ol 100 feet, and which stood at the entrance to
the harbour. There is considerable probability in the
idea, that this figure served the purposes of a lighthouse ;
but we do not remember any passage in ancient writers,
where this use of the Colossus is expressly mentioned.
There is much inconsistency in the account of this fabric
by early writers, who, in describing the distant objects
which could be seen from it, appear to have forgotten the
height which they assign to the figure. ft was partly
demolished by an earthquake, about 80 years after its
completion ; and so late as the year 672 of our era, the
brass of which it was composed was sold by the Saracens to
a Jewish merchant of Edessa, for a sum, it is said, equal to
L.36,000.
Little is known with certainty regarding the Pharos ofPharos 0
Alexandria, which was regarded by the ancients as one of'^ex.‘
the seven wonders of the world. It was built by Ptolemy andria-
Philadelphus, about 300 years before Christ; and it is re¬
corded by Strabo, that the architect Sostratus, the son of
Dexiphanes, having first secretly cut his own name on the
solid walls of the building, covered the words with plaster,
and, in obedience to Ptolemy's command, made the follow¬
ing inscription on the plaster—“ King Ptolemy to the gods,
the saviours, for the benefit of sailors.” What truth there
may be in this account of the fraud of Sostratus there is
now no means of determining; and the story is only now
interesting, in so far as it shows the object of the royal
founder and the use of the tower. The accounts which
have reached us of the dimensions of this remarkable edi¬
fice are exceedingly various ; and many of the statements
regarding the distance at which it could be seen are clearly
fabulous. Josephus approaches nearest to probability, and
informs us, that the fire which was kept constantly burning
in the top was visible by seamen at a distance equal to
about 40 miles. If the reports of some writers are to be
believed, this tower must have far exceeded in size the
great pyramid itself; but the fact that a building of com¬
paratively so late a date should have so completely disap¬
peared, whilst the pyramid remains almost unchanged, is a
sufficient reason for rejecting, as erroneous, the dimensions
which have been assigned by most writers to the Pharos of
Alexandria. Some have pretended that large mirrors were
employed to direct the rays of the beacon-light on its top,
in the most advantageous direction ; but there is nothing
like respectable evidence in favour of this supposition!
Others, with greater probability, have imagined that this
celebrated beacon was known to mariners, simply by the
uncertain and rude light afforded by a common fire. In
speaking of the Pharos,1 the poet Lucan, on most occasions
1 Septima nox, Zephyro nunquam laxante rudentes,
Ostendit Phariis HSgyptia littora/ammw.
Sed prius orta dies nocturnam lampada texit,
Quam tutas intraret aquas.
Pharsal. ix. 1004.
464
LIGHTHOUSES.
Light¬
houses.
Coruna
Tower.
Modern
history.
Tour de
Corduan.
sufficiently fond of the marvellous, takes no notice of the
gigantic mirrors which it is said to have contained. It is
true that, by using the word “ lampada,” which can only
with propriety be applied to a more perfect mode of illumi¬
nation than an open fire, he appears to indicate that the
“Jlamma?' of which he speaks were not so produced. The
word lampada may, however, be used metaphorically ; and
flammis would, in this case, not improperly describe the
irregular appearance of a common fire. Those who are
desirous of knowing all that occurs in ancient authors on
the subject of the Pharos of Alexandria may consult Pliny,
1. xxxvi., c. 12.; 1. v., c. 13., and 1. xiii., c. 11. Strabo, 1.
xvii., p. 791, et seq. Caesar, Comment, de Bell. Civil., 1.
iii. Pompon. Mela, 1. ii., c. 7. Ammian. Marcellin, 1. xxii.,
c. 16. Joseph, de Bell. Judaic., 1. vi. Nicolas Lloyd’s
Lexicon Geographicum, and the Notitia Orbis Antiqui of
Celarius, 1. iv., c. 1., p. 13.
Mr Moore, in his History of Ireland (vol. i., p. 16), speaks
of the Tower of Coruna, which, he says, is mentioned in the
traditionary history of that country as a lighthouse erected
for the use of the Irish in their frequent early intercourse
with Spain. In confirmation of this opinion, he cites a
somewhat obscure passage from JEthicus, the cosmographer.
This in all probability is the tower which Humboldt men¬
tions in his Narrative under the name of the Iron Tower,
which was built as a lighthouse by Caius Saevius Lupus,
an architect of the city of Aqua Flavia, the modern Chaves.
A lighthouse has lately been established on this headland,
for which dioptric apparatus was supplied from the workshop
of M. Letourneau of Paris. (See also a curious account of
the traditions about this tower in Southey’s Letters from
Spain and Portugal, p. 17.)
There is also a record in Strabo of a magnificent light¬
house of stone at Capio, or Apio, near the Harbour of
Menestheus (the modern Mesa Asta, or Puerto de Sta.
Maria), built on a rock nearly surrounded by the sea, as a
guide for the shallows at the mouth of the Guadalquivir,
which he describes in terms almost identical with those used
by him in speaking of the Pharos of Alexandria. I am not
aware of any other notice of this great work, for such it
seems to have been, to have deserved the praises of Strabo.1
In Camden’s Britannia, a passing notice is taken of the
ruins called Ccesar's Altar, at Dover, and of the Tour
dOrdre, at Boulogne, on the opposite coast; both of which
are conjectured, on somewhat doubtful grounds, to have
been ancient lighthouses. Pennant describes the remains
of a Roman Pharos near Holywell, but cites no authorities
for his opinion as to its use. There were likewise remains
of a similar structure at Flamborough-head. A very meagre
and unintelligible account is also given of a lighthouse at
St Edmund’s Chapel, on the coast of Norfolk, in Gough’s
additions to Camden, by which it might seem that the light¬
house was erected in 1272.2
Such seems to be the sum of our knowledge of the an¬
cient history of lighthouses, which, it must be admitted, is
neither accurate nor extensive. Our information regarding
modern lighthouses is of course more minute in its details,
and more worthy of credit, as the greater part of it is drawn
from authentic sources, or is the result of the actual obser¬
vation of the writer of this article, who has visited the most
important lighthouses of Europe. It seems sufficient here
to notice briefly the most remarkable establishments of the
kind now in existence ; reserving, for the latter part of the
article, the more appropriate and important topics of the
methods of illumination, and the systems of management.
The first lighthouse of modern days which merits atten¬
tion is the Tour de Corduan, which, in point of architec¬
tural grandeur, is unquestionably the noblest edifice of the Light-
kind in the world. It is situate on an extensive reef at houses.
Fig. 1.
the mouth of the River Garonne, and serves as a guide to
the shipping of Bordeaux and the Languedoc Canal, and,
indeed, of all that part of the Bay of Biscay. It was founded
in the year 1584, and was not completed till 1610, under
Henri IV. It is minutely described in Belidor’s Architec¬
ture Hydralique. The building is 197 feet in height, and
is shown in the accompanying woodcut, fig. 1. Round the
base is a wall of circumvallation, 134 feet in diameter, in
which the light-keepers’ apartments are formed, somewhat
in the style of casemates. The first light exhibited in the
Tour de Corduan was obtained by burning billets of oak-
wood, in a chauffer at the top of the tower ; and the use of
coal instead of wood was the first improvement which the
light received. A rude reflector, in the form of an inverted
cone, was afterwards added, to prevent the loss of light which
escaped upwards. About the year 1780, M. Lenoir was
employed to substitute reflectors and lamps; and in 1822
the light received its last improvement, by the introduction
of the dioptric instruments of M. Fresnel.
The history of the celebrated lighthouse on the Eddy- Eddptone
stone rocks is well known to the general reader, from the
narrative of Mr Smeaton the engineer. These rocks are
9^ miles from the Ram-Head, on the coast of Cornwall;
and from the small extent of the surface of the chief rock,
and its exposed situation, the construction of the lighthouse
was a work of very great difficulty. The first erection was
of timber, designed by Mr Winstanley, and was commenced
1 Oxon, 1807, p. 184.
2 Gough s Camden’s Britannia, vol. i., 318, and vol. ii., p. 198. Batcheller, in his Dover Guide (1845, p. Ill), says, that the Dover
Pharos was built “ during the lieutenancy of Aulus Plautius and Ostorius Scapula, the latter of whom left Britain a.d. 53” (Pennant’s
History of Whiteford and Holywell, p. 112).
LIGHTHOUSES.
465
in 1696. The light was exhibited in November 1698. It
was soon found, however, that the sea rose upon this tower
to a much greater height than had been anticipated, so much
so, it is said, as to “ bury under the water" the lantern, which
was 60 feet above the rock ; and Mr Winstanley was there¬
fore afterwards under the necessity of enlarging the tower,
and carrying it to the height of 120 feet. In November
1703, some considerable repairs were required, and Mr
Winstanley, accompanied by his workmen, went to the light¬
house to attend to their execution ; but the storm of the
26th of that month carried away the whole erection, when
the engineer and all his assistants unhappily perished.
1 he want of a light on the Eddystone soon led to a fatal
accident; for, not long after the destruction of Mr Whnstan-
ley’s lighthouse, the Winchilsea man-of-wrar was wrecked on
the Eddystone rocks, and most of her crew were lost. Three
years, however, elapsed after this melancholy proof of the
necessity of a light before the Trinity House of London
could obtain a new act to extend their powers ; and it was
not till the month of July 1706 that the construction of a
new lighthouse was begun, under the direction of Mr John
Rudyerd of London. On the 28th of July 1708 the new
light was first shown, and continued to be regularly exhi¬
bited till the year 17o5, when the whole fabric was destroyed
by accidental fire, after standing 47 years. But for this
circumstance, it is impossible to tell how long the lighthouse
might, with occasional repair, have lasted, as Mr Rudyerd
seems to have executed his task with much judgment, care¬
fully rejecting all architectural decoration, as unsuitable for
such a situation, and directing his attention to the formation
of a tower which should offer the least resistance to the
waves. The height of the tower, which was of a circular
form, and constructed of timber, was, including the lantern,
92 feet, and the diameter at the base, which was a little
above the level of high water, was 23.
The advantages of a light on the Eddystone having been
so long known and acknowledged by seamen, no time was
permitted to elapse before active measures were taken for
its restoration ; and Mr Smeaton, to whom application was
O-u 11 m 11 1 ( 1 \ |
* o io "o .to 4-0 soFeet
Fig. 2.
made for advice on the subject, recommended the exclusive
use of stone as the material, which, both from its weight
vol. xur.
and other qualities, he considered most suitable for the hight-
situation. On the 5th of April 1756, Mr Smeaton first v hou*e8‘
landed on the rock, and made arrangements for erecting a
lighthouse of stone, and preparing the foundations, by cut¬
ting the surface of the rock into regular horizontal benches,
into which the stones were carefully dovetailed or notched.
The first stone was laid on 12th June 1757, and the last on
the 24th of August 1759. The tower measures 68 feet in
height, and 26 feet in diameter at the level of the first entire
course, and the diameter under the cornice is 15 feet. The
first 12 feet of the tower form a solid mass of masonry, and
the stones are united by means of stone joggles, dovetailed
joints, and oak treenails. It is remarkable that Mr Smeaton
should have adopted an arched form for the floors of his
building, instead of employing these floors as tie-walls
formed of dovetailed stones. To counteract the injurious
tendency of the outward thrust of these arched floors, Mr
Smeaton had recourse to the ingenious expedient of laying,
in circular trenches or beds in the stones which form the
outside casing, sets of chains, which were heated by means
of an application of hot lead, and became tight in cooling.
The light was exhibited on the 16th October 1759; but
such was the state of the lightroom apparatus in Britain at
this period, that a feeble light from tallow candles was all
that decorated this noble structure. In 1807, when the
property of this lighthouse again came into the hands of the
Trinity House, on the expiry of a long lease, Argand bur¬
ners, and parabolic reflectors of silvered copper, were sub¬
stituted for the chandelier of candles. Fig. 2 shows a sec¬
tion of the Eddystone lighthouse, as executed according to
Mr Smeaton’s design.
The dangerous reef called the Inch Cape, or Bell-Rock, Bell-Rock,
so long a terror to mariners, was well known to the earliest
navigators of Scotland. Its dangers were so generally ac¬
knowledged, that the Abbots of Aberbrothick, from which
the rock is distant about 12 miles, caused a float to be
fixed upon the rock, with a bell attached to it, which, being
swung by the motion of the waves, served by its tolling to
warn the mariner of his approach to the reef. Amongst the
many losses which occurred on the Bell-Rock in modern
times, one of the most remarkable is that of the York, 74,
with all her crew, part of the wreck having been afterwards
found on the rock, and part having come ashore on the neigh¬
bouring coast. During the survey of the rock also, many
instances were discovered of the extent of loss which this
reef had occasioned, and many articles of ships’ furnishings
were picked up on it, as well as various coins, a bayonet, a
silver shoe-buckle, and many other small objects. Im¬
pressed with the great importance of some guide for the
Bell-Rock, Captain Brodie, R.N., set a small subscription
on foot, and erected a beacon of spars on the rock, which,
however, was soon destroyed by the sea. He afterwards
constructed a second beacon, which soon shared the same
fate. It was not, however, until 1802, when the Commis¬
sioners of Northern Lights brought a bill into parliament
for power to erect a lighthouse on it, that any efficient mea¬
sures were contemplated for the protection of seamen from
this rock, which, being covered at every spring-tide to the
depth of 12 feet, and lying right in the fareway to the
Firths of Forth and Tay, had been the occasion of much
loss both of property and life. In 1806 the bill passed into
a law, and various ingenious plans were suggested for
overcoming the difficulties which were apprehended, in
erecting a lighthouse on a rock 12 miles from land, and
covered to the depth of 12 feet by the tide. But the sug¬
gestion of Mr Robert Stevenson, the engineer to the Light¬
house Board, after being submitted to the late Mr Rennie,
was at length adopted; and it was determined to construct
a tower of masonry, on the principle of the Eddystone. On
the 17th of August 1807, Mr Stevenson accordingly landed
with his workmen, and commenced the wwk by preparing
3 n
L I G H T II O U S E S.
466
Light- the rock to receive the supports of a temporary wooden py-
houses. ramid, on which a barrack-house, for the reception of the
workmen, was to be placed; and during this operation much
hazard was often incurred in transporting the men from the
rock, which was only dry for a few hours at spring-tides,
to the vessel which lay moored off it. The lowest floor of
this temporary erection, in which the mortar for the building
was prepared, was often broken up and removed by the force
of the sea. The foundation having been excavated, the
first stone was laid on the 10th July 1808, at the depth of
16 feet below the high-water of spring-tides, and at the
end of the second season, the building was 5 feet 6 inches
above the lowest part of the foundation. The third season’s
operations terminated by finishing the solid part of the
structure, which is 30 feet in height; and the whole of
the masonry was completed in October 1810. The light
was first exhibited to the public on the night of the 1st of
February 1811. The difficulties and hazards of this work
were chiefly caused by the short time during which the
rock was accessible between the ebbing and flowing tides ;
and amongst the many eventful incidents which rendered
the history of this work interesting, was the narrow escape
which the engineer and thirty-one persons made from being
drowned, by the rising of the tide upon the rock, before a
boat came to their assistance, the attending vessel having
broken adrift. This circumstance occurred before the bar¬
rack-house was erected, and is narrated by Mr Stevenson
in his account of the work, published at the expense of the
Lighthouse Board in 1824, to which we may refer for more
minute information on the subject of this work, and the
other lights of the coast of Scotland.
The Bell-Rock Tower is 100 feet in height, 42 feet in
diameter at the base, and 15 at the top. The door is 30 Light-
feet from the base, and the ascent is by a massive copper houses,
ladder. The apartments, including the light-room, are six
in number. The light is a revolving red and white light,
and is produced by the revolution of a frame containing 20
Argand lamps, placed in the foci of parabolic mirrors, ar¬
ranged on a quadrangular frame, whose alternate faces have
shades of red glass placed before the reflectors, so that a
red and white light is shown successively. The machinery,
which causes the revolution of the frame containing the
lamps, is also applied to tolling two large bells, to give
warning to the mariner of his approach to the rock in foggy
weather. Fig. 3 shows a section of the Bell-Rock Light¬
house, and of the temporary barrack-house, which was re¬
moved on the completion of the work. The entire cost of
the lighthouse was L.61,331, 9s. 2d.
The great merit of Mr Stevenson, as architect of the
Bell-Rock Lighthouse, lies in his bold conception and un¬
shaken belief in the possibility of erecting a tower of ma¬
sonry on a reef 12 miles from the nearest land, and covered
by every tide,—a situation, undoubtedly, much more diffi¬
cult than that of the Eddystone. But his mechanical skill
in carrying on the work is also deserving of high praise.
Not only did he conceive the plan of the moveable jib and
balance cranes, which he afterwards used with much advan¬
tage in building the tower; but his zeal, ever alive to the
possibility of improving on the conceptions of his great
master Smeaton, led him to introduce several beneficial
changes into the arrangements of the masonry. In parti¬
cular, he converted the stone floors of the apartments,
which in the Eddystone exert an outward, and in its ten¬
dency disruptive, thrust, into bonds of union and efficient
sources of stability. This thrust was by Smeaton himself
considered so disadvantageous, that he thought fit to coun¬
teract it, as already noticed, by means of metallic girders,
concealed in the stone-work, and most ingeniously applied.
The Lighthouse Board placed in the upper apartment of
the tower a bust of Mr Stevenson, “ in testimony,” as the
minutes record, “ of the sense entertained by the Commis¬
sioners of his distinguished talent and indefatigable zeal in
the erection of the Lighthouse.”
The most remarkable lighthouse on the coast of Ireland Carling-
is that of Carlingford, near Cranfield Point, at the entrance ford,
of Carlingford Lough. It was built according to the design
of Mr George Halpin, the Inspector of the Irish Lights ;
and was a work of an arduous nature, being founded twelve
feet below the level of high-water on the Hawlbowline
Rock, which lies about two miles off Cranfield Point. The
figure is that of a frustum of a cone, 111 feet in height, and
48 feet in diameter at the base. The light, which is fixed,
is from oil burned in Argand lamps placed in the foci of
parabolic mirrors. It was first exhibited on the night of the
20th December 1830.
The Skerryvore Rocks, which lie about 12 miles W.S.W. Skerryvore
of the seaward point of the Isle of Tyree, in Argyllshire, Eockp-
were long known as a terror to mariners, owing to the
numerous shipwrecks, fatal alike to the vessels and the
crew's, which had occurred in their neighbourhood. A list,
confessedly incomplete, enumerates thirty vessels lost in the
forty years preceding 1844; but how many others, which
during that period had been reported as “ foundered at sea,”
or as to whose fate not even an opinion has been hazarded,
may have been wrecked on this dangerous reef, which lies
so much in the track of the shipping of Liverpool and the
Clyde, it would be vain to conjecture.1 The Commissioners
of the Northern Lighthouses had for many years enter¬
tained the project of erecting a lighthouse on the Skerry-
l The islanders of Tyree made regular trips after storms to the Rock, and often returned with their boats loaded with wm*. Even
during the progress of the works, a ship’s anchor, and some chain cable much rusted, and other articles, were fished from the hoi ows o
the reef.
LIGHTHOUSE S.
Light- vore; and with this object had visited it, more especially in
houses, the year 1814, in company with Sir Walter Scott, who, in
Fig. 4.
his diary, gives a graphic description of its inhospitable
aspect. The great difficulty of landing on the rock, which
is worn smooth by the continual beat of Atlantic waves,
which rise with undiminished power from the deep water
near it, held out no cheering prospect; and it was not until
the year 1834, when a minute survey of the reef was or¬
dered by the Board, that the idea of commencing this for¬
midable work was seriously embraced.
The reef is composed of numerous rocks, stretching over
a surface of nearly 8 miles from W.S.W. to E.N.E." The
main nucleus, which alone presents sufficient surface for the
base of a lighthouse, is nearly 3 miles from the seaward end
of the cluster. It is composed of a very compact gneiss,
worn smooth as glass by the incessant play of the waters,
and is so small that at high-water little remains around the
base of the tower but a narrow band of a few feet in width,
and some rugged humps of rock, separated by gullies,
467
through which the sea plays almost incessantly. The Light¬
cutting of the foundation for the tower in this irregular houses,
flinty mass occupied nearly two summers; and the blast- v——
ing of the rock, in so narrow a space, without any shelter
from the risk of flying splinters, was attended with much
hazard.
In such a situation as that of Skerryvore everything was
to be provided beforehand and transported from a distance;
and the omission in the list of wants of even a little clay for
the tamping of the mine-holes might for a time have en¬
tirely stopped the works. Barracks were to be built at the
workyard in the neighbouring Island of Tyree, and also in
the Isle of Mull, where the granite for the tower was quar¬
ried. Piers were also built in Mull and Tyree for the ship¬
ment and landing of materials; and at the latter place a
harbour or basin, with a reservoir and sluices for scouring
the entrance, were formed for the accommodation of the
small vessel which attends the lighthouse. It was, besides,
found necessary, in order to expedite the transport of the
building materials from Tyree and Mull to Skerryvore Rock,
to build a steam-tug, which also served, in the early stages
of the work, as a floating barrack for the workmen. In that
branch of the service she ran many risks, while she lay
moored off the rock in a perilous anchorage, with two-thirds
of the horizon of foul ground, and a rocky and deceitful
bottom, on which the anchor often tripped.
The operations at Skerryvore were commenced in the
summer of 1838, by placing on the rock a wooden barrack,
similar to that first used by Mr Robert Stevenson at the
Bell-Rock. (See Fig. 3.) The framework w'as erected in
the course of the season on a part of the rock as far re¬
moved as possible from the proposed foundation of the light¬
house tower ; but in the great gale which occurred on the
night of the 3d of November following, it was entirely de¬
stroyed and swept from the rock, nothing remaining to point
out its site but a few broken and twisted iron stancheons,
and attached to one of them a piece of a beam, so shaken
and rent by dashing against the rock as literally to resemble
a bunch of laths. Thus did one night obliterate the traces
of a season’s toil, and blast the hopes which the workmen
fondly cherished of a stable dwelling on the rock, and of
refuge from the miseries of sea-sickness, which the expe¬
rience of the season had taught many of them to dread more
than death itself. After the removal of the roughest part
of the foundation of the tower had been nearly completed,
during almost two entire seasons, by the party of men who
lived on board the vessel while she lay moored off" the rock,
a second and successful attempt was made to place another
barrack of the same description, but strengthened by a few
additional iron ties, and a centre post, in a part of the rock
less exposed to the breach of the heaviest waves than the
site of the first barrack had been. This second house braved
the storm for several years after the works were finished,
when it was taken down and removed from the rock, to pre¬
vent any injury from its sudden destruction by the waves.
“ Perched 40 feet above the wave-beaten rock, in this sin¬
gular abode,” says Mr Alan Stevenson, the engineer, “with
a goodly company of thirty men, I have spent many a weary
day and night at those times when the sea prevented any
one going down to the rock, anxiously looking for supplies
from the shore, and earnestly longing for a change of wea¬
ther favourable to the recommencement of the works. For
miles around nothing could be seen but white foaming
breakers, and nothing heard but howling winds and lashing
waves. At such seasons much of our time was spent in bed;
for there alone we had effectual shelter from the winds and
the spray, which searched every cranny in the walls of the
barrack. Our slumbers, too, were at times fearfully inter¬
rupted by the sudden pouring of the sea over the roof, the
rocking of the house on its pillars, and the spurting of water
■
LIGHTHOUSES.
468
Light- through the seams of the doors and windows—symptoms
houses, which, to one suddenly aroused from sound sleep, recalled
the appalling fate of the former barrack, which had been
engulphed in the foam not twenty yards from our dwelling,
and for a moment seemed to summon us to a similar fate.
On two occasions, in particular,” says the engineer, “ those
sensations were so vivid as to cause almost every one to
spring out of bed ; and some of the men fled from the bar¬
rack, by a temporary gangway, to the more stable but less
comfortable shelter afforded by the bare wall of the light¬
house tower, then unfinished, where they spent the remain¬
der of the night in the darkness and the cold.”
The design for the Skerryvore Lighthouse was given by
Mr Alan Stevenson, and is an adaptation of Smeaton’s Eddy-
stone Tower to the peculiar situation and the circumstances
of the case at the Skerryvore, with such modifications in the
general arrangements and dimensions of the building as the
enlarged views of the importance of lighthouses which pre¬
vail in the present day seemed to call for.
The tower is 138 feet 6 inches high, and 42 feet in dia¬
meter at the base, and 16 feet at the top. It contains a
mass of stone-work of about 58,580 cubic feet, or more than
double that of the Bell-Rock, and not much less than Jive
times that of the Eddystone. The lower part of the tower
was built by means of jib-cranes, and the upper part with
shear-poles, needles, and a balance-crane. I he shear-poles
were similar to those used by Smeaton at the Eddystone ;
and jib-cranes and balance-crane were the same as those
which were designed and first employed by Mr Robert
Stevenson in the erection of the Bell-Rock Lighthouse.
The mortar used was compounded of equal parts of lime¬
stone (from the Halkin Mountain, near Holywell, in North
Wales), burnt and ground at the works, and of Pozzolano
earth. The light of Skerryvore is revolving, and reaches
its brightest state once every minute. It is produced by
the revolution of eight great annular lenses around a central
lamp with four wicks, and belongs to the first order of diop¬
tric lights in the system of Fresnel. The light may be seen
from a vessel’s deck at the distance ot 18 miles. I he en¬
tire cost of the lighthouse, including the purchase of the
steam-vessel, and the building of the harbour at Hynish for
the reception of the small vessel, which now attends the
lighthouse, was L.86,977, 17s. 7d.
“ In such a situation as the Skerryvore,” says the en¬
gineer, “ innumerable delays and disappointments were
to be expected by those engaged in the wmrk; and the
entire loss of the fruit of the first season’s labour in the
course of a few hours was a good lesson in the school
of patience, and of trust in something better than an
arm of flesh. During our progress, also, cranes and other
materials were swrept away by the wraves; vessels were
driven by sudden gales to seek shelter at a distance from
the rocky shores of Mull and Tyree ; and the wrorkmen
were left on the rock desponding and idle, and destitute
of many of the comforts with which a more roomy and
sheltered dwelling, and the neighbourhood of friends, are
generally connected. Daily risks were run in landing on
the rock in a heavy surf, in blasting the splintery gneiss,
or by the falling of heavy bodies from the tower on the
narrow space below, to which so many persons were ne¬
cessarily confined. Yet had we not any loss of either life
or limb ; and although our labours were prolonged from
dawn to night, and our provisions were chiefly salt, the
health of the people, with the exception of a few slight cases
of dysentery, was generally good throughout the six suc¬
cessive summers of our sojourn on the rock. The close of
the work was welcomed with thankfulness by all engaged
in it; and our remarkable preservation wTas viewed, even by
many of the most thoughtless, as, in a peculiar manner, the
gracious work of Him by whom ‘ the very hairs of our heads
are all numbered.’ ”
There can be little doubt that, down to a very late pe- Light-
riod, the only mode of illumination adopted in the light- ^ houses,
houses, even of the most civilized nations of Europe, was
the combustion of wood or coal in a chauffer on the top of Method of
a high tower. It is needless to enlarge upon the evils of
such a method; they need only be named to be understood; . tg
for it is difficult to conceive how an efficient system ot
lighting a coast could be managed under such disadvan¬
tages. The uncertainty caused by the effects of wind and
rain, and the impossibility of rendering one light distin¬
guishable from another, must have at all times rendered
the early lighthouses in a great measure useless to the
mariner.
M. Teulere, a member of the Royal Corps of Engineers Catoptric
of Bridges and Roads in France, is, by some, considered the system-
first who hinted at the advantages of parabolic reflectors ;
and he is said, in a memoir dated the 26th June 1783, to
have proposed their combination with Argand lamps, ranged
on a revolving frame, for the Corduan lighthouse. What¬
ever foundation there may be for the claim of M. Teulere, ,
certain it is, that this plan was actually carried into effect
at Corduan under the directions of the Chevalier Borda, and
to him is generally awarded the merit of having conceived
the idea of applying parabolic mirrors to lighthouses. These
were prodigious steps in the improvement of lighthouses,
as not only the power of the lights was thus greatly increased,
but the introduction of a revolving frame proved a valuable
source of distinction amongst lights, and has since been the
means of greatly extending their utility. The exact date
of the change on the light of the Corduan is not known ;
but as it was made by Lenoir, the same young artist to whom
Borda, about the year 1780, intrusted the construction of
his reflecting circle, it has been conjectured by some that
the improvement was made about the same time. If this
conjecture be correct, the claim ot M. Teulere must ot
course fall to the ground. The reflectors were formed of
sheet copper, plated with silver, and had a double ordinate
of 31 French inches. It was not long before these improve¬
ments were adopted in England by the 1 rinity House of
London, who sent a deputation to France to inquire into
their nature. In Scotland, one of the first acts of the
Northern Lights Board, in 1786, was to substitute reflectors
in the room of coal lights, then in use at the Isle of May in
the Firth of Forth, and the Cumbrae Isle in the Firth of
Clyde, which had, till that period, been the only beacons
on the Scotch coast. The reflectors employed were formed
of facets of mirror glass, placed in hollow parabolical moulds
of plaster, according to the designs of the late Mr Thomas
Smith, the engineer of the Board, who, as appears from the
article Rejlector in the Supplement to the third edition ot
the Encyclopaedia Britannica, was not aware of what had
been done in France, and had, himself, conceived the idea
of this combination. The system of Borda was also adopted
in Ireland; and, in time, variously modified, it became gene¬
ral wherever lighthouses were known.
The property of the parabola, by which all lines incident Parabo-
on its surface from the focus make with normals to the curve loidal m,r*
at the points of incidence, angles equal to the inclination ofrors’
these same normals respectively to lines drawn parallel to
the axis of the curve, is that which fits it for the purposes
of a lighthouse. A hollow mirror, formed by the revolu¬
tion of a portion of a parabola about its axis, has, in conse¬
quence of this property, the power of projecting the repeated
images of a luminous point placed in its focus, in directions
parallel to the axis of the generating curve ; so that, when
the mirror is placed with its axis parallel to the horizon, a
cylindric beam of light is thereby sent forward in a horizon¬
tal direction. When such mirrors are placed side by side,
with their axes parallel on the faces of a quadrangular frame
which revolves about a vertical axis, a distant observer re¬
ceives the successive impressions which result from the pas-
LIGHTHOUSES.
Light- sage of each face of the frame, over a line drawn between
houses, the observer’s eye and the centre of the revolving frame.
This arrangement constitutes what is called a revolving
light. A fixed light is produced by placing, side by side,
round a circular frame, a number of reflectors, with their
axes inclined to each other, so as to be radii containing
equal arcs of the frame on which they are placed. It is
obvious that a perfect parabolic figure, and aluminous point
mathematically true, would render the illumination of the
whole horizon by means of a fixed light impossible ; and it
is only from the aberration caused by the size of the flame
which is substituted for the point, that we are enabled to
render even revolving lights practically useful. But for
this aberration, even the slowest revolution in a revolving
light, which would be consistent with a continued observa¬
ble series, such as the practical seaman could follow, would
render the flashes of a revolving light greatly too transient
for any useful purpose ; whilst fixed lights, being visible in
the azimuths only in which the mirrors are placed, would,
over the greater part of the distant horizon, be altogether
invisible. The size of the flame, therefore, which is placed
in the focus of a parabolic mirror, when taken in connec¬
tion with the form of the mirror itself, leads to those im¬
portant modifications in the paths of the rays, and the form
of the resultant beam of light, which have rendered the
catopric system of lights so great a benefit to the benighted
seaman.
It is obvious, from a consideration of the nature of the
action which takes place in this combination of the parabo¬
loidal mirrors with Argand lamps, that the revolving light is
not only more perfect in its nature than the fixed light, but
that it possesses the advantage of being susceptible of an
increase of its power, by increasing the number of reflectors,
which have their axes parallel to each other, so as to con¬
centrate the effect of several mirrors in one direction. The
perfect parallelism of the axes of separate mirrors, it is true,
is unattainable, but approaches may be made sufficiently
near for practical results ; and in order to prolong the dura¬
tion of the flash, the reflectors are sometimes placed on a
frame, having each of its sides slightly convex, by which
arrangement the outer reflectors of each face of the frame
have their axes less inclined inwards from the radii of the
revolving frame which pass through their foci.
Propor- The best proportions for the paraboloidal mirrors depend
ti.ons antl upon the object to which they are to be applied ; as mirrors
ofTparabo-e are intended to produce great divergence in the form
loidal mir- ^ resultant beam should have one form ; whilst those
rors. which are designed to cause a near approach to parallelism
of the rays will have another form. These objects may
also be attained by variations of the size of the flame applied
in the same mirror; but it is much more advantageous to
produce the effect by a change in the form of the mirror,
as any increase of the flame beyond the size which is found
to be most advantageous in other respects cannot be re¬
garded otherwise than as a wasteful expenditure of light.
Ihe details into which a full investigation of this matter
would lead us are quite beyond the scope of this article,
and it therefore seems sufficient to give the formulae which
express the relations which exist between the size of the
flame, the reflecting surface, and the corresponding diver¬
gence of the reflected ray. If A represent the inclination
of any reflected ray to the axis of a paraboloidal mirror,
e the distance of the focus from the point of reflection, and
d the distance from the edge of the flame to the focus in
the plane of reflection, we shall have sine A = —; and when
e
the flame in the given plane of reflection is circular, or has
its opposite sides equidistant from the focus of the mirror,
we shall, by putting A for the effective divergence of the
mirror in the given plane, have A'=2 A. When, there-
469
fore, great divergence, as in the case of the fixed lights, Light-
is required, the prolate form of the curve is to be pre- houses-
ferred; and the oblate is conversely more suited to revolv-
ing lights.
The power of the reflectors ordinarily employed in light- Power of
houses is generally equal to about 360 times the effect ofparaboloid-
the unassisted flame which is placed in the focus. This a 1,11
value, however, is strictly applicable only at the distances
at which the observations have been made, as the propor¬
tional value of the reflected beam must necessarily vary with
the distance of the observer, agreeably to some law depen¬
dent upon the unequal distribution of the light in the lumin¬
ous cone which proceeds from it. The ordinary burners
used in lighthouses are one inch in diameter, and the focal
distance generally adopted is four inches, so that the effec¬
tive divergence of the mirror in the horizontal plane may
be estimated at about 14° 22'. In arranging reflectors on
the frame of a fixed light, however, it would be advisable to
calculate upon less effective divergence, for beyond 11° the
light is feeble ; but the difficulty of placing many mirrors
on one frame, and the great expense of oil required for so
many lamps, have generally led to the adoption of the first
valuation of the divergence.
The reflectors used in the best lighthouses are made of Ifanufae-
sheet copper plated, in the proportion of 6 oz. of silver to ture and
16 oz. of copper. They are moulded to the paraboloidal
form by a delicate and laborious process of beating with
mallets and hammers, of various forms and materials, and
are frequently tested during the operation by the applica¬
tion of a carefully-formed mould. After being brought to
the curve, they are stiffened by means of a strong beazle,
and a strap of brass, which is attached to it for the purpose
of preventing any accidental alteration of its figure. Po¬
lishing powders are then applied, and the instrument re¬
ceives its last finish.
Two gauges of brass are applied to test the form of the
reflector. One is for the back, and is used by the work¬
men during the process of hammering, and the other is ap¬
plied to the concave face as a test, while the mirror is receiv¬
ing its final polish. It is then tested, by trying a burner
in the focus, and measuring the intensity of the light
at various points of the reflected conical beam. Another
test may also be applied successively to various points in
the surface, by masking the rest of the mirror. Having
placed a screen in the line of the axis of the mirror at some
given distance from it, it is easy to find whether the image
of a very small object placed in the conjugate focus, which
is due to the distance of the screen, be reflected at any dis¬
tance from that point on the centre of the screen through
which the prolongation of the axis of the mirror would pass,
and thus to obtain a measure of the error of the instru¬
ment. For this purpose it is necessary to find the position
of the conjugate focus, which corresponds to the distance of
the screen. If b be the distance which the object should
be removed outwards from the principal focus of the mir¬
ror, d the distance from the focus to the screen, and r the
distance from the focus to the point of the mirror which is
to be tested, we shall have &=-^- as the distance which the
object must be removed outwards from the true focus on
the line of the axis.
The flame generally used in reflectors is from an Argand Argand
fountain-lamp, whose wick is an inch in diameter. Much lamPs used
care is bestowed upon the manufacture of these lamps for 111 reflec-
the Northern Lighthouses, which have their burners tipped tors‘
with silver, to prevent wasting by the great heat which is
evolved. These burners are also fitted with a slide appa¬
ratus, accurately formed, by which the burner may be re¬
moved from the interior of the mirror at the time of clean¬
ing it, and returned exactly to the same place, and locked
470
LIGHTHOUSES.
Light¬
houses.
Fig. 5.
Arrange-
laent of
reflectors
on the
frame.
by means of a key. This arrangement, which is shown in
figs. 5, 6, and 7, is very important,
' as it ensures the burner always
being in the focus, and does not
require the reflector to be lifted
out of its place every time it is
cleaned ; so that, when once care- Mm
fully set and screwed down to thee
frame, it is never altered. In these
figs, aaa represents one of the re¬
flectors, d is the lamp, c is a cylin-
dric fountain, which contains 24
oz. of oil. The oil-pipe and foun¬
tain of the former is connected
with the rectangular frame d, and
is moveable in a vertical direction
upon the guide-rods e and /, by
which it can be let down and taken out of the reflector by
simply turning the handle g, as will be more fully under¬
stood by examining fig. 6. An aper¬
ture of an elliptical form, measuring
about 2 inches by three, is cut in the
upper and lower part of the reflector,
the lower serving for the free egress
and ingress of the lamp, and the upper,
to which the copper tube h is attached,
serving for ventilation ; i shows a cross
section of the main bar of the chande¬
lier or frame, on which the reflectors
are ranged, each being made to rest
on knobs of brass, one of which is seen e
at kk, and which are soldered on the
brass band /, that clasps the exterior of
the reflector. Fig. 5 is a section of the
reflector aa, showing the position of
the burner b, with the glass chimney
V, and oil-cup l, which receives any
oil that may drop from the lamp.
Fig. 6 shows the apparatus for moving
the lamp up and down, so as to remove it from the reflec¬
tor at the time of cleaning it. In the diagram, c, the
fountain, is moved partly
down; dd shows the rec¬
tangular frame on which the
burner is mounted, e, e the
elongated socket-guides, f
the rectangular guide-rod,
connected with the perfor¬
ated sockets on which the
checking-handle g slides.
The modes of arranging
the reflectors in the frames
are shown in figs. 8, 9, and
10. It seems quite unne¬
cessary, after what is said
on the subject of divergence,
to do more than remark, that in revolving lights the reflec¬
tors are placed with their axes parallel to each other, so as
to concentrate their power in one direction; whilst in fixed
lights it is necessary, in order to effect as equal a distribu¬
tion of the light over the horizon as possible, to place the
reflectors, with their axes inclined to each other at an angle
somewhat less than that of the divergence of the reflected
cone. For this purpose a brass gauge, composed of two
long arms, somewhat in the form of a pair of common di¬
viders, connected by means of a graduated limb, is em¬
ployed. The arms having been first placed at the angle,
winch is supplemental to that of the inclination of the axes
of the two adjacent mirrors, are made to span the faces of
the reflectors, one of which is moved about till its edges
are in close contact with the flat surface of one of the arms
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
of the guage. The different arrangements of the reflectors
will be more fully understood by referripg to the figures.
Figs. 8 and 10 show
an elevation and plan
of a revolving appara¬
tus on the catoptric
principle. In these
figures, nn> shows the
reflector frame or
chandelier ; o, o, the
reflectors with their
oil-fountainsjo,/?. The
whole is attached to
the revolving axis or
shaft q. The copper
tubes, r, r, convey
the smoke from the
lamps ; s, s are cross
bars which support
the shaft at tt; ua is
a copper pan for re¬
ceiving any moisture
which may accident¬
ally enter at the cen¬
tral ventilator in the
rcof of the light-
room ; / is a cast-
iron bracket, which
supports the pivot on
the shaft; w?, m are be¬
velled wheels, which
convey motion from
the machine to the
shaft. Fig. 9 shows
a plan of one tier of
reflectors arranged in the manner employed in a fixed catop¬
tric light; nn shows the chandelier, q the fixed shaft in the
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9.
centre, which supports the whole, o, o the reflectors, and p, p
the fountains of their lamps.
A variety of the parabolic reflectors has been invented Bordier
by M. Bordier Marcet, the pupil and successor of Argand,
who has laboured with much enthusiasm in perfecting cat-re 0
optric instruments, more especially with a view to their
application to the illumination of lighthouses and the streets
of towns. Amongst many other ingenious combinations
of parabolic mirrors, he has invented and constructed an
apparatus, which is much used in harbour-lights on the
French coast. The object of this apparatus is to fulfil, as
economically as possible, the conditions required in a fixed
light, by illuminating, with perfect equality, every part of
the horizon, by means of a single burner ; and M. Bordier
LIGHTHOUSES.
Li<rht- Marcet has in his workshop an instrument of this kind,
houses. 8 feet in diameter, which he constructed on speculation.
The apparatus used
in harbour-lights, on
the French coast, is
of much smaller di¬
mensions, and does
not exceed 15 inches
in diameter. A per¬
fect idea of the con¬
struction and effect
of this apparatus may
be formed by con¬
ceiving a parabola to
revolve about its pa¬
rameter as an axis,
so that its upper and
lower limbs would
become the generat¬
ing lines of two surfaces possessing the property of reflect¬
ing, in lines parallel to the axis of the parabola, all the rays
incident upon them, from a light placed in the point where
the parameter and axis of the generating parabola intersect
each other. This point being the focus of each parabolic
section of this apparatus, the light is equally dispersed in
every point of the horizon, when the axes of the parabolic
sections are in a plane perpendicular to a vertical line.
But, however perfectly this apparatus may attain this im¬
portant object, it does so at the sacrifice of the most effi¬
cient part of the parabolic surface, which lies between the
vertex and the parameter; and therefore produces a pro¬
portionally feeble effect. This beautiful little instrument
is shown in fig. 11, in which b shows the burner, pp
the upper reflecting surface, and pp the lower reflecting
surface, both generated in the manner above described, by
the revolution of a parabola, about its parameter xb ; F is
the focus of the generating parabola; and /, l are small pil¬
lars which connect the two reflecting plates, and give
strength to the apparatus.
Spherical Spherical mirrors are employed in lighthouses only as sub-
mirrors. sidiary parts in dioptric apparatus; and any observations
regarding them will, therefore, be made in treating of the
dioptric lights of Fresnel.
Floating Floating lights are only resorted to in cases of absolute
hghts. necessity, as their maintenance is extremely expensive,
whilst they are less to be relied on, and, in all respects, less
efficient than land lights. They are large vessels, built
with great breadth of beam, and are generally moored
oft shoals, or serve as guides for taking channels. The
lights are from lamps placed in front of small reflectors,
ranged in lanterns which are hoisted on the masts of the
vessel.
471
Catoptric lights are susceptible of nine separate distmc- Light-
tions, which are called fixed, revolving white, revolving red houses.
and white, revolving red with two whites, revolving white
with two reds, flashing, intermittent, double fixed lights, Distinc-
and double revolving lights. The first exhibits a steady tions
and uniform appearance, which is not subject to any j:.atoPtric
change; and the reflectors used for it are of smaller di- ^
mensions than those employed in revolving lights. This
is necessary, in order to permit them to be ranged round
the circular frame, with their axes inclined at such an
angle as shall enable them to illuminate every point of
the horizon. The revolving light is produced by the re¬
volution of a frame with three or four sides, having re¬
flectors of a large size grouped on each side, with their
axes parallel; and as the revolution exhibits a light gra¬
dually increasing to full strength, and in the same gradual
manner decreasing to total darkness, its appearance is ex¬
tremely well marked. The succession of red and white
lights is caused by the revolution of a frame whose different
sides present red and white lights; and these, as already
mentioned, afford three separate distinctions, namely, alter¬
nate red and white ; the succession of two white lights
after one red; and the succession of two red lights after one
white light. The flashing light is produced in the same
manner as the revolving light; but owing to a different
construction of the frame, and the greater quickness of the
revolution, a totally different and very striking effect is pro¬
duced. The brightest and darkest periods being but mo¬
mentary, this light is characterized by a rapid succession
of bright flashes, from which it gets its name. The inter¬
mittent light is distinguished by bursting suddenly into
view, and continuing steady for a short time, after which it
is suddenly eclipsed for half a minute. Its striking ap¬
pearance is produced by the perpendicular motion of circu¬
lar shades in front of the reflectors, by which the light is
alternately hid and displayed. This distinction, as well as
that called the flashing light, are peculiar to the Scotch
coast, having been first introduced by Mr R. Stevenson,
the late engineer of the Northern Lights Board. The
double lights, which are generally used only where there is
a necessity for a leading line, as a guide for taking some
channel, or avoiding some danger, are exhibited from two
towers, one of which is higher than the other; and when
seen in one line, form a direction for the course of shipping.
At the Calf of Man a striking variety has been introduced
into the character of leading lights, by substituting for two
fixed lights, two lights which revolve in the same periods,
and exhibit their flashes at the same instant; and these
lights are, of course, susceptible of the other variety enu¬
merated above, that of two revolving red and white lights re¬
volving in equal periods. The utility of all these distinctions
is chiefly to be imputed to their at once striking the eye
of an observer, and being instantaneously obvious to
strangers.
Before entering upon the subject of the dioptric lights,1 Dioptric
the writer of this article embraces with pleasure the oppor- system of
tunity afforded to him of acknowledging the liberality of M. Fresnel.
Leonor Fresnel, the late Secretary of the Lighthouse Com¬
mission of France. It was entirely owing to the readiness
with which M. Fresnel afforded him access to every avenue
of information on the subject of lighthouses that he was
enabled to effect the object of a mission to France, on
which he was sent in the year 1834, by the Commissioners
of Northern Lights.
The first proposal of applying lenses to lighthouses is
recorded by Smeaton in his account of the Eddystone
Lighthouse, where he mentions that, in 1759, an optician
in London proposed grinding the glass of the lantern to a
1 *n ^ Probability directly derived from the Greek 'hioxrp*, an optical instrument with holes for looking through, which is a com¬
pound of through, and Inriptu, I see.
472
LIGHTHOUSES.
Light- radius of seven feet six inches; but the description is too
houses, vague to admit of even a conjecture regarding the pro-
posed arrangement of the apparatus. About forty years
ago, however, lenses were actually tried in several light¬
houses in the south of England ; but their imperfect figure,
and the quantity of light absorbed by the glass, which was
of inferior quality and of considerable thickness, rendered
their effect so much inferior to that of the parabolic reflec¬
tors then in use, that, after trying some strange combina¬
tions of lenses and reflectors, the former were finally aban¬
doned.
The object to be attained by the use of lenses in a light¬
house is, of course, identical with that which is answered
by employing reflectors ; and both instruments effect the
same end by different means, collecting the rays which
diverge from a point called the focus, and projecting them
forward in a beam, whose axis coincides with the produced
axis of the instrument. The actions by which these similar
results are effected have been termed reflection and re¬
fraction. In the one case the light, as has been already said,
merely impinges on the reflecting surface, and is thrown back;
whilst in the other, the rays pass through the refracting me¬
dium, and are bent or refracted from their natural course.
Polyzonal The celebrated Buffon, to prevent the great absorption
lanaes. of light by the thickness of the material, which would neces¬
sarily result from giving to a lens of great dimensions a
figure continuously spherical, proposed to grind out of a
solid piece of glass a lens in steps or concentric zones.
This suggestion of Buffon, regarding the construction of
large burning glasses, was first executed, with tolerable
success, about the year 1780, by the Abbe Rochon ; but
such are the difficulties attending the process of working a
solid piece of glass into the necessary form, that it is be¬
lieved the only other instrument ever constructed in this man¬
ner is that which was made by Messrs Cookson of Newcastle-
upon-Tyne, for the Commissioners of Northern Lighthouses.
The merit of having first suggested the building of these
lenses in separate pieces seems to be due to Condorcet,
who in his Eloge de Buffon, published so far back as 1773,
enumerates the advantages to be derived from this method.1
Sir David Brewster also described this mode of building
lenses in 1811, in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia; and in
1822, the late eminent Fresnel, alike unacquainted with
the suggestions of Condorcet, or the description by Sir David
Brewster, explained, with many ingenious and interesting
details, the same mode of constructing these instruments.
To Fresnel belongs the additional merit of having first fol¬
lowed up his invention by the construction of a lens, and,
in conjunction with MM. Arago and Mathieu, of placing a
powerful lamp in its focus, and, indeed, of finally applying
it to the practical purposes of a lighthouse. The fertile
genius of the French Academician has produced many
ingenious combinations of dioptric instruments for light¬
houses, which we shall have occasion to notice in the
sequel.
Annular The great advantages which attend the mode of con-
lenses. struction proposed by Condorcet are, the ease of execution,
by which a more perfect figure may be given to each zone,
and spherical aberration almost entirely corrected, and the
power of forming a lens of larger dimensions than could
easily be made from a solid piece. Buffbn appears only
to have had in view the reduction of the thickness of the
lens, but Condorcet distinctly suggests the possibility of
correcting the spherical aberration by properly selected
centres for the various zones.
To Fresnel, however, is due the credit of having deter¬
mined these centres, which constantly recede from the
axis of the lens in proportion as the zones to which they
refer are removed from its centre; and the surfaces of
Fig. 12.
the zones of the annular lens, consequently, are not parts Light-
of concentric spheres, as in Buffon’s lens. It deserves houses
notice, that the first lenses constructed for Fresnel by
M. Soleil had their zones polygonal, so that the surfaces
were not annular, a form which Fresnel considered less
accommodated to the ordinary resources of the optician.
He also, with his habitual penetration, preferred the plano¬
convex to the double-convex form, as more easily exe¬
cuted. After mature consideration, he finally adopted
crown glass, which, notwithstanding its greenish colour,
he considered more suitable than flint glass, as being
less liable to stricc. All his calculations were made in
reference to an index of refraction of LSI, which he had
verified by repeated ex¬
periments, conducted
with that patience and
accuracy for which,
amidst his higher quali¬
ties, he was so re¬
markably distinguished.
These instruments have
received the name of
annular lenses, from the
figure of the surface of
the zones.
Fig. 12 exhibits a plan
and section of an annular lens of the largest size, whose focal
distance is 92 centimetres, or about 36,22 inches, and which
subtends a luminous pyramid of 46° of inclination, having
its apex in the flame.
Having once contemplated the possibility of illuminating Cylindrie
lighthouses by dioptric means, Fresnel quickly perceived re^ractor9,
the advantage of employing for fixed lights a lamp placed
in the centre of a polygonal hoop, consisting of a series of
cylindric refractors, infinitely small in their length, and
having their axes in planes parallel to the horizon.
Such a continuation of vertical cylindric sections of va¬
rious curvatures, by refracting the rays proceeding from
the focus only in a direction perpendicular to the vertical
sections of the cylindric parts, must distribute a zone of light
equally brilliant in every point of the horizon. This effect
will be easily understood, by considering the middle verti¬
cal section of one of the great annular lenses or burning
glasses, already described, abstractly from its relation to the
rest of the instrument. It will readily be perceived that
this section possesses the property of refracting the rays in
the vertical plane only, without interfering with azimuthal
divergence; and if this section, by its revolution about a
vertical axis, becomes the generating line of the envelop¬
ing hoop above noticed, such a hoop would of course
possess the property of refracting an equally diffused
zone of light round the horizon. The difficulty, how¬
ever, of forming this apparatus, appeared so great, that
Fresnel determined to substitute for it a vertical polygon,
composed of what have been improperly called cylindric
lenses, but which in reality are mixtilinear and horizontal
prisms, distributing the light which they receive from the
focus equally over the horizontal sector which they sub¬
tend. This polygon has a sufficient number of sides to
enable it to give, at the angle formed by the junction of
two of them, a light not very much inferior to what is
produced by one of the sides; and upper and lower
courses of curved mirrors are so placed as to make up
for the deficiency of the light at the angles. The effect
sought for in a fixed light is thus obtained in a much
more perfect manner than by any combination of the
parabolic mirrors formerly used in the British light¬
houses.
An ingenious modification of the fixed apparatus is due
Eloge de Buffon, p. 35 ; CEuvres de Condorcet, tom. iv., Paris, 1804.
473
LIGHTHOUSES.
Light¬
houses.
to the inventive mind of Fresnel, who conceived the
happy idea of placing one apparatus of this kind in front of
—another, with the axes of the cylindric pieces crossing each
other at right angles. As these cylindric pieces have the
property of refracting all the rays which they receive from
the focus into a direction perpendicular to the mixtilinear
section which generates them, it is obvious that, if two re¬
fracting media of this sort be arranged as proposed by Fres¬
nel, their joint action will unite the rays which come from
their common focus into a beam, whose sectional area is
equal to the overlapped surface of the two instruments, and
thus produce the effect of an annular lens. It was by avail¬
ing himself of this property of crossed prisms that Fresnel
invented the distinction for lights, which he calls a fixed
light varied by flashes ; in which the flashes are caused by
the revolution of cylindric media, with vertical axes round
the fixed-light apparatus already described.
The modification just described is shown at fig. 16.
This instrument is, however, now supplanted by a revolv¬
ing apparatus, consisting of alternate sections of a fixed
light apparatus, and a Holophotal apparatus to be afterwards
described. By the revolution of this composite apparatus
the same effect is obtained, while the flash is produced by
the action of a single optical agent, instead of by two, as in
Fresnel’s arrangement.
Mechanical Fresnel immediately perceived the necessity of combin-
lamp. ing, with the dioptric instruments which he had invented,
a burner capable of producing a large volume of flame;
and the rapidity with which he matured his notions on
this subject, and at once produced an instrument ad¬
mirably adapted for the end he had in view, affords one
•of the many proofs of that happy union of practical with
theoretical talent for which he was so distinguished. Fres¬
nel himself has modestly attributed much of the merit of
the invention of this lamp to M. Arago ; but that gentle¬
man, with great candour, gives the whole credit to his
deceased friend, in a notice regarding lighthouses, which
appeared in the Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes of
1831. The lamp has four concentric burners, which are
defended from the action of the excessive heat produced
by their united flames by means of a superabundant sup¬
ply of oil which is thrown up from the cistern below by a
clock-work movement, and constantly overflows the wicks,
as in the mechanical lamp of Carcel. A very tall chimney
is found to be necessary, in order to supply fresh currents
of air to each wick with sufficient rapidity to support the
combustion. The carbonization of the wicks, however, is
by no means so rapid as might be expected, and it is even
found that, after they have suffered a good deal, the flame
is not sensibly diminished, as the great heat evolved from
the mass of flame promotes the rising of the oil in the
cotton. So perfect, indeed, is the action of this great lamp,
that it has been known to burn for upwards of twelve hours
without beingsnuffed,
or even having the
wicks raised.
The annexed dia¬
grams will give a
more perfect idea of
the nature of the
concentric burner
than can easily be
conveyed by words
alone.
Fig. 13 shows a
plan of a burner of
four concentric wicks.
The intervals which
separate the wicks
from each other, and fig. 13.
allow the currents of air to pass, diminish in width a little as
vor.. xrn.
they recede from the centre
this burner. C, C',
C", C"' are the rack
handles for raising or
depressing each wick.
AB is the horizontal
duct which leads the
oil to the four w icks ;
L, L, L, are small
plates of tin by which
the burners are sol¬
dered to each other,
and which are so
placed as not to hin¬
der the free passage
of the air; P is a
clamping screwwhich
keeps at the proper
height the gallery
R, R which carries
Fig. 14.
the chimney.
15 shows the
Fig. 15.
- Fi8
burner with its glass chimney and
damper. E is the glass chimney, F is
a sheet-iron cylinder, which serves to
give it a greater length, and has a small
damper D, capable of being turned by
a handle for regulating the supply of air ;
and B is the pipe which supplies the oil
to the wicks. The great risk in using
this lamp arises from the leather valves,
that force the oil by a clock-work move¬
ment, being occasionally liable to de¬
rangement ; and several of the lights on
the French coast, and more especially the
Corduan, have been extinguished for a
few minutes by tbe failure of the lamp, an
accident which has never, and scarcely
can happen with the fountain lamps which
illuminate the reflectors. To prevent the
occurrence of such accidents, and to ren¬
der their consequences less serious, va¬
rious precautions have been resorted to.
Amongst others, an alarum is attached to
the lamp, consisting of a small cup
pierced in the bottom, which receives part
of the overflowing oil from the wicks, and is capable, when
full, of balancing a weight placed at the opposite end of a
lever. The moment the machinery stops, the cup ceases
to receive the supply of oil, and the remainder running out
at the bottom, the equilibrium of the lever is destroyed,
and, in falling, it disengages a spring which rings a bell
sufficiently loud to waken the keeper, should he chance to
be asleep. There is another precaution of more import¬
ance, which consists in having always at hand in the light-
room a spare lamp trimmed and adjusted to the height for
the focus, which may be substituted for the other in case
of accident. It ought to be noticed, however, that it takes
about twenty minutes from the time of applying the light
to the wicks to bring the flame to its full strength, which,
in order to produce its best effect, should stand at the
height of nearly four inches (10cm). The inconveniences
attending this lamp have led to several attempts to improve
it; and amongst others M. Delaveleye has proposed to sub¬
stitute a pump having a metallic piston, in place of the
leather valves, which require constant care, and must be
frequently renewed. A lamp was constructed in this man¬
ner by M. Lepaute, and tried at Corduan ; but it was af ter¬
wards discontinued until some further improvements could
be made upon it. It has lately been much improved by
M. Wagner, an ingenious artist whom M. Fresnel em¬
ployed to carry some of his improvements into effect. In
the dioptric lights on the Scotch coast, a common lamp with
474
LIGHTHOUSE S.
Light¬
houses.
Divergence
of the an¬
nular
lenses.
Manufac¬
ture of di¬
optric in¬
struments.
Testing of
lenses.
Curved
mirrors.
a large wick is kept constantly ready for lighting; and in
the event of the sudden extinction of the mechanical lamp
by the failure of the valves, it is only necessary to unscrew
and remove its burner, and put the reserve-lamp in its
place. The height of this lamp is so arranged, that its flame
is in the focus of the lenses, when the lamp is placed on
the ring which supports the burner of the mechanical lamp;
and as its flame, though not very brilliant, has a consider¬
able volume, it will answer the purpose of maintaining the
light for an hour or two until the light-keepers have time
to repair the valves of the mechanical lamp.
The divergence of the annular lens is greatly less than
that of the parabolic mirror. It may be estimated in the
following manner. Let A be the angle of divergence of
any ray emerging from the lens, l the distance of the point
of incidence from the principal focus of the lens, and r the
radius of the flame, and we have sin. A = -^-, and when A'
is made the angle of the effective divergence of the lens, we
have A' = 2A.
Adopting this rule, wre find the effective divergence of
the lens to be about 5° 9', which does not differ much from
the observed divergence.
The manufacture of the dioptric instruments is not dis¬
tinguished by any peculiarity which requires special notice,
the grinding and polishing being performed by means of
powders gradually increasing in fineness, successively ap¬
plied as in the ordinary process of grinding glass. The
zones are united by a glue which possesses the important
property of being able to resist the action of considerable
heat, wdiilst it is by no means brittle. M. Fresnel in¬
trusted the work of building the first lens to the late M.
Soleil, optician to the King of France, to whose zeal and
intelligence he bears ample testimony in the Memoire, in
which he describes the invention.
In order to test the figure of the lenses, moulds carefully
made may be applied; or the lens being mounted on a
stand which permits its being set at any angle, the accu¬
racy of the whole instrument, and of each portion of it, may
be separately tested by the form and size of the spectrum
which is formed in the principal focus, by permitting the
solar rays to fall upon the lens at right angles. When any
particular portion is to be tried, the rest of the surface is
covered with discs of strong grey paper or pasteboard.
Another method may be employed similar to that already
described as applicable to reflectors. This method consists
in finding whether a small object placed in any point of the
axis farther from the lens than the principal focus, has its
image refracted accurately to a point on a screen placed in
the conjugate focus which is due to that distance. The
same principle of testing the instrument is also applied wrhen
a person stationed at a given short distance in front of the
lens observes whether its whole surface be completely illu¬
minated by a small flame placed in the conjugate focus
corresponding to that distance. All that is necessary, there¬
fore, is to determine these distances by means of formulae
which express the relations of the distances of the object
and its image. If 8 represent the distance of the eye from
the lens, </> the principal focus, and <£' the distance of the
conjugate focus corresponding to the observer’s distance 8,
then we have d>'= ^ -.
if, again, adopting the same notation, we wish to find
the distance at which the image of an object placed at a
given distance from the lens greater than that of the prin¬
cipal focus, should be accurately impressed on a screen,
we have 8 = -.
<£-</>
The curved mirrors, placed above and below* the lenses
as a supplement to them, are, strictly speaking, generated
by portions of parabolas having their foci coincident wdth
the common flame of the system. In practice, however,
they are made portions of a curve surface, ground by the
radius of the circle which osculates the given parabola,
and (lasses tangentially through the middle of the chord
which subtends the arc of the mirror. These mirrors are
plates of glass, silvered on the back, and set in flat cases
of sheet brass. They are suspended on a circular frame
of screws, which are attached to the backs of the cases,
and which afford the means of adjusting them to their
true position in the light-room, so that they may reflect
the horizon of the lighthouse to an observers eye placed in
the focus of the system. In order to test the accuracy of
the mirrors, recourse may again be had to the formulae of
conjugate foci; thus, if we put r equal to the radius of
curvature of the mirror, d equal to the given distance of
any object from the mirror, and d! equal to the distance of
a moveable screen, which shall receive the true image of the
object if the mirror be accurately formed, we shall have for
Light¬
houses.
this latter distance d' =
rd
2d-r’
The effect of an annular lens may be estimated at mode- Power of
rate distances to be nearly equal to that of 3000 Argand the annular
flames of about an inch diameter; that of a cylindric re- cy-
fractor at about 250; and that of a curved mirror may> fractors™"
perhaps, on an average, be assumed at about 10 Argand ^ curved
flames. mirrors.
A beautiful apparatus, which has received the name of Catadiop-
the catadioptric light, from the compound action by which tr*c f'ght.
it is characterized, was another of Fresnel’s applications of
dioptric instruments to the purposes of a lighthouse. This
elegant apparatus consists of thirteen rings of glass of va¬
rious diameters, arranged one above another, in an oval form.
The five middle rings have an interior diameter of 1T81
inches (30m-), and form a cylindric lens, similar to that
already described under the head “ cylindric refractors.”
The other rings or prisms, five of which are upper and
three lower, are ground and set in such a manner that
they project all the light derived from the focus in a
direction parallel to the other rays by total reflection.
This effect is produced by arranging the prisms, so that
the incident rays, after being refracted at the first sur¬
face, shall strike the second side of the prism at such
an angle that, instead of passing through the prism at that
point, they shall be totally reflected from it, and, after a
second refraction, emerge from the third side in a direction
parallel to those transmitted by the middle or simply refrac¬
ting rings. When this apparatus is employed to light only
a part of the horizon, the rings are discontinued on the side
next to the land, and room is thus obtained for using a
common fountain lamp; but when the whole horizon is to
be illuminated, the apparatus must inclose the flame on
every side, so that it has in this case been found necessary
to employ the hydrostatic lamp of Thilorier, in which the
balance is sulphate of zinc in solution. Fresnel was pre¬
vented, by an early death, the consequence of severe appli¬
cation to scientific pursuits, from ever constructing this
beautiful instrument; and it w*as reserved for the present
enlightened secretary of the Commission des Phares to
complete his brother’s invention.
The nature of this apparatus will be fully understood by
a reference to fig. 16, which shows its section and plan.
F is the focal point in which the flame is placed, r, r
cylindrical refractors, forming by their union a cylinder
with a lamp in its axis, and producing a zone of light
of equal intensity all round the horizon, and r, r are
cylindric refractors having their axes at right angles to
those of the refractors r, r, and revolving round them.
These exterior refractors in front of the inner refractors,
which have been already described under the head of
Cylindric Refractors, produce, by compound refraction, a
beam similar to that resulting from an annular lens, x, x
LIGHTHOUSES.
475
T/ight- are catadioptric prismatic rings acting by total reflection,
houses, and giving out zones
of light of equal in¬
tensity at every point
of the horizon. The
dotted lines show the
course traversed by the
rays of light which pro¬
ceed from the lamp and
are acted upon by the
rings of glass. The ca¬
tadioptric rings supply
the places of the curved
mirrors, which had at
one time to be em¬
ployed in the larger
class of lights for a si¬
milar purpose, and as
the reflection from the
inner surface of a prism
is, theoretically speak- Fig.ie.
ing, total, and the whole loss of light is merely that which
is due to absorption in passing through the glass, and that
which takes place at the two surfaces, there must of neces¬
sity be a much greater proportion of the incident light
transmitted by the catadioptric action than can ever be
obtained from the most perfect reflecting surface, the loss
from reflection being held to be in no case less than one-
half of the incident light.
The loss of light by reflection at the surface of the most
perfect mirrors, and the perishable nature of the material
composing their polish, induced Mr Alan Stevenson, so far
back as 1835, in a report on the Light of Inchkeith, which
had just been altered to the dioptric system, to propose the
substitution of totally reflecting prisms, even in lights of
the first order or largest dimensions. In this attempt he
was much encouraged by the singular liberality of M. Leo-
nor Fresnel, who not only freely communicated the method
pursued by his distinguished brother Augustin Fresnel, in
determining the forms of the zones of the small apparatus,
introduced by him into the Harbour Lights of France, and
his own mode of rigorously solving some of the preliminary
questions involved in the computations ; but also made va¬
rious important suggestions, which substantially embrace
the whole subject. The result w7as the preparation of a
table containing Mr Stevenson’s calculations of the forms
of the zones of the first order, which are verifications of
those of M. Fresnel; and the first catadioptric apparatus
ever constructed, through the ardour and perseverance of
M. Francois Soleil, on so magnificent a scale, was fitted up
in the Skerryvore Lighthouse. In December 1843, a trial
of the apparatus, attended with complete success, was made
at the Royal Observatory of Paris, whereby it appeared
that the illuminating effect of the cupola of zones was to
that of the seven upper tiers of mirrors of the first order,
as 140 to 87.
thecylin- Mr Alan Stevenson having been directed by the Com-
'■h'ento'tho ni^ss'°yier* ^le Northern Lighthouses to convert the fixed
refracting cat°Pr'c light of the Isle of May into a dioptric light of
belts of the the first order, proposed that an attempt should be made
first order, to form a true cylindric, instead of a polygonal belt, for
the refracting part of the apparatus ; and this task was suc¬
cessfully completed by Messrs Cookson of Newcastle. The
defect of the polygon lies in the excess of the radius of the
circumscribing circle over that of the inscribed circle,
which occasions an unequal distribution of light between
its angles and the centre of each of its sides ; and this fault
can only be fully remedied by constructing a cylindric belt, Light-
whose generating line is the middle mixtilinear section of houses,
an annular lens, revolving about a vertical axis passing
through the principal focus. This is, in fact, the only form
which can possibly produce an equal diffusion of the in¬
cident light over every part of the horizon.
In a report to the Commissioners of the Northern Lights
there is the following description of the refractors construct¬
ed for the Isle of May light:—“ I at first imagined,” says
Mr Alan Stevenson, “that the whole hoop of refractors
might be built between two metallic rings, connecting
them to each other solely by the means employed in ce¬
menting the pieces of the annular lenses; but a little con¬
sideration convinced me that this construction would make
it necessary to build the zone at the lighthouse itself, and
would thus greatly increase the risk of fracture. I was
therefore reluctantly induced to divide the whole cylinder
into ten arcs, each of which being set in a metallic frame,
might be capable of being moved separately. The chance
of any error in the figure of the instrument has thus a pro¬
bability of being confined within narrower limits ; whilst
the rectification of any defective part becomes at the same
time more easy. One other variation from the mode of
construction at first contemplated has been forced upon
me by the repeated failures which occurred in attempting
to form the middle zone in one piece ; and it was at length
found necessary to divide this belt by a line passing through
the horizontal plane of the focus. This division of the cen¬
tral zone, however, is attended with no appreciable loss of
light, as the entire coincidence of the junction of the two
pieces with the horizontal plane of the focus, confines the
interception of the light to the fine joint at which they are
cemented. With the exception of these trifling changes,
the idea at first entertained of the construction of this in¬
strument was fully realized, at the very first attempt, in the
manufactory of Messrs Cookson.” At a subsequent period
the central zones were formed in one piece, and the ar¬
rangement of the apparatus greatly improved, by giving to
the metallic frames which contain the prisms a rhomboidal1
instead of a rectangular form. The junction of the frames
being thus inclined from the perpendicular, do not in any
azimuth intercept the light throughout the whole height
of the refracting belt, but the interception is confined to a
small rhomboidal space, whose area is inversely proportional
to the sine of the angle of inclination; and when the heli¬
cal joints are formed between the opposite angles of the
rectangular frames, the amount of intercepted light be¬
comes absolutely equal in every azimuth. Time and per¬
severance, and the patience and skill of M. Francois Soleil,
who was urged to undertake the task, was at length crowned
with success, and Mr Stevenson had the satisfaction of at
last seeing a fixed light apparatus, of a truly cylindric form,
with its central belt in one piece and the joints of each
panel inclined to the horizon at such an angle as to render
the light perfectly equal in every azimuth. Lanterns with
diagonal framings are now also constructed in conformity
with this arrangement of the zones.
The change of the light at the Isle of May, from the
catoptric to the dioptric system, was generally acknowledged
to be an improvement. A committee of the Royal Society
of Edinburgh made some observations on the two lights
which were exhibited in contrast on the night of the 26th
of October 1836, from the town of Dunbar, which is dis¬
tant about 13 miles from the lighthouse. Their report,
which was drawn up by Professor Forbes, concludes in
these words:—
“ The following conclusions seem to be warranted:—
1 “ The form could not be exactly rhomboidal, but would be a portion of a helix intercepted between two planes, cutting the en¬
veloped cylinder at right angles to its axis.”
476
Light¬
houses.
Arrange¬
ment of ap
jiaratus in
the light¬
house.
LIGHTHOUSES.
« ] _ X]iat at a distance of 13 miles, the mean effect of the
new light is very much superior to the mean effect of the
old light (perhaps in the ratio of two to one).
«£ That at all distances, the new light has a prodigious
superiority to the old, from the equality of its effects in all
azimuths.
“ 3. That the new light fulfils rigorously the conditions
required for the distribution of light to the greatest advan-
tage.
“4. That at distances much exceeding 13 miles, the
new light must still be a very effective one, though to what
extent the committee have not observed. The light is
understood to be still a good one, when seen from Edin¬
burgh at a distance of about 30 miles.”
There are few finer specimens of art than an entire appa¬
ratus for a fixed light of
the first order, as shown
in fig. 17. It consists
of a central belt of
refractors, forming a
hollow cylinder 6 feet
in diameter, and 30
inches high ; below it
are six triangular rings
of glass, ranged in a
cylindrical form, and
above a crown of thir¬
teen rings of glass,
forming by their union
a hollow cage, com¬
posed of polished glass,
10 feet high and 6 feet
in diameter! There
is no work of art more
beautiful or more cre¬
ditable to the bold¬
ness, intelligence, and
zeal of the artist.
All the lights on the
dioptric principle are
illuminated by a flame
placed in the centre of
the apparatus or com¬
mon focus of the principal lenses and cylindric refractors
which are ranged round it. The burner of the lamp varies
in its dimensions and its consumption of oil, according to
the size of the instruments employed, which also determines
what is called the order of the light, a name expressive of
its power and range. Above and below the strictly diop¬
tric part of the apparatus of each order there are also ac¬
cessary parts, which, as just described, and shown in fig. 17,
consist in fixed lights of catadioptric prisms arranged in
tiers, one above another, like the leaves of a Venetian
blind, and placed so as to reflect to the horizon the rays
received from the lamp, which is in their common focus.
In all revolving lights, up till 1850, the apparatus above
the principal lenses either consisted of prisms similar to
those described for fixed lights, or was diacatoptric, being
composed of an union of eight lenses of 19'68 inches (50cm')
of focal distance, inclined inwards to the flame, which is in
their common focus, and thus forming a frustum of an octa¬
gonal pyramid of 50° of inclination. These upper lenses
were surmounted by plane mirrors, placed so as to re¬
flect horizontally the beams transmitted by the lenses. In
placing these upper lenses, it has been thought advisable
to give their axes a horizontal inclination of 7° from that
ot the great lenses. By this arrangement, the flash of the
upper lenses always precedes that of the principal lenses.
The use of the accessary apparatus is to collect the rays, Light-
which would otherwise pass above and below the main houses,
lenses, without contributing to the brilliancy of the light.
These inclined mirrors and lenses have, since 1850, been
entirely laid aside on the introduction of the Holophotal sys¬
tem of revolving lights, to be afterwards explained, in which
totally reflecting prisms form part of the revolving apparatus,
and supersede the inclined mirrors and lenses. The nature
of the whole revolving apparatus of Fresnel will be more
fully understood by referring to fig. 18, which is a section
Fig. 18.
of a revolving dioptric apparatus of the first order; L, L, are
the great annular lenses, forming by their union an octagonal
prism, with the lamp in its axis, and projecting in horizontal
beams the light which they receive from the focus; a, a,
upper lenses, forming by their union a frustum of an octa¬
gonal pyramid of 50° of inclination, and having their foci
coinciding in the focal point. They parallelize the rays of
light which pass over the lenses, b, b, plane mirrors, placed
above the pyramidal lenses, and so inclined as to project the
beams reflected from them in planes parallel to the horizon.
The dioptric lights used in France are divided into four ^^rench
orders, in relation to their power and range; but in regard lir,hts
to their characteristic appearances, this division does not
apply, as, in each of the orders, lights of identically the
same character may be found, differing only in the distance
at which they can be seen, and in the expense of their
maintenance. The four orders may be briefly described
as follows:—
IsL Lights of the first order, having an interior radius or
focal distance of 36‘22 inches (92cm ), and lighted by a lamp
of four concentric wicks, consuming 5701 gallons of oil per
annum.
2d. Lights of the second order, having an interior radius
of 27’55 inches (70cm), lighted by a lamp of three con¬
centric wicks, consuming 384 gallons of oil per annum.
3d. Lights of the third order, lighted by a lamp of two
concentric wicks, consuming 183 gallons of oil per annum.
The instruments used in these lights are of two kinds, one
having a focal distance of 19'68 inches (50cm-), and the other
of 9’84 inches (25cm-).
Ath. Lights of the fourth order, or harbour lights, having
an internal radius of 5-9 inches (15cin ), and lighted by a
lamp of one wick, or Argand burner, consuming 48 gallons
of oil per annum.
The great loss of light by natural divergence in the para- Holophota
bolic reflector, and the separation of the rays into as many systeu"
1 The experience of two at the Isle of May and Inchkeith, shows that the annual expenditure of spermaceti oil, in lights of the first
order, does not exceed 570 gallons.
LIGHTHOUSES.
477
Light- portions as there are lenses in the frame, in Fresnel’s re¬
houses. volving dioptric apparatus, together with the objectionable
plan for intercepting the rays which pass above and below
the lenses, led Mr Thomas Stevenson to inquire into the
possibility of increasing the intensity of lights by changes
in the optical arrangements. The parabolic reflectors act
chiefly on the posterior portion of the flame, and generally
receive about -^fths of the whole luminous sphere, while a
series of dioptric instruments can affect only an anterior
cone, amounting to about fths. Certain deductions, due
to the form of the flame and the loss by reflection and re¬
fraction, reduce these numbers to -Jd for the reflectors,
and T3ot^ls l'or the lenses, as the amount of light actually
given forth by each system. Both arrangements are,
therefore, so far unsuitable for revolving lights, in which
the concentration of all the diverging rays into pencils of
parallel rays is the grand object to be aimed at. The pro¬
blem which Mr Stevenson assigned to himself was to pro¬
duce the brightest beam from a given flame by the smallest
number of reflections and refractions. This object he at¬
tained partly by combining dioptric with catoptric and
catadioptric action, and partly by an extension of the lenti¬
cular action itself over a greater subtense. To this arrange¬
ment the name of Holophotal has been given, to signify
the useful application of the ivhole of the light.
One mode of producing this effect is to combine an an-
Eig. 19.
nular lens L, figs. 19 and 20 ; a parabolic conoid a, trun¬
cated at its parameter; and
hemispherical mirror b. The
lens, when at its proper focal
distance from the flame,
subtends the same angle
from it as the outer lips of
the paraboloid. The hemi¬
spherical reflector occupies
the place of the parabolic
conoid which has been cut
oft behind the parameter.
The flame is at once in the
centre of the hemispherical
mirror and in the common
focus of the lens and paraboloid. Suppose the whole sphere
of rays emanating from the flame to be divided into two por-
tions, viz., the hemisphere of front rays and the hemisphere
of back rays. Part of the anterior hemisphere of rays is inter¬
cepted by the lens and made parallel by its action, while the
lemainder is intercepted by the paraboloidal surface, and
made parallel by its action. The rays forming the posterior
hemisphere, and which fall upon the hemispherical reflector,
are sent back through the focus in the same lines, but in direc¬
tions opposite to those in which they came, whence passing
onwards they are in part refracted by the lens, while the rest
are made parallel by the paraboloid. The back rays thus
finally emerge horizontally in union with the light from the
anterior hemisphere. This instrument, therefore, fulfils the
conditions prescribed, by collecting the entire sphere of di¬
verging rays into one parallel beam of light.
The first instrument constructed upon this principle was Light-
for the North Harbour of Peterhead, where it has been in houses,
use since August 1849. Mr A. Stevenson has also adopted
an instrument of this kind, on a large scale, in Hoy Sound
Lighthouse, one of the Northern Lights’ stations.
Experiments were lately made at Gullan Hill to test the
comparative power of an instrument on this principle (the
reflecting part being of brass, and but roughly finished),
and a highly-finished silver reflector of the usual construc¬
tion ; both instruments being 25 inches in diameter at the
lips. The lights were viewed at distances of from 7 to 12 miles
every night during a Aveek, and in every instance the brass
reflector on the holophotal principle had the advantage of
the silver reflector; and on one occasion, when the atmo¬
sphere was thick, the light from the holophotal brass re¬
flector ivas alone visible.
In so far as concerns the arrangement of the different Catadiop-
parts, irrespective of the nature of the materials of which tric hol°'
they are composed, the light emitted from any given flame Photal aP*
by the instruments just described, should be the light ofpar
maximum intensity. But the most accurate experiments
Avhich have been undertaken by scientific observers have
shown that reflection from the best silvered mirrors, and
even from metallic specula made with the utmost care
for experimental purposes, involves a loss of light by ab¬
sorption of not less than about one-half of the whole in¬
cident rays.
The advantage of employing as largely as possible the
principle of total reflection from glass, in place of ordinary
reflection from metallic specula, induced Mr T. Stevenson to
attempt further improvements in the holophotal system of
illumination. If Ave retain the lens and the spherical mirror
of the holophotal apparatus just described, and, in place of
the paraboloid, conceive the arc betAveen the lens and the
spherical mirror to be filled up Avith glass rings, Avhich are
the solids of revolution generated by the rotation' of the
cross section of the totally reflecting prisms used in fixed
lights, round a horizontal axis passing through the flame,
Ave shall then have extended the action of the lens, so as to
parallelize one-half of the whole sphere of incident rays.
Such an arrangement is shown in figs. 21. and 22, Avhere L
is the lens, p the totally reflecting prisms, and b is the
spherical mirror. The distinguishing peculiarity of this
arrangement is, that the prisms, instead of transmitting the
light in parallel vertical plates, diverging all round as in the
fixed light apparatus of Fresnel, produce an extension of
the lenticular or quaquaversal action of the common an¬
nular lens, by assembling the light around its axis in the
form of concentric hollow cylinders. In order to distinguish
this system of prisms from those introduced by M. Fresnel,
which have no lenticular action, they may therefore be
termed catadioptric lenses.
The Avriter of this article has lately heard, that, although
it had never been proposed to use such prisms for lighthouse
purposes, a small lamp, for lighting the quays of a canal in
Paris, Avas made by M. A. Fresnel, in 1824, in which some
prisms, similar to those above described, formed an accessory
part; but no drawing or description of such an apparatus was
ever published, and all knoAvledge of it seems to have been
478
L 1 G H T H O U S ]] S.
Light¬
houses.
Oatadiop-
tric glass
mirror.
lost till Mr T. Stevenson described bis plan in 1849. Since
that time, thirty-six instruments have been made at Edin-
’ buro-h, on the small scale, both for home and foreign use.
The first instance in which those prisms were ever applied to
lighthouses was at the Horsburgh Light, near Singapore, the
optical part of which was designed by Mr T. Stevenson.
This was the first time that the principle of total reflection
was applied to the moving apparatus of revolving lights.
The first light of the large order, on this principle, was
constructed under the direction of Mr Alan Stevenson, for
North Ronaldsay, in the Orkneys; and seven others have
recently been made in Paris for French and American light¬
houses. There can be no doubt that this arrangement will
be generally adopted, instead of the combination of inclined
lenses and plane mirrors, first employed at Corduan, and
subsequently in other revolving lights in France and Britain.
By an elegant adaptation of totally reflecting zones, Mr
Thomas Stevenson has further succeeded in substituting,
for a reflector of metal or silvered glass, a polyzonal totally
reflecting hemisphere of glass {iride fig. 5). By this arrange¬
ment, reflection from metallic specula is abolished from every
part of the system, and the principles of total reflection and
simple refraction alone are employed.
The action of these glass zones will be best understood
by referring to fig. 23, which gives the cross section of one
of them ; f shows the flame or centre of the system, and the
diverging rays are represented by dotted lines, the arrows
indicating the direction of a ray before and after being al¬
tered by the prism. The side he is concave, the centre of
curvature being in/, the centre of the flame. The surfaces
of the other sides, ab, and ac, are portions of parabolas, whose
common focus is f, or of circles osculating the parabolic
curves. Those parabolic surfaces face each other, and their
tangents form an angle of 90° with each other at the vertex
of the prism. Any ray proceeding from the centre / will
be received as a normal to the surface he, and will conse¬
quently pass on without suffering any deviation at e, where
it meets the prism, to its incidence on the surface ab, where
cc
Fig. L'4.
Light¬
houses.
Adaptatioi
of the Ho-
lophotal
system to
Fresnel’s
Apparatus
it will be totally reflected in the direction rr, tangential to
tne sphere at the axis of each zone. At r it again suffers
total reflection, and finally emerges in a radial direction
without deviation at the point e. An exactly similar action
will take place simultaneously with another ray in the same
path from the flame, though passing in an opposite direc¬
tion. The concentric zones, a, which compose the dome
(pzcfefig. 24), are solids of revolution, generated by the rota¬
tion round the horizontal axis of the instrument of triangles
similar to a, h, c (fig. 23), with a radius equal to af. The
angle formed by the radius with the horizontal axis of the
instrument varies from nearly 90° down to zero, as shown
in fig. 24. Where those angles vanish at a, a conoid will
result, having the radius of its base equal to the semichord of
its inner surface. It will be seen that the prisms b, a, c, fig. 23,
resemble in their action that of the drops of rain which give
rise to the phenomenon of the secondary rainbow. In fig.
24, which shows the whole instrument complete, L repre¬
sents the common lens acting on the rays by refraction
only; p, the catadioptric portion of the lens acting by re¬
fraction and total reflection ; and a, a , a, the prisms acting
by total reflection only. Part of a hemispherical dome on
this principle has now been successfully executed.
Fig. 25 shows the
adaptation of the holo- i'^\
photal system to Fres¬
nel’s revolving light of
the first order. L, L are
the lenses, and p, p the P
catadioptric lenticular
rings. The advantage
of this system will clear¬
ly appear by comparing
it with Fresnel’s appa¬
ratus (fig. 18). At each
of figs. 25 and 18, dia- P
grams marked xy show
proportionate sections
of the beam of light
given out by the two
arrangements respec- '-A..-/./ \..j
tively. The objection- Fi^.25.
able arrangement of the lenses and mirrors a and b (fig. 18),
in which so much of the light is lost, by the introduction of
so many surfaces, and is also superseded.
For pointing out sunken reefs, on which no lighthouse Dipping
can be placed, two plans have been proposed by Mr Thomas and aPPa-
Stevenson. The first, or dipping light, consists in throwing rent:
a pencil of rays from a lantern on shore down upon the reef,
by inclining the vertical axis of the apparatus at the requisite
angle; and by this arrangement the visibility of the light is
confined within certain limits, the passing within which is,
to the seaman, a sign of danger, and a warning to hard off
seaward. The second, or apparent light, applies to reefs
on which a small beacon, capable of bearing a cage on its
top, can be built, but which affords no room for a light¬
house tower. In this cage is placed some reflecting appa¬
ratus, either wholly catadioptric, or combining a plane
mirror with a vertical system of straight lenticular prisms;
and upon this there is projected, from a lantern on shore,
a beam of light, which is diverted (according to the angle
at which the cage apparatus on the beacon is set) into any
given direction that may be required. This latter plan has
been most successfully applied to the entrance of Stornoway
Loch, a much-used harbour of refuge in the Lewis, and
has drawn from many shipmasters frequenting that port
written expressions of their satisfaction with the light, which
is well seen a mile and a half in the offing: a distance
amply sufficient for the limited purposes for which such
lights should be used. The name apparent is given to this
light, because, while it is really produced by a flame on
shore, it seems to proceed from the beacon on the rock.
In all fixed lights of the present construction, which are
L I G II T BOUSES.
479
j^ht- not required to show all round the horizon, the light of the
houses, darkened part is either allowed to be lost, or is returned
z—^ through the focus by means of a portion of a spherical
llolophotal mirror. There are, however, cases frequently occurring to
condensers the lighthouse engineer where it would be very desirable to
for illumi- employ this spare light, not in the direction diametrically op-
nating nar- p0Sj(-e [q darkened arc, but in some other direction more
rowsoun s-suj,.e(| t0 t]le configuration of the coast. The apparatus for
Isle Oronsay, of which fig. 2G is a horizontal section through
Tig. 2G.
the focus, is the first which has been designed with a view
to the most advantageous employment of this spare light.
The lighthouse of Isle Oronsay is situate in the narrow
Sound of Skye, and, throughout nearly the whole of the illu¬
minated arc, does not require to be seen to a greater distance
than 3 or 4 miles, while in one direction (down the sound) it
can be seen for 15 miles, and in another (up the sound) it can
be seen for about 7 miles. If, therefore, a light were erected
sufficiently powerful to be seen at the greatest distance re¬
quired, it must be very greatly too powerful in every other
direction, and consequently there would be a great waste
of oil; while, if an apparatus only powerful enough for the
short range were employed, it would become necessary to
make use of subsidiary apparatus, implying additional lamps,
and an increased expenditure of oil, to show up and down
the sound. The apparatus shown was designed by Mr T.
Stevenson, with the view of reinforcing the ordinary fixed-
light apparatus in the directions of greatest range. This is
effected by distributing in these directions the spare light
on the dark side of the lantern, which, if returned through
the focus in the ordinary manner by means of a spherical
mirror, would only tend to strengthen that portion of the
light which is already sufficiently powerful.
A is 167° of a small fixed-light apparatus subtending the
entire arc to be illuminated ; so that all the rest of the light,
or 193 , is spare light. Of this, 129° are parallelized by the
holophotal apparatus B ; and the rays, falling on a series of
equal and similar prisms, a, are again refracted, but in the
horizontal plane only; and after passing through a focal
point (independent for each prism), emerge in a series of
twelve equal and parallel beams, having a divergence of about
10 , which are also equal and parallel to the diverging beam,
a, and, consequently, according to well known optical laws,
have the effect of strengthening it as much as if they were
actually superimposed upon it. As the light of 139° is, in
this manner, condensed into about 10°, the effect must be
from 12 to 14 times that of the unassisted apparatu^ and
should, therefore, be amply sufficient for a range of 15 miles. Light-
In like manner, the light parallelized by the other holo- houses,
phote C, are refracted by the prisms b, so as to strengthen
the arc (3, which will thus be rendered amply powerful for
a range of 7 miles. The greater number of rays in the
arcs a and /3 are intended to indicate the additional density
due to the action of the subsidiary prisms. We shall only
add, that when arcs of coloured light are to be employed,
this method of strengthening any particular portion of the
light becomes very important, as offering a ready method of
equalizing the general range, otherwise interfered with by
the enormous absorption of coloured media ; and we might
suggest, that, even where the light requires to be shown
all round, it is possible to supplement any arc at the expense
of any other, by cutting off an ordinary apparatus by a hori¬
zontal plane at any suitable height, and mounting a por¬
tion of a holophote and a series of prisms above it. By a
somewhat similar arrangement to what has been described
for Oronsay, the whole of the rays proceeding from a plane
may be spread over any desired arc of the horizon.
Having thus fully described the catoptric and dioptric General
systems of illumination, it might be expected that we should remarks,
institute a comparison between them. This, however, may
now' be considered unnecessary, as the universal adoption
of the dioptric system speaks for itself. Its advantages are
indeed too numerous and too palpable to be overlooked,
combining, as they do, efficiency of action and fitness to
meet every requirement, with economy in the consumption
of oil; and we may safely say, that in all those countries
where this important branch of administration is conducted
with the care and solicitude which it deserves, the dioptric
system has been adopted to the complete exclusion of the
catoptric, except, indeed, in certain cases where economy
of first construction and simplicity of detail are objects of
primary importance.
To the Dutch belongs the honour of having first, after
the French, embraced the system of Fresnel in their lights.
The Commissioners of the Northern Lights follow ed in the
train of improvement, and, in 1834, sent Mr Alan Stevenson
on a mission to Paris, with full power to take such steps for
acquiring a perfect knowledge of the dioptric system, and
forming an opinion on its merits, as he should find neces¬
sary. The singular liberality with which he was received
by M. Leonor Fresnel, brother of the late illustrious inven¬
tor of the system, and his successor as the Secretary of the
Lighthouse Commission of France, afforded Mr A. Steven¬
son the means of making such a report on his return as in¬
duced the Commissioners to authorize him to remove the
reflecting apparatus of the revolving light at Inchkeith, and
substitute dioptric instruments in its place. This change
was completed, and the light exhibited on the evening of
1st October 1835 ; and so great was the satisfaction which
the change produced, that the Commissioners immediately
instructed Mr Stevenson to make a similar change at the
fixed light of the Isle of May, wdiere the new light was ex¬
hibited on the 22d September 1836. The Trinity House
of London followed next in adopting the improved system,
and employed Mr A. Stevenson to superintend the con¬
struction of a revolving dioptric light of the first order,
which was afterw'ards erected at the Start Point in Devon¬
shire. Other countries followed, and the Report of the
Lighthouse Board of America, published in 1852, which re¬
commends (p. 13) the adoption of Fresnel’s dioptric system,
and the holophotal improvements, is a very full body of in¬
formation on lighthouse subjects, extending over about 750
pages. Even Turkey has followed in the train of improve¬
ment, and we believe that a light on the dioptric principle
will shortly he exhibited (if it be not already completed)
from the Isle of Serpents. Fresnel, who is already classed
with the greatest of those inventive minds which extend the
boundaries of human knowledge, will thus, at the same
480
LIGHTHOUSES.
Light¬
houses.
Spherico-
cylindric
lenses.
Fuel of
light¬
houses.
time, receive a place amongst those benefactors of the
species who have consecrated their genius to the common
good of mankind ; and, wherever maritime intercourse pre¬
vails, the solid advantages which his-labours have procured
will be felt and acknowledged.
When, however, this system was in its infancy, there
were several objections raised to its adoption, which ap¬
peared to be of very considerable importance, though the
experience of years has proved that they are not insur¬
mountable. The first, and probably the most important,
was the liability of the lamp to be extinguished from the
failure of the leather work of the oil-pumps—a most serious
objection, inasmuch as, from there being only one lamp,
its failure implies the extinction of the light. The means
adopted to remedy this have been already described {vide
“ mechanical lamp”), and an experience of twenty-one years
in the Northern Lighthouses has proved them to be suf¬
ficient for the purpose; for during the whole of that time
(although it has on several occasions been necessary to
light the spare lamp) the light has only on one occasion
been totally extinguished, a casualty which was caused by
the keeper sleeping on his watch.
The only other objection worthy of mention is the short
duration of the flash in revolving lights, owing to the small
divergence (5° 9 ) of the annular lens. This has been cor¬
rected by setting the inclined mirrors, or holophotal prisms,
a little in advance of the great lenses, so that they precede,
and consequently prolong, the principal flash. M. Degrand
has also proposed to cut the whole apparatus by a horizon¬
tal plane passing through the focus, and to set one portion a
few degrees in advance of the other, a plan which has
considerable advantages, as all the portions of the beam
are more nearly of equal intensity.
Mr T. Stevenson, moreover, suggests an ingenious method
of remedying this evil, by constructing lenses whose aber¬
ration in the vertical plane is corrected, while that in the
horizontal plane may be adjusted to any determinate amount.
In the application of this method of construction to the
annular lenses they would be ground on the external sur¬
face as before; but the internal surface would be a portion
of a vertical cylinder of suitable radius. Thus each ver¬
tical section would be similar to that of a plano-convex
lens as at present, and would refract the rays accordingly,
while the horizontal sections would be of a meniscal form,
and would act only by the excess of their convexity over
their concavity. Thus, by varying the radius of the cylin¬
der, any amount of horizontal divergence may be obtained,
and this without much increasing the thickness of the glass,
at least in the case of revolving lights, in which a curve of
long radius might be applied.
The oil, until lately, most generally employed in the
lighthouses of the United Kingdom was the sperm oil of
commerce, which is obtained from the South Sea whale
{Physeter macrocephalus). In France, the colza oil, which
is expressed from the seed of a species of wild cabbage
{Brassica oleracea colza), and the olive oil, are chiefly
used; and a species of the former has now been success¬
fully introduced into the British lighthouses.
The advantages of the colza oil are thus stated by the
engineer of the Scottish Lighthouse Board :—
“ It appears from pretty careful photometrical measure¬
ments of various kinds, that the light derived from the
colza oil is, in point of intensity, a little superior to that
derived from the spermaceti oil, being in the ratio of L056
to 1. The colza oil burns both in the Fresnel lamp and
the single Argand burner with a thick wick during seven¬
teen hours, without requiring any coaling of the wick or
any adjustment of the damper ; and the flame seems to be
more steady and freer from flickering than that derived
from spermaceti oil. There seems (most probably owing
to the greater steadiness of the flame) to be less breakage
of glass chimneys with the colza than with the spermaceti Light-
oil. bouses.
The consumption of oil seems in the Fresnel lamp to be
121 for colza, and 114 for spermaceti; while in the com¬
mon Argand, the consumption appears to be 910 for colza,
and 902 for spermaceti; and if we assume the means of
these numbers, 515 for colza, and 508 for spermaceti, as
representing the relative expenditure of these oils; and if
the price of colza be 3s. 9d., while that of spermaceti is 6s. 9d.
per imperial gallon ; we shall have a saving in the ratio of 1
to L755, which, at the present rate of supply for the Northern
Lights, would give a saving of about L.3266 per annum.”
In a few lighthouses which are near towns, the gas ofGa3*
pit coal has been used; and there are certain advantages,
more especially in dioptric lights, where there is only one
large central flame, which would render the use of gas de¬
sirable. The form of the flame, which is an object of con¬
siderable importance, would thus be rendered less variable,
and could be more easily regulated, and the inconvenience
of the clock-work of the lamp would be wholly avoided.
But it is obvious that gas is by no means suitable for the
majority of lighthouses, their distant situation, and generally
difficult access, rendering the transport of large quantities
of coal expensive and uncertain ; whilst in many of them
there is no means of erecting the apparatus necessary for
manufacturing gas. There are other considerations which
must induce us to pause before adopting gas as the fuel of
lighthouses ; for, however much the risk of accident may
be diminished in the present day, it still forms a question,
which ought not to be hastily decided, how far we should
be justified in running even the most remote risk of explo¬
sion in establishments such as lighthouses, the sudden fail¬
ure of which might involve consequences of the most fatal
description, and the situation of which is often such, that their
re-establishment must be a work of great expense and time.
The application of the Drummond and Voltaic lights to Drummond
lighthouse purposes is, owing to their prodigious intensity, and Voltaic
a very desirable consummation ; but it is surrounded by so light3
many practical difficulties, that it may, in the present
state of our knowledge, be pronounced unattainable. The
uncertainty which attends the exhibition of both these
lights is of itself a sufficient reason for coming to this con¬
clusion. But other reasons unhappily are not wanting.
•The smallness of the flame renders those lights wholly in¬
applicable to dioptric instruments, which require a great
body of flame, in order to produce a degree of divergence
sufficient to render the duration of the flash in revolving-
lights long enough to answer the purpose of the mariner.
M. Fresnel made some experiments on the application of
the Drummond light to dioptric instruments, which com¬
pletely demonstrate their unfitness for this combination.
He found that the light obtained by placing it in the focus
of a great annular lens was much more intense than that
produced by the great lamp and lens of Corduan ; but the
divergence did not exceed 30'; so that, in a revolution like
that of Corduan, the flashes would last only 11 second, and
would not, therefore, be seen in such a manner as to suit
the practical purposes of a revolving light. The great cy-
lindric refractor, used in fixed lights of the first order, was
also tried with the Drummond light in its focus ; but it
gave coloured spectra at the top and bottom, and only a
small bar of white light was transmitted from the centre of
the instrument. The same deficiency of divergence com¬
pletely unfits the combination of the Drummond light with
the reflector for the purposes of a fixed light, and even if
this cause did not operate against its application in revolv¬
ing lights on the catoptric plan, the supply of the gases,
which is attended with almost insurmountable difficulties,
w-ould, in any case, render the maintenance of the light
precarious and uncertain in the last degree.
There are many questions of much interest regarding
LIGHTHOUSES.
Light¬
houses.
General
questions
regarding
lighthouses
Distinction
and distri¬
bution of
lights.
Arrange¬
ment of
’ lights on
the coast.
lighthouses, which appear to open an extensive field of in¬
quiry ; and it may be doubted whether some of them have
received that degree of consideration to which their import¬
ance entitles them. Amongst these we may rank the nu¬
merous questions which may be raised regarding the most
effective kind of distinctions for lights. Those distinctions
may be naturally expected to be the most effective which
strike an observer by their appearance alone. Thus a red
and white light, a revolving and a fixed light, offer appear¬
ances which are calculated to produce upon the observer a
stronger sense of their difference than the same observer
would receive from lights the sole difference of which lies in
their revolutions being performed in greater or less intervals
of time. On the other hand, the distinctions derived from
time, if the intervals on which they depend do not approach
too closely to each other, appear to afford very suitable
means for characterizing lights; and the number of dis¬
tinctions which may be founded upon time alone are pretty
numerous. Coloured media have the great disadvantage of
absorbing light, and the only colour which has hitherto been
found useful in practice is red, all others, at even moderate
distances, serving merely to enfeeble, without characterizing,
lights. In the system of Fresnel, as already explained, all
the distinctions are based upon time alone. Mr Robert
Stevenson, the engineer of the Northern Lighthouses, has
invented two distinctions, which, although they are produced
by variations of the time, possess characteristic appearances,
sufficiently marked to enable an observer to distinguish a
light without counting time. The one is called a flashing
light, in which the flashes and eclipses succeed each other
so rapidly as to give the appearance of a succession of bril¬
liant scintillations ; and the other has been called intermit¬
tent, from its consisting of a fixed light, which is suddenly
and totally eclipsed, and again as suddenly revealed to view.
The effect of this light is entirely different from that of any
revolving light, both from the great inequality of the inter¬
vals of light and darkness, and also from the contrast which
is produced by its sudden disappearance and reappearance,
which is completely different from the gradual diminution
and increase of the light in revolving lights, more especially
in those on the catoptric principle. The great and still in¬
creasing number of lights renders the means of distinguish¬
ing them one of the most important considerations connected
with lighthouses.
Not less important, and very nearly allied to the subject
of distinction, is that of the arrangement of lights on a line
of coast. The choice of the most suitable places, and the
assigning to each the characteristic appearances which are
most likely to distinguish it from all the neighbouring lights,
are points requiring much consideration ; and it ought never
to be forgotten, that the indiscriminate erection of light¬
houses soon leads to confusion, and that the needless exhi¬
bition of a light, by involving the loss of a distinction, may
afterwards prove inconvenient in the case of some future
light, which time and the growing wants of trade may call
for on the same line of coast. To enter at length upon this
topic, or even to lay down the general principles which
ought to regulate the distribution of lights, would exceed
the limits of this article; but in connection with this it
may be observed, that the superintendence of lighthouses
should be committed to one general body, and ought not
to be left to local trusts, whose operations are too often con¬
ducted on narrow principles, without reference to general
interests. The inconveniences arising from interference
between the distinctions of the lights under one trust, and
those of the lights under another, are thereby avoided ;
and the full advantage is obtained of the means of distinc¬
tion at the disposal of both.
The considerations which enter into the choice of the
position and character of the lights on a line of coast are
either, on the one hand, so simple and self-evident as
VOL. XIII.
scarcely to admit of being stated in a general form, without
becoming mere truisms ; or are, on the other hand, so very
numerous, and often so complicated, as scarcely to be sus¬
ceptible of compression into any general laws. We shall
not, therefore, do more than very briefly notice, in the form
of distinct propositions, a few of the chief considerations
which should guide us in the selection of the sites and cha¬
racteristic appearance of the lighthouses to be placed on a
line of coast.
1. The most prominent points of a line of coast, or those
first made on oversea voyages, should be first lighted ; and
the most powerful lights should be adapted to them, so that
they may be discovered by the mariner as long as possible
before his reaching land. 2. So far as is consistent with a
due attention to distinction, revolving lights of some descrip¬
tion, which are necessarily more powerful than fixed lights,
should be employed at the outposts on a line of coast. 3.
Lights of precisely identical character and appearance should
not, if possible, occur within a less distance than 100 miles
of each other on the same line of coast, which is made by
over-sea vessels. 4. In all cases, the distinction of colour
should never be adopted except from absolute necessity.
5. Fixed lights, and others of less power, may be more
readily adopted in narrow seas, because the range of the
lights in such situations is generally less than that of open
sea-lights. 6. In narrow seas, also, the distance between
lights of the same appearance may often be safely reduced
within much lower limits than is desirable for the greater
sea-lights. Thus there are many instances in which the
distance separating lights of the same character need not
exceed 50 miles ; and peculiar cases occur in which even a
much less separation between similar lights may be suffi¬
cient. 7. Lights intended to guard vessels from reefs,
shoals, or other dangers, should, in every case where it is
practicable, be placed seaward of the danger itself, as it is
desirable that seamen be enabled to make the lights with
confidence. 8. Views of economy in the first cost of a
lighthouse should never be permitted to interfere with
placing it in the best possible position ; and, when funds
are deficient, it will generally be found that the wise course
is to delay the work until a sum shall have been obtained
sufficient for the erection of the lighthouse on the best site.
9. The elevation of the lantern above the sea should not, if
possible, for sea-lights, exceed 200 feet; and about 150
feet is sufficient, under almost any circumstances, to give
the range which is required. Lights placed on high head¬
lands are subject to be frequently wrapped in fog, and are
often thereby rendered useless at times when lights on a
lower level might be perfectly efficient. But this rule must
not, and indeed cannot, be strictly followed, especially on
the British coast, where there are so many projecting cliffs,
which, while they subject the lights placed on them to oc¬
casional obscuration by fog, would also entirely and per¬
manently hide from view lights placed on the lower land
adjoining them. In such cases, all that can be done is care¬
fully to weigh all the circumstances of the locality, and
choose that site for the lighthouse which seems to afford the
greatest balance of advantage to navigation. As might be
expected, in questions of this kind, the opinions of the most
experienced persons are often very conflicting, according to
the value which is set on the various elements which enter
into the inquiry. 10. The best position fora sea-light ought
rarely to be neglected for the sake of the more immediate
benefit of some neighbouring port, however important or
influential; and the interests of navigation, as well as the
true welfare of the port itself, will generally be much better
served by placing the sea-light where it ought to be, and
adding, on a smaller scale, such subsidiary lights as the
channel leading to the entrance of the port may require.
11. It may be held as a general maxim, that the fewer lights
that can be employed in the illumination of a coast the
3 P
481
Light¬
houses.
i,
482
LIGHTHOUSES.
Lightfoot. better, not only on the score of economy, but also of real
efficiency. Every light needlessly erected may, in certain
circumstances, become a source of confusion to the mari¬
ner ; and, in the event of another light being required in
the neighbourhood, it becomes a deduction from the means
of distinguishing it from the lights which existed previous
to its establishment. By the needless erection of a new
lighthouse, therefore, we not only expend public treasure,
but waste the means of distinction among the neighbouring
lights. 12. Distinctions of lights, founded upon the minute
estimation of intervals of time between flashes, and espe¬
cially on the measurement of the duration of light and dark
periods, are less satisfactory to the great majority of coast¬
ing seamen, and are more liable to derangement by atmo¬
spheric changes, than those distinctions which are founded
on what may more properly be called the characteristic ap¬
pearance of the lights, in which the times for the recurrence
of certain appearances differ so widely from each other as
not to require for their detection any very minute observa¬
tion in a stormy night. Thus, for example, flashing lights
of five seconds’ interval, and revolving lights of half a minute,
one minute, and two minutes, are much more characteristic
than those which are distinguished from each other by inter¬
vals varying according to a slower series of 5", 10", 20", 40",
&c. 13. Harbour and local lights, which have a circumscribed
range, should generally be fixed instead of revolving ; and
may often, for the same reason, be safely distinguished by
coloured media. In many cases, also, where they are to
serve as guides into a narrow channel, the leading lights
which are used should, at the same time, be so arranged as
to serve fora distinction from any neighbouring lights. 14.
Floating lights, which are very expensive, and more or less
uncertain, from their liability to drift from their moorings,
as w'ell as defective in power, should never be employed to
indicate a turning-point in a navigation in any situation
where the conjunction of lights on the shore can be applied
at a reasonable expense.
British and Irish Bights.
In concluding, it may be necessary to state that the
English lights are placed under the Corporation of Trinity
House of Deptford, Stroud ; the Scottish lights are under
the management of the Commissioners of Northern Lights ;
and the Irish lights are under the care of the Corporation
for preserving and improving the port of Dublin, commonly
called the Ballast Board.
Last act of The last act of parliament on the subject of lighthouses
parliament, forms part of one the general title of which is, “ An act to
16th and amend various laws relating to merchant shipping.” It passed
20th August 1853. The chief provisions which affect light-
caLK 0 * houses are the following:—1. The light dues of the United
Kingdom are to form one imperial fund, under the con- Lightfoot.
trol of the Board of Trade. 2. From this fund all ex-
penses of erecting and maintaining the lights of the United
Kingdom are to be defrayed. 3. The three boards which
manage the lighthouses in England, Scotland, and Ireland
are to render account of their expenditure to the Board of
I rade. 4. rI he Trinity House, or English board, is to exer¬
cise a certain control over the boards in Scotland and Ire¬
land, and is to judge of all their proposals to erect new
lights, or to change existing ones; but in every case the
sanction of the Board of Trade must precede the acts of
each of the three boards.
The following works may he consulted on the subject of light¬
houses :—Smeaton’s Narrative of the Eddystone Lighthouse, Loud.
1793 ; Stevenson’s Account of the Bell-Rock Lighthouse, Edinburgh,
1824; Belidor, Architecture Hydraulique, vol. iv., p. 151; Peclet,
Traite de Veclairage des Fhares, Paris, 1827 ; Fresnel’s Memoire sur
un Nouveau Sysieme d'eclairage des Phares, Paris, 1822; Admiral de
Itossel’s Rapport, contenant VExposition du Systems adopts par la
Commission des Phares pour eclairer les Cotes de France, Paris, 1825 ;
Treatise on Burning Instruments, containing the method of building
large polyzonal lenses, by D. Brewster, LL.D., F.R.S., Edin. 1812 ;
Fanale di Salvore, nelV Istria, Illuminato a Gaz, Vienna, 1821;
On Construction of Polyzonal Lenses and Mirrors of Great Magnitude,
for Lighthouses, &c., by D. Brewster, LL.D., F.R.S. {Edin. Phil.
Jour., 1823, vol. viii., p. 160); Account of a New System of Illumi¬
nation for Lighthouses, by D. Brewster, LL.D., F.R.S., Edin. 1827 ;
Saggio di Osservazione, &c., or Observations on the Means of Improv¬
ing the Construction of Lighthouses; with an Appendix, on the Ap¬
plication of Gas to Lighthouses, by the Chevalier G. Aldini, Milan,
1823 ; Bordier Marcet’s Notice descriptif d'un Fanal d double aspect,
&c., Paris, 1823; Bordier Marcet’s Para&ofo Soumise d Vart,ou Essai
sur la Catoptrique de Veclairage, Paris, 1819; L. Fresnel’s Description
Sommaire des Phares et Fanaux allumes sur les Cotes de France, au ler-
d’Aout, 1837 ; The Lighthouses of the British Islands, from the Hydro-
graphical O ffice of the Admiralty, Lond. 1836; Instructions pour le ser¬
vice des Phares Lenticulaires, par L. Fresnel, Paris, 1836 ; Stevenson’s
Sketch of Civil Engineering in America, London, 1838, p. 296 ; Report
of Select Committee of the House of Commons on Lighthouses, 1834 ; Re¬
port by a Committee of the Board to the Commissioners of the Northern
Lighthouses, on the “ Report of the Select Committee,” 1836; Re¬
port to the Commissioners of the Northern Lighthouses on the Illumi¬
nation of Lighthouses, by Alan Stevenson, M.A., Edin., 1834; Report
to the same Board, on the hichkeith Dioptric Light, by Alan Steven¬
son, Edin., 1835 ; Report on the Isle of May Dioptric Light, by Alan
Stevenson, 1836 ; Report on the Isle of May Light, by a Committee
of the Royal Society (Professor Forbes, reporter), Edin. 1836 ; Ac¬
count of Skerryvore Lighthouse, with Notes on Lighthouse Illumina¬
tion, by Alan Stevenson, LL.B., Edin., A. & C. Black, 1847 : Steven¬
son’s Treatise on the History, Construction, and Illumination of Light¬
houses, London, 1850; Account of the Holophotal System of Illumi¬
nating Lighthouses, by Thomas Stevenson, F.R.S.E., C.E., in the
Transactions of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts for 1849; For¬
mulae for Constructing Totally Refecting Hemispherical Mirrors, by
William Swan, F.R.S.E., Trans. Roy. Scott. Soc. of Arts, 1850 ; De~
scription of Spherico-Cylindric Lenses, &c., by T. Stevenson, F.R.S.E.,
Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, 1855; Report of the Lighthouse
Board of America, Washington, 1852. (a. s—N.)
LIGHTFOOT, John, a learned commentator, was the
son of a clergyman, and was born at the rectory of Stoke-
upon-Trent, in March 1602. After receiving his elemen¬
tary education at Moreton Green, near Congleton, he en¬
tered, in 1617, Christ’s College, Cambridge, where he ap¬
plied himself to the study of the learned languages, and
was reputed the best orator among the under-graduates.
At the age of nineteen he became Bachelor of Arts; and
leaving the university, acted as usher for two years in a
school at Repton, in Derbyshire. He then took orders,
and was appointed curate of Norton-under-Hales, in Shrop¬
shire. While chaplain in the family of Sir Rowland Cot¬
ton, he became imbued with an enthusiasm for the study
of Hebrew ; and shortly afterwards, resigning his cure, he
removed to London, in order* to devote his time wholly to
study. Here, after a short stay, he formed the design of
travelling abroad, but was prevailed on to become pastor
of Stone, in his native county. This charge he quitted in
1628, a short time after his marriage, and removed to
Hernsey, near London, for the purpose of consulting Sion
College Library in the course of his studies. In 1629 ap¬
peared his first work, Erubhim, or Miscellanies, Christian
and Judaical. Sir Rowland Cotton, to whom it was dedi¬
cated, presented him, in 1630, to the rectory of Ashley, in
Staffordshire.
Lightfoot now devoted himself ardently and exclusively to
the study of the Scriptures; and in order to superintend
the publication of his researches, he, in 1642, again repaired
to London, where he was appointed minister of St Bartho¬
lomew’s, behind the Exchange. On account of his great
biblical learning, he was nominated a member of the As¬
sembly of Divines, and in their councils he was a bold and
L I G
Ligor hearty friend of the Presbyterian party. He preached be¬
ll . fore the House of Commons in March 1643, and was soon
Liguria. aptel. nominated by the parliamentary visitors Master of
Catherine Hall, Cambridge. At the close of the year he
was presented to the rectory of Great Munden, in Hert¬
fordshire. In 1644 appeared the first part of his Harmony,
accompanied by an outline of the entire work, which was
slowly filled in during the later years of his life. Plaving taken
the degree of Doctor in Divinity in 1652, he was elected
Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge in 1655, and
was about the same time engaged in revising the Polyglott
Bible as it went to the press. At the Restoration his master¬
ship of Catherine Hall, which he had offered to resign, was
confirmed to him, along with his living of Great Munden.
A prebend in the church of Ely was also bestowed upon
him by Lord-Keeper Bridgman. In 1661 he was appointed
one of the assistants at the conference upon the Liturgy ;
but, disliking the heat of controversy, he soon ceased to
attend, and retired to Munden, where a cordial affection
subsisted between him and his rustic flock. Favoured
by a healthy constitution and by abstemious habits he con¬
tinued till his death, December 6, 1675, to labour at his
Harmony.
Dr Lightfoot’s fame rests upon his intimacy with Rabbi¬
nical learning, and in this no English commentator has ever
surpassed him. A collection of his works was first printed
in 2 vols. folio in 1684, and supplemented by an 8vo
volume of Remains in 1700. The best edition is edited,
with a life of the author, by the Rev. J. R. Pitman, A.M.,
13 vols., London, 1825.
LIGOR, a seaport-town and capital of a cognominal
state in Lower Siam, Malayan Peninsula, situate at the
mouth of the Ligor River, which here enters the Gulf of
Siam opposite the island of Tantalen, N. Lat. 8. 25., E.
Long. 100. 10. It is encompassed by a wall and ditch,
and contains many brick temples and pyramids. Cotton,
canes, pepper, and tin are exported hence to China. Pop.
about 5000.
LIGURIA, in Ancient Geography, a region of Northern
Italy, stretching along the N. coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea.
Considered in its primitive meaning as “ the country of the
Ligurians,” it is mentioned by the early Greek authors as
extending as far westward as the mouths of the Rhone;
while, according to Polybius, its eastern boundary was
Pisse, and its northern the country of the Arretines.
Strabo, however, and other ancient geographers, considered
it as bounded on the N. by the Padus, on the W. by the
Varus, and on the E. by the Trebia; and these same
limits were fixed by Augustus, when he constituted Liguria
the ninth region of Italy. The Ligurians were among
the first settlers in Italy. Of their origin nothing certain
is known, except that they were generally held by an¬
cient writers to be distinct from the Celtic race, an opinion,
however, which some moderns have opposed. The prin¬
cipal tribes on the S. side of the Apennines were the
Apuani, the most formidable to the Romans; the Briniates;
the Genuates, dwelling around Genua; the Veturii; the
Ingauni, occupying the environs of Alhium Ingannum;
the Intemehi; and the Vediantii. On the N. of the Apen¬
nines were the Epanterii; the Eburiates; the Taurini,
dwelling around their capital, Augusta Taurinorum; the
Statielli, near Aquce Statiellce; and the Vagienni, in the
neighbourhood of Augusta Vagiennorum. The distinctive
positions of all these, as well as of the other inferior tribes
mentioned by Pliny and Livy, have never been accurately
defined. The following are the sea-coast towns enume¬
rated by Pliny and Ptolemy :—Niccea (Nice), Cemenelium
(Cuniez), Portus Herculis Monceci (Monaco), Albium In-
temelium (Vintimiglia), Albium Ingaunum (Albenga),
Vada Sabbata (Vado), Genua, Portus Delphini (Porto
b ino), Tigullia ( I regoso), Segesta (Sestri), Portus Veneris
L I L 483
(Porto Venere), and Portus Lunce. The principal towns Liimfiord
on the N. side of the Apennines, which latterly rose to J1
great importance, and are styled by Pliny “ nobilia oppida,” LlUe-
were,—Dertona (Tortona), Iria (Voghera), Asia (Asti),
Pollentia (Polenza), Valentinum (Valenza), Augusta Va¬
giennorum (Bene), Alba Pompeia (Alba), Aquce Statiellce
(Acqui), Augusta Taurinorum (Turin), Barderate, Tndus-
tria, Carrea Potentia, Clastidium (Casteggio), Ceba (Ceva),
and Libarra. The Ligurians, so often praised by ancient
authors for their hardihood and bravery, are generally un¬
derstood to be those on the S. side of the Apennines ex¬
clusively. In the time of Strabo, these eked out the scanty
produce of their stony and sterile soil by hunting and feeding
flocks, and thus fostered that vigour of frame and ferocity
of disposition which long rendered them the indomitable
foes and plunderers of the Romans. They were renowned
as slingers and light infantry in the armies of the Cartha¬
ginians, and afterwards in those of the Romans. The most
remarkable natural product was a mineral resembling amber,
called Xtyyovpiov. Their chief export was timber, and their
principal emporium Genua. For the physical geography
of Liguria, see Italv.
LIIMFIORD, an extensive inlet of the North Sea, in
the N. part of the Jutland of Denmark, between N. Lat.
56. 28. and 57. 8., and E. Long. 8. 12. and 10. 21. Area,
about 250 square miles. It communicates with the Catte-
gat by its main entrance on the E., and with the ocean by
a narrow passage on the W., opened in 1825 by the vio¬
lence of the sea. In length from sea to sea it is 105 miles,
and about 40 miles in maximum breadth. Its course is
tortuous and broken by numerous islands, the largest of
which is Mors, 15 miles long by 5 miles in breadth. The
waters are very shallow, and the channels intricate; flat-
bottomed boats, however, can navigate it with ease. The
only entrance for vessels of any size is by the Cattegat
inlet.
LILBURNE, John, a famous demagogue, was born of
an ancient family in the county of Durham in 1618. After
receiving a scanty education, he was apprenticed to a clothier
in London; and while in this humble station, his sympathy
with the Puritanic party was so strong and intrepid that he
became a confidant in all their enterprizes. Repairing at
his own instance to Holland, he there printed Bastwick’s
Merry Litany, and during a sojourn of several months, and
after his return to London, continued to publish vehement
attacks upon the bishops and prerogative, which eventually,
in 1637, brought him under the lash of the Star Chamber.
After unflinchingly enduring 500 scourges and exposure
on the pillory, he was thrown into the Fleet, and lay under
a double load of irons until the meeting of the Long Par¬
liament in 1640. During the civil war he fought valiantly,
and was promoted by the Earl of Manchester to the rank
of lieutenant-colonel; but offended at the rising prevalence
of Presbyterianism, he exchanged the sword for the pen in
1645, and, amid repeated prosecutions and imprisonments,
directed a ceaseless onset of pamphlets against the domi¬
nant party, which led to his banishment in 1650. In 1653,
returning to England without a warrant, he underwent a
trial; but upon giving security for good behaviour in the
future, he was allowed to remain in the kingdom. He then
became a preacher among the Quakers at Eltham in Kent,
and died there in 1657.
LILLE, or Lisle, a strongly fortified and important
manufacturing town of France, capital of the department
of Nord, is situated on the Denle, a canal connecting the
Scarpe and the Lys, 51 miles S.E. from Dunkerque, and
171 N. of Paris, by railway; N. Lat. 50. 38. 44., and E.
Long. 3. 3. 59. It stands in a flat and fertile district, and
is surrounded by very strong fortifications and wet ditches.
It is entered by seven gates, has wide and regular streets,
and is generally well built. One of the most conspicuous
484 L I L
Lillebonne objects in the town is a citadel in the form of a pentagon,
J! attached to which there are barracks and magazines. This
Lillo. fortification is one of the finest specimens of the skill of
Vauban, and is considered impregnable, both from being
furnished with every description of military appliances, and
because the canal can be used to isolate its position. The
town-hall is a curious mass of buildings, in the Gothic style,
built in 1430, and was anciently occupied by the dukes of
Burgundy. It contains an interesting and valuable collec¬
tion of drawings by the old masters, among which are 86
by Raphael, and 197 by Michael Angelo. The church of
St Catherine, interesting for the beauty and simplicity of its
architecture, is adorned with a painting by Rubens, consi¬
dered by some the finest effort of his genius. The Hopital
Comtesse, founded in the thirteenth century, although
somewhat injured by fire in 1467, is still in a good state of
preservation. There are several buildings for scientific
and literary purposes, an exchange, prisons, and a number
of philanthropic institutions. Lille is very deficient in its
supply of good water, and the greater part is taken from the
canal.
The manufactures of Lille are very important, the prin¬
cipal being cotton yarn, cotton cloths of various kinds,
woollen fabrics, paper, leather, soap, and oils. There are
about 300 windmills in the neighbourhood, which are used
in producing the oil. There are also sugar refineries, iron
and copper foundries, and bleaching establishments. The
trade in hops, chicory, hides, wool, &c., is extensive. The
working classes, in consequence of low wages and dissipa¬
tion, are always poor, and their dwellings are for the most
part wretched ill-ventilated hovels.
Lille was founded in 1009, by Bandouin IV., Count of
Flanders. It fell into the power of Philip the Fair, after a
siege of three months, in 1297, and was taken again by
Guy, Count of Flanders, in 1302. The Protestants at¬
tempted in vain to surprise it in 1581; and the French be¬
sieged it, without success, in 1645. Wrested from the
Spaniards by Louis XIV., in 1667, and retaken by the
allies in 1708, after a long and obstinate siege, it was ceded
to France by the treaty of Utrecht. The Austrians bom¬
barded it from the 29th September till the 6th October
1792, but the garrison, admirably supported by the bravery
of the inhabitants, compelled them to raise the siege. On
each side there was a loss of about 2000 men killed and
wounded. Pop. (1851) 68,463.
LILLEBONNE (ancient Juliobond), a manufacturing
town of France, department of Seine-Inferieure, situate at
the foot of a wooded eminence on the Bolbec, an affluent of
the Seine, 19 miles E. of Havre. Its appearance is dull
and uninteresting, and most of the houses are constructed
of wood. There are numerous cotton mills, and several
tanneries in and around the town, and a brisk trade is
carried on in leather, groceries, hardware, and cattle. In
ancient times this was the chief town of the Caleti; and, as
the remains testify, must have been one of the chief cities
in Gallia Belgica. Traces of a Latin theatre exist close to
the town. Near these remains is an old castle, once the
residence of William the Conqueror, and where, it is said,
he divulged to the assembled barons his scheme for the in¬
vasion of England. The only other building of mark is the
parish church, surmounted by an elegant Gothic spire.
Pop. 4300.
LILLO, George, a dramatist, was born in 1693, near
Moorgate, in London, where he subsequently conducted a
successful business as a jeweller. His first play, Silvia,
produced in 1731, and written after the model of the
Beggar's Opera, met with little success. Yet in the fol¬
lowing year his tragedy of George Barnwell was acted at
Drury Lane to crowded houses for twenty successive nights,
and gained the notice of Queen Caroline, who requested to
peruse the manuscript. His best tragedy, Fatal Curiosity,
L I L
produced at Haymarket Theatre in 1736, was attended Lilly,
with little success on its first appearance, but in the follow- John
ing year, through the friendly exertions of Henry Fielding,
who was then manager, it was received with a fair amount
of applause. About the same time was written his Arden ^
of Feversham, modernized from an old tragedy of the same
name. He died in 1739, shortly after finishing his tragedy
of Elmerick. Leaving the high-bred sorrows and fancy-
striking scenes of romantic tragedy, Lillo endeavoured to
rivet the sympathies by the bare depicting of the woes and
fatal passions of domestic life. His temporary success may
be referred to the novelty of the plan, and (in his Fatal
Curiosity especially) to the truthful description of the
workings of human passion, and to the consummate art in
the construction of the plot. The neglect into which this
drama just named has fallen is a conclusive proof that the
proper sphere of tragedy is amid scenes that afford at once
a theme for poetry and a tale of pity,—that exalt the imagi¬
nation while they affect the heart. His Dramatic Works
were published, with an account of his life, by Thomas
Davies, in 2 vols. 8vo, in 1775, and reprinted in 1811.
LILLY, John, a dramatic poet, considered by some a
reformer of the English language, was born in Kent about
1553. At sixteen he entered Magdalen College, Oxford,
became Bachelor of Arts in 1573, and Master of Arts in
1575. After staying for some time at Cambridge, he repaired
to London; and in 1579 was a dependant upon courtiers,
and patronized by Queen Elizabeth. In 1580 was pub¬
lished his first work, Euphues, a romance, which, partly from
its satire, and partly from its apophthegms and antitheses,
gave popularity to an affected style of phraseology, called
Euphuism. Lilly also published nine plays, six of which
had been played before the Queen, and were afterwards
published together in 1632. About 1589 appeared his
pamphlet against Martin Marprelate, entitled Pappe with
a Hatchet, which has sometimes been attributed to Nashe.
The date of Lilly’s death is unknown, but according to
Anthony Wood, he was living in 1597, when his last
comedy was published.
Lilly, William, the astrologer, was born at Disevvorth,
a village in Leicestershire, 1st May 1602. He was edu¬
cated at the grammar-school of Ashby-de-la-Zouch; and
went as an adventurer to London in 1620. There he was
servant for some time to a mantua-maker; but in 1624 he
became a domestic, and also clerk, to Mr Wright, master
of the Salters’ Company, in the Strand. Soon after his
master’s death, in 1627, Lilly married his widow, and re¬
ceiving L.1000 as her dowry, he was released from the
cares of any stated employment. After busying himself
for some years in the interests of the Puritans, he began in
1632 to study astrology under Evans, a clergyman who had
been expelled from his curacy for several frauds practised
under the guise of his art. In 1633 he lost his first wife,
and married a second with a dowry of L.500. He was
employed in the following year to discover a treasure
reported to be buried in Westminster Abbey, but while
engaged at night in the presence of thirty others in poising
his “ Mosaical rods,” a terrific storm arose, and scared the
party. In 1644 appeared, for the first time, his almanac,
entitled Merlinus Anglicus Junior, of which the first edi¬
tion was sold in the course of a week, and which continued
to be published annually for about 20 years. In the same
year, three suns were seen on Prince Charles’s birth-day;
and Lilly, in 1645, publishing an interpretation of this
phenomenon, under the title of the Starry Messenger, was
charged before the Committee of Examinations with having,
by certain passages in this book, incited the populace to
insult the Commissioners of Excise, and burn the excise
office. On its being proved, however, that these two
offences had been committed previous to the publication of
the Messenger, Lillo was acquitted. In 1647 Charles,
L I L
L I M
485
Lilybaeum whilst under guard at Hampton Court, sent a messenger to
Jl him to inquire in what part of' the country he might safely
Lily6, lurk should he contrive to escape from his enemies. Lilly
recommended some part of Essex, about 20 miles from
London; an advice which circumstances did not suffer to
be tested. Not more effectual were the aquafortis and the
saw which he sent to the king in 1648, to aid his escape
from Carisbrook Castle. About the same time some im¬
portant information touching the affairs of France, which
he received from the confessor to one of the French secre¬
taries, was communicated to the Council of State as the
fruit of his astrology, and was rewarded with L.50, and an
order for a yearly pension of L.100. In 1654 his second
wife died, and he married a third. In 1659 the King of
Sweden, who had been praised in his Almanac of 1657,
presented him with a gold chain and medal. At the Re¬
storation, he was apprehended by order of parliament, but
sued out his pardon under the great seal. During the
plague of 1665, after all his attempts to recommend his art
to the ministry had failed, he retired to Hersham, and prac¬
tised as a physician under a license from Archbishop Shel¬
don. In 1666 he was consulted about the great fire, and
though he claimed to have predicted it and the plague fifteen
years before, confessed his ignorance of its cause. He died
in 1681 of a dead palsy, bequeathing a considerable pro¬
perty to a tailor whom he had adopted, and was buried at
Walton-upon-Thames, where a monument was erected over
his grave by his friend Ashmole.
Among his works are:—Christian Astrology, 1647;
Monarchy or no Monarchy in England; Grehner’s Pro¬
phecy ; Passages on the Life and Death of King Charles,
London, 1651 ; Annus Tenebrosus, 1652, and History of
his Life and Times from 1602 to 1681; containing Obser¬
vations upon the Life and Death of Charles /., London,
1715 and 1721, and published, with notes by Ashmole,
London, 1774.
LILYBA1UM (modern Marsala), in Ancient Geography,
a city of Sicily, was situate on a promontory of the same
name, forming the most westerly point of the island, and
distant from Africa about 90 geographical miles. It was
built and fortified by the Carthaginians, for the reception
of the inhabitants of Motya, when that city was sacked by
Dionysius of Syracuse, in B.c. 397. Owing to its fortified
strength, its safe harbour, and its proximity to Africa, it
soon became the chief stronghold of Carthaginian power in
Sicily; and, in b.c. 276, successfully withstood a siege of
two months from Pyrrhus, after all the other cities of Sicily
had been reduced. During the first Punic war it baffled
the besieging Roman troops for more than nine years, till
it was ceded, at the close of the struggle, in b.c. 241, ac¬
cording to the conditions of the treaty of peace. Though
only a Roman provincial town, it continued prosperous;
and, in the second and third Punic wars, and for many
years after, it was often the mustering-ground for forces
about to invade Africa. After the ruin of the Roman
empire, it passed successively into the hands of the Goths,
Vandals, and Arabians. Some portions of an aqueduct,
coins, vases, and pieces of sculpture, are among the few
remnants of the ancient city.
LI LYE, or Lily, William, the eminent grammarian,
was born at Oldham, in Hampshire, about 1466, and at
eighteen entered Oxford, as a demy of Magdalen College.
After taking a degree in arts, he travelled towards the
East, and, according to Wood, visited Jerusalem as a pil¬
grim. Attracted to Rhodes, by the number of eminent
men who had fled thither after the capture of Constanti¬
nople, he spent five years there, engaged in the study of
Greek. He then repaired to Rome, and studied the
ancient languages under Sulpitius and Sabinus. On his
return to England, in 1509, having instituted a school in
London, he was the first Englishman who taught Greek in
this country. In 1510 he was appointed first master of St
Paul’s school, by Dr Colet, the founder. In this new
sphere he laboured for twelve years, numbering among his
pupils several who afterwards rose to eminence. Fie died
of the plague in February 1523, and was buried in the
north churchyard of St Paul’s.
Of the Brevissima Institutio seu Ratio Grammatices
Cognoscendce, London, 1513, which is commonly known by
the name of Lily's Grammar, he wrote only the English
Syntax, the Carmen de Moribus, the Rules for the Gen¬
ders of Nouns, and the Rules for the Prseterperfect Tenses
and Supines of Verbs. The preface to the first edition was
written by Cardinal Wolsey; the English Rudiments by
Dr Colet; and the Latin Syntax chiefly by Erasmus. This
grammar has gone through innumerable editions, the last
of which is that of London 1817. His other principal
works are:—In AEnigmatica Bossi Antibossicon primum,
secundum, tertium, ad G. Harmannum, London, 1521 ;
De Octo Orationis partium Constructione Libellus, 1540;
Institutio Compendaria totius Grammaticce, London, 1542;
Monita Pcedagogica, Glasgow, 1693. He also wrote Latin
verses, and translations from Latin and Greek. He is
styled, by his friend Erasmus, “ no ordinary scholar in clas¬
sical literature, and a master in the art of tuition.”
LIMA, the capital of Peru, is situate on the banks of
the Rimac, in S. Lat. 12. 2., and in W. Long. 77. 8. 30.,
distant 6 miles from Callao by railway. It stands on a large
and arid plain, fertilized only by irrigation, and rising gra¬
dually from Callao, on the shores of the Pacific. The
general appearance of the city is imposing, when viewed
from a short distance, the spires and domes glitter gaily in
the sun, and the rich Moorish architecture fills the traveller
with admiration. But on a nearer inspection the effect is
somewhat disappointing. For although the public build¬
ings are handsome, and the streets distinguished by great
regularity, most of the houses are low and irregularly built.
The walls are composed of mud bricks, and the roofs chiefly
of planks of wood, on rafters that are often curiously carved,
above which is a cane-matting, and a thin coat of plaster or
mud, sometimes overlaid with flat tiles, on which they have
their gardens of flowers, and shrubs in pots, &c. The
houses of the poor in the suburbs have flat cane roofs
covered with cane-matting and mud plaster. A singular
feature is the stream of water, intended to carry away all
refuse from the streets and houses, which runs down the
centre of those streets that pass lengthwise through the city.
It is let on early in the morning, and at night is turned off
into the fields and orchards. Lima is entered by six gates;
and the principal Alameda, an avenue of great beauty on the
Callao road, is one of the finest approaches. The Plaza
Mayor, or great square, is adorned with a splendid fountain,
and is one of the principal business localities. On the north
side of the square is the ancient palace of the Spanish vice¬
roy, but now of the president of Peru. The side of it
which fronts the square is certainly not remarkable for its
beauty, having a range of small shops, above which are
several of the state offices. On the east side are the arch¬
bishop’s palace and the fine cathedral. On the other two
sides there is a range of colonnades, with commodious shops,
and a tesselated pavement, over which are the long bal¬
conies of the houses supported by them. The town-hall
(cabildo) is one of the buildings supported by the colon¬
nades on the west side, and the old palace of Pizarro (which is
entered from the Callejon of Petateros) is, on the south side,
not to be distinguished outwardly in any way from the ad¬
jacent balconied dwellings of the inhabitants. Besides the
Alameda, to which reference has been made, there are two
others, one of which possesses an immense amphitheatre
for bull-fighting, capable of accommodating not less than
16,000 spectators.
The churches and convents of Lima are very numerous
Lima.
486 L I M
Lima. Second in importance to the cathedral, is the convent of
v'—San Francisco, an establishment which occupies a large
extent of ground. The church of St Domingo has a mag¬
nificent tower about 180 feet high. These monastic estab¬
lishments have been much reduced in number since the
revolution. Those which remain, however, are rich in
gold and jewellery. In 1821 an immense mass of silver
was taken from them and devoted to the necessities of the
state; and in 1853 they have been plundered of valuable
pictures of the Spanish school. The total numberof churches
now remaining is 56 ; 5 of which are parish churches, and
many of them are attached to convents.
Of educational establishments, we may especially in¬
stance the University of San Carlos; and the National
Museum, which has an admirable library of about 26,000
volumes; and a separate department, well stocked with
Peruvian antiquities. This institution was, at one time, the
most important in S. America. There are also various
colleges appropriated to theology, jurisprudence, and medi¬
cine ; and, in connection with the latter of these, there is
an indifferent botanic garden. The schools are numerous,
and tolerably well managed. Of charitable institutions,
there are at present three public hospitals for the sick;
namely, Sant-Ana, for females ; San Andres and San Barto-
lome for males; one for foundlings, and an asylum for
penitent women ; besides the hospital for incurables.
Commerce in Lima is often disturbed by revolutions,
which interfere with the security of public property, and
transit to and from the interior. One-half the whole im¬
ports of Peru is from Great Britain ; and that to the extent
of not less than four or five millions of dollars yearly. The
manufactures are of slight importance, consisting chiefly of
glass, gold lace, silver filigree, and gilded leather. Although
the country in the vicinity is very productive, the indolence
of the people is such that they do not improve their advan¬
tages. Grapes, water-melons, and a variety of grains and
vegetables are produced in great abundance. Immense
quantities of live stock are fattened in the neighbourhood;
the number of pigs killed for consumption is said to be
about 20,000 a-year ; and from 300 to 400 sheep, and from
40 to 50 oxen are brought daily into the market. At the
corners of some squares old women sit cooking fish and pork,
which the lower orders purchase instead of preparing food
for themselves at home. The foreign trade of Lima is trans¬
acted through its port, Callao; and, indeed, the most of the
goods consumed are the produce of other countries.
Like their Spanish ancestors, the people are gay, fond of
exciting amusements, and little addicted to intellectual or
useful pursuits. Morality is lax among all ranks ; and there
is a great amount of gambling and other kinds of dissipation.
The walking dress of the ladies is only to be met with in
this city and in Truxillo. It consists of two parts, called
the saya and the manto. The former of these is a tight-
fitting, but elastic petticoat, so made that the form of the
limbs is distinctly discernible. The manto is a thick veil
made of crimped black silk, drawn in by a band behind,
and fastened round the waist; but being drawn up over the
head, it is made to conceal the greater part of the face, and
often the whole of it except one eye. A rich coloured
shawl or scarf is sometimes thrown over the shoulders
under the manto, so as to hang down nearly to the feet.
The tight saya has been of late rather giving place to a
looser and more graceful garment of the same kind; and,
indeed, the costumes of England and France, which have
long been worn by the ladies when within doors, are now
becoming common as walking dresses.
The climate of Lima is very agreeable, although, perhaps,
somewhat enervating. In winter, the mean temperature is
64J 1', and in summer, 77° 6'. A light drizzly mist pre¬
vails between May and October, but rain seldom falls.
Earthquakes are of frequent occurrence, but the more de-
L I M
structive ones take place at intervals of from fifty to sixty Limbroch
years. In October 1746 a great number of important public . il
buildings and dwelling-houses were destroyed in Lima, ^rokurg.
The port of Callao was at the same time devastated by the
sea; and out of a population of about 5000 inhabitants,
only 200, according to Ulloa, escaped.
Lima was founded by Pizarro in 1535, and at that time
received the name of Ciudad de los Reyes (the City of the
Kings). Since 1537 it has been the capital city of Peru, and
the seat of the viceroys. In the sixteenth century it became
an archiepiscopal see. I he population of Lima is stained
with every variety of shade between black and white; and
this medley of race is not at all improved by the recent
introduction of Chinese to supply the place of the now libe¬
rated negro.
The number of inhabitants, at the outbreak of the revo¬
lution for independence in Upper Peru, in 1810, was esti¬
mated at upwards of 80,000; and in the work of Ledesma,
one of the judges of the Superior Court in the capital, pub¬
lished in 1853, he also states the population of Lima as then
above 80,000; and, including its sea-port of Callao, and
watering-place of Chorrillos, the whole population may be
estimated at 100,000. At the close of the war of indepen¬
dence the population of Lima was reduced to about 54,000;
but again, during General Castilla’s prosperous administra¬
tion, the capital, which is about 10 English miles in circum¬
ference, was rapidly repeopled from the provinces.
In 1854-55, the yellow fever entered for the first time,
and carried off its thousands; while in the valleys of the
interior, Cuzco, &c., upwards of 200,000 perished by this
epidemic.
LIMBORCH, Philip Van, a theologian of the Armi-
nian or Remonstrant party, was born at Amsterdam, 19th
June 1633. After receiving a good elementary education
in his native city, he entered the University of Utrecht
in 1652, and studied there for two years. In 1657 he
became minister of a Remonstrant church in Gouda;
and, in 1658, was transferred to Amsterdam, where, in
the following year, he added to his pastoral duties those
of professor of theology to his own sect. He died in 1712.
Many eminent men in foreign countries, and, among
others, Locke and Tillotson, were his correspondents. His
most important works are:—Prcestantmm ac eruditorum
virorum Epistolce Ecclesiastics et Theologies, Amsterdam,
1660, 1684, and 1704; Theologia Christiana, Amsterdam,
1686 and 1730, containing a full exposition of the tenets
of the Remonstrants; De Veritate Keligionis Christians,
Gouda, 1687 ; Historia Inquisitionis, Amsterdam, 1692,
translated into English, with an introduction by Dr Samuel
Chandler, London, 1731. An English translation of his
Theologia, with improvements from Wilkins, Tillotson,
Scott, and others, was published by W. Jones, in 2
volumes, London, 1702. Limborch also edited the works
of his relative, Episcopius.
LIMBURG, or Limbourg, a former province of the
Netherlands, now belonging partly to Holland and partly
to Belgium; bounded N. by Gelderland, E. by Rhenish
Prussia, S. by the province of Liege, W. by those of South
Brabant and Antwerp, andN.W. by that of North Brabant;
and lying between N. Lat. 50. 42. and 51. 47., and E. Long.
4.57. and 6.17. To Holland belong all those parts of the
province E. of the Maese, with the town of Maestricht, and
all N. of a line drawn north-westwards from that river near
Stephanswerd to a point near Hamont; the rest, or south¬
western portion of the province, belongs to Belgium. The
area of the whole amounts to 1784 square miles, of which
932 are contained in Belgian Limburg, and 852 in Dutch
Limburg. The physical aspect and products of both por¬
tions are very similar. The surface is flat, and in the
N. occupied by an extensive marsh called the Peel; while
on the Belgian side a considerable tract is covered with
L I M
L I M
Lime moor and sandy plains. The River Maese traverses the
(] province throughout its entire length, and receives seve-
Limerick. rai tributaries, the chief being the Roer, which joins it
at Roermond, in the Dutch portion. Along the banks of
that river the soil is well adapted to agricultural purposes,
and produces grain of various kinds, flax, hemp, tobacco,
rape seed, madder, and fruits. Extensive and well-stocked
pasturages occupy the western parts of both Belgian and
Dutch Limburg, but especially the former, where horse
breeding and the tending of bees are carried on to some
extent; while, among the Hollanders, pig rearing and the
dairy receive more attention. In minerals the province is
deficient. Some lime quarries are worked in the S.,
where also iron, calamine, and lead exist to a small extent;
while coal, potters’ earth, and building stone are found in
the N. The manufactures are more important, and are
about equally numerous in both parts. Among the Bel¬
gians the principal articles of manufacture are beet-root
sugar, salt, tobacco, soap, and straw hats; besides which,
the Dutch manufacture cotton, paper, glass, and gin. The
following shows the area, arable acreage, and population of
the province:—
Province.
Belgian Limburg
Dutch Limburg ..
Total
596,372
545,006
1,141,378
Arable
acreage.
243,442
352,259
595,701
Pop. 1850.
188,198
205,261
393,459
Pop. 1855.
193,550
210,831
404,381
The history of this province is intimately connected with
the foreign and civil wars of the Low Countries. It was a
duchy, and formed one of the United Provinces under the
rule of Charles V. of Spain. It was ceded to France by
the Batavian republic in 1795, but afterwards was restored
to the Netherlands. After the revolution of 1830, however,
it was, according to the treaty of 1839, divided between
Holland and Belgium ; the former giving to its portion the
title of Duchy. The capital of Dutch Limburg is Maes-
tricht, with 27,000 inhabitants; and of Belgian Limburg,
Hasselt, with a population of 10,000.
LIME. See Chemistry {Calcium), and Building.
LIMERICK, an inland county of the province of Mun¬
ster, in Ireland, is bounded on the N. by the estuary of the
Shannon (from which it derives the advantages of a mari¬
time county) and Tipperary, on the E. by the same county,
on the S. by the county of Cork, and on the W. by Kerry.
According to the ordnance survey, it comprises an area of
1061 square miles, or 680,842 acres, of which 526,876 are
arable, 121,101 uncultivated, 11,575 in plantations, 2759
in towns, and 18,531 under water. Of the 121,000 acres
of uncultivated land, it has been estimated that 30,000 acres
might be improved for cultivation, 40,000 acres might be
drained for pasture, and 51,000 acres, situate chiefly on
the high levels in the Galtees and Slieve Phelim Mountains,
may be considered as unimprovable.
It was formerly inhabited by the tribe of the Velaborii.
The principal Irish families in the county were the O’Briens,
O’Gradys, O’Gormans, M‘Enerys, M‘Sheehys, Moronys,
M‘Mahons, and O’Quins. At the commencement of the
thirteenth century, the Anglo-Norman proprietors, who had
obtained grants of land, introduced colonists, chiefly from
Bristol and Chester, into the rich lands about the city of
Limerick and the northern part of the county. In 1586,
the estates of the Earl of Desmond became forfeited, and
those situate in this county, amounting to nearly 100,000
acres, were granted by the crown to Sir William Courtenay,
Sir George Bourchier, Sir George Thornton, Sir Henry
Uthered, Sir Henry Billingsley, Robert Annesley, William
Carter, Edward Mannering, Robert Stroude, William Tren-
chard, Edward Barkeley, and Richard Fitton. Much of it
was confiscated in the time of Cromwell, since which period
the proprietorship of the soil has mostly devolved upon
settlers of English descent. The county is now divided
into the fourteen baronies of Clan william, Upper and Lower
Connello, Coonagh, Coshlea, Coshma, Glenquin, Kenry,
Kilmallock, North Liberties, Owneybeg, Pubblebrien,
Shanid, and Small County, which are again subdivided into
131 parishes.
According to the ecclesiastical arrangements of the coun¬
try, the county is in Limerick and Emly dioceses, and three
or four parishes in those of Cashel and Killaloe. The see
of Limerick is one of the few unaffected by the changes
introduced into the ecclesiastical divisions of Ireland. It
is still, as before, united with those of Ardfert and Aghadoe
in Kerry. The cathedral, an ancient structure of consider¬
able extent, but of no external beauty, stands in the city of
Limerick; and the bishop’s palace, a modern mansion, is
situate on the bank of the Shannon, at the western extre¬
mity of the city. The chapter consists of a dean, precentor,
chancellor, treasurer, and archdeacon, and has eleven pre¬
bendaries. The see of Emly, united with that of Cashel,
has thirty-eight parishes in the county of Limerick, and
twenty in Tipperary.
The face of the country, though diversified by numerous
small hills, is not mountainous, except on the S.E., where
it is bounded by the Galtees, the finest inland range of
mountains in Ireland, which rise to an elevation of 3008
feet, and extend into the adjoining county of Tipperary.
On the borders of Kerry the surface also rises into a grand
amphitheatre of low but steep mountains, that spread them¬
selves out in a wide curve from Loghill to Dromcollogher.
The Shannon forms the boundary of the greater portion of
the northern part of the county, and is navigable for large
vessels from Limerick to the sea. That portion of the
river between Limerick and Killaloe (12 miles) is not na¬
vigable, on account of the rapids and shallows which occur.
The River Shannon, which measures 240 miles in length
from its source to the sea, has a total fall of 174 feet, 97
of which are within those 12 miles. The only river of any
size is the Maig, which rises in the Galtees, and discharges
itself into the Shannon, W. of Limerick. It is navigable
by barges from the Shannon to the town of Adare. The
Feale and the Gale, which rise in the western mountain
range, are considered as belonging to Kerry, and the Black-
water, which rises in the same range, to Cork. The county
is well watered by numerous smaller streams. There are
no lakes of any importance in this county.
The soil in the level parts is considered as the richest in
Ireland. Arthur Young said of this county and Tipperary:
“ It is the richest soil I ever saw, and such as is applicable
to every wish. It will fatten the largest bullock, and at the
same time do equally well for sheep, for tillage, for turnips,
for wheat, for beans, and, in a word, for every crop and
circumstance of profitable husbandry.” The Golden Vale,
a district which obtained its name from the remarkable
exuberance of its fertility, lies mostly in this county. Along
the banks of the Shannon are large tracts of marsh land,
called Caucasses, also celebrated for their richness; a cir¬
cumstance attributed to the quantity of alluvial mould de¬
posited there by the Shannon when it overflows its banks.
In a geological point of view the low country forms part of
the great limestone plain of Ireland; but the mountainous
district in the S. and W. consists chiefly of the old red
sandstone, with clay-slate appearing in the loftier portions
of the county. After leaving Lough Derg, the River Shannon
passes through a gorge in this mountain range at Killaloe,
and is precipitated down the rapids of Doonas and Castle-
roy towards Limerick. At Castleconnel, a town beau¬
tifully situate, is a fine chalybeate spring, of great celebrity
from its sanative effects.
The number of inhabitants at the following periods was:—
487
Limerick.
488
Limerick.
LIME
1760 De Burgho 92,376
1792 Beaufort 170,000
1821 Parliamentary return 27 7,477
1831 Ditto 315,355
1841 Ditto   330,029
1851 Ditto 262,136
The Irish language is understood by nearly thirty per
cent, of the population, and upwards of 7000 cannot speak
English. As regards the religious persuasion of the inha¬
bitants, there are no accurate returns, but there can be no
doubt that the Roman Catholics form at least nine-tenths of
the population of this county.
The number of schools in the city and county of Limerick,
and the children attending them, in the week ended 12th
April 1851, was:—
City of Limerick.
National 
Diocesan 
Endowed 
Boarding 
Private 
Parochial 
Free 
Military 
Workhouse 
Charitable Boarding.,
Total.
County of Limerick.
National  
Church Education 
Endowed 
Private 
Parochial  
Free 
Mission 
Workhouse 
Total.
No. of
Schools
4
1
4
6
41
2
4
1
2
2
67
60
7
1
160
25
1
1
19
274
No. of Scholars.
Male. Female. Total
20
237
66
848
55
881
16
792
2915
2,764
185
24
3,762
626
46
32
2,814
10,253
1255
278
148
419
122
24
18
854
47
3165
2632
133
28
2764
555
87
42
2077
8318
1255
20
515
214
1267
177
905
34
1646
47
6080
5,396
318
52
6,526
1,181
133
74
4,891
18,571
At the same period, in the city of Limerick, 37£ per cent.,
and in the county 51 per cent., of the population, five years
old and upwards, are returned as being unable to read or
write.
The county returned eight members to the Irish par¬
liament : two for the county at large, two for the city of
Limerick, and two for each of the boroughs of Askeaton
and Kilmallock. The boroughs having been disfranchised
at the Union, the number of representatives sent to the im¬
perial parliament was fixed at three—two for the county,
and one for the city. The Reform Act added one represen¬
tative to the latter place.
The land in the level parts is divided into large farms,
many of which are almost exclusively devoted to grazing.
In the more hilly region the farms are smaller, and in some
parts cut up into holdings much too small for the profitable
culture of the soil, or the comfortable support of the culti¬
vators. In the year 1709, a colony of Palatines, brought
from Germany by Lord Southwell, settled near BrufF, Rath-
keale, and Adare. They tended much to improve the state
of agriculture, as also that of the linen manufacture. The
rich lands on the borders of the rivers produce a kind of
flax very different from that of the north; it grows to a
great height, and is well adapted for sail-cloth. Hemp was
formerly cultivated extensively on the lands of the same
quality. The exportation of cattle and grain is very con¬
siderable, constituting the main source of the wealth of the
inhabitants.
RICK.
The extent of land under each description of crop in Limerick.
1854, 1855, and 1856, was :— v x-w'
1851.
Acres.
Wheat    14 407
Oats  45,009
Barley, Bere, Rye, Beans,
and Pease  15,343
Potatoes  33 282
Turnips  11,612
Other Green Crops  2,749
Flax  316
Meadow and Clover  69,117
1855.
Acres.
17,149
45,455
12,057
35,723
11,394
2,771
243
71,292
1856.
Acres.
22,577
42,131
7,537
43,428
9,860
2,877
230
72,330
Total  191,855 196,084 200,970
The quantity of live stock in the county in 1854-56 was
as follows:—
1854.
No.
Horses  17,111
Cattle   158,874
Sheep  86,376
Pigs  69,214
1855.
No.
17,206
159,710
80,914
61,733
1856.
No.
17,782
160,421
77,156
50,346
The occupations of the people are almost exclusively
agricultural. Their dwellings are poor, their food chiefly
the potato ; their fuel is turf, except in the immediate neigh¬
bourhood of the city, where British coal is much used.
The county possesses many remains of antiquity. The
most remarkable of the ancient monastic buildings are in
the city of Limerick, where, besides the cathedral, there
was a Dominican friary founded by Carbreagh O’Brien,
King of Thomond, in which he was interred. Some remains
of the monument erected to his memory still exist. In the
same city was an Augustinian friary, a convent of black
nuns, a Franciscan friary, and a preceptory of knights-
templars, besides several other minor religious establish¬
ments. Amongst the most admired of the many fine monastic
ruins in various parts of the county is the Abbey of Adare.
The city of Limerick, the capital of the county, is situate
on the Shannon, about 100 miles from its mouth, partly on
an island, and partly on the mainland. It is the fourth
city in Ireland in population and importance, being sur¬
passed in these respects only by Dublin, Belfast, and Cork.
The number of its inhabitants, in 1851, was 48,961. The
city consists of three principal divisions,—the old town,
divided into Irish and English Town ; and Newtown Pery.
The first is the most ancient, having been built before the
arrival of the English in 1172. The second occupies King’s
Island, on the Shannon, and was formerly a strongly for¬
tified position; both these portions consist chiefly of poor
streets, and low village-like houses. The third was com¬
menced in 1769, by Mr Sexton Pery, from whom it takes
its name. It is laid out along the eastern banks of the river
in streets, intersecting each other at right angles with geo¬
metrical precision, and contains many handsome streets of
elegant houses, and squares, and public buildings of con¬
siderable pretensions. The city was formerly considered
as the strongest place in Ireland. In 1174 it was taken
by the English, but shortly afterwards evacuated and burned,
to prevent its occupation being serviceable to the enemy.
In 1651 it was taken by Ireton, Cromwell’s lieutenant-
general, after a vigorous resistance; and in 1690, its gar¬
rison baffled the army of King William, who conducted the
siege in person ; but it surrendered on terms the next year
to General De Ginkel, on which occasion the celebrated
treaty of Limerick was concluded. Most of the walls and
gates have been demolished, and quays, warehouses, and
streets, built on their site. The different parts of the town
are connected with each other by bridges, of which the most
remarkable, Thomond Bridge, leading from King John’s
Castle to Thomond Gate, has been lately rebuilt; and
Wellesley Bridge, erected in 1827, one of the finest speci-
L I M LIN 489
Limited mens of this kind of architecture in the island. Besides
Liability the cathedral, and three parish churches, and two chapels
II of ease of the Established church, there are eight Roman
Limoges.^ Qat}10];c p]aces of worship. The Methodists, Presbyterians,
Baptists, Independents, and Quakers have each a meeting¬
house. The chief public buildings are,—the court-house,
the custom-house, the gaol, the commercial buildings, the
lunatic asylum, the union w'orkhouse, &c. The city was ori¬
ginally incorporated by King John, whose charter was con¬
firmed and extended by several succeeding sovereigns. It
was first governed by a bailiff, but obtained the privilege of
electing mayors and sheriffs ten years before that right was
conferred on London. The corporation, styled the “ Mayor,
Aldermen, and Burgesses of Limerick,” now consists of 8
aldermen and 32 town-councillors. The charitable endow¬
ments are numerous, and some of them extensive. The
manufacture of linen has been revived of late years; and
Limerick is also celebrated for the manufacture of lace,
gloves, and fishing-hooks. There are also several brew¬
eries, distilleries, tanneries, foundries, and flour-mills. The
exports chiefly consist of provisions and grain. The im¬
ports are,—coal, turf, timber, wine, spirits, and all articles
of British and foreign production. The navigation from
the Atlantic to the city is open and secure, and the inland
navigation connects it with Dublin and all the intermediate
line of country. Vessels of 1000 tons can approach within
five miles of the city, and those of 600 tons can unload at
its quays. The harbour extends about 1600 yards in
length, and 150 in breadth, with from 2 to 9 feet at low
water, and 19 at spring tides. In 1835 the exports were
valued at L.726,430, and in 1842, at L.1,200,000. The
number of vessels entered inwards, in 1855, was 601, of
83,585 tons. Eleven vessels, of about 1760 tons in all,
belonged to Limerick shipowners in 1832. In 1855, 88
vessels, of 12,090 tons, were registered as belonging to
the port.
The other towns of some note in the county are,—Rath-
keale, Shanagolden, Ballingarry, Newcastle, Adare, Askea-
ton, and Castleconnell. Kilmallock is more remarkable for
its remaining vestiges of former greatness than for its pre¬
sent condition. It was the second town in the county,
having a charter of incorporation, being surrounded by sub¬
stantial fortifications, and consisting of a number of large
houses, durably constructed of cut stone, and belonging to
the age of Elizabeth and James I. (h. s—R.)
LIMITED LIABILITY. See Partnership.
LIMOGES (ancient Auyxistontum Lemovicum), a town
of Central France, formerly capital of the province of Li¬
mousin, now of the department of Haute-Vienne, on the
right bank of the Vienne River, here crossed by three
bridges, 115 miles N.E. of Bordeaux ; N. Lat. 45. 49. 52.,
E. Long. 1. 15. 36. It is situate on an acclivity, which
rises from the water side; the older parts of the town oc¬
cupying the ground near the river, while the new town
stretches over the summit of the hill. The streets of the
former are narrow and tortuous, with mostly timber-built
houses ; but the modern portion has been elegantly laid out
in regular streets and squares, with public fountains. In
place of the old fortifications, boulevards now encircle the
town, which is also adorned by many interesting edifices.
The chief building, the cathedral of St Etienne, was begun
m t‘le thirteenth, and received additions up to the sixteenth
century, when it was left still unfinished. It is of granite,
and in the Gothic style of architecture, but is much muti¬
lated , and, with the exception of bas-reliefs representing the
labours of Hercules, and the tomb of Bishop Langeac, con¬
tains nothing worthy of notice. The church of St Michel-
aux-Lions, erected in the fourteenth century, occupies the
highest site in Limoges, and is rendered still more promi¬
nent by its spire and tower, which rise far above all the
adjacent buildings. Among the other remarkable edifices
VOL. XIII.
are the episcopal palace, a handsome structure built of gra- Limousin
nite; and the church of St Aurelian, with a very elaborately . II
carved cross in front. The town also contains a college,
a public library, with 12,000 volumes, a school of medicine,
and several hospitals. It is the see of a bishop, and has
courts of appeal, tribunals of first instance and commerce,
and a council of prud’hommes. The trade of the place is
important, and embraces principally the products and re¬
quirements of the surrounding country. It has likewise a
large trade with the southern departments of France in
grain, wine, brandy, liqueurs, and chestnuts; besides salt,
iron, tin, and enamel. Kaolin clay, which abounds in the
vicinity, is made here into excellent porcelain, and is also
sent as raw material in large quantities to Sevres. Cloth,
worsted, woollens, paper, crucibles, and papier-mache are
the other chief articles of manufacture. A large monthly
cattle-market is held here, and nine annual fairs.
In ancient times Limoges was the chief city of the Le-
movices, and was much enlarged and improved under the
Romans ; a theatre, a citadel, and temples were erected, of
which no remains are now extant. At the fall of the Roman
empire, however, it was pillaged by the Vandals and Visi¬
goths, and was afterwards taken in succession by the Franks
and Normans. In modern times it has suffered much from
sieges. Having revolted from the Plantagenets, it was be¬
sieged by Edward the Black Prince in 1370, taken by
assault, and its inhabitants delivered over to the English
soldiers, who treated them with great barbarity. It was re¬
covered by the French two years after. The town was the
birthplace of many great men, of whom the chief are,—
Pope Clement VI., the Chancellor d’Aguesseau, Vergniaud
the republican orator, Marshal Jourdan, and Cruveilhier the
physician. Pop. (1851) 37,010.
LIMOUSIN, or Limosin, a former province of Central
France, now represented by the department of Correze and
the greater part of that of Haute-Vienne.
LIMOUX, a town of France, capital of a cognominal
arrondissement, department of Aude, 18 miles S.S.W. of
Carcassone. It is pleasantly situate in a fertile valley of
the N. Pyrenees, on both sides of the Aude, and is sur¬
rounded with vineyards, where the celebrated Blanquette
and Limoux wines are made. The town is well laid out,
and possesses several public fountains. There are also a
college, a theatre, an hospital, and tribunals of first instance
and of commerce. The manufactures of the place comprise
broadcloths, woollens, soap, leather, and oil; and a brisk
trade in wines and iron is carried on. Pop. (1851) 7188.
LINACRE, Thomas, a learned physician, was born
about 1460, at Canterbury, and educated there under the
accomplished William Selling. After studying at Oxford,
and becoming fellow of All-Souls’ College in 1484, he set
out for Italy with his former instructor Selling, who had
been appointed ambassador from Henry VII. to the court
of Rome. Settling down at Florence, he was permitted by
Lorenzo de’ Medici to attend his sons’ preceptors, and pro¬
gressed rapidly in Greek under Chalcondylas, and in Latin
under Angelo Poliziano. He then removed to Rome,
where, applying himself to the study of natural philosophy
and physic, he became more intimate with Aristotle and
Galen in the original than any Englishman before him.
On his return to England he received the degree of M.D.,
and the appointment of public professor of physic from the
University of Oxford; but was called to court by Henry
VII. to be physician and tutor to Prince Arthur. He was
afterwards successively physician to Henry VII., Henry
VIII. , and the Princess Mary. In the reign of Henry
VIII. he founded two lectures on physic at Oxford and
one at Cambridge; and in 1518, chiefly through his influ¬
ence, letters-patent were issued for the foundation of the
College of Physicians in London, vesting in that body the
right of examining all medical practitioners in the capital,
3q
490 LIN
Linares and within 7 miles around it, and of licensing all physicians
1! throughout the rest of the kingdom who were not graduates
Lincoln. 0p Oxford and Cambridge. Of this college Linacre was
the first president, and held that office till his death. Hav¬
ing commenced to study divinity late in life, he was pre¬
sented in 1509 to the rectory of Mersham, a benefice which
he exchanged in the same year for a prebend in the church
of Wells. In 1518 he became a prebendary, and in 1519
precentor in the Church of York. Resigning the latter
office, he obtained more preferments, and, among others, a
prebend in St Stephen’s Chapel, Westminster, and the rec¬
tory of Wigan, in Lancashire. He died under a severe
attack of the stone, on the 20th of October 1524, and was
buried in St Paul’s Cathedral. Thirty years afterwards, a
monument was erected over his grave by Dr Caius.
Linacre was esteemed in his own day, not less for his
private virtues than for his unrivalled skill as a physician.
His character as a scholar is established on the high autho¬
rity of Erasmus, who says, “ that his translations of Galen
speak better Latin than before they ever spoke Greek.”
As a restorer of classical learning in England, he ranks
with Colet, Lily, Grocyn, and William Latimer.
His translations from Galen are,—T)e Temperamentis,
Cambr. 1521; De tuenda Sanitate, Cambr. 1517, Paris,
1530; De Methodo Medendi, Paris, 1526; DeNaturalibus
Facultatibus, London, 1523 and 1723; De Pulsuum Usu,
London, 1522; De Spmptomatum Differentiis unus liber ;
Ejusdem de Symptomatum Causis libri tres, London, 1524.
His other works are,—A translation of Proclus de Splicer a,
printed in the Astronomi Veteres of 1499; De Emendata
Structura Latini Sermonis libri sex, London, 1524, fre¬
quently reprinted; The Rudiments of Grammar, written
for the use of the Princess Mary, and translated into Latin
by George Buchanan. In conjunction with Grocyn and
Latimer, he began a translation of Aristotle, which was
never finished.
LINARES, a townofSpain, province of Jaen, onaplain
near the right bank of the Guadalimar, and under the Sierra
Morena, 23 miles N.N.E. of Jaen. It has long been cele¬
brated for its mines of lead and copper, which are still very
productive. Near it was won Scipio’s great victory over
Hannibal; and the chief fountain of the town is supposed
to be of Roman origin. Pop. about 7000.
LINCOLN, an ancient city of England, capital of the
county of that name, 132 miles N.W. from London. It is
situate on the summit and declivity of a considerable and
very steep eminence which rises on the N. side of the River
Witham at its confluence with the Foss Dyke Canal. Lin¬
coln occupies the site of the Roman Station Lindum, the
form of which may still be clearly traced ; and one of the
most interesting objects in the city is the ancient Roman
archway called Newport Gate, which formed the barrier on
the north side of the city. The town, as a whole, is not well
built; and the streets leading from the lower to the upper
town are too steep to be ascended by carriages, which
make use of another road round the face of the hill with¬
out the city. The chief attraction of Lincoln is its cathe¬
dral, which stands on the very summit of the hill, and thus,
both from its situation and its stately and towering grandeur,
forms a conspicuous and magnificent object. It was
founded in 1086, but was rebuilt subsequently to a fire in
1126, by which the greater part of it wTas destroyed. Its form
is that of a very long double cross, with a transverse limb
at the west end, like a pedestal made by the unusual breadth
of the west front. There are two towers at the western front,
each 180 feet high, and one great central tower 300 feet in
height. Its interior dimensions are,—entire length, 482 feet;
width oi choir and nave, 80 feet; height of ditto, 80 feet;
width ofwestfront,174feet; length of principal transepts, 222
feet; breadth of ditto, 66 feet. The west front, two circular
windows, the choir and screen, and the Lady Chapel, are
LIN
peculiarly beautiful and interesting. The celebrated bell, the Lincoln-
Great Tom of Lincoln, cast in 1610, was cracked in 1827, and . shire.,
broken up in 1834 to form, with six others, the present large “v—-/
bell, and two quarter bells, now in the central tower. It is 6
feet 10£ inches in diameter at the mouth, and weighs 5 tons
8 cwt.,—nearly a ton more than the old bell. On the north
side of the cathedral are the cloisters, in which is pre¬
served a Roman pavement. The library contains some
curious specimens of Roman antiquities. In the cathe¬
dral are numerous monuments, including those of Cathe¬
rine Swinford, wife of John of Gaunt, their daughter Joan*
Countess of Westmoreland, and several bishops and deans
of the cathedral; but many of the older monuments have
been removed, or were totally destroyed during the civil
wars. The other buildings worthy of notice are the chapter
house, the ruins of the bishop’s palace, destroyed during
the civil wars, the remains of the castle, with the county
jail and court-house, guild-hall, city jail, assembly rooms,
theatre, &c. The city abounds in antiquities, and espe¬
cially in monastic and other ecclesiastical remains. There are
thirteen other churches of the Establishment (only about one-
fourth of the numbersaid to be standing atthe Reformation),
besides various dissenting places of worship. There are also
a free grammar school, mechanics’ institute, mutual improve*-
ment society, libraries, museum, county hospital, dispensary,
lunatic asylum, &c. The markets of Lincoln have, within
the last few years, been greatly enlarged and improved. It
carries on a large trade in flour by means of the Foss Dyke
Canal, connecting the Witham and Trent, and the railways
which connect it with all parts of the kingdom. There are
several large steam flour mills and several breweries in
the town. Lincoln at the time of the Norman Conquest
was one of the most important places in the kingdom.
William the Conqueror caused a strong castle to be erected
here in 1086. King Stephen was defeated and taken pri-
sonc rhere in 1141 by Robert, Earl of Gloucester, natural
brother to the Empress Maud. Lincoln was the scene of
important operations during the civil wars in the reign of
King John ; and here the party of the Dauphin was com¬
pletely overthrown by the Earl of Pembroke, during the
minority of Henry' III. During the great civil war, the
royalists obtained possession of the city, but it was stormed
by the parliamentary army under the Earl of Manchester,
5th May 1644. Lincoln is governed by a mayor, 6 aider-
men, and 18 councillors, and returns two members to
parliament. Pop. (1851) 17,536.
LINCOLNSHIRE, a maritime county of England, on
the E. coast, bounded N. by the estuary of the Humber,
N.W. by Yorkshire, W. by the Trent and Nottingham¬
shire, S.W. by the counties of Leicester and Rutland, S.
by those of Northampton and Cambridge, and E. by the
North Sea. It is 73 miles in length from N. to S., by 46
miles in breadth; and contains an area of 2776 square
miles, or 1,776,738 acres, being the second largest county
in England. The shire is divided into three trithings or
districts, viz.,—Lindsey, Kesteven, and Holland. The
first is by far the largest division, and includes the whole
of N. Lincolnshire; its boundary line reaching as far
S. as the Foss Dyke and River Witham ; following the
course of the latter to a point opposite Thornton-le-Fen,
where it crosses the country to the sea near Friskney.
Kesteven trithing, on the other hand, comprehends the S.W.
part of the county, while Holland occupies the flat lands
of the Wash. These divisions are again subdivided into
wapentakes, sokes, and hundreds; amounting, in all, to
thirty parts.
The aggregate population of the whole county was, in
1821, 283,058 ; in 1831, 317,465 ; in 1841, 362,602; and
in 1851, 407,222. The numbers of males and females in
1851 were,—males, 205,083; females, 202,139; showing
a marked deficiency in the latter* Of towns containing
lincolnshike.
Lincoln- more than 5000 inhabitants, in 1851, in this county, there streams. In the trithing of Holland, especially, draining has
shire, were eight, viz., Lincoln, with 17,536; Boston, 17,518; been carried on so universally, that it is difficult to discover
v'*''' Great Grimsby, 12,263 ; Grantham, 10,813; Louth, 10,467; whether the streams are natural or conducted by the hand
Stamford, 8933 ; Spalding, 7627 ; Gainsborough, 7506. of man. This system, indeed, has rendered the soil of this
In relation to the character of its surface, Lincolnshire part of Lincolnshire one of the most productive in England,
may again be divided into three parts—the Wolds, the when, formerly, it was little better than moor or bog.
Heaths, and the Fens; which occupy positions correspond- The climate of the shire is as good as in most of the other
ing generally with the three territorial divisions mentioned English counties, except in those flat lands that have not
above. The Wolds are chalk downs which traverse the N. been thoroughly drained, where cases of ague are not un¬
part of the county, fiom Barton to Burgh, in a S.E. direc- frequent among the inhabitants. The soil is varied, but
tion for nearly 50 miles, and have an average breadth of 6 generally very rich. In the Fens it produces excellent
miles. They form the back-bone of the geological forma- pasture, and in some parts extraordinary crops of grain,
tion of the shire; and are skirted on the W. by a band of particularly oats. Here, however, the w ater is bad; and
green-sand and one of iron-sand, which form another range still considerable tracts of land are fit for no more profitable
of uplands running almost parallel with the Wolds. The purpose than the breeding and rearing of geese. These
Heaths occupy the land W. of the Wolds, stretching N. and are kept principally for the sake of their5 quills and feathers,
S. from the Humber to Grantham. Their formation belongs which are plucked four or five times in the year. During
to the Oxford clay, and widens in extent as it proceeds breeding season they are lodged in wicker pens, closely at-
southwards until it ultimately dips under the fen land near tended by a herd. The Fens were long the resort of vast
the last-named town. The north-western corner of the flocks of wild fowl, the entrapping of which formed an im-
shire is occupied by Permian strata, which follow the Trent portant branch of employment to the inhabitants; but of late
into Nottingham, and westwards into York. Gypsum is years their numbers have been so reduced that they now
found in the Isle of Axholme. The Fens cover the rest of only engage the attention of the sportsman. The aquatic
Lincolnshire, from Wainfleet in the N., to the southern birds which still frequent the marshy portions of Holland
boundaries of the county, occupying the greater part of the are chiefly swans, wild geese, mallards, shovellers, godwits,
district called Holland. They are intersected in every and occasionally spoonbills. Agriculture is conducted with
direction by drains, some of which are navigable; and the considerable skill and judgment in this county; and the
soil is now very productive. (See Bedford Level.) land produces ample crops of w heat, oats, barley, and beans,
The principal rivers in the county are the Trent, Wi- and in some parts hemp and flax. In the Wolds, where
tham, Ancholme, Welland, and Nene, with their tribu- the soil is chalky, sainfoin is sometimes grown besides the
taries. The first enters Lincolnshire from Notts, a little usual crops; while cabbages and carrots are found to suc-
above Rampton, when it becomes the boundary between ceed well in those parts of the W. and S.E. of the county
the two shires, and continues to be so until it receives, where the soil is found most suited for their production,
on the left, the waters of the Idle. About a mile below Wherever the soil is apt to grow thin, the farmers here are
its junction with that stream, the Trent leaves Netting- in the habit of making the streams or “ cuts” overflow their
ham, and flows in a northerly course through Lincolnshire banks, and thus deposit a layer of rich silt on which beans,
for nearly 20 miles, when it falls into the Humber, by a oats, and woad are produced. But however well adapted
mouth a mile in wddth. The Trent becomes navigable some parts of Lincolnshire are to the growing of grain, it is
for vessels drawing 12 feet of water at Gainsborough; undoubtedly on the whole a pastoral county, as it has per-
whilst its waters are affected by the tide for some miles haps the richest grass grown in the kingdom. Breeding
above that town. It forms the eastern boundary of the Isle and rearing of cattle, sheep, and horses, for the London
of Axholme, which is inclosed on the S. by the Idle, and on market, form the main pursuits of the population. The two
the W. by the old River Don. The former stream is navi- original breeds of cattle in the county were the Lincoln-
gable for small craft as far up as E. Retford. Although shire short-horned, and Leicestershire long-horned; but
not so large as the Trent, the Witham is the most impor- these have been much improved by frequent and judicious
tant river of Lincolnshire. It rises in Rutland, enters Lin- crossings, and the oxen of Lincolnshire are now proverbial
coin near S. Witham, and flow's northwards through a com- for their excellence. There are also many cattle from other
paratively high valley to Grantham. From this it con- parts fattened here for the metropolitan market. Of sheep,
tinues, for a short distance, its northern course, then turns the principal breeds are the native Lincoln and New
to the W.; and again, at Long Bennington, changes to Leicester. The former are of large size, and produce
N.E., in wffiich direction it flows to the towm of Lincoln, heavy fleeces of long wool. Their flesh, however, has a
where it receives the Brant on the left. Here the river rankish flavour, and is not generally relished. The New
becomes navigable for barges, and is connected with Leicester, on the other hand, obtained by crossing the
the Trent by the Foss Dyke Canal. Here, also, it enters on native race with other breeds, has now become more
the flat lands, flowing first E. as far as Bardney, where the numerous, and is highly prized. The total number of
Langworth and S. Beck are received on the left; then, sheep in the county has been estimated at twro millions
turning gradually to the S.E., reaches Tattershall, where it and a half, and the yearly produce of wool at twenty mil-
°n ^ Sleaford, and on the left by lion pounds. Lincolnshire has also been long famous for
the Bain. From lattershall to Boston the Witham occu- its breed of horses, including drays, hunters, and carriage
pies an artificial bed; but from the latter town to the Wash horses. They are generally reared on the uplands, but
it keeps its natural course. Vessels of 300 tons can ascend to afterwards removed to the “ flats,” to get flesh before being
Boston.. North Lincolnshire is drained by the Ancholme, sent to Horncastle, the great horse market of the shire,
whidi rises near Spridlington, flows northwards till it enters Some good breeds of swine are to be found in the county,
the Humber, near Ferraby, and is navigable for about 20 but less attention has been directed to them than to cattle,
miles. The Welland enters South Lincolnshire at Stamford, Stilton cheese is made here, but there are few large
where it is navigable, and keeps an eastern course to Mar- dairies, as most of the farmers keep milk cows only lor
p t . eePin£’ m^es therefrom it penetrates the county domestic use. Manufacture is almost wholly wanting in
ot Lincoln ; and, after receiving the Glen near its mouth, Lincolnshire, and trade is consequently confined to natural
enters the Wash. Connected with all these rivers, there produce, such as grain, cattle, wool, and feathers. In
are extensive drainage and canal systems, which have, in minerals it is likewise deficient, with the exception of ex-
some cases, taken the place of the natural courses of the cellent freestone, quarried near Ancaster, in Kesteven; sul-
491
Lincoln¬
shire.
492 L I N C O L
Lincoln- phate of lime, found in the Isle of Axholme ; and some lime
shire, burnt in the Wolds. Means of communication are, how-
v v—* everj abundant both by rail and canal, as well as by the sea
coast. The Great Northern Railroad crosses the S.W.
corner of the county through Grantham, and sends a branch
along its eastern border by Spalding, Boston, Alford, and
Louth to Great Grimsby, with a sub-branch from Boston
to Lincoln. From the Midland Railway at Nottingham a
line goes to Lincoln, and thence, by Market-Rasen, to
Blanford Brigg; while the Manchester and Sheffield line
sends a branch by Gainsborough to the same place, and
then northwards to New Holland, and southwards to Great
Grimsby. Canals are still more numerous; in fact, no
county in the United Kingdom is so well supplied with
such channels of communication. The principal ones are
the Foss Dyke, connecting the Trent and Witham; the
Car Dyke, connecting the Welland and Witham; the
Stainforth and Keadley Canal, connecting the Don and
Trent, across the Isle of Axholme; the Louth Canal, run¬
ning between that town and the Humber; the Sleaford
Navigation, communicating with the Witham; and the
Grantham and Nottingham Canal. The sea coasts of Lin¬
colnshire are not, however, favourable for navigation. From
the Wash to the Firth of Humber, the shore is low and
lined with sandbanks, except near Grimsby, where it rises
into cliffs. In the basin of the Wash are many sandbanks
which become dry at low water; the greatest depth of
water is at Boston Deeps, where it averages from 3 to 8
fathoms. A sea-wall extends also along the coast of this
' estuary from the Welland to the Nene, to protect the land
from the encroachments of the sea. There are three chief
seaports in Lincolnshire,—New Holland, on the Humber,
, opposite Hull; Great Grimsby, at the mouth of the Humber,
carrying on a pretty extensive foreign trade; and Boston,
on the Witham, 6 miles from the sea, which exports the
produce of the county, and imports from the Baltic. Gains¬
borough, situate on the Trent, 21 miles from the Humber,
has also a considerable export and import trade ; vessels of
300 tons being able to ascend to the town.
Lincolnshire returns 13 members to parliament,—2 from
Lindsey, or North Lincoln ; 2 from Kestevenand Holland,
or South Lincoln ; and 9 from the boroughs of Lincoln (2),
Boston (2), Grantham (2), Stamford (2), and Great
Grimsby (1). The place of election for North Lincoln is
Lincoln, and for South Lincoln, Sleaford. This county
also belongs to the Midland Circuit; and the assizes are held
in Lincoln, where the county jail is situate; while the
quarter sessions are held throughout the county. Accord¬
ing to the Poor Law Commission, the shire is divided into
the 14 unions of Boston, Bourne, Caistor, Gainsborough,
Glanford-Brigg, Grantham, Holbeach, Horncastle, Lincoln,
South Sleaford, Spalding, Spilsby, and Stamford. Eccle¬
siastically, the county belongs to the diocese of Lincoln and
province of Canterbury. In 1851 there were 1501 churches
in the shire, with 281,266 sittings. Of the former, 657
belonged to the Established Church, 703 to the Methodists,
62 to the Baptists, 38 to the Independents, and 13 to the
Roman Catholics. There were also in that year 1420 day
schools in the county, with an aggregate of 52,163 scholars ;
457 of the former being public, with 32,267 scholars; and 963
private, with 19,896 scholars. Of Sunday-schools in thesame
year, there were 830, with an aggregate of 57,120 scholars.
432 of these belonged to the Established Church, and 318
to the Methodists. There were also 23 literary and scien¬
tific institutions, with an aggregate of 22,654 volumes in
their libraries, and an average of 120 members to each
association. The principal mansion-houses in the county
are>—Aswarby Hall, Whichcote, Bart.; Belton Park, Earl
Brounlow; Blankney Hall, C. Chaplin, Esq.; Brocklesby
Park, Earl arborough; Buckminster, Lord Huntingtower;
Burton Hall, Lord Monson ; Casewick Hall, Sir J. Trollope,
N S H I R E.
Bart.; Coleby Hall, Sir C. Tempest, Bart.; Glentworth Lincoln-
Earl Scarborough; Grimsthorpe Castle, Lord Willoughby shire.
d’Eresby; Hainton Park, G. F. Heneage, Esq.; Harlaxton v—
House, G. Gregory, Esq.; Haverholme Priory, Earl Win-
chelsea; Nocton Park, Earl Ripon; Normanby Hall, Sir
R. Sheffield, Knt.; Redbourne, Duke of St Albans; Revesby
Abbey, J. B. Stanhope, Esq.; Riseholme Palace, Bishop
of Lincoln ; Somerly Hall, Sir T. Beckett, Bart.; Stubton
Hall, G. Nevile, Esq.; Thurby Hall, Sir E. G. Bromhead,
Bart; Uffington Hall, Earl Lindsey. When the Romans
conquered Britain, Lincolnshire seems to have been occu¬
pied by the Coritavi, or Coritani, who are mentioned by
Ptolemy as having Lindum and Rhage (Lincoln and Lei¬
cester) for their chief towns. After the subjugation of the
county, Lincolnshire formed part of the province of Flavia
Ccesariensis, a division the boundaries of which are given
only on the questionable authority of Rufus Festus, but
which seems to have comprised all the midland and eastern
counties of England. Ermine Street, with its two branches,
the Fosse way and Upper Saltway, was the road by which
the Romans kept up their communications through the pro¬
vince. The Upper Saltway communicated between the
salt works of Worcestershire and the coast. Lindum (Lin¬
coln), Causennce (probably Ancaster), Ad Ahum (probably
near Winterton), were the principal Roman stations; and
hypocausts, sarcophagi, urns, altars, coins, and tesselated
pavements have been found as traces of the Roman occu¬
pancy. At Scampton, a Roman villa of very large size was
traced in massive and well-preserved foundations. Two
camps, undoubtedly Roman, existed at Gainsborough and
Aukborough, with well-defined characteristics, as late as the
beginning of the present century ; and two others near Hol¬
beach and Grantham are known, but their antiquity is not
so certain. The Saxon province of Lindsey did not em¬
brace the whole of Lincolnshire; but we find the Saxon
Lindo-Collyne as the name of the capital, a word which
easily slid into the Nichol of the Normans, when they gained
possession of the county about the year 880. Lincolnshire
after this for med part of the Danelag, or territory ceded to the
Danes, and ultimately came under the Anglo-Saxon crown.
In the civil wars the most memorable events are the siege
of Lincoln (1141), and the insurrection of Sir Robert Wells
against Edward IV. At the Reformation an attempt was
made to resist the suppression of the monasteries, but it
was soon defeated. In the parliamentary wars Lincolnshire
was the scene of several actions. Charles I. captured
Grantham in 1642; and the parliamentary forces were vic¬
torious at Grantham, Ancaster, Gainsborough, and Horn¬
castle in that same year.
The antiquities of Lincolnshire are numerous. Almost
all the churches are fine specimens of ancient architecture ;
and it is somewhat remarkable that the most beautiful edi¬
fices are to be found in the lowest and most fenny situa¬
tions, when, at the time of their erection, the means of
communication must have been very limited ; yet, under
these disadvantages, were built the churches of Boston,
Pinchbeck, Spalding, Holbeach, and other places. The
ecclesiastical buildings in the division of Lindsey, with the
exception of Lincoln Cathedral, are generally inferior to
those in Kesteven and Holland ; but Barton-upon-Humber,
in that division, contains one of the only two churches in
England which are considered to be of undoubted Saxon
origin.
The other most interesting antiquities, besides the Ro¬
man and other remains in Lincoln itself, are Crowland
Abbey, which was founded in 716, and .was formerly a
place of great importance. Near it is the old triangular
bridge, which is supposed to have been built about 860,
and has been stated to be the oldest bridge in England.
Torksey Castle, at the junction of the Foss Dyke with the
Trent; Thornton Abbey, near the Humber, founded about
LIN
Lindau the year 1139; Whykham Chapel, near Spalding, built about
1292; Bardney Abbey, on the banks of the Witham ; Tat-
Lindsay. tershall Castle, on the same river, erected about 1440; and
Somerton Castle, in the parish of Boothby.
Sir Isaac Newton, Lord Burghley, Lord Bolingbroke,
Stukely the antiquarian, Wesley the founder of Methodism,
and Fox, the author of the Book of Martyrs, were, amongst
many other eminent men, natives of this county.
LINDAU, a town of Bavaria, circle of Swabia, situate
on three islands in Lake Constance, 100 miles W.S.W. of
Munich. It is united with the mainland by a long wooden
bridge. It was formerly fortified, but its ramparts have dis¬
appeared, and their place is now occupied by flower-gardens.
The town contains a castle and four churches, and carries
on a brisk trade in grain and wine with Switzerland and
Italy. Steamers ply from its harbour to the other lake
ports daily. The Romans under Tiberius are believed to
have constructed a fortress here, and some remains of an
ancient wall and tower are supposed to be a part of it. Pop.
about 3500.
LINDSAY, or Lyndsay, Sir David, a Scottish poet,
descended from a younger branch of the family of Lord
Lindsay of Byres, was the eldest son of Lindsay of Gar-
mylton, in the county of Haddington, and of the Mount,
in the county of Fife. He was born in Fife at some period
before 1500, and, according to the ordinary opinion, studied
at St Andrews from 1505 till at least 1508. How he was
employed for several years after this period is uncertain ;
but in 1512 he became an attendant upon the infant prince,
afterwards James V., and, according to Buchanan, in his
History, was also “ special servant” to the king. His wife,
Janet Douglas, had for many years charge of the king’s
linen. In 1524 he was removed from his post, as an ob¬
stacle to the ambitious projects of the Earl of Arran, who
had married the queen dowager. His pension, however,
was continued. Impatient under his absence from court,
he published in 1529 his Complaynt, in which he feelingly
reminds the king of his gentle and devoted services to him
when a child. No sooner had James secured, in 1530, the
full regal power, than he conferred upon Lindsay the office
of Lyon King-at-Arms, and soon afterwards the honour of
knighthood. In his new capacity, he was sent with two
others, in 1531, on an embassy to Charles V. touching the
commerce between Scotland and the Netherlands. He
was one of the ambassadors that bore proposals of marriage
from the king, first in 1535, to a princess of the imperial
family, and in the following year to a daughter of the Duke
of Vendome; but in both cases without success. James
married Magdalene of France in July 1537; and in two
months after Lindsay wrote his poem entitled, IVie Deplo-
ratioun of the Deith of Queue Magdalene. After the
king’s death in 1542 he supported the regency of the Earl
of Arran as long as it was favourable to church reforma¬
tion. In 1543, and the two succeeding years, he repre¬
sented in parliament the burgh of Cupar; and in 1544 he
was sent on an embassy to the emperor to deliver the in¬
signia and the statutes of the order of the Golden Fleece,
which had been conferred on the late king. Four years
afterwards he was an ambassador at Copenhagen. At an
early stage of his career Lindsay had incurred the hatred
of the priesthood, by lashing with his piquant satire their
avarice, profligacy, licentiousness, and absurd religious cere¬
monies, but had been shielded from their persecution by the
favour of James V. Soon after the murder of Cardinal
Beaton in 1544, he was forced to take refuge, along with
other reformers, in the castle of St Andrews ; and, in 1547,
was one of those who urged Knox to receive ordination.
In 1548, by his mission to Denmark, he secured free trade
in grain with that country for Scottish merchants. He is
supposed to have passed his latter years in retirement, and
to have died at some period between 1555 and 1558.
LIN 493
A poet, in the highest sense of the term, Lindsay cer- Lindsey,
tainly was not. His claim to notice is chiefly derived from
his stinging satire, and his intrepid exposure of ecclesiastic
disorders, the two weapons that he wielded so effectively in
the battle of the Reformation. His vivacity, his manly
common sense, and his true and humorous delineations of
manners, long rendered him a favourite with his country¬
men. His paintings, however, of the vices of that age are
too minute, and too severely faithful to suit the taste of the
present day. Amid much inelegance and pedantry, he dis¬
plays occasional taste, and a fair acquaintance with history,
divinity, and Latin literature.
His largest poem, The Monarchic, ane Dialog hetwix
Experience and ane Courteour, seems to have been the
work of his advanced age, and is little else than a compen¬
dium of universal history, forming the basis, however, of
many acute generalizations. A translation of it into Latin
prose, by Andrew Robertson, was, in 1591, re-translated into
Danish verse by Jacob Mattson. YTis Dreme, supposed to
be his earliest poem, is characterized by Warton as evinc¬
ing strong talents for high description and rich imagery.
In his Complaynt there is a lively and faithful sketch of the
author’s own fortunes, of the manners of the age, and of the
gradual corruption of James V., by the designs and vicious
example of his courtiers. More amusing and satirical is
his Supplicatioun directit to the Kingis Grace, in contempla-
tioun of Side Taillis ; in which, after an unscrupulous ex¬
posure of the absurdities of the over-long skirts of the
ladies, he concludes that they are the offspring of pride, the
parent of all evil. Kitteis Confession, a satire upon auri¬
cular confession, is characterized alike by good sense and
severe pungency. A more poisoned weapon, his Testament
and Complaynt of our Soverane Lordis Papingo (or Par¬
rot), was aimed at both courtiers and clergy. His Tragedie of
the Cardinall Beatoun is deficient in elegance and vigour.
The mock-heroic tilt of two rival leeches of the king’s
household is cleverly described in his Justing hetwix Wat-
soun and Barbour. In spite of its offences against good
taste and decency, the Historic of Squyer Meldrum is,
perhaps, the most amusing of all his works. The Squire, a
contemporary of the author, combines the character of a
hero of classical antiquity with that of the hero of more
modern romance; but his adventures, though facetiously
enough described, bear too strong a similarity to the real
events on which they are founded, to be romantic. The
most elaborate, however, of all his productions, is the Satyre
of the Thrie Estaits, the earliest specimen now extant of
the genuine Scottish drama. A moral play, rather than
a regular drama, it contains real characters, who mingle
freely with impersonations of virtues and vices. Its merci¬
less blows are dealt indiscriminately against the monarch,
the nobility, and especially the clergy; a severity, how¬
ever, which did not prevent it from being represented be¬
fore the king and his court at Cupar, about 1535, and at
Linlithgow about 1539. Its mixture of piety with gross
obscenity is almost unexampled.
Besides his poetical works, he left two treatises on He¬
raldry, the one still in manuscript, and the other a curious
collection of blazonings, lately published. The MSS. of
these are preserved in the Advocates’ Library. Bale, in
his Scriptores Britannice, attributes to him the Acta sui
Temporis ; and Mackenzie affirms that he was the author of
a History of Scotland. There is no sufficient ground for
believing, with Dr Leyden, that Lindsay wrote the Com¬
playnt of Scotland.
The latest edition of Sir David Lindsay’s poems was pub¬
lished, with a life, prefatory dissertation, and glossary,
by George Chalmers, London, 1806, 3vols. 8vo. The chief
authorities for the Life of Lindsay are, Lord Lindsay’s Lives
of the Lindsays, and Irving’s Lives of Scottish Poets.
LINDSEY, Rev. Thkophilus, an able Socinian writer,
,'494 LIN
. Lmdus was born in Middlewich, Cheshire, on the 20th June 1723.
* || He was educated at St John’s College, Cambridge, where
Linen. jie degrees, and afterwards obtained a fellowship.
After travelling for two years on the Continent with the
son of the Duke of Somerset, he was presented in 1753 to
the living of Kirkby Wiske, in Yorkshire ; and after ex¬
changing it for that of Piddletown, in Dorsetshire, he re¬
moved to Catterick, in Yorkshire, where he remained for
several years. He began to entertain Anti-Trinitarian
views, which were confirmed in 1769 by his intimacy with
Dr Priestley and the Rev. William Turner. In 1772 he
took great interest in the debate in parliament on a bill to
relieve scrupulous persons from subscribing the Thirty-nine
Articles; but as the movement failed, he found it necessary
to leave the Established Church, although at great personal
sacrifice. From 1774 till 1778 he preached in a room in
Essex Street, Strand, and afterwards removed to a chapel
built for him in the same street. Here he continued to
labour till 1793, when old age compelled him to leave the
charge of his flock in the hands of Dr Disney, a sufferer in
the same cause with himself, who had left the Establish¬
ment and become his colleague. Lindsey died 3d Novem¬
ber 1808, in the eighty-sixth year of his age. His chief
work is, An Historical View of the State of the Unitarian
Doctrine and Worship from the Reformation to our own
times, 8vo, Lond. 1783. His life was written by Thomas
Belsham, 8vo, Lond. 1812.
LINDUS (modern Lindo), an ancient Dorian town on
the E. coast of Rhodes, near a promontory of the same
name. It is mentioned by Homer, along with the two
other Dorian cities, lalyssus and Camirus, as allied to
the Greeks in the Trojan War. After the building of
Rhodes (408 B.C.), Lindus soon lost both its population and
independent position. It continued famous, however, for
the Lindia, or temple of Minerva, and the temple of Her¬
cules. The former, of which the ruins may still be seen,
was built by the daughters of Danaus, or, according to others,
by Daiiaus himself. The inscriptions found on the tombs,
and other architectural vestiges, are described in Hamilton’s
Researches, vol. ii., p. 55. Lindus was the birthplace of
Cleobulus, one of the Seven Sages. The district around it,
though sterile, was noted in ancient times for wine and figs.
See Rhodes.
LINEN, a woven fabric prepared from the spun thread
of flax {Linum usitatissimum), the cultivation of which is
noticed under Agriculture, and Hemp ; the method of
bleaching it is noticed under Bleaching ; and of imparting
colour to it, under Dyeing. In the present article we
propose to notice briefly the modes of preparing linen thread,
referring to our general article on Weaving for an account
of the textile fabric.
As soon as the flax has been pulled, it is usual to separate
the linseed from the stalk by the process of rippling; the
ripple consisting of a row of iron teeth about 18 inches long,
firmly fixed in a bench or plank: on drawing the stalks
briskly through the ripple, the seed bolls are quickly sepa¬
rated. The next process is retting, or steeping in water,
in order to separate the woody portion of the stalk, or boon,
from the filamentous portion, which is the flax. The com¬
mon method of doing this is in pools or pits filled with
water, as noticed in one of the previous articles referred to;
but it is now done more quickly and economically by means
of steam, which effects in about 60 hours that which, under
the old process, requires from 10 days to 3 or 6 weeks.
Under the new process the flax is steeped in large circular
vats, furnished with steam-pipes. The flax is held down in
the vats by strong cross-bars of wood; water is then let in
LIN
from time to time, until the flax ceases to absorb it. Steatn Linen,
is then made to circulate through the steam-pipe at the
bottom of the vat, so as to raise the water to about 90
degrees, and maintain it at that temperature. In the course
of a few hours the acetous fermentation has set in, and the
resinous or gummy matter, which binds the parts of the
stalk together, becomes decomposed, and the decomposition
is completed in about 60 hours. The water is then drawn off,
and the flax is removed to be dried either in the open air, or
in a drying chamber, artificially heated. Improved methods of
retting flax, by means of alktline solutions, with the assistance
of pressing rollers and vacuum vessels, have been patented.
The woody portion of the straw, being thus loosened from
the filaments, is separated by the processes of breaking and
scutching. ,
1 he break is a machine consisting of two rows of iron
grooves, one fixed to a frame, and the other falling down
upon it, in such a way that the convex part of the upper
row of grooves falls into the concave part of the under row,
and bruises the wood without injuring the fibre. The upper
row of grooves is brought down by the action of a treadle,
and is raised by means of a spring. The operator passes
the flax between these grooves, so as to bruise the boon,
and enable it to separate easily under the blade of the
scutching-knife, which is a broad wooden blade held in the
right hand, while with the left a handful of bruised flax
straw is introduced into a groove in a wooden stand, and so
beaten with the scutch-blade as to strike away the bits of
woody matter. These operations are often performed by
machinery, in which rollers are employed to crack the boon,
and rotating knives attached to the face of a vertical wheel
to separate the woody particles. Mr MacAdams’ machinery
is on this plan.1 Mr Plummer, of Newcastle-on-Tyne, has
patented a number of machines for the preparation of flax.
In his flax-breaking machine the flutes on contiguous rollers
are not quite in contact, so that the flax straw in passing
between them is not damaged. It is the opinion of this
patentee, that in the usual method of scutching and pre¬
paring flax for the spinning-mill, the principle has been to
attain fineness by reducing and destroying the character of
the fibre, rather than supporting the fibre, while undergoing
the operation of cleaning. Instead, therefore, of the rigid
tools to which flax is usually submitted, brushes of whale¬
bone, bristles, or other suitable materials of various degrees
of fineness, are used in most of the preparatory processes.
In the rotary disk scutching-mill, an attempt is made to
imitate the process of hand-scutching, by passing the flax
between a series of disks covered with brushes instead of
knives or blades. The flax, while being scutched, is held
in a mechanical holder instead of in the hand.
The flax thus freed from its woody particles, is made up
into bundles of 16 or 24 lb., the former being termed the
English, and the latter the Scotch stone. The great markets
for supplying the spinning trade of the three kingdoms are
Leeds, Belfast, and Dundee, The length of the staple in
flax may vary from 26 to 30 or 36 inches, and the fibre is
of different degrees of fineness in its different parts, that
near the root being coarse and strong, the middle portion
fine and strong, and the upper part fine, but not so strong.
Hence the first operation on the flax in the flax-mill is to
divide the lengths into three parts, which are kept separate,
and furnish different qualities of thread. The division is
made not by cutting, but by tearing the filaments asunder,
so as to leave loose ends, which, in spinning, would combine
with other similar ends placed upon them. The machine
for dividing the flax consists of holding or friction-wheels
which move slowly, and hold the flax, while a centre wheel,
1 Mr MacAdam is Secretary to the Society for the Promotion and Improvement of the Growth of Flax in Ireland. He is the author of
an essay “ On the Cultivation of Flax,” which gained the prize offered by the Royal Agricultural Society of England. The essay is
inserted in the 8th vol. of the Society’s Journal.
;. :: .: l i n
Linen, furnished with oval projections on its periphery, tears the
fibres asunder. With flax of long staple, lour or five divi-
~ sions may be made instead of three.
v ' 1 The heaps or stricks of flax thus formed are cleaned,
split, separated into fibres in parallel order, while the short
fibre or tow is separated by the process of heckling. The
heckle or hackle is a sort of comb with iron or steel teeth,
very sharp at the points, arranged on a block of wood.
Heckles are of various degrees of fineness; and, in some
cases, the teeth being set close together, a heckle may
contain more than a 1000, arranged in parallel rows. By
throwing the flax upon these teeth, and drawing it out, the
tow is combed out, and the long fibre or line, as it is called,
remains; 100 lb. of well-cleaned flax yielding from 45 lb.
to 60 lb. of dine ; the rest being towr, boony particles, and
dust. In some cases, between the first and second hecklings,
the flax is folded up in a bundle and beaten on a block with
a wooden mallet, after which it is well rubbed in the hands.
Heckling is also commonly performed by machinery, for
which purpose the lengths of flax of 10 or 12 inches are
spread out and fixed in an iron vice or holder; a number of
these holders are hung on to a circular frame, within which
revolves a drum covered with sharp heckling teeth, the
outer frame revolving more slowly in the contrary direction,
and depositing the holders upon a rail after they have passed
through about half a circle. The holders are then turned
the other way, so that the other portion of the fibres may
be heckled. After this the holders are opened, the flax is
inverted, and again passed through the machine. Mr
Plummer has several improved heckling machines, both for
cut flax and for long flax; he objecting to the plan of cut¬
ting up the flax into lengths, and maintaining that if a long
and generous fibre be treated with gentleness instead of
harshness, considerable saving may be effected. In the
double heckling machines both sides of the flax are brushed
before it meets with the heckling points or pins, by which
means crossed or entangled fibres are got rid of.
The next operation in the mill is sorting the heckled
flax or line, so as to separate the stricks into various
degrees of fineness, which is done as much by the touch
as by the eye, while the fibres are frequently drawn through
a block-heckle to keep them parallel. The sorted line is
placed in certain boxes or divisions marked respectively—
2 lb., 3 lb., 3^- lb., 4 lb., 5 lb., 5f lb., 6-^ lb., and so on;
from an old method of comparing fineness and weight.
The sorted line is now subjected to the operations of
spreading, drawing, and roving, whereby it is converted
into ribbons or slivers. It is spread upon a feeding-cloth,
in such a way that the ends of the second strick reach the
middle of the first; by which means a uniform thickness is
maintained, the heckle-stricks being thicker in the middle
than at the ends. The feeding-cloth delivers the flax to a
pair of rollers, and these pass it on through gills or heck-
ling-points to a second pair, which, moving at greater
speed, increase the length and diminish the thickness of
the line, so as to convert it into a flat narrow sliver or
ribbon, which is received by a tin can. This being full, it
is taken to a drawing or spreading frame, where a number
of slivers are united and drawn into one length. This
drawing is as important for flax as for cotton, and is some¬
times repeated three or four times, increasing the number
of drawings each time. After this the drawings pass
through a roving-frame, where they are slightly twisted,
and are then wound upon bobbins preparatory to spinning.
The spinning-wheel has, during many years, been super¬
seded for flax as well as for cotton; and the machinery
employed for the one resembles that used for the other;
only as the fibres of flax do not so readily unite as those of
cotton, it is necessary for fine work to moisten them, so as
to make them more pliable and easy to spin. The water
usually employed is raised to the temperature of about 120°,
E N. 493
and is contained in ,a_ trough, which extends the whole binen.
length of the throstle or spinning-frame.
The fineness of the yarn thus formed is estimated by the
number of leas to the pound weight, the lea consisting of -- v xS
300 yards. Less than twenty years ago, the fineness of
machine-spun linen yarn was stated at 150 leas to the pound.
Oflate years, from 200 to 240 leas line has been spun. It
is used in the manufacture of Irish lawns and coarse cam¬
brics ; but for fine work, such as the lawns and handkerchiefs
of Cambrai and Valenciennes, hand-spun yarns are pre¬
ferred ; some of which, as shown in the Great Exhibition,
particularly those exhibited by Messrs Berthelot and Bonte,
of Cambrai, are, to use the words of the Jury Report “ sur¬
prisingly fine, perfect, and beautiful; being up to 1200’s
warp, and 1600’s weft yarn ; and are certainly equal, if not
superior, to anything of the kind hitherto produced.”
It has been already noticed that the various qualities of
line are sorted into 2 lb., 3 lb., 3| lb., and so on. A bundle of
linen yarn, consisting of 20 hanks, of 10 leas each, or 60,000
yards, is sometimes named by the number of leas to the
pound, or by its weight, thus: a bundle of 25 leas per
pound weighs 8 lb.; a bundle of 50 leas per pound weighs
41b; one of 100 leas per pound weighs 2 lb.; so that 8 lb.,
4 lb., and 2 lb. correspond in size with 25 leas, 50 leas, and
100 leas. Now, in sorting, a certain quantity of line will
spin to a certain size or weight per bundle; and it was
long usual with the line sorters, to name certain qualities as
2 lb., 3 lb., 3£ lb., &c.; because that quality of line would
spin to that weight per bundle. Line sorters still retain
the same standard and name, although, from various im¬
provements in the trade, much finer line can be spun from
the same weight than formerly.
Linen thread is made by doubling the yarn, and after
bleaching, it is formed into balls or reels.
The foreign trade in the linen manufacture is considerable.
Our exports oflinen yarn for the years 1853, 1854, 1855,
were,—22,893,586 lb., 17,696,567 lb., and 17,872,950 lb., re¬
spectively ; of which the declared values were,—L. 1,154,977,
L.944,502, and L.916,429. The value oflinen thread ex¬
ported during the same years was,—L.388,374, L.315,685,
and L.293,819; while the exports oflinen, entered by the
yard, exclusive of lace of thread, during the same years,
were respectively,—134,165,291 yds., 111,648,657 yds.,
118,247,498 yds.; of the declared values of L.4,345,600,
L.3,768,107, and L.3,803,487. During the same years
the exports of lace of thread were,—578,623 yds., 292,563
yds., and 218,508 yds.; of the respective values of L.8267,
L.7296, and L.4451. Among the imports the most con¬
siderable are cambrics and French lawns, which previously
to the 11th June 1853 were entered by the piece, but since
that date by the square yard. During the years 1854,
1855, there were imported 146,454 square yards, and
154,966 square yards. In 1855 there were imported,—of
damasks and damask-diaper, 8219 square yards; of plain
linen and diaper, and manufactures not enumerated, and not
made up, to the value of L. 21,262 ; while among articles
made up, the chief article is cambric handkerchiefs, of which
45,471 were imported. Of the raw material imported in
the year 1855, we have—of dressed flax, 14,568 cwts.; un¬
dressed, 1,131,475 cwts.; and of tow, or codilla of flax,
147,392 cwts.
During the Great Exhibition of 1851, the attention of
the Jury, Class XIV., Avas attracted by manufactures in China
grass; and it was remarked that, in the coarse kinds of cloth
made from it, the fibre appeared to be split into lengths
which were attached to each other at the smaller ends.
There were also some beautiful handkerchiefs and other
fine linens made from this material. It is sometimes used for
making coloured fabrics, combined with other substances,
such as silk and cotton; and the peculiar brilliancy of its
fibre alloAvs it to be used in this way to advantage, (c. T.)
i
496 LIN
Lingard LINGAR.D, Rey. John, D.D. and LL.D., the Roman
II Catholic historian of England, was born at Winchester, 5th
Lingen. February 1771. His parents, who were in humble circum-
stances, belonged to the Church of Rome, and it was chiefly
due to the notice taken of him by Dr Milner, that he was
sent to study atDouay, in France. He continued to reside
here till the revolutionary troubles dispersed the students;
and after several changes he came with the staff of the col¬
lege to settle at Ushaw, near Durham. His first publica¬
tion was made in 1805, and consisted of a series of letters,
written for the Newcastle Courant, and collected under the
title of Catholic Loyalty Vindicated. He was soon after¬
wards engaged in an attack on Bishop Huntingford, Bishop
Tomlin, and Lord Kenyon, in regard to opinions which
they had published on the Catholic question, as it was
called; and as his strictures called forth antagonists of in¬
ferior name, Lingard’s replies multiplied into a volume,
which was given to the world in 1813, with the title, A.
Review of certain Anti- Catholic Publications. Previously,
however, to the collection of these detached pamphlets, he
had published (in 1812), Documents to ascertain the senti¬
ments of British Catholics in former Ages, in regard to the
Power of the Popes; Strictures on Doctor Marsh's Com¬
parative View of the Churches of England and Rome in
1815 ; and Catechetical Instructions on the Doctrines and
Worship of the Catholic Church. His History and Anti¬
quities of the Anglo-Saxon Church, a work on which great
part of Dr Lingard’s fame will rest, was published in one
volume in 1806; but in subsequent editions it has been
enlarged to two volumes. His English translation of the
New Testament was published anonymously in 1836.
But Dr Lingard’s greatest work is the History of Eng¬
land, from the first Invasion by the Romans to the Acces¬
sion of William and Mary in 1688. It was first published
in 6 volumes 4to, in 1819-25, and has since passed through
many editions, and been translated into several languages.
The research displayed in this work, the remarkable impar¬
tiality on all controverted subjects, except that of his reli¬
gion, the ease and spirited grace of the composition, the pic¬
turesqueness and graphic power of many of his descriptions,
and the fresh materials dug out of regions previously un¬
explored, render this history an instructive and fascinating
work. That it is a party history of very high merit, exhausts
all that can with justice be said of it either in praise or blame.
The author, of course, condemns Anne Boleyn, and defends
Queen Katherine; and he instinctively prefers Bonner to
Cranmer, and the short reign of Mary to the long annals of
Elizabeth’s power. In respect of civil and religious liberty,
he is, with all his learning and research and genius, little
better than a monk of the middle ages. All this, however,
constitutes the peculiar value of his work, as furnishing one
of a set of forces destined, each in its owrn place, to affect
the resultant of public opinion. In the Edinburgh Review
(vols. 42 and 44), two papers written by Dr John Allen,
preferred a charge of untruthfulness against Dr Lingard,
especially in regard to his quotations, which the reviewer
held to be garbled for party purposes. This called forth a
Vindication from Dr Lingard in 1826, and since that time
there has been a much more favourable estimate of his
merits even in the pages of that journal (vol. 53).
When his History of England was published, Dr Lingard
visited Rome, and Pope Leo XII. proposed to make him
a cardinal, but Dr Lingard declined the honour. He had*
a pension of L.300 a-year from Her Majesty during the
closing years of his life, in acknowledgment of his literary
talent. He died at Hornby, near Lancaster, on the 13th
of July 1851, and bequeathed his library to St Cuthbert’s
College, at Ushaw, near Durham.
LINGEN, or Linga, an island of the Malay Archipelago,
on the equator, off the N.E. coast of Sumatra, E. Long.
104. 40. It is about 40 miles in length by 20 miles in
LIN
breadth. There is a curious mountain in the centre of the Linkoping
island, termed “ The Ass’s Ears,” from the two peaks at the II
S.W. end. The coast is flat, stretching inland for some Linlith-
miles. Some gold and tin are to be found. The principal v S° ,
products are sago, pepper, farinaceous roots, fruits, and ^ v'*-
vegetables. The inhabitants are said to be Malays of the
purest type, and they are governed by a sultan, whose
court is at Rovwala Dai. Pop. 10,000.
LINKOPING, an ancient town and bishop’s see of
Sweden, capital of a cognominal lan, on the Stanga, 2
miles S. of its junction with Lake Roxen, and 108 miles
S.W. of Stockholm. Its streets are rather irregular, but
the houses are well built. The chief public buildings are,
—the Gothic cathedral, the third in importance in Swe¬
den ; and the college, to which are attached a library con¬
taining upwards of 30,000 volumes, and a museum of na¬
tural history, archaeology, and coins. The chief manufac¬
tures are stockings and tobacco. Near the bridge which
here spans the river the famous battle of Stangebro was
fought on the 25th September 1596, between Sigismund
and his uncle, afterwards Charles IX. of Sweden, when the
latter was victorious. Pop. about 4000.
Linkopings lan, of which the above town is capital, lies
between Lake Wetter on the W., and the Baltic on the E^
and contains an area of 4254 square miles, with (in 1850)
222,484 inhabitants. The Gota and Motala canals traverse
it from the Wetter to the Baltic, and communicate with
the many lakes of the district. Its chief products are,—grain,
flax, hops, timber, iron, and lead. Linkoping and Norr-
kopping are the two chief towns.
LINLITHGOW, a town of Scotland, capital of the
county of that name, and once a place of some commercial
importance, its merchants formerly dealing extensively in
Baltic produce, is pleasantly situate in the vicinity of a beauti¬
ful lake, 16 miles from Edinburgh, and 31 E. from Glasgow.
It consists chiefly of a single street, running E. and W.
along the S. bank of the lake, containing many substantial
though old houses, and is gradually improving in appear¬
ance, in consequence of the increasing number of modern
buildings. The place from which Hamilton of Bothwell-
haugh shot the Regent Murray is still pointed out. The
name is supposed to signify “ the valley of the flowing lake,”
from the circumstance, it is believed, that the supply of
water is chiefly derived from springs flowing from its bed.
It is a very ancient town, having been erected into a royal
burgh by David I. The oldest charter extant, however,
is in 1389 by King Robert II. It possesses the ruins of
a fine old palace, the birth-place of Queen Mary, and a
favourite residence of the Scottish monarchs, built at dif¬
ferent periods, on the site of a castle erected by Edward I.
of England (who with his army wintered at Linlithgow in
1301), and which was destroyed by fire in 1746. It has also
a very ancient church, in the decorated Gothic style, said
to have been founded by David I., but little of the original
structure now remains. In its south transept appeared the
vision of St John, a probable device of his nobles to dis¬
suade James IV. from his intended wrar with England, as
described by Pitscottie. There are four Protestant places
of worship unconnected with the Established church, be¬
sides a Roman Catholic place of worship. The old foun¬
tains are objects of much curiosity. The town has a dull
appearance, but the inhabitants are by no means inactive,
having a considerable trade in tanning, gluemaking, and
shoemaking; besides which, paper-manufacturing, calico-
printing, and distillation are carried on on a large scale. It
is also surrounded by extensive fields of coal and iron, and
is in consequence increasing in importance. The Edin¬
burgh and Glasgow Railway and Union Canal intersect the
burgh. There is a weekly grain stock market held on
Friday. The population in 1851 amounted to 4213, and
the parliamentary consituency in 1856 to 124. Linlithgow,
LIN
Linlith- along with the burghs of Airdrie, Falkirk, Hamilton, and
gowshire. Lanark, returns one member to parliament.
LINLITHGOWSHIRE, or West Lothian, a county in
Scotland, having the Firth of Forth on the N., Edinburgh¬
shire, or Mid-Lothian, on the E. and S.E., Lanarkshire on the
S.W., and Stirlingshire on the W., is situate between N.
Lat. 55. 49. and 56. 1., and W. Long. 3. 18. and 3. 51. It
is of a triangular form, about 19 miles long on its eastern
boundary, and 13 on its western ; but at a medium it is
only about 7 miles broad, and 16 long. It contains 79,995
imperial acres, or about 125 square miles.
1 he surface of this county generally is either level or
serrated into gently undulating ridges, running from E. to
W., and separated from each other by a succession of irre¬
gular miniature valleys. Towards the W. and S.W. tbe
ground rises into a succession of hills, the most elevated
peak of which, Cairnpapple, in the parish of Torphichen, is
about 1000 feet above the level of the sea. The county is
in general beautifully wooded, and the trees have reached
a large size.
The climate, though variable, is not severe, and the
neighbourhood of Linlithgow is considered to be remarkably
salubrious. The prevailing winds, which blow for about two-
thirds of the year, are from the S.W. According to a regis¬
ter of the weather kept at Duddingston, on the coast of the
Firth of Forth, about the middle of the northern boundary,
the greatest number of rainy and snowy days in one year, for a
period of thirty years, from 1778 to 1808, was 111 (in 1780),
and the smallest number 22 (in 1803), but the days on
which slight showers fell are not included. The quantity
of rain, however, that falls in this county exceeds somewhat
that in Mid-Lothian, and amounts to a fourth part more
than the fall in East-Lothian, which, in an agricultural
point of view, is not considered as disadvantageous.
Though there is a great variety of soil in this district,
and considerable tracts of gravel and sand, yet clay is the
most general. Upwards of four-fifths of the soil is arable,
and capable of producing every description of crop culti¬
vated in Scotland. The best land is situate to the N.
and E., along the shores of the Firth of Forth; and the
worst is found on the high table-lands in the parishes
of Whitburn and Torphichen, being in an opposite direc¬
tion. The high grounds, from the prevalence of mountain
limestone, afford excellent pastures, and are generally
adorned with thriving plantations. A considerable quantity
of moor still exists in the upland parishes, but much has of
late been reclaimed.
The only streams of note are,—the Almond, which rises
on the border of Lanarkshire, and flows N.E. for about 24
miles between this county and Edinburghshire; and the
Avon, which forms the western boundary for about 12 miles.
Both these fall into the Firth of Forth. On the N. side of
the town of Linlithgow there is a lake about a mile long,
and half-a-mile broad, occupying about 150 acres, and
abounding with pike and eels. In the parishes of Linlith¬
gow, Ecclesmachan, and Abercorn, there are several sul¬
phurous springs, and a strong chalybeate is found in the
parish of Torphichen ; but none of them are resorted to.
Argentiferous galena was at one time got in the Cairn¬
papple ridge, in the parish of Linlithgow ; and in the neigh¬
bourhood of that town a small vein of that ore was found seve¬
ral years ago in a limestone quarry. Limestone is wrought
in the high grounds to the S.W. of the town of Linlithgow',
and at Hopetoun, near Queensferry. Sandstone, in some
places of an excellent quality, prevails along the coast of
the Forth, and in the interior there are whinstone and
basalt. At Binny, in the parish of Linlithgow, is found the
celebrated fieestone which has been used in the erection
of the Royal Institution, National Gallery, and a consider¬
able part of the chief public buildings in Edinburgh and
Glasgow. On Dundas Hill there is a basaltic rock 250
VOL. XIII.
LIN 497
yards in length, and about 60 feet in height, with an almost Linlith-
perpendicular front, consisting of a fine texture. Coal has gowshire.
been wrought in the county of Linlithgow for five centuries
past, and it is supposed that supplies of that article were ob¬
tained at Bonnytoun Hill, near Linlithgow, in the time of
the Romans. In the vicinity of Borrowstounness coal has
long been wrought to a great extent; and within the last
fifteen years the discovery of large fields of common and
blackband ironstone, together with the increased facilities
of transit, has contributed greatly to the development of
the mineral wealth of the county in that quarter. In the
neighbourhood of Bathgate is found the celebrated Tor-
banehill and Boghead gas coal or Bitumenite ; and exten¬
sive mineral fields have, more recently, been discovered
there also. The following is a statement, from the valua¬
tion-roll of the county for 1856-7, of the rents and lordships
realized for minerals:—
1. In Bathgate parish L.4480 10 0
2. „ Borrowstounness  6542 7 4
3. „ Carriden  6121 3 10
4. „ Ecclesmachan   170 18 0
5. „ Torphichen  489 17 6
6. „ Whitburn  3667 13 4
7. „ Uphall  160 9 9
Total L.21,632 19 9
Smelting furnaces oh an extensive scale have been
erected at Kinniel, in the lower, and at Crofthead, in the
upper, part of the county; and at Bathgate paraffine oil is ex¬
tracted in great quantities from the Bitumenite. The prin¬
cipal collieries now in operation are,—Colinshiel, Grange,
Kinniel, Barbauchlaw, Polkemmet, Coustoun, and Benhar.
The valued rent of the county, taken in 1649, was
L.75,027, 12s. 2d. Scots. In 1806 the real rent was
L.64,518, 18s. 7d. sterling; in 1811 the real rent of land,
mines, and houses, was L.88,745, 10s.; in 1844 the real
rent was L.l 14,822, 17s. 6d; and, in 1856, including rail¬
ways and canals, it amounted to L.156,792, 12s. 8d. The
rental of the county has thus become more than doubled in
the course of fifty years.
The principal mansion-houses are,—Hopetoun House,
Earl of Hopetoun ; Dalmeny Park, Earl of Rosebery; Kin¬
niel House, Duke of Hamilton ; Dundas Castle, Mr Dundas
ofDundas; CraigieHall,Mr HopeVere; Polkemmet House,
Sir William Baillie, Bart.; Wallhouse, Mr Gillon; Preston,
Mr Seton ; Avontoun, Mr Blair; and Newliston, Mr Hog.
The arable land is divided into farms of from 100 to
400 imperial acres, and the rent per acre of these varies
from 30s. to 60s. The average rent of the county in 1811
w'as rather more than 23s. per imperial acre ; and in 1856,
after deducting the value of mines, canals and railways,
and inhabited houses, it was found to be more than 27s.
6d. per acre. The leases of the arable land are almost
invariably for nineteen years; and grass lands are usually let
annually by public roup, although in some instances they
are taken for a period of three or five years. The system
of farming is not inferior to that pursued in the best culti¬
vated districts, and is principally in the four or six year
course rotation ; but many of the minor farmers have large
dairies, and find a ready market for their produce amongst
the rapidly increasing mining population of the county.
The following are the agricultural statistics of Linlith¬
gowshire for 1856:—Number ofoccupants, 458; total acre¬
age under a rotation of crops, 52,511 ;—wheat, 4643 ; bar¬
ley, 3789; oats, 12,520; rye, 2; here, 51 ; beans, 1776;
pease, 2; vetches or tares, 509; turnips, 5142; potatoes,
2044 ; mangold, 45 ; carrots, 13 ; cabbage, 12 ; flax, 105 ;
turnip seed, 59 ; any other grain or root crop, 53; bare or
summer fallow, 340 ; grass and hay under rotation, 21,400.
Horses for agricultural purposes above 3 years old, 1659;
ditto under 3 years old, 467; other horses, 452 ; milk
cows, 3446; other cattle, 6103; calves, 1797; sheep for
3 R
498
LIN
LIN
Linnaeus.’ breeding, 4471 ; ditto for feeding, 7229; lambs, 4813;
^ swine, 1494.
There are two royal burghs in the county—Linlithgow
and Queensferry ; and, besides the towns of Bathgate and
Borrowstounness, which are increasing rapidly in popula¬
tion, there are a number of thriving villages. The county
is divided into thirteen parishes, and contains also a portion
of the parish of Cramond, which is chiefly in the county of
Edinburgh. These parishes, with two in Mid-Lothian, and
four in Stirlingshire, form the Presbytery of Linlithgow.
It sends one member to parliament, and the constituency,
in 1856, amounted to 427. It is united with the counties of
Berwick, Haddington, and Peebles, in furnishing a regi¬
ment of militia artillery.
The county is intersected by several lines of railways,—
the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway, one of the trunk lines,
passing through it from E. to W. for a distance of about
10 miles. The Edinburgh and Bathgate connects the port
of Leith and the extensive mineral fields in the south of the
county and Lanarkshire; and the Wilsontown and Morn-
ingside, and several others, complete the connection with
the mineral fields of the west. By the Monkland, Sla-
mannan, and Borrowstounness railways, a large amount of
coal and iron is brought for shipment at that town (which
is rapidly rising in importance as a shipping port), and a
considerable portion of the produce of the Kinniel iron¬
works are transported to Glasgow. The Edinburgh and
Glasgow Union Canal traverses from 10 to 11 miles of the
county, upon which there is a large traffic in manure, coal,
and freestone.
The site of the Roman wall, which extended from the
Forth to the Clyde, usually styled “ Grahame’s Dyke,” is
still pointed out in the parishes of Borrowstounness and
Carriden. In the latter parish there is a farm establish¬
ment which still bears the name of “ Walltoun and in the
former the Duke of Hamilton’s fine estate is denominated
“ Kinniel,” or “ the head of the wall.” The remains of a
stone barrow exists near Kipps, about 3 miles to the S. of
Linlithgow. A preceptory, which originally belonged to the
Knights-Templars, and afterwards to the Order of St John
of Jerusalem, is to be seen at Torphichen, and a portion of
it is used as the parish church. The parish churches of
Dalmeny, Abercorn, Kirkliston, Uphall, and the burgh
church of South Queensferry, are also of great antiquity.
Pop. (1831) 23,291, (1841) 26,872, (1851) 30,044.
LINN7EUS, or Linne, Sir Charles, a celebrated
botanist and natural historian, was born on the 24th of
May 1707, in a village called Roeshult, in Smaland, where
his father, Nicholas Linne or Linnaeus, was then vicar, but
afterwards preferred to the curacy of Stenbrohult. It is
said, that on the farm where Linnaeus was born there yet
stands a large lime tree, from which his ancestors took the
surnames of Tiliander, Lindelius, and Linnceus.
It seems probable that Linnaeus’ taste for the study of
nature was formed from the example of his father, who, as
he has himself informed us, cultivated, as his first amuse¬
ment, a garden plentifully stored with plants. Young Lin¬
naeus soon became acquainted with these, as well as with
the indigenous plants of his neighbourhood. Yet, from the
smallness of his father’s income, the young naturalist was
on the point of being destined to a mechanical employ¬
ment ; fortunately, however, this design was overruled. In
1717 he was sent to school at Wexio, where, as his oppor¬
tunities were enlarged, his progress in all his favourite pur¬
suits was proportionally extended. At this early period
he paid attention to other branches of natural history, par¬
ticularly to the study of entomology.
The first part of his academical education Linnaeus re¬
ceived at Lund, in Sweden, under Professor Stobaeus, who
favoured his inclination for the study of natural history.
After a residence of about a year, he removed in 1728 to
Upsala. Here he soon contracted a close friendship with
Artedi, a native of the province of Angermania, who had
already been four years a student in that university, and,
like himself, had a strong bent to the study of natural his¬
tory in general, but particularly to that of ichthyology.
Soon after his residence at Upsala, our author was likewise
fortunate enough to obtain the favour of several gentlemen
of established character in literature. He was in a particu¬
lar manner encouraged in the pursuit of his studies by the
patronage of Dr Olaus Celsius, at that time professor of
divinity, and the restorer of natural history in Sweden; who,
being struck with the diligence of Linnaeus in describing the
plants of the garden at Upsala, and his extensive knowledge
of their names, not only patronized him in a general way,
but admitted him to his house, his table, and his library.
After a residence of only two years at Upsala, he was thought
sufficiently qualified to give lectures occasionally from the
botanic chair, in the room of Professor Rudbeck.
In the year 1731, the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Upsala, having for some time meditated the design of
improving the natural history of Sweden, at the instance
particularly of Professors Celsius and Rudbeck, deputed
Linnaeus to make the tour of Lapland, with the view of
exploring the natural history of that arctic region ; an un¬
dertaking to which his reputation, already high as a natu¬
ralist, and the strength of his constitution, equally recom¬
mended him. He left Upsala on the 13th of May, and
took his route to Gevalia or Gevels, the principal town of
Gestricia, forty-five miles distant from Upsala. Thence
he travelled through Helsingland into Medelpad, where
he made an excursion, and ascended a remarkable moun¬
tain on his way to Hudwickswald, the chief town of
Helsingland. He then proceeded through Angermanland
to Hernosand, a seaport on the Bothnian Gulf, seventy
miles distant from Hudwickswald; and, as the spring was
not sufficiently advanced, he took this opportunity of visit¬
ing, though at the hazard of his life, the remarkable caverns
on the summit of Mount Skula.
When Linnaeus arrived at Umcea, in West Bothnia,
about ninety-six miles from Hernosand, he quitted the
public road, and took his course through the woods west¬
ward, in order first to traverse the southern parts of Lapland.
Having now reached the country that was more particularly
the object of his inquiries, being equally a stranger to the
language and to the manners of the people, and without any
associate, he committed himself to the unfailing hospitality
of the inhabitants. In this excursion he reached the moun¬
tains towards Norway; and after encountering great hard¬
ships, returned into West Bothnia. He next visited Pithcea
and Lulea, upon the Gulf of Bothnia; from which latter
place he again took a westerly route, proceeding up the
river of that name, and visited the ruins of the temple of
Jockmock in Lulea Lapland, or Lap Mark; he thence tra¬
versed what is called the Lapland Desert, destitute of all
villages, cultivation, roads, or any conveniences, and in¬
habited only by a few straggling people, originally descended
from the Finlanders, a people entirely distinct from the Lap¬
landers. In this district he ascended a noted mountain called
Wallovari, in speaking of which he has given us a pleasant
relation of his finding a singular and beautiful new plant {An¬
dromeda tetragona) when travelling within the arctic circle,
with the sun in his view at midnight, in search of a Lapland
hut. Thence he crossed the Lapland Alps into Finmark,
and traversed the shores of the North Sea as far as Sallero.
These journeys from Lulea and Pithoea, on the Bothnian
Gulf, to the north shore, he performed on foot, attended
by two Laplanders, one his interpreter, and the other his
guide. He tells us that the vigour and strength of these
two men, both old, and sufficiently loaded with his baggage,
excited his admiration, since they appeared quite unfatigued
by their labour; whilst he himself, although young and robust.
Linnaeus.
L I N N iB U S.
Linnaeus,
was frequently quite exhausted. In this journey he was
wont to sleep under the boat with which they forded the
rivers, as a defence against rain, and the gnats, which in the
Lapland summer are not less teasing than in the torrid zone.
In descending one of these rivers, he narrowly escaped
perishing by the upsetting of the boat, and lost many of
the natural productions which he had collected.
Linnaeus thus spent the greater part of the summer in
examining this arctic region, and those mountains on which,
four years afterwards, the French philosophers secured im¬
mortal fame to Sir Isaac Newton. At length, after having
suffered incredible fatigues and hardships, in climbing pre¬
cipices, passing rivers in miserable boats, suffering repeat¬
ed vicissitudes of heat and cold, and not unfrequently hun¬
ger and thirst, he returned to Tornea in September. He
did not take the same route from Tornea as when he set
out for Lapland, having determined to visit and examine
the country on the eastern side of the Bothnian Gulf. His
first stage, therefore, was to Ulea, in East Bothnia, and
thence to Old and New Carlebay, 84 miles south from
Ulea. He continued his route through Wasa, Chris-
tianstadt, and Biorneburg, to Abo, the only university in
Finland. Winter was now setting in apace; he therefore
crossed the gulf by the island of Aland, and arrived at
Upsala in November, after having performed, mostly on
foot, a journey of ten degrees of latitude in extent, exclu¬
sive of those deviations which such a design rendered ne¬
cessary.
In 1733 he visited and examined the several mines in
Sweden, and made himself so well acquainted with mine¬
ralogy and the docimastic art, that he was sufficiently qua¬
lified to give lectures on these subjects upon his return to
the university. The outlines of his system of mineralogy
appeared in the early editions of the Systerna Naturce ; but
he did not exemplify the whole until the year 1768.
In the year 1734 Linnaeus was sent by Baron Reuter-
holm, governor of Dalecarlia, with several other naturalists
in that province, to investigate the physical productions of
that part of the Swedish dominions; and it was in this
journey that he first laid the plan of an excellent institu¬
tion, which was afterwards executed, in a certain degree at
least, by himself, with the assistance of many of his pupils,
and the result published under the title of Pan Suecicus,
in the second volume of the Amcenitates Academicce.
After the completion of this expedition, it appears that
Linnaeus resided for a time at Fahlun, the principal town
in Dalecarlia, where he tells us that he taught mineralogy
and the docimastic art, and practised physic; and where
he was very hospitably treated by Dr More, the physician
of the place. It also appears that he contracted at this
time an intimacy with one of that gentleman’s daughters,
whom he married about five years afterwards, upon his
settling as a physician at Stockholm. In this journey he
extended his travels quite across the Dalecarlian Alps into
Norway; but we have no particular account of his disco¬
veries in that kingdom. In 1735 Linnaeus travelled over
many other parts of Sweden, some parts of Denmark and
Germany, and fixed his residence in Holland, until his
return to Stockholm about 1739. In 1735, the year in
which he took the degree of doctor of physic, he published
the first sketch of his Systema Natures in the form of tables,
in 12 pages folio.
1736 Linnaeus arrived in England, and visited Dr
Dillemus, the learned professor at Oxford, whom he justly
considered one of the first botanists in Europe. It is need¬
less to say, that he visited Dr Martyn, Mr Rand, and Mr
Miller, and that he was in a more singular manner indebted
to the friendship of Dr Isaac Lawson. He also contracted
an intimate friendship with Mr Peter Collinson, which was
reciprocally increased by a multitude of good offices, and
continued to the last without any diminution. Dr Boer-
haave had furnished him with letters to Sir Hans Sloane;
but these, it seems, did not procure him the reception
which the warmth of his recommendation appeared to claim.
One of the most agreeable circumstances that happened
to Linnaeus during his residence in Holland, arose from
the patronage of Mr Clifford, in whose house he lived a
considerable part of his time, being now as it were the child
of fortune. Exivi patrid triginta sex nummis aureis dives,
are his own w'ords. With Mr Clifford, however, he enjoyed
pleasures and advantages scarcely at that time to be met
with elsewhere in the world; that of a garden excellently
stored with the finest exotics, and a library furnished with
almost every botanic author of note. How happy he found
himself in this situation, those only who have felt the same
kind of ardour can conceive. Whilst in Holland, Linnaeus
was recommended by Boerhaave to fill the place, then
vacant, of physician to the Dutch settlement at Surinam ;
but he declined it on account of his having been educated
in so opposite a climate.
Amongst his friends at this period may be mentioned
Dr John Burmann, professor of botany at Amsterdam,
whose name and family are well known in the republic of
letters, and to whom our author dedicated his Bibliotheca
Botamca, having been greatly assisted in compiling that
work by the free access he enjoyed to that gentleman’s
excellent library; John Frederick Gronovius, of Leyden,
editor of Clayton’s Flora Virginica, and who very early
adopted Linnaeus’s system; Baron Van Swieten, physician
to the empress queen ; Isaac Lawson, afterwards one of the
physicians to the British army, who died much regretted,
at Oosterhout, in the year 1747, and from whom Linnaeus
received singular and most obliging civilities; Kramer,
well known for an excellent treatise on the docimastic art;
Van Royen, botanic professor at Leyden; and Lieberkun
of Berlin, famous for his skill in microscopical instruments
and experiments. To these may also be added the names
of Albinus and Gaubius, and of others, were it requisite to
show that our author’s talents had very early rendered him
conspicuous, and gained him the regard of all those who
cultivated medical science; and to which, doubtless, the
singular notice with which Boerhaave had honoured him
did not a little contribute.
Early in 1738, after Linnaeus had left Mr Clifford, and
probably when he resided with Van Royen, he had a long
and dangerous attack of sickness; and upon his recovery
went to Paris, where he was kindly entertained by the
Jussieus, at that time the first botanists in France. The
opportunity this gave him of inspecting the Herbaria of
Royen and Tournefort, and those of the above-named gen¬
tlemen, afforded him great satisfaction. He had intended
to proceed from thence into Germany, to visit Ludwig and
Haller, with whom he was in close correspondence; but he
was not able to complete this part of his intended route,
and was obliged to return w’ithout this gratification.
Our author did not fail to avail himself of the advantages
which access to the several museums of this country afforded
him, in every branch of natural history; and the number
and importance of his publications, during his absence from
his native country, sufficiently demonstrate that fund of
knowledge which he must have imbibed before, and no
less testify his extraordinary application. These were,—
Systema Natures, Fundamenta Botanica, Bibliotheca Bo-
tanica, and Genera Plantarum ; the last of which is justly
considered as the most valuable of all the works of this
celebrated author. The immense application bestowed
upon it the reader may easily conceive, when he is informed,
that before the publication of the first edition, the author
had examined the characters of 8000 flowers. His last
work, published during his stay in Holland, was the Classes
Plantarum, which is a copious illustration of the second
part of the Fundamenta.
499
Linnae us.
500 LINN
Linnaeus. About the latter end of 1738, or the beginning of
v>—1739, LinnEeus settled as a physician at Stockholm, where
he seems to have met with considerable opposition, and
was oppressed by many difficulties; but all of these he at
length overcame, and got into extensive practice; and,
soon after his settlement, married the lady before men¬
tioned. By the interest of Count Tessin, he obtained the
rank of physician to the fleet, and a stipend from the citi¬
zens for lecturing on botany. And what at this time espe¬
cially was highly favourable to the advancement of his cha¬
racter and fame, by giving him an opportunity of displaying
his abilities, was the establishment of the Royal Academy
of Sciences at Stockholm, of which Linnaeus was consti¬
tuted the first president, and to which the king granted
several privileges, particularly that of free postage to all
papers directed to the secretary. By the rules of the aca¬
demy, the president held his place but three months. At
the expiration of that term, Linnaeus made his Oratio de
memorabilibus in Imectis, on the 3d of October 1739; in
which he endeavours to excite an attention and inquiry
into the knowledge of insects, by displaying the many sin¬
gular phenomena that occur in contemplating the nature of
those animals, and by pointing out, in a variety of instances,
their usefulness to mankind in particular, and to the eco¬
nomy of nature in general.
During all this time, however, Linnaeus appears to have
had his eye fixed upon the botanical and medical chair at
Upsala, then occupied by Rudbeck, who was far advanced
in life. Indeed, so intent was he on pursuing his favourite
study, that he had determined, if he failed in procuring the
professorship at Upsala, to accept the offer which had been
made to him by Haller, of filling the botanic chair at Got¬
tingen. However, in course of time, he obtained his wish.
In 1741, upon the resignation of Roberg, he was consti¬
tuted joint professor of physic, and physician to the king,
with Rosen, who had been appointed in the preceding year
on the death of Rudbeck. These two colleagues agreed
to divide the medical departments between them ; and their
choice was confirmed by the university. Rosen took ana¬
tomy, physiology, pathology, and the therapeutic part;
Linnaeus, natural history, botany, materia medica, dietetics,
and the diagnosis morborum.
During the interval of his removal from Stockholm to
Upsala, in consequence of this appointment, our professor
was deputed by the states of the kingdom to make a tour
to the islands of Oeland and Gothland, in the Baltic, at¬
tended by six of the pupils, commissioned to make such
inquiries as might tend to improve agriculture and arts in
the kingdom, to which the Swedish nation had for some
time paid particular attention. The result of this journey
was very successful, and having proved fully satisfactory
to the states, was afterwards communicated to the public.
On his return he entered upon the professorship, and on
the 17th of October pronounced before the university his
Oratio de Peregrinationum intra Patriam necessitate, in
which he forcibly displays the usefulness of such excursions,
by pointing out to the students that vast field of objects
which their country held out to their cultivation, whether
in geography, physics, mineralogy, botany, zoology, or eco¬
nomics, and by showing the benefit that must accrue to
themselves and their country as rewards of their diligence.
The animated spirit which pervades the whole of this com¬
position renders it one of the most pleasing and instructive
of all our author’s productions.
Linnaeus was now fixed in the situation which was the
best adapted to his character, his taste, and abilities; and
which seems to have been the object of his ambition, and
the centre of his hopes. Soon after his establishment, he
laboured to get the academical garden, which had been
founded in 1657, put upon a better footing, and very soon
effected it, procuring also a house to be built for the resi-
iE U S.
dence of the professor. The whole had been in ruins ever Linmeus.
since the fire in 1702; and at the time Linnaeus was ap- ^
pointed professor of botany, the garden did not contain
above fifty plants that were exotic. His correspondence
with the first botanists in Europe soon supplied him with
great variety. He received Indian plants from Jussieu of
Paris, and from Van Royen of Leyden ; European plants
from Haller and Ludwig: American plants from Mr Col-
linson, Mr Catesby, and others; and a variety of annuals
from Dillenius: in short, how much the garden owed to
his diligence and care in a few years, may be seen by the
catalogue published under the title of Hortus Upsaliensis,
exhibens Plantas Exoticas horto Upsaliemis Academice a
sese {Linnceo) Matas, ab anno 1742 in annum 1748, additis
differentiis Synomjmis, Habitationibus,Hospitiis, rariorum-
que Descriptionibus, in gratiam Studiosce Juventutis, Holm.
1748, 8vo. By this catalogue it appears that the professor
had introduced 1100 species, exclusively of all the Swedish
plants and varieties, which, in ordinary gardens, amount
not unfrequently to one-third of the whole number. The
preface contains a curious history of the climate at Up¬
sala, and the progress of the seasons throughout the whole
year.
From the time that Linnaeus and Rosen were appointed
professors at Upsala, the credit of that university, as a school
of physic, increased. Numbers of students resorted thither
from Germany ; and in Sweden itself many young men
were invited to the study of physic, who otherwise would
have engaged in different pursuits.
Whilst Linnaeus was meditating one of his capital per¬
formances, long expected and greatly wished for, he was
interrupted by a tedious and painful attack of the gout,
which left him in a very weak and dispirited state ; and, at
this juncture, nothing seemed to contribute more to the
restoration of his spirits than the seasonable acquisition of
a collection of rare and undescribed plants.
The fame which our author had now acquired by his
Systema Naturce, of which a sixth edition, much enlarged,
had been published at Stockholm in 1748, in 8vo, with
eight tables explanatory of the classes and orders, had
brought, as it were, a conflux of everything rare and valuable
in every branch of nature, from all parts of the globe, into
Sweden. The King and Queen of Sweden had their sepa¬
rate collections of rarities, the former at Ulricksdahl, and
the latter, very rich in exotic insects and shells, procured
at a great expense, at the palace of Drottningholm, both of
which our author was employed in arranging and describing.
Besides these, the museum of the Royal Academy of Up¬
sala had been augmented by a considerable donation from
the king, whilst hereditary prince, in 1746, by another from
Count Gyllenborg the year before, and by a third from M.
Grill, an opulent citizen of Stockholm.
From this time the professor appeared in a more elevated
rank and situation in life. His reputation had already pro¬
cured him honours from almost all the royal societies in
Europe; and now his own sovereign favoured him with a
mark of distinction and regard, by creating him a Knight of
the Polar Star. With science, it was no longer laudatur et
alget. His emoluments kept pace with his fame and honours;
his practice in his profession became lucrative; and we find
him soon after possessed of a country-house and gardens at
Hammarby, about 5 miles from Upsala. He had, more¬
over, received one of the most flattering testimonials of the
extent and magnitude of his fame that perhaps was ever
shown to any literary character, the state of the nation
which conferred it, and all its circumstances, being duly
considered. This was an invitation to Madrid from the
King of Spain, there to preside as a naturalist, with the
offer of an annual pension for life of two thousand pistoles,
letters of nobility, and the unrestricted exercise of his own
religion. But after the most grateful acknowledgments of
LIN
Linn&us. this singular honour, he respectfully answered, 11 that if he
had any merits, they were due to his own country.”
In 1755 the Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm
honoured our professor with one of the first premiums,
agreeably to the will of Count Sparree, who had decreed
two gold medals, of ten ducats value each, to be annually
given by the Academy to the authors of such papers, in the
preceding year’s Stockholm Acts, as should be adjudged
most useful in promoting agriculture in particular, and all
branches of rural economy. This medal bore on one side
the arms of the Count, with this motto, Superstes in sci-
entiis amor Frederici Sparree. Linnaeus obtained it in con¬
sequence of a paper DePlantis quce Alpium Suecicarum in¬
digence, magno rei ceconomicce et Medicce emolumento fieri
possint; and the ultimate intention was to recommend
these plants as adapted to culture in Lapland. This paper
was inserted in the Stockholmice Acta for 1754, vol. xv.
Linnaeus also obtained the prcemium centum aureorum,
proposed by the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St Peters¬
burg, for the best paper written to establish or disprove,
by new arguments, the doctrine of the sexes of plants. It
was an additional glory to Linnaeus to have merited this
premium from the St Petersburg Academy, inasmuch as a
professor of that society, a few years before, had, with more
than common zeal, although with a futility like that of the
other antagonists of our author, endeavoured to overturn
the whole Linnaean system of botany, by attempting to
show that the doctrine of the sexes of plants had no foun¬
dation in nature, and was unsupported by facts and experi¬
ments.
It appears that Linnaeus, upon the whole, enjoyed a good
constitution ; but that he was sometimes severely afflicted
with a hemicrania, and was not exempted from the gout.
About the close of 1776 he was seized with an apoplexy,
which left him paralytic; and at the beginning of the year
1777 he suffered another attack, which very much im¬
paired his mental powers. But the disease supposed to
have been the more immediate cause of his death, was an
ulceration of the urinary bladder, of which, after a tedious
indisposition, he died, on the 11th January 1778, in the
seventy-first year of his age. His principal works, besides
those already mentioned, are—The Iter Oelandicum et
Gotlandicum; Iter Scanicum ; Flora Suecica ; Fauna
Suecica; Materia Medica; Philosophia Botanica; Genera
Morborum; different papers in the Acta Upsaliensia, and
the Amcenitates Academicce. The last of his treatises was
the Mantissa Altera, published in 1771; but before his
death he had finished the greater part of the Mantissa
Tertia, afterwards completed and published by his son.
To the lovers of science it will not appear strange that
uncommon respect was shown to the memory of this great
man. We are told, “ that on his death a general mourning
took place at Upsala, and that his funeral procession was
attended by the whole university, as well professors as
students, and the pall supported by sixteen doctors of
physic, all of whom had been his pupils.” The King of
Sweden, after the death of Linnaeus, ordered a medal to be
struck, one side of which exhibits Linnaeus’s bust and
name, and the other Cybele, in a dejected attitude, holding
in her left hand a key, and surrounded with animals and
growing plants, with the legend, Beam luctus angit
amissi; and beneath, Post Obitum Upsalice, die x. Jan.
m.dcc.lxxviii. Rege jubente. The same generous monarch
not only honoured the Royal Academy of Sciences with his
presence when Linnaeus’s commemoration was held at
Stockholm, but, as a still higher tribute, in his speech from
the throne to the assembly of the states, he lamented
Sweden’s loss by his death.
Linnaeus s stature was diminutive; his head was large,
and its hinder part very high ; his look was ardent, pierc-
and apt to daunt the beholder; his ear was insensible
LIN 501
to music; and his temper quick, but easily appeased* Lin"he
Nature had been eminently liberal in the endowment of his
mind. He possessed a lively imagination, corrected by a ^ ' -
strong judgment, a most retentive memory, unremitting
industry, and the greatest perseverance in all his pursuits.
This is evident from the continued vigour with which he
prosecuted the design formed so early in life, of totally re¬
forming and constructing anew the whole science of
natural history. This fabric he raised to a degree of per¬
fection unknown before ; and had the uncommon felicity
of living to see his own structure rise above all others,
notwithstanding every discouragement. Neither has any
writer more cautiously avoided the common error of build¬
ing his own fame upon the ruin of another man’s. He ever
acknowledged the merits of each author’s system; and no
man appears to have been more sensible of the partial
defects of his own. Those anomalies which had princi¬
pally been the objects of criticism he well knew that every
artificial arrrangement must abound with ; and having laid
it down as a maxim, that every system must finally rest on
its intrinsic merit, he willingly committed his own to the
judgment of posterity. Perhaps there is no circumstance
of Linnaeus’s life which shows him in a more dignified light
than his conduct towards his opponents.
The great improvement in descriptive natural history
for which we are indebted to Linnaeus, is the systematic
introduction of trivial or specific names to designate spe¬
cies. Before his time, the genus of a plant or an animal was
given, but the species was defined generally by a short
description of its peculiarities—a clumsy and difficult
method when the species were numerous; but Linnaeus
added another name to the generic one, to designate each
species—as Quercus Robur, for the common oak; Pinus
Picea, for pitch pine; Canis Lupus, for the wolf; Frin-
gilla Domestica, for the common sparrow; Rana Tempo-
raria, for the common frog; Salmo Salar, for the salmon.
LINNHE, Loch, an arm of the sea, on the W. coast of
Scotland, stretching into N. Argyllshire, and separating the
district of Lorn from those of Morven and Sunart. It is
22 miles long from the southern extremity of Lismore Island
to the mouth of Loch Eil, by 4 in average, and 12 in ex¬
treme breadth, at its entrance. It sends off four branch lochs,
—viz., Lochs Etive, Creran, Leven, and Eil; and contains
several islands, the chief of which are,—Lismore, Shuna, and
Balnagowan. It communicates with the Caledonian Canal
through Loch Eil. The scenery of its coasts is highly pic¬
turesque.
LINT. See Hemp, Linen, and Weaving.
LIN-TSING, a large and populous town of China, pro¬
vince of Shangtung, on the Imperial Canal, at its junc¬
tion with the Eu-ho River, about 200 miles S. of Pekin.
A famous pagoda, nine storeys high, stands here, built of
porphyry, granite, and varnished bricks, besides several
temples, one of which contains a colossal idol of gold. A
large trade is carried on here by means of the canal.
LINUS, the impersonation of a dirge (AtVos), is repre¬
sented as the son of Apollo, and one of the muses. Ac¬
cording to one myth, Linus, having been exposed in his
infancy by his mother, came under the foster care of shep¬
herds, but was afterwards torn to pieces by dogs. Another
fable says that he was slain by Apollo for his audacity in
vieing with that god in a musical contest. His statue stood
in a grotto near Mount Helicon. At Thebes and Argos,
his death was annually solemnized by the singing of dirges,
called Xivoc; and these two cities, along with Chalcis, con¬
tested the honour of possessing his tomb. Another Linus,
of later date, is supposed to have been the music instructor
of Hercules, and to have been killed by that hero. He is
the reputed author of several poems.
LINZ, or Lintz, a city of the Austrian empire, capital of
U pper Austria, situate chiefly on the right bank of the Danube,
502
LIP
L I P
Lipari at its junction with the Traun, here crossed by a wooden
Islands, bridge, 900 feet long, 105 miles W.of Vienna; N.Lat.48.19.,
E. Long. 14.17. The city is situate in a beautiful part of the
country. It has three suburbs, which are larger than the city
proper. It is entered by four gates, and is surrounded by a
cordon of forts, of which twenty-three are on the right bank
of the Danube, and nine on the left. They communicate
with each other by a covered way, which is fully 9 miles in
circuit. The streets are, on the whole, spacious and well
built, and this has been the effect of not a few destructive
fires. There are, however, few public buildings of import¬
ance. In the Landhaus, which was formerly a Franciscan
convent, the parliamentof Upper Austria holds its meetings.
On an eminence overlooking the Danube, and rising above
the rest of the town, is a castle, formerly inhabited by the
dukes of Austria, but now used as a prison and penitentiary.
In the largest square stands a column to the Holy Trinity,
erected by Charles VI. in 1723 ; and beside it are two foun¬
tains, adorned with statues. The only other buildings wor¬
thy of note are,—the bank, the theatre, the custom-house,
and a large government establishment for the manufacture
of carpets. Linz is the see of a bishop, and possesses a
cathedral and seven churches. The Matthias Kirche con¬
tains a monument of the celebrated Montecuculi. There are
also a lyceum, with a theological and philosophical faculty,
a large library, and a number of good schools. The cha¬
ritable institutions are numerous.
The imperial factory, together with the other establish¬
ments of this kind, are engaged principally in the manu¬
facture of woollen, cotton, and silk goods, leather, cards,
and tobacco; and trade in these articles has greatly ex¬
tended since the opening of the railway (a tramroad on
the American plan) to Gmunden and Budweis, and since,
Linz has been a station for steamers on the Danube.
Linz is supposed to have been originally a Roman station,
and retained its name of Lentia during the middle ages. In
1036 it was purchased by Leopold II., margrave of Austria.
It was attacked in 1626 by Fahdinger, the peasant leader,
but it held out successfully. Pop. 31,000.
LIPAIU ISLANDS, a group of islands lying off the
N. coast of the island of Sicily, to which they belong,
forming part of the intendency of Messina, between N. Lat.
38. 20. and 38. 55., and E. Long. 14. 15. and 15. 15. They
consist of seven principal islands,—Lipari, Vulcano, Strom-
boli, Salini, Panaria, Felicudi, and Alicudi, and a number
of adjacent islets and rocks. They are all mountainous,
rising abruptly on their W. side to a considerable height, and
sloping down gradually towards the E. They are evidently
volcanic in their origin ; and ancient writers mention several
active volcanoes, though only one is at present in a state of ac¬
tion,—that on the island of Stromboli, which is constantly
burning. The fires in the crater of Vulcano still emit sul¬
phurous vapours; and the soil was burning hot when
Spallanzani visited it in 1788. In 1786 it erupted a vast
accumulation of sand, with much smoke and flame. The
basis of the whole group is hornstone, which is covered
with lava, scoriae, pumice-stone, and other volcanic products.
The soil thus formed is very absorbent in its character, and
hence the inhabitants are obliged to construct capacious
cisterns, in which rain-water is carefully preserved for in'i-
gation and other purposes. The land is fertile and well
cultivated, producing grapes, currants, figs, prickly pears,
corn, cotton, olives, beans, pease, &c. Violent rains some¬
times cause great injury to the grounds, owing to their
situation and the friability of the soil; and at other times
swarms of locusts do great injury to the crops. The cattle
are lean and not abundant, as the pasturage is for the most
part only adapted to the feeding of goats. Wine and raisins
are largely exported, as well as bitumen, pumice, nitre,
pozzolano, cinnabar, coral, and fish. Alum at one time
formed a considerable article of export, but it has decreased
in quantity, probably in consequence of the diminished heat
of the subterranean fires. Some sulphur is still exported,
though much less than formerly, owing to a prejudice enter¬
tained by the inhabitants that the vapour which arises from
its purification infects the air, and is injurious to vegetation.
The climate is highly salubrious, and the air mild and re
freshing. Storms and earthquakes, however, are frequent.
Pop. about 23,000.
Lipari, the largest and most important island of the
group, has an area of about 110 square miles, with a popu¬
lation of about 15,000. It is, for the most part, hilly or
mountainous, with, however, valleys and plains of great
beauty and fertility, producing a much esteemed malmsey
wine. Wheat, cotton, beans, pease, and various kinds of
fruits, are among its other vegetable products. On several
of the mountains are craters of extinct volcanoes. There
are also thermal springs in different parts of the island.
Lipari, the chief town of the island, and the capital of the
whole group, is situate on a steep declivity on the E. side
of the island, in N. Lat. 38. 27. 56., E. Long. 14. 57. 50.
It is a bishop’s see, and the residence of a military governor,
and has a commodious harbour with good anchorage. The
town is irregularly built, with narrow and dirty streets. The
principal public building is the cathedral. The .castle, the
greater part of which was built by Charles V. after Bar-
barossa had plundered the town, stands on a large volcanic
mass, and incloses the cathedral and some other edifices.
A large trade is carried on in the products of this and the
other islands. Pop. 12,500.
The Lipari Islands were by the ancients termed JEolice
Insulce, from their king, diolus, who is fabled to have
received from Jupiter power over the winds. They were
also called Hephestiades, or Vidcanice insulce, as sacred
to the god Vulcan, and Liparenses, from Lipara, the
principal of the group. Lipara is said to have been so
called from Liparus, son of Auson, one of its kings who
flourished before the time of iEolus. It was colonized about
B.c. 580, by Dorians from Cnidus and Rhodes, who, as they
increased in numbers, extended themselves to the adjoining
islands of Didyme, Hiera, and Strongylo. The necessity
of defending themselves against the Tyrrhenian pirates led
to the establishing of a naval force, with which they them¬
selves not unfrequently resorted to piracy. At the com¬
mencement of the first Punic War, in b.c. 264, this island
was subject to the Carthaginians, and became an impor¬
tant naval station. Captured by C. Aurelius in b.c. 251, it
continued ever after a part of the Roman empire.
LIPETSK, a town of Russia, government of Tambov,
80 miles W. of the town of that name, on the right bank of
the Voroniej. In the neighbourhood are well-frequented
mineral springs. Pop. about 8000.
LIPPA, a market-town of Hungary, county of Temesvar,
on the left bank of the Maros, 30 miles N.E. from Temes¬
var. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in agriculture,
cattle-rearing, and the potteries, excellent clay being abun¬
dant in the vicinity. Some trade in grain, cattle, wine,
honey, &c., is carried on. Pop. about 8000.
LIPPE-DETMOLD, a German principality, bounded
E. and N.E. by Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, and Lippe-Schaum-
burg, and on the other sides by Prussian Westphalia, is
situate between N. Lat. 51. 45., and 52. 10., E. Long. 8.
34. and 9. 20.; area 438 square miles. It is mountainous
and well wooded, interspersed with fertile valleys; an ex¬
tensive chain of forests called the Teutoburger Wald passes
through it, and in the S.W. lies the Senner Heath. The
country derives its name from the River Lippe, which rises
in the Teutoburger Wald, and joins the Rhine at Wesel.
The Weser, which is its most important river, has for its
tributaries the Emmer, Exter, Kalle, Bega, and Werra.
The Eras passes through the Senner Heath and enters
Westphalia. The climate in winter is cold, but in summer
Lipetsk
■ 1!
Lippe-
Detmold.
LIP LIP
Lippe- it is mild, although somewhat misty and wet. In a country
Schaum- So thickly wooded, the value of the timber, which consists
bur& principally of oak and beech, is very great. Of the other
J . natural productions, flax is the most important, but corn,
Fra Filip- rapeseed, and hemp are also produced in large quantities.
p0. The horses bred in the Senner Heath are much prized;
i horned cattle and sheep are reared in large numbers,
and there is a considerable trade in honey. Limestone,
gypsum, and iron are the principal mineral products.
There are also several saline springs, one of which is said
to yield 36,000 bushels of salt annually. There is, on the
whole, little manufacturing industry; but in some places
there are paper and saw mills, glass-works, and weaving
establishments. The principal exports are timber, flax,
thread, linen, and wool. The government is a constitu¬
tional monarchy ; the diet, which consists of the prince and
a representative body, meets once in two years; and whilst
the states vote in two separate assemblies on questions in
general, they vote in one assembly on the question of taxa¬
tion. Lippe-Detmold furnishes about 700 men to the
federal army. The most of the inhabitants belong to the
Reformed Church. Pop. (1855) 105,490.
Bernard VIII., who died in 1563, was the first of the
ancient house of Lippe who took the title of Count of Lippe.
His son, Simon VI., became sole lord of all the lands of
Lippe, and it is from him that the present reigning family
licis descended.
LIPPE-SCHAUMBURG, a principality of N.W. Ger¬
many, comprised between Hanover, Lippe-Detmold, and
Prussian Westphalia, and having an area of 207 square
miles. The country i§ hilly, especially towards its southern
extremity, but the northern portion is level. The Schaum-
burger Wald is a very large forest in the W. In the N. is
the Steinhuder Meer, a small and shallow lake. There are
no rivers in the country, except a few very small streams
which flow into the Weser. Coals and lime are the mineral
products, of the former of which the Biickeberg contains
some rich seams. The soil is remarkably productive, yield¬
ing turnips, potatoes, flax, rapeseed, corn, and pulse; and
of live stock, sheep, horned cattle, pigs, and poultry are
reared in great numbers. The manufactures consist prin¬
cipally of linens; and there is a considerable trade in the
exportation of the natural products of the country. The
government is a constitutional monarchy, and, as a member
of the German confederation, it has one vote in the full
diet; and, with Lippe-Detmold, &c., occupies the sixteenth
place in the confederation. It furnishes 200 men to the
federal army. Pop. (in 1855) 29,848.
LIPPI, Fra Filippo, wTas born in Florence in 1412.
His father and mother died while he was yet a child, and
his father’s sister, Mona Lappaccia, sent him, when eight
years of age, into the Carmelite convent Del Carmine.
The prior, perceiving his inclination and talent for drawing,
wisely permitted him every day to study the paintings in
the convent chapel, and to be present when Masaccio was
engaged in painting them. Lippi profited so well by his
visits to Masaccio, that his frescoes on the walls of the con¬
vent and church soon became equal to those of his master.
Their works in this place, however, were destroyed by fire
in 1771.
Elated with his success in painting, Lippi threw off the
clerical habit in 1430, and retired to Ancona. Here, when
on a pleasure excursion, he and his companions were seized
by a Moorish vessel and carried off to Barbary, where he
remained for eighteen months in a state of slavery. He
owed his liberation to his favourite art. One day, for
amusement, he sketched on a wall, with a piece of charcoal,
a portrait of his master, who, surprised and delighted with
this proof of the young painter’s skill, released him from
prison, and after he painted some other pieces for him, sent
him to Naples in safety. For Alfonso, the Duke of Cala¬
bria, he executed a werk on panel, which was placed in the
chapel of the castle; but he soon left Naples for Florence,
where he painted an admirable picture for the nuns of Sant’
Ambrogio, which was the means of bringing him under the
notice of Cosmo de’ Medici. About the same time he
painted a work for the chapter-house of Santa Croce, an¬
other for the chapel of the Medici palace, and a third for the
wife of Cosmo de’ Medici, all of which still exist in the pic¬
ture galleries of Florence. Lippi was restless and fond of
sensual pleasure ; and, on one occasion, when employed by
Cosmo, it was thought necessary to imprison him beside
his work; but the impetuous artist, after two days’ confine¬
ment, made ropes from the sheets of his bed, and dropped
himself from the window into the street.
In 1459 he was commissioned by the nuns of Santa
Margherita, to paint an altar-piece, when he was so much
struck by the beauty ofLucrezia, the daughter of Francesco
Buti, who lived in the convent, that he begged the nuns to
let him paint her likeness for the Virgin in his picture.
They consented, and greatly to their grief, Lippi carried off
the young lady. They had a son called Filippo Lippi,
who also became a distinguished painter.
Fra Filippo Lippi died at Spoleto in 1469, being at that
time 57 years of age. Some have maintained that he
was poisoned by the relations of Lucrezia, but this does not
seem probable. His death was deeply regretted by very
many, and by none more than by his friend Pope Paul II.
Lorenzo de’ Medici, anxious to do the great painter honour,
asked his remains from the Commune of Spoleto, in order
that they might be placed in the Cathedral Santa Maria del
Fiore, at Florence. The people of Spoleto begged to have
the honour of retaining them, and Lorenzo then, at his own
expense, placed a marble monument to his memory in the
cathedral at Spoleto.
One of the greatest works of this master is his Death of
San Bernardo, painted for the capitular church of Prato
(and still there) ; and The Life of Stephen, in three parts,
namely, “The Disputation,” “The Stoning,” and the “Death
of the Protomartyr.” This is, perhaps, the finest specimen of
the artist’s genius. On the other side of the chapel is his His¬
tory of John the Baptist, in which he has painted his own
portrait and that of Lucrezia. There are also The An¬
nunciation, St Jerome doing Penance, and many others.
His paintings are characterized by inventive genius, admi¬
rable drawing, good colouring, and great power in express¬
ing deep emotion.
Lippi, Filippo or Filippino, the son of Fra Filippo
Lippi, was born in 1459. After the death of his father, he
was brought up and instructed by Sandro Botticelli, and
also to some extent educated by Fra Diamante. He soon
exhibited great invention, and devoting himself ardently to
the study of Roman antiquities, introduced into his works
banners, mantles, the toga, buskins, helmets, and arms of
every description. He was one of the first painters who
devoted much attention to such embellishments. At Flo¬
rence, he completed the chapel of the Brancacci, intro¬
ducing the portraits of several of his friends. In his picture
of Peter Condemned to Death, we have his own portrait
as a young man ; but as he never painted it again, we cannot
obtain any likeness of him at a more advanced time of life.
He went to Rome on the invitation of Lorenzo de’ Medici
to paint a chapel for Cardinal Caraffa. He chose for his
subject Events from the Life of Thomas Aquinas ; but he
introduced a good deal of fictitious matter into these compo¬
sitions. He returned to Florence, and painted the Strozzi
Chapel, in the church of Santa Maria Novello ; on one side
is the Resurrection of Drusiana by John the Evangelist,
and on the other, San Filippo in the Temple of Mars.
His works are very numerous, but the best are those above
mentioned. He died in 1505, in the forty-fifth year of his
age.
503
Lippi,
Filippo.
504 LIP
Lippi, Lippi, Lorenzo, an historical and portrait painter, and a
Lorenzo poet, was born at Florence in 1606, and was educated in
II. painting by Matteo Roselli. Some of his works closely re-
Lipaius, semy e those of his master. His Crucifixion and Triumph
v of David, are his best pictures ; the former of these is in
* the Florentine gallery. He painted a good many excellent
portraits at Innspriick, which are still to be seen there. His
paintings are admired for their simplicity, elegance, and cor¬
rect drawing. His genius in poetry was evinced by a bur¬
lesque, entitled Malmantile Ilacqnistaro, published under
the fictitious name of Perloni Zipoli. It appeared first at
Florence in 1688, 4to, and subsequent editions were pub¬
lished at Florence in 1731, and at Paris in 1768. Lippi
died in 1664, in the fifty-eighth year of his age.
LIPPSTADT, a walled town of Prussian Westphalia,
government of Arnsberg,and 23 miles N.N.E. of the town of
that name, on the left bank of the Lippe. It is entered by
five gates, and has a court-house and an orphan hospital. It
has brandy distilleries, and manufactures of woollens, leather,
vinegar, and starch. A part of it formerly belonged to
Lippe-Detmold. Pop. 4862.
LIPSIUS, Justus, an eminent critic and antiquary,
v/as born on the 18th of October 1547, at Isque, a village
between Brussels and Louvain. After receiving his ele¬
mentary education at Brussels, he began, at the age of ten,
to study Latin at Ath,in Hainaut; and after the lapse of two
years, entered the Jesuit College at Cologne. There apply¬
ing himself to history, philosophy, and Greek, he gave so fair
a promise of future eminence, that the Jesuits, who were
eager to employ the talents of their pupils in their own ser¬
vice, used all their arts to draw him within their fraternity.
Their designs, however, were defeated by his parents, who
removed him, in 1564, to the University of Louvain. In
addition to his favourite studies of philology and philosophy,
Lipsius, at the desire of his father, who had destined him
for the legal profession, now began to study jurisprudence.
The death of his father, however, in the ensuing year, left
him to follow the full bias of his own mind. His first
work, Variarum Lectionum libri ires, published in 1567,
and dedicated to Cardinal de Granvelle, secured for him
the patronage of that ecclesiastic, who appointed him his
Latin secretary. In this capacity he accompanied the
cardinal in that same year to Rome, where he remained till
1569, cultivating an intimacy with several learned men,
and poring over the manuscripts preserved in the Vatican and
other libraries. On his return to Louvain, he spent a year
there with little profit either to his learning or morals. He
then set out on a tour, and after travelling in Austria, was
passing through Germany towards Louvain; but receiving an
alarming account of the war that was raging in the Nether¬
lands, he was induced to settle down at Jena as professor
of history and eloquence. After retaining this office for
two years, he removed to Cologne in 1574, and there he
married a lady descended from a good family in Louvain.
In the same year his first edition of Tacitus was printed in
octavo at Antwerp. He improved the succeeding editions
with great assiduity; and the sixth edition, in folio and quarto,
was printed at the same place in 1600. His Antiquarum
Lectionum libri quinque appeared at Antwerp in 1575.
From Cologne, after a sojourn of nine months, he retired
to Isque; but upon the renewal of hostilities in the vicinity,
he withdrew to Louvain. Here, at the suggestion of his
friends, he resumed the study of jurisprudence, and in 1576
took the degree of LL.D. His knowledge of law, though
never used professionally, aided his critical labours by elu¬
cidating many points in Roman antiquities. In 1577 he
published his Epistolicarum Qucestionum libri quinque.
He became professor of history at Leyden in 1579, and
taught there with high reputation. At Louvain he had
been a Papist, at Jena a Lutheran, and at Leyden he now
became a Calvinist.
L I Q
At Leyden he produced some of his more elaborate works. Liquation.
His Electorum liber primus appeared in 1580; Electorum
libri duo in 1582 ; De Amphitheatro liber, to which is sub¬
joined De Amphitheatris quce extra Romam libellus in
1584 ; Saturnalium Sermonum libri duo in 1585 ; De recta
Pronuntiatione Latince Linguae Dialogus, dedicated to Sir
Philip Sidney, in 1586; and an edition of Seneca’s Tragedies
in 1588. He also published two political w orks,—De Con-
stantia libri duo, in 1584; and Politicorum sive Civilis
Doctrince libri sex, in 1589. This latter treatise, advocat¬
ing the punishment of dissenters from the established faith,
was immediately attacked by Theodore Koornhert, and
feebly defended by its author in his De Una Religione
adversus Dialogistam liber, published 1590. Resigning
his chair in 1591, he withdrew to Spa, and afterwards to
Mentz; and in the same year was publicly reconciled to
the Romish Church. During a sojourn of two years at Spa
and Liege, he refused several preferments proffered to him
by princes and dignitaries of the Church. Benedictus Arias
Montanus, a learned Spaniard, also offered him a share of
his house and income during his life, and promised him
his entire property after his death. His desire to reside in
his native country induced him, however, to reject this
offer; and Lipsius finally returned to Louvain as professor
of history and eloquence. Here his scanty salary of 800
florins was supplemented by a pension of 1000 florins from
Philip II., and one of 200 from Archduke Albert. The
high eminence he attained as a professor w7as confirmed
by the publication of the following antiquarian works:—
De Cruce libri tres, 1595; De Militia Romana libri
quinque, and Poliorceticon, 1596; Admiranda, sive de
Magnitudine Romana libri quatuor, 1598; and De Vesta
et Vestalibus in 1603. His Manuductionis ad Stoicam
Philosophiam libri tres, and his Physiologice Stoicorum
libri tres, appeared in 1604; his Monita et Exempla Poli-
tica, his edition of Seneca the philosopher, and his Lova-
nium, in 1605. He also wrote two detailed accounts of
the miracles of the Virgin,—Diva Virgo Hallensis, in 1604,
and Diva Sichemiensis, in 1605. These, furnishing the
subject of a bitter controversy, aroused the contempt of
Protestants, without securing any sympathy for their pro¬
mulgator in the Church of Rome. Lipsius died March 23,
1606, dedicating, with his last breath, his academical gown
to the Virgin.
His erudition in Latin literature was very great, and
wTas employed with much critical skill in illustrating many
different branches of Roman antiquities. Less adapted,
through a defective sensibility, to excel in poetical criticism,
he was still an able critic of the style and scope of historians,
philosophers, grammarians, and rhetoricians. His knowledge
of Greek was less intimate ; and his exposition of Polybius,
incorporated with his De Militia Romana, is asserted by
Casaubon to have shed no light on the dark passages of
the original. The graver charge of plagiarism has been
brought against this same work by Scaliger, Salmasius,
and many later writers. Nor has his edition of Tacitus,
the chief pillar of his fame, escaped this stigma. That his
judgment was weak, when beyond the province of criticism,
is evinced by the shortsighted views and illiberal spirit of
his political treatises. His Latinity, fantastic and unnatural,
excited the disgust of his learned contemporaries, and was
the subject of a volume of 560 pages by H. Stephanus.
In the hands of a few imitative disciples it underwent a
tenfold deterioration.
An edition of his entire works, accompanied by a life,
was published at Antwerp in 1637, by Aubert le Mire.
His original works were published at Wesel in 1675.
LIQUATION, or Eliquation, a method of reducing
the ores of silver by forming a triple alloy of copper, silver,
and lead, which being cast into round masses, are placed
on edge in a furnace on an inclined plane of iron, contain-
Liquorice
n
Lisbon.
L I Q
ing a small channel, and raised to a red heat; as the lead
melts out, by its attraction for silver it carries that metal with
it, leaving the copper as a reddish-black spongy mass. The
silver is recovered by one of the methods described under
Lead. See also Assaying. (c. t.)
LIQUORICE, a well-known vegetable product, which
was equally known to the ancients, who used it medicinally.
I his plant, as employed by the ancient physicians, is be¬
lieved to have been the ghjcyrrhize of Dioscorides and ghj-
cyrrhizion ot Pliny. The root is obtained from a perennially
herbaceous plant, the Glycyrrhiza glabra. Met with in
some parts ot Austria, it inhabits chiefly the deep light soils
of Southern Europe, especially Spain, Italy, and France.
It is much cultivated in England for medicinal purposes,
particularly at Pontefract in Yorkshire, and Micham in Sur¬
rey. I he root is long, creeping, and succulent, and about
the thickness of the thumb, from which shoot forth several
simple stems, from two to four feet high. The stems are
covered with large, unequally pinnate, yellowish-green leaves
of a viscous nature, and bear axillary, racemose, papiliona¬
ceous flowers of a whitish colour with purple tips, and suc¬
ceeded by smooth four-seeded pods.
Liquorice-root consists of lignin, starch, wax, resinous oil,
colouring matter, albumen, malic acid, earthy phosphates
and sulphates, an azotized crystalline principle and glycion,
glycyrrhine. Liquorice is prepared in Spain, Italy, and
Sicily, from the root of G. glabra only by inspissating the
decoction in copper kettles till the mass is sufficiently thick
to be firm when cooled. Made up into sticks of 6 inches
long and dried on the leaves of the sweet bay, it is thus
imported into Britain. The finest liquorice comes from
Italy. It is of a brownish-black colour, smooth, shining and
flexible when warm, brittle when cold, and of a very sweet
taste. Water dissolves from three-fifths to eleven-twelfths
of it; alcohol only about an eighth. The imported liquo¬
rice does very well for making lozenges, but when used for
sweetening decoctions or as an excipient for pills, it requires
to be purified. The extract of the root, when brought into
this country, is commonly called Spanish liquorice, or liquo¬
rice juice. It is sometimes imported run into boxes of
about 2 cwt. each, in which form it is said to be purer
than when in sticks. The Russian liquorice root met with
occasionally on the continent, but unknown in this coun¬
try, is inferior to the common, and is said to be cultivated
in preference to the ordinary liquorice plant from its greater
power of enduring cold. The most dangerous adulteration
to be met with in liquorice is copper, obtained from the pans
in which it is prepared.
LI III A (the ancient Edeta'), a town of Spain, province
of Valencia, and 17 miles N.W. of the town of that name.
1 hough mean and neglected in appearance, it has some
good buildings among its ecclesiastical structures. On the
summit of a hill in the vicinity is the Colegio de San
Miguel, an extensive and venerable pile with a hand¬
some and richly decorated church. The inhabitants are
chiefly agricultural, but some manufactures oflinen, soap,
leather, earthenware, &c., are carried on. Pop. about 8000.
LISBON (Lisboa, in Portuguese), the metropolis of
Portugal, and the chief town of one of the seventeen ad¬
ministrations into which the kingdom is divided, is situate
on the right bank of the Tagus ( Tejo), about 9 miles from
its mouth, in N. Lat. 38. 42., and W. Long. 9. 5. It is,
therefore, distant about 900 miles in a straight line from
London. I he ground upon which it stands is very uneven,
and hence it is of ten said to be built upon seven hills, like
ancient Rome. Its situation is very fine, and its appearance
from the deck of a vessel sailing up the river is highly im¬
posing. Indeed, there are very few cities in the world
which present so impressive a coup dlceil as Lisbon, viewed
bom the lagus. I he river is deep enough to float vessels
of t ie laigest burden ; and here are usually seen several
VOL. XIII.
LIS
British men-of-war, surrounded by craft of all sizes from all
nations.
The origin of Lisbon is lost in remote antiquity; but
there are not wanting fables to carryback its foundation some
thousands of years before the Christian era; whilst others
attribute its origin to the wandering Ulysses, and affect to
trace its name in that of the Ithacan king. Pliny states that
its first inhabitants were a warlike tribe called Turduli. It
passed successively into the hands of the Phoenicians,
Greeks, Carthaginians, and Romans. Julius Caesar be¬
stowed upon it the title of Felicitas Julia, and the rights of
a municipium. The barbarians who overran the peninsula
about a.d. 409 wrested Lisbon from the Romans. The
Goths under Theodoric subsequently obtained possession
of it, but it passed from them to the Arabs with the rest of
the peninsula, after the battle (711) wherein Roderick,
ultimus Rex Gothorum, was slain. Taken from them by
the Spaniards, it soon became Moorish again, but was finally
conquered from the invaders in 1147 by Alphonso, first
King of Portugal, after a siege of several months, in which
he was assisted by an army of crusaders, chiefly English, on
their wTay to the Holy Land. The city wras very obstinately
defended ; but the statement that 200,000 Moors perished
during the struggle is doubtless an exaggeration of the
victors. About 1372, in the reign of Ferdinand the Hand¬
some, Lisbon was burnt by the King of Castile in the
course of a quarrel which arose out. of the claim of the Por¬
tuguese king to the crown of Castile. Soon after Ferdi¬
nand’s death, Lisbon was besieged by the Spaniards, but
not taken. During the 60 years (1580-1640) that Portu¬
gal was subject to Spain, Lisbon fell to the rank of a pro¬
vincial town. It was captured by the Duke of Braganca,
afterwards John IV., in 1640. In 1755 occurred that ter¬
rible earthquake, which, assisted by a fire which broke out,
reduced the city to a heap of ruins, and destroyed between
30,000 and 40,000 people, with an immense amount of pro¬
perty. Shocks of earthquake, of more or less violence, have
been experienced at Lisbon through many centuries, but
none has caused such damage and loss of life as that of 1755.
The minister Pombal, a man of great talent and energy,
applied himself, in the first place, to the preservation of the
rights of property, and then to the reconstruction of the
city. The handsomest part of the present city was erected
under his direction ; but even now there are many ruined
edifices which speak forcibly of the great terremoto and its
horrors. When Napoleon issued his decree that the House
of Braganfa had ceased to reign in Europe, the Regent Don
John was compelled to desert the country for Brazil, and
the next day a French army under Junot entered Lisbon
(29th November 1807) ; possession of which was retained
until the 15th September 1808, when Junot quietly em¬
barked his army under the protection of the disgraceful
Convention of Cintra.
In the absence of an authoritative census, the population
of Lisbon may be roughly estimated at 250,000. With this
number of inhabitants it ranks amongst the most populous
capitals of Europe, and is much before Madrid, with only
176,000 inhabitants. The separate households amount to
about 47,800; and the city with its suburbs is divided into
39 parishes, containing 354 streets, 216 lanes, 12 large
squares, 5 public gardens, and 34 fountains. There are
three royal palaces, four theatres, and a circus for bull fights.
Until of late years, travellers have had just reason to com¬
plain of the filthy state of the streets. (Byron, it will be
remembered, speaks in Childe Harold of the many
“things unsightly to strange ee.”) But things have been
much altered for the better, and, except in some of the small
out-of-the-way streets, there is now little to find fault with
either as regards the paving, the lighting, or the cleanliness.
Gas made from British coal was introduced about the year
1850. Excellent water flows to the fountains distributed
3 s
505
Lisbon.
506 LIS
Lisbon, throughout the city, from which it is removed in barrels to
v..— —-J the houses by Gallegos, men from Galicia who do the prin¬
cipal part of the hard work in Lisbon. The supply of water
is not, however, in summer adequate to the requirements of
the place, and a company has been lately formed for the ob-
tainment of a further supply.
Lisbon stretches along the shore of the Tagus for 4 or
5 miles, and extends northward over the hills for nearly
3 miles. Much of it, however, is scattered ; and in all but
the densest parts, there are gardens and unoccupied patches.
For municipal purposes the city is divided into four dis¬
tricts (the whole under one municipal chamber), and two
suburban districts, under separate chambers. The crown
is represented by the civil governor, who is at the head of
the police. For the most part the streets are very irre¬
gular ; but that portion which suffered most from the great
earthquake, and which had to be wholly rebuilt, is occupied
by lofty houses, arranged in long streets, on a uniform plan.
Here are the four principal squares. One of these squares, the
Pra$a do Commercio, is surrounded on three sides by the
custom-house and government offices, with a spacious arcade
beneath. On the fourth it is open to the river; and in the
middle is a grand equestrian statue, in bronze, of Joseph
I., in whose reign the earthquake and the rebuilding took
place. This is the only statue in the city. The square is
583 feet by 536, and its appearance is strikingly handsome.
From one side of it run several parallel streets, which ter¬
minate in another handsome square, the Praga de Don
Pedro, surrounded on three sides by large houses, the
ground stories of which are used as shops; whilst on the
fourth side stands the new theatre of Dona Maria II. A
grand triumphal arch is being erected in the former square,
at the termination of the principal street connecting the
two. The public gardens are small, but much frequented.
The hotels of Lisbon, notwithstanding the great influx of
strangers, offer only indifferent accommodation; whilst the
shops present little display, and are ill-supplied with wares.
The palace where the king actually resides (the Palacio
das Necessidadcs) is a large unsightly building, to which
a good garden is attached. The palace of Ajuda, in the
Italian style, situate upon a hill above the suburb of Belem,
was commenced upon a very grand scale, but has been left
incomplete. Receptions, however, sometimes take place
here. It contains a good library, and some bad pictures. If
ever finished, it will be one of the handsomest palatial edifices
in Europe. Several of the nobility have good and spacious
houses in the city, which are dignified by the name of
palaces. Two or three small forts, one on a rock at the
mouth of the Tagus, defend the city from the approach of
a hostile fleet; but its chief defence is the citadel of St
George, which occupies a commanding position on a rocky
hill. This part of Lisbon is ancient, and is composed of
narrow, tortuous streets : it retains the old Moorish appel¬
lation of Alfama. The churches are numerous, and are
nearly all in the same tasteless Italian style ; the interiors,
overlaid by heavy ornament, contain pictures utterly
devoid of merit. Perhaps the one best worth visiting is the
Estrella, with a dome and two towers, something on the
plan of St Paul’s at London. The view from the dome is
very extensive. The church of St Vincent de Fora, stand¬
ing in a conspicuous position near the citadel, is considered
to be the largest in Lisbon ; its dimensions being 222 feet
by 82. In an attached chapel, recently built, the coffined
corpses of most of the Portuguese monarchs are deposited,
and are exhibited to the public on certain days in the year.
In the church of St Roque is a chapel, which was con-
etructed at Rome of silver and the richest stones, by or¬
der of John V., and which was first erected at Rome, in
order that the pope might perform mass in it, previous to
its shipment to Lisbon. It is is said to have cost upwards
of L.120,000. Part of the cathedral behind the high altar
B O N.
is ancient, and deserves inspection. Near the custom- Lisbon,
house is a church, formerly a synagogue, with an old and
richly-carved portico. At the Carmo are the ruins of achurch
in the pointed style. It was commenced to be rebuilt after
being thrown down by the earthquake, but was not com¬
pleted. These seem to be the only remains of what we
should term Gothic architecture to be found in Lisbon
itself; but at Belem there is the church of St Jeronimo,
commenced in 1500, on the spot where Vasco de Gama
embarked, three years before, on his famous voyage to
India. I his, and the adjacent cloisters of an extinct mon¬
astery, are very interesting.
The museums of Lisbon exist but in name ; and the bota¬
nical garden at Ajuda is wretchedly managed. The gallery
of the Academy of Tine Arts contains only two or three pic¬
tures worth notice; and the private collections, of which there
are few, are generally poor. The great public library con¬
sists, for the most part, of old theological works and ecclesias¬
tical histories, swept out of various suppressed monasteries.
T he books, uncatalogued and uncared for, are rotting to pieces.
They are said to be about 86,000 in number, and with
them are kept 8000 MSS., and a collection of 24,000 coins.
The Library of the Academy of Sciences, amongst its 50,000
volumes, hardly contains a modern book on any branch of
science. The King’s Library, at the Necessidades Palace,
is said to contain 28,000 volumes; and that at the Ajuda
Palace, 20,000 volumes. The Patriarch’s Library con¬
tains 24,000 volumes. The Portuguese take very little
interest in literature, science, or art, and almost everything
connected with them is in a neglected state. The national
printing-office, however, seems in good hands, though the
work done is not of the highest class, or of great extent.
This is a government establishment, in imitation of those at
Paris and other continental cities. Literary and scientific
societies are few in number, and of little importance. The
principal one is the Royal Academy of Sciences, founded
in 1779; its transactions are scarcely known out of Lis¬
bon, though represented by the Portuguese themselves
to be numerous and most important; whilst the voluminous
memoirs are said to form an inexhaustible treasury of
science. Eight newspapers appear daily in Lisbon, and
six weekly, the total circulation of which is thought not
to exceed 3500 copies. There are, besides, various fort¬
nightly and monthly publications, five of which are medical,
and two religious periodicals. The booksellers’ shops are
few, and badly stocked.
As the metropolis of the kingdom, Lisbon contains the
various offices of the central government, most of which are
in the Praqa do Commercio. Here, also, meets the mu¬
nicipal chamber, a body consisting of a president and
eleven members, called vereadores, whose duties are to
superintend the lighting, paving, and cleansing of the city,
to establish regulations for safety against fire, and for the
proper distribution of the water brought by the aqueduct.
The two chambers of parliament hold their sittings in a
huge building, formerly the monastery of St Bento. A
telegraphic wire has been lately put up, to establish elec¬
tric communication between the office of the minister of
public works, the chambers of parliament, and the royal
palaces of Necessidades and Cintra. The supreme courts
of justice sit in Lisbon, as well as various minor tribunals.
Here are also naval and military arsenals. Attached to
the naval arsenal is a school, an observatory, and a hydro-
graphical office. There are barracks in various parts of the
town for the accommodation of the soldiery. The armed
municipal guard consists of 160 cavalry, and 1170 infantry.
The aqueduct spoken of above was erected more than
100 years ago, in the reign of John V. It brings water
from certain springs, situate about 7 miles to the N.W. of
Lisbon, and crosses, in its course, 127 arches of excellent
workmanship, 35 of which form the bridge across the valley
507
LISBON.
Lisbon, of Alcantara; the extreme height here being 263 feet.
—^ There is a tradition, that only one stone was shaken from
the parapet of this bridge at the great earthquake, the
f - aqueduct beyond being wholly uninjured. Through its
whole length, the aqueduct is arched overhead, at a height
of 8 feet above the floor; and there is a foot-path between
the water-courses. On approaching Lisbon it is divided
into three branches, the middle one of which terminates at
a large square tank, 31 feet deep, the vaulted roof of which
is supported on thick pillars. There is a broad walk round
the tank, and from the flat roof an extensive view is ob¬
tained. On leaving the tank, the water is conducted along
two channels to different points of the city.
I here are several cemeteries near Lisbon, and the prac¬
tice of interring in churches has for some years been aban¬
doned. 1 he monthly mortality may be estimated at 600.
In the cemetery set apart for the English lies our novelist
Fielding, who died at Lisbon in 1754. A large marble
sarcophagus, bearing a long Latin inscription, covers his
remains. The British residents maintain a chaplain, who
performs service weekly in an adjacent chapel. The
largest of the hospitals is that of St Jose, where there is
an average number of 900 patients. The great lunatic
asylum of Rilhafolles usually contains nearly 400 patients.
At the foundling hospital more than 2000 infants are an¬
nually received. There is a very interesting establishment
at Belem, called the Casa Pia, where 900 children of both
sexes are clothed, maintained, and educated gratuitously.
Ecclesiastically, Lisbon is a patriarchate, the holder of
the dignity being at the head of the clergy, and president
of the Chamber of Peers.
Lisbon is the largest port in the kingdom. The custom¬
house is a spacious and very substantial building, worthy of
any capital in Europe. As the merchants are allowed to
deposit their goods here for a year (two years for Brazilian
produce) free of duty, it saves them the expense of private
warehouses; and this arrangement offers great advantages
to the trading community, which are generally taken ad¬
vantage of. In 1851 there entered the port of Lisbon 1908
vessels, having an aggregate tonnage of 198,893. The pro¬
duce of the Lisbon custom-house, after paying its expenses,
amounted, in 1851, to L.477,700; that of the municipal
custom-house, where a duty similar to the French octroi
duty is levied upon all articles of consumption entering the
city, to L.209,400. A large body of foreigners dwell here
in the character of merchants, nearly fifty of whom are
British firms. Brazil and Great Britain are the two coun¬
tries with which the most active commerce is carried on;
tropical produce being imported from one, and manufac¬
tures from the other,—wine and oil being sent to both in
return. Lisbon has one joint-stock bank, called the Bank
of Portugal, a few fire and life insurance offices, and some
joint-stock companies, the chief of which are,—the Com¬
pany for Cultivating the Productive Islands in the Tagus,
with a capital of L.45,000; the Newfoundland Fishery Com-
pany, with a capital of L.11,000; the Lisbon Spinning and
W eaving Company, with a capital of L.20,000; and the
Gas Company, with a capital of L.10,000. Manufactures
are carried on only to a small extent at Lisbon, and ma¬
chinery is little employed. There are a few steam-mills
for grinding corn, expressing oil, and sawing wood. There
is also a large sugar-refinery, as well as some woollen, cot-
ton, aod silk mills, but none of these will bear comparison
with British establishments of the same kind. All the coal
employed at these places is imported from England. In
the immediate neighbourhood of Lisbon stands the tobacco
manufactory, belonging to a company which has a mono¬
poly from government for the whole kingdom, paving
L.294,000 annually for the privilege. About 1600 persons
are employed here, and three millions of lbs. of tobacco are
manufactured in the year. The machinery is set in motion
by two steam-engines, and, like most of the machinery at
Lisbon, is of British make. Several small steamers ply on v
the river, and connect Lisbon with the neighbouring towns
on its banks. There is communication three times a-month
with Southampton by means of the Oriental and Penin¬
sular Company’s steamers, which call here on their way to
the Mediterranean. The steam-packets of a British-Bra-
zilian Company call here monthly, on their way to and from
Rio Janeiro; and the Portuguese have also a line of their
own to Brazil. There is also steam communication two or
three times a-month with Liverpool. Various steamers
connect Lisbon with Oporto, Setubal, and the towns of the
Algarve. A monthly steamer to the Azores has been pro¬
jected. As to railways, Portugal does not yet possess one ;
but a line is in progress from Lisbon to Santarem, a town
44 miles distant, and a short line to Cintra, 17 miles in
length, has been projected. A company has been formed
to make a line from a point on the opposite bank of the
Tagus towards Badajoz, in Spain. Lisbon is tolerably well
supplied with flesh-meat, fish, and country produce. A large
quantity of excellent fruit is brought into the city for sale
during the season. A few lines of omnibuses connect Lis¬
bon with the suburbs and neighbouring villages. These are
usually drawn by mules, and are very inconvenient. The
same remark may be made of the old-fashioned, rickety
carriages which stand for hire in various parts of the city.
Some of the private carriages are neat, but small. A heavy
duty, amounting almost to a prohibition, is levied on all fo¬
reign-made carriages; and hence the Portuguese are obliged
to content themselves with vehicles of an inferior class.
The British nation has a minister at the court of Lisbon :
he receives a salary of L.4000 per annum, the consul L.600,
and the vice-consul L.300.
The climate of Lisbon may be considered healthy: the
winter is very mild, frost and snow being rare. In summer
the heat is great, and all who have the means betake them¬
selves during the hot months to Cintra, or to some part of
the neighbouring sea-coast, where they may have the benefit
of a cooler atmosphere. According to the observations of
Franzini, extending over twenty years, the mean temperature
of Lisbon is 61° Fahr., and the mean fall of rain for sixteen
years was 22*9 inches; the mean height of the barometer
(corrected to the temperature of 63° Fahr.), at an altitude of
285 feet above the sea, was 30,034 inches. The observa¬
tions for sixteen years give, as the mean temperature of the
seasons,—Winter, 52°; Spring, 60o,5; Summer, 7]°'3; Au¬
tumn, 59°'5 Fahr. It will give some idea of the fluctuations
of the climate to note, that, during the year 1845-55 (an ex¬
ceptional year), the maximum temperature was 96°'60, and
the lowest 31°’64 Fahr., when there was hoar-frost. The
prevalent winds, and the number of days on which they
blew on the average of sixteen years, were, according to
Franzini,—N., 144 days; N.W., 123; S.W., 138. A
meteorological observatory has been lately established at
the Polytechnic School, which appears to be under good
management.
Like London and Paris, Lisbon stands in a basin of the
tertiary formation. The upper beds of this basin consist
of loose sand and gravel, destitute of organic remains, and
not rising to a greater height than 150 feet above the sea.
Below these is a series of beds called, by Mr D. Sharpe,
the Almada beds, composed of yellow sand, calcareous
sandstone, and blue clay, rich in marine remains. It is
upon these beds that the greater part of Lisbon stands.
Some of them are well exhibited in the cliffs on the S. side
of the Tagus, and others have been laid open by the rail¬
way cuttings on the N. bank to the E. of the city. They
appear to belong to the older Miocene, and have no equi¬
valents in Britain. Mr James Smith ranks them as older
than the Touraine beds, and as nearly of the same age as
those of Bordeaux and Dax. The total thickness of the
508 LIS
Lisburn. Almada beds, as far as they are disclosed, may be between
400 and 500 feet. Upwards of 150 species of fossils have
been obtained from these beds, of which 124 have been
determined, and 20 ascertained to be new and peculiar.
About 28 per cent, are of recent species. Next comes a
tertiary conglomerate, destitute of organic remains, having
in one section a thickness of 200 feet. The tertiary de¬
posits cover altogether an area of between 2000 and 3000
square miles. They are separated, near Lisbon, from rocks
of the secondary epoch by an immense mass of basalt,
which overflowed the secondary formations before the de¬
position of any of the tertiary strata, and contributed by
its degradation to form the conglomerate just mentioned.
The principal deposit of the basalt has an extieme length
of 20 miles, with a greatly varying width. The uppermost
of the secondary deposits is a formation, named by Mr D.
Sharpe the Hippurite limestone, and classed by him as the
equivalent of the chalk of Northern Europe. The narrow
valley of Alcantara, in the immediate neighbourhood of
Lisbon, has been excavated in this deposit; and here there
are extensive quarries, where abundance of fossils may be
collected. Thirty-four species have been detected, of which
55 per cent, are new. They are principally Lamellibran-
chiata, Gasteropoda, and Radiata, without any Cephalopoda
or Brachiopoda. This formation, which has a total thick¬
ness of upwards of 500 feet, was probably deposited in a quiet
sea of moderate depth. Between the Hippurite limestone
and the granite range of Cintra, the highest part of which
is about 2000 feet, there have been observed four deposits,
for information as to which we must refer to Mr D. Sharpe’s
Memoirs. In speaking of the Almada formation, a bed of
blue clay was mentioned. Mr Sharpe discovered, by care¬
ful investigation, that the greatest force of the earthquake
of 1755 was expended upon the area of this clay, and that
not one of the buildings standing upon it escaped. Those
upon the slopes of the hills immediately above the clay
suffered very severely, and the whole of the tertiary strata
were more or less affected by the shocks; whilst none
of the buildings erected upon the Hippurite limestone or
the basalt suffered any injury whatever; the line at which
the earthquake ceased to be destructive corresponding ex¬
actly with the boundary of the tertiary beds.
LISBURN, a market-town and parliamentary borough
of Ireland, is situate on the Lagan, partly in Upper Castle-
reagh barony, county of Down, and partly in Upper Mas-
sereene barony, county of Antrim, 8 miles S.S.W. from
Belfast by the Ulster Railway. Having been destroyed by
fire in 1707, the town has a modern aspect. It consists
chiefly of a long irregular street of houses, well built, and
roofed with slate. It is paved, and lighted with gas. At the
end of the main street stands the cathedral for the united
diocese of Down and Connor,—a picturesque edifice, sur¬
mounted by an octagonal spire, of date 1807, and contain¬
ing the tomb and monument of its bishop, Jeremy Taylor,
who died at Lisburn in 1667. There are also a chapel of
ease, a Presbyterian church, a Roman Catholic chapel, and
meeting-houses for Methodists and Quakers. Besides se¬
veral schools, it has an institution endowed by John Han¬
cock, for the maintenance and education of forty Quaker
children, an infirmary for the county of Antrim, a union
workhouse, and a linen hall. The gardens of the old ruined
castle are open to the public. Its manufactures are,—linen
thread, damasks, muslins, and diapers, and flax-spinning
and bleaching are extensively carried on. Great facilities
for trade are afforded by its position on the railway and on
the river, and its weekly markets on Tuesday are well sup¬
plied with manufactured and agricultural produce. Its fairs
are held on the 21st of July and the 5th of October. It is
the seat of courts for Kilultagh Manor, courts leet, and
petty sessions. The borough returns a member to parlia¬
ment, and gives the title of Viscount to the family of
LIS
Vaughan. Lisburn was founded by Viscount Conway, in Lisieux
1627, beside the castle which his ancestor Sir Fulk Conway J|
had erected in 1610, and was first inhabited by English Lisle*
and Welsh settlers. In 1641 it was laid in ashes by the v'-
Irish insurgents. Huguenot families, fleeing thither after
the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, imported the linen
manufacture. It was again burnt in 1707, but rapidly re¬
sumed its prosperity, and is now in a flourishing condition.
Pop. (1851) 6569. *
LISIEUX (anc. Noviomagus, or Lexovium), a town ol
France, capital of a cognominal arrondissement in the de¬
partment of Calvados, on the right bank of the Touques,
27 miles E. from Caen. It stands in a beautiful valley,
and is surrounded by villas and gardens. Its streets,
with the exception of the principal one, which forms part
of the road between Caen and Evreux, are narrow and
winding, and the houses, which are high and antiquated,
are built of wood. Its finest buildings are the cathedral, a
Gothic structure of the twelfth century, which contains a
chapel dedicated to the Virgin (built by Pierre Cauchon,
Bishop of Lisieux, whose memory is stained by the part he
took in the execution of Joan of Arc), the bishop’s palace,
a handsome edifice, surrounded by fine gardens, and the
theatre. The town contains a communal college, and an
ecclesiastical seminary. It has tribunals of primary juris¬
diction and of commerce ; manufactures of woollen cloth,
flannels, cotton and linen yarn ; and bleachfields, lanyards,
paper and fulling mills, and dyeworks. There is also a
considerable trade in fruit, corn, hemp, cider, and flax,
which is facilitated by the river being navigable at high
water from Lisieux to its mouth. So early as the fourth
century, Lisieux was attacked, and almost completely de¬
stroyed by the Saxons. The Normans pillaged it in the
eighth century, and retained it for a considerable time. It
bas since been frequently besieged and captured, and was
last taken by Henri Quatre in 1588. The fortress was
formerly one of great consequence, but the ramparts have
been changed into elegant promenades. Pop. (1851)
11,428.
LISKEARD, a parliamentary and municipal borough of
England, county of Cornwall, on the Liskeard and Looe
Canal and Cornwall Railroad, 16 miles W. by N. of Ply¬
mouth. It is built partly on rocky hills, and partly in a
hollow ; the streets are narrow and irregular, and the houses
have a mean appearance. Some handsome buildings have,
however, recently been erected in the immediate vicinity.
The town-hall, built in the beginning of the eighteenth
century, is large and handsome, supported on granite co¬
lumns. The parish church is a fine Gothic edifice of the
fifteenth century, with a tower of more recent date at the
west end. The Methodists, Independents, Baptists, and other
denominations, have also places of worship here. There
are also a grammar and other schools, a mechanics’ institu¬
tion, and a mutual improvement society. The manufactures
of Liskeard are few and unimportant, the inhabitants being
chiefly dependent on the agricultural and mineral produce
of the neighbourhood. Serges and leather are, however,
manufactured here. The municipal affairs of the town are
intrusted to a mayor, four aldermen, and twelve councillors;
and it returns one member to parliament. Pop. (1851)
municipal borough, 4386; parliamentary borough, 6204.
LISLE, Joseph Nicholas he, an eminent astronomer
and geographer, was born at Paris in 1688. His education
was commenced under his father, and completed at Mazarin
College. An eclipse of the sun in 1706 discovered his
taste for mathematics, and to the mathematical sciences he
began thenceforth to apply himself. He was appointed
engineer at Martinico in 1707; and, in 1709, when he was
the correspondent of some of the ablest astronomers in Eu¬
rope, he had constructed a very accurate quadrant for Ins f
own use. He received, in 1715, the grant of a pension of
LIS
Lismore 600 livres, but not until pecuniary difficulties had de¬
ll graded him into an astrologer in the pay of the regent. In
Lissa. tjiat same year he calculated tables of the moon according
to the Newtonian theory. Being elected a member of the
Academy of Sciences in 1714, he delivered before that body,
in 1723, a memoir on the transits of Mercury. In the en¬
suing year he visited England, and, through Halley and
Newton, was elected a member of the Royal Society. A
similar honour was arterwards conferred upon him by every
literary society in Europe. In 1726 he accepted an invi¬
tation from Catherine I. to the chair of astronomy in the
Imperial Academy of Sciences at St Petersburg. 'Travel¬
ling into Siberia, in 1740, to observe the transit of Mer¬
cury over the sun’s disc, he was disappointed in his main
object by the cloudiness of the atmosphere, but collected
much valuable information on the geography of that coun¬
try. With the aid of his brother Louis, he constructed a
map of Russia; and was engaged at intervals for forty years
in meteorological observations. After a stay of twenty-one
years in Russia, he returned to Paris, and was elected pro¬
fessor of mathematics in the Royal College, where La-
lande and Messier were his pupils. Previous to the transit
of Mercury over the sun in 1753, he published a map of the
world, representing the effect of that planet’s parallaxes in dif¬
ferent countries. In 1754 he was appointed by the King
of France astronomical geographer to the marine. His
last work was an account of the comet of 1758, inserted
in the Memoirs of the Academy. About the same year he
withdrew to the Abbey of St Genevieve, where he died of
apoplexy, 11th September 1768. Besides his papers, the
principal of which have been mentioned, De Lisle wrote a
History of Astronomy, 2 vols. 4to, 1738.
LISMORE, an ancient town of Ireland, county of Water¬
ford, on the right bank of the Blackwater, 30 miles N.E.
by E. of Cork, and communicating with Youghal by canal
and the Blackwater. It stands on an elevation overlooking
the river, having on the E. the cathedral, an elegant build¬
ing with a tower and spire, and on a rocky precipice on the
W. the massive old castle. The Blackwater is here crossed
by a fine bridge, the centre arch of which has a span of 100
feet. Its chief buildings, besides the above-named, are,—
a Roman Catholic chapel, a Presbyterian place of worship,
a classical and other schools, a fever hospital, and several
alms-houses in behalf of aged Protestant soldiers. Trade
is here confined to the agricultural produce of the district,
and slates from neighbouring quarries. Lismore is said to
have originated from a monastery founded here by St
Carthagh in the seventh century. Two centuries later it
was several times pillaged by the Danes. In the thirteenth
century King John of England founded the castle which,
with the town, suffered much during the rebellion of 1641.
hrom that time the town long continued in a state of decay,
until it became the property of the Devonshire family, when
great improvements were made. The castle is now in
complete repair. Pop. (1851) 2340.
Lismore (Gaelic, Leosmore, “ The Great Garden ”), an
island oft the W. coast of Scotland, in the county of Argyll,
is^ situate at the mouth of Loch Linnhe, about 7 miles
N.N.W. from Oban. Its greatest length is about 10 miles,
its average breadth ] J miles, and its area about 8000 acres.
I he greater part of the island is under cultivation, and the
remainder, though rocky, is covered with a rich green sward,
variegated by small clumps of trees. Herring-fishing is
carried on by the inhabitants; and limestone is exported.
In ancient times the bishops of Argyll inhabited the Castle
of Lismore, now in ruins, and were on that account some¬
times styled Episcopi Lismonenscs. There are also the
remains of the small Cathedral of St Moluac, the chancel of
which is used as a parish church. Pop. (1851) of the united
parishes of Lismore and Appin, 4097.
LISSA (Pol. Leszno), a town of Prussia, in the pro-
L I T 509
vince of Posen, and 42 miles S.S.W. from the town of Lissa
that name. Its chief buildings are several churches, a P
Protestant gymnasium, a synagogue, and a castle. There Uthg°w‘
are extensive manufactories of woollen and linen cloths,
leather, tobacco, and chicory. It has a small trade in wine.
Pop. (1849) 9635.
Lissa (ancient Issa), an island in the Adriatic, off the
Dalmatian coast, about 10 miles in length by 5 miles
broad, in N. Lat. 43. 5., E. Long. 16. 10. Its shores are
generally steep and rocky, and it is only accessible at
a few bays. The soil is barren; wine and anchovies
form the chief products. Issa was long known to the
ancients, and is said by Scylax to have been peopled at an
early period by Greeks. During the ascendancy of Rome,
the inhabitants had the privileges of Roman citizens, and
often assisted that power in its maritime expeditions. In
modern times it is famous for the victory gained by the
British under Sir W. Hoste over a French squadron, in
1811, after which it was occupied for some time by British
troops. The chief town and seaport is San Giorgio, or
Lissa, situate on the N.E. shore, with a pop. of 2800. Pop.
of island, 5200.
LISTER, Thomas Henry, a novelist, the only son of
Thomas Lister, Esq. of Armitage Park, was born in 1801.
He produced three novels,—Granby in 1826, Herbert Lacy
in 1827, and Arlington in 1832; all descriptive of the
manners of the higher classes, of which the author was a
member. Without displaying any originality or much skill
in the management of a plot, these works are marked by
shrewd reflection, a faultless taste both in thought and dic¬
tion, and a faithful painting of *_ishionable life. In 1838
Lister published The Life and Administration of the Earl
of Clarendon, which is now considered a standard biogra¬
phy. Previous to his death, in June 1842, he held the office
of registrar-general.
LISTOWEL, a market-town of Ireland, county of
Kerry, on the right bank of the River Feale, about 16
miles N.N.E. from Tralee. The town, which has of late
years been much improved, consists of one main street,
with several small streets diverging from it. There is also a
spacious square containing the ancient dilapidated castle,
and the parish church. The other principal buildings are,
—a fine bridge of five arches spanning the river, an hospital,
several schools, a dispensary, and a bridewell. Listowel
Castle was the last fortress that held out for Lord Kerry
against Queen Elizabeth, and was taken by Sir Charles
Wilmot in 1600. Pop. (1851) 3527.
LITHGOW, William, a noted traveller, was born in
the parish of Lanark in 1583. Early imbued with a pro¬
pensity for roaming, when he attained to manhood, he set
out on a walking tour through the Netherlands, Germany,
and Bohemia, trusting probably to benevolence and to
his own good fortune to defray the expenses of his journey.
He then repaired to Paris, and after remaining there for
ten months, proceeded in 1609 to Rome, and afterwards to
Naples, trudging along on foot, and refusing on principle
the help of any vehicle that passed him on the way. In
this manner he wandered through Greece and Asia; and
having escaped numberless dangers from robbers, and hard¬
ships from exposure to inclement weather, passed over land
to Egypt, where three of his fellow-travellers died, and left
him their property. He returned to England by Sicily and
Paris. Another tour which he made lay through Morocco,
Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, Hungary, Germany, and Poland.
On his arrival in London he became an object of interest, and
had frequent audiences of James I. Furnished with commen¬
datory letters from the king to all kings, princes, dukes, he
sailed to France in 1619, and travelled through Portugal
and Spain to Malaga. There he was apprehended as a
spy, and after suffering the most horrible manglings and la¬
cerations, first in the prison, and subsequently in the Inqui-
510
L I T
LIT
Litho¬
graphy.
sition, he was liberated in 1621, and brought to England
emaciated almost to death. On recovering his health, he
made several futile attempts to gain redress, and, among
others, inflicted corporeal chastisement, in the presence-
chamber, upon Gondomar the Spanish ambassador. For this
offence ne was lodged in the Marshalsea for nine months. Litho-
He afterwards went to Scotland, and died in his native graphy,
parish in 1640. The first edition of his Travels appeared v ,- v
in London in 1614 ; the latest in 1814. He also published
in 1637 an account of the siege of Buda.
LITHOGRAPHY.
The invention of lithography is attributed to Alois Sene¬
felder, whose attention was accidentally directed to the
effect of a greasy ink on calcareous stone. This effect was
the basis on which, after many trials and failures, he built
the whole art; for his work on lithography, published about
1817, although containing some antiquated and even absurd
notions of the practical operations, comprises a correct
skeleton of the entire system of the present day.
Alois Senefelder was born at Prague on the 6th of No¬
vember 1771. His father, who was an actor in Munich,
gave him a tolerable education. When grown up, he was
at first undecided whether to become an actor, an author,
a musician, or a soldier ; but being reduced to great hard¬
ship and misery, he resolved to endeavour to support himself
as a composer of music. Unable, however, to pay for the
engraving of his compositions, he resolved to engrave them
himself. Finding this more expensive and difficult than he
imagined, he tried, for the sake of economy, to practise
with greasy ink on copper, to etch this afterwards with acid
in relief, and to print with the common type printing-press.
At this period his mother happening to ask him to keep a
note of some account, he jotted it down with his greasy ink
on a Kelheim slab. Next day it struck him that he might
etch such lines with acid in relief, and adopt the slab as a
cheaper material for his own purposes than copper. From
this beginning, Senefelder gradually discovered the whole
process of lithographic or stone-printing.
His first work printed from stone, in 1796, was apiece of
music. In 1800 he obtained a patent in Bavaria, and most
of the German states. In 1802 he obtained a patent in
Vienna, and commenced there a lithographic establishment,
but without much success. M. Andre of Offenbach, the
well-known music publisher, became his partner, and
opened establishments in London and Paris, but also with
little success. The great secrecy and jealousy with which
the manipulation of lithography was guarded, prevented its
progress; and it was not until the year 1837 that the ex¬
cessively complicated manipulations became so simplified
as to induce scientific men and artists to lend their aid in
its development. Since then, rapid advances have been
made in Britain, Germany, France, and America; and its
beauty and utility as an art are now fully established.
For many years Senefelder was director of the govern¬
ment lithographic office, and in later years the King of
Bavaria settled on him a handsome pension for life. He
died at Munich in 1834, after having seen his invention
brought to comparative perfection.
The principles on which lithography depends are the
following:—l^,The adhesion of an encaustic composition to
a peculiar kind of limestone ; 2d, The power acquired by the
parts covered with this greasy composition of receiving
printing-ink, which is a compound of carbon and oil; 3<7,
1 he power which we possess of preventing the adhesion of
the ink by the interposition of a film of water; and, Ath,
I he power of again removing the ink from the greased por¬
tions by simply pressing an absorbent paper into close con¬
tact. ‘
Lithographic stones are found in different parts of the
world, but nowhere so perfect as in the immense quar¬
ries of Solenhofen, near Pappenheim, on the Danube, in
Bavaria. They vary in colour from a pale yellowish-white,
to a light buff, reddish, grayish, bluish, and even greenish
colour. The fracture is perfectly conchoidal. The beds
commence with layers as thin as paper, but the strata be¬
come thicker and thicker, until they form slabs or slates of
considerable size. They are, until exposed to the air,
tolerably soft, and can easily be worked by the quarrymen.
Between these layers very beautiful petrifactions are found,
of which there is a very complete and interesting collection
at the Museum in Munich. The slabs were formerly used
in Bavaria and elsewhere for the floors of houses and
mosques, and were arranged in geometric patterns, like
inlaid tiles. In France, useful lithographic stones have been
found in the Department de ITndre; in England, at Cor-
ston, near Bath, and at Stony Stratford; and, more re¬
cently, in Canada, the West Indies, and Silesia, but all
rather inferior to the Solenhofen stone in character. This
calcareo-argillaceous stone resembles the basic limestone,—
occurring in layers, as the lias formation does,—but it does
not belong to the same geological period, being of a more
recent formation.
The stones used for executing writings or drawings with
the pen and brush, engraving and etching, autography, and
transfers from copper and steel, are first ground betw-een
two stones covered with fine sand and water. The upper¬
most stone is kept moving circularly ; wrater is occasionally
added, until the sand between has been completely pow¬
dered, resembling a slimy, creamy mass. The sand re¬
quires to be renewed until a perfect level is obtained. When
stones are ground wffiich have been already in use, this ope¬
ration has to be continued until all traces of the former
work have been thoroughly removed. Every particle ot
sand is now washed off with water; they are then polished
with pumice-stone, and lastly with Water of Ayr stone.
The stones, which must be hard, for chalking, tinting,
litho-tinting, and photo-lithography, require to be grained.
After being ground in the manner already described, and
then thoroughly washed, a finely-sifted silicious sand, or
finely-ground glass, is put with some water between the
two stones ; and the upper one is made to revolve in short
regular sweeps over every portion of the lower stone. This
process must be continued for about ten or fifteen minutes,
until a grain of the required fineness shall have been pro¬
duced, and from time to time a few drops of water must be
added to prevent the sand from becoming too adhesive, and
thus flattening the grain. Great care and skill are neces¬
sary in nicely adjusting this process, so as to produce a
grain either fine, sharp, or rough, according as it is intended
for a sketch, for a highly-finished drawing, or for tinting.
When grained as required, the stone is thoroughly cleansed
with water, and left to dry.
The ink used for drawings on stone is composed of old
lard, white soap, white w ax, mastic, shell-lac, Venetian turpen¬
tine, carbonate of soda, and powdered Paris black.
Crayons are made of white wax, old hard white soap, tal¬
low, a little shell-lac, and powdered Paris black. Some add
more or less Brunswick black, so as to give a firmer point to
the chalk. lithographers vary in their modes of preparing
writing-inks and chalks. White wax, however, together
with soap and Paris black, will enable any practical litho-
LITHOGRAPHY.
511
Litho- grapher to make a good ink and a good chalk. The method
graphy. of mixing the different ingredients is by no means uni-
' form. Some put into an iron or copper saucepan, the wax
and half of the soap, which is put upon a good fire and
stirred until ignition takes place; under the action of this
stronger heat, the shell-lac is added, and melted into the
mass. The vessel is then closed, and removed from the
fire ; after some time, the other half of the soap, and the
other ingredients, are melted in over a slow fire. The
powdered Paris black, together with the Venetian turpen¬
tine—it it be used at all—are then added to the mixture.
While still hot, the composition is poured into brass moulds.
Some, without setting fire to the mixture, make equallv
serviceable writing-inks and crayons. For harder anil
softer chalks a difference must be made in proportioning
the ingredients. For soft <!halk, for example, more tallow’ is
required, and the shell-lac is either omitted, or much dimi¬
nished in quantity. The ink used for writing on transfer
paper requires no shell-lac, and, as a consequence, fire is
not applied to the mixture.
Drawing and writing on the stone is accomplished by
brushes of the finest camel-hair and steel pens.
After the drawing has been traced on the stone, of course
in the reverse way, by fixing the tracing paper with the
drawn lines next to the surface of the stone, the artist applies
himself to his work with pen or brush, and scraper. The
latter instrument is of different forms, and chiefly used for
corrections; for example, when the artist finds some por¬
tion of the shading too strong, he crosses the lines with
the scraper, just as the wood-engraver would do in similar
circumstances ; or a solid portion is filled in, and the scraper
is used to bring out the effect in white lines. Or a portion
may be taken out altogether, either by means of that instru¬
ment, or by oil of turpentine. A tooth-brush is some¬
times used advantageously to give the whole drawing, or
part of it, the effect of chalk. This is done by slightly
warming the stone, and then pressing the tooth-brush,
which is only slightly saturated with ink, against the blade
of a table-knife, so as to spread a fine spray of dots, varying
in size according to the strength used in pressing the brush
against the knife. The effect of this under a practised
hand is exceedingly pleasing. These imitations of chalk
drawing have this advantage, that they admit of being
printed by an ordinary printer, that they yield more copies
per day than the chalk drawings, that they can be printed
on any paper, and can easily be transferred to another stone.
The tracing of chalk drawings is done in the same
manner as those with the pen or brush. Considerable prac¬
tice is required in order to produce highly finished chalk
drawings on the stone.
Great improvements have resulted from the practice of
treating lithographic chalk drawings like paintings, with
the systematic design of bringing out the chief effect, in¬
stead of copying simply the various details. This has
been much facilitated in France and Germany by the use
of paper, leather, and cork stumps, which catch up the
chalk, pounded on a piece of grained stone slightly heated,
and over which they are frequently moved. If the artist
will take the trouble to try previously the various effects
of texture which the stumps give, when worked gently, and
with varying degrees of firmness, on the cold, as well as on
slightly and well heated stones, he will be astonished
at the variety^ of the textures which the impression will
exhibit when finished with the crayon and scraper. This
is well shown in the beautifully lithographed landscapes
by Calame of Geneva, the works of Sabatier, Mouil-
leron, Le Roux, and others of Paris, Munich, and Berlin.
1 hese stumped drawings require great judgment when
being etched; but, in the hands of a careful printer, will
give a larger number of impressions than ordinary chalk
drawings.
When the drawing is finished, it is laid in the etching-
trough ; nitric acid, diluted with water (say 1 part of acid
to 100 parts of water), is several times poured over the
stone. Dissolved gum-arabic is then spread over it. If
the dissolved gum be mixed with the acid, the finest lines
are not so suddenly attacked by the acid, and not so easily
injured.
This process requires great care, and a rule for the pro¬
portion of the acid can scarcely be established, as it varies
in strength and frequency of application, according to the
style of drawing, hardness, and temperature of the stone,
and quality of the chalk.
Engraving on stone.—A hard stone, gray or bluish, is
etched first, with acid in the trough, and gummed (some
do not etch, but merely gum the stone); when dry, the gum
is washed off, and a mixture of powdered Paris black, with
water and a very little gum, is spread over the stone, and
smoothed down with a large flat camel-hair brush, or with
the palm of the hand. Some prefer a red to a black ground.
Where great precision is wanted, the black ground is pre¬
ferable; but for free working of drawings, the red one is
better. The red ground is applied by washing off the stone
nearly the whole of the gum, after it has been etched,
gummed, and dried. The small quantity of gum remaining
on the stone is then allowed to dry, and powdered dry
reddle, or red chalk, is rubbed on the stone with the palm
of the hand. Black tracing-paper is required for the red
ground, while on the black-grounded stone a red tracing-
paper is required. The instruments for engraving on stone
are fine and broad-pointed steel-gravers, fixed in holders of
wood, and small points of diamonds properly fixed by the
jeweller. The engraving is done, not like engraving on
copper, but more in the manner of a careful drawing in
pencil. It does not require to be cut very deeply. The
drawing appears white on a dark ground. Any mistake may
either be polished out with fine pumice-stone, or carefully-
taken out with the broad scraper ; the spot is prepared afresh
with acid, rubbed over with red chalk, and the engraving
rectified. Smaller mistakes may be covered with a little
weak phosphoric acid mixed with gum, and the lines so
covered will not take on the printing-ink. When the draw¬
ing is finished, linseed oil is put over every line, and the
whole is then cleaned away with water and a bit of coarse
flannel. After the stone is thus freed from the ground
and oil, a piece of coarse flannel, containing printing-ink, is
rubbed over the whole stone, until every line appears dis¬
tinctly in black, and then the stone is again gummed.
Engraving on stone is particularly suited for work where
great minuteness and sharpness is essential. The maps of
the survey of the Bavarian and other continental govern¬
ments have been engraved on stone, as well as many of the
beautiful maps of the survey of the Austrian staff, copies of
the latter having been shown by the Austrian government
at the Great Exhibition of 1851.
Etching on stone is similar to etching on copper. The
stone, after it has been prepared with weak nitric acid, is,
in the first instance, coated with gum, and allowed to dry.
The gum is then washed off, but a little is retained on the
stone. When again dry, the stone is warmed, and the etching
ground is spread very thin over it. The working with the
etching-point, and the etching with acid, are then done pre¬
cisely as on copper. When the drawing is ready, clean
water is poured repeatedly over the stone, which is after¬
wards washed in diluted acetic acid (wood vinegar), it is
cleaned again with water, and allowed to dry thoroughly.
After this, a roller with printing-ink is rolled over the dry
stone until it is quite black. The whole is then removed
with oil of turpentine and water, when the drawing appears
in clean black lines, after which the stone is gummed.
1 he printing is effected in the usual way with the printing-
roller.
Litho¬
graphy.
f>12 LITHOGRAPHY
Litho- Many beautiful drawings have been, and are yet, pro-
graphy. t]uce(j jn Germany in this way; but somehow the style has
never been extensively employed, from the many failures
which are apt to occur during the first trials.
Autography on ’plain paper; Writings and Drawings
on prepared lithographic paper.—Many government and
banking offices, on the Continent and in Britain, produce
their own circulars in the following simple way, which
is properly called autography :—With very little litho¬
graphic ink in the pen, write only on one side of the
paper (any good writing-paper may be used). When the
writing is finished, a stone is slightly warmed, the written
paper is sponged on the back with diluted nitric acid,
and laid for a moment between blotting-paper; then the
sheet is placed with the written side upon the stone, and
passed once through the press. The sheet now adher¬
ing to the stone, is washed over with water on the back,
and when the paper becomes quite soft, it is removed,
by rubbing repeatedly with the hand. Gum is then put
upon the stone; the printer takes a linen or flannel rag,
containing some printing-ink, sprinkles water on the stone,
and carries this rag rapidly in all directions over the writ¬
ing, which now assumes a darker colour. The stone is then
gummed again, and put aside until quite cooled. Before
printing, some printers remove the gum, and pass a roller,
containing what is called preserving-ink, several times over
the writing, after which the stone is etched slightly ; this,
however, is scarcely needed where only a small number of
impressions is to be taken.
The beautiful lithographic writings, plans, and sketches,
on a coated lithographic paper, which are produced in Bri¬
tain, and especially in Scotland, have never been equalled
in other countries. The paper which is used should be well
sized. The composition with which it should be covered is
made as follows:—1 part gelatine or isinglass, 1 part flake-
white, and as much gamboge as is needed to give colour,
are dissolved over a slow fire, then sifted through muslin,
and spread once, in a very warm state, with a large flat
camel-hair brush, on one side of the paper. Some repeat
the process. When dry, it should be passed several times
through the press, over a polished stone slightly warmed,
or better, a steel-plate, so as to be thoroughly smooth.
Transparent quills and lithographic steel-pens are used for
the writing. Any mistake is erased with a pen-knife, and
the place covered again with the composition, of which the
writer should have always a small corked bottle beside him.
When the drawing or writing is ready, it is put between
damped blotting-paper, a warmed stone (not hot) is adjusted
in the press, and after a few minutes the sheet of paper is
placed upon the stone, and five or six times passed through
the press ; then the back of the paper is sponged with water,
and the stone turned in the press ; and with this change
to compensate for inequalities of pressure, it is passed again
five or six times through the press. This process may be
repeated several times; and when it is finished, the back of
the sheet is covered with water, and rubbed with the fingers
until the portions of the paper come off. When the paper
is entirely removed, the stone is subjected to the processes
already given under “ Autography.”
Transfers from old engravings.—In Paris, a number of
years ago, Paul Dupont made very interesting attempts to
reproduce, by transferring to stone and zinc, old impres¬
sions of prints, woodcuts, type-printing, &c. The method
is very simple. The old impression is thrown into a large
flat basin filled with water, and a small portion of acid; and
after it has been thoroughly soaked with the water, a small
soft sponge containing lavender or nut-oil is repeatedly
passed oyer the lines of the engraving, to strengthen the
fatty portions of the dried up ink of the lines. The drawing
is then transferred in the way already explained under
“ Transfer of Autography.” Total failures, however, often
take place with this process, and even if the transfer sue- Litho-
ceeds, more or less touching is needed ; and it is only when graphy.
the engraving is not too fine, and a few years old, that a ■
satisfactory transfer can be obtained. M. Dupont and others
have spent large sums of money without producing practi¬
cal and satisfactory results. Some recommend, for the
transfer, zinc plates in preference to stone. The invention
of Zincography is said to be due to the late Mr Eberhard
of Bavaria. It is, however, a mere application of lithogra¬
phy to zinc plates, with some modfications of the etching,
printing, &c.
'Transfers of stone, copper, and steel engravings, as well
as of type-printing and ivoodcuts, to stone, are best made
on the usual transfer-paper already described. The ink
for transferring drawings and writings from stone consists
of a stick of lithographic ink, melted down on the slab,
and thinned when required with a small quantity of oil of
turpentine and some printing-ink. It is put upon the transfer
roller, which is frequently moved over the slab. The gum
being washed from the stone, and the old ink removed with
oil of turpentine, the stone is wetted and inked with the
transfer-ink, and the impressions are taKen on very slightly
damped transfer-paper. To make this paper, mix three
parts of the best wheaten flour, of the consistency of shoe¬
makers’ paste, with one part of finely ground plaster of Paris,
and a very little dissolved patent glue, to prevent the ground
from breaking when printed ; then strain the mixture in
spoonfuls into a common jar through a double fold of fine
muslin, pressing it gently through with the back of the
spoon ; and when cooled, spread it with a flat camel-hair
brush over half-sized thickish paper, which, when dry, may
be laid aside and stored for future use.
The ink used for making transfers from copper, steel,
and pewter plates, is composed of two table-spoonfuls of
varnish, Imparts tallow, 3 parts brown soap, 5 parts shell-
lac, 4 parts brown wax, 5 parts black pitch, and parts of
powdered lamp-black ; the whole is melted and heated until
it takes fire, and is allowed to burn for fifteen minutes,
being kept altogether for forty minutes on the fire ; it is
then formed into sticks or balls, rolled with the hand; and
should become, when cold, as hard as pitch. If not so hard,
more wax and pitch should be added ; some add a half part
of Venetian turpentine when the wax is cooling.
The plates are then warmed on the printer’s gas-stove,
and inked up by the copper-plate printer in the usual way;
the coated paper is slightly sponged on the back, and the im¬
pressions made on the coated side. A moderately warmed
stone is then placed in the press ; the transfer impression
having been previously put between damped blotting-paper,
is now put on the stone (yellow stones are better for trans¬
ferring than gray or blue ones), and the transferring pro¬
ceeded with in the same manner as described in the trans¬
ferring of writings and drawings done with the pen on
lithographic transfer-paper. If any of the lines on the en¬
graved plate are very deeply cut, it is advisable to put the
transfer impression, before being transferred, between some
sheets of slightly damped blotting-paper, and pass it with
a moderate pressure through the press. Thus, any super¬
fluous ink will be removed, and the lines which may have
too much ink are prevented from spreading.
Very striking results have been obtained by this process;
and its value to publishers is well known, as the original
plates are not worn out, and the expense of printing from
the stone is cheaper than printing from copper and steel,
besides being a great deal cleaner. Maps and engravings
of any kind may, in this way, be patched or enlarged, or
divided into separate pieces, to suit any size of book or
paper. Transfers from copper-plates, from line-drawings
on stone, writings, woodcuts, and letterpress, may all be
transferred together on one stone, and printed on the same
sheet. It is pretty obvious, that thus an infinite variety of
LITHOGRAPHY.
Litho-
graphy.
new forms may be obtained from an exhausted stock of old
plates, a circumstance occasionally of great value.
^ Tinted Lithographic Drawings.—For brevity’s sake we
shall only describe the production of drawings with two tints,
as, from this description, the mode of printing a draw¬
ing with more tints will be easily understood. The prin¬
cipal drawing is done upon a grained stone in chalk, and
should be very bold, more like a sketch on tinted paper;
the middle and finer tints being left out. The stone is then
etched, and two impressions are taken, so that when each of
these is put upon a roughly-grained stone and passed through
the press, counter impressions will be found upon the stones,
revealing the drawing quite distinctly. After having cut in
the outlines with a sharp-pointed graver or steel needle, the
artist covers those parts on the two stones which are not to
appear in the one or the other colour, as well as the margin
of the two stones, with a brush containing acid and gum.
1 he stones are then warmed, and a composition contain¬
ing the same ingredients as soft chalk, with double the
quantity of soap and three times the quantity of tallow, is
rubbed over it with a bit of coarse flannel, until it is of a
dark grayish-brown colour. From having been previously
cut in, the outline comes out very distinctly. The artist
can now produce an effect similar to crayon sketches which
have been washed in with two separate colours. Those
portions which have been rubbed in, and which appear dark
grayish-brown, form the middle tint, and the scraper may be
used to reduce the colour of the tint where the gradation of
colour is desired; the darkest portions being laid in with
lithographic ink, and the blending together done with
chalk, brush, pen, and scraper, so as to produce in many
places the effect of shadings of one colour over another.
Any one looking at Louis Haghe’s work on the Architec¬
ture of the Middle Ages in Germany and the Netherlands,
Roberts’ Holy Land and Egypt drawn by Haghe, or
Simpson’s drawings of the Crimean war, and the tinted
lithographs of the British fleet, will understand the im¬
portant and charming results of this branch of art in which
Britain stands unrivalled. The stones, when ready, require
to be very strongly etched.
W e may mention that those studies of heads and figures as
drawn by Jullien and Lasalle, of Paris, are tinted in a different
style. An impression is taken from the drawing on stone,
and passed, when fresh, over a roughly grained stone; then
on the roller is put some light brown Brunswick black, or
asphaltum, which must be worked on the slab until uniformly
spread over the roller. 'I he stone with the counter impres¬
sion upon it, is, in a dry state, rolled over with the Brunswick
black until the whole stone is covered with an even light-
brown colour, through which the drawing is distinctly visible.
After some hours, the covering becomes quite hard, and the
artist can scrape out the lights of his drawing so as to give
it the appearance of a crayon drawing which has been
touched by a white crayon. The effect is very beautiful;
and the two artists above mentioned stand pre-eminent for
this style.
Chromo-Lithography is executed in a similar manner,
with this difference, that the first drawing is generally only
in outline, and is used merely to take as many impressions
on stones as are required for the several colours of the paint¬
ing to be copied, so as to bring out on each stone precisely
the same outline, and thus to enable the artist to fill in on
every stone the proper colour, and to enable the printer
also to have proper register.
Presses, rollers, varnishes, fyc. — Lithographic presses
are of a great variety of construction, so that we can only
glance at the chief points in their mechanism. The scraper
is a wedge-formed plate of steel or boxwood, fixed to the
bottom of the platten, with its edge downwards, and properly
adjusted. I he table on which the stone with the paper for
receiving the impression is placed, and on which the tvm-
YOL. XIII. J
513
pan is brought down, is, by means of a handle or wheel,
brought upon the metallic moving roller and under the
scraper, and the pressure is gradually continued from one
end of the stone to the other; when it has passed through
the press, the scraper is lifted, the moving table brought to
its original place, and the printed sheet removed.
The Lithographic steam-press, although a very ingenious
invention, has not benefited lithography in the same pro¬
portion as the steam-letterpress has letterpress printing.
The self-acting lithographic steam-press of Sichel, of Berlin
and Vienna, patented in this country, is a triumph of in¬
genuity, but it has not produced any work which the common
steam-letterpress could not have done as well.
The rollers for printing may be made of different lengths,
from 6 to 24 inches long, and 3^ to 5 inches in diameter.
They are made of wood of the alder and lime tree, with
wooden handles to project and hold by; the roller is then
covered with several complete turns of flannel, well stretched
and fastened by sewing at the extremities near the handles;
the whole is then covered with calf-skin, sewed with great
care, so as to fit tightly, and laced near the handles. For
printing chalk, tints, and colours, skins of different prepa¬
rations are required. Hollow metallic rollers, covered with
flannel and calf-skin, are in use on some parts of the Con¬
tinent, where they are preferred to rollers made of wood.
The hest varmshes for making the printing-ink are boiled
from old linseed oil, of different degrees of strength—
thin, middle, strong, and very strong varnish ;—for printing
with gold-leaf, bronze, and dusting colours, the very strong
varnish is required. For writings, maps, and music, com¬
mon calcined lamp-black is ground with the varnish ; some
hard blue is added to improve the colour, and to make the
ink dry in a short time; for chalk ink, Paris black is used
instead of the common lamp-black. For tinting and colour¬
printing, colourless, or bleached varnish must be used, as
otherwise the purity of the colours will suffer.
Printing.—After the stones containing the writings or
drawings in chalk, and those used for tinting or colour¬
printing are etched, and the - preparation has become dry,
the stones may be put into the press and properly fixed.
To prevent a stone containing drawings of any value from
breaking, it should be backed to another stone,—or what
is better, to a slab of Aberdeen granite. This is done by
a mixture of plaster of Paris and cold water, of the consis¬
tency of syrup, a pretty thick coating of which should be
spread evenly and quickly on the slab ; the stone containing
tlie drawing is placed into this layer, and moved in all
directions until the plaster of Paris becomes quite hard,
which will take place in a very short time. After the printing
is accomplished, the stone can be quite easily removed from
the slab, by using a chisel, and by giving some side strokes
with a wooden hammer. The old dry plaster of Paris is
now removed, and the slab is again fit for use.
Everything being ready, the gum is entirely washed
away with a soft Turkey sponge and water; the writing or
drawing is then obliterated by taking a clean sponge and
oil of turpentine, to which may be added, at pleasure,
a few drops of sweet oil, after which the stone must be
cleaned with water. An entirely clean sponge (or for writ¬
ings, a bit of soft canvas manufactured for the purpose) is
now required for the printing. The stone is slightly wetted
with this sponge, the printing roller, charged already with
the proper ink, is passed repeatedly over the whole stone, and
the writing or drawing will begin to reappear; the roller is
again worked on the ink-slab, the stone wetted anew with
the sponge, and again rolled over, until the writing or draw¬
ing appears in full strength. A sheet of damped paper (dry
paper may be used for writings and drawings in line) is put
on the stone, the tympan is let down, the scraper brought
to its proper place, the pressure effected, and, by means°of
the handle, cross, or wheel, according to the style of
3 T
Litho¬
graphy.
514 LIT
Lithuania. press, the table with the stone is slowly and equally drawn
v—through to nearly the end of the stone, for which purpose
the p'ress requires to be set properly beforehand. The
printer now relaxes the pressure, the table with the stone
mns to its original place, the tympan is put back, and the
impression is carefully taken up from the stone. The stone
is then again wetted as before, inked in anew, the paper
placed upon the stone, and further impressions are effected.
When the stone is to be kept after the required number of
impressions has been struck off, it should always be inked
up with preserving ink, which is made by melting lard,
tallow, and wax, in equal proportions, with a quantity of
printing-ink. When about to be used, this preserving-ink
may be thinned with some oil of turpentine, thinly spread
on a roller kept for this purpose; it must then be properly
turned on the slab, the writing or drawing is washed out
with oil of turpentine, the whole removed with a clean
sponge, and the stone wetted and inked in with this pre-
serving-ink. A few minutes afterwards, when the turpen¬
tine has evaporated, a thin solution of gum-arabic is spread
over the stone, containing a little sugar-candy to prevent
the cracking of the gum by change of atmosphere. The
stone will keep any length of time; but the preserving-ink
should be renewed at least every twelve months.
The printing of tint and colour stones is treated in the
same way, only the rollers, varnishes, and colours are differ¬
ent from those used for ordinary black and chalk printing.
The printing of this class of work requires great skill and
taste. Many of the lithographic printers of London, Paris,
Brussels, Munich, Berlin," Vienna, and Dresden, are justly
famed for their beautiful productions.
An engraved stone is printed by using a small wooden
tapper or tampon, either round at the sides, flat below,
with handle at top, or square, and the corners rounded off.
This tampon is covered several times with a very coarse
blanket, or coarse thick firm cloth fastened at the sides;
the ink is then spread very thinly on the slab, the tapper
is properly tapped into it, the gum is removed from the
stone, and the drawing is removed with oil of turpen-
L I T
tine; the stone is wetted, the tampon is tapped over the Lithuania,
whole drawing, the stone cleaned with a bit of wet can- \ ^ ^
vas, and finally a printing-roller is passed once or twice
over the stone, which removes all impurities; a damped
sheet of paper is placed on the stone, and the impression
made as formerly explained. Some printers print engraved
outlines or drawings done with thin lines entirely with the
roller, which is a great saving of time. Other printers,
again, ink an engraving with a large shoe-brush with long
stiff bristles, which is rubbed on the ink slab to give it the
ink required, by brushing over the drawing in all directions.
The only other branch of the subject requiring notice is
the process of Photo-lithography, which is managed in the
following manner :—Spread over a grained stone a solution
of ether and bitumen of Judea, or asphaltum. When dry,
lay the print or negative-photograph to be copied on the top
of the stone, and then expose both in this way to the day¬
light for some time. Put the stone then in ether, which
will dissolve off the stone the coating of bitumen on the
parts that have been unaffected by the light under the dark
parts of the print; whilst on the parts that have been acted
on by the light, through the light parts of the print or ne¬
gative, the bitumen having become insoluble, is undissolved,
and when the stone is, in the next operation, placed by the
lithographer under acid, in the usual way, these parts are
protected from corrosion by the acid. The subsequent
treatment is exactly similar to that of an ordinary chalk
drawing. From the specimens which we have seen by
photo-lithographers in Paris, Munich, and Rome, and from
the very slow progress which has been made since their
first impressions were exhibited a few years ago, few prac¬
titioners can hope, considering the difficulties of printing
from stone, to see photo-lithography approach in their
hands the perfection of those examples of photography
exhibited at the Photographic Societies’ Exhibitions of
London and Edinburgh.
It is much to be desired, however, that some process may
be invented for printing photographs with accuracy and
facility.
LITHUANIA, a country of Europe, comprises the
northern and larger portion of West Russia, and forms all
the N. and N.E. part of the ancient kingdom of Poland. Area
112,000 square miles, and population about 5,000,000. It
forms the present Russian governments of Wilna, Grodno,
Minsk, Mohilew, and Vitepsk. The country is on the
whole flat, and is for the most part covered with marshes
and sand. The duchy of Samogitia and the banks of the
Niemen, however, are fertile ; the former of these pro¬
ducing a large quantity of flax. The mineral products are
granite and pudding-stone ; and iron is found, although in
very small quantities. In winter the climate is excessively
severe, while it is very hot in summer. Bears, wolves, elks,
wild hogs, &c., abound in the forests; and the bison, or
urochs, which occurs also in the Caucasus, may be found
in the forest called Biala Vieja. The manufactures are of
no importance, and the trade consists chiefly of exports of
flax, timber, corn, wax, and honey.
In the Chronicle of Quedlinburg, a.d. 1009, we find
mention is made of Lithuania ; but little is known of it till
the end of the twelfth century, when we find the inhabi¬
tants called “ Lettoven.” At a very early period they fell
a prey to the Russians, who reduced them into a state of
slavery and degradation. The consequence of this miser¬
able condition wras, that the Lithuanians had no decided
position among the nations of Europe till the middle of the
thirteenth century. At length, after long and bloody wars,
they succeeded in gaining their independence; and, gra¬
dually encroaching on the Russian territories they ex¬
tended their boundaries from the Niemen to the Dniester,
and from the Bug to the Dnieper. In 1230 Ringold as¬
sumed the title of Grand Duke of Lithuania. His son, Men-
dog, was baptized at Riga in 1252, but three years after¬
wards relapsed and became the sworn enemy of Christianity.
Idolatry remained in the land for another century. The
royal family became extinct with the death of Mendog’s
son in 1266, and Witenes, a young man about the court,
succeeded in placing himself on the throne in 1282. He
was succeeded by his son Ghedemin in 1315, who did more
for his country than any of his predecessors, both by ex¬
tending his conquests and preserving the religion, language,
and customs of the inhabitants of the lands which he sub¬
dued. His son Olgerd, on his deathbed in 1381, at the
instigation of his wife, became a member of the Greek
Church. From Olgerd the power passed into the hands of
lagello, one of his younger sons ; and on condition of his
becoming a Christian, and of Lithuania being united to
Poland, he received Hedvig the Queen of Poland in mar¬
riage. lagello, together with all his brothers and sisters,
and many of the nobles of his court, was publicly baptized
in Krakau on the 14th of February 1386, and shortly after¬
wards was solemnly crowned King of Poland. In the fol¬
lowing year he changed the magnificent heathen temple at
Wilna into a Christian church, and at once induced thou¬
sands of his subjects to receive the Christian religion. From
many circumstances, however, the real political union be¬
tween Lithuania and Poland took place only gradually,
although it had been formally declared at Wilna. Properly
speaking, the union was not thoroughly established till the
Diet of Lublin in 1569. Before Lithuania was annexed to
LIT
Litmus Russia, it had the following divisions:—Troki, Wilna,
|| Novogrodek, Bzesk, Vitepsk, Polozk, Mohilew, and the
Littleton, duchy of Samogitia. In 1792 Russia took Mohilew and
Polozk, and in 1793 the rest of the country.
LIT. MUS, or Lacmus. Lichens belonging to the genera
Roccella, Variolaria, and Lecanora furnish the red, violet,
and blue colours, commonly known as archil, cudbear, and
litmus. The colouring matter does not exist ready formed
in the lichens, but they contain from 7 to 12 per cent, of
certain colourless acids, such as erythric, evernic, and leca-
nonc, which acids, when acted on by alkalies, form new
acids, and these, on the addition of an alkali, produce a violet
colour, and also a colourless neutral substance termed
orcin. 1 his is the colour-producing body ; and when acted
on by ammonia, it absorbs oxygen, and is converted into
orcein, an azotized body with powerful tinctorial properties.
In preparing archil, cudbear, or litmus, the lichens are
first cleaned from earthy matter, and are then made up into
a paste with an alkaline solution, which in the case of archil
is urine, with the addition of lime for separating the ammo¬
nia. By exposure for some weeks to the air, with occa¬
sional additions of the alkaline liquor, the paste assumes the
characteristic colour of the lichen used. In this way cud¬
bear is obtained from Lecanora tartarea, and litmus from
the Roccella tinctoria ; but in the latter case it is moistened
with a mixture of carbonate of ammonia and carbonate of
potash, and the colour is first red, and afterwards intensely
blue. It is made up into small cakes, with chalk or plaster
of Paris. The colouring matter of litmus is soluble in
alkaline liquids, but only partially so in water and in alcohol.
According to Kane, litmus consists of several principles,
one of which is a red semi-solid body, soluble in ammonia
w ith a purple colour, and termed erythroleine; secondly,
a body named erythrolitmin, which forms crystalline grains
of a dark red colour, and is soluble in alcohol, but not in
ether ; it becomes blue by the action of potash. Neither
of these bodies contains nitrogen, but the third and chief
component of litmus does so, and hence has been termed
azolitmin. It is not soluble in alcohol or in ether, and only
sparingly so in water; it has a brownish-red colour. It is
soluble in ammonia, when its colour becomes blue; and when
this solution is mixed with the salts of some of the metals,
blue and violet lakes are formed.
Litmus is much used by the chemist for detecting the
presence of acids, which turn it red; the blue colour is re¬
stored by the action of alkalies, so that when slightly red¬
dened, it may be employed as a test of their presence.
The most convenient method of applying the test is by
means of strips of unsized paper, tinged by an aqueous so¬
lution of litmus, and then dried. (c. t.)
LITTLE ROCK, a town of the United States of North
America, capital of Pulaski county, and of the state of Ar¬
kansas, is situate on the right bank of the Arkansas River, in
the centre of the state. It stands on a bold cliff about 50
feet high, which is the more prominent as it is the first rock
met with in ascending the stream. The chief buildings of
the town are—the state-house, made of rough cast brick, an
arsenal, and penitentiary, besides several churches and semi¬
naries. Excellent clay-slate and granite abound in the
neighbourhood. Little Rock was founded in 1829. Pop.
(1850) 2167, (1853) about 3000.
LI 11 LEI ON, Sir Thomas, a famous judge, born
about the beginning of the fifteenth century, was the eldest
son of Thomas Westcote, Esq., of Devonshire, and the
grandson, by his mother’s side, of Thomas Littleton, Esq. of
frankley, in Worcestershire, whose name and arms he
assumed. He was educated at one of the universities (pro¬
bably Cambridge), and removing to the Inner Temple,
London, became one of the readers to that society. Henry
VI. appointed him steward or judge of the court of the
palace, or marshalsea of the king’s household; and on the
LIT 515
13th May 1455, king’s serjeant. In this latter capacity Liturgy,
being also a judge of assize, he travelled the northern cir- V*—
cuit. His prudent conduct, and his high fame as a lawyer,
secured the patronage alike of the Lancasterians and the
Yorkists during their protracted struggle ; and Edward IV.,
in 1462, the second year of his reign, tendered him a general
pardon, and confirmed to him his offices of king’s serjeant
and judge of assize. In 1466, he was appointed one of the
judges of the Common Pleas, and obtained a writ directed
to the Commissioners of Customs for the ports of London,
Bristol, and Kingston-upon-Hull, for the annual payment
of 110 marks, to support his position, and of other small
contributions to supply him with robes. In 1475 he was
created, along with many of the first nobility, a Knight of
the Order of the Bath. He died at Frankley on the 23d
of August 1481, at an advanced age, and was buried in
Worcester Cathedral, where a tomb, surmounted by a statue,
was erected to his memory.
His famous work on Tenures, written in Norman French,
is supposed to have been composed while he was judge of
the Common Pleas, and to have been printed after the
author’s death, but at what date is uncertain. After pass¬
ing through several French editions, it was published in
English in 1539. Sir Edward Coke wrote a comment upon
it, now well known by the title “ Coke upon Littleton.”
LITURGY is derived from a Greek word denoting the
public service which citizens were bound to render to the
state on certain prescribed occasions, but which is used in
the Septuagint to express the public service of God. Litur¬
gies may be of three kinds. Either they may form an imposed
ritual, responsive in its character, and prescribed absolutely
to minister and people for their invariable use, as is the
practice in the Anglican and Lutheran amongst the Re¬
formed churches; or they may take the form of a dis¬
cretionary ritual, not responsive, and therefore supplied,
as in France and Switzerland, to the minister alone, for
his guidance in the matter and manner of worship, leaving
variation as to the manner according to his judgment.
This was the practice in the Church of Scotland during
nearly a century of its existence, and it is retained in the
Reformed churches of the Continent. The third method
is that of rubrical provision, consisting of directions without
examples, and omitting any precise forms of prayer. Of
this character is the Directory for Public Worship, com¬
posed by the Westminster Assembly, which now forms the
rule of worship in Presbyterian churches of Scotland and
America. A fourth method of public worship—if there be
such where no method exists—is that of entire freedom,
such as has been claimed by some denominations since the
days of the older Independents, who denounced all forms,
as hampering the liberty of the individual. The expe¬
diency of any of these methods has been the subject of
much and angry discussion at all the most decisive epochs
of ecclesiastical history, and in this article we propose to
limit ourselves to a short historical view of the various litur¬
gies in the different sections of the Christian Church.
Amongst the Israelites, certain forms of prayer and praise
seem to have been used from the earliest times. So far as
we know directly from the Old Testament, the earliest pre¬
scribed forms were those according to which the priests
were commissioned to bless the people, and the forms of
prayer in presenting the first fruits and tithes. The Psalms
of David also constituted a public liturgy; and some have
argued from the metrical forms of various public prayers
inserted in the record of Jewish history, that these also be¬
longed to a prescribed service. The modern prayers of the
Jews, however, many of which are attributed to the pen of
Ezra, are certainly of far more recent date. They are
only nineteen in number, and most, if not all, are later than
the establishment of Christianity. That men were “ taught
to pray” in the days of our Saviour, seems evident from the
i
516 L I T U
Liturgy, circumstances which gave rise to the promulgation of the
v>—Lord’s Prayer, and, whatever may have been the design of
that formula, it is certain that it soon came to be used as a
prescribed form in the Christian Church. (See Wheatley’s
Illustration of the Book of Common Prai/er, and also com¬
pare Hind’s Rise and Progress of Christianity?) From
the incident in Acts iv. 24, it may be gathered that large
masses of converts were able to join vocally in public sup¬
plication. In the earliest times of the Church, frequent re¬
ference is made to certain constituted prayers in general
use (see Comber’s Scholastic History of Liturgies), but in
general these extended no further than to individual
churches, and were arranged for local use by the ruling
presbyter or bishop. Gradually, however, these spread
from the metropolitan churches to the rural districts, and
ultimately they became divided into great classes of national
liturgies. Mr Palmer, in his Origines Liturgicce (Oxford
1832), considers that all the liturgies of the primitive
churches may be reduced to four: 1st, The great Oriental
liturgy, which prevailed from the Euphrates to the Helles¬
pont, and from the Hellespont to the southern extremity
of Greece ; 2d, The Alexandrian, which from remote anti¬
quity ha's been the liturgy of Egypt, Abyssinia, and the
country extending from the Mediterranean Sea towards
the W. 3d, The Roman, which prevailed throughout the
whole of Italy, Sicily, and the civil diocese of Africa; and
4th, The Gallican, which was used throughout Gaul and
Spain, and probably in the exarchate of Ephesus until the
fourth century. These, in the course of ages, were end¬
lessly varied and diversified. From the whole history of
these, it seems evident that there never was one catholic
liturgy; that none of the liturgies now existing can be traced
back to the apostles; but that formal prayers of some sort
were used from the very beginning of the Christian Church.
The Greek Church, at least so far as it is under the do¬
minion of the Patriarch of Constantinople, possesses three
liturgies, which are used at different seasons of the ecclesi¬
astical year. That of Basil of Caesaraea is the longest, and
holds pre-eminence in solemnity, as it is said also to do in
point of antiquity. It is reserved for the most solemn festi¬
vals of the church,—Christmas, Lent, and Good Friday,—
as well as for a few other occasions. The second bears
very undeservedly the name of Chrysostom, being consi¬
derably later than his days. It is read on all the other days
of the year except during a few days in Lent, when the
Liturgy of the Presanctijied, a composition of the seventh
or eighth century, takes its place.
Amongst the Eastern sects a characteristic variety of litur¬
gies prevails. The ancient Coptic Christians had as many
as twelve different forms, and these still linger among the
Ethiopians. They were,—1. The Liturgy of St John the
Evangelist; 2. Of the Fathers of the Council of Nice ; 3.
Of Epiphanius; 4. Of St James of Sarug; 5. Of St John
Chrysostom; 6. Of Jesus Christ; 7. Of the Apostles; 8. Of
St Cyriac; 9. Of St Gregory; 10. Of the Patriarch Dios-
corus ; 11. Of St Basil; and, 12. Of St Cyril. Amongst the
Copts, however, all the minor liturgies fell into abeyance,
being discountenanced by the patriarchs; and the usage of
the church came to be limited to the liturgies of Basil,
Gregory, and Cyril. Amongst the Syrian Catholics, the
Liturgy of St James is preferred, but numerous others are
also found in use.
The Breviary contains the daily service in the Church
of Rome. Originally it contained only the Lord’s Prayer,
with extracts from the Psalms, to which, very soon after,
were added lessons from the Scriptures. The obligation
to read it daily rests upon the beneficiary clergy alone ; but
on them it is imposed under pain of mortal sin. Although
read only in Latin in the churches immediately depending
on the Holy See, fragments of it have found their way into
the vernacular of eastern tribes who at one time were in
R G Y.
close connection with Rome. Besides the Breviary, there Liturgy,
is also the Missal, or volume regulating the celebration of
mass. A tradition of the Romish Church ascribes its com¬
position to the apostle Peter, but it does not appear to have
been reduced to writing till the middle of the fifth century,
and it owes much of its present matter, as well as nearly all
its present form, to the genius of Pope Gregory the Great.
The Ceremoniale may be designated a liturgy for the pope,
embracing all that pertains to the various functions of his
office, just as the Pontificale describes the various func¬
tions of the Romish bishops, and the Rituale, or Pastorale
as it is sometimes called, contains directions for all the
pastoral duties of the inferior clergy. The ancient Galil¬
ean Missal dates from beyond the days of Pepin, and is
more closely allied to the liturgies of the East than to that
of the Latin Church. The old Spanish or Mozarahic
Liturgy consisted of the liturgy of Rome, mingled with
the oriental liturgies of the Arian Goths, who overran the
kingdom. Its use was suspended by the Council of Braga;
and it was only saved from oblivion by Cardinal Ximenes,
who reprinted it in 1500, and endowed a chapel and canons
to use it daily in Toledo. The Ambrosian Liturgy is one
of great antiquity, having been only edited and supple¬
mented by the bishop whose name it bears.
The liturgies of the Reformed Churches are all compiled
in the vernacular, the use of the Latin tongue having been
abolished in worship as soon as it came to be recognised
that adoration demanded intelligence. Luther, in 1523,
drew up a liturgy for the use of the German Church; but
as he had no desire to impose this as a form on all who held
the same doctrinal views with himself, all the Lutheran
countries have Lutheran liturgies of their own; but these
agree in almost every essential particular. In Prussia, the
form generally adopted is that drawn up in 1822, for the
use of the cathedral church in Berlin. Calvin also drew
up a liturgy, for the use of the Reformed Church of
Geneva and elsewhere. The Genevan formula was pub¬
lished in 1543, six years before the first book of Edward
VI., and while it retained many parts of Christian service
which Calvinists now dispense with, it was the first to
originate the idea of making the singing of psalms take the
place of the vocal response on the part of the people. In
its nature it was intended to be compulsory, but a provision
was made for extemporaneous prayer and for special pray¬
ers on particular occasions. Calvin’s Daily Offices were also
composed as directions for family prayer; and these are
used as a form of morning and evening prayer in several
branches of the Reformed Church. In France, the Ge¬
nevan liturgy long retained its hold supreme in the affec¬
tions of the people. It was used in the earliest meetings
of the Reformed congregations after their organization in
1555; and the last synod or national assembly of the
French churches in 1569 issued instructions for preserving
its purity. Various modifications have been made on it
since the restoration of the Protestant worship, and new
prayers have been introduced from other sources, in effect
destroying its venerable character. In Scotland, although
the liturgy had a short existence in the national church, yet
during its continuance in use, it seemed in no way to offend
the feelings of the people. John Knox died repeating
the words of Calvin’s Daily Offices. In 1562 was intro¬
duced the Book of Common Order, commonly termed
Knox’s Liturgy ; and two years later its use was enjoined
upon the Church by the General Assembly. It was drawn
up after the model of the Genevan formulary, and was
mainly intended for the readers and exhorters; although
even they were invited to avail themselves of the latitude
recommended to all the clergy. It is difficult to fix the
precise period when the liturgy ceased to be used, but it
perished when Knox’s overshadowing greatness ceased to
influence the practice of the Church. At present the
L I V
Liverpool, worship of the Presbyterian churches in Scotland is
v—-^ guided by the Directory for Public Worship, issued by
the Westminster Assembly, which contains directions, but
no forms of prayer; but it is scarcely too much to say’ that
in general throughout Scotland, the provisions of the
Directory are almost entirely forgotten.
In England the Dook of C ommon Prayer forms the
liturgy of the Established Church. It is founded on the
King's Primer, published by Henry VIII. in 1546 ; which,
however, contained little more than the Creed, Lord’s
Prayer, Commandments, and Litany. This, during the
reign of Edward VI., underwent two separate revisions, and
the Second Prayer Book of Edward VI. approaches very
nearly to the liturgy of the present day. After having
been discontinued during the reign of Mary, it was again
revived with the reign of Elizabeth, and received further
improvements, especially in the selection of the lessons.
Some alterations were introduced during the reign of
James I., and consisted chiefly in the appointment of a
L I V
517
collect in the daily morning and evening service; the in- Liverpool,
sertion of a prayer for the Royal Family in the Litany ; and
addition of questions and answers in regard to the Sacra¬
ments in the Catechism. In 1662 it was revised by
both Houses of Convocation, and was sanctioned by act
of parliament in its present form. The liturgy of the
Scottish Episcopal Church has been, since 1712, the same
with the Book of Common Prayer; with as little variation
as circumstances will admit, except in regard to the Com¬
munion Office.
Of Dissenting liturgies, it is perhaps only necessary to
mention Di Samuel Clarke the Sunday
Service oC the Wesleyan Methodists, prepared originally by
John Wesley ; and, on the Continent, the Liturgy of the
Unitas Fratrum or Moravian Brethren.
See Kcecher’s Bibliotheca Liturgica ; Bingham’s Eccle¬
siastical Antiquities; Adams’ Religious World Displayed;
Palmer’s Origines Liturgicce; and Baird’s Chapter
Liturgies.
on
History.
LIVERPOOL,
A borough of England, in Lancashire, and one of the
greatest commercial towns in the world, is situate on the
Mersey, along which it extends for nearly 6 miles. For 5
miles of this distance, a line or chain of docks runs parallel
witli the river, and from these docks, at intervals, streets ex¬
tend at right angles, tolerably direct, to the extremity of
the boundary. These are crossed by streets more or less
parallel to the river; but as the town grew up rather sud¬
denly, no great attention was paid to regularity. The
boundary line, from where it touches the river at the S.
to its termination at Bootle Bay, embraces a circle of about
8 miles. As yet the extremities are imperfectly filled up,
but in some places the houses extend beyond the line.
Local archaeologists have been eager to invest the town
with the dignity of a remote antiquity; but their labours
have not been very successful. In Doomsday Book the
name does not appear, although sites within its present
boundary are mentioned. Mr Picton, in his admirable
paper on “Ancient Liverpool,” contends that the place
mentioned as Smedone must have represented Liverpool,
and that Smedone is identical with Smithdown, now one of
the southern streets. This, however, is not likely, for
Smithdown was remote from ancient Liverpool, and on
the south side of the Pool, then called Mersey Sea. The
name has been a subject of unsatisfying contention; for al¬
though the final syllable pool is derived from the locality,
liver is of doubtful origin. In early times the town was
called indifferently Lirpool, Litherpool, Lithpool, and Li¬
fer pole, F and v were commutable; but, in the most
ancient records, the name is written indifferently Lithepol
and Lilhepole. Mr Baines, in his History of Liverpool, is
disposed to think that lithe must be accepted for sea, and
thus the derivation will be the pool on the sea. Origi¬
nally the place was only a small fishing village; for the
Mersey, up to a very recent period, was remarkable for its
supply of salmon and other fish. The first authentic re¬
cord of the town is found in a charter of Henry II., in the
year 1173, declaring that the estuary of “the Mersey shall
be foi evei a port endowed with all the liberties belonging
fco a port of the sea, and that the men of Lyrpul, near to
I oxteth, may come and go from each side of the sea with
their ships and merchandise free and without obstruction.”
It is supposed that his majesty, in this charter, had re¬
ference to the conquest of Ireland; for, not content with
the bestowal of a barren privilege, he actually erected
dwellings called burgage houses, the tenants of which were
the primitive freemen of Liverpool. These houses con¬
tinued to yield a rental to the crown up to the time of
Elizabeth, and constituted, to a great extent, the dwellings
of the inhabitants. In 1207 King John granted the town
a charter, as follows:—
“ Kno'v ye, that we have granted to all our faithful sub¬
jects who have taken burgage houses at Liverpool, that they
may have all the liberties and free customs in the town of
Liverpool which any other free borough upon the sea has
in our territories. And, therefore, we command you, that,
securely and in our peace, you may come thither to re¬
ceive and dwell in our burgage houses; in witness whereof,
we transmit to you these our letters patent. Witness—
Simon de 1 ateshill, at Winchester, the 28th day of August,
in the 9th year of our reign.”
On the apex of the promontory of some 40 or 50 feet
above the liver, a castle was erected at a very early period.
Its erection is ascribed to King John, but it is supposed to
have existed, in some form or other, before his time. The
king subsequently granted the site of Liverpool to Fitz-
warine, but it reverted, in the next reign, again to the
crown. The “free customs” of the charter mean exemp¬
tion from the petty customs; and thus, from that time to
this, the freemen have been exempt from the payment of
small dues. Henry III. extended their privilege by ex¬
empting them from tolls in all the ports of the kingdom ;
but all merchants frequenting the port of Liverpool were
bound to pay due customs. Immediately after granting this
chai ter, King Henry farmed the town to the freemen at
L.10 per annum. Charters and privileges at that time,
however, were easily set aside or violated with impunity;
but from the reign of King John to that of Charles II., the
crown claimed a right to these dues, and farmed them to
various persons. In 1399 John of Gaunt leased the dues
and all other profits, arising as well by sea as by land, for
57 marks. From that period the duchy of Lancaster be¬
came attached to the crown, and consequently all grants
proceeded from the same source. A fee-farm of the town
was let to various persons—at one time to the people of the
town, at others to individuals; but in 1466 the value had
increased to only about L.14 a-year. In 1528 it was esti¬
mated at not a greater value. A few years afterwards
Henry VIII. considered that he had been defrauded by the
corporation, and appointed an inquisition for investigating the
matter. There was some reason for this, for the freedom of
the town was granted to foreign merchants on the payment
of a certain sum, which sum relieved them from the burthen
of town-dues. The corporation, such as it was, also exer-
518
LIVERPOOL.
Liverpool. ciS6(l £i monopoly, £intl excluded Troni tisde in the town fill
v _ ; wi10 Were not members of their municipal body. This,
however, had but little effect in retarding the progress of
the place; for, notwithstanding the favours of the crown,
its prosperity positively declined from the thirteenth to the
sixteenth century, from causes quite apart from local or
royal measures. In 1346 there were 168 burgages, held at
the rate of 12 pence annually; in 1429 these had been
reduced to 148; and in the reign of Elizabeth, in 1655,
they had fallen off to 138. The population may, therefore,
be set down, at the last named period, as about 1000. So
poor was the place that for 200 years it returned no member
to parliament. The population nestled about the castle, form¬
ing no continuous street, but lining, at intervals, the roads
or pathways, which were not paved before the fourteenth
century. The first palpable step in advance taken by
the town was in the reign of Charles II. A new world had
then been opened to the enterprise of the old; and Liver¬
pool invited to its port such trade as was created by the
infant manufactures of Lancashire, Yorkshire, and Cheshire.
As the plantations in America increased so did the trade
of Liverpool; and from an early period her merchants took
a prominent part in the slave trade. She sent out ships to
Africa, conveyed their live burdens to America and the
West Indies, and in return brought back to the Mersey the
sugar, tobacco, and other produce of those regions. The
English merchants and shipowners had competed success¬
fully with the Spaniards and Portuguese; but it was not
until 1708 that the first slaver was despatched from the
Mersey. Having entered on the trade, they soon partici¬
pated largely in it; for, in 1752, 101 Liverpool merchants
were engaged in the slave traffic, 135 appertaining to Lon¬
don, and 157 to Bristol. The number of Liverpool vessels
engaged in the American and West India trade was 106,
and of these 88 were slavers. In due time this trade greatly
increased; and that it enriched Liverpool may be inferred
from the fact that the greater portion of the West Indies
belonged to merchants of this place. This trade, however,
like every other, was affected by war. It almost ceased
during the French war of the eighteenth century, and the
merchant ships unemployed were eagerly converted into
privateers. At first the gain was immense; but subse¬
quently the French predominated, and Liverpool suffered
severely by the privateers of the enemy. On the return of
peace, trade was resumed, but not with any accelerated
force until the inventions of Arkwright and others created
the cotton trade in Lancashire. The war of American
Independence had the worst possible effect on the prosperity
of Liverpool; and the late war of the French Revolution
at first operated most adversely. Still, two circumstances
obviated these bad effects. The great increase of popula¬
tion and trade in the United States of America created a
demand for British manufactures, and these manufactures
had nearly all to pass from the Mersey, which received in
return the raw produce indirectly paid for them. At the
close of the war Liverpool was still advancing, but not so
rapidly as within the last 25 years.
In 1750 Liverpool had only 20 sailing vessels engaged
in the continental trade; now she has treble that number,
and fleets of screw steamers, which constantly visit every port
in the Mediterranean, and render the Mersey a medium of
communication between France, Holland, Belgium, and
America. The East Indies, too, have been opened to Liver¬
pool enterprise. Since the alteration in the Company’s
charter, and in the amount of business done in the East,
Liverpool stands next to London. Another trade she
has almost monopolized—the Australian trade. Her clip¬
per vessels are admitted to be the finest in the world, and,
in consequence, the emigration to the antipodes is the largest
Trade of
the port.
from this port, and the return cargoes the heaviest; for ne- Liverpool
cessarily the freights are low, as more goods go than come,
and cheapness induces shippers to send their wool here rather
than to London, although London is the principal market.
But Liverpool is now creating a wool market of her own.
The first authentic account of the number of vessels
entering the port dates from 1577; and the following re¬
turns indicate at a glance the progress of the trade :—
Years. Vessels.
1757 1,371
1780 2,261
1800 4,746
11820 7,277
1830 11,214
1840 15,998
1850 20,457
1856 20,886
Tonnage.
450,000
805,033
1,411,964
2,445,708
3,536,337
4,320,618
Dock Duties.
L.2,336
3,528
23,379
94,412
151,359
178,196
211,743
326,801
The custom-house revenue collected in the port was, in
1855, L.3,576,344,2s. 8d., and 1856, L.3,824,177,14s. 8d.;
showing an increase of L.247,843, 12s. The last quarter
of 1856 exhibits a comparatively further increase of
L.118,581 over the corresponding quarter of 1855. The
town dues now produce more than L. 120,000 a-year, and
there is another impost called light-dues, which produced in
1856 L.99,965, against L.86,182 in 1855. These light
dues go altogether to the Board of Trade, and are disposed
of as passing tolls. The greater number of vessels fre¬
quenting the port comes from the United States of Ame¬
rica ; for the great trade of Liverpool is in cotton, and the
cotton supplied comes in largest quantities from the south¬
ern states of the Union. The following returns will give
a correct idea of the progress of this trade. In 1770 there
were imported into Liverpool 6037 bags 3 bales 3 barrels
of raw cotton; but since the improvements of Hargreaves and
Arkwright in spinning, the trade has greatly increased.
Thus the importation was, in—
lb. lb.
1780 6,766,613 1830  261,961,452
1800 56,010,732 1840  583,400,000
1820 143,672,655 1850  685,600,000
In 1856 there were imported into Liverpool 2,028,850
bales of cotton.
A large trade is carried on in flour, grain, and corn. The
imports of these in 1856 were—
Wheat, qrs. 1,370,152 I Flour, sacks, 232,704
Corn, do 897,407 Do. barrels,...1,138,260
Two-thirds of all this comes from America. The quan¬
tity re-exported is small. The total sugar imported in
1856 was 76,000 tons, of which 17,840 tons were from
the British West India plantations, 18,555 from Bengal,
and 19,996 from Brazil.
For carrying on a trade so large great facilities are af- Docks,
forded. In 1715 the first dock was constructed with an
area of three acres and a half. This sufficed for forty-two
years; but, at an interval of eighteen years, another dock
appeared, and within a period of fifty years five additional
docks were made. In 1826 the corporation filled up the
primitive dock in order to erect the custom-house on its
site. In consequence of this proceeding, and the rapid in¬
crease of buildings, none of the docks run inland, but all
extend along and parallel with the river. From 1830 to
1842, eight new docks were opened ; and from 1845 to
1852, not less than fourteen docks and basins have been
added. The total water space afforded by the docks is
200 acres; and the quays measure 14 miles in length.
The river wall is 5 miles 200 yards long; the total area
of the dock estate is 712 acres.
No other port can present anything to be compared with
the Liverpool Docks. One serious inconvenience however
is, that running along the river wall, they interrupt the ap-
1 This is the first year when goods were rated as well as ships.
LIVERPOOL.
519
Liverpool, proaches to the ferries, and when the gates are open, stop
intercourse for a short time altogether. To remedy this
an immense landing stage, constructed by Mr Cubitt, has
been placed at St George’s Pier, and this has not only pro¬
moted the comfort of passengers, but served as a very po¬
pular promenade. Another landing-stage has been con¬
structed three times the size of the former one, at a cost of
L. 150,000. Means, too, are under consideration for faci¬
litating approach to the ferries.
Until 1826 there were few warehouses on the dock quays.
The warehouses are in general up the town, or at some
distance from the quays. The inconvenience of this pro¬
voked a lively agitation among the merchants, and, through
the great exertion of several members of the council, the
Albert Dock was constructed and surrounded, like St
Katherine’s Dock, London, by piles of ponderous ware¬
houses. Stanley Dock has since also been surrounded by
warehouses, and the new Wapping Docks are to have the
same advantage.
Extensive as the dock accommodation is, it is no longer
adequate to the wants of the port. Several new docks are
projected at the N. end, on land reclaimed from the bay,
under a certain understanding with the Earl of Derby ; and
in 1854, the corporation became purchasers of the Birken¬
head Dock and estates for a sum of L.1,143,000. But
these docks, to be rendered available, will require a further
outlay of L.800,000.
The constitution of the dock management has under¬
gone some changes. The corporation having been the
first projectors and supporters of the docks, were recog¬
nised as trustees of the estate. Under the act 51st George
III. the committee consisted of twenty-one persons, all
members of and appointed by the common council, and
this continued until the passing of the act 6th George IV.
1825, when the dock ratepayers were first directly repre¬
sented by returning eight members to the committee ; the
council electing thirteen, including the chairman, and the
council having a veto on the proceedings. This continued
until the act of 1851, by which a committee of twenty-
four is appointed—twelve by the council, and twelve by the
dock ratepayers. The committee appoint their own chair¬
man and deputy-chairman; the chairman being, however,
one of the twelve members elected by the council. The
council have also a veto on the proceedings of the com¬
mittee by a majority of two-thirds.
The care of the port is divided between the dock com¬
mittee and the corporation. The latter constructed the
lighthouse and built the Wallasey embankment, to pre¬
vent the sea encroaching on the district and impairing the
channels leading to the river; and the former provide buoys,
and a marine surveyor whose duty it is to note the shifting
of the sandbanks, and give notice to the pilots and mariners.
There are several eminent ship-builders in Liverpool,
but of late the greater part of the trade has been in repair¬
ing and in the building of iron ships. There are five build-
ing-yards on the Lancashire side of the river, and three on
the other side. Those on the Cheshire side combine
graving with building docks, and, although there are several
graying docks on the Liverpool side, they are found to
be inadequate to the wants of the port. As might be ex¬
pected, a large trade is carried on in ships. In 1856, 694
ships of 328,991 tons were sold, and of these one-fifth were
bought by foreigners.
Liverpool is a place of trade rather than of manufactures,
and those manufactures which exist are more for the supply
of local wants than for general purposes. An attempt was
made to establish a cotton manufactory, but without success.
T. he oi igin of the corporation, as we have already shown,
i social, was sufficiently humble. Deficient in strength itself, it
sought to borrow power from neighbouring greatness, and
of course shared the usual fate of dependants. When the
np-
alding.
mufac¬
res.
litical
house of Molyneux proved unkind, the corporation became Liverpool,
the client of that of Stanley; but to the former family it
seemed most attached. Against both patrons it occasion¬
ally played off the chancellor of the duchy. When com¬
pelled or disposed to send representatives to Parliament, it
sometimes ventured to nominate one, leaving a blank to be
filled up by the predominant power of the day. There
was, however, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, a
partial growth of independence. Individuals acquired
wealth ; out of riches grew local rivalry; and small enmi¬
ties were as violent then as at a later period. The corpo¬
ration was not at first perplexed by forms ; all the bur¬
gesses assembled at the Market Cross, until the number
claiming to be present proved rather too numerous. A
common council was then resorted to, but in time this
became self-elected. The freemen, until about 1820, re¬
tained the right of electing the mayor, but subsequently this
was a mere formality. The council filled up the blanks
left in their ranks by death or resignation, until 1836, when
the Municipal Reform Act restored the body to popular
election. In the earlier days of the corporation, heads of
the houses of Stanley and Molyneux frequently filled the
civic chair, the duty no doubt being performed by deputy.
The corporation having been always dependent on the
Crown, acquired a sentiment of loyalty which is still dis¬
covered in a customary toast at the mayor’s table. In the
civil wars, the town suffered from three sieges, but it had
not much to lose. To the house of Hanover it paid
marked devotion, and up to 1836 the predominant feeling
in the council was Toryism. The new act divided the
town into sixteen wards, and gave to each ward three mem¬
bers and one alderman. At the first election the liberals
prevailed, but in a few years the opposite party obtained a
majority, and have kept it ever since.
Before the Reform Bill, freemen only could vote for a
member of parliament; but as their number was large,
frequent and violent contests took place. With one or two
exceptions, however, Tory candidates were returned. Mr
Brougham, now Lord Brougham, contested the borough
with Mr Canning, but lost the election. The freemen
being artizans, dependent on the West India and other great
interests, were necessarily exposed to certain influences,
but in the end nearly all became venal; and at the election
of 1830, the friends of the adverse candidates, Mr Ewart and
Mr Denison, it is alleged, spent L.150,000. This great
scandal hastened the reform measure. The Reform Bill
continued the privilege of voting to the freemen, and, as
usual, they aided the Conservative side. Under the provi¬
sion of the act, however, their numbers are fast decreasing,
and even now a contest is doubtful.
Next to London, the corporation of Liverpool is decidedly
the richest in the kingdom. At first her income was miser¬
ably small, and centuries passed without improving it; but
in 1777 the corporation purchased from Lord Molyneux,
for L.2250, his reversion, expectant on the determination of
his lease in the town dues, and these rose gradually from
L.20,000 a-year to L.120,000. The income of the corpora¬
tion is also derived from land within the town, from markets,
and from police rates; the whole estimated at L.268,000
for 1857. The claim to the town dues has often been
questioned. A case was tried in the Court of King’s Bench
in 1831, and decided in favour of the corporation; but in
1856 Government brought in a bill to abolish them. Great
resistance being offered, a select committee was appointed ;
it heard evidence, but made no report. The people of
Manchester are opposed to these dues, and it is believed
that ultimately there must be a compromise. The dues
consist of small sums, hardly appreciable in amount, col¬
lected on merchandise. The dock-rates belong to no
special interest, being devoted not to demands, but simply
to interest of money borrowed, and the cost of working.
520
LIVERPOOL.
Public
buildings
Liverpool. With the increase of trade and wealth the mode of doing
^ 1 v ^ J business underwent a great change. At the beginning ot
the present century the merchant had his counting-house
and warehouse behind his dwelling-house. These man¬
sions may now be seen in Hanover Street, Duke Street,
Seel Street, and others, bearing still in their architecture
evidence of cost and taste, although now mostly devoted
to meaner uses. Thirty years later the mercantile offices
began to gather about the Exchange; mean buildings were
transformed into lordly edifices; and as much as L.600 or
L.800 a-year is now (1857) paid for a suite of rooms on
a single floor. Such rents are, of course, temptations to
an increase of buildings; and in 1856 as much as L.4/ a
square yard has been paid for building land near the town-
hall. All the opulent classes live in the environs. Up to
the year 1833 New Brighton was a sand-hill, without a
single tenement on it; now it is covered with villas, ihe
villas cover the hills and crowd the gorges, which extend
from the Red Noses to Rock Ferry; while on the Lanca¬
shire side, Aigburth, Allerton, Woolton, Wavertree, Old
Swan, Knotty Ash, West Derby, Walton, Crosby, Lither-
land, Waterloo, and Bootle, have been entirely occupied
by the mansions and villas of the opulent people ot Liver¬
pool.
Although the old corporation admitted of no popular
element, they did much in promoting the comfort and
prosperity of the town, d hey gave 40 acres of land for
the construction of docks; demolished the old castle, and
placed a handsome church on its site; opened new mar¬
kets; widened narrow and all but impassable streets; con¬
tributed to the building of the custom-house; erected
several very handsome churches; and lent their aid indi¬
vidually to the establishment of many charitable institu¬
tions. Formerly the markets were held in the open streets,
which were exceedingly narrow and inconvenient. Origi¬
nally the conceptions of the council were not very large;
and, naturally enough, when they provided markets they
were very small ones, in the vicinity of the streets where
the articles were formerly exposed for sale. The fish-
market and the shambles were, therefore, placed in the
neighbourhood of Castle Street; but these proving inade¬
quate to the wants of the population, St John’s Market, one
of the largest in the world, was opened in 1822. It is 123
yards long, 45 wide, and embraces an area of 8235 square
yards. The architecture is substantial though not orna¬
mental. The roof is supported by 116 cast-iron pillars, and
the market is lighted by 248 windows. Subsequently St
James’s Market at the S. end, and St Martin’s Market at
the N. end of the town were opened; and the corpora¬
tion have added one market in Gill Street. But all these
markets, with the exception of St John’s, are indiffer¬
ently attended; for the number of greengrocers has amaz¬
ingly increased, and, as in London, bring the marketable
necessaries of life to the door of almost every inhabitant.
The wholesale butchers and cattle-dealers always held their
market outside the town; and some years ago they con¬
structed a very large and efficient market at the Old Swan,
3 miles from the borough.
One of the waterworks—the Bootle—was commenced
in 1797; the Harrington Company’s works, on a larger
scale, followed soon after; but as the supply from these
works was scanty, and utterly insufficient in cases of
fire, an additional supply of water was obtained by sink¬
ing a well in Green Lane, in the township of West Derby.
Complaints however continuing; in 1847 the corporation
purchased the whole of these works for about L.800,000,
and soon afterwards obtained an act of parliament for
constructing high-service waterworks at Rivington Pike, a
few' miles beyond Bolton. The distance from Liverpool is
26 miles ; and the water was brought thence into Liverpool
for the first time in January 1857.
The present town-hall, a noble structure, stands nearly Liverpool!
on the site of the original Market Cross. The primitive
structure was a thatched edifice, erected on arches, some- Town-hall
what after the fashion of the present town-hall of Chester.
Above were the council-room and assembly-room, and the
space underneath was intended to be used as an exchange.
In 1754 it was opened with great eclat; but the arcades
beneath being dark, the merchants declined to use it, and
still continued to assemble on an open place in the street.
In 1795 the building was consumed by fire, but was re¬
stored two years afterwards ; the interior being pretty much
what it is now. The present dome and cupola were com¬
pleted in 1802, and the projecting portico and its rustic
arcaded basement were added in 1811. The interior of
the building is very fine. There are a spacious hall, a
council-room, treasurer’s office, and town-clerk’s offices,
on the basement story. A very splendid staircase leads to
a suite of drawing-rooms, a very fine dining-room, an im¬
mense ball-room, with a smaller one attached. On the
first landing of the staircase stands Chantrey’s statue of
Canning, considered one of that great artist’s masterpieces ;
in the reception-rooms is a portrait of Canning by Law¬
rence, and one of George III. by Shee; and also por¬
traits of the Duke of Kent, George IV., and William IV.
In the council-chamber are portraits of various gentlemen
who have passed the mayorial chair; the last taken being
that of Mr William Wallace Currie, the first mayor of the
borough under the Municipal Reform Act. The town-hall is
made, with great propriety, to form one square of the ex¬
change. Thisnoble pileof building was commenced in 1803.
The cost was estimated at L.80,000; and although no one
was allowed to take up more than ten shares, the whole sum
was subscribed in less than two hours. The building was
completed in 1809, at the cost of L.l 10,840. It forms three
sides of a square, the fourth being formed by the town-hall.
The inclosed area is 197 feet by 178, and has in the centre
a bronze monument in honour of Nelson, erected in 1813,
at a cost of L.9000. It was designed by M. C. Wyatt, and
executed in bronze by Westmacott.
The mercantile offices which have sprung up around the
Exchange are remarkable for their architectural beauty, as
well as for their convenience. Water Street, from the
town-hall to George’s Dock, presents a succession of such
buildings. On the site of the old tower, the last remnant of
the Castle, have been erected the Tower Buildings,—a mass
of counting-houses, ornamented towards the river by an
Italian tower, now used as a semaphore telegraph station.
Fenwick Street, at right angles with Water Street, presents
a succession of buildings equally beautiful. The Corn Ex¬
change is in Brunswick Street; and in the same street is the
Union Bank, a perfect architectural bijou; and a little fur¬
ther on, in James Street, at the top of Fenwick Street, is the
North and South Wales Bank, equally entitled to notice.
In Castle Street stands the Branch Bank of England, con¬
structed by Mr Cockerell; and in the same street the Com¬
mercial Bank Buildings, erected after Mr Cunningham’s
design. North John Street, which runs parallel with
Castle Street, is entirely devoted to offices; and in Dale
Street are situated the Royal Bank Buildings, remarkable
for boldness of design. The custom-house, which stands
at the foot of South Street, was built after a design of
John Foster, at the cost of L.283,804. The estimate was
L.l75,000 ; and although the building is an imposing one
in appearance, it is regarded as not fully answering its pur¬
poses. In front of it is a bronze statue of Huskisson, by
Gibson. Part of the custom-house is used as a dock-
office, and another part of it as the post-office; for neither
of which is the building particularly suitable. To the E. of
the custom-house is the Sailors’ Home, which is admirably
adapted to the intended object of the Marine Board, and for
a sailors’ depot.
LIVERPOOL.
Liverpool. Lord Street, Church Street, and Bold Street boast very
^ splendid shops. These streets are the most fashionable
resort. The shops compete in extent and grandeur with
those of Regent and Bond Streets, London, and in one or
two instances are pronounced superior. At the extremity
of Bold Street is one of the finest churches in Liverpool,—
St Luke’s, from a design of Foster, one of the discoverers
of the famous marbles ; and higher up, in Hardman Street,
is the Blind Asylum and the Philharmonic Hall. The por¬
tico of the Blind Asylum chapel is a fac-simile of that of
Jupiter Panhellinus of iEgina, after the design of Foster.
1 his hall cost L.37,000, *was built after the design of
Mr Cunningham, and is unquestionably one of the most ad¬
mirable music halls in the world. It is lighted by an in¬
genious plan of concealed gases under the ceiling; it will
accommodate 3000 people ; and is admirably ventilated.
The Philharmonic Society embraces the wealth and fashion
of Liverpool. It gives from a dozen to twenty concerts in
the year, and at these concerts, from time to time, appear
all the great artistes who visit England. Subscribers only
are admitted to the boxes and stalls ; but spacious galleries,
capable of containing 1000 persons, are open to the public
at prices varying from one to five shillings each. A very
beautiful little chapel, belonging to the Unitarians, stands
contiguous to the last-mentioned building; and in the vici¬
nity there are several other chapels, including that of the
Blind Asylum.
When Liverpool had completely emerged from its ob¬
scurity, laudable efforts were made to provide for the amuse¬
ment and intellectual improvementof the people. The Athe¬
naeum Library and News-room owes its origin, in 1799, to
the celebrated Roscoe, who was a native of Liverpool;
and the Lycaeum was built in 1804, when the old Liver¬
pool Library was removed to it. The Royal Institution,
founded in 1814, was intended for the instruction of
the public, by the delivery of scientific and literary lectures,
the establishment of pu nic schools, and the formation of a
museum of natural history and works of art. A news-room
was also established in the Union Buildings, Duke Street;
but the great news-room of the town is that in the E. sideof the
Exchange Buildings, to which subscribers are admitted by the
annual payment of three guineas each. The room above it is
also a Lloyd’s room, devoted exclusively to the underwriters.
1 he subscribers to the general news-room number more
than 3000. 1 he Athenaeum Library, containing many
valuable works, was, until recently, not a lending library;
but in 1856 it was resolved that subscribers should be per¬
mitted to take out works for reading at home. The Lycaeum
Library has always been a lending library, and is unques¬
tionably one of the largest and best conducted in England.
There are also several private libraries of considerable
extent in the town. The Royal Institution has a theatre
for lectures, a gallery of ancient art, a museum of consider¬
able value, to which the public are admitted every Monday,
and a school of high repute, but which is no longer under
the control of the members of the Institution. A free library
was established here in 1852. (See article Libraries.)
In Lime Street is the London and North-Western
Railway Station, which owes much of its architectural
attraction to the liberality of the town-council, who con¬
tributed largely to the cost. Opposite to it St George’s
Flail stands out boldly in a large open space on the brow
of a descent; and when the Free Library is built on the
north side, a magnificent place will present itself for orna-
reciTatiT . St George’s Hall is a massive pile
o ui ding in the classical style of architecture, designed by
the late Harvey Lonsdale Elmes, and after his decease,
carried out by Charles Robert Cockerell, R.A., of London,
the professor of architecture to the Royal Academy. The
ground on which this ornament to Liverpool has been
erected slopes down considerably to the W.; and a plat-
VOL. XIII. 1
form has been built containing a number of apartments,
and an extensive apparatus for warming and ventilating
the building above. On this basement, at the south end,
a magnificent portico, with a double row of Corinthian
columns, eight in front and four behind, and a pediment
filled with sculpture, rises from an extensive flight of
steps, forming the principal feature of the building. At
the N. end a semicircular arrangement of eight attached
columns incloses a hall, which appears to be the natural
entrance to the edifice, and is so used when concerts are
given. But there are three other entrances more generally
available at the E. side, under a colonnade of sixteen pillars,
forming what is called the east portico, also approached
by a handsome flight of steps. Considering this to be the
main building, the wings N. and S. are carried out with
square pillars; the intercolumniations being built up so
as to form the outer walls of the apartments within.
On these screens it is proposed, at some time, to place
statues and bas-reliefs on the panels between the pil¬
lars. There is no pediment on this side; but above
the main fapade there is an attic which extends over
the whole building; and a second attic of considerably
greater height, to cover the roof of the principal room
which has given the name of St George’s Hall to the whole
structure. This fine hall, intended for public meetings
and concerts, is 169 feet long, 74 feet wide on the floor,
with galleries on each side 13 feet in depth, and is 84 feet
high. The ceiling is semicylindrical, divided by arching
and longitudinal bands into panels of various shapes and
sizes, which are profusely decorated with plaster ornaments
in relief, upon faintly coloured grounds, in the style of the
modern continental Renaissance. Tritons and mermaids,
tridents, masks, caducei, fasces, various coats of arms, St
George and the Dragon, are scattered in profusion over
the vault, which is supported on each side by five lateral
arches springing from six columns of polished red Aber¬
deen granite, and massive piers which divide the galleries
into deep recesses. On the western side these recesses are
occupied by five lofty windows, 18 feet 6 inches high, and
8 feet 7 inches wide. The capitals of the columns are
plaster, painted to imitate the granite shafts, it having been
contemplated at one time to make them of bronze. Thefrieze
of the entablature above them is curvilinear, and also painted
to imitate red granite. The spandrels of these lateral arches
are decorated with colossal figures, in alto-relievo, of Pru¬
dence, Fortitude, Science, Art, Justice, and Temperance,
in duplicate, and principally copied from Raffaelle’s designs
of these subjects in the Stanze of the Vatican at Rome.
Prudence resembles a figure by Michael Angelo. On the
floor, which is a beautiful specimen of Minton’s encaustic
tiles, inscriptions in Latin and English, referring to the
figures above, are worked in so as to furnish both orna¬
ment and instruction. A portion of this floor, all round the
room, is raised about two feet, to receive the warming and
ventilating apparatus. Flights of steps at each end of
the hall lead to the Crown Court at the S. end, and
the Civil Court at the N. These entrances are between
pillars of grey granite supporting an architrave, over which
there is a semicircular opening, through which the archi¬
tect, Mr Elmes, contemplated a vista of the whole length
of the three compartments from the back of each court—
a length of about 300 feet. His object has been defeated
by his neglect to provide a situation for the organ, which is
one of the finest in the world, built by Willis, under the
superintendence of Dr S. S. Wesley, and is now placed on
a circular platform occupying the N. end of the hall, and
obstructing the view of the entrance into the Civil Court.
Semicircular windows, 33 feet in diameter, concentric with
the ceiling, are introduced at each end. There are three
entrances on each side, closed by folding gates of bronze,
from the corridors, corresponding with the three outer doors
3 u
521
Liverpool.
522 L I V
Liverpool, under the eastern portico or colonnade. Ten bronze pen-
dants, of elaborate workmanship, containing double circles
of gas jets in the form of stars, light this splendid hall. The
recesses on each side of the hall are converted into gal¬
leries over the corridors, in front of which balustrades of
coloured marbles and Derbyshire spar have been intro¬
duced. Coloured marbles are also introduced as panels
and other decorations of the walls below the galleries. Here
also are niches for statues of distinguished persons;—George
Stephenson the engineer and Sir Robert Peel are already
placed. The courts are quadrangular apartments, divided
as usual for judges and counsel, witnesses and jury, with a
dock for the prisoners entered from below, in connection
with the cells in the basement of the building. At the back
of the judges’ seats are retiring-rooms, and along the eastern
side, in two stories, a grand jury-room, a library, refresh¬
ment and robing rooms, and all the usual accommodation
for the persons attendant upon the civil and criminal pro¬
ceedings of the county. This portion of the building forms
the base of a fine screen of square pillars similar in size and
character to the colonnade on the eastern side, and, from
the slope of the ground, gives by far the most imposing
view of this great structure. Over the north hall there is a
small circular concert-room, on which great expense has been
lavished in a profusion of elaborate ornament.
This magnificent pile of buildings is pronounced by
general consent to be the finest in Great Britain. The
circumstances out of which the building of St George’s
Hall arose were as follows:—It had been resolved to build
a music hall by subscription, and the corporation gave
the land in Lime Street for that purpose, but a sufficient
number of subscribers did not come forward. In the mean¬
time, the assizes in 1835 were transferred from Lancaster to
Liverpool, and the Sessions House being unsuitable, the
corporation resolved to build new courts. Enlarging their
view, the council at once superseded the music commit¬
tee, took the charge of the building on themselves, and
after examination of various places, resolved to have two
assize courts, a council-room and a common hall under one
roof; and this has been accomplished so well, that the
common hall has become the most elegant council-room
in the world. The first estimate of the architect was
L.85,000; but it is believed that the work when finished
will cost L.200,000. Mr Elmes died while the building was
yet a skeleton, and as he left his friend Mr Robert Rawlin-
son, C.E., in charge, that gentleman accomplished what was
considered impracticable, by turning the arch of the roof
with hollow bricks. The assizes are now held here, and
concerts are being given three or four times a-week. The
council has appointed organists of the highest reputation
Liverpool, a seaport town of Nova Scotia, capital of
Queen’s County, on the right bank of a cognominal stream,
near its mouth, 75 miles S.S.W. of Halifax ; N. Lat. 44. 3.,
W. Long. 64. 42. It is regularly laid out, and contains
several good public buildings. The harbour is commodious,
but the bar admits only vessels of light draught. Timber
and dried fish are exported in large quantities to the West
Indies and the United States. In 1851, 84 vessels, of the
aggregate burden of 9808 tons, and 104 of 12,640 tons,
cleared at the port. The exports in that year amounted
in value to L.30,392, of which to the value of L.28,049
were sent to the West Indian Islands. Pop. of county
(1851) 7256.
Liverpool, a seaport-town of New Brunswick, capital
of Kent county, on the N. side of Richibucto Harbour, 45
miles S.E. of Miramichi; N. Lat. 46. 43., W. Long. 64.
54. It has a safe and commodious harbour, and an increas¬
ing trade in timber and deals. Pop. of county (1851)
11,410.
L I V
at L.350 a-year, to preside at the organ; and organ per- Liverpool,
formances at small charges are given twice, sometimes three Lharles
times a-week, to crowded audiences. en inson. ^
In addition to the St George’s and the Philharmonic ,
Halls, there are three other large concert-rooms in the
town ; there are four theatres, all well attended; and among
the educational institutions, in addition to those already men¬
tioned, are the Mechanics’ and the Collegiate Institutions,
both elegant and convenient buildings.
The population of the old borough in 1801 was 77,653 ;
in 1811, 94,376; in 1821, 118,972; in 1831, 203,572 ; in
1841, in the new borough, 286,487 ; and in 1851, 376,065.
The usual rate of increase from 1851 to 1857 will have
augmented the population to more than 400,000, and latterly
it has gone on in an accelerated ratio. Proof of this is
derived from the fact, that the number of new houses
erected in 1855 was 1355, while in 1856 it was 1703; and
the total number from 1838 to 1856 was 27,967. The
annual value of the property assessed was L.1,461,577, and
the local taxes assess at from 6s. to 7s. in the pound.
The paving, cleansing, sewerage, and lighting, are under
the direction of the Health Committee of the council,
assisted by a borough engineer, a surveyor of buildings,
an inspector of nuisances, and a medical officer. In 1830
Liverpool was one of the most unhealthy towns in Eng¬
land ; now it is one of the healthiest. The supply of water
is under the care of the Water Committee, and in 1856 the
water rate produced L.76,000, being L.15,000 above the
expenditure.
Before 1836 Liverpool was protected only by a few de- Police,
tective officers and a nightly watch, but under the Munici¬
pal Reform Bill an efficient constabulary force was estab¬
lished. It now consists of about 900 men for docks and
town, both under one head constable. The borough gaol
formerly stood in Great Howard Street, but in 1854 a new
and spacious gaol was opened at Walton, 3 miles from the
town.
The charitable institutions in Liverpool are numerous
and well supported. There is a large workhouse generally
containing 1700 paupers ; an industrial school with about
900 children ; three large hospitals ; three dispensaries ; and
one eye-and-ear infirmary.
According to Mr Horace Mann’s summary of the census, Religion
there were in Liverpool in 1851, 121 schools, in which a"d
35,171 children were being educated, of which 82 schools,6 uca 10n' J
containing 25,963 children, were supported by religious
bodies. There are in the town two parochial charges,—St
Peter’s and St Nicholas’,—and 46 other churches belonging
to the Established Church, 53 Dissenting chapels, 2 syna¬
gogues, and 12 Roman Catholic chapels. (w. j. w.)
LIVERPOOL, Charles Jenkinson, first Earl of,
was the eldest son of Col. Jenkinson, the representative of a
family which had been settled at Walcot, near Charlbury,
Oxfordshire, for above a century. Mr Jenkinson received
his education at the Charter-House School and at the Uni¬
versity of Oxford. In early life he published Verses on the
Death of Frederick Prince of Wales ; a Dissertation on the
Establishment of a National and Constitutional Force in
England, independently of a Standing Army ; and a Dis¬
course on the Conduct of Government respecting Neutral Na¬
tions. In 1761, having obtained an introduction to the Earl
of Bute, he became one of the under-secretaries of state, and
in the same yearwas returned to parliament for Cockermouth.
In 1763 he was appointed joint-secretary to the Treasury ;
and having shared the marked favour of his majesty George
III. with Lord Bute, he, on that nobleman’s sudden retire¬
ment from office, became a conspicuous member of the
party then commonly called the King’s Friends. On the
accession to power of the Rockingham administration, in
'I
l i v
Liverpool. 1765, he resigned his public appointments; but about the
same period he was nominated auditor of accounts to the
Princess-Dowager of Wales. In 1766 he was appointed a
lord of the Admiralty by the Grafton administration; and
the following year he became a lord of the Treasury. Un¬
der Lord North’s government new honours awaited this
steady aspirant for promotion. In 1772 he was appointed
one of the vice-treasurers of Ireland; and in 1775 he
was allowed to purchase the patent office of clerkship of the
pells in that country. He afterwards succeeded Lord
Cadogan as master of the mint; and in 1778 he became
secretary-at-war. In 1783 he became a member of the
Board of Trade; and in 1785 he published his Collection
of all the Treaties of Peace, Alliance, and Commerce,
between Great Britain and other Powers, from the Treaty
of Munster in 1648 to the Treaties signed at Paris in 1783.
In 1786 he was made chancellor of the duchy of Lancas¬
ter ; called up to the House of Lords by the style and title
of Baron Hawkesbury of Hawkesbury, in the county of
Gloucester ; and appointed president of the Board of Trade.
Ini 796 he was advanced to the dignity of Earl of Liverpool.
His lordship was twice married, and had two sons and a
daughter. After obtaining his earldom, he rarely quitted
his retirement; but whenever he spoke in the House of
Peers, the extent and accuracy of his information, particu¬
larly on commercial subjects, procured him marked atten¬
tion. In 1805 he addressed a letter to the king on the
coins of the realm, containing a concise and distinct state¬
ment of most of the facts deserving of notice in the history
of British coinage. He died 17th December 1808.
Liyerpool, Robert Banks Jenkinson, second Earl of,
son of the preceding, was born 7th June 1770. At an
early age he was placed at an academy at Parson’s Green,
near Fulham, where he remained until his thirteenth year ;
he was then removed to the Charter-House School, where
he continued between two and three years ; and soon after
leaving the Charter-House, he was entered as a student at
Christ Church College, Oxford, where he became ac¬
quainted with Mr Canning. About the period of the
breaking out of the French Revolution, Mr Jenkinson paid
a visit to Paris, and was in that capital when the Bastile
was demolished. Soon after his return to England he was
introduced to parliament as one of the representatives of
Rye, and took his seat under the avowed patronage of the
minister, Mr Pitt. His first speech was delivered on the
27th February 1792, and manifested considerable ability.
His next public appearance was as an opponent of the
abolition of the slave trade. On the 2d of April 1792, Mr
Wilberforce moved, in a committee of the whole house,
“ that the trade carried on by British subjects for the pur¬
pose of obtaining slaves on the coast of Africa, ought to be
abolished.” Mr Dundas proposed to insert the word “ gra¬
dually,” before the word “ abolished ;” but Mr Jenkinson
moved “ that the chairman should leave the chair.” The
amendment was, however, rejected by a large majority,
and Mr Dundas’s more adroit proposition agreed to.
Mr Jenkinson’s next appearance was in a more promi¬
nent and less questionable position. The King of France
had been deposed, and the British ambassador, Lord Gower,
recalled. On the 15th of December 1792, Mr Fox moved
an address to the king, praying that a minister might be
sent to Paris to treat with the provisional government of
Fiance, touching such points as might be in discussion be¬
tween his majesty and his allies, and the French nation.
In the temporary absence of Mr Pitt, who had vacated his
seat by accepting the wardenship of the Cinque Ports, Mr
Jenkinson xeplied to Mr Fox, in a speech which was warmly
complimented by Burke. Hie motion was negatived with¬
out a division. In April 1 /93, Mr Jenkinson was ap¬
pointed one of the commissioners of the India Board; and
on the 6th of May he stood forward in opposition to Mr
L I V
523
Grey’s memorable motion on the subject of parliamentary Liverpool,
reform. On the 6th March 1794, he opposed Mr Grey’s
motion for an address to the king, expressive of the con¬
cern of the House that his majesty should have formed an
alliance with powers whose apparent aim was to regulate
the affairs of a country with which they had no right to in¬
terfere. On the 10th of April, he undertook a more diffi¬
cult task, namely, to justify the measures of the ministry,
and to palliate the failure of the army commanded by the
Duke of York at Dunkirk. On the 30th May 1794, he
made one of his best efforts, in opposition to Mr Fox’s mo¬
tion, for putting an end to the war with France. This was
perhaps the most active period of his life.
On the 25th March 1795, he married the third daughter
of the Earl of Bristol and Bishop of Derry. At the
opening of the session of 1796, the address was seconded
by Mr Stewart, afterwards Lord Castlereagh, in the first
speech delivered by him in the House of Commons. He
was answered by Mr Sheridan, who strongly censured mi¬
nisters, at the same time advising them to declare them¬
selves willing to treat with the French Republic. Mr Jen¬
kinson replied to Mr Sheridan, repeating his former argu¬
ments in justification of the government measures. On
Mr Grey’s motion in the House of Commons (10th March
1796) for an inquiry into the state of the nation, Mr Jen¬
kinson descanted on the effect of the war upon our com¬
merce, contending that, notwithstanding its pressure, the
situation of Great Britain, in a commercial point of view,
was more prosperous than at any preceding period. On
the 28th of May 1796, he participated in the honours
of his family, exchanging its surname for his father’s second
title of Lord Hawkesbury. On the temporary retirement
of Mr Pitt from power early in 1801, a new ministry was
formed, with Mr Addington at its head; and Lord Hawkes¬
bury, who was appointed to the office of secretary of state
for the foreign department, took a prominent part in the
debates which ensued. The great business of the suc¬
ceeding summer and autumn consisted in the adjustment of
preliminaries of peace with France. In October Lord
Hawkesbury remonstrated against the occupation of Swit¬
zerland by the French under Ney, in order to enforce the
reception of a new constitution for that country, prepared
by the First Consul in his own cabinet.
At this period, the management of the House of Com¬
mons had, in a great measure, devolved on Lord Hawkes¬
bury, who, of course, spoke on every topic involving the
character of the administration, as well as on the political
questions which were brought under the consideration of
the House of Commons. At the opening of the next
session of parliament he was called to the House of
Lords; but the only measure of importance which in
that session he brought forward in the new situation in the
legislature where he had been placed to defend the mea¬
sures of ministers, was the Volunteer Consolidation Bill.
About the same time he addressed a circular to the minis¬
ters of foreign courts resident in London, disclaiming indig¬
nantly the charge that his majesty’s government had been
a party to plans of assassination, and describing the recent
seizure and execution of the Duke d’Enghien as “ a san¬
guinary deed, perpetrated by the direct order of the First
Consul, in violation of the rights of nations, and in con¬
tempt of the most simple laws of humanity and honour.”
On the 12th of May, the administration was dissolved
by the resignation of Mr Addington ; Mr Pitt returned to
the head of the ministry, and Lord Hawkesbury received
the seals of the home department. The renewal of the
war being now inevitable, the first effort of the new govern¬
ment was to place the military establishments of the coun¬
try on a more enlarged and efficient footing ; and, with this
view, Lord Hawkesbury exerted himself in the House of
Lords in support of the Additional Force Bill. At a later
524 L I V
L I V
Livery.
period of the session, Mr Wilberforce renewed his attempts
to put an end to the slave trade, and a bill for that purpose
passed the House of Commons; but on its transmission to
the House of Peers, it was postponed, on the motion of
Lord Hawkesbury, for more mature investigation in the
ensuing session. On the 10th of May 1805, Lord Gren¬
ville moved the order of the day for taking into considera¬
tion the petitions of the Roman Catholics of Ireland. This
motion Lord Hawkesbury also opposed. The death of Mr
Pitt afforded Lord Hawkesbury an opportunity of placing
himself at the head of the cabinet; but being well ac¬
quainted with the relative position and strength of parties,
his ambition yielded to his good sense, and he declined the
flattering offer. He was, however, the political heir of Mr
Pitt in all except his talents. Towards the close of 1808,
Lord Hawkesbury was, by the death of his father, placed
at the head of his family, as second Earl of Liver¬
pool.
Under the administration of Percival, Lord Liverpool
became secretary of state for the war department, and after
the assassination of the premier, he was placed at the head
of the government. (See Britain.) Lord Liverpool died
4th of December 1828.
LIVERY. When the Greeks used the proverbial say¬
ing— IfjLaTLov avr)p, “ the dress shows the man ”—they ap¬
plied the pithy “ saw ” as much to the social condition as to
the moral character of the individual. The “livery” has,
accordingly,, ever been taken to mark rather than distin¬
guish the menial or the mercenary. The latter, however,
resists the term, and claims for his dress the name of
“uniform.” When CEnomausclothed his circus troops in
green or blue costumes, he did not, as many have asserted,
introduce the fashion of liveries; he simply decked his
mimic warriors in fancy dresses. The custom of livery is
really derived from the term liberata or liberation a term
applied to the delivery or distribution (made by the kings
of the Merovingian and Carlovingian races) of particular
sets of clothes to the servants throughout the palace, and at
the sovereign’s expense. In common phrase, this was
called a livree* and it was ordinarily performed in the
plenary courts of France.
A term of similar signification was given to the distribu¬
tion made by the early German emperors, and which con¬
sisted of uniform dresses and wages delivered into the
hands of the servants of the imperial household.
In the days of chivalry, livery, in the proper sense of the
word, often covered noble backs, without bringing disgrace
thereon. The duke’s son, as page to a prince, wore the
prince’s livery. The earl’s second son, serving a duke,
donned his master’s coat and colours. The knight’s second
son was in a similar condition as an earl’s servant. The
esquire’s son joyfully wore the livery of the knight whom he
served; and the gentleman’s son performed, in a similar
dress, the duty of servant to the esquire. More than this,
thei. younger brother of a nobleman has been known to
serve his elder brother, and to wear, with all humility, the
older kinsman’s coat and badge.
This badge was formerly the indispensable accompani¬
ment to the coat. “ Livery and badge ” are as old as the
time of Edward IV. The badge was a cloth or silver
circle, borne on the left arm, and carrying the crest of the
wearer’s master. It is still retained by a few noble fami¬
lies ; and, as a fashion, it yet lingers on the coat sleeves of
corporation watermen and the fraternity of firemen. At
first, however, the mode was so general—the habit itself
being blue, and the badge affixed to it—that the proverb
arose, applicable to things or persons lacking ordinary ap¬
pendages,—“ Like a blue coat without a badge.”
The silver badge was probably peculiar to England, as it
appears, in the time of Elizabeth at least, to have excited
the astonishment of most foreign travellers. Laced cloaks
were delivered to servants, in the reign of James I., ac- Livery
cording to the assertion of the gossipping Fynes Moryson, V—
who further informs us that, sixty or seventy years before
he was writing, a.d. 1617, coaches were very rare; but
that at the date just mentioned, there was scarcely an elder
brother who was without one; and that these cumbrous
vehicles, with their liveried coachmen, continually “stopped
the way.” We get at an additional social trait connected with
the wearers of livery, in the remark, that “ Londoners say
woe to him that taketh a servant from St Paul’s church ”—■
in one of the aisles of which they walked about, waiting to
be hired.
During a very considerable period, livery was worn by
other common men besides salaried menials. The men
alluded to were the “ retainers ” of noblemen. These re¬
tainers served for a year, and wore their hirer’s livery.
Their service was that of the strong hand, which was ever
ready to be raised, and prompt to descend, in their masters’
quarrels. They wore a full suit, and were a formidable
body; so formidable that, without license, no noble could
at last retain such followers. The law ordained, with some
singularity, that a master was permitted to give livery only
to his own household servants, officers, and counsel learned
in the law! The act was evaded, and then the penalty of
imprisonment which it awarded was increased by a fine of
L.5 per month for every retainer kept without license.
Henry VII. was, of all English sovereigns, the one who
looked most sharply after the means of increasing his
revenues; and, on one occasion, he applied this matter of
unlicensed liveried retainers to that particular object. The
king had been the guest of his old and faithful servant, the
Earl of Oxford, at Henningham. Hospitality to a monarch
was a heavy charge to the moderately wealthy earl, who,
however, displayed a princely liberality. The king, at part¬
ing, told him that, much as his hospitality had been spoken
of, his munificence exceeded report; and, as he spoke,
Henry pointed to the long double row of liveried servants
who lined each side of the way by which he passed. A man
who could keep so many menial servants must be of
princely means indeed. The earl, however, hastened to
reply, that, in that sense, he was not their master. They
were, he said, simply retainers of his who attended there
to do him service, and partly out of curiosity “ to see his
grace.” “ Now, by my faith !” exclaimed Henry, “ I may
thank you, my lord, for your good cheer; but I may not
endure to have my laws broken in my sight. My attorney
must speak with you.” The threatened colloquy was a
costly one, for the poor earl wras mulcted in the enormous
sum, for the period, of L.10,000, only for putting his livery
on a few scores of backs, contrary to the statute of Henry’s
first parliament.
It has been observed of Queen Mary, that she granted
more licenses by half, for permission to maintain liveried
retainers, in five years, than her sister Elizabeth did in
thirteen. 'In the briefer time, Mary granted thirty-nine
licenses, while in the more extended period, Elizabeth
signed only fifteen. Mary, too, sometimes gave permission
to one man to maintain two hundred retainers ; but Eliza¬
beth never consented to allow more than one hundred to
the same individual. Mary’s bishop, Gardiner, had not less
than two hundred of these liveried soldiers, rather than ser¬
vants, while Elizabeth’s archbishop, Parker, was permitted
to raise only forty. The license to the latter, which is
printed in the volume of the correspondence of the pre¬
late, edited for the Parker Society by Mr Bruce and the
Rev. T. T. Brown, is addressed by Elizabeth “ To all
men,” to whom it says, “ Know ye this, of our special
grace, certain knowledge, and mere motion, and by the
advice of our council, we have given and granted full autho¬
rity, power, and license, unto the most reverend Father in
God, Matthew, Archbishop of Canterbury, full authority
LIVERY.
525
Livery, that he during his life ; may lawfully, and without question,
loss, damage, forfeiture, or other penalty, retain and keep
in his service, from time to time, by way of retainers, over
and besides all such persons as daily attend upon him
in his household, and to whom he giveth meat, drink,
livery, fee, or wages, and also over and besides all such
persons as shall be under him in any office, of any steward¬
ship, under-stewardship, bailiffrick, keeper of park-houses,
warrens, or other games of venerie, pheasants, partridges,
and other fowls of what kind soever, &c., the number of
forty persons, gentlemen, or yeomen, though they be te¬
ams to us, or resident within our honours, &c.; to give, at
his pleasure, his livery, badge, or cognisance, &c., to do
unto him their service, &c.; the said persons to be reputed,
taken, and accepted, by virtue of this our grant and license,
to all instructions, constructions, and intents, as of the
daily attendants of the said archbishop in his household.
Provided that this our grant shall not extend unto him to take
or retain into his service any of our servants being named
in our cheque roll, nor any other being sworn or retained to
serve us as our said servant. And furthermore, we have
pardoned and released to the archbishop all and every tres¬
pass, or acts of retainer heretofore had, or any contempt,
violation, or forfeiture, &c., perpetrated or done since the
first of January last past, contrary to any act of retainers,
&c. In witness, &c., the 16th day of May, in the 5th year
of our reign.”
Licenses and retainers were alike abolished in the reign
of Charles II. Since that period, livery has only been worn
by the lower class of male household servants. While a
servant wears livery, he is addressed by his Christian name,
but when he is promoted from the servants’ hall to the
steward’s room company, he drops his baptismal, and is
thenceforward distinguished by his surname. The coach¬
man is the recognised chief of the liveried corps; and at
meals he presides at the head of the table, by right of his
office, in establishments where the unliveried gentlemen
take their repasts at a separate table. Many of the appen¬
dages of livery may be traced to fashions in dress once pa¬
tronized by nobles. The long waistcoat of the groom is the
old undercoat of the esquire, and the three-cornered hat of
the coachman once figured at sovereign courts on aristo¬
cratic brows. It was driven out of fashion by being stig¬
matized as “ an Egham, Staines, and Windsor,” from the
triangular direction-post to these places which it was said
to resemble. There is one instance of waiters at a tavern
wearing livery. It is noticed by Walpole, who describes
the “ drawers ” at the King’s Arms as being dressed in
brown frocks with blue aprons. This seemed too poor for
Sir Ralph Gore, who gave them laced clothes. In France,
where the fashion of liveries was occasionally of extrava¬
gant splendour, and wealthy men delighted in feeling help¬
less, and maintaining a crowd of Frontins and Germains to
minister to them, the fashion and the word so betokened
a menial, that liveries were abolished by the Constituent
National Assembly, as incompatible with a republican sys¬
tem founded on the imaginary tripod of liberty, equality,
and fraternity.
In France, however, the laced brotherhood may boast of
having had Rousseau for a member. It will be remem¬
bered that, when waiting at table, he corrected his master’s
faults in grammar. In England, Dodsley, the once wTell-
known author and publisher in Pall Mall, commenced life
in the same menial condition. He was footman in the
service of the honourable Mrs Lowther when he published
his first poetical work, “ The Muse in Livery,” with a long
list of subscribers. The modest volume bore this epi¬
graph :—
“ You laugh, and think ’twould he a jest
To see a Muse in liv'ry drest;
But when I mount behind the coach,
And bear aloft a flaming torch,
Methinks on Pegasus I fly,
With fire poetic blazing through the sky.”
\
Livery.
“ What can be expected,” he asks, “from the pen of a
poor footman,—a character that expresseth want both of
friends, fortune, and all the advantages of a liberal educa¬
tion, or a polite converse.” The liveried poet speaks of
his natural genius as “ depressed by the sense of his low
condition; a condition,” he adds, “ from which he never
hopes to rise, but by the goodness of Providence influencing
some generous mind to support an honest and a grateful
heart.” His description of a liveried servant’s daily life
is portrayed with some spirit; and the following lines wTill
serve to show how he made of the dinner hour a time for
improving himself:—
“ This is the only pleasant hour
Which I have in the twenty-four;
For whilst I unregarded stand,
With ready salver in my hand,
And seem to understand no more
Than just what’s call’d for out to pour;
I hear, and mark the courtly phrases,
And all the elegance that praises ;
Disputes maintained without digression,
With ready wit and fine expression ;
The laws of true politeness stated,
And what good breeding is, debated ;
Where all unanimously exclude
The vain coquet, the formal prude,
The ceremonious and the rude ;
The flattering, fawning, praising train ;
The fluttering, empty, noisy, vain;
Detraction, smut, and what’s profane.”
Such was the footman who shared with Stephen Duck
the patronage of the great; who wrote the Cleone, which
gave immortality to the glittering beauty, Bellamy; who
was the author of the once famous Economy of Human Life,
which had the honour of being attributed to the pen of
Chesterfield; and whose book-shop in Pall Mall was the
resort of wits, statesmen, poets, philosophers, and fine
gentlemen.
Dodsley lived and died in a century when footmen espe¬
cially claimed and enjoyed a certain distinction. It was a cen¬
tury in which Lady Harriet Wentworth married Sturgeon,
the favourite footman of her father, the Marquis of Rock¬
ingham. It was these favourite footmen who at the theatre
occupied the seats retained in the boxes till the arrival of
their mistresses. Their very crimes but took the guise of
foibles ; and Lady Mary Wortley Montague made a hero of
a liveried Tarquin, named Arthur Gray. If they were es¬
teemed living, they were sometimes honoured after death ;
and Walpole informs us how the old Duchess of Douglas,
having lost her favourite footman in Paris, had his body
embalmed, packed up in the front part of her own travelling
carriage, and brought to England, under her personal escort,
for interment! The dignity of the office was signified on
one occasion by the state coachman of George II., who
left a fortune to a son in plush,—a portion of which he was
to forfeit, in the event of his condescending to marry a maid
of honour. So puffed up, indeed, was this class of retainers
by their fancied importance, that when the Rev. Mr
Townley’s farce of High Life Below Stairs was first re¬
presented, the exposure of these mock pretensions of the
brotherhood was met, in the London and Edinburgh
theatres, by such serious riots on the part of the “gentle¬
men’s gentlemen,” as to cause the abolition of their free
admission to the gallery, and to bring upon them a hurri¬
cane of ridicule, beneath which their dignity and preten¬
sions were wrecked for ever. The latter did not even
revive when the late eccentric Lord Harrington “cut out”
those shapeless livery coats for his own men, which, for a
time, elicited more surprise than admiration on the part of
526 L I V
Livius. au beholders. Many instances might be cited from the
v>—histories of the South Sea and Mississippi schemes, of foot¬
men speculating into large fortunes, and occasionally,
through forgetfulness, getting up behind, instead of into,
the carriages which fortune had enabled them to set up.
But the most striking example of the two extremes is in
the case of “ Baron Ward,” who commenced life as a livery
servant, and who ended his public career as prime minister
of the late Duke of Parma.
The poets have made ample use of the menial word,
and with poetic power have conferred on it a real dignity
of application. One speaks of wearing the “ virtuous livery”
of his mistress; another puts “April’s livery” on spring;
Milton makes of twilight the “sober livery” of evening;
and of a tropical complexion the “ shadowed livery of the
burnished sun.” Hood has, with his usual happy facetious¬
ness, described the livery of earth as “ grass-green turned
up with brown ;” and a French moralist places two parties
on the same level by stating that “ les ambitieux et les
laquais portent indifferement toutes les livrees.”
The word “livery” is further applied to the 91 com¬
panies of the city of London. The members of these
companies originally wore habiliments in form and colour
resembling those of the lord mayor and sheriffs. The
wardens of companies were accustomed annually to deliver
to the Lord Mayor certain sums, twenty shillings of which
were given to individuals who petitioned for the money, to
enable them to procure sufficient cloth for a suit. When
the companies thus wore their liveries, the splendour of the
civic train was the pride of all good citizens.
There remains only to notice the word “ livery ” as a
legal term. In this sense it implies to give and take pos¬
session. It also signifies a release from wardship; and,
before written deeds were common, it was applied to that
form of conveyance of copyhold estates, when the seller
delivered a rod or wand to the lord, which the latter placed
in the hands of the purchaser, in the presence of tenants,
who were called upon to witness this act of “ livery.”
Finally, and to return to the earlier division of our sub¬
ject, the reader is referred to Fielding’s Joseph Andrexvs
for a brief sketch of what the liveried footman of the last
century was. He aped all the fashionable vices of the
day; wore his hair in papers in the morning, and curled in
the afternoon; criticised new operas, was riotous at the
play, rather rollicking at church, and gave accommodation
money to the steward for paying his wages half a year
before they were usually payable, which was “ perhaps
half a year after they were due.” It was a period when
society was generally corrupted, and when masters were
as proud of their vices as their servants were of their
liveries. (j. D.)
LIVIUS, Titus, the most celebrated of the Roman his¬
torians, was descended from an illustrious family which had
given several consuls to Rome. Only a few particulars
of his life have been transmitted to us. Fie was born at
Patavium, now Padua, in the N. of Italy, B.c. 59, the
year before Cicero was driven into banishment; and died
at the advanced age of seventy-six, a. d. J 7, the same year
as Ovid. He resided during the greater part of his life at
Rome; and, if we may credit a statement of Suetonius
{in Claud. 41), became the instructor of the Emperor
Claudius. His history was written partly at Rome and
partly at Naples, and it is said that his reputation was so
widely diffused, that a native of Gades, now Cadiz, in Spain,
actually visited Rome for no other purpose than to have the
pleasure of forming an acquaintance with the historian.
(Plin. Ep. ii. 3.) From some inscriptions found at Padua (in
1413), it has been asserted that Livy was twice married, and
had two sons and four daughters ; but this must rest merely
on conjecture, as there were no doubt many of the same
name in Padua. Seneca (Procem. v. Controv.), indeed,
l i v
states that one of his daughters was married to L. Magius, Livius.
the rhetorician. v
Besides his history, we are acquainted with the titles of
three other works of which he was the author; but not a
fragment of them has been preserved. These were,—Epis-
tola ad Filium scripta, mentioned by Quintilian (i. 10);
Dialogi, which Seneca {Epist. c.) hesitates whether he
ought to class amongst historical or philosophical works ; and
Lihri ex professo Philosophiam continentes. The loss, how¬
ever, of these works is less a subject of regret than that of
the greater part of his Roman History, or, as he himself
modestly entitles it, Annals of the Roman People. This
work extends from the building of the city to the year 744
(b.c. 9), when Drusus was carrying on war in Germany,
and in which he died. Livy undertook this work probably
at the suggestion of Augustus, when he was already far
advanced in years. It consisted of 142 books, of which
only thirty-five remain ; and some of these (lib. xli. xliii.
xliv. xlv.) are in a very imperfect state. The first ten con¬
tain the history of Rome from its foundation to B.c. 294 ; the
others (xxi.-xlv.) from b.c. 219 to b.c. 167, or from the
beginning of the second Punic war to the end of the wars
with Perseus and Gentius. Of the remaining books we
possess only considerable fragments, with short epitomes,
which have been supposed, though without any sufficient
reason, to have been composed by the writer Florus. The
whole were not discovered at one time, but were supplied
partly from MS. belonging to the cathedral church of St
Martin at Mayence, partly from one found in the convent
of Lorsch, near Worms, and partly from a palimpsest in the
Vatican, of which Niebuhr published a full copy at Berlin
in 1820. No MS. has yet been discovered containing all
the books now extant. There is, indeed, no loss that has
befallen us in Roman literature at all to be compared to that
which has left this history imperfect.
Livy follows a chronological arrangement in his history,
and, like Dionysius of Harlicarnassus, has adopted the Ca-
tonian era for his basis. He therefore supposed the city
of Rome to have been founded b.c. 751, whereas Varro
placed it two years earlier, b.c. 753. The sources from
which he derived his information, more particularly for
the earlier parts of his history, seem less worthy of belief,
though he probably had recourse to the best within his
reach. All the more ancient historical records had no
doubt disappeared, and he could therefore only be ac¬
quainted with their statements through the medium of later
annalists. For this early period he had recourse to the
works of no Greek historian, unless we include amongst
them that of L. Cincius Alimentus, who, though a Roman,
wrote in the Greek language. This author served in the
second Punic war, and he is called by Livy (vii. 3) a most
diligent investigator of ancient monuments. In the early
part of the war he fell into the hands of Hannibal, and
from him he received an account of his passage through
Gaul and across the Alps, which he incorporated in his
history. To the works of this writer Livy acknowledges
himself much indebted. As to the sources from which he
drew his materials for the second decade (xi.-xx.), which is
lost, all that can be said is only matter of conjecture ; but
we know that Polybius was the principal writer whom he
consulted, and that he followed that writer generally both
in the arrangement of his materials and in the development
of the story. It is not a sufficient answer to this that Livy
seldom alludes to Polybius as his authority, since he does
not think it necessary to cite the writer upon whom he
depends for his information, unless on occasions where
there is a difference of opinion. There is no doubt, that
wherever he has adopted the statements of Polybius, we
may place perfect confidence in the account; and yet,
where they differ, we must not condemn Livy, who evi¬
dently consulted Roman authorities of undoubted credibi-
L I V
Livius. lity, and who may, upon due examination, have come to
^ the conclusion that Polybius was mistaken. The differ¬
ence in the accounts given by the two historians of Hanni¬
bal’s passage across the Alps is an example of this, though
the balance of probability is greatly in favour of that of
Polybius.
Livy has been accused of a wilful perversion of the
truth, of an undue partiality for his own country, and a
desire to recommend himself to the favour of the nobility,
by flattering their pride by the manner in which he records
the deeds of their ancestors. But if he represents the
characters of his countrymen in a different light from
other writers, might he not suppose himself better able to
appreciate their conduct? and if his love of country led
him to conceal whatever might be prejudicial to them in
the eyes of posterity, it was a fault for which he may be
forgiven, though it certainly must be allowed to detract
considerably from the value of his work. He has been ac¬
cused also of superstition, because he has reported faith¬
fully all the prodigies and omens in which those early ages
abounded, and which seemed to have formed the principal
part of their religion; but he has several times observed,
that he narrates those wonderful events because he found
them in the ancient annalists whom he consulted, without
meaning to vouch for their accuracy. Livy was evidently
gifted by nature with a brilliant talent for narration, and
for seizing the characteristic features of humanity. He was
a poet, though without the power or perhaps the love of
versifying. His rhetorical powers, too, were of the highest
order; and, in the palmy state of the republic, he would
have ranked among the first orators of his age. The pe¬
riods of Livy are full and well rounded, in imitation of the
style of Cicero; and indeed the age in which he lived
would have tolerated no other mode of writing. It is
strange that there should be any difficulty in discovering
the political sentiments of the historian ; but he felt that he
was writing under the eye of a despot, however amiable, and
he thought himself obliged to suppress many sentiments to
which he would, in other circumstances, have given utter¬
ance. He was fully sensible of the degeneracy of his own
days, and was glad to forget it by reviving the recollection
of all that was glorious and noble in the past. He might
also imagine that he could excite in the breasts of his
countrymen a desire to emulate the heroic deeds of their
ancestors, and might thus be the means of restoring the
constitution of his country to its ancient form and strength.
It is said that Augustus accused him of being too favour¬
able to the party of Pompey (Tacit. Ann. iv. 34) ; and we
may therefore conclude that he was in his heart a partisan
of the republic. It has been much disputed what Asinius
Pollio (Quintil. viii. 1) meant by the accusation he brought
against Livy of Patavinity (Patavinatas); but it seems the
most likely conjecture that it was some provincialism in the
language and style, perceptible to the refined ear of a
Roman critic, though we can no longer discern it.
Livy’s history was first printed at Rome, about the year
1469, by Sweynheym and Pannartz, in folio. Of this rare
edition Lord Spencer is in possession of a fine copy; but
the most exquisite one is that printed on vellum, which
formerly belonged to the Imperial Library at Vienna, but
was afterwards acquired by a private collector in England.
Among the subsequent editions of the history may be
mentioned that of Gronovius, who first placed the text
upon a satisfactory basis by a collation of many MSS., of
which the best edition is printed by Elzevir, 3 vols. 8vo,
16/9; that of Leclerc, 10 vols. 8vo, Amsterdam, 1710,
containing the supplements of Freinsheimius entire; that
of Crevier, 6 vols. 4to, Paris, 1735. The standard edi¬
tion is considered to be by Drakenborch, published at
Leyden, in 7 vols. 4to, 1738-46. Later editions, by
Ruperti, Gottingen, 1807; and of Bekker and Raschig,
L I V 527
Leipsic, 1829, are of less value. There is a new edition Livius
by Alchefski, Berlin, 8vo, 1841, brought down to the end II .
of the first decade; but perhaps Drakenborch, with the lv°ma^
Commentaries of Lachmann, supplies every assistance ne- ' v ^
cessary for the scholar. (See Schweiger’s Handbuch der
Classischen Bibliographic, 8vo, Leipsic, 1832.) There are
the following English translations:—Philemon Holland,
folio, London, 1600-1659; Baker’s, in many editions; and
one published by John Hayes (London, 1744-45, 6 vols.
8vo), said to be executed by several hands; also one in
Bohn’s Classical Library, 1850.
Livius, Andronicus, a comic poet who flourished at
Rome about 240 years before the Christian era. He was
the first who turned the personal satires and Fescennine
verses, so long the admiration of the Romans, into the form
of a proper dialogue and regular play. Though the cha¬
racter of a player, so valued and applauded in Greece, was
reckoned vile and despicable amongst the Romans, An¬
dronicus acted a part in his dramatical compositions. An¬
dronicus was the freedman of M. Livius Salinator, whose
children he educated. His poetry had grown obsolete in
the age of Cicero, whose nicety and judgment would not
even recommend the reading of it. Horace mentions his
dramas as popular in schools ; but Suetonius says they
were mere translations from the Greek. His Hymns are
said to have been sung to propitiate the gods. A Latin
Odyssey is attributed to him ; but of this, as well as of his
plays, tradition has only preserved the name.
LIVONIA, or Livland, a maritime government of
Russia, on the Baltic, bounded N. by Esthonia, W. by the
Gulf of Riga (which contains the island of Oesel, belong¬
ing to this government), S. by Courland and Vitepsk, and £.
by Pskov and the Peipus Lake, between N. Lat. 56.30. and
59. 6., and E. Long. 23. 10. and 27. 35. It is 170 miles in
length from N. to S., by 110 miles in breadth, and contains an
area of 18,146 square miles, with a population, in 1851, of
821,457 persons. The general surface of the country is
flat, and in some places marshy. Undulations, however,
occur here and there ; and near Venden an elevation called
the Mesenberg rises to the height of 1200 feet. Lakes
cover a large part of the surface, and are mostly extensive
sheets of water. The largest is the Peipus See, which
separates Livland from the government of St Petersburg,
and is connected by a narrow channel with Lake Pskov to
the S. It is 50 miles long from N. to S., by 27 broad,
contains several islands, the largest of which is Porka, and
is well stocked with fish. The shores of the lake are low and
marshy ; and its waters, though sufficiently deep for small
craft, are subject to frequent squalls. Lake Virtzerve, oc¬
cupying a central position in the government, is next in
size to the Peipus, and communicates with it by means of
the Embach. The chief river is the Dwina, which for some
miles separates this government from Courland, and after¬
wards flows through Livland to its mouth near Riga. The
other important streams are the Aa, Salis, and Pernau, all
of which take their rise in the government, and fall into the
Gulf of Riga. Livonia suffers from extreme and protracted
cold in winter, and great heat in summer. The former,
however, is advantageous for the conveyance of goods from
the interior to the seaports by means of sledges, enabling
vessels to start from Riga and elsewhere immediately on
the return of spring. Agriculture and cattle-rearing form
the great occupations of the Livonians. The soil is for the
most part sandy, with here and there districts of clay and
loam. Grain and potatoes form the principal agricultural
products, while from the extensive forests the inhabitants
are supplied with abundance of fuel and excellent timber.
Among its other productions, the chief are flax, hemp, lin¬
seed, and hops. Live stock receives a considerable amount
of attention, especially from the large proprietors, who vie
with each other in improving their breeds of cattle and horses.
528
Livonia.
L I V
L L A
The following table shows the area of the cultivated and
waste lands of Livland, according to the government com¬
mission of 1849 :—
Square Miles.
Arable land  1,740
Meadow  2,281
Private domains  2,251
Wood  4,026
Waste  7,847
Total  18,146
In the same year 449,484 qrs. of grain seed produced
2,033,904 qrs. of grain; and 131,605 qrs. of potato seed
produced 244,509 qrs. of potatoes. Of live stock belonging
to this government in 1849, there were 120,654 horses,
350,999 cattle, 315,195 sheep, and 148,945 swine.
Fishing and seal-taking are the occupations of the inha¬
bitants of the sea and lake coasts. Manufacture may be
said to be deficient, and in a rude state, being mostly con¬
fined to the home-spinning of wool and flax. Large quan¬
tities of grain and timber are yearly sent from this govern¬
ment by Riga to Western Europe, in return for coal, iron,
salt, wine, &c. Game is plentiful, from the extent of the
waste land. Bears, wolves, and foxes exist,—the latter in
considerable numbers ; while beavers, lynxes, squirrels, and
martins, are hunted for their valuable furs. Aquatic birds
frequent the lakes and marshes in great flocks.
Livonia, for administrative purposes, is divided into five
circles, named after their respective chief towns, viz.,
Arensburg, Dorpat, Pernau, Riga, and Yenden. The re¬
venue of the government in 1849 amounted to L.586,444.
The population is a mixed race, composed of Livonians,
Esthonians, Germans, Swedes, Russians, and Jews. The
first, who occupy the southern portion of the country,
are remarkable for their want of enterprise and great love
of home. They are, however, of good disposition, and ex¬
hibit great mechanical ingenuity. Most of the trade is in
the hands of the Russians and Germans, especially the
former. Lutheranism is the dominant religion, while the
Greek Catholics consist only of the few Russian resi¬
dents. Riga, the capital, had in 1849 a population of 57,906
persons.
The history of Livland commences in 1158, when it was
visited by some Bremen merchants, who established a trad¬
ing post at the mouth of the Dwina, where Riga now stands.
They found the inhabitants in an uncivilized and heathen
condition; and in order to convert them to Christianity,
instituted an order of religious knighthood, called the
“ Schwertbriider,” or Brothers of the Sword. These spread
the gospel by force of arms, and claimed the Livonians as
subjects as well as converts. In 1237 the “ Schwertbriider”
united themselves with the order of German knights; re¬
taining, however, their own grand-master as head of the
band. From that year till the sixteenth century, Livland
and Esthonia were under their control. But the Lutheran
Reformation had then spread into the adjoining states,
and both Livonia and Esthonia ultimately declared for
the new faith. But at the time when Protestantism was
struggling with the old religion, the Russians took advan¬
tage of the civil commotions that arose, and frequently
invaded the land, receiving but slight resistance from the
“ Schwertbriider,” who had become too weak to protect
their own territories. Gotthard Kettler, last grand-master
of the order, abdicated his power over the province in
favour of the King of Poland, and afterwards retired to
Courland, which he received as a dukedom in return. But
Poland did not enjoy her acquisition in peace, for the
Swedes and Russians, as possessors of Esthland, laid claim
to Livonia, and soon appealed to arms in support of their
demands. They were successful, and by the treaty signed
at Oliva in 1660, Poland surrendered her possession to
Sweden. In the next century, however, after Peter the
Great had defeated Charles XII. of Sweden, Livonia was Livorno
finally given over to Russia, according to the treaty of ||
Neustadt, in 1721. Llanelly.
LIVORNO. See Leghorn.
LIXURI, a seaport town of the Ionian island Cepha-
lonia, is situate on the W. shore of a large creek that
runs inland from S. to N. It is the seat of a Greek bishop,
and carries on a considerable trade. Pop. 6000.
LIZARD POINT, a bold headland on the S.W. coast
of England, county of Cornwall, on the English Channel,
N. Lat. 49. 57. 40., W. Long. 5. 11. 5. This is the most
southern land in Britain, and generally the first sighted by
vessels entering the Channel. It is surmounted by two fixed
lights, the one 221 feet, and the other 225 feet above sea
level. The rock is formed of hornblende and mica slate,
and constitutes a rugged and precipitous coast. About
a mile to the W. of the point is Old Lizard Head, with the
dangerous rocks to seaward known under the name of the
Stags. The Ocrinum of Ptolemy was either this head or
Lizard Point.
LLANDAFF {the Church on the Taff), an ancient city,
and seat of a bishopric of Wales, Glamorganshire, is situ¬
ate on the right bank of the river TafF, about 2 miles
N. W. from Cardiff. A church is said to have existed here
from the period of the introduction of Christianity into
Britain ; but it does not appear that a bishopric was consti¬
tuted until about the middle of the sixth century. The
city is now only an insignificant village, claiming notice
solely on account of its cathedral. This edifice, standing
apart from the village in a hollow by the river-side, was
begun by Bishop Urban in 1120, but not completed before
the end of the thirteenth century. The prevailing style
of the edifice is Gothic, but this is blended with much of
early Norman, and some portions exhibit the architecture of
later periods. The W. front is an admirable specimen of
the early pointed style ; and at the N.W\ angle is a lofty
square tower of the Tudor age, profusely enriched with
sculpture. During the last few years extensive restorations
have been made under the direction of Dean Conybeare.
In the N. aisle are a number of curious monuments, with
effigies of mailed warriors and mitred bishops; but the
principal of these were much defaced or destroyed by Owen
Glvndwr. Pop. of parish (1851) 1821.
LLANDEILO-FAWR, a market-town of S. Wales,
Carmarthenshire, on the Towy, 14 miles E.N.E. from Car¬
marthen. The town is small and ill-built, and, excepting the
new church, contains no important buildings. Near the town,
in 1282, Llewelyn was defeated by the forces of Edward I.,
under the Earl of Gloucester aud Sir Edmund Mortimer.
In the vicinity is Dynevor Castle, built near the ruins of
an ancient fortress of the same name, for a long period the
residence of the princes of S. Wales. Adjoining the town
is a valuable chalybeate spring. Several productive coal
and iron mines in this district are connected by a railway
with the port of Llanelly. Pop. of parish (1851) 5758.
LLANDOVERY (JLlan-ym-Ddyfri, “ Church among
the Waters”), a municipal borough and market-town of S.
Wales, in Carmarthenshire, about 23 miles E.N.E. from
Carmarthen, in the valley of the Towy, near the conflu¬
ence of that river with the Bran. The streets are irre¬
gular, and the only buildings worthy of note are, the parish
church, several dissenting chapels, some schools, and the
Welsh Educational Institution, founded and liberally en¬
dowed, in 1848, by Thomas Phillips, Esq. Near the town,
on an insulated rock, is the keep of an old castle, built at a
very early date, and dismantled by Cromwell. The vestiges
of Roman roads, and the discovery of Roman coins, seem
to indicate that Llandovery was once a Roman station.
Market-days, Wednesday and Saturday. Pop. (1851) 1927.
LLANELLY, a municipal and parliamentary borough
and market-town of S. Wales, county of Carmarthen, on
L L A
Llanfyllin a rising ground near the Burry Creek, about 15 miles S.E.
|| from Carmarthen, and on the railway between that town
Llangollen, and Swansea. It is irregularly built, and has an antique
parish church surmounted by two steeples, the one termi¬
nating in a spire, and the other in a parapet. The excel¬
lent harbour and docks of this town, its communication
by railway with the rich coal-fields of the N.E., and its
position on the verge of the mineral basin of S. Wales,
have combined to raise it to its present prosperity, and
promise soon to render it one of the most important ports
of the principality. In addition to the iron and lead ore fur¬
nished by the neighbourhood, copper ore, imported from
Cornwall, is smelted, and the manufactured metal is sent to
Liverpool and other English ports. Great quantities of
coal are also exported to France, Spain, and the Mediter¬
ranean. In 1855 there were exported from Llanelly to
foreign countries, of British copper, 522 tons 14 cwt.; of
lead and lead ore, 1815 tons ; of coals, cinders, and culm,
24,118 tons. On the 31st December there were registered
as belonging to the port, 40 sailing vessels of and under
50 tons, with a tonnage of 1103; and 41 above 50 tons,
, with a tonnage of 3915; steam-vessels under 50 tons 2,
tonnage 36. During 1855 there entered the port of Llanelly,
of British vessels, 1891, tonnage 118,383; of foreign vessels,
163, tonnage 10,555. There cleared out, of British ves¬
sels, 3152, tonnage 217,813 ; of foreign vessels, 165, ton¬
nage 10,440. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in
the lead and copper works, the iron foundries, and the
mines. Market-days are Thursday and Saturday. The
parliamentary borough is contributory to the Carmarthen
district. Pop. of borough (1851) 8710.
LLANFYLLIN, a small market-town and parliamentary
borough of Wales, in Montgomeryshire, on the River
Cain, an affluent of the Vyrnwy, 17 miles N.N.W. from
Montgomery. The two chief edifices, both built of brick,
are the town-hall and the church, the latter erected in the
Venetian style, and possessing a fine peal of bells. The
town is celebrated for its ale. Some Roman coins have
been found here. The market-day is Thursday. There
are six annual fairs, at which the celebrated “ merlins,” or
Welsh ponies, are sold in great numbers. The borough
is contributoi-y to Montgomery. Pop. (1851) 1116.
LLANGEFNI, a parliamentary borough and market-
town of Wales, county of Anglesea, is situate in a fertile
vale on the River Cefni, about 15 miles E.S.E. from Holy-
head. At its annual fairs great numbers of cattle are sold
for the English market. In the vicinity there are vestiges
of a paved road supposed to be Roman. The borough is
contributory to Beaumaris. Pop. (1851) 1362.
LLANGOLLEN, a town of Wales, in Denbighshire, is
situate in a narrow valley watered by the Dee, on the high
road between Holyhead and London, distant 184 miles from
the capital. The town, mean and irregular in appear¬
ance, with streets narrow and ill-paved, is a favourite resort
of tourists. Spanning the River Dee is a bridge of four
narrow angular arches, built by Dr Trevor, Bishop of St
Asaph, about the middle of the fourteenth century, and long
remembered among the “ seven wonders of Wales.” On
the summit of a high conical hill, about a mile from the
town, stand the imposing ruins of Castell Dinas Bran or
Crow Castle, a fortress of very ancient date. The remains
of Valle Cruets Abbey, or Llan Bgwest, founded about 1200,
is 2 miles N.W. of Llangollen. In a meadow near the ab¬
bey stands Ehseg s Pillar, a round column covered with
an ancient inscription of the seventh century, now illegible.
I he Ellesmere Canal is carried across the valley of Llan¬
gollen, and crosses the Dee about 4 miles from the town,
by the Pont-y-Cyssyllte aqueduct of 19 arches and 126
feet in height. Its length is 1009 feet. The population
are chiefly employed in manufacturing woollen and flannel
stuffs, and in quarrying stone and lime. Llangollen is a
VOL. xm.
L L 0 529
polling-place for the county, and has a market every Satur- Llanidloes
day. Pop. of parish (1851) 5260. |]
LLANIDLOES, a municipal and parliamentary borough Llorente.
and market-town of Wales, Montgomeryshire, is situate on
the Severn, near its confluence with the Clywedog, 19 miles
W.S.W. from Montgomery. The town consists partly
of hovels built of wood and mud, and partly of recently
erected houses, which are gradually replacing the old. The
chief buildings are,—the new market-house, in the centre
of the town, and the ancient church of St Idloes, remark¬
able for the ornamented pillars and the delicately carved
oaken roof, which are said to have been transferred from
Cwm Hir Abbey, in Radnorshire. There are extensive
sheep walks on the surrounding hills, which supply the
materials for the flannel manufacture, the chief source of
the town’s prosperity. The quarries of coarse slate, and
the lead and copper mines on the slopes of Plinlimmon, em¬
ploy a part of the population. A market for wool and corn
is held on Saturday. The borough is contributory to the
Montgomery district. Pop. of borough (1851) 3045.
LLANRWST, a market-town of N. Wales, partly
in Carnarvonshire, but principally in Denbighshire, situate
on both banks of the Conway, in a valley surrounded by
well-wooded hills, 17 miles W.S.W. of Denbigh. The old
church, an erection of the fifteenth century, and built on
the site of a much older one, contains some interesting
monuments. Inigo Jones furnished the design of the
Gwydir chapel, in the south transept, which, among other
curious relics, has the large stone coffin of Llewelyn the
Great, son-in-law of King John. The bridge across the
Conway was built in 1636, from designs by the same emi¬
nent architect. At one period, Llanrwst was celebrated for
the manufacture of Welsh harps ; there was also, somewhat
later, a good deal of woollen-yarn spinning and stocking¬
knitting carried on, but neither of these is now of much
importance. Coals and lime are brought up the river to
Trefriew, and slate and iron sent in return. The markets
are on Tuesday and Saturday. Llanrwst is celebrated
for the excellence of its salmon-fishing. Pop. of parish
3984.
LLANTRISAINT (“the Church of Three Saints”), is an
ancient parliamentary borough and market-town in Glamor¬
ganshire, Wales, 8 miles N.W. of Cardiff. The town, which
stands on a hill commanding a view of the lovely vale of
Glamorgan, the Bristol Channel, and the Devonshire hills,
consists of only a few narrow winding streets. The church,
dedicated to the three saints, is a large edifice in the Nor¬
man style. The most important modern buildings are the
town-hall and market-house. There are remains of an old
castle and of a monastery in the immediate vicinity of the
town. The trade is unimportant; but coal, iron, and lead
are found in the vicinity, and sent to Cardiff for exportation.
It is a contributory borough to Cardiff. Pop. (1851) 1007.
LLERENA, an old walled town of Spain, province of
Estremadura, 62 miles S.E. from Badajoz. The town is
mean in appearance, and in a state of decay. Pop. 4990,
chiefly engaged in agriculture. Near this, on 11th April
1812, Lord Combermere routed a French force under
Drouet.
LLORENTE, Don Juan Antonio, a Spanish historian
and ecclesiastic, was born in 1756 at Rincon del Solo, near
Calahorra, in Aragon. When he had been for some time
a canon at Tarragona, he was made commissioner in 1785,
and in 1789 secretary of the holy office at Logrono. His
situation procured him an opportunity of acquiring an ex¬
tensive knowledge of the Inquisition, of which he published
a “ Complete History ;” but this drew upon him the displea¬
sure of that institution, and he was imprisoned for a con¬
siderable period. In 1805, however, he was again appointed
to an office in the Inquisition ; and in 1806 he became
canon at Toledo. But as he declared himself in favour of
3 x
530
L L O
L L 0
Lloughor Joseph Bonaparte, and of certain innovations in Spain, he
II , was forced to quit that country on the return of Ferdinand
LloycTs. yjj^ and pr0Ceeded to Paris, where he lived by his writ-
ino-s. He was banished from France, and died on his
way* to Madrid in 1823. Besides the above-mentioned
History of the Inquisition, which was published in Paris,
1817, 4 vols., his principal works are,—Noticias Histo-
ricas de las tres Provincias Bascongadas, Madrid, 1806-8,
5 vols.; Memoirs relative to the History of the Spanish
Revolution, Paris, 1815—19, 3 vols.; History of the
Popes, &c.
LLOUGHOR (Welsh, Llwchwr, supposed by some to
be the ancient Leucarum), a parliamentary borough and
port of S. Wales, Glamorganshire, on the E. bank of
the Lloughor River, near its mouth, 7 miles W.N. W. of
Swansea, with which it is connected by railway, and to
which it is a sub-port. A very inconvenient ferry, long
established here, has been superseded by a wooden bridge.
Vessels of 200 tons can come up to the town. In the
vicinity are collieries and copper-works. Lloughor is a
contributory borough to Swansea. Pop. (1851) 821.
LLOYD, William, Bishop of Worcester, the son of
the rector of Tilehurst in Berkshire, was born there on
18th August 1627. He received his elementary education
from his "father, and at the age of eleven entered Oriel
College, Oxford. Shortly afterwards he became a scholar
of Jesus College, and was chosen Bachelor of Arts in 1642,
and Master of Arts in 1646. In 1648 he was ordained
deacon, and, after living in Berkshire as tutor in a gentle¬
man’s family, was presented in 1654 to the rectory of
Bradwell. A dispute about the right of presentation soon
induced him to resign this benefice. Ordained a priest in
1665 he was appointed in 1666 chaplain in ordinary to
Charles II.; and in the following year became a Doctor
of Divinity. After passing through several of the lower
grades of church preferment, he was installed in 1672
dean of Bangor; and in 1676 was presented by the
crown to the vicarage of St Martin s-in-the-Fields, the
greatest cure in England. He was promoted to the see
of St Asaph in 1680; and was one of the seven bishops
who were imprisoned in the Tower in 1688, for refusing to
publish in their pulpits the king’s declaration for liberty of
conscience. A thorough-going supporter of the Revolution,
Lloyd was appointed almoner to William and Mary soon
after their arrival in England. In 1692 he was translated
to the see of Coventry and Lichfield; but was promoted
in 1699 to the bishopric of Worcester, vacant by the
death of Stillingfleet. He died at Hartlebury Castle, on
the 30th August 1717.
Bishop Lloyd contributed many pamphlets to the con¬
troversy against Popery that was agitated during his time.
Besides a few other tracts on ecclesiastical subjects, and
several sermons, he published A Chronological Account of
the Life of Pythagoras and of his famous Contemporaries,
London, 1699, 8vo; and left unfinished A Dissertation
upon Daniel’s Seventy Weeks, and A System of Chrono¬
logy. His friend Dr Burnet, in the History of His Own
Time, eulogises Lloyd’s amiable disposition, his ample and
accurate knowledge, especially in chronology, and his skill
as a Biblical critic.
LLOYD’S, a number of rooms in the Royal Exchange of
London, frequented by underwriters, merchants, shipowners,
ship and insurance brokers, and others, chiefly for the pur¬
pose of obtaining shipping intelligence, and of transacting
business connected with marine insurance. The principal
room is that of the Underwriters, in which two enormous
ledgers lie constantly open,—the one containing notices of
speakings, or ships spoken with, and arrivals of vessels at their
various destinations; the other recording disasters at sea.
All intelligence is entered immediately upon its reception,
without removing the ledgers from their places, in order
that they may at any moment be inspected by those inter- Lloyd’s,
ested in their contents. At the inner end of the room is an
ingenious piece of mechanism, by means of which the indi¬
cations of an anemometer and an anemoscope are inscribed
every hour in the twenty-four, by a couple of pencils, upon
a sheet of white paper. The advantage to the underwriter,
in the conduct of his business, of this information respecting
the force and the direction of the wind, can scarcely be
over-estimated. The underwriters are persons wLo, for a
premium, grant an indemnity to merchants against risks by
sea; and they are so called from the custom of writing their
names under, or at the foot of, the policies of insurance.
The method of effecting an insurance at Lloyd’s is the fol¬
lowing :—When a broker receives an order to insure interest
to a certain amount in a particular ship, he writes upon a slip
of paper the name of the vessel, the master’s name, the na¬
ture of the voyage, the subject to be insured and its value,
and any other information which the circumstances of the
case may require. He then offers the risk to different un¬
derwriters until the value of the interest to be insured is
exhausted, each underwriter subscribing his name opposite
to the amount he engages to insure, and all agreeingto accept
a uniform premium. The insurance is now virtually effected;
the stamped policy being afterwards extended from this slip.
This distribution of the risk among many individuals is, of
course, very conducive both to the solvency of the under¬
writer and to the security of the insured. The number of
underwriters is under 200; but some idea of the immense
amount of insurance business done at Lloyd’s may be de¬
rived from the fact, that the value of the interest annually
insured at present is estimated at about L.40,000,000. No
person is permitted to transact business at Lloyd’s as an
underwriter or insurance-broker, until he shall have been
duly admitted as a member, and shall have paid an entrance-
fee. Communicating with the Underwriters’ Room is the
Chart Room. Here a valuable collection of charts, and
the shipping intelligence as originally received, are care¬
fully arranged, so as to be at all times easy of access. In
this room also lie, for the use of members, four ledgers, in
which the names of ships are arranged in alphabetical order,
each name having under it all the information possessed re¬
garding the vessel. The Merchants’ Room is a place of re¬
sort for general news; it is, in fact, a rjews or reading room.
The Captains’ Room is employed as an auction-room for
sales of ships, &c. Every person wLo enjoys the privilege
of frequenting Lloyd’s pays a fixed annual subscription.
The shipping intelligence received at Lloyd’s is fur¬
nished by agents, who are appointed for the purpose; and
as there is scarcely a port of any consequence where one
is not resident, their number is very large. The informa¬
tion which each transmits to headquarters is regular, accu¬
rate, and complete. It is furnished by means of letters,
signed by the agents, and by means of the newspapers and
shipping lists which are published at the various ports ;—
the intelligence thus received consisting not only of a list of
vessels which had arrived at, and which had sailed from, the
particular ports, together with their accomplished and in¬
tended voyages, and of casualties which had occurred at
or near the ports, but also of notices of ships spoken with,
and of casualties at sea, furnished by vessels. No salary at¬
taches to the office of agent for Lloyd’s; the labour involved
being amply recompensed by the business which it com¬
mands, and by the credit which the appointment confers
upon its holder as a person of worth and respectability.
The intelligence, besides being made known to the
members of Lloyd’s by means of the ledgers, of which we
have already spoken, is published every afternoon in Lloyd’s
List for diffusion over the country.
The management of Lloyd’s lies with the subscriber,
who select a committee from their number for the purpose,
called the “Committee for managing the affairs of Lloyds.
L L O
Lloyd’s This committee appoints the agents and the officials of the
II establishment. The expenses connected with the estab-
Loango.^ iishment are defrayed by the fees and annual subscriptions.
The designation Lloyd’s originated with a person of the
name of Lloyd, who kept a coffee-house in Abchurch Lane,
Lombard Street. From the vicinity of this house to the Old
Koyal Lxchange, it speedily became a rendezvous of mer¬
chants for news, and for the transaction of business. It was
afterwards removed to Pope’s Head Alley, and thence again,
in 1774, to the Royal Exchange. After the destruction of
u u X^lan^e by bre> which originated in Lloyd’s,
the business was carried on in the South Sea House, in Old
Broad Street, where it remained until the opening of the
piesent Royal Exchange in 1844, when it was finally re¬
moved to its present splendid apartments. Similar estab¬
lishments exist in our principal seaports.
Lloyd s Register of British and Foreign Shipping, a
volume published annually, and furnishing information re¬
specting the nature of vessels, their class, place where built,
materials, owners, captains, age, repairs, &c. The ships are
registered according to the reports of salaried agents, ap-
a^- var'ous Por^S- The office of this Register is in
White Lion Court, Cornhill, and is quite distinct from
Lloyd’s of the Exchange.
LOj St, a town of France, the capital of the department
of Manche, is situate on the River Vire, 157 miles N.W.
from Paris. In the central part of the town, occupying
the top of a rocky eminence, is a square containing several
of the principal buildings, while several irregular streets
diverge from it, and cover the sides of the hill. The only
structures of note are, the Church of St Thomas, now used
as a corn-market; the Church of St Croix, an ancient
edifice in the early Norman style; and the Cathedral of
Notre-Dame, defective and irregular in its architecture,
but possessing two imposing towers and finely-painted
windows. There are also a museum, a prefecture, a com¬
munal college, and a bridge of six arches over the Vire.
The square called Champ de Mars is adorned with avenues
of trees. Ribbons, linen, lace, drugget, and leather are
manufactured; and there are some bleachfields and dye-
works. . Cavalry horses and cattle form the staples of trade.
St Lo is the seat of tribunals of original jurisdiction and
commerce, and of ajphamber of manufactures. Pop. (1851)
9156. * r \ /
LOANDA, an island situate opposite the city of St Paul
e Loanda, at the distance of a mile. It is about 18 miles
long by 1 broad. Besides the country houses of some of
the wealthier persons in the city, the island has a number of
V1 rrf a vrr!^ Proc*uces abundant pasture for sheep and goats,
c a ?-r>A’ St Paul de> a city on the coast of Angola,
• ’ v. * and the capital of the Portuguese settlements
in this part of Africa, S. Lat. 8. 48., E. Long. 13. 8. It is
built partly upon an eminence and partly on the sea-shore ;
c.uuf , ng occupied, for the most part, by the hovels
ot the black population. Loanda is the see of a bishop; and
it was formerly celebrated for a cathedral, a very large
Jesuits college, and many other ecclesiastical buildings,
most of which are now in ruins. It is defended by a large
citadel and two smaller batteries. There is an excellent
lar our a out 3^ miles long. The climate, which is very
yet considerably moderated by breezes
r- i 6 Sea’ country in the immediate vicinity pro-
larg.e qaantities of vegetables, fruit, and cattle; and
e , which was at one period very scarce, is now brought
egularly in boats from the Benga. Ivory and bees’-wax
are exported. Pop. about 5000. J
aW *!?G0; a TT'V? the S-W- of Afrira> stretching
dong the coasts of the Atlantic, between the equator and
rte S hvVoZ’ r °nnhe by Mayomba, and on
a an py,C„ g ,'o V?™8?, ‘ IC ,c,llef town> is in S. Lat.
4. 39. E. Long. 12. 17. Along the coasts the country is
LOB
flat, and of great fertility. In some places it is said to
yield three harvests in the year. Little is known of the
interior, but many of the mountain ranges are said to be very
fertile. The lakes and rivers are richly stocked with fish ;
the forests abound with game; and, in some places, pan¬
thers, leopards, elephants, apes, and antelopes are to be
found; but horses and cows do not thrive. The only
minerals of importance are iron and copper. Palm trees,
sugar-cane, maiz, pulse, yams, and potatoes are the prin¬
cipal vegetable productions. In some places the climate is
good, in others it is said to be very unhealthy; there is, on
the whole, little rain, but dew falls in large quantities.
The power of the king is of the most absolute description.
His majesty resides in Loango, the capital; and although
there are many chiefs in the country who have considerable
influence, he is regarded as the supreme authority. The
revenue is principally derived from the sale of slaves.
LOBO, Jerome, a Jesuit missionary, was born in Lisbon
in 1593, and entered the Order of Jesus at the age of six¬
teen. In 1621 he was ordered to resign the chair which
he occupied in the College of Coimbra, and to repair as a
missionary to India. After much delay, caused by adverse
weather, he set sail in 1622, and arrived in the same year
at Goa. With the intent of proceeding to Abyssinia as a
missionary, he left India in 1624; but after disembarking
on the coast of Mombas, and attempting to reach his desti¬
nation by land, was forced to return. Repeating the at¬
tempt in the ensuing year, in concert with Mendez, the
newly-appointed Patriarch of Ethiopia, and eight mission¬
aries, Lobo landed on the coast of the Red Sea, and
settled down in Abyssinia as superintendent of the mis¬
sions in the state of Tigre. Here he remained for some
years, until death deprived the Catholics of their protector,
the Emperor Segued. Forced by persecution to leave the
kingdom, in 1634 Lobo fell, along with his companions,
into the hands of the Turks at Masowah, and was sent by
them to India, to procure a ransom for his imprisoned fel¬
low-missionaries. This object he gained, and at the same
time endeavoured, though without avail, to persuade the
Portuguese viceroy to send an armament against Abyssinia.
Intent upon accomplishing this cherished project he em¬
barked for Portugal, and after he had been shipwrecked on
the coast of Natal, and captured by pirates, arrived at Lis¬
bon. Neither at this city, however, nor at Madrid and
Paris, was any countenance given to Lobo’s plan for Chris¬
tianizing Abyssinia by the aid of arms. He accordingly
returned to India in 1640, and was elected rector, and
afterwards provincial of the Jesuits at Goa. Returning
to his native city in 1656, he continued there till his death
in 1678. His History of Ethiopia, published in 1659, was
translated from the MS. into French by the Abbe Le-
grande, Paris, 1728. Added to it was a supplement con¬
taining a history of the missions and expeditions to Abys¬
sinia after Lobo’s time, and several dissertations on the
history and customs of that country. An English trans¬
lation of Legrande’s edition was published by Dr Johnson
in 1735, and reprinted in 1789.
LOB OS, or Seal Islands, two groups of guano islands
in the Pacific Ocean, lying off the coast of Peru. The
landward and northern group are about 20 miles W. of the
mainland, in S. Lat. 6.29., W. Long. 80. 53., and consist
of one large island, 5 miles long by 2 in breadth, with seve¬
ral rocky islets. The seaward group lie about 38 miles
from the mainland, in S. Lat. 6. 56., W. Long. 80.55., and
consist of two islands of about the same size, viz., 1 mile
long by 1 in breadth, and separated from each other by a
narrow channel. Both belong to Peru, although unsuc¬
cessful attempts have been made at various times by the
United States government and private companies to obtain
possession of them. On the N. group there is estimated to be
a deposit of guano of about 400,000 tons, and on the other
531
Lobo
II ,,J
Lobos.
532 LOG
Locarno islands of more than 200,000 tons. The only inhabitants
li are those employed in the shipment of the manure, and con-
Lochmaben gjstjng chiefly of Indians and Chinese.
v—-' LOCARNO, a small town of Switzerland, and one of
the three capitals of the canton of Tessin, is pleasantly
situate at the head of Lake Maggiore, 8 miles S.W. of
Bellinzona. It contains a government house, an old castle,
and several churches. The climate is unhealthy, owing to
the quantity of silt in the immediate vicinity, brought down
by the numerous torrents which join the lake here. The
inhabitants speak an Italian dialect. In March 1553 more
than a hundred persons were expelled from the town for
refusing to become Roman Catholics. Since then Locarno
has decayed, as it was deprived by that expulsion of great
part of its labouring population. Pop. 2676.
LOCATELLI, Pietiio, born at Bergamo in 1693, was
sent when very young to study the violin under Corelli at
Rome. His early career has not been recorded; but it
appears that, after travelling as a distinguished violinist in
Italy, Germany, France, and England, he fixed his residence
at Amsterdam, where he established a public concert. At
his death in 1764, the members of the Amateur Society of
Amsterdam went into mourning. His compositions are full
of new passages and difficulties unknown before his time,
but they contain also many graceful and pleasing move¬
ments. His Capriccj are excessively difficult; and it is
evident that the celebrated Paganini had studied them
carefully, and availed himself of the inventions contained in
them. In command of the violin and knowledge of its
resources, Locatelli far excelled all other violinists of that
period. The Count Benvenuto di San Raffaele, royal di¬
rector of studies at Turin, and an excellent violinist, pub¬
lished in 1784 Letters on the Violin {Lettere, See.), in which
he writes in the highest terms of Locatelli’s playing. The
following list of Locatelli’s published works is taken by the
writer of this article from the list (down to opera 6) pre¬
fixed by Locatelli himself to his sixth work. The Privilege,
at the end of the volume, is in Dutch, and dated at the
Hague, July 24th 1731; “Opera lma, XII. Concerti;
Op. 2da, XII. Sonate per il Flanto Traversiere Solo e
Basso; Op. 3za, I!Arte del Violino, XII. Concerti con
XXIV. Capriccj; Op. 4ta, Sei Introduzioni Teatrali, e
Sei Concerti ; Op. 5ta, Sei Sonate a tre, a due Flanti Tra-
versieri, con due Bassi ; Op. 6ta, XII. Sonate a Violino
Solo e Basso. From this list and the Privilege, it is clear
that Locatelli’s Opera 6ta was not first published in 1737,
as has been erroneously stated, but in 1731. An edition
was published at Paris in 1801. Op. 7,na, VI. Concerti
a quattro ; Op. 8va, F7. Sonate a tre, due Violini e Basso ;
Op. 9n0, L'arte di nuova Modulazione, the latest edition of
which was published by Frey, at Paris, under the title of
Caprices; Op. 10ma, Contrasto Armonico, Concerti a
quattro. (&• F. G.)
LOCATIO ET CONDUCTIO, is a contract made
merely by consent, without employing any definite form of
agreement. He who promises the use of a thing is locator ;
he who promises a sum of money for the use of it '^ con¬
ductor. Again, in giving services, or the result of labour for
a fixed price, the person for whom the service is done is
called locator ; the person doing it conductor or redemptor.
LOCHGILPHEAD, a large village of Scotland, county
Argyll, at the head of Loch Gilp, an arm of Loch Fine, 2
miles N. of the mouth of the Crinan Canal at Ardrishaig.
It has churches belonging to the Established and other de¬
nominations, and a district gaol. The inhabitants are
chiefly employed in the herring-fishery ; and daily commu¬
nication is maintained with Glassrow by steamers. Pop.
(1851) 1703.
LOCHMABEN, a royal and parliamentary burgh of
Scotland, Dumfriesshire, nearly surrounded by a number of
small lakes, 8 miles N.E. of Dumfries. It has an Estab-
L O C
lisheu, a Free, and a United Presbyterian church, a Lochwin-
town-house, and a young men’s literary institute. The
inhabitants are chiefly employed in the making of hosiery
for the Dumfries manufacturers. Near the town are the jjatthe’w<
scanty remains of an old castle, said to be the birthplace of ^ ^ ^
Robert I. of Scotland. Lochmaben was made a royal
burgh by that sovereign, and is governed by a provost,
3 bailies, and 9 councillors. It also returns one member
to parliament in conjunction with the burghs of Dumfries,
Annan, Kirkcudbright, and Sanquhar. Pop. (1851) 1092.
LOCHWINNOCH, a small manufacturing town of
Scotland, Renfrewshire, on Calder Water, near Semple
Lake, 14 miles W.S.W. of Glasgow by rail. It consists of
four main streets, and contains several churches and schools.
The inhabitants are chiefly employed in the cotton and wool
mills of the place. Pop. (1851) 2271.
LOCK, Matthew, an English musical composer of
considerable reputation and of eminent merit, was born at
Exeter in the early part of the seventeenth century. The
precise date of his birth is not known; some, however, are
of opinion that it was in 1635. Connected with the choir of
the cathedral of his native city, he received the rudiments
of his musical knowledge from Wake, who then held the
office of organist in that place. Lock had afterwards the
good fortune to make the acquaintance of Edward Gibbons,
under whom he completed those studies for which he had
already contracted a passion under the instructions of the
organist of Exeter. On the public entry of Charles II.
into London, Lock was employed to write the music for
that notable occasion, and performed his task so well, and
with so much satisfaction to those in authority, that he was
soon afterwards appointed composer to that prince. The
first piece that appeared under his name was “ A little
consort of Three Parts, for Viols or Violins.” There is
also a very pleasing piece of vocal music by him entitled,
“ Ne’er trouble thyself about Times or their Turnings,”
among the collection of glees to be met with in Playford’s
Catch that Catch can.
In 1673 Lock came before the public in a somewhat
different phasis of his art, and established for himself a true
and abiding reputation. He wrote the instrumental music
in Shakspeare’s play of the Tempest, as it appeared during
that year, and may be regarded, indeed, as the first musi¬
cian in England who thus devoted his talents to the stage.
He published the overture and airs to the Psyche of Shad-
well in 1675, with an exceedingly violent preface, strongly
marked by that unfortunate irrascibility of which his cotem¬
poraries found so much reason to complain.
It was about this time that the Rev. Thomas Salmon,
A.M., of Trinity College, Oxford, and a notable mathe¬
matician, came forward with a plan for greatly improving
musical notation. This proposal was a very desirable one,
calculated to remove many of the difficulties which attend
that branch of the art; and whether of the most perfect
kind or not, would at least have cleared the way for a more
complete and decided scheme of notation than the musical
world as yet had the good fortune to obtain. It was not
destined, however, to meet with the approval of the vehe¬
ment composer of Exeter. In his pamphlet, entitled Ob¬
servations on a late Book called an Essay, fyc., Lock loaded
the scheme and its author together with the bitterest abuse,
displaying an amount of personal feeling which led to the
suspicion that he gave his opposition to the beneficial pro¬
posal of the mathematician more from motives of individual
interest than from an unprejudiced conviction of its in¬
utility. A number of Lock’s sacred pieces are to be found
in the Harmonia Sacra, and in Boyce’s Collection of
Cathedral Music; but the great foundation on which his
fame was reared is his music in 'Macbeth, “ a lasting monu¬
ment,” says his biographer, “ of the author’s creative power
and judgment.” Lock died in 1677.
533
LOCK.
Lock. A Lock may be defined to be any kind of fastening
which is intended not to be opened except by one par¬
ticular instrument, called the key, or by some secret
method of manipulation. The earliest lock of which
the construction is known is the Egyptian, which was
used 4000 years ago. In this drawing (fig. 1), aa is the
body of the lock,
bb the bolt, and
cc the key. The
three pins/?,p,p
drop into three
holes in the bolt
when it is push¬
ed in, and so
hold it fast; and
they are raised
again by putting 1-
in the key through the large hole in the bolt, and raising it
a little, so that the pins in the key push the locking-pins
up out of the way of the bolt. The security of this is very
small, as it is easy enough to find the places of the pins by
pushing in a bit of wood covered with clay or tallow, on
which the holes will mark themselves; and the depth can
easily be got by trial.
Mr Chubb, the well known lock-maker, has shown us a
wooden Chinese lock which is very superior to the Egyptian,
and, in fact, founded on exactly the same principle as the
Bramah lock, wdfich long enjoyed the reputation of being the
most secure lock ever invented; for it has sliders or tumblers
of different lengths, and cannot be opened unless they are
all raised to the proper heights, and no higher. Until about
eighty years ago, we had no lock so good as this in England.
The locks then in use (fig. 2) were nothing better than a
mere bolt held in its place,
either shut or open, by a spring
b, which pressed it down, and
so held it at either one end or
the other of the convex notch
aa; and the only impediment
to opening it was the wards
which the key had to pass be¬
fore it could turn in the key- Fig. 2.
hole. But you could always find the shape of the wards
by merely putting in 4 blank Hfcy covered with wax, and
pressing it against them\ and when you had done so, it was
by no means necessary t\ cut out the key into the compli¬
cated form of the wards (Inch as fig. 3), because no part of
that key does any work except the edge be farthest from
the pipe a; and so a key ot the form fig. 4 will do just as
Fig. 8. Fig. 4.
well; and a small collection of skeleton keys, as they are
called, of a few different patterns, were all the stock-in-trade
that a lock-picker would require.
The common single-tumbler lock (fig. 5) was rather bet¬
ter than this, as it requires two operations, instead of one,
to open it. The tumbler at turns on a pivot at t, and has
a square pin at a, which drops into a notch in the bolt
^either when it is quite open or quite shut, and the tumbler Common
Tumbler
Lock.
a Barron’s
Lock.
must be lifted by the key before
the bolt can be moved again.
But this, also, is very easy,
unless the lock is so made that
the tumbler will go into another
notch in the bolt if it is lifted
too high, as in the lock we
shall now describe, and which
is the foundation of all the
modern improvements in lock-making.
Barron's Lock.—Fig. 6 is a front view, and fig. 7
horizontal section, of Barron’s
lock, which was patented in the
year 1778. First consider it with
reference to one tumbler, at, only.
You see that unless the square
pin a is lifted by the key to the
proper height, and no higher,
the bolt cannot move, and that
alone adds very considerably to
the difficulty of picking, except by a method not discovered
for many years after. But besides that, Mr Barron added an¬
other tumbler, and
unless both were
raised at once to
the proper height,
and no higher, the
lock could not be Fig. 7.
opened. We are not aware that Barron himself ever went
beyond two tumblers; but the principle of the many-
tumblered lock is undoubtedly his, and nothing that was
added to it for nearly eighty years afterwards made any
material addition to its security. But instead of making a
separate pin to each tumbler, and a corresponding number*
of notches in the bolt, the simpler plan was adopted by
other makers of putting what is called the gating, in the
tumblers, and a single pin in the bolt, which is then called
the stump; this will be shown presently in the drawing of
Chubb’s still more famous lock. The face, or working edge,
of the key of a many-tumblered lock assumes this form
(fig. 8), the steps corresponding to
the different heights to which the
tumblers have to be raised, and one
of them acting on the bolt, and they
may have a much wider range of dif¬
ference than in this figure. The key
here drawn is also one with the w^ards
of such a shape that no skeleton ex- U ' " Fig. 8.
cept itself can pass them. The form, Fowever, can be got
in the usual way by a wax impression ; and as it weakens
the key very much, and is expensive to cut, it is not often
used.
Bramah's Lock.—The next lock of any importance was Bramah’s
the celebrated lock originally patented, just ten years after Lock.
Barron’s, by the late Mr Joseph Bramah, who came up to
London from Barnsley as a joiner, and raised himself to
eminence by the invention of this lock, of the machine for
numbering bank-notes, the beer-engine, the water-closet,
the pencil-cases called “ever-pointed,” and, above all, the
hydraulic press—an invention which, like Nasmyth’s steam
hammer, extended the powers of man beyond what before
had been conceived possible. In figures 9 and 10, aaaa
is the outer barrel of the lock, which is screwed to, or
534
LOCK.
Bramah’s cast with the plate ; cccc
Lock, turning within the other.
is a cylinder, or inner barrel,
It is shown separately at fig.
Fig. 9.
11; and fig. 12 is a cross section of it, the black ring
being the keyhole, and the light spot in the middle the
Fig. 10.
drill-pin, which goes into the key. The short pin b, in
figs. 9, 10, 11, is set in the end
of the cylinder, near its edge ; and
when the cylinder turns round,
that pin shoots or draws the bolt,
by acting in a slit of the form
shown in fig. 13. The security of
the lock depends upon a number
of sliders, s, s, of which the shape is
shown in fig. 14, and the cross Fig.n.
section in fig. 12. They are made of plates of steel doubled,
and sprung open a little, so as to make them move with a
little friction in the slits of the cylinder or revolving barrel
in which they lie, and are pressed up against the cap of the
lock by a spiral spring. They are shown
so pressed up in fig. 9, and pressed
down by the key in fig. 10. There is a
deep groove cut round the barrel; and
in each of the sliders there is a deep
notch which can be pushed down to that
place in the barrel by a key slit to the
proper depth; and it is evident that when
all the sliders are pushed down to that Fig. 12.
position, the barrel will present the appearance of having no
sliders in it. A steel plate (fig. 15), made in two pieces in
order to get it on, embraces the barrel at the place where the
groove is, having notches in it corresponding to the sliders,
and is fixed to the body of the lock by two screws marked
d, d in figs. 9,10, and 15. When the
sliders are pushed up by the spring,
they fill the notches in the plate, and !1
prevent the barrel from turning; I
but when they are pushed down
by the key, the notches in the
sliders all lie in the plane of the
plate, and so the barrel can turn
with the key, and the pin b in the
end of it drives the bolt as before described. The key, as
every one knows who has seen a Bramah key, has a bit, k,
sticking out from the pipe, the use of which is to fix the
depth to which it is to be pushed in, and then, as the bit
Bramah’s
Lock.
Fig. 15.
slips under the cap of the lock, it keeps the key at the same
depth while you are turning it.
This was the construction of the lock for a good many
years, and Mr Bramah pronounced it in that state “not to be
within the range of art to produce a key, or other instru¬
ment, by which a lock on this principle can be opened.”
It was found, however, long before the defeat of the im¬
proved challenge Bramah Lock by Mr Hobbs in 1851, that
the inventor had made the common mistake of pronouncing
that to be impossible which he only did not see how to do
himself. As it has been generally supposed that what is
called the tentative method of lock-picking was unknown
here before it came over from America in the year of the
great Exhibition, we must remind our readers that it was
described in the last edition of this work nearly thirty years
ago ; though, no less fortunately than strangely, the lock¬
picking fraternity were not of sufficiently literary habits to
make themselves acquainted with it. Mr Hobbs, it is true,
carried the process farther than had been supposed possible
before; but all the Barron and Chubb, and other many-
tumblered locks, which were supposed impregnable, might
long ago have been opened by anybody who had paid at
tention to the method by which the Bramah locks were
known to have been picked some forty years ago, before the
introduction of the false notches, designed by Mr Russell
in 1817, then one of Mr Bramah’s workmen. If you apply
backward pressure to the bolt of a tumbler lock when
locked, or twisting pressure to the barrel of a Bramah lock,
first pressing down the spiral spring, there will be a greater
pressure felt against some of the tumblers or sliders than
against others, in consequence of inevitable inequalities of
workmanship; and if you keep the pressure up, and gently
move any of the tumblers or sliders on which the pressure
is felt, you will at last get it to some point where it feels
loose. That may or may not be the exact place to which
the key ought to lift it; but as soon as you feel it loose,
leave it alone ; it will not fall again, as the friction is suffi¬
cient to prevent it; and, if necessary, you may fix it there
by a proper instrument, or measure the depth, and keep the
measure till you begin again. Then try another tumbler
which feels tight, and raise it till it also feels loose. And
if you go on in that way, always leaving the loose tumblers
alone, and raising the one which feels tight, they will at
last all be got into the position of complete freedom, i.e., to
LOCK.
535
Bramah’s the place where the stump of the bolt can pass them. The
Lock, operation is just the same in principle in the Bramah lock
and in tumbler locks : only, as all the sliders are acted on
by one spring in the Bramah as now made, you need only
just push down that spring, and hold it there, and then
the sliders may be moved freely either way by means of a
hook or a small pair of self-acting forceps to pull them up
if they accidentally get pushed too far. At first each slider
had a separate spring.
False But if the sliders have some false notches in them not so
notches. deep as the true ones (see fig. 14), and the corners of the
notches in the plate dd are cut out a little (as in fig. 15),
then you might by trial get all the sliders into such a posi¬
tion that the barrel could turn a very little, but no more;
and when it is turned that little, you cannot push the
sliders in any farther, and so (as was long supposed) the
tentative process is defeated; and undoubtedly it is made
much more troublesome, but it only requires more time and
patience. You can still feel that the pressure is greater
against some one or more of the tumblers or sliders than
against others; and wherever that is the case, you know
that it must be at a false notch, and not the true one, for
a true one gives no pressure at all. Proceeding in this way,
Mr Hobbs opened the challenge-lock with eighteen sliders,
or guards, which had hung in Messrs Bramah’s window for
many years, in nineteen hours, and would have done it
sooner, but that one of his instruments broke in the lock.
He afterwards repeated the operation three times within
the hour, in the presence of the arbitrators ; and we have
seen him open a more recent one with eight sliders in four
minutes, by means of an instrument which is equivalent to a
Bramah key with adjustable slits, which are set to the sliders
as he goes on feeling them and getting their depths. It
has been stated as an advantage of the Bramah lock, that
an impression cannot be taken from it. This is a great
mistake. Mr Chubb showed us a small instrument, which
a man could hold in his hand without it being seen, and
by which an exact impression of the depths of any Bramah
key, whose number of slits is known beforehand, can be
taken in a moment, and the other end of the instrument
then becomes a key which will open the lock at once.
It is moreover to be remembered, that thieves do not
always confine themselves to the conditions of a challenge,
in which force and injury to the lock are of course prohi¬
bited ; and if a lock can be easily opened by tearing out
its entrails, it is of very little use to say that it would have
defied all the arts of polite lock-picking; and in this respect
the Bramah lock is singularly deficient; for if the exposed
cap or nozzle of the key-hole is cut off, as it easily may be,
or the hole widened out by a centre-bit, the sliders can all
be pulled out, and there is an end of the lock. But, as a
protection against picking by pressure without violence,
Mr E. B. Denison suggested an alteration, of which a
specimen was made in 1853 by Messrs Mordan (who are
now the largest manufacturers of Bramah locks), on the
principle of Mr Hobbs’s moveable stump for tumbler locks.
The locking-plate is not screwed
to the body of the lock, but is left
free to turn a little; and if it is
turned by putting any pressure on
it from the sliders, it pushes a click
CC (fig. 16) into a notch in the
barrel and holds it fast, and so no
pressure of the sliders can be felt.
In this case, the locking-plate is
made in one piece, and the barrel
in two. If that contrivance had
existed in Messrs Bramah s challenge-lock, it could not have
been picked by Mr Hobbs’s method. However, locks for
securing property well worth stealing must be safe against
rude as well as polite lock-picking, and this the Bramah
lock hardly can be made; and therefore it must be ad- Bramah’s
mitted, that, even with the above-mentioned improvement, Bock,
it is now behind the requirements of the age, though the
smallness of the key, and the cheapness with which they
can be manufactured and sold to the trade (though they
are not yet sold by retail as cheap as some other better
locks), will probably enable them to keep their place for
some time.
Inside and Outside Locks.—Locks for drawers, closets,
iron chests, and the like, are only required to lock on one
side, and their keys are therefore made with a pipe, which
slips on to, and turns on a pin in the lock, called the drill-
pin. But doors which have to be locked sometimes on one
side, and sometimes on the other, cannot have their keys
made in this way; but the key is solid, and its plug or stem
being thicker than the flat part or web, it acts as an axis fit¬
ting into the upper part of the key-hole, though that hole does
not completely inclose it. All keys for these inside and
outside locks must be symmetrical, or alike on each side of
a line through their middle, in order to fit the lock either
way, which limits the variety of the tumblers in the case of
many-tumblered locks. A Bramah lock, to open on both
sides, must be made double, with one set of sliders to push
in from one side of the door, and the other set from the
other side; and, consequently, they are very seldom used
for this purpose. It may be conveinent to observe, that
when we use the term Bramah lock, we mean a lock of that
construction ; for the patent having long ago expired, they
may be made by anybody, just as Chubb’s lock may, though
nobody but the representatives of the original patentees has
a right to apply the name Bramah or Chubb to them ; and
therefore Messrs Mordan, for instance, rightly call them
by their own name, though their locks are the same as Bra¬
mah’s, except that they generally make the number of sliders
odd, while Messrs Bramah make it even.
CotterilVs Loch.—The lock of Mr Cotterill of Birming- Cotterill’s
ham is on the same principle as Bramah’s, the difference Lock,
being, that the sliders are pushed out radially by a very thick
key with inclined slits in it. The locking-plate is a ring instead
of a flat plate, and the notches in the sliders have all to be
brought into the same circle, to be able to pass along the
ring. Some of the sliders are made into what are called
detectors, being held by a spring catch, if they are pushed
out too far. This is the primary form of Cotterill’s lock;
and in that form it is evidently quite as easy to pick as the
commonest form of Bramah lock, and easier, because the
Fig. 17.
range of the sliders is necessarily very small, as the extreme
range can be no more than the thickness (not the diameter)
536 L O
Cotterill’s of the key-pipe. But Mr Cotterill afterwards added a second
Locks. rin,r X (fig. 17) outside the fixed locking-ring RR; and
in that outer ring you observe that the notches are not quite
opposite to the ends of the sliders, some of which are bevelled;
and therefore, when pushed out by the key, they will force
themselves into the notches of the outer ring, and turn it
a little against the resistance of a spring, which tends to
keep it in the position shown in the drawing with reference
to the cylinders and sliders. When it is so pushed a little out
of the way by the bevelled sliders, the square-ended ones
can enter the holes then opposite to them, and so carry
their own notches into the position to pass the inner or
fixed ring, and then the cylinder can turn, and it carries
the outer ring with it. Moreover, in the latest form of this
lock, the inner ring is not absolutely fixed, but has a little play,
like the plate of the improved Bramah lock in fig. 16; and
by the side of it there is a click, CC, which any slight turn¬
ing of the ring brings into action, and makes it lock the ring
fast. This appears, from Mr Cotterill’s description and draw¬
ing, to be just the same contrivance which we have already
described as being applied by Mr Denison to the Bramah
lock to prevent feeling the pressure of the sliders on the lock¬
ing-plate ; only this appears to lock into the ring itself, and
therefore would not prevent the pressure from being felt;
whereas Mr Denison’s click for the Bramah lock fastens the
barrel, and does prevent the pressure. But that could easily
be done in the same way in Mr Cotterill’s lock; and, if so done,
it would, as far as we can see, be of much more value than the
second ring, as we shall explain presently. I he entrails of
this lock could not be taken out, like Bramah’s, by merely
cutting off the nozzle.
This lock acquired some celebrity, from having defeated
Mr Hobbs in a challenge to pick it. But from the printed
* account of the affair, sent to us by Mr Cotterill himself, it
is clear that that failure proved nothing, except that Mr
Hobbs was taken by surprise, and supposed that he was
picking one of Cotterill’s locks as they had been made be¬
fore the invention of the second ring, and such as he had
publicly exhibited a mode of picking with merely a piece
of wood ; whereas the lock in the trial contained these other
arrangements, which Mr Hobbs knew nothing of. It is
certainly added, in the printed account, that, when he did
see the additions, he confessed that he did not then see
how such a lock wTas to be picked, and declined to try it.
Whether it really is invincible in its present state we are
not able to say, not professing to be lock-pickers ourselves;
but it does appear to us that the inventor considerably
overstates the difficulty when he says all the sliders must be
moved together; for it seems plain that pushing out any
two nearly opposite sliders with the bevelled ends would
turn the outer ring as well as a dozen; and as soon as it is
turned a little it is of no further use. No doubt all the
sliders must be at last brought together into the proper
position, as they must in any other lock ; but that is a very
different thing from requiring them all to move simul¬
taneously into that position. And whether the lock is im¬
pregnable or not, we should imagine that the great thick¬
ness and w eight of the key, which is necessary to get even
a moderate range in the sliders, would generally be con¬
sidered an objection to it, as we have the best authority for
saying, that in some other cases the highest amount of sup¬
posed security will not induce even bankers to adopt locks
with large keys.
Letter Letter Lochs.—It used to be supposed, some years ago,
Locks. that locks which could only be opened by setting a number
of rings or discs to a particular combination of letters could
not possibly be opened by anybody who was not in pos¬
session of the secret; and hence they were also called
puzzle-\oc)zs. At first they were made with a fixed com¬
bination, which could not be changed. Afterwards the
rings were made double, the inner one having the notch in
C K.
it which the bolt had to pass, and the outer one capable of Letter
being fitted on to the inner in any position, by unscrewing Locks,
some part of the lock, so that you might set them to any
combination you like. This was the first instance of a
changeable lock, of which we shall have more to say at the
end of this article. But it was afterwards found that these
puzzle-locks have just the same vulnerable point as all our
locks had until lately, viz., that the pressure of the bolt
can be felt on some of the rings more than on the others;
and Mr Hobbs says emphatically, in the Rudimentary
Treatise on Lochs, “ wherever that is the case, that lock can
be picked.” We have heard an amusing account of his
opening, in a few minutes, a great dial lock on an iron door
at Liverpool; and also opening a French lock in the Great
Exhibition, and setting it to a new combination, so that
the exhibitor himself could not open it. Besides this de¬
fect, these locks have very much gone out of use on ac¬
count of their being troublesome to handle, and perhaps
also from the risk of forgetting the combination to which it
was set last, if the lock has been left for some time; and
therefore we do not think it necessary to go further into the
details of their construction: the principle of it we have
described sufficiently to make it intelligible.
Chubb's Lochs—Of the multitude of locks which have Chubb’s
been made on the many-tumbler principle, originally in- Locks,
vented by Barron, none have enjoyed so much celebrity as
Chubb’s, partly from their superior workmanship and use
of more tumblers than usual, and perhaps still more from
the late Mr Chubb, or his brother, who took out their first
patent in 1818, having had the good fortune to hit upon
the name Detector for a certain part of the machinery,
which, besides adding to the security against any mode of
picking then known, also captivated the public with the idea
of discovering if anybody had been tampering with the lock,
though the operator might depart in ignorance that he had
left any trace of his attempt behind him. It is remark¬
able that the detector was not even then a new invention ;
for a lock exactly the same in principle, but slightly dif¬
ferent in arrangement, had been previously made by a Mr
Ruxton. In the same way false notches were used in
Strutt’s tumbler lock above thirty years before they were
re-invented by Chubb and others, with the idea of defeat¬
ing the tentative method of picking by them. The original
form of this invention is shown in fig. 18 by the lever DT,
which turns on a pin in the middle, and is acted upon at its
end T by a spring S, which will evidently allow some play
to the lever on either side of the corner X, but the moment
it is pushed past that point, the spring will carry it farther
in the same direction, like what is called in clock-work a
jumper. In its proper position that end always remains
above the turning-point; but if any one of the tumblers is
raised too high, the other end D of the detector, which
reaches over all the tumblers, is lifted so far that the end
T is sent down below the corner, and the tooth T then falls
LOCK.
537
Chubb’s
Locks.
into a notch in the bolt, and so prevents it from being
drawn back, even though all the tumblers are raised pro¬
perly by the right key, which at once reveals that some¬
body has been trying to pick the lock. The way to open
it, then, is to turn the key the other way, as if to overlock
the bolt: you observe a short piece of gating near the end
of the tumblers, to allow the bolt to advance a little,
just far enough to push the tooth of the detector up again
by means of its inclination there, and then the lock can be
opened as usual. In Mr Chubb’s more recent locks the
tumbler is made in another form. The back tumbler, or
the one which has to be raised highest, has a pin d reach¬
ing over all the others, and if any of them are overlifted, that
back tumbler is also, and then a square corner A in it
gets past the end of the detector spring and is held up.
It is set right by overlocking the bolt as before, the bolt it¬
self raising the end k of the spring, and letting the tumbler
fall. This form of detector is, however, inferior to the
other, as it informs the picker what he has done, by the
back tumbler itself being held up, which he can feel directly.
But since Mr Hobbs’s mode of picking locks became
known, all these detectors have become useless. Some per¬
sons have even gone so far as to say that the detector may be
made a guide to picking. Whether this be so or not, the
detector does not act unless some of the tumblers are raised
too high, which they never are by a skilful operator on this
plan, nor does it act (even if thrown by accident) against
picking backwards, or feeling the way to shoot the bolt a
little farther, as if to free the detector; and in this way, at any
rate, the measure of the key can be taken without any
hindrance from the detector. Before 1851 tumbler locks
were seldom made with false notches; we remember, how¬
ever, seeing a lock on an iron door, invented by a Mr Strutt
many years ago, in which the tumblers were in the form of
quadrants, with a very large angular motion, and a number
of short or false notches and one deep one. But since that
year Mr Chubb and some other makers of tumbler locks
have adopted false notches in all their best locks, together
with revolving curtains, which cover the straight part of the
key-hole as soon as the key is turned; and barrels going
down from the back of the curtain to prevent a false key
or pick from turning without turning the curtain ; and other
obstacles, of which the object is in all cases to prevent the
maintaining of pressure of the stump upon the tumblers
at the same time that the tumblers themselves are moved,
or, as Mr Hobbs has called it, tickled, by some other in¬
strument. These provisions, and especially a number of
small false notches (which may be got with a thick stump
by serrating the end of it), undoubtedly make the locks much
more difficult to pick ; in fact so difficult, and requiring such
nicety of instruments and manipulation, that they may be
considered practically safe, except under extraordinary cir¬
cumstances. But then it must be remembered that all the
great robberies, of which there are several every year, do pre¬
sent extraordinary circumstances, and that they are never at¬
tempted except where the temptation has been made great,
by the thieves seeing that they had unexpected facilities
offered them. It is therefore by no means safe to assume
that a lock will never be picked, merely because it would take
a first-rate hand a long time to do it. The process need not
be continuous. A good hand will do part of his work, and
measure it, or mark it off upon his false key, one day, and
more another, until it is all done, and his key ready for
action at the first convenient opportunity. Recent ex¬
perience has shown that your own officers, clerks, and
servants are the people from whom you have most to appre-
lend, and they are just the people who have the most time
an opportunity to perform their key-making operations
undisturbed. Without going into all the mechanical de¬
tails (which it is perhaps as well not to publish), it is enough
to say, that the lock of the United States Bank, which was
VOL. XIII.
almost as complicated as the famous one of Day and Newell,
and contained all the false notches, revolving curtains, and
other provisions which have been several times re-invented
or put out as novelties here, was nevertheless picked for a
wager.
We shall now describe the principal inventions that have
been made within the last few years, with the view of de¬
feating that tentative method of picking to which all our
locks, as constructed before 1851, were and are liable; and
we shall point out which of them really do effect that ob¬
ject, and may be regarded as absolutely secure against any
mode of picking at present known ; and which of them may
be regarded as safe enough for ordinary purposes, though
not coming up to the mark of absolute security.
Hobbs’s Lock.—The invention which most directly meets
the defect of all previous locks is Mr Hobbs’s moveable
stump, which, it must be
observed, is a totally dif¬
ferent thing from the great
twenty - guinea American
lock of Day and Newell,
which also goes by his name
here, because he makes and
sells them. In Hobbs’s lock,
the stump is not rivetted
Fig. 19.
inspecting
Hobbs’s
Lock.
into the bolt as usual, but is set on the end S of a bent lever
SIP (fig. 19), which lies in a hollow of the bolt behind it,
turning on a pivot in the bolt itself, and kept steady by a
small friction-spring, not shown in the drawing. The stump
comes through a hole in the bolt large enough to let it have
a little play; and the long end P of the lever stands just
above the edge ot a square pin, which is fixed in the back
plate ol the lock. When the lock is locked, if you push the
bolt back, you produce no sensible pressure on the tumblers,
but only just enough to turn this protector lever, as Mr Hobbs
calls it, on its pivot T, and'so'bring down its end P in front
ot the square pin, and then the bolt can no more be pushed
back than when held by Chubb’s detector. The protector
is set free again by merely pushing the bolt forward with
the key, without reference to the tumblers. It was found
however, that in this state, the protector could be prevented
from acting by a method used by Mr Hobbs himself for
another purpose, viz., pushing a piece of watch-spring through
the key-hole, and up behind the bolt, so as to reach the pro¬
tector at P, and keep it up while you push the bolt back;
or, again, by pushing up the watch-spring between any two
of the tumblers, and holding the end S of the protector with
it, so as to press the stump against the tumblers. Both these
devices, however, are prevented now by letting in a. feather
Ft in a groove between the bolt and the back of the lock,
which no waich-spring can pass, and also bringing a piece of
the feather forward through the front gating of the tumblers
just under the stump. In this form the lock is safe against any
mode of picking at present known, unless the key-hole hap¬
pens to be large enough to admit the inspecting method, which
is this:—A person intending to pick the lock goes before¬
hand and smokes the bellies, or lower edges of the tumblers,
through the key-hole. When the key comes, it wipes off the
black on each tumbler, according to the length of the bit
which raises it; and then, when the picker returns, he throws
a strong light into the key-hole, and, by means of a narrow
reflector put into it, reads off, as it were, the length of bit re¬
quired to raise each tumbler to the proper height. This oper¬
ation may sound impossible ; but it is an established method
of lock-picking, at least in America, where they seem to be
considerably ahead of us in these matters. It requires a
largish key-hole, however ; and it may be prevented by any
kind of revolving cylinder, which will conceal the view of
the tumblers while the key-hole is open. The one that does
it most completely is the eccentric cylinder, which will be
described in the great American lock. The
538
LOCK.
Fi<r. 20.
Parnell’s method might also be frustrated by making the acting part
Locks. 0f the bellies of all the tumblers no longer than would be
reached by the shortest bit in the key. In that case, the
1 ong bits would not begin to act at their points, but on their
sides, and would leave no measure of their length upon the
tumblers.
There is another lock invented by Mr Hobbs, also be¬
longing (as far as we can see) to the absolutely secure class ;
but it will be more conveniently described after we have
noticed the changeable key-locks.
Parnell’s Locks.—The next contrivance for preventing
the tentative mode of picking is that invented by Mr Parnell
(Hg. 20), and now sold by a Mr Puckridge, with whom Par¬
nell was in partnership tor some time, but has now leit that
firm, and set up
tor himself at an¬
other shop, with
a later invention
of his own, which
we shall describe
presently. His
first lock acquir¬
ed some celebrity
from a trial at law,
in which it ap¬
peared that a cer¬
tain Mr Goater,
who worked for
Mr Chubb, had
claimed 200 guineas for picking a challenge lock of Parnell’s,
—the fact being, that he had first clandestinely taken the
cap off and made a false key, and then pretended to pick it.
Put the trial proved no more in favour of it than the pre¬
tended picking proved against it; for there was no proof
that the lock could not be picked by other means ; and we
cannot think it would present much difficulty to those who
can pick such locks as Jones’s American bank-lock, before
alluded to, though it would probably defeat the ordinary
race of lock-pickers.
The most important features in this lock are, the
lever E at the top, which is called a double-action latch.
It is, in fact, Chubb’s detector, with the addition of the
tooth on the left hand, which falls into the bolt and pre¬
vents it from being pushed back against the tumblers,
except when it is raised by them, or any one of them,
just enough to clear the bolt, and no more ; for if raised too
high, it locks into the bolt at the other end, like Chubb’s
first detector. But it is evident that this is worth very little
by itself; for you have only to put the pressure on the bolt,
and then gently raise the lever by one of the tumblers until
the bolt will either clear it completely, or, at any rate, press
against some of the tumblers, and then proceed as usual.
But then another lever is added. You observe a line across
what appears to be the stump S. The part below the line
is the real stump; but the part above it is a kind of second
stump set on a tumbler behind the others, and not touched by
the key, but pressed upwards by a weak spring, so that it can
only rise when all the tumblers are lifted. rI his self-acting
lever also ends in a square corner, which butts against the
real stump when it is down ; so that, if you push the bolt
back, you bring the stump against the self-acting lever, and
not against the tumblers. All this looks very formidable;
but on examining one of these locks, it occurred to us at
once, that if you only lift all the tumblers a little, so as to
let the self-acting lever rise out of the way of the stump,
and then (but not before) push the bolt back, you have dis¬
posed of the lever just as much as if it did not exist; and
on trying it, we found the operation perfectly easy. Of
course, it would require more care and delicacy to manage
the “double-action latch” and the “self-acting lever” to¬
gether than either of them separately; but they are only
used together in the most expensive of these locks; and, Parnell’s
moreover, it is a maxim in lock-picking, that a mere multi- Locks,
plication of difficulties does not produce impossibility, and
that no number of approximate or partial securities amount
to one absolute security.
The mode of operation just now described will defeat
equally well a self-acting tumbler, on the same principle,
which Mr Chubb added to his locks soon after Mr Hobbs’s
demonstration, in 1851, of the insecurity of his and Bramah’s,
and, indeed, of all the then existing English locks. Mr Par¬
nell (or Puckridge) also uses, in his large locks, a revolving
curtain and cylinder, or barrel, which covers part of the
key-hole, and the web of the key expands as it turns; for,
when the key is out of the lock, it looks like a blank, with
no bits projecting. But all these things, and the double¬
action latch too, are all old inventions, as may be seen in
the Rudimentary Treatise, and more fully in Mr Price’s
large book on Fire-proof Safes, Locks, and Keys (published
since this article was written), which is the most complete
treatise on the subject ever published in this country; though
even in that some of the descriptions are so brief as to be
hardly intelligible, in consequence of the enormous number
of inventions—nearly all patented, and most of them use¬
less—which have been made for the improvement of locks
within the last forty years. Besides being an old invention,
an expanding key is very limited in the range or variety of
the bits, expensive, and unpleasant to work on account of
the increased friction. The pieces marked FF (in fig. 20)
are called sentinels by the inventor, and they are intended
to prevent the cylinder from turning beyond a certain point
with a false key, and also to prevent the false key from get¬
ting out again. This, too, has been done before, and on
the same plan, of preventing any key, whether true or false,
from returning; and so, if it cannot go forward and open
the lock, it is held fast, as evidence of its own intrusion, like
Cassim in the cave of the Forty Thieves. But when the in¬
ventors of these things talk of the “ frightful consequences”
of having to smash the door in order to get the false key
out, they forget that the key is not the thief, and that these
consequences are rather amusing than frightful to the per¬
son who left it there, who will have the satisfaction of know¬
ing that he has, at any rate, done as much mischief as pos¬
sible, by way of paying off the owner for not providing him
with a lock more easy to pick. It is also to be remem¬
bered, that if the owner himself carelessly puts a wrong key
into the lock, or if there is a piece of dirt sticking to it, which
may prevent it from opening the lock, the consequences are
equally unpleasant. The detention apparatus clearly adds
nothing to the security. If the “ sentinels” really do their
other duty of preventing the cylinder from turning beyond
a certain point except with the true key, you want nothing
more, and get nothing more, by detaining an intruding key ;
and if they can be held or thrown out of action (as we rather
suspect they can), that, of course, would be the first thing a
skilful lock-picker would do. We do not mean to say that a
lock with all these complicated provisions could be picked
under several hours, if at all. But it does not seem to us in
the least degree more secure than Mr Hobbs’ much simpler
and cheaper contrivance of the moveable stump, or than
some others which we have not yet described. And it is
necessary to caution the public against shop-windotv locks
in general, with large wagers set upon them ; for unless you
know that the lock exhibited in the window is the same as
those usually sold in the shop at a moderate price, and un¬
less the conditions of the challenge (which are generally
“ to be had within”) are fair (we have seen some that were
utterly unfair and absurd), the offer of “ 200 guineas to the
artist who can pick this lock” does not prove that any other
lock in the shop is worth 200 pence; and it is, in fact, no-
thinsr but a mere advertising trick.
Mr Parnell’s other lock, sold by himself only, has the
LOCK.
539
Fig. 21.
Parnell’s advantage of being much cheaper, and at least as secure as
Lock, the one with the self-acting lever and expanding key,
v'—which is the ordinary construction of the locks under his
ibrmer patent. This lock has also the revolving curtain,
and there is a small ring B (fig. 21) on the under side,
which incloses a deep circular ward set in the back of the
lock, which requires a very deep cut in the key, so that
there would be very little room for a pick to play in. These
two features are not claimed by Mr Parnell as novelties,
and, in fact, they
are old enough to
be open to any
body. The cur¬
tain has another
ring near its
edge, which just
comes over a pin
P in the up¬
permost tumbler
when it is down,
and prevents it
from rising, ex¬
cept when the
curtain is turned far enough round to bring the gap at C
in the ring over this pin, which happens just when the key
begins to lift the tumblers. But the real peculiarity of the
lock is this: In locking, just before the key leaves the
tumblers, it delivers the stump, not into the place where it
is now shown lying, but into the notch S; but before it
leaves the lock the key encounters the end of a lever KL,
which pushes the bolt back a little, and so lets the tumblers
drop a little lower, with the stump in the position shown
here. When the key opens the lock again, it passes by
the end K of the lever, and first lifts the tumblers a little
by their corners, near K, at the same time that the gap C
in the curtain-ring comes over the pin P ; then it encoun¬
ters a piece that comes down from the bolt near T, and
shoots the bolt forward a little, without which the tumblers
cannot be fully raised (as will be seen from the shape of
the false notches), and then the key operates as usual.
Nevertheless, this certainly cannot be placed in the class
of absolutely secure locks ; for if a pick can be got to work
over the neck-ward and curtain-ring or barrel, which is well
known to be possible, it does not appear to us that there
would be more difficulty in picking this lock than any other
with false notches ; for it makes no difference that the bolt
has first to move forwards a little and then backwards, and
the curtain could easily be got into the position to free the
tumbler which it holds. However, these locks are sold a
good deal cheaper than other locks with much less security
used to be, and, if not absolutely secure, they are sufficiently
so for all common purposes.
This reduction in the price of good locks, besides the
improvement in the quality, is plainly the consequence of
the exposure of the defects of all the existing English locks
in the Great Exhibition, which some persons endeavoured
to smother as dangerous, and others to explain away as
proving nothing against the character of our locks. Not
only have we got Mr Hobbs’s own improvements in con¬
struction, and reduction in price, by the introduction of
machinery for lock-making to an extent hitherto unknown,
but there is now in the market a variety of what may be
called very good locks, even though most of them could be
picked by a very first-rate hand with plenty of time, and at
lower prices than were charged for the only two locks which
had any reputation until the last few years, viz., the Bramah
and the Chubb locks. And the mere variety of locks is in
itself a source of security, because a thief no longer knows
by the look of a key-hole what kind of machinery he has
got to deal with inside.
liestelPs Loch.— 1 here is only one other modification of
the old many-tumblered lock that we need notice, and that Resteil’s
is Mr Restell’s. The only peculiarity in it (for the revolv- Lock,
ing curtain and barrel are much too old to be so designated)
is the addition of a disc at the bottom of the barrel, in the
same plane as the bolt. The bolt can only pass when the
disc is in one position, i.e., when a piece which is cut out
of it is just under a kind of tooth in the bolt; and at all
other times the disc, lying partly within the bolt, holds it
last, and prevents any pressure being put on the tumblers.
But this, again, proceeds on the erroneous but common
assumption that the instrument for feeling and lifting the
tumblers a little at a time cannot be used when the key¬
hole is closed, except at the centre, by the curtain and
barrel; whereas it is, in fact, worked through a kind of
hollow key, which presses on the bolt while the pick works
the tumblers, and it can be done in locks with far greater
impediments to it than this, although we say of this, as of
Mr Parnell’s, that it is an improvement upon any of the
locks made before 1851.
Locks tvithout Tumbler-springs.—We now come to a
class of locks in which the tumblers or slides are no longer
moved one way by springs and the other way by the key ;
for we shall postpone the description of the complicated
American changeable key locks until we have taken the
reader through the easier matters. In the locks we are
now going to describe the tumblers, or slides, or discs,
which stop the bolt, are kept in their places by friction
only, and will stand anywhere, having thin plates lying
between them, and being pushed or turned one way in
locking and the other way in unlocking.
In the Exhibition of 1851 there was a disc or wheel lock JenninSs s
exhibited by an American named Jennings, who used to
expound it with great eloquence as cheaper and better than
any other lock in the world. It had also a changeable key,
i.e., the key was a mere stalk or shank, fitted with small rings,
each with a bit projecting from it, and they could be trans¬
posed, together with the corresponding parts in the lock.
This of course can be done, and had been done before, with
the key of any tumbler-lock, if you take the lock off and change
the tumblers, provided the bits are made to fit into the key,
instead of being part of it as usual; but we shall have to
say more of this hereafter. We have been unable to learn
what has become of Mr Jennings or his lock, except that
Mr Hobbs showed us a very simple way of picking it, by
poking a piece of watch-spring, with a hook at the end,
between the discs, and feeling for the notch in the circum¬
ference, and then bringing it round to the right place lor
the lock to open.
Andrews's Lock.—Another American lock on the disc Andrews’s
principle, by Dr Andrews, was exhibited at the Society oflock-
Arts in 1853, with some others that we shall notice, when
that sagacious body awarded its premium to a lock made
by a Mr Saxby, which Mr Hobbs forthwith picked in three
minutes with a bit of wire, and then reminded them that he
had himself exhibited a drawing of an old lock of the same
construction at a lec¬
ture in that very place
only about a year be¬
fore. Dr Andrews’s
is called the snail-
wheel lock, because
all the discs except
the upper one have
snail-shaped holes in
them, as in the last
of these figures (fig.
22). The upper disc
has only a square hole
(except that for the
drill - pin on which
they all turn), which is the key-hole, and that disc always
Fig. 22.
540
LOCK.
Andrews’s
Lock.
Tucker’s
locks.
travels with the key ; the others only begin to move in one
direction as soon as the key encounters the spiral edge of
the hole, and of course they are carried to different distances,
according as the corresponding bit of the key is shorter or
longer. They are separated by loose, thin plates, which can¬
not turn with them, and act as friction plates. Each disc
has a notch in it, and it is only when all these notches are
brought together under the end of a spring lever, called
a “ toggle,” that it can drop into them. As soon as you
feel or hear that take place, you have to turn the key back
again, and the discs still keep together, because the toggle
fills up all the notches, until it is worked out, as they re¬
volve, and it carries the bolt with it ; and then the discs
no longer move together, but some lag behind until the
key reaches the square end of all the snail-holes, and so
brings them all into the original position, with the notches
standing in different places, and then the key can come
out. We do not know by what method this lock can be
picked, as it can hardly be possible to distinguish between
the pressure of the toggle on the edges of the discs and
the absence of pressure when it is over a notch, on ac¬
count of the great amount of constant friction; and the
smallness and eccentricity of the key-hole would make
the watch-spring method extremely difficult, if not imprac¬
ticable. But besides the key-hole being thick and clumsy,
on account of the great friction which it has to overcome,
the lock is uncomfortable to work, and it is therefore not
likely to come into use against the easier locks with smaller
keys, and equal, or at any rate sufficient security, which are
now made.
Tucker’s Locks.—There have been several locks on the
disc principle invented in succession by Mr Tucker, of
Fleet Street, the first two of which had revolving discs ;
and in the last and more simple one, patented in 18oo,
though the discs no longer revolve, they slide between fixed
plates without springs, and do not turn on a pin like com¬
mon tumblers, and will stand indifferently anywhere. It
will be sufficient to describe the last of these inventions, as
Mr Tucker himself states it to possess all the elements of
security of the former ones, with the advantages of being
much cheaper, because more simple in construction. In fig.
23, T T is one of the sliding tumblers, which are separated b y
thin fixed plates,
and slide upon the
guide-pinsatT T,
and have also fric¬
tion - springs X,
pressing on them
to keep them
steady. S is the
bolt stump, which
can only enter I,
the gating of the
tumblers, when
they are pushed
the proper dis¬
tance towards the
left, which the
key will do as
soon as it turns
towards the left, in the usual way of unlocking. But
something else still prevents the bolt from falling, and that
is the flat curtain C, which turns with the key, and has also
a barrel B, as in several of the other locks we have de¬
scribed. This curtain also prevents the stump from being
pressed against the tumblers, being just big enough to
keep it from touching them until it has turned nearly three-
quarters round, when the pin S, which stands up on the
stump, can enter the opening D in the curtain (shown by
a dotted line in the drawing, to prevent confusion). But
by the time the curtain has got so far round, any instru¬
ment in the key-hole would be prevented by the barrel Tucker’s
from reaching the tumblers so as to push them back and Locks,
feel the pressure of the stump; at least so the inventor v/-*-
asserts, and we do not venture to contradict him ; but it
must be remembered that no revolving curtain and barrel
have yet been able to prevent the instruments of the Ame¬
rican lock-pickers from reaching and moving the tumblers,
at the same time that the barrel is being pressed the other
way in order to keep up pressure on the bolt. The only
way (so far as we can see) to prevent this is by a contriv¬
ance, such as Mr Denison’s lock (described below) was
first made with, of a kind of door between the tumblers and
the key-hole, which opens for the key just before it reaches
them, and closes again after it has moved the tumblers, and
before any action at all upon the bolt begins. It will be
seen hereafter that in that lock this shutting off the tum¬
blers from the key-hole was afterwards carried still further,
as the key there does not operate on the bolt at all, but
must be thrown out of the key-hole, and the hole com¬
pletely closed, before the bolt can be drawn back; but the
first arrangement may very well be used in cases where the
key is wanted to operate on the bolt.
We have not yet explained how the bolt in this lock is
drawn back when the curtain has got into the proper position
for it. It is not done by the last bit in the key acting directly
on the bolt, as usual, but by a bit P fixed on the curtain
itself, which acts upon the notch B in the bolt, as the key
usually does. And this same bit P performs another func¬
tion in locking, viz., shooting all the tumblers into the po¬
sition here shown by striking against a pin which is set in
the bottom one, and comes up to the curtain, and so carries
all the others with it by means of the square notch which
is cut in all of them, except the one which has the pin in it.
It must be observed that the curtain does not lie close upon
the tumblers, but there is the thickness of the bolt, or of
the bit P, between them. A spring locks into the cur¬
tain and prevents it from being turned, except when this
spring is pressed down by putting a key into the key-hole.
One object of making the curtain, and not the key, to lock
and unlock the bolt is, that you guard against the risk of
what is called short-locking; i.e., sending the bolt in any
common tumbler-lock not quite far enough for the tumblers
to drop. There are means by which a person intending
afterwards to pick a lock might cause it to lock short, if he
had previous access to it, or possession of the key, at least
as locks are generally made, and then, of course, he has
only to pull the bolt back, the tumblers having never fal¬
len. Moreover this arrangement in Tucker’s lock allows it
to be locked by any key that will turn in the key-hole, though
it cannot be unlocked by any but the true key, or one which
will move all the tumblers to the right place for the stump
to enter them. Mr Tucker has also applied the curtain in
his padlocks in such a wray that the shackle has a tail
reaching inwards and resting against the curtain at all
times, except when it is in the proper position for opening ;
i.e., when this tail is opposite to a segment cut out of the
curtain corresponding to the opening D in the lock just now
described, but much larger. The object of this is to ob¬
tain greater strength than usual to resist all attempts to
force the shackle open. The cheapness of these locks is
due to the circumstance that all the principal parts can be
stamped out of sheet brass, the curtain alone being cast with
the barrel and bit P on it, and its face turned, which is a
cheaper operation than filing. In this respect it approaches
to Mr Hobbs’s style of lock-making, only he has carried the
stamping and machine-finishing system much farther; in¬
deed, it is hardly exaggerating to say that he has abolished
the use of the file, and left nothing to hand labour except
the mere fitting of the pieces together, and putting the
tumblers in the right position to have the gating cut ac¬
cording to the key.
LOCK.
Nettle- Nettlefold!s Bolt.—We have just now alluded to pad-
fold's Bolt- locks, and we shall do so no farther, because they are ge-
nerally of exactly the same internal construction as other
locks of the same maker. And, for the same reason, it
is unnecessary to describe the various modifications of the
fastening part of locks to adapt them to peculiar uses or
positions ; but there is one which does seem to he worth a
short notice, viz., an invention of Mr Nettlefold, patented
in 1839, for making the bolt hook into the striking plate,
against which it locks. This drawing of it (fig. 24) will
explain the nature of the con¬
trivance at once. We have
inserted no tumblers, because
it may be used with one kind
of lock as well as another. It
is convenient for writing-
desks, sliding cupboards, and
even for drawers, which can
often be prized open by mere¬
ly putting in a screw-driver
above the lock, and forcing
up the piece over it just enough to let the bolt pass, which
is generally short. There are other ways of doing the same
thing, such as making the holt itself hooked, and giving it
two motions, first vertical, to shoot it out, and then hori¬
zontal, to hook it into the striking plate; and some Bra¬
mah locks are made with a kind of annular bolt, which
forms a rim to the cylinder, with a segment cut oft' in one
place to let the striking plate come down, which is then
taken hold of by the other part of the ring as it revolves.
Bramah locks of portfolios, and articles of that kind, are
usually made in this way, which is very cheap and
simple.
Master- Master-Keys.—It is often convenient to have a set of
keys- locks so arranged that the key of one will open none of the
others, and yet the owner of the whole may have one
master-key that will open them all. In the old locks with
fixed wards this was done by making the wards of a slightly
different form, and yet such that one skeleton will pass
them all, just as the skeleton-key in fig. 4 will serve for the
warded key of fig. 3, and a multitude of others. In locks
with sliders or tumblers, the way is to make one tumbler in
each lock with a wider gating, so as not to require lifting so
high as it does in the other locks of the set; then the key
of that lock will raise that tumbler in that lock high enough
to clear the stump, and yet the master-key, which has a
longer bit in that place, will not raise it too high, because
the gating is wide enough for both ; but the special key of
that lock will not open any other of the set which has not
the same tumbler widened in the gating. Mr Chubb, some
years ago, made a set of locks for the Westminster Bride¬
well, with keys for the different grades of officers. The
owner of the head key can stop out any of the under keys ;
and if any attempt is made to pick any lock, and the de¬
tector is thrown, it cannot be released by any of the sub¬
ordinate keys, though they can open the lock in its normal
state, and consequently the governor must be acquainted
with it. There are a variety of other forms of many-
tumblered locks, some with the tumblers acting upwards at
one end and downwards at the other (Parson’s lock) ; and
others with some of the tumblers pulled down by bits cut
within the web of the key, besides the usual ones to be
pushed up by the key (Somerford’s) ; and some with a com¬
bination of the Bramah plan in the pipe of the key, with the
Chubb plan in the bits, and so on; but none of them in¬
volve any novelty in principle, and they are all capable of
being dealt with in the same way: and therefore we shall
at once pass on to another class of locks, viz., those which
shut of themselves, and are called—
Spring or Latch Locks.—These locks we chiefly notice
because they require a particular provision to make them
541
in the smallest degree secure, and are, nevertheless, often Latch-
left without it, by way of saving a shilling or two in their Locks,
price, and multitudes of street-door robberies are committed
in consequence. The former of these two names is gene¬
rally used for a lock which shuts of itself on a box or drawer,
or articles of that kind ; and the latter for street or room-
door locks, which shut of themselves, and open with a
handle on the inside, but only with a key on the outside.
In the simplest and cheapest form of these locks there is
no pretence of any security except a few fixed wards,
which the key has to pass ; and, as before explained, that
is no security at all against anybody with the smallest dex¬
terity, and with a serious intention of opening the lock.
Next to them, or rather below" them, pretending to be
what they are not, come the locks which lock a certain
distance themselves by means of a spring, but can be
locked farther by the key, and having tumblers, but no fixed
wards (which a good tumbler-lock does not require). But
though this kind of lock cannot be opened when it is thus
double locked, except by the key, or some efficient mode
of picking, yet when they are only self-locked (which is the
most they are ever locked in 99 cases out of 100), the tum¬
blers are of no more use than if they did not exist, and the
lock can be opened by any bit of bent wire that will go
into the key-hole. It should be remarked however, that
the Bramah lock is just as secure as usual when used for
a spring or latch lock, because the key cannot turn at all
without pushing in the sliders properly. But in this, as in
all latch-locks, it is very unsafe to have a handle which
pulls back, as it can easily be reached by a wire put through
a hole in the door; the handle should always be made to
turn, like a common room-door handle.
There are two ways in which spring-locks with tumblers
may be made as safe as the same lock with an ordinary bolt.
One is to make a click or catch fall into the bolt when it is
drawn back, and not to make the tumblers to fall when the
bolt is drawn back: in the shutting of the door this catch
is pushed back by some knob projecting for the purpose,
and then the tumblers fall and hold it fast. But this will
not do for a latch-lock which is intended to open by a
handle on one side of the door. For that purpose the
proper plan is that which is now adopted in all good latch-
locks, not to let the key act directly on the bolt, which has
no stump, but on a false bolt which lies on the top of the
real one, and has the stump fixed in it. When the real bolt
is shut by the spring it carries the false one with it, and that
is then locked by the tumblers. But the real bolt can be
pushed back by the door shutting, or pulled back by the
handle, without moving the false bolt, though it cannot be
reached through the key-hole. In buying a lock, the test
of this is to see whether the stump moves as you push or
pull the bolt back. If it does the lock is good for nothing,
unless it is on the peculiar construction to be described im¬
mediately.
Chubb’s Latch-Loch.— In order to prevent the bolt from Chubb’s
being pushed back by a piece of wire poked in between the Iatch4ock
door and the staple into which it locks, Mr Chubb has made
the following ingenious modification of the common latch-
lock. In fig. 25 the bolt is drawn back by turning a handle
H as usual, but the handle also raises all the tumblers like
a key. But the back tumbler T is not set on a fixed pin
as usual, but on a pin in the bolt, and so travels with it; and
when it is drawn back far enough, i.e., about halfway, the
spring S falls in front of that tumbler at T, and so, when
you leave hold of the handle again the bolt only goes about
half way out, as far as B, the point to which its face is be¬
velled. But when you push the door to, the sloped corner
of the bolt at R raises the spring S, and the tumbler T not
being then held up by the handle, it falls and clears the
spring, and so the bolt shoots the whole way out, and the
other tumblers fall upon its stump, and it can only be
Fig. 24.
542
LOCK.
Fig. 25.
To prevent confusion, we may observe that there is an¬
other lock called Chubb’s latch, in which the bolt consists
of a number of tumblers prolonged. But this is a very
inferior article to the latch-lock just now described, or even
to a latch-lock made in the second of the methods above
mentioned. We understand the latch-lock is used exten¬
sively in prisons (of course without the handle), where it is
not only desirable to avoid the necessity of having to lock
the cell doors by a key, but also to provide against the in¬
genuity of the inmates in pushing back the bolt of a spring-
lock. It has been suggested however, that this provision
may be defeated by a prisoner, or any other thief not yet in
prison, putting something into the bolt-hole which will pre¬
vent the bolt from shooting full out, and then the tumblers
will not fall, and the bolt can be pushed back easily. A safer
lock for this purpose is one which we shall describe pre¬
sently, and which locks by merely turning the handle, but
cannot be opened without the key.
Spring- We may observe also with reference to these latch-locks
curtain. for house doors, that they very soon get spoiled, at least so
far as to impede their action, and render them unsafe, by
the dirty atmosphere of a large town. This might easily
be prevented by using a spring curtain like that which we
shall describe in Mr Denison’s smaller lock. If purchasers
of locks would insist on having such an addition made, it
could be done without increasing the cost by more than a
shilling, and it would save its price many times over, by the
length of time the lock would go without cleaning, and last
without being spoilt. But unless purchasers insist upon
having it, it is not likely that the lockmakers will volunteer
such an improvement. The curtain should slide easily on
the drill-pin and on another pin, just below the lower end
of the key-hole, and be pressed up by a long thin spring act¬
ing upon it near the drill-pin. We suggested this some
time ago to a celebrated London loekmaker, and he under¬
took to get it done. After some months he produced a
lock, with a spring curtain certainly, but (with that peculiar
ingenuity for baffling any new invention which English
mechanics generally display) the curtain made to slide on
two pins set at some distance on each side of the drill-pin,
instead of a single pin below it; and the consequence of
course was, that there being nothing like the web of the
key to push the curtain down straight, it went rather
obliquely, and generally jammed itself fast upon the pins,
and then (as usual in such cases) was pronounced imprac¬
ticable, and thrown aside; and all this with one of Mr
Denison’s small locks as a model to copy, in which the cur¬
tain slides up and down quite easily. It has since been
done properly by Mr Hobbs; and there is plenty of room to
add it to any existing lock which has a false bolt lying
above the true bolt for the key to act on, as every good
latch-lock must have ; for otherwise the tumblers are of no Safe Loci*
value whatever, as explained above.
Safe Locks with small Keys.—In all the locks we have
yet mentioned, the bolt is acted on by the key, even though
the key may not touch it; and the key must therefore be
strong enough to move the bolt besides lifting the tumblers,
or whatever is substituted for them; and this makes the
key for a large lock too large and heavy to be conveniently
carried in the pocket, and a bunch of such keys impossible.
To get over this difficulty, most of the makers of iron safes
have adopted the plan (we do not know by whom invented)
of shooting a large bolt, or a number of bolts, by means of
a handle, and then a small lock with a small key locks into
one of them, and thus fastens them all. The security then
depends upon the impregnability of the small lock against
fraudulent picking or forcible evisceration. And it may be
mentioned here that there are certain thieves’ instruments,
by which a force sufficient to tear open the inside of a lock
can be inserted through a key-hole of the common size.
This, however, is now defeated by cutting out a piece of
the back plate, and then screwing it on again, with only a
few small screws; and so that alone gives way under any
bursting pressure, whether from the instrument called the
jack-in-the-box, or from gunpowder, which is another of the
thieves’ methods for cutting the knot which they cannot
untie. If the small lock, therefore, cannot be picked, or
forced, this mode of locking the bolts of a large door is quite
safe, and you have the advantage of a very powerful lock with
nothing to carry in your pocket larger than a small desk key.
Denison's Lock.—A lock was invented however, in 1852, Denison's
but not patented, which combines the advantages of large
and strong works, with a key-hole so narrow, that no in¬
strument strong enough to injure the lock could be got in,
nor a reflector to observe the bellies of the tumblers; and
the bolt is not only shot by turning the handle, but locked
besides, without using any key at all. But it cannot be
opened without the key ; consequently, there is no occasion
to entrust the keys to clerks, or other persons who may be
left to close the boxes or doors, provided the owner, or
some one confidential person, is there in the morning to
open them. This lock enjoys the distinction of being the
only one of English invention which is pronounced secure,
—at least against any known method of picking,—by Messrs
Hobbs and Tomlinson, in the treatise before referred to.
It was invented by Mr E. B. Denison, Q.C., whose name
has been frequently mentioned already in the article on
Clocks; and the following is its construction :—
Fig. 26.
In fig. 26 are shown the tumblers T, turning on a pin at or
near the middle of their length, so as to be nearly balanced,
though in small locks this is unnecessary. Between every
two adjacent tumblers, and between the bolt and the tumbler
next to it, there is a thin steel plate, which occupies the
position shown by the dotted lines PP. These plates have
one edge lying against the upper side of the lock, so that
they cannot turn at all on the tumbler-pin, which goes
LOG K.
Denson's through them quite loosely. One or two of the plates should
Lock, be bent a little to make them act as friction springs on the
>--v—tumblers when the cap of the lock is on, so that they will
stand indifferently in any position. In the figure they are
drawn all pressed down, so as to prevent the stump S from
entering the gating, and this has been done by the long tail
Y of the handle, which, it is easy to see, will raise the left end
of the tumblers, and depress the right, after the fan-tailed
piece X of the handle has shut the bolt. After the tumblers
have been raised to the proper height by turning the key
half round (where it may be stopped by the plates P, P),
the stump can enter the gatings, and the bolt can be drawn
back by the handle, the tail Y then doing nothing. So far
as we have gone yet, the lock would possess no greater secu¬
rity than any other many-tumblered lock; but there is a
steel curtain CC, which does not revolve as usual, but slides
on two pins set in the back of the lock, and is pressed up
against the front plate by two spiral springs, so as to close the
key-hole completely, except when it is pressed in. From
the back of the curtain there goes a kind
of square plug (shown in section at fig. 27 ),
which can be pushed through a hole in
the back plate, and has a notch in it just
in the plane of the bolt, and the bolt itself-
has a corner there ; so that when the cur-"
tain is up, the bolt can be draw n back
through the notch in the curtain plug;
but when the plug is pushed in ever so
little, the bolt cannot be drawn back, be¬
cause its corner cannot pass the curtain Fig. 27.
plug; and in this position the stump cannot be made to
touch the tumblers, except one of them, which is made a
little longer than the rest (as shown at T in fig. 26), in order
to keep the bolt steady. It is evident then, that as soon
as you push in the curtain to admit any instrument what¬
ever, the bolt is held fast, and it becomes impossible to put any
pressure of the stump upon the tumblers ; in other words, the
tentative mode of picking is impossible. In small locks, the
curtain has no plug, but merely works against the edge of a
second stump of the bolt, which can only pass when the curtain
is up, and it slides on the drill-pin and another pin below it.
The security of the lock is further increased by the ad¬
dition of what may be called a detector DEG, as it does
detect if the bolt has not been shot far enough by the per¬
son who locked it; and what is of more consequence, pre¬
vents it from being opened in that state. It turns on a
hinge or pin at G, and is held up or down by a jumper-
spring at E, as in Chubb’s first detector. In fig. 26 it is
shown as held down, or out of the way of the bolt; but as
the handle turns back again and draws back the bolt, the pin
below X raises the detector a little, and then the spring is
ready to throw its tooth into the notch in the bolt as soon
as it is shot only about half way; and in that state the bolt
cannot be drawn back without turning the handle far enough
for the fan-tail X to send the detector down again below the
corner of the spring, and by doing that you will also have
locked all the tumblers, and so made the lock fast until the
key comes to open it. And it is to be observed, that the
curtain cannot be pushed in until the bolt is hilly shot, so
that no exploration of the lock can take place while it is
open, or even partially open. It may be arranged, if re¬
quired, that the curtain could not be pushed in, not only
until the bolt is shot, but until the tumblers are locked
also, by adding a spring catch under the curtain, to be freed
by one of the tumblers when it is fully locked.
1 he following, therefore, are the advantages of this lock:—•
1. A very large lock, with all its parts strong, only requires
a very small key, not weighing above a quarter of an ounce.
2. No key is required to lock it, and you cannot leave the key
in the lock (a fruitful source of mischief), and yet it is free
from the inconvenience of spring-locks, which sometimes
543
shut themselves when not intended; and moreover, a large Denison’s
spring-lock requires a large and strong key to open it. 3. Dock.
It cannot get out of order from the usual causes of the y
tumblers sticking together, or tumbler-springs breaking,
because there are none, and the tumblers do not touch
each other, but the friction-plates between them. 4. The
key-hole being always quite closed by the curtain, ex¬
cept while the key is in, the lock is protected from dirt
and from the effects of a damp or smoky atmosphere, which
injures other locks. 5. The smallness of the key-hole prevents
the insertion of any instrument strong enough to force the
lock, and also prevents inspection. 6. It is pronounced by
the highest authority to be secure against any known mode
of picking. 7. It requires no delicacy of construction or
high finish in any of the parts; and the moving parts are
few; in fact, the whole of them together are fewer than
the number of springs alone in the great American lock
which we shall next describe. 8. It is free from the incum¬
brance of a patent, the inventor being one of those wrho
agree with the opinion of the Jury on Philosophical Instru¬
ments in the Great Exhibition, and with many of the first
engineers and most scientific men, that “ patents are a great
obstruction to the progress of science,” and waste, on the
whole, more money than they gain for real inventors.
Notwithstanding these advantages, we cannot learn that
any of the lockmakers have taken up the manufacture of
this lock, all of them having a settled course of manufac¬
ture of their own articles, which they find they can sell
sufficiently; and unless some large order should be given
for this lock (as for a set of prison doors, for which it seems
peculiarly adapted, with a master-key arrangement) it seems
not likely to be adopted until some startling event makes
the public open their eyes to the insecurity of the established
forms of English locks which they have long believed in.
We now proceed to describe what has been considered the
great triumph of transatlantic skill, viz.:—
Day and Newell's Parautoptic Lock.—This formidable Day and
name has nothing to do with the chief peculiarity of this Newell’s
lock, viz., the power of changing the key and the state of
the lock without taking it off the door, which might have
been indicated by an equally imposing title—parallactic.
Parautoptic only means that it cannot be examined through
the key-hole, which is not peculiar to this lock. In order to
understand this complicated machine it will be better to
consider the provisions for security against picking, and
those relating to the changeability of the key, independently
of each other, as they have nothing to do with each
other, and either might he used without the other. The
object of the changeable key is merely to provide against
the risk of its falling into the hands of somebody who may
have taken an impression, and made a false key from it:
.Fig. 28.
a risk which is perhaps rather more likely to be increased
than diminished by the great size of this key, and the dis-
544
LOCK.
Day and position of people not to carry such a large instrument in
Newell’s their pockets more than they can help, and the probability
Lock. Gf their not taking the trouble to unscrew the bits and
change the form of the key every time they use it. Assum¬
ing then, for the present, the key not to be made with
moveable bits, the security of the lock depends on the fol¬
lowing points :—The stump ss, which for the present mu^t
be assumed to be attached to the bolt, does not act against
the tumblers TT, which are raised by the key, and may
be called the primary tumblers, but on a set of secondary
ones tt, which are made to follow the primaries whenever
they are raised by a set of springs under them, which are
not strong enough to resist the primary tumbler-springs,
but are strong enough to lift the secondaries when the
pressure of the others is taken off. But even this does not
fully represent the independence of the secondary tumblers,
for each secondary tumbler tt really consists of two pieces,
of which one is pushed up by the spring and lifts the other
with it, which has the gating or jaws to receive the stump,
but can rise without the carrying piece being lifted. The
consequence is, that supposing pressure to be applied to the
bolt so as to hold fast one (or more) of the secondary tum¬
blers, it only holds the gating piece, and the corresponding
primary tumbler remains as free to move up and down as
if there were no pressure, and therefore the pressure can¬
not be felt. Moreover, there is a fixed w'all in the lock
between the key-hole and the secondary tumblers, so that
it is impossible to reach them from the key-hole. All the
tumblers move betw een parallel guides, instead of turning
on pins as usual; and the primary ones are also separated by
thin loose strips of iron, which prevent them from sticking
together. The secondaries, however, would be the most
likely to stick, as their springs are weaker; and as their
action depends entirely on the springs, which are compara¬
tively weak, we cannot help thinking there is some risk of
their getting stuck together by rust forming between them,
or by a drop of thickened oil, as sometimes happens in
Chubb’s, or any other spring tumbler-lock.
The primary tumblers are also prevented from being in¬
spected through the key-hole by a curtain cc, which is not
tlie ordinary flat curtain with a small barrel close to the
key-pipe, but a large ring or barrel turning in a circular
groove in both the lock-plates. Moreover, this curtain is
not concentric with the key-hole; and therefore, although
the bits of the key do not project beyond the curtain when
it is put into the key-hole, yet by the time it has got nearly
half round they project considerably, and raise the tumblers
as if there were no curtain at all in the way. On the front
edge of the curtain there is a broadish flange with a segment
cut off at the top, and on that segment there lies another
tumbler (covering the primary tumblers, and supposed to
be taken off in fig. 28, but shown in fig. 29); and any Day and
raising of this tumbler by turning the curtain, brings over Newell’s
the straight part of the key-hole (through which alone any b°ck-
inspection could be made) a revolving plate (fig. 301), which
lies outside the front plate of the lock, by means of a pinp,
which comes through the front plate, and works in a hole in
the revolving plate. This revolving plate is called the de¬
tector plate, but with no good reason, for, like many other
so-called detectors, it detects nothing, though it does pre¬
sent additional obstacles to opening the lock with anything
except the right key. For, when the lock is locked, it has
hold of a pin <7 in
the bolt, which
can only be
freed by the
plate revolving,
and so closing
all the key-hole,
except the hole
in the middle,
which is occu¬
pied by the key.
There is also a
kind of spring-
lever ll, which
locks upwards
into the bolt. •Fig- 30-
and is also only freed by the tail m of the revolving plate
as it moves to the left under the action of the key.
In spite of all these accumulated securities, one of these
locks was lately picked in America by a totally unexpected
method. There is no great difficulty in getting an instru¬
ment into the lock which will deposit a little printing-ink,
or other black grease, on the bellies of the tumblers just
over the key-hole. This was done a short time before the
owner wras going to lock the lock; and the effect of his
doing so was to spread the ink along each of the tumblers
just as far as the key happens to touch it. If you can get
now another instrument, or succession of instruments, into
the lock, which will take off the impressions made on the
tumblers, or measure the length of them, you can make a
key from it; and the great size of the key-hole enables this
to be done by putting in a wooden key of this shape ;
the rounded surface allowing the black on the turn-
biers to mark its own length thereon. Mr Hobbs j
however has defeated this contrivance, by adding a 'qV
wiper to the revolving curtain, which always passes
overall the tumblers after the key,and so wipes the ink Fl?' 31‘
along them all equally, and prevents the length of sweep of
the key-bits from being distinguished. We may observe
here, that the opening of a six-tumblered Newell’s lock in
this country, a few years ago, which the English lock-makers
made a great deal of, proved nothing at all, as it was done by
merely working through the permutations of the key, which
are only 720 for 6 tumblers; and the right one was, by good
luck, hit upon long before they were all gone through. An
expensive lock of this kind ought not to have less than 8
tumblers, which would give 40,320 changes, and take a
man four months to work through, at the rate of one every
two minutes for twelve hours a-day. Besides that, it is pos¬
sible still further to increase the number of changes by
having some spare bits to the key beyond the number of
tumblers, so that the number of changes may be increased
enormously, as nobody finding (say) 12 bits loose could tell
which eight of them had been used to form the key to lock
the lock.
In order to understand the principle of this changeable
key machinery, suppose that you could shift the position of
Fig. 29. the stump in an ordinary tumbler-lock, then all the bits of
1 In this figure, which is copied from Mr Hobbs's Rudimentary Treatise on Locks, the detector plate is drawn the reverse way of the
two figures of the lock ; for what reason we are not aware.
LOCK.
545
Fig. 32.
Day and the key would require making shorter or longer in order to
Newell’s raise the tumblers to the proper height. Suppose next that
Lock‘ each tumbler had a stump of its own screwed to the bolt,
but capable of being unscrewed and shifted at pleasure,
then every bit of the key would require altering whenever
you alter the position of the corresponding stump. And
again, suppose these separate stumps to be so attached to
the bolt, by a ratchet and click, or some similar contriv¬
ance, that when the bolt is back and the stumps lying in the
jaws of the tumblers, the tumblers will carry the stumps
with them to whatever height they may be raised by a key,
and leave them sticking to the bolt at that height when the
bolt is shot, and the stumps pass out of the jaws of the tum¬
blers,—then it is clear that the lock can only be opened by
the same key which raised the tumblers and stumps to that
particular height; and yet, as soon as it is opened, the
stumps again come under the dominion of the tumblers,
and any other key will do to lock the lock again just as well
as the one which was used before. In other words, such a
lock is perfectly neutral and indifferent as to the key which
may be used to lock it, but it cannot be unlocked by any
key except the one which locked it last; and, therefore, by
changing the key, or the arrangement of a given set of bits
fixed to one stem, you change the lock also.
We may observe, that a key with transposable bits is by
no means new ; but then it always before required the lock
to be taken off, or the tum¬
blers transposed by some
other operation, to suit the
alteration of the key. Fig.
32 shows the construction
of any changeable key, the
bits being put in in any or¬
der, and fastened by a screw going through them all.
Now, to apply this to Newell’s lock. In fig. 28 it is
shown unlocked, and the moveable stumps ss are then lying
within the jaws of the secondary tumblers tt; and besides
that, they are now taken hold of near the top by the long
pieces projecting from the primary tumblers TT. Conse¬
quently, when the primaries are raised by the key for lock¬
ing, the sliding stumps ss are lifted with them; and as
they slide up and down between guides fixed to the bolt,
they are carried forwards, and out of connexion with the
primary tumblers when the bolt is shot; but just before
the connexion ceases, a click k falls into the back of the
stumps (which are notched for the purpose), and holds
them at the same height until they return. There are as
many notches in the stumps as there are different lengths in
the key-bits; and, as before stated, there may be any number
of bits capable of fitting on to the same key, whether of the
same or different lengths, so as to increase the variations in
the lock without increasing the number of the tumblers.
These locks do not appear to have been as yet much
adopted in England : whether from the cost, the ponder¬
ousness of the key, and the trouble involved in taking it to
pieces frequently (for without that, the changeability is no
security whatever), or merely from the national antipathy
to novelties, and the national confidence in our own secu¬
rity, we do not pretend to say. It is certain that, in Ame¬
rica, both the thieves are more dexterous, and the owners
of property spend much more upon locks and safes than we
do. A New York watchmaker told us lately that he locks
up all his valuable goods every night in a cast and wrought
iron safe two inches thick, with a lock that cost L.50.
There are however some of them used in the Bank of
England, and a few other banks.
Ihe French Changeable-key Lock, though very inferior
to the American ones in security, has this advantage, that
nobody can lock or change it for mischievous or fraudulent
purposes without possession of the key that last locked it.
The primary tumblers which are raised by the key do not
VOL. XIH.
contain the gatings for the stump, but work a second set French
of tumblers which do, by means of teeth, like two toothed
wheels working together. In order to change the lock, you v '|0C 8‘ y
overlock it backwards a little with the key that will open it
(i.e., which locked it last), and, by turning a small handle,
you throw the two sets of tumblers out of gear with each
other. Then change the bits of the key as you please, and
put it into the lock again and turn it, as before, half way
round, and bring the tumblers together again by the handle.
They will join by a different set of teeth from before, and
the altered key alone will open the lock. This plan may
be adapted to any kind of tumbler-lock; and if it is one of
a secure construction, it would be just as good as the more
complicated American lock. Mr Chubb has lately made
some of these locks; but in this instance also, the neces¬
sary size and weight of the key seems to be an impediment
to their use; and probably any one who was inclined to
spend a largish sum on a changeable lock, would buy the
American one, which is undoubtedly very superior to the
French in security both against picking and violence.
In order to get over this disadvantage of a large key,
Mr Hobbs invented another lock, which is equally change¬
able, and still more parautoptic, or secure from inspection,
than Newell’s. The key that you have to carry is, in fact,
nothing but the web or bits of a key, which may be either
fixed or changeable, according to the nature of the lock.
The key-hole has no centre of motion within it; but when
this web of key is pushed into a hole in the lock, you turn
a handle in another place, and that carries the key round
quite invisibly, closing the hole completely ; and as it turns,
it opens the lock in the usual way, and returns. There is
no possibility of feeling or examining its action, as no handle
can go with it into the lock. The only objection to it is,
that it is troublesome to put such a key in, and still more
so to get it out again; and consequently, it has not taken
with the public, nor do we believe that any lock will, which
does not admit of a moderate-sized key of the usual form,
and to be used with no more trouble than usual. We can¬
not help thinking that some spring action might be con¬
trived, which would enable this very neat and small key to
be pushed into the lock and shot out again, with no more
trouble than is involved in turning a key and then a handle,
as in the now common arrangement for large safe locks.
In fact, after we had written this, Mr Hobbs sent us a Yale’s lock,
new American lock, invented by Mr Linus Yale of Phila¬
delphia, in which this very thing is done; the bits of the
key being taken off the shank or handle, and carried away
into the inside of the lock, where they perform their work,
and rejoin the key shank before the revolution is com¬
pleted. But the key itself is so large and thick, that it is
far from realizing the advantages just now suggested in Mr
Flobbs’ travelling key-bits. The description sent with it is
unfortunately quite unintelligible without an inspection of
the lock itself, and the lock is so complicated, that we de¬
spair of being able to convey any idea of more than the
general principles of its construction. It is a changeable
lock, like Newell’s, and with this great point of superiority
over that lock, that it is entirely independent of the
action of tumbler-springs; the moveable stumps,
and the sliders or tumblers which act upon them,
all lying between friction plates, as in Denison’s and
Tucker’s locks, and standing indifferently anywhere.
The only spring is a long spiral spring in the
shank of the key (fig. 33), which drives a pin
through the bits (which are all screwed together
just in whatever order you please), and that pin
yields to another pin in the lock, which meets it
as you push the key in; so that the bits then be¬
come attached to this lock pin, which itself moves
on a sliding stud, which carries off the bits into ^
the acting part of the lock against the ends of Fig. 33.
3 z
546
Yale's
Lock.
LOCK.
the sliding tumblers. This part of the lock, viz., the box
containing the sliders, is shown in fig. 34. Any of the pri¬
mary sliders T, when pushed by the key, carries along
Fig. 34.
with it the corresponding stump-slider S, and these sliders
correspond to what we called the stump-tumblers in Newell s
lock. After that is done, the box BB, which contains those
sliders, is moved upwards, and delivers them all to the
tooth Q, which holds them in whichever of their notches
it happens to receive them. The primary sliders having
been brought back by other motions in the lock to their
original or "neutral position, the box BB cannot be brought
down again until all the primary sliders are pushed by the
proper key into exactly the same position as they were
when they parted with the stump-sliders. This part of the
lock is really very simple, and involves no delicate or dif¬
ficult work, as all the tumblers, all the stump-sliders, and
all the little plates which lie between them both are, or
ought to be, exactly alike, and may be stamped out of sheet-
iron and brass.; and the whole thing goes into a very small
compass, although the lock itself is very large. We may
observe here, that if you were to take the key out of the
lock (filing off the small bit like that in the Bramah key,
which goes under the cap to keep it in), after the bits aie
cut off and carried away into the lock, you would not find
the key-hole open, but closed at the depth which takes in
the bits by a hard steel plate, which slides over it as soon
as the box or “ carriage” of the tumblers begins to move.
It would be natural to suppose that the cross piece BB
at the end of the slider-box is the bolt, as it is pi evented
from moving down as a bolt usually is, until the stumps
can enter the jaws of the tumblers ; and this cross piece is,
in fact, lifted by a kind of talon turned by the key, just like
an ordinary bolt. But, nevertheless, it is not the bolt,
but merely locks into the bolt, or rather lilts a lever which
does, so that no amount of force which could be brought to
bear on the bolt has any tendency to crush the tumblers or
sliders ; and this is the reason why they can be so small while
the lock is very large. The key however cannot be said
to be small, for it is even thicker than Newells ; but you
might carry only the bits in your pocket, and stick them on
to the handle or shank of the key, which may be left any¬
where near the lock. Another singular provision is intio-
duced in this lock. The bolt or bolts are not square-cor¬
nered as usual, but large round cylinders, case-hardened, so
that if you attempt to cut them with a saw they will only
roll under .it. Figure 35, which is copied from a paper called
the Scientific American, shows the general aspect of the Yale’s
lock when the front plate is taken off. All that box marked Lock.
bb, which is as large as an ordinary lock, moves to the left,
Fig. 35.
and carries the bolts with it when the lock is locked, leav¬
ing, of course, some of its parts behind under the key-hole.
The piece here marked ii is that which we called BB in
fig. 34, and it works the lever b, which butts against the
horizontal piece lying under the tooth-wheel f, when the
lock-carriage is shot out. It will be understood perhaps by
those who are conversant with machinery, how the different
parts of this carriage, and the plates which cover it, may be
carried backwards and forwards by the toothed wheels and
pins shown in this figure; but, as we are convinced that
any attempt to explain the details of this machinery, with¬
out having the lock itself before you, would be useless, we
shall content ourselves with the attempt we have made to
give some idea of the general principles of its action. We
will only add, that the casting of both these American
locks (which have all their heavy parts of cast-iron) is vastly
superior to any iron casting we have ever seen made in
England; and, on the whole, the United States are evi¬
dently far ahead of us in the manufacture of both good and
cheap locks; and all because our people are too stupid to
substitute machinery for hand-work, and because (as Mr
Hobbs said in the discussion at the Society of Arts, on the
establishment lately set up by the government for the
manufacture of arms at Woolwich), “ if the English work¬
men can do anything to make a machine go wrong, they will;
whereas in America they will do all they can to help it.”
In the same way the American and French manufacturers
of clocks have driven our makers both of common clocks
and of ornamental clocks out of our own market; and any
enterprising manufacturer might very soon finish the busi¬
ness by making both church and house clocks at half the
price which is paid for the old-fashioned hand-work of Clerk-
enwell, and of far better quality. (e. B. D.)
LOCKE.
547
LOCKE, John, whose opinions have been fully dis¬
cussed, and whose biography has been partly anticipated
in the First Preliminary Dissertation, was bom at
Wrington, near Bristol, 29th August 1632. His father had
served as a captain under Colonel Pophana, in the parlia¬
mentary army ; and the moderate inheritance of the family
had suffered considerably during the civil wars. The young
philosopher was the elder of two sons, and received his edu¬
cation at Westminster School, whence (in 1651) he was
sent to Christ Church College in Oxford. Here he applied
himself diligently to the study of the classics, and made
rapid progress in the scholastic philosophy as it was then
taught. In after life, however, and probably even before
he had quitted the walls of the university, he learned to
despise and regret this futile training, and he is said to>
have frankly acknowledged to Le Clerc, that he learned the
first steps in philosophy from one to whom he afterwards
proved a worthy antagonist—Descartes. In his reply to
Stillingfleet, Locke ascribes to that “justly admired gentle¬
man the great obligation of his first deliverance from the
unintelligible way of talking of the philosophy in use in
the schools of his time.” After he had taken his degrees
in arts, Locke devoted himself to the study of medicine ;
and, although he neither graduated nor practised, his scien¬
tific accuracy procured him a high encomium from Dr Sy¬
denham, in his Treatise on Acute Diseases'; and his prac¬
tical skill introduced him to the notice of the first Earl of
Shaftesbury, “ the false Achitophel ” of Dryden’s satire,
with whom he continued in undivided friendship to the end.
In 1660 Locke wrote a tract on Church Establishments,
recommending concessions on trivial matters alike to the
government, whom he regarded as the friends of liberty, and
to the opposition, whom he deemed factious and turbulent
demagogues. Finding, however, very soon that he had mis¬
taken the true characters of both parties, his love of truth
compelled him to suppress the work and to bury all its mis-
aimed eloquence and indignation. Lord King has preserved
some extracts from it, which are valuable as giving us the
starting-point of Locke’s opinions. In 1664 Locke visited
Berlin as secretary to Sir Walter Vane, envov from Charles
II. to the Elector of Brandenburg, and in the following year
he returned to Oxford. Preferment was offered him in the
Irish Church, as well as diplomatic employment in Spain
or Germany, but both proposals he rejected firmly, hinting
in regard to the former, that it was to him an ungrateful
stretch of power, to offer “ an office of that nature to one
who had given no proof of himself, and had never even tried
the pulpit.” A more congenial home was provided for him,
in 1666, by Ashley Cooper, afterwards Earl of Shaftesbury,
who, profiting by his medical skill, invited him to his house,
and soon drew him from the peaceful retirement of Oxford
to the brilliant circles of the capital. It was by this noble¬
man that he was introduced to the Duke of Buckingham,
the Earl of Northumberland,, the Earl of Halifax, and many
of the most distinguished men of the period. In 1688 he
accompanied the Earl of Northumberland to France; but,
on the death of the earl, returned immediately to England
to superintend the education of Lord Ashley’s eldest son.
So remarkable was the confidence which this nobleman
placed in the prudence of the philosopher, that he requested
him to choose a wife for his son, a delicate task which he
very successfully accomplished. The fruit of this marriage
was the third Earl of Shaftesbury, the genial and generous
author of the Characteristics.
I he first sketch of Locke’s work on the Human Under¬
standing was made in 1670. He was present one day
at a very animated discussion conducted by some learned
men at Oxford. He listened attentively to everything
that was said, and had the sagacity to perceive that it was
after all only a dispute about words. This reflection was
the germ of his immortal work. When Lord Ashley ob¬
tained an earldom, and was appointed chancellor of the Locke,
exchequer in 1672, he requested Locke to frame a consti-
tution for the government of Carolina, which Charles II.
had gifted to him along with seven other noblemen about
nine years before. In the same year Locke obtained the
appointment of secretary for the presentation of benefices;
and in 1673, when his patron resigned the Great Seal, he
became secretary to the Board of Trade. In 1675 Locke
visited France for the benefit of his health, and resided at
Montpellier, where he acquired the friendship of Mr Her¬
bert (afterwards Earl of Pembroke), to whom he dedicated
his Essay concerning Human Understanding. Removing
soon after to Paris, he was welcomed by the most eminent
scientific and literary men. During the whole of his resi¬
dence abroad, Locke kept a journal of his observations, the
pith of which have been preserved in his biography by Lord
King. In these he gives the most admirable descriptions
of the strange scenes in which he was placed ; and in the
excitement of new forms of life, the dry logical humour of
the philosopher often gives way to a fine pleasantry, not
unmixed with pathos. The frightful pressure of taxation
on the poor of France fills many pages in his journal; and
his remarks on homely things are relieved by a dissertation
on study, remarks on the immortality of the soul, and an
essay on religion, in which he anticipates Tillotson’s argu¬
ment against the real presence.
In 1679, when the Earl of Shaftesbury had regained his
political power, Locke returned to England ; but very soon
that nobleman was again disgraced, charged with high trea¬
son, and compelled to retire to Holland in 1682, whither
Locke faithfully followed him. Shaftesbury died in 1683,
and his political enemies transferred their hostility to the
exiled philosopher. Even at that distance from England
he was pursued by the rancour of the government; the
English envoy demanded Locke and some other gentlemen
from the States-General, on the charge of being concerned
in the rebellion of Monmouth. His friends, however, suc¬
ceeded in keeping him out of sight till concealment was no
longer necessary. At Amsterdam he met Limborch, Le
Clerc, and other distinguished men, who formed themselves
into a philosophical society, and held a weekly meeting for the
discussion of interesting questions. At this time Locke was
removed from his studentship in Christ Church College by
an illegal order of the king; but nothing can be more honour¬
able to his character than the testimony borne to his worth
by Bishop Fell, the time-serving tool employed by the king
to compass the ruin of his subject. The bishop freely con¬
fesses that, “ although very frequently, both in public and
in private, discourses have been purposely introduced to the
disparagement of his master, the Earl of Shaftesbury, his
party and designs, he could never be provoked to take any
notice, or discover in word or look the least concern.”
In 1686 he published, in one of the Bibliotheques of his
friend Le Clerc, his New Method of a Common-place Book ;
and in 1687 he abridged his Essay concerning Human Un¬
derstanding,which Le Clerc translated into French, and gave
to the world through the same channel. In the Bibliotheque
of 1688, his first letter to Limborch On Toleration appeared;
it was published in England in the same year ; and it was
translated into Latin, and published at Gouda, in 1689.
Some theologians at Oxford, who disliked the freedom of
the opinions expressed in the essay, attacked them, and
Locke defended his work in three additional letters. Some
of Locke’s friends were anxious to have him restored in
safety to his country. The celebrated William Penn told
him that he could get a pardon for him from the king; but
being conscious of no crime, Locke declined to accept any
pardon. The Earl of Pembroke also assured the king that
the stories in circulation about Locke were false, and even¬
tually obtained permission for his return to England. In
1688, he returned to his native country in the same fleet
548 LOG
Lockhart, which brought over the Princess of Orange ; and Lord
Mordaunt, who had offered him a diplomatic situation, which
was modestly declined, succeeded in procuring for him the
office of commissioner of appeals. Locke petitioned the
king for the recovery of his rights as a student of Christ
Church College, but without success.
His most remarkable work, the Essay concerning Human
Understanding, was first published in England in 1690.
Four editions appeared within ten years, and through the
medium of Latin and French the author soon acquired a
European reputation. Two Treatises on Civil Government
appeared in 1690, written in support of the principles of the
Revolution—the second being a reply to Jonas Proast of
Oxford; and in 1693 he published his Thoughts concern¬
ing Education. He lived during the greater part of the
rest of his life in the house of his friend Sir Francis Masham,
at Oates; and it is interesting to know that Lady Masham
(the daughter of his friend, Dr Cudworth) taught her only
son according to the principles laid down in Locke’s work
on Education. In 1695 he wrote his treatise on The Rea¬
sonableness of Christianity, which, when attacked by Dr
Edwards, was followed up by two Vindications. Besides
his excellent tract on The Conduct of the Understanding,
Locke, in his declining years, wrote many other works,
chiefly religious, among which may be mentioned his Dis¬
course on Miracles ; Paraphrases, tvith Notes, of the Epistles
of St Paul; an Essay for the Understanding of St Paul’s
Epistles, by consulting St Paul himself; and an Examina¬
tion of Father Malebranche’s Opinion of Seeing all things
in God. About this time began his friendship with New¬
ton, whose morbid misappreciation of Locke’s philosophy
and character led to a most affecting correspondence, which
is given by Dugald Stewart in his Dissertation.
In 1700 Locke’s health became so much impaired by his
asthmatic complaint, that he objected to receive the emolu¬
ments of an office which he was no longer able to fill, and con¬
sequently resigned his situation at the Board of Trade. The
king himself offered him a still higher position, but this also
was declined; and although his public services fully en¬
titled him to receive a pension, he could not be prevailed
upon to accept one. Towards the close of his days he took
great delight in the study of the Floly Scriptures ; and all
the finer qualities of his character came out into stronger
relief as he approached the confines of another world. On
the day before his death he expressed his gratitude to God
for the happy life which he had spent. He told his affec¬
tionate friend, Lady Masham, that he had now come to the
end of his career, and that he would not probably live till
the next morning; but when she desired to sit up with
him during the night, he begged that she would not do so,
and that he would send for her if any change should occur.
On the following morning, while Lady Masham was en¬
gaged in reading the Psalms to him, he requested hefr to
stop, and in a few minutes expired, on the 28th of October
1704, in the seventy-third year of his age. He was buried
in the tomb of the Masham family, in High Laver Church.
The best edition of his works is in 10 vols. 8vo, London,
1801 to 1812. (See Lord King’s Life of Locke, and Dugald
Stewart’s Preliminary Dissertation.)
LOCKHART, John Gibson, a critical and miscel¬
laneous writer of considerable power and celebrity, was
born in the manse or parsonage of Cambusnethan, county
of Lanark, in the year 1794. He was the first son by the
second marriage of the Rev. John Lockhart, minister of
Cambusnethan, with Elizabeth Gibson, daughter of the
Rev. Mr Gibson, minister of St Cuthbert’s, Edinburgh.
The father of Mr Lockhart was afterwards appointed to the
College Church, Glasgow, and in this city John received
his first education. He distinguished himself at college,
and obtained one of the valuable bursaries (worth about
L.150 per annum) known as Snell’s Exhibitions, in virtue
LOG
of which he proceeded to Balliol College, Oxford. He Lockhart
retired from the university with the degree of LL.B., and
applied himself to the study of Scottish law. He was called
to the bar in 1816, but soon found that he was not calcu¬
lated to excel as an advocate. He was more attached to
literature than to law, and nature had denied him the
fluency and self-possession necessary for success in address¬
ing a court or jury. His contemporaries saw with surprise
and pain the accomplished, handsome, carefully-dressed
advocate, who had been engaged in quizzing his associates
around the court table, or in drawing clever caricature
sketches with his pen, rise up in trepidation to “ state a
case,”—how he hammered out a few words, got confused,
plunged deeper at every step, and at length, fairly losing
himself, sat down in an agony of vexation. A more con¬
genial field was opened up by the establishment of Black¬
wood’s Magazine in 1817, and for a period of seven or eight
years there were few numbers of that periodical which did
not contain some pungent or graceful article from the pen
of Mr Lockhart. He tried all styles and subjects ; he trans¬
lated from the German and Spanish, reviewed books, in¬
dited bitter political articles, full of Oxford Toryism and
scholarship, against all Whigs and Cockneys; and no one
excelled him either in cold and stinging sarcasm, or in
slashing invective. He also sketched scenes and characters
with a milder hand, and composed occasional copies of
verses, some of which breathed the inspiration of genuine
poetry. Flis position in society was benefited by his mar¬
riage, 29th April 1820, with the eldest daughter of Sir
Walter Scott. Previous to this Mr Lockhart had, in con¬
junction with his friend Mr (afterwards Professor) Wilson,
written Peter’s Letters to his Kinsfolk, 3 volumes—a
lively but exaggerated picture of Scottish society, charac¬
ter, and manners, including portraits of Scott, Jeffrey, Chal¬
mers, &c. In 1821 appeared his novel of Valerius, an ex¬
quisite Roman story ; in 1822, Adam Blair, a Scottish
tale of domestic life, containing some powerful painting of
the passions; in 1823, a longer novel in 3 volumes, Re¬
ginald Dalton, delineating English and especially univer¬
sity life; also a translation of Ancient Spanish Ballads,
remarkable for elegance of style and versification ; and, in
1824, another novel in one volume, somewhat in the style
of Godwin, entitled Matthew Wald. In 1825 Mr Lock¬
hart succeeded to the editorship of the Quarterly Review,
which he continued to conduct till within a short period of
his death. His other works were,—a Life of Burns, written
for Constable’s Miscellany, and published in 1828; a Life
of Napoleon, contributed to Murray’s Family Library ; and,
in 1836, his magnum opus, the Life of Sir Walter Scott,
which, as originally published, extended to 7 volumes 8vo.
This was a work of great difficulty and delicacy. He had
to fill a broad canvas with living or recent characters, and
with contemporary events. He had to enter a critical arena
preoccupied by the greatest names of the age, and to deal
with affairs of active life and business, as well as with mat¬
ters of intellect and imagination. He aimed at strict im¬
partiality ; and we have seen a private letter from him, in
which he declared that he wrote as if the spirit of Scott,
intent only upon truth, looked down upon him at the mo¬
ment of composition. The alloy of human error, however,
could not be absent, and some grave and serious blemishes
stained the work. In relating Scott’s business transactions,
not only was too great prominence given to them, but mani¬
fest injustice was done to the Ballantynes, the early asso¬
ciates and friends of the illustrious novelist. Wanton of¬
fence and needless pain were also given to other parties by
partial and incorrect statements, which no doubt sprung
from the author’s desire to bring out Scott in bold relief,
and to impart variety and vivacity to the memoir. The
work, however, is really a great one. We recognise in it
Lockhart’s manly and independent tone of description, his
LOG
Lockerby true and penetrating estimate of life and conduct, and the
II masterly powers of description and analysis which he brought
Lode, Le. to tagk. a mere literary work, in style and treat-
ment, it must rank in the first class; and as a biography, for
fulness and interest, it is only surpassed by Boswell’s Life
of Johnson. Mr Lockhart’s Life of Burns is an able little
work, full of fine moral and picturesque delineation. In the
Quarterly Review he seemed also to select biography as
his chosen field. His critical sketches of Theodore Hook,
Campbell, Southey, &c., display the same characteristics as
his elaborate works,—the quick eye and firm hand, that
never hesitated to use the scalpel freely lest too deep a
wound might be inflicted, are visible in the slightest of
these dissections of character and conduct. Mr Lockhart’s
tact and management were no less manifest in the general
variety and attractive character of the Revieiv while it was
under his charge. We meddle not with its political dis¬
quisitions, which were often narrow and bitter enough ;
but he unquestionably made this powerful organ of a party
keep pace not only with the literature, the science, and dis¬
covery of the age, but with its social tastes, amusements,
and fashion. In 1843 Sir Robert Peel rewarded Mr Lock¬
hart with the sinecure appointment of auditor of the duchy
of Cornwall, worth L.400 per annum.
The latter years of Mr Lockhart’s life were not happy or
genial. He had survived his wife and all the other children
of Sir Walter Scott. His own family consisted of two sons
and a daughter; both his sons predeceased him, but his
daughter (married to Mr Hope Scott of Abbotsford) still
lives to continue the illustrious line of Scott. Irregular
health and study impaired Lockhart’s strength, and in¬
duced habits of indolence, while his literary ardour was still
strong within him, and flashed out at intervals. As he said
of Campbell, “ A high and supereminent prize seemed still
within his reach, but this spur was overmastered by the
chill of tremor and the creeping of laziness.” He endea¬
voured, by a winter in Italy, to renovate his shattered con¬
stitution, and at first the result was favourable. He re¬
turned somewhat invigorated, though feeling acutely that
premature old age had set in. He had intended never again
to visit Abbotsford after Scott’s death; but, in the desola¬
tion of his last days, when his spirit was broken and health
had utterly fled, he turned to it once more, and his parting
spirit was soothed by the attentions of filial duty and ten¬
derness amidst those scenes, immortalized by genius, which
had witnessed his youthful ambition and happiness. He
died at Abbotsford on the 25th November 1854, having
shortly before completed his sixtieth year. (r. c—s.)
LOCKERBY, a market-town of Scotland, in Dumfries¬
shire, on the Caledonian Railroad, 13 miles E.N.E. of Dum¬
fries. A considerable trade in pork is carried on; and the
largest lamb fair in Scotland is held here annually in August.
Market-day, Thursday. Pop. (1851) 1569.
LOCKPORT, a town of the United States of North
America, capital of Niagara county, New York, on the
Erie Canal, which here descends to the Genessee level by
means of ten double combined locks, 23 miles E.N.E. of
Niagara Falls by railway. The town contains churches be¬
longing to all the principal denominations, and is plentifully
supplied with educational establishments. The main cause
of the prosperity of Lockport is the vast water-power it
derives from the locks on the Erie Canal, providing its
numerous flour, saw, and other mills with abundant motive
power. Among the principal of its manufactures are wool,
cotton, and iron. A large trade is also carried on with
Buffalo, Rochester, and other places by means of the canal.
Pop. (1852) about 14,000.
LOCLE, Le, a large scattered village of Switzerland, can¬
ton of Neuchatel, on the Bied, which here disappears in the
chasm of a neighbouring rock, 10 miles W.N.W. of Neu¬
chatel, and 3 miles E. of the French frontier. Its inhabit-
LOG 549
ants are chiefly employed in clock, watch, and lace making, Locri
and the manufacture of trinkets. Not far from the town jjo|rjs
is a tunnel, 950 feet long, which was excavated in 1806 ' y
for the purpose of relieving the valley of the superabundant
water occasioned by the melted snow in spring. Pop. 8514.
LOCRI, or Locri Epizephyrii, a town of the Greek
Locrians in Italy, on the S.E. coast of the Bruttian penin¬
sula. Ephorus ascribes its foundation to the Locri Opuntii;
Strabo to the Locri Ozolae. The former opinion is the
more prevalent among ancient writers. The name Locri
Epizephyrii favours Strabo’s supposition that this settle-
merit was the offshoot of a Locrian settlement at Cape
Zephyrium (Capo di Bruzzano). The date of its founda¬
tion is uncertain. No less obscurity involves the early
history of the Locri until about B.c. 660, when their famous
lawgiver, Zaleucus, published his code of laws, supposed
to be the earliest written legislative system ever given to
any Grecian state. So enduring was the beneficial effect
of these institutes, that even in the time of Demosthenes,
Locri is cited as an ensample of good government. The
next important event in its history is the battle at the River
Sagras, in which 10,000 Locrians and a few Rhegian auxi¬
liaries defeated, with great carnage, an army of 130,000
Crotoniats. From a very early period of their history the
Locrians were bound by a firm alliance to the Greek city
of Syracuse. Nor did their fidelity to that state cease
until its tyrant, Dionysius the Younger, took refuge in their
city, seized upon their citadel, cruelly oppressed tbem, and
was finally expelled. They were allies of the Romans
against Pyrrhus; but after the battle of Cannae, in 216 B.c.,
revolted to the Carthaginians, and did not resume the yoke
of Rome until 205 b.c. From this period Locri seems to
have gradually declined in importance; and after the sixth
century, there is no note in any author of its existence.
About 5 miles from the modern city Gerace, travellers
have discovered its site, containing, among other remains,
the fragments of a Doric edifice, supposed to be the temple
of Proserpine. Among the celebrated natives of Locri
were the poets Erasippus and Xenocritus; the philoso¬
phers Acrion, Echecrates, and Timaeus, said to have been
the instructors of Plato in Pythagoreanism ; the cithara-
player Eunomus; and the famous boxer Euthymus.
LOCRIS, the country of the three Grecian tribes, the
Locri Ozolae, the Locri Epicnemidii, and the Locri Opuntii,
is supposed by Niebuhr to have extended originally from
the Corinthian G ulf on the W., to the Eubcean Sea on the
E., until broken up into two parts by the immigration of
the Dorians and Phocians. The Locrians thus became
two distinct tribes, differing in manners and civilization,
and separated by Doris and Phocis. The eastern tribe, the
Locri Epicnemidii and Opuntii, were the more civilized;
the western, the Locri Ozolae, are represented by Thucy¬
dides as semi-barbarians even at the time of the Pelopon¬
nesian war.
The territory of the Locri Epicnemidii and Opuntii
extended along the shore of the Euboean Sea, from
the pass of Thermopylae to the mouth of the River Cephis-
sus, and was divided into two parts by a narrow slip of
Phocis that runs down to the sea-coast. The southern part
was inhabited by the Opuntii, so called from Opus, their
chief city. The Epicnemidii held the northern part, and
derived their name from Mount Cnemis, the boundary be¬
tween their country and Boeotia. The towns of the Opuntii
were,—Alope, Cynus, Opus, Halae, Larymna, Calliarus,
Naryx, and Corseia; those of the Epicnemidii were,—
Alpenus, Nicaea, Scarphe, Thronium, Cnemis, Tarphe
(afterwards Pharygae), and Augeiae. Homer mentions the
eastern Locrians as following Ajax, the son of Oileus, to
the Trojan war with forty ships. In the Persian war the
Opuntii fought on the side of Leonidas at Thermopylae,
and sent their contingent of seven ships to the Grecian
550
L O D
L O F
Lodeve fleet. They also joined the Epicnemidii in an alliance
II. with Sparta during the Peloponnesian war.
k0'*’’ Locri Ozolce occupied a district on the Corinthian Gulf,
bounded on the E. by Phocis, on the N. by Doris and
jEtolia, and on the W. by iEtolia. The origin of their
name is uncertain. Different authors severally derive it from
the smell (ofq) emitted by the sulphur-springs at the foot of
Mount Taphiassus, from the fragrance of the asphodel that
abounded in the country, and from the undressed skins
(o£ai) worn by the primitive inhabitants. The Locrians them¬
selves traced it to the branches (o£oi) of a vine peculiar to
that district. The country is rendered mountainous by off¬
sets from Mount Parnassus in Phocis, and from Mount Corax
in ^Etolia. The only river worthy of note is the Hylaethus
(Morno). Amphissa, lying near the borders of Phocis, was
the most important town of the Ozolae. The other towns
were, — Molycreia, Naupactus, G^neon, Anticyra, Eupa-
lium, Erythrae, Tolophon,Hessus, GEanthe, Ipnus, Chalaeum,
Jlgitium, Hyle, Crocyleium, Messapia, Myonia, Olpae,
Potidania, Teichium, and Tritsea.
LODEVE, a town of S. France, capital of a cognominal
arrondissement in the department of Herault, on the Ergue,
near its junction with the Saloudres, 110 miles W. by N.
of Marseilles. It is encompassed by a wall, and its streets
are narrow and irregular. The only building worthy of
notice is the church of St Etienne, formerly a cathedral,
which contains some interesting and beautiful monuments;
one of these being a white marble mausoleum inclosing the
remains of a Bishop of Lodeve. The principal manufac¬
tures of the place comprise woollen cloths, soap, and
leather : the first being used extensively for army clothing.
Dyeing is also carried on here, and a brisk trade in wines,
brandy, and fruit. Lodeve is the seat of chambers of com¬
merce and manufactures, and a council of prudhommes*
Pop. (1851) 10,793.
LODGE, Thomas, a dramatist, was born about 1556 in
Lincolnshire. In 1573 he entered Oxford as a servitor of
Trinity College, but left it without taking a degree, and
repaired to London. There he seems to have become an
actor, and to have begun to write for the stage about 1580,
when he produced his Defence of Stage Plays, in answer
to Gosson’s School of Abuse. In 1584 he w as a student
at Lincoln’s Inn, and published, among other works, his
Alarum against Usurers. Soon after this he accompanied
Captain Clarke on his voyage to Terceira and the Ca¬
naries ; and while sailing through the Straits of Magellan,
in company with Cavendish, he wrote his Margerite of
America, which was published in 1596. Some time after
this period, according to Wood, he studied medicine, and
took a degree at Avignon. On his return to London he is
supposed to have practised with great success as a physi¬
cian, and to have published in 1603 a Treatise of the
Plague. Wood says he died of the plague in September
1625.
As a dramatist, he is placed by Collier “ in a rank supe¬
rior to Greene, but in some respects inferior to Kyd.” His
extant plays are two—The Wounds of Civil War lively
set forth in the true Tragedies of Marius and Sylla, 4to,
1594, reprinted in the last edition of Dodsley’s Old Plays ;
and A Looking-Glass for London and England, written in
conjunction with Greene, published 1594, and after passing
through several editions, reprinted in 1617. A collection
of hi& pastoral and lyric poetry was published in 1819. His
novel, entitled Rosalynde : Euphues Golden Legacie, 4to,
1590 (reprinted in Collier’s Shakspere’s Library, 1840), fur¬
nished Shakspeare with the framework of the plot in “ As
You Like It.”
LODI, an episcopal and walled city of N. Italy, capital
of a cognominal province of Lombardy, on the right bank
ot the Adda, a tributary of the Po, 18 miles S.E. of Milan.
It consists of well-built streets, and a great square, and
contains several interesting public buildings. The princi- Lodi
pal of these are,—the cathedral, in the Lombard style of II
architecture, with many fine pictures and carvings; the ^^jen
church of Incoronata, founded in 1476, also containing ^ s an s~
some interesting paintings; the bishop’s palace; and the
town-house, a plain but handsome edifice. Besides these
there are a royal college, a gymnasium, a theological
school, three hospitals, a public library, and several churches
and convents. The manufactures of the place consist of
delft, pottery, linen, and silk. A large trade is carried on
in Parmesan cheese, made in the neighbourhood. The
ancient Laus Pompeia occupied a site 5 miles W. of the
modern Lodi. It was, according to Pliny, settled by the
Boii, a Gallic tribe, and afterwards became a Roman
municipality. In the middle ages, under the name of
Lodi, it became of such importance that it. provoked the
jealousy of the Milanese, who took and destroyed it in
1158. The inhabitants were then removed by the Empe¬
ror Frederick to the present city, which, however, never
rose to the importance of its original. The site of Laus
Pompeia is now occupied by a village called Lodi Vecchio.
Pop. of Lodi, 18,986. In modern times Lodi is famous
for the contest which took place on its bridge over the
Adda, between the French under Bonaparte andthe Aus¬
trians, on which occasion the latter were signally defeated.
Lodi, a province of Lombardy, or Austrian Italy, in
the government of Milan, bounded N. by Bergamo and
Milan, E. by Cremona and Brescia, S. by the duchy of
Parma, and W. by Pavia and Milan. It is about 28 miles
in length from E. to W., by nearly the same ia breadth,
and contains an area of 290,359 acres. The surface is
flat, or gently undulating.. The soil is rich and well culti¬
vated. The chief rivers are the Po, which separates the
province from Parma, the Adda, the Lambro, and the
Serio. Irrigation is also extensively carried on here, espe¬
cially for the production of rich pasture. The chief pro¬
ducts are rice, maiz, flax, cheese, wine, and silk. The last
has been much attended to of late, and the growing of mul¬
berry trees is rapidly extending. The cheese of Lodi called
Parmesan, is famous, and its manufacture gives employ¬
ment to a large number of the inhabitants. The province is
divided into 7 districts, 175 communes, and 160 parishes. In
the eighteenth century it formed the two provinces of Lodi
and Crema ; the former belonging to Milan, and the latter to
Venice. Pop. (1850) 222,166. See also Lombardy.
LOFODEN ISLANDS, a large group of islands off
the N.W. coast of Norway, stretching N.E. to S.W. from
N. Lat. 67. 30. to 69. 30., and E. Long. 12. to 16. 30. The
group resembles the vertebrae of an animal in form ; the
islands fitting into each other so closely, that from a dis¬
tance they seem to form one long continent. The islands,
which are all of a granite or limestone formation, are preci¬
pitous and very lofty ; the hills of Vaagoe rising almost per¬
pendicularly to a height of 4000 feet above the sea. The
channels which separate them are narrow, tortuous, and
generally of great depth. The largest islands of the group
are in the N., viz., Hindoe, Andoe, and Langoe; the first
being separated from the mainland by a passage about a
mile in width. The tail of the chain is formed of a num¬
ber of smaller islands, the chief of which are the two
Vaagoes, Moskenosoe, Varoe, and Rost, separated from
the mainland by West Fiord. This gulf is much dreaded
by mariners when the wind is S.W., on account of
the great swell which rolls in from the North Sea, and
which is especially dangerous at the Malstroem channel
between Varoe and Moskenosoe. The mean temperature of
the group ranges from 23° in winter to 50° in summer,,
which, considering the high latitude, is comparatively mild.
This is caused, however, by the exposure of the group to
the gulf stream. Large shoals of herring and cod frequent
the Lofodens annually, and attract to these islands a large
LOG
LOG 551
Logan, concourse of fishing-boats from several hundreds of miles of
'wsea-coast. In the inclement months of February and March,
generally about 3000 boats (mostly open) assemble here
for the cod-fishing, each having, on an average, five of a
crew, while the aggregate number of fish taken amounts to
more than three millions. These are chiefly dried in the
sun and wind, without salt, and sent to Tromsoe, Trondh-
jem, Bergen, &c., along with large quanties of cod-liver
oil and cod-roe, for exportation or home consumption. The
cod-fishery ends in April, and is followed by the herring¬
fishing, which is carried on till the boisterous season at the
end of autumn. The permanent population of the Lofodens
is very small, considering the extent of territory, and is
sustained principally by the fisheries. Some cattle, how¬
ever, are kept in the most sheltered parts of the island,
where good pasturage is obtained in the summer. Steilo,
in the island of Ulvo, is the chief village of the group, and
has communication with the ports of the mainland by means
of a steamer, which visits the Lofodens in summer. Esti¬
mated pop. of group, 4000.
LOG, in nautical language, is a piece of wood usually
in the form of a quadrant, with a radius of six inches.
About a quarter of an inch in thickness, it is so loaded with
a leaden plate, fastened to its circular side, that it swims in
the water in a perpendicular position, with two-thirds under
the surface.
Log-liue, The, used in navigation so early as 1570, and
alluded to by Bourne in 1577, is a small cord with one end
attached to the log, and the other to a revolving reel on
board the ship. When the log is thrown overboard it
keeps its place, as already described, while the log-line is
unwound from the reel as the ship moves on, so that the
length of line unwound in a given time indicates the ra¬
pidity of the ship’s motion. The length of line given out
is determined by pieces of coloured cloth called knots at¬
tached to it at distances of 50 feet, while the time is ascer¬
tained by a sand-glass of a given number of seconds, which
bear nearly the same proportion to an hour that 50 feet
bear to a mile. The number of knots, therefore, unwound
from the reel in half a minute is the number of miles nearly
which the ship runs in an hour. The log-line used by the
royal navy is 48 feet in length.
LOGAN, John, the author of the Ode to the Cuckoo and
other poems, was the son of a small farmer, and was born at
Fala, county of Edinburgh, in 1748. After receiving his ele¬
mentary education at Musselburgh, he entered the University
of Edinburgh in 1762, with the intention of becoming a dis¬
senting minister. There he studied the learned languages
with great success, cultivating at the same time, in the
society of his class-fellow, Michael Bruce, his native taste
for poetry. In 1766 he entered the class of rhetoric and
belles-lettres; and having attracted the notice of the pro¬
fessor, Dr Blair, by a critical paper on the Spectator, he was
recommended by him, in 1768, as tutor to Mr, afterwards
Sir John, Sinclair, the eminent statist. This situation he
soon relinquished, and returning to Edinburgh, he resumed
his theological studies in connection with the Established
Church. In 1770, editing the works of his deceased friend,
Michael Bruce, he introduced indiscriminately among them
several poems of his own, which were afterwards claimed
for the former poet. Of these, the most disputed, because
the best, is the well-known Ode to the Cuckoo. Its author¬
ship is now generally ascribed to Logan, on the ground
that, long before its publication, he showed it to many of
his friends as his own, and that his claim was never ques¬
tioned during his life—proofs which the weight of evi¬
dence in favour of Bruce fails to balance. Some of Logan’s
most popular hymns are also said (and perhaps justly) to
have been perfected out of some unformed thoughts and
images that Bruce left in MS. In 1773 he was licensed
as a preacher, and was appointed minister of South Leith.
Not content with the high excellence which he soon at- Loggan.
tained as an eloquent preacher, he applied himself to his-
torical studies; and at Edinburgh, in 1779, delivered a
course of lectures on the philosophy of history, which were
published in a condensed form in 1781. So marked did he
become in this new capacity, that he would undoubtedly
have been promoted, in 1780, to the chair of universal
history at Edinburgh, had it not been an invariable custom
for the patrons to elect a member of the Scottish bar. In
1781 were published his Lecture on the Manners and Go¬
vernment of Asia and the first edition of his Poems ; and
after a year the latter reached a second edition. In 1783
Logan produced his Punnamede, a tragedy founded on the
granting of the Magna Charta. On account of some poli¬
tical allusions, it was interdicted by the Lord Chamberlain
during its rehearsal at Covent Garden Theatre; but it was
acted the same year at Edinburgh, though with little success.
His parishioners, offended at this unclerical use of his ta¬
lents, now openly condemned him; and in 1786, being
charged with drunkenness, he was forced to retire upon a part
of his stipend. He had repaired to London in the preceding
year, and devoted himself to literature. Besides several
contributions to the English Review, he produced, in 1788,
A Review of the Principal Charges against Mr Hastings,
a pamphlet which advocated the defendant so ably, that the
friends of the impeachment arraigned the publisher, Stock-
dale, for a breach of the privileges of the House of Com¬
mons. In the same year Logan published, under the name
of Dr Rutherford, A Vieiv of Ancient History. After a
lingering illness, he died on 28th December 1788.
His friend Dr Robertson published the first volume of
his Sermons in 1790, and the second in 1791. Among his
MSS. were also found, but never published, four tragedies
(two of which were unfinished), six lyric poems, several
parts of an intended periodical called the Guardian, and
twenty-five Lectures on Roman History.
Logan’s peculiar merit lay in the successful treatment of
old and familiar themes,—a gift peculiar alike to a popular
preacher and a lyric poet. Subjects that had become faded
and worn through frequent handling, were rendered new
and attractive to the eye by the fine polish of his diction,
and the fresh hues of his fancy. The literary ability and
the tender pathos of his sermons have saved them from
that neglect to which kindred works are, with few excep¬
tions, doomed. Of his poems, the best are the Ode to the
Cuckoo and the Hymns forming part of the paraphrases
used by the Church of Scotland. The latter are pervaded
by a delicate and often plaintive strain of feeling. The
simple diction and finely-woven fancies of the former en¬
title its author to a high rank as a lyrist. A third edition
of Logan’s Poems, accompanied by his Life, was published
in 1805. A new edition of his Sermons, with a Life prefixed,
appeared in London, 1810.
LOGGAN, David, an engraver of considerable reputa¬
tion, was born at Dantzig in 1635. He received the first
lessons of his art from Simon Passe in Denmark, and sub¬
sequently, on paying a visit to Holland, he further perfected
himself in the study under the guidance of Hondius. He
came to England in the time of the Commonwealth, and
engaged in engraving portraits and landscape pieces. The
first work of Loggan, however, which attracted general no¬
tice, and gained for its author very considerable reputation,
was his views of the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge.
Having married into a good family near Oxford in 1672,
he took up his residence there, and shortly afterwards pub¬
lished a large folio volume of plates : Habitus Academiorum
Oxonice, a Doctore ad Servientem, by David Loggan, Ge-
danensis, Vniversitatis Oxonice Chalographus. His en¬
gravings are remarkable for the neatness and accuracy of
their execution, but this quality sometimes degenerates
into stiffness and formality.
552
LOGARITHMS.
I.—HISTORY OF LOGARITHMS.
The labour and time required for performing the arith¬
metical operations of multiplication, division, and the ex¬
traction of roots, were at one time considerable obstacles
to the improvement of various branches of knowledge, and
in particular the science of astronomy. But about the end
of the sixteenth century and the beginning of the seven¬
teenth, several mathematicians began to consider by what
means they might simplify these operations, or substitute
for them others more easily performed. Their efforts pro¬
duced some ingenious contrivances for abridging calcula¬
tions ; but of these the most complete by far was that of
John Napier, baron of Merchiston, in Scotland, who in¬
vented a system of numbers called logarithms, so adapted
to the numbers to be multiplied or divided, that these
being arranged in the form of a table, each opposite the
number called its logarithm, the product of any two num¬
bers in the table was found opposite that formed by the
addition of their logarithms; and, on the contrary, the
quotient arising from the division of one number by ano¬
ther was found opposite that formed by the subtraction of
the logarithm of the divisor from that of the dividend;
and similar simplifications took place in the still more la¬
borious operations of involution and evolution. But be¬
fore we proceed to relate more particularly the circum¬
stances of this invention, it will be proper to give a general
view of the nature of logarithms, and of the circumstances
which render them of use in calculation.
Let there be formed two series of numbers, the one
constituting a geometrical progression, whose first term is
unity or 1, and the common ratio any number whatever;
and the other an arithmetical progression, whose first term
is 0, and the common difference also any number what¬
ever ; for example, suppose the common ratio of the geo¬
metrical series to be 2, and the common difference of the
arithmetical series 1, and let them be written thus:
Geom. Prog. Arith. Prog.
1 - 0
2 - 1
4 - 2
8 - 3
16 - 4
32 - 5
64-6
128 - 7
256 - 8
512 - 9
1024 - 10
2048 - 11
4096 - 12
&c. &c.
Here the terms in the arithmetical series are called the
logarithms of the corresponding terms of the geometrical
series; that is, 0 is the logarithm of 1, and 1 is the lo¬
garithm of 2, and 2 is the logarithm of 4, and 3 that of 8,
and so on.
From the manner in which the two series are related to
each other, it will readily appear by induction that the
logarithms of the terms of the geometrical series have the
two following properties:
1. The sum of the logarithms of any two numbers or
terms in the geometrical series is the logarithm of that
number, or term of the series, which is equal to their
product.
For example, let the terms of the geometrical series History
be 4 and 32; the corresponding terms of the arithmetical''’“"'v''—-'
series (that is, their logarithms) are 2 and 5: now the
product of the numbers is 128, and the sum of their
logarithms is 7 ; and it appears by inspection of the two
series, that the latter number is the logarithm of the for¬
mer, agreeing with the proposition we are illustrating. In
like manner, if the numbers or terms of the geometrical
series be 16 and 64, the logarithms of which are 4 and 6,
we find from the table that 10=4-{-6 is the logarithm
of 1024=16X64; and so of any other numbers in the
table.
2. The difference of the logarithms of any two numbers
or terms of the geometrical series is the logarithm of
that term which is the quotient arising from the division
of the one number by the other.
Take, for example, the terms 128 and 32, the logarithms
of which are 7 and 5 ; the greater of these numbers divid¬
ed by the less is 4, and the difference of their logarithms
is 2; and by inspecting the two senes, this last number
will be found to be the logarithm of the former. In like
manner, if the terms of the geometrical series be 1024
and 16. the logarithms of which are 10 and 4, we find
that 1024-r- 16 = 64, and that 10 — 4 = 6; now, in the
table, the latter number, viz. 6, is the logarithm of the for¬
mer, 64.
These two properties of logarithms, the second of which
indeed is an immediate consequence of the first, enable us
to find with great facility the product or the quotient of any
two terms of a geometrical series to which there is adapted
an arithmetical series, so that each number has its logarithm
opposite to it, as in the preceding short table. For it is
evident, that to multiply two numbers, we have only to add
their logarithms, and opposite to that logarithm which is
the sum we shall find the product required. Thus, to mul¬
tiply 16 by 128; to 4 the logarithm of 16, add 7 the loga¬
rithm of 128, and opposite the sum 11, we find 2048, the
product sought. On the other hand, to divide any num¬
ber in the table by any other, we subtract the logarithm
of the divisor from that of the dividend, and look for the
remainder among the logarithms, and opposite to it we find
the number sought. Thus, to divide 2048 by 128; from
11, the logarithm of 2048, we subtract 7, the logarithm of
128, and opposite the remainder 4, we find 16, the quotient
sought.
Let us now suppose any number of geometrical means
to be interposed between each two adjoining terms of the
preceding geometrical series, and the same number of arith¬
metical means between every two adjoining terms of the
arithmetical series; then, as the results will still be a geo¬
metrical and an arithmetical series, the interpolated terms
of the latter will be the logarithms of the corresponding
terms of the former, and the two new series will have the
very same properties as the original series.
If we suppose the number of interpolated means to be
very great, it will follow that among the terms of the re¬
sulting geometrical series, some one or other will be found
nearly equal to any proposed number whatever. Therefore,
although the preceding table exhibits the logarithms of 1,
2, 4, 8, 16, &c. but does not contain those of the interme¬
diate numbers, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, &c. yet it is easy to con¬
ceive that a table might be formed by interpolation which
should contain, amongst the terms of the geometrical series,
all numbers whatever to a certain extent (or at least others
very nearly equal to them), together with their logarithms.
If such a table were constructed, or at least if such terms
LOGARITHMS.
553
History, of the geometrical progression were found, together with
—their logarithms, as were either accurately equal to, or coin¬
cided nearly with, all numbers within certain limits (for
example, between 1 and 100,000), then, as often as we
had occasion to multiply or divide any numbers contained
in that table, we might evidently obtain the products or
quotients by the simple operations of addition and sub¬
traction.
The first invention of logarithms has been attributed by
some to Longomontanus, and by others to Juste Byrge,
two mathematicians contemporary with Napier ; but there
is no reason to suppose that either of these anticipated him,
for Longomontanus never published any thing on the sub¬
ject, although he lived thirty-three years after Napier had
made known his discovery ; and as to Byrge, he is indeed
known to have printed a table containing an arithmetical
and a geometrical progression written opposite to each
other, so as to form in effect a system of logarithms of the
same kind as those invented by Napier, without however
explaining their nature and use, although it appears from
the title he intended to do so, but was probably prevented
by some cause unknown to us. But this work was not
printed till 1620, six years after Napier had published his
discovery, namely, in 1614, in a book entitled Mirifici Lo-
garithmorum Canonis Descriptio ; but he reserved the con¬
struction of the numbers till the opinion of the learned
concerning his invention should be known. It is therefore
with good reason that Napier is now universally consider¬
ed as the first, and most probably the only inventor. His
work contains a table of the natural sines and cosines, and
their logarithms, for every minute of the quadrant, as also
the differences between the logarithmic sines and cosines,
which are in effect the logarithmic tangents. There is no
table of the logarithms of numbers; but precepts are given,
by which they, as well as the logarithmic tangents, may be
found from the table of natural and logarithmic sines.
In explaining the nature of logarithms, Napier supposes
some determinate line which represents the radius of a
circle to be continually diminished, so as to have succes¬
sively all possible values, and thus to be equal to every
sine, one after another, throughout the quadrant. And he
supposes this diminution to be effected by a point moving
from one extremity towards the other extremity (or rather
some point very near it), with a motion that is not uniform,
but decreases gradually in such a manner, that if the whole
time between the beginning and the end of the motion be
conceived to be divided into a very great number of equal
portions, the decrements taken away in each of these shall
be to one another as the respective remainders of the line.
According to this mode of conceiving the line to decrease,
it is easy to show that at the end of any successive equal
intervals of time from the beginning of the motion, the
portions of the line which remain will constitute a decreas¬
ing geometrical progression.
Again, he supposes another line to be generated by a
point which moves along it equably, or which passes over
equal intervals of it in equal times. Thus the portions of
the line generated at the end of any equal successive inter¬
vals of time from the beginning of the motion will form a
series of quantities in arithmetical progression. Now if the
two motions be supposed to begin together, the remainders
of the one line at the end of any equal intervals of time
will form a series of quantities in geometrical progression,
while the corresponding portions generated of the other
line will constitute a series in arithmetical progression, so
that the latter will be the logarithms of the former. And
as the terms of the geometrical progression decrease con¬
tinually from radius, which is the greatest term, to 0, while
the terms of the corresponding arithmetical progression in¬
crease from 0 upwards, according to Napier’s system the
logarithm of radius is 0, and the logarithms of the sines
VOL. XIII.
from radius down to 0 are a series of numbers increasing History,
from 0 to infinity.
The velocities or degrees of quickness with which the
motions commence may have to each other any ratio what¬
ever, and by assuming different ratios we obtain different
systems of logarithms. Napier supposed the initial velo¬
cities to be equal; but the system of logarithms produced
in consequence of this assumption having been found to
have some disadvantages, it has been long superseded by
a more convenient one, as we shall presently have occasion
to explain.
Napier’s work having been written in Latin, was trans¬
lated into English by Mr Edward Wright, an ingenious
mathematician of that period, and inventor of the princi¬
ples of what is commonly though erroneously called Mer¬
cator s sailing. The translation being sent to Napier for
his perusal, was returned with his approbation, and with
the addition of a few lines, intimating that he intended to
make some alterations in the system of logarithms in a
second edition. Mr Wright died soon after he received
back his translation ; but it was published after his death
in 1616, accompanied with a dedication by his son to the
East India Company, and a preface by Henry Briggs, who
afterwards distinguished himself by improving the form or
system of logarithms. Mr Briggs likewise gave in this
work the description and draught of a scale which had
been invented by Wright, as also various methods of his
own for finding a logarithm to a given number, and a num¬
ber to a given logarithm, by means of Napier’s table, the
use of which had been attended with some inconvenience,
on account of its containing only such numbers as were
the natural sines to every minute of the quadrant and their
logarithms. There was an additional inconvenience in
using the table, arising from the logarithms being partly
positive and partly negative. The latter of these was, how¬
ever, well remedied by John Speidell in his New Loga¬
rithms, first published in 1619, which contained the sines,
cosines, tangents, cotangents, secants, and cosecants, and
given in such a form as to be all positive ; and the former
was still more completely removed by an additional table,
which he gave in the sixth impression of his work in 1624,
and which contained the logarithms of the integers 1, 2,
3, 4, &c. to 1000, together with their differences and
arithmetical complements, &c. This table, which is ot
great use in finding fluents, is commonly called hyperbolic
logarithms, because the numbers serve to express the areas
contained between a hyperbola and its asymptote, and
limited by ordinates drawn parallel to the other asymp¬
tote. This name, however, is certainly improper, as the
same spaces may represent the logarithms of any system
whatever.
In 1619, Robert Napier, son ofthe inventor of logarithms,
published a second edition of his father’s Logarithmorum
Canonis Descriptio ; and, along with this, the promised
Logarithmorum Canonis Constructio, and other pieces
written by his father and Mr Briggs. An exact copy of
the same two works in one volume was also printed in
1620 at Lyons in France. In 1618 or 1619, Benjamin
Ursinus, mathematician to the elector of Brandenburg,
published Napier’s tables of logarithms in his Cursus
Mathematicus, to which he added some tables of propor¬
tional parts; and in 1624 he printed his Trigonometria,
with a table of natural sines, and their logarithms of the
Napierian kind and form, to every ten seconds of the
quadrant.
In the same year, 1624, the celebrated John Kepler
published, at Marpurg, logarithms of nearly the same kind,
under the title of Chilias Logarithmorum ad totidem. Nu-
meros Rotundas, prccmissa Demonstratione legitima Orlus
Logarithmorum eorumque Usus, &c.; and in the following
year he published a supplement to this work. In the
4 a
554
LOGARITHMS.
History, preface to this last he says, that several of the professors
of mathematics in Upper Germany, and more especially
those who were advanced in years, and grown averse to
new methods of reasoning which carried them out of
their old principles and habits, doubted whether Na¬
pier’s demonstration of the property of logarithms was
perfectly true, and whether the application of them to tri¬
gonometrical calculations might not be unsafe, and lead
the calculator who should trust in them to erroneous re¬
sults ; and in either case, whether the doctrine were true
or not, they scarcely considered Napier’s demonstration of
it as legitimate and satisfactory. This opinion induced Kep¬
ler to compose the above-mentioned work, in which the
whole doctrine is treated in a manner strictly geometrical,
and free from the considerations of motion to which those
elderly Germans had objected.
On the publication of Napier’s Logarithms, Mr Henry
Briggs, some time professor of geometry in Gresham Col¬
lege, London, and afterwards Savilian professor of geo¬
metry at Oxford, applied himself with great earnestness
to the study and improvement of them. From the par¬
ticular view which Napier took of the subject, and the
manner in which he conceived logarithms to be gene¬
rated, it happened that in his system the logarithms of a
series of numbers which increased in a decuple ratio (as
1, 10, 100, 1000, &c.) formed a decreasing arithmetical
series, whose common difference was 2‘3205851. But it
occurred to Briggs that it would be better and more con¬
formable to the received decimal notation, to adopt a sys¬
tem in which the logarithms of the terms of such a geome¬
trical series should differ from each other by unity or 1.
This idea Briggs communicated to the public in his lec¬
tures, and also to Napier himself. He even went twice to
Edinburgh to converse with him on the subject; and, on
his first visit, Napier said that he had also formerly thought
of the same improvement, but that he chose to publish
the logarithms he had previously calculated, till such time
as his health and convenience would allow him to make
others more commodious. And whereas, in the change
which Briggs proposed, it was intended to make the lo¬
garithms of the sines to increase from 0 (the logarithm of
radius) to infinity, whilst the sines themselves should de¬
crease, it was suggested to him by Napier that it would
be better to make them increase, so that 0, instead of be¬
ing the logarithm of radius, should be the logarithm of 1,
and that 100,000, &c. should be the logarithm of radius.
This Briggs admitted would be an improvement; and
having changed the numbers he had already calculated so
as to make them suit Napier’s modification of his plan, he
returned with them next year to Edinburgh, and submit¬
ted them to his perusal.
It appears, therefore, that whether Napier or Briggs
was. the inventor of this improved system of logarithms
which has since been universally adopted, Napier had
suggested to begin with the low number 1, and to make
the logarithms, or the artificial numbers, as he had always
called them, to increase with the natural numbers, instead
of decreasing ; which, however, made no alteration in the
figures, but only in their affections or signs, changing them
from negative to positive.
On Briggs’s return from Edinburgh, in 1617, he printed
the first thousand logarithms to eight places of figures,
besides the index, with the title of Logarithmorum Chi-
lias prima ; but these seem not-to have been published
till after the death of Napier, for in his preface he express¬
es a hope that the circumstances which led to a change in
the system would be explained in Napier’s posthumous
work, about to appear. But althodgh Napier had intimated
in a note he had given in Wright’s translation of the Canon
Mirijicus, as well as in his Ilabdologia, printed in 1617,
that he intended to alter the scale, yet he does not state
that Briggs was the first to think of this improvement, or
to publish it. And as nothing was said on this point in'*
Napier’s posthumous work published in 1619 by his son,
Briggs took occasion, in his Arithmetica Logarithmica, to
assert his claims to the improvement which he had carried
into execution. But he has by no means proved that he
himself, and not Napier, was the first who had thought
of such improvements.
In 1620, Mr Edmund Gunter published his Canon of
Triangles, which contains the artificial or logarithmic sines
and tangents to every minute to seven places of figures
besides the index, the logarithm of radius being 10. These
logarithms are of the kind which had been agreed upon
between Napier and Briggs, and they were the first tables
of logarithmic sines and tangents that were published of
this sort. Gunter also, in 1623, reprinted the same in his
book Z)e Sectore et Radio, together with the Chilias prirna
of Briggs; and in the same year he applied the loga¬
rithms of numbers, sines, and tangents, to straight lines
drawn upon a ruler. This instrument is now in common
use for navigation and other purposes, and is commonly
called Gunter s Scale.
The discoveries in logarithms were carried to France
by Mr Edmund Wingate, but not first of all, as he says in
the preface to his book. He published at Paris in 1624
two small tracts in French upon logarithms, which were
reprinted with improvements at London in 1626.
In the year 1624, Briggs published his Arithmetica Lo¬
garithmica, a stupendous work, considering the short time
he had been in preparing it. He there gives the loga¬
rithms of 30,000 natural numbers to fourteen places of
figures, besides the index; namely, from 1 to 20,000, and
from 90,000 to 100,000, together with the differences of
the logarithms. He also gives an ample treatise on their
construction and use, and he earnestly solicits others to un¬
dertake the computation of the intermediate numbers, of¬
fering to give instructions, and paper ready ruled for that
purpose, to any person inclined to contribute to the com¬
pletion of so valuable a work. By this invitation, he had
hopes of collecting materials for the logarithms of the in¬
termediate 70,000 numbers, whilst he should employ his
time upon the Canon of Logarithmic Sines and Tangents,
and so carry on both works at once.
Soon after this, Adrian Ylacq or Flack of Gouda, in
Holland, completed the intermediate 70 chiliads, and re¬
published the Arithmetica Logarithmica in 1627 and 1628,
with these intermediate numbers, making in all the loga¬
rithms of all numbers to 100,000, but only to 10 places of
figures. To these was added a table of artificial sines, tan¬
gents, and secants, to every minute of the quadrant.
Briggs himself lived also to complete a table of logarith¬
mic sines and tangents, to the 100th part of every degree
to fourteen places of figures, besides the index, together
with a table of natural sines to the same parts to fifteen
places, and the tangents and secants of the same to ten
places, with the construction of the whole. But death pre¬
vented him from completing the application and uses of
them. However, when dying, he committed this to his
friend Henry Gellibrand, who accordingly added a preface,
and the application of the logarithms to plane and spheri¬
cal trigonometry. The work was called Trigonometria
Britannica, and was printed at Gouda in 1633, under the
care of Adrian Vlacq, who in the same year printed his
own Trigonometria Artificialis, sive Magnus Canon Tri-
angulorum Logarithmicus ad Decadas Secundorum Scru-
pulorum Constructus. This contains the logarithmic sines
and tangents to 10 places of figures, with their differences
for every ten seconds in the quadrant. It also contains
Briggs’s table of the first 20,000 logarithms to ten places,
besides the index, with their differences; and to the whole
is prefixed a description of the tables and their applications,
/
LOGARITHMS.
555
History, chiefly extracted from Briggs’s Trigonometria Britannica
just mentioned.
Gellibrand also published, in 1635, An Institution Tri¬
gonometrical, containing the logarithms of the first 10,000
numbers, with the natural sines, tangents, and secants, and
the logarithmic sines and tangents, for degrees and minutes;
all to seven decimal places.
The writers whose works we have hitherto noticed were
for the most part computers of logarithms. But the sys¬
tem best adapted to practice being rr5w well ascertained,
and the labour of constructing the table accomplished, suc¬
ceeding writers on the subject have had little more to do
than to give the tables in the most convenient form. It
is true, that in consequence of the numerous discoveries
which were afterwards made in mathematics, particularly
in the doctrine of series, great improvements were made in
the method of computing logarithms; but these, for the
most part, came too late to be of use in the actual construc¬
tion of the tables, although they might be applied with
advantage to verify calculations previously performed by
methods much more laborious, and to detect various errors
which had crept into the numbers.
As it is of importance that such as have occasion to em¬
ploy logarithms should know what works are esteemed for
their extent and accuracy, we shall mention the follow-
ing;
Sherwin’s Mathematical Tables, in 8vo. These contain
the logarithms of all numbers to 101,000; and the sines,
tangents, secants, and versed sines, both natural and loga¬
rithmic, to every minute of the quadrant. The third edi¬
tion, printed in 1742, which was revised by Gardiner, is
esteemed the most correct; but, in the fifth edition, the
errors are so numerous, that no dependence can be placed
on it.
Gardiner’s Tables of Logarithms for all numbers to
101,000, and for the sines and tangents to every ten se¬
conds of the quadrant; also for the sines of the first 72
minutes to every single second, &c. This work, which is
in quarto, was printed in 1742, and is held in high esti¬
mation for its accuracy. An edition of the same work,
with some additions, was printed in 1770, at Avignon, in
France; and another by Callet at Paris in 1783, with far¬
ther improvements. The tables in both are to seven
places of figures.
Hutton’s Mathematical Tables, containing common, hy¬
perbolic, and logistic logarithms, &c. and much valuable
information respecting the history of logarithms, and
other branches of mathematics connected with them.
Taylor’s Table of Logarithmic Sines and Tangents to
every second of the quadrant; to which is prefixed an able
introduction by Dr Maskelyne, and a table of logarithms
from 1 to 100,000, &c. This is a most valuable work;
but being a large quarto volume, and rather expensive, it
is less accessible than the preceding, which is an octavo,
at a moderate price.
Tables portatives des Logarithmes, contenant les Loga-
rithmes des nombres depuis 1 jusqud 108,000 ; les loga¬
rithmes des sinus el tangentes, de seconde en seconde pour les
cinq premiers degres, de dix en dix secondes pour tous les
degres du quart de cercle, et suivant la nouvelle division
centesimale de dix-millieme en dix millieme, &c. par Callet.
'Ibis work is in octavo, and printed in stereotype by
Didot.
I here are various smaller sets of tables; but probably
the most accurate of all are those which Professor Bab¬
bage has produced with his very ingenious calculating
machine, which has enabled him to detect a variety of
errors in former tables. But, what is rather amusing, on
examining a set of tables printed in the Chinese cha»
racter, and which, like every Chinese invention, were
older than the deluge, Mr Babbage found they contained
precisely the same errors as those of Vlacq did; thus Nature
proving, as had long been suspected, from what source
those original inventors had derived their logarithms. n^i
In addition to these, it is proper that we should notice '
a stupendous work relating to logarithms, originally sug¬
gested by the celebrated Carnot, in conjunction with
Prieur de la Cote d’Or, and Brunet de Montpellier, about
the beginning of the French revolution. This enterprise
was committed in 1794 to the care of Baron de Prony, a
mathematician of great eminence, who was not only to
compose tables which should leave nothing to be desired with
respect to accuracy, but to make them the most extended and
most striking monument of calculation ever executed or ima¬
gined. Two manuscript copies of the work, composed of
seventeen volumes large folio, contained, besides an intro¬
duction,
1. The natural sines for each 10,000th part of the quad¬
rant, calculated to twenty-five places of decimals, to be
published with twenty-two decimals and five columns of
differences.
2. The logarithms of these sines, calculated to fourteen
decimals, with five columns of differences.
3. The logarithms of the ratios of the sines to the arcs
for the first five thousand 100,000th parts of the quadrant,
calculated to fourteen decimal places, with three columns
of differences.
4. The logarithms of the tangents corresponding with
the logarithms of the sines.
5. The logarithms of the ratios of the tangents to the
arcs, calculated like those of the third article.
6. Logarithms of numbers from 1 to 100,000, calculated
to nineteen places of decimals.
7. The logarithms of numbers from 100,000 to 200,000,
calculated to twenty-four decimals, in order to be pub¬
lished to twelve decimals and three columns of differences.
The printing of this work, though begun by the French
government, was afterwards suspended.
Shortrede's Tables. — These tables contain the loga¬
rithms to numbers from 1 to 120,000, and numbers to lo¬
garithms from ‘0 to 1'00000 ; tables with centesimal and
decimal arguments for finding logarithms and antilogarithms,
as far as sixteen and twenty-five places; tables to five
places for finding the logarithms of the sums and differences
of antilogarithms, &c.; tables of natural sines, cosines, &c.,
to every second of arc in the quadrant; tables containing
angles which every point and quarter-point of the compass
makes with the meridian in points and degrees; tables of
logarithmic sines, cosines, tangents, &c., to every second of
the circle, with arguments in space and time.
II. NATURE OF LOGARITHMS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION.
The first step to be taken in constructing a system of
logarithms is to assume the logarithm of some determinate
number, besides that of unity or 1, which must necessarily
be 0. From the particular view which Napier first took
of the subject, he was led to assume unity for the logarithm
of the number 2-718282, by which it happened that the lo¬
garithm of 10 was 2-302585; and this assumption being
made, the form of the system became determinate, and the
logarithm of every number fixed to one particular value.
It was, however, soon observed, that it would be better
to assume unity for the logarithm of 10, instead of making
it the logarithm of 2-718282, as in Napier’s first system;
and hence the logarithms of the terms of the geometrical
progression
1, 10, 100, 1000, 10,000, &c.
were necessarily fixed to the corresponding terms of this
arithmetical progression,
0, 1, 2,
3,
4, &c.
556
LOGARITHMS.
Nature
of Loga¬
rithms.
That is, the logarithm of 1 being 0, and that of 10 being
1, the logarithm of 100 is 2, that of 1000 is 3, and so on.
The logarithms of the terms of the progression 1, 10,
100, 1000, &c. being thus determined ; in order to form
the logarithms of the numbers between 1 and 10, and be¬
tween 10 and 100, and so on, we must conceive a very
great number of geometrical means to be interposed be¬
tween each two adjoining terms of the preceding geome¬
trical series, and as many arithmetical means between the
corresponding terms of the arithmetical series ; then, like
as the terms of the arithmetical series 0, 1, 2, 3, &c. are
the logarithms of the corresponding terms of the geometri¬
cal series 1, 10, 100, 1000, &c. the interpolated terms of
the former will also be the logarithms of the corresponding
interpolated terms of the latter. Now, by supposing the
number of means interposed between each two terms of
the geometrical series to be sufficiently great, some one or
other of them may be found which will be very nearly equal
to any proposed number. Hence, to find the logarithm of
such a number, we have only to seek for one of the in¬
terpolated means which is very nearly equal to it, and to
take the logarithm of tnat mean as a near value of the lo¬
garithm required.
As a particular example, let it be required to find the
logarithm of 5, according to Briggs’s system.
First step of the process.—The number 5 is between 1
and 10, the logarithms of which we already know to be 0
and 1 : Let a geometrical mean be found between the two
former, and an arithmetical mean between the two latter.
The geometrical mean will be the square root of the pro¬
duct of the numbers 1 and 10, which is 3-162277 ; and the
arithmetical mean will be half the sum of the logarithms 0
and 1, which is 0-5 ; therefore the logarithm of 3-16227r is
0-5. But as the mean thus found is not sufficiently near
the proposed number, we must proceed with the operation
as follows:
Second step.—The number 5, whose logarithm is sought,
is between 3-162277, the mean last found, and 10, the lo¬
garithms of which we know to be 0-5 and 1 ; we must now
find a geometrical mean between the two former, and an
arithmetical mean between the two latter. The one of
these is ^/(S-162277 X 10) 5-623413, and the other is
1 + 05
2
= 0-75, the logarithm of 5-623413.
Third step.— We have now obtained two numbers, name¬
ly, 3-162277 and 5-623413, one on each side of 5, together
with their logarithms 0-5 and 0-75; we therefore, proceed¬
ing as before, find the geometrical mean, or ^/(3-162277
X 5-623413), to be 4-216964, and the arithmetical mean
n.c; 4- 07'S
 ^ = 0-625, the logarithm of 4-216964.
Fourth step.—We proceed in the same manner with the
numbers 4-216964, and 5-623413 (one of which is less and
the other greater than 5), and their logarithms 0-625 and
0-75, and find a new geometrical mean, viz. 4-869674, and
the corresponding arithmetical mean or logarithm 0-6875.
We must go on in this way till we have found twenty-
two geometrical means, and as many corresponding arith¬
metical means or logarithms. And that we may indicate
how these are found from each other, let the numbers 1
and 10 be denoted by A and B, and their geometrical
means taken in their order by C, D, E, &c. then the re¬
sults of the successive operations will be as in the following
table:
A =
B ~
C = ^/AB
D = ^/BC
E = v/CD
Numbers.
1-000000
10-000000
3 162277
5-623413
4-216964
Logarithms.
0-0000000
1-0000000
0-5000000
0-7500000
0-6250000
F = v/DE =
G = v/DF -
H - v/FG =
I = v/FH -
K = a/HI -
L = V'IK =
M = a/KL =
N = y'KM =
O = v'KN =
P = a/NO —
Q = v'OP =
R - a/OQ -
s = a/on =
T = ,/OS =
y = j/o'v =
w= a/ty —
x = ^/wv=
Y = v'VX =
Z = a/XY =
Numbers.
4- 869674
5- 232991
5-048065
4- 958069
5- 002865
4-980416
4-991627
4- 997242
5- 000052
4-998647
4-999350
4-999701
4-999876
4- 999963
5- 000008
4-999984
4- 999997
5- 000003
5-000000
Logarithms.
0-6875000
0-7187500
0-7031250
0-6953125
0-6992187
0-6972656
0-6982421
0-6987304
0-6989745
0-6988525
0-6989135
0-6989440
0-6989592
0-6989668
0-6989707
0-6989687
0-6989697
0-6989702
0-6989700
Nature
of Loga¬
rithms.
As the last of these means, viz. Z, agrees with 5, the pro¬
posed number, as far at least as the sixth place of decimals,
we may safely consider them as very nearly equal, and
therefore their logarithms very nearly equal; that is, the
logarithm of 5 will be 0-6989700 nearly.
In performing the operations indicated in the preceding
table, it is necessary to find the geometrical means at the
beginning to many more figures than are here put down,
in order to insure at last a result true to 7 decimal places.
Thus it appears that the labour of computing logarithms
by this method is indeed very great. It is, however, that
which was employed by Briggs and Vlacq in the original
construction of logarithms ; but since their time more easy
methods have been found, some of which we shall pre¬
sently have occasion to explain, and to illustrate by actual
computation.
The logarithm of any number whatever may be found
by a series of calculations similar to that just explained.
But in constructing the table it would only be necessary
to have recourse to this method in calculating the loga¬
rithms of prime numbers ; for as often as the logarithm of
a number which was the product of other numbers, whose
logarithms were known, was required, it would be imme¬
diately obtained by adding together the logarithms of its
factors. On the contrary, if the logarithm of the product
of two numbers were known, and also that of one of its
factors, the logarithm of the other factor would be obtain¬
ed from these, by simply taking their difference.
From this last remark it is obvious, that having now
found the logarithm of 5, we can immediately find that of
2 ; for since 2 is the quotient of 10 divided by 5, its loga¬
rithm will be the difference of the logarithms of 10 and 5 ;
now the logarithm of 10 is 1, and that of 5 is 0-6989700,
therefore the logarithm of 2 is 0-3010300.
Having thus obtained the logarithms of 2 and 5, in ad¬
dition to those of 10, 100,1000, &c. we may thence find the
logarithms of innumerable other numbers. Thus, because
4 = 2X2, the logarithm of 4 will be the logarithm of 2
added to itself, or will be twice the logarithm of 2. Again,
because 5 X 10 = 50, the logarithm of 50 will be the sum
of the logarithms of 5 and 10. In this manner it is evi¬
dent we may find the logarithms of 8 = 2 X 4, of 16
= 2 X 8, of 25 = 5 x bj and oi as many more such num¬
bers as we please.
Besides the view we have hitherto taken of the theory
of logarithms, there are others under which it has been
presented by different authors. Some of these we pro¬
ceed to explain, beginning with that in which they are
defined to be the measures of ratios; but to sei> the pio*
priety of this definition, it must be understood what is
meant by the measure of a ratio.
LOGARITHMS.
Nature According to the usual definition of a compound ratio,
of Loga- if there be any number of magnitudes A, B, C, D, in con-
nthms. tinned proportion, the ratio of the first, A, to the third, C,
is considered as made up of two ratios, each equal the ra¬
tio of the first, A, to the second, B. And in like manner
the ratio of the first, A, to the fourth, D, is considered as
made of three ratios, each equal the same ratio of the
first to the second, and so on. Thus, to take a particular
example in numbers, because the ratio of 81 to 3 may be
considered as made up of the ratio of 81 to 27, and of 27
to 9, and of 9 to 3, which three ratios are equal among
themselves, the ratio of 81 to 3 will be triple that of 9 to
3 ; and in like manner the ratio of 27 to 3 will be double
that of 9 to 3. Also, because the ratios of 1000 to 100,
100 to 10, 10 to 1, are all equal, the ratio of 1000 to 1
will be three times as great as that of 10 to 1; and the
ratio of 100 to 1 will be twice as great; and so on.
Taking this view of ratios, and considering them as a
particular species of quantities, made up of others of the
same kind, they may evidently be compared with each
other in the same manner as" we compare lines or quanti¬
ties of any kind whatever. And as, when estimating the
relative magnitude of two quantities, two lines, for exam¬
ple, if the one contains five such equal parts as the other
contains seven, we say the one line has to the other the
proportion of 5 to 7; so, in like manner, if two ratios be
such, that the one can be resolved into five equal ratios,
and the other into seven of the same ratios, we may con¬
clude that the magnitude of the one ratio is to that of the
other as the number 5 to the number 7; and a similar
conclusion may be drawn, when the ratios to be compared
are any multiples whatever of some other ratio.
Since lines and other quantities, which admit of no
common measure, are said to be incommensurable to each
other, the same will obviously happen to ratios; that is,
there may be two ratios such, that into whatever number
of equal ratios the one is divided, the other cannot possi¬
bly be exactly equal to a ratio composed of any integral
number of these. We may, however, conceive the num¬
ber of equal ratios into which the one is divided to be so
great, that a certain number of them shall compose a ra¬
tio more nearly equal to the other ratio than by any as¬
signable difference. Therefore, like as we can always find
numbers which shall have among themselves, either accu¬
rately, or as nearly as we please, the same ratios as lines
or other magnitudes have to each other, and which there
fore may be taken as the measures or representatives of
the lines ; so also, corresponding to any system of ratios,
there may be always found a series of numbers which will
have the same proportions among themselves as the ra¬
tios have to each other, and which may in like manner be
called the measures of the ratios.
Let us now suppose that unity, or 1, is assumed as the
common consequent or second term of all ratios whatever;
and that the ratio of 10 (or some particular number) to 1
is compounded of a very great number of equal ratios, as,
for example, 1,000,000: then, as each of these will be verjr
near the ratio of equality (for it will be the ratio of the
first term to the second of a series consisting of one mil¬
lion and one continued proportionals, the first of which is
10 and last 1), it will follow, and is easy to conceive, that
the ratios of all other numbers to unity will each be very
nearly equal to some multiple of that small ratio. And by
supposing the number of small equal ratios of which the
ratio of 10 to 1 is composed, to be sufficiently great, the
ratios of all other numbers to unity may be as nearly equal
to ratios which are multiples of that small ratio, as we
please.. Let us still suppose, however, for the sake of il¬
lustration, that the number of small ratios contained in
that of 10 to 1 is 1,000,000; then, as it may be proved that
the ratio of 2 to 1 will be very nearly the same as a ratio
557
composed of 301,030 of these, and that the ratio of 3 to 1 Nature
will be nearlyequal to a ratio composed of 477,121 of them, of Loga-
and that the ratio of 4 to 1 will be nearly equal to a ratio v rithms‘_
composed of 602,060 of them, and so on ; these numbers,
viz. 1,000,000, 301,030, 477,121, and 602,060, or any
other numbers proportional to them, will be the mea¬
sures of the ratios of 10 to 1, 2 to 1, 3 to 1, and 4 to 1,
respectively j and the same quantities will also be what
have been called the logarithms of the ratios ; for the word
logarithm, if regard be had to its etymology, is
a^tQ/xoi, or the numbers of small and equal ratios (or rati-
unculoe, as they have been called) contained in the seve¬
ral ratios of quantities one to another.
We have, for the sake of illustration, assumed 1,000,000
as the measure of the ratio of 10 to 1, by which it hap¬
pens, as already observed, that the measures of the ratios
of 2 to 1, 3 to l,&c. are 301,030 and 477,121 respectively;
as, however, these measures are not absolute, but relative
quantities, we may assume any other numbers whatever
instead of these, provided they are proportional to them.
Accordingly, we may assume 1 as the measure or loga¬
rithm of the ratio of 10 to 1 ; and then the logarithms of
the ratios of 2 to 1, 3 to 1, &c. instead of being 301,030,
477,121, &c. will be *301030 and *477121, &c. respective¬
ly, that is, each will be one millionth of what it was be -
fore.
In Briggs’s system, the logarithm of the ratio of 10 to 1,
or, to speak briefly, the logarithm of 10, is unity; but we
are at liberty to assume any number whatever, as that
whose logarithm shall be unity. Napier, in consequence
of his particular views, chose 2,718,282 ; and hence it hap¬
pens that the logarithms of the ratios are expressed by
different numbers in the two systems.
But, to show the identity of the properties of logarithms,
as explained in the two different views now given of the sub¬
ject, let A and B denote any two numbers. The ratio of their
product to unity, that is, the ratio of A X B to 1, is com¬
pounded of the ratio of A to 1 and of B to 1; and conse¬
quently the logarithm of the ratio of A X B to 1 will equal
the sum of the logarithms of the ratios of A to ], and of
B to 1 ; or, in other words, the logarithm of A X B will be
the sum of the logarithms of A and B. Now, log. (A X B)
= log. A -j- log. B, therefore, log. B = log. (A X B)
c
— log. A. Let — be substituted for B, and D for A, then
C C
(because A X B = D X = C) we have log. — =
log. C — log. D.
Such is a short sketch of the theory of logarithms as de-
ducible from the doctrine of ratios. It was in this way that
the celebrated Kepler treated the subject; and he has been
followed by Mercator, Halley, and Cotes, as well as by ma¬
thematicians of later times, as by Baron Maseres in his Tri¬
gonometry. The same mode was likewise adopted in the
posthumous works of Dr Robert Simson. As, however,
the doctrine of ratios is very abstract, and the mode of rea¬
soning upon which it has been established is of a peculiar
and subtile kind, we presume that the greater number
of readers will think this view of the subject less simple
and natural than the following, in which we mean to de¬
duce the theory of logarithms, as well as the manner of
computing them, from the properties of the exponents of
powers.
The common scale of notation in arithmetic is so con¬
trived as to express all numbers whatever by the powers of
10, which is the root of the scale, and the nine digits serv¬
ing as co-efficients to these powers. Thus, if R denote
10, the root of the scale, so that R2 will denote 100, and R3
1000, and so on, the number 471,509 is otherwise express¬
ed by 4RS + 7R4 + 1R3 + 5R2 +0R1 + 9R°, which is
558
LOGARITHMS.
Nature equivalent to 4R5 -j- 7R4 R3 -j- 5R2 -f- 9. Again, the
of Loga-mixed number 37\'2k3 is expressed by 3R2 -j- 7Rl R°
rithms. 9 4 S
+ U+®+ R»’ orby3R^ + 7RI + K0+2R-1+ 4R-
+ 3R-3' As to vulgar fractions, by transforming them to
decimals, they may be expressed in the same manner.
Thus | = -375 = 3R-1 + 7R-2+ 5R^- Also f = -666,
&c. = 6R_1 + 6R~2 -}- 6R-3 -f-
But instead of expressing all numbers by the sums of
certain multiples of the successive powers of some particu¬
lar number, we may also express them, if not accurately,
at least as near as we please, by a single power, whole or
fractional, of any positive number whatever, which may be
either whole or fractional, but must not be unity.
Let us take, for example, 2 as the number, by the pow¬
ers of which all others are to be expressed. Then it may
be shown that the numbers 1, 2, 3, &c. are all expressible
by the powers of 2, as follows.
1 = 2°
2 — 21
3 rr 21*58496 nearly
4 = 22
5 — 22,321!) nearly
6 — 22,58496 nearly
7 = 22-8°73 nearly
8 — 23
9 — 23*:699 nearly
10 — 23,3219 nearly
and so on. And if instead of 2 we take the numoer 70,
then we have
1 = 10°
2 = 10-30103
3 = 10,47712
4 — lO-60206
5 _ IQ-69897
6 = 10-77i»5
7 10-84510
8 lo-90309
9 = 10-95424
10 - 101.
Hence we may conclude, that if r be put for some de¬
terminate number, and n for any indefinite positive num¬
ber, whole or fractional, it is always possible to find an¬
other number N, such that r being raised to the power N,
shall either be exactly equal to n, or as near it as we please ;
that is, we shall have n.
When numbers are expressed in this way by the powers
of some given number r, the exponent of that power of r
which is equal to any assigned number is called the loga¬
rithm of that number. Thus, if r ^ = rc (rc being put for
any number), N is the logarithm of n.
The logarithms which are produced by giving to r some
determinate value, constitute a system of logarithms; and
the constant number r, from which the system is formed,
is called the base, radix, or radical number of the system.
The properties of logarithms may readily be deduced
from the above definition as follows: Let a and b be any
two numbers, and A and B their logarithms; then r being
supposed to denote the base or radical number of the sys¬
tem, we have a — and b — r^ \ now if we take the
product of a and b, we have a b — r^ y. —
but, according to the definition, A -{- B is the logarithm of
a b (for it is the index of that power of r which is equal to
a b), therefore the sum of the logarithms of any two numbers
a and b is the logarithm of their product a b. Again, we
A
, a. r
hOTe6=PJ
— r^ but here A — B, being the index
of that power of r which is equal to is the logarithm of^;
hence, if one number a be divided by another b, the differ¬
ence between their logarithms is the logarithm of the quo¬
tient y.
O
Let n express any number whatever, then raising both
sides of the equation a = to the nth power, we have an
_(rA)ra_.7«A. jiere n a is manifestly the logarithm ofv
a” ; therefore, the logarithm of a", any power of a number,
is the product of the logarithm of the number by n, the index
of the power. This must evidently be true, whether n be a
whole number or a fraction, positive or negative.
from these properties, it is easy to see in what manner
a table exhibiting the logarithms of all numbers within
certain limits may be applied to simplify calculations ; for
since the sum of the logarithms of any two numbers is the
logarithm of their product, it follows, that as often as we
have occasion to find the product of two or more numbers,
we have only to add their logarithms taken from the table
into one sum, and to look for the number whose logarithm
is equal to that sum, and this number will be the product
required. Also, because the difference between the loga¬
rithm of the dividend and that of the divisor is the loga¬
rithm of the quotient, whenever we have occasion to di¬
vide one number by another, we have only to subtract the
logarithm of the divisor from that of the dividend, and op¬
posite to that logarithm in the table, which is the remain¬
der, we find the quotient.
As the logarithm of any power of a number is the pro¬
duct of the logarithm of the number by the index of the
power; and, on the contrary, the logarithm of any root of
a number is the quotient found by dividing the logarithm
of the number by the index of the root; it follows that we
may find any power or root of a number by multiplying the
logarithm of the number by the index of the power, or di¬
viding it by the index of the root, and taking that number
in the table whose logarithm is the product or quotient for
the power or root required.
If in the equation a = (where a is any number, A its
logarithm, and r the base of the system) we suppose a-=\,
then rc^=z 1; but this equation can only be satisfied by
A = 0. Hence it appears, that in every system of loga¬
rithms, the logarithm of unity must be 0. If, on the other
hand, we assume a = r, then we have the equation r—
which is immediately satisfied by putting A = 1 ; there¬
fore, the logarithm of the base, or radical number of every
system, is necessarily unity.
If we suppose r and a to he each a positive number
greater than unity, then A will be a positive number; for
if it be a negative we would have a pro¬
per fraction, and at same time a number greater by hypo¬
thesis than unity, which is absurd. If, on the contrary,
we suppose a a proper fraction, then A must necessarily
be negative, otherwise would be greater than unity,
and « ( = r^} also greater than unity, while by hypothesis
it is a fraction less than unity, which is absurd. There¬
fore, in every system, the base of which exceeds unity, the lo¬
garithm of a whole or mixed number is ahvays positive, but
the logarithm of a proper fraction is always negative.
Because the logarithm of r is unity, that of rn will he
n ; therefore, the logarithm of any integral power of the
radical number r will always be an integer.
Let r and / denote bases of two difierent systems ; and
let A be the logarithm of a number, a, taken according to
the first of these, and A' its logarithm according to the se¬
cond. Then, because a—r^, and a = r'^', it follows that
r A_ r,k ^ antj r __ p A * ug novy SUpp0se f]iaf r>/ Js
the base of a third system of logarithms, and R and R',
Nature
of Loga¬
rithms.
Nature
of Loga¬
rithms.
LOGARITHMS.
the logarithms of r and taken according to this third
system ; then, because
r.
we have , r" ;
R
therefore rRA r'11, and r r= r'11'; but we have already
A A A
found r = r,A, therefore —r'11', and consequently
Hence it appears, that the logarithm of a number, taken
according to one system, has to its logarithm, taken accord¬
ing to any other system, a constant ratio, which is the same
as that of the reciprocals of the logarithms of the radical
numbers of those systems.
Let us next suppose that a and b are two numbers, and
A and B their logarithms, taken according to the same
system, and r the base of the system ; then, because
A ^
r ■=. a,
b ;
we have rAB — aB, rABr= b A ;
A.
therefore aB — A, and«n:&B. Now asr is not found
in this equation, the value of the fraction — depends only
on a and b; therefore, the logarithms of any two given
numbers have the same ratio to each other in every system.
Having now explained the properties which belong to
the logarithms ot any system, we proceed to investigate
general rules by which the number corresponding to any
logarithm, and, on the contrary, the logarithm correspond¬
ing to any number, may be found the one from the other.
And for this end let us denote any number whatever by y,
and its logarithm by x, and put r as before for the base or
radical number of the system ; then, by the nature of lo¬
garithms,
y= rT
Put r ~ 1 -{- a, and let the expression (1 4. af be
panded into a series by the binomial theorem; thus
ex-
y = 1 + x a +
x(x— 1)
1-2
■* I —2) j
x (x — l) (x — 2) (x — 3)
1 • 2 • 3
+ &c.
1 1 • 2 • 3 • 4
Let this series, the terms of which are arranged according
to the powers of a, be transformed into another, whose
terms shall be arranged according to the powers of a;,- and
to effect this we must find the actual products of the fac¬
tors which constitute the powers of a, and arrange the
terms anew, as follows:
1 = 1,
x a ■=. + a x,
x (x— 1)
2 a I a
1 -“2-“ =-^* + -2
x(x— 1) (x— 2)
x(x.
1 • 2 • 3
-l)(a;—2) (a?—3)
1 • 2 • 3 • 4
&c.
'= +
a3 a3 ,
•*-2-* +-6*
«4=—
11 a
24
&c.
a4
3 1 *
X+7
24'
bo that adding into one sum the quantities on each side of
the sign —, and recollecting that the sum of those on the
left-hand side is equal to y, we have
, , q- a Or 1 _ »
+ («_ + —_+ &C.) X
559
Construc¬
tion of Lo»
garithms
y—rx— <j
a2 q3 11 q4
+ ^ 2 ~ 2" + ImT
&C.) X1
+ (>6--T + &C')*S
+ &c.
PutA = a-4+ir-4 + &c.
^  or qJ
11 q4
24
&c.
. „ aJ a. |
A = 6~T+&C-
q4
A»=__&c.
&c.
then r* z=. 1 + Aa; + h!x~ + A"a;3 + Awa;4 + &c.
Next, to determine the law of connection of the quanti¬
ties A, A', A", Aw, &c. since the last equation is to hold
good whatever be the value of the variable quantity, a si¬
milar equation may be formed with the same co-efficients,
and having x + z for its variable (z being any indefinite
quantity); thus we have also
rM+z= 1 + A(a: + z) + A'(a; + z)2 + A*(a; + zf + &c.
But r*+s—r* x rz> and since it has been shown that
rx= 1 + Aa; + A'x2 + A"x3 + Awa;4 + &c.
for the same reason
rz= 1 + Az + A'z2+A"z3+Awz4 + &c.
therefore the series
1 + A(a; + z) + A'(a; + z)2+An(x+z)3 + A'"(a; + z)4 + &e.
is equal to the product of the two series
1 + Aa; + A'x" + A"ai3 + A^x* + &c.
1 + Az + A'z2 + A”z3 + Awz4 + &c.
That is, by the actual involution of the former and multi¬
plication of the two latter,
1 + Aa;+ A'x2 + A" a;3 + Am x* + &C."]
+ Az + 2A'arz + 3AVz + 4 A'Vz + &c. |
+ A'z2 +3A/,a;z2 + 6A"'a;2z2 + &c. }> —
+ A" z3 + 4A'/'a,z3 + &c. I
+ Aw z4 + &c.J
rl + Aa; + A'a^ + A"*3 + A"'a;4 + &c.
+ Az + A2a:z + AA'x^z AA"x3z + &c.
+ A'z2 + AA'xz2 A'A'x?z2-j- &c.
+ A” z3 -}- AA"xz3 + &c.
+ A'" z4 + &c. '
Now the quantities A, A, A", &c. being quite independent
of x and z, the two sides of the equation can only be iden¬
tical, upon the supposition that the co-efficients oflike terms
in each are equal; therefore, setting aside the first line of
each side of the equation, because their terms are the same,
and also the first term of the second line, for the same rea¬
son, let the co-efficients of the remaining terms be put equal
to one another. Thus we have
A2z=2Ar
A A'=3 A" r
AA"=4A"' f
&c.
and hence
we have
A'~
A" —
A"' —
A2
1 • 2
A3
2 • 3
A4
1 • 2 • 3
&c.
Here the law of the co-efficients A, A', A", &c. is obvious,
560
LOGARITHMS.
Construe- each being formed from the preceding by multiplying it by
tion of Lo. a, and dividing by the exponent of the power of A, which
garithms. jg tjlus forrne(p Let these values of A', A", &c. be now
' J y^ ^substituted in the equation
y—r*— 1 + A a,' + A'.t2 -f- AV + &c.
and it becomes
A2 A3 A4
»=1+A*+i^’+P_^,+r_i*‘+&c-
Thus we have obtained a general formula expressing a
number in terms of its logarithm and the base of the sys¬
tem, for we must recollect that since a — r— 1, the quan¬
tity A, which is equal to
a * , or
a-Tr+¥
is otherwise expressed by
(r-l)* ,
r—1-
av . a5
- + --&C.
(r_l)4 (r—l)3
2 1 3 4 1
where r denotes the base of the system.
If in the formula
&c.
A2
1 + Ax + p-^a;2 + j-
A3
2-3
x3 +
A*
1
x4+ &c
we suppose x — 1, it becomes
i . a u. A2 . A3
r=1+A+F2+r^s
A4
1
&c.
:=1 + 1 +
■2+ r
2-3 1 • 2 • 3
--+ &c.
r—1-
(r_l)* f (r—l)3 (r—l)4 [ (r—l)5
■&c.
3
&c.
logarithms of the bases of the systems, these last loga- Construc-
rithms being taken according to any system whatever,tion of’ l-0*
that is, ' ganthms.
log. y to base e : log. y to base r :: : r-^— ;
log. e log. r
hence we find
log. y to base r ~ £~; X log. y to base e.
Let the value already found for the logarithm of y to base e
be substituted in this equation, and it becomes
log-ef . 0/—U2 . O—l)3 (y—l)4
° J log.r l 2 3 4
+ &c. |
which is a general formula for the logarithm of any num¬
ber whatever, to the base r. And it is to be recollected
losr. c
that in the fraction ^—, which is a common multiplier to
Jog.r 1
the series, the logarithms are to be taken according to the
same base, which however may be any number whatever.
If in the above formula we suppose r-=e, the multiplier
locr. £
will be unity, and the formula will become simply
an equation which contains r only; but as r has been all
along supposed an indeterminate quantity, this equation
must be identical, that is, if, instead of A, its value, as ex¬
pressed above in terms of r, were substituted, the equation
would become r — r.
Again, let us suppose that -i- is substituted instead of x
.A.
in the general formula; thus it becomes
Thus the quantity whatever be the value of r, is evi¬
dently equal to a constant number, which, as appears
from the last equation, is equal to the value of r when
A = 1. By adding together a sufficient number of terms
of the last series, we find it nearly equal to
2*7182818284590452353602874.
_i
If this be denoted by e, we have r A e, and r — e-^', hence,
if the number e be considered as the base of a logarithmic
system, the quantity A, namely,
2 ' 3 4’5
is the logarithm of r to the base e. But as r is not restrict¬
ed here to any particular value, we may substitute y in¬
stead of it, keeping in mind that y denotes any number
whatever, and x its logarithm ; thus we have x the loga¬
rithm of y, expressed by the series
(,y-l)2 O-l)3 (;/-l)4,0/-l)5
U Q I
log. r
,og-J'=Z/—1
0-i)a, (y-i)3 (y-0‘
+ &C.
supposing that the base of the system is the number we
have expressed above by e.
We have now found a general formula for the logarithm
of any number y, taken according to a particular system,
namely, that which has the number e for its base. But it
is easy from hence to find a formula, which shall apply to
any system whatever. For it has been shown that the lo¬
garithms of the same number, taken according to two dif¬
ferent systems, are to each other as the reciprocals of the
as we have already remarked. Now this is the system
which was adopted by Lord Napier ; and although the lo¬
garithms which were computed according to this system, or
upon the supposition that the radical number is2,7182818,
Ac. have been called hyperbolic logarithms, because they
happen to be proportional to certain hyperbolic spaces, yet,
as the logarithms of every system have the same property,
it is more proper to call them Napierian logarithms.
As the constant multiplier 1°-—, which occurs in the
1 log. r
general formula for the logarithm of any number, is the
only part of the formula which depends for its value upon
the base of the system, it has been called by writers on
logarithms the modulus of the system. If we suppose the
logarithms taken to the base e, then the numerator, viz.
log. e, will be unity, and the denominator will be the Na¬
pierian logarithm of r. If however we suppose the loga¬
rithms taken to the base r, then the numerator will be
log. e to base r; and the denominator will be unity, so
that the modulus of any system whose base is r, is the re¬
ciprocal of the Napierian logarithm of that base ; or it is
the logarithm of the number e (the base of the Napierian
system) to the base r.
In the Napierian system, the modulus is unity, and
hence the logarithms of this system are more easily com¬
puted than those of any other. It wras, however, soon
found that a system whose base should be the same as the
root of the scale of the arithmetical notation, viz. the num¬
ber 10, would be the most convenient of any in practice;
and accordingly such a system was actually constructed
by Mr Briggs. This is the only one now in common use,
and is called Briggs's system, also the common system of lo¬
garithms. The modulus oi' this system therefore is the reci¬
procal of the Napierian logarithm of 10, viz. *43429448,
which is the common logarithm of e 2*7182818, &c. the
base of the Napierian system. We shall in future denote
this modulus by M; so that the formula expressing the
common logarithm of any number y will be
+ ^c* j-
If the number ?/, whose logarithm is required, be very near
LOGARITHMS.
561
Construe- to unity, so that 1 — is a small quantity, then the lega¬
tion of Lo- may be found from this formula with great ease,
gan ms. because the series will converge very rapidly. If, how-
ever, 1—y be greater than unity, the series, instead of
converging, will diverge, so as to be, in its present form,
of no use.
It may, however, be transformed into another, which
shall converge in every case, by substituting in it ” .y/?/
instead of y, and observing that log. (n y) = ;
it thus becomes
\og.y = nM { Vy-1—K V^—l)2 + i (nVy—l)3— &c-}
where n may denote any number, positive or negative.
But whatever be the number y, we can always take «,
such, that n*Jy shall be as near to 1 as we please; there¬
fore, by this last formula, we can always find the loga¬
rithm of y to any degree of accuracy.
If n be taken negative, then n*yy — — — , and the se-
V y
ries for log. y becomes, by changing the signs,
log.y = »M j 1- ’ + +i(,
,-L)
n a/;//
+ &c,
}
where all the terms are positive. Thus we have it in our
power to express the value of y, either by a series which
shall have its terms all positive, or by one which shall
have its terms alternately positive and negative : for it is
evident that if y be greater than unity, ny/y will also be
greater than unity, and vice versa; but the differences
will be so much the smaller as n the exponent of the root
is greater; therefore n^/y— 1 will be positive in the first
case, and negative in the second.
Because Nap. log. 10 — —, we have by the two last
formulas
L = »{v10—l—i (VlO-1)! + i (Vio-l)3
— &c.}
also
M — n {1_"vTO ’^(1_ V'To)
V10
-f &c. j-
+i
o-w)
It is evident, that by giving to n\/y such a value that
nVy 1 is a fraction less than unity, we render both the
series for the value of log. y converging ; for then the
expression 1 — will also be less than unity, seeing
it is equal
n\/y
Vy—i
nVy
Therefore, in the first series, the
second and third terms (taken together as one term) con¬
stitute a negative quantity; and as the same is also true
of the fourth and fifth, and so on, the amount of all the
terms after the first is a negative quantity, or one which
is to be subtracted from the first, to obtain the value of
log y. Hence
log. t/ Z w M (ny/y— !)•
And since, on the contrary, the terms of the second se¬
ries are all positive, the amount of all the terms after the
first is a positive quantity, or one which must be added to
the first to give the value of log. y ; so that
H.yynu(l—A-).
Thus we have two limits to the value of the logarithm
VOL. XIII.
of y, which, by taking the number n sufficiently great Construc-
may come as near to each other as we please. tion of Lo¬
in like manner we find two limits to the value of the garithms.
reciprocal to the modulus, viz.
LzB(W10-l)47n(l- ' )
n M
1)-
(1-4)
-v/lOJ
It is evident that the difference between the two limits of
log. y, is
therefore, if we take either the one or the other of the two
preceding expressions for log y, the error in excess or de¬
fect is necessarily less than this quantity.
By these formulas we may depend upon having the lo¬
garithm of any number true to m figures, if we give to n
such a value that the root shall have m ciphers be¬
tween the decimal point and the first significant figure on
the right. So that in general, as the error is the smaller
as n the exponent of the root is greater, it may be neglect¬
ed when n is taken indefinitely great; and this being the
case, we may conclude that either of these expressions,
rcM(Vy-l), —
is the accurate value of log. y.
The best manner of applying the preceding formula is
to take some power of the number 2 for n ; for by doing
so, the root may be found by a repetition of extrac¬
tions of the square root only. It was in this way that
Briggs calculated the first logarithms; and he remarked,
that if in performing the successive extractions of the
square root, he at last obtained twice as many decimal
places as there were ciphers after the decimal point, the
integer before it being unity, then the decimal part of this
root was exactly the half of that which went before; so
that the decimal parts of the two roots were to each other
in the same proportion as their logarithms : now this is an
evident consequence of the preceding formula.
To give an example of the application of the formula,
let it be required to find the numerical value of M, the
modulus of the common system of logarithms, which, as
it is the reciprocal of the Napierian logarithm of 10, is
1 1
nearly,
V10 —I
when n is some very great number. Let us suppose
n — 260 = 820; then, dividing unity by 8, and this result
again by 8, and so on, we shall, after 20 divisions, have
1 1
-> or pu’ e(luaI t0
0-00000 00000 00000 00086 73617 37988 4035L
Also, by extracting the square root of 10, and the square
root of this result, and so on, after performing 60 extrac¬
tions we shall find ”^10 equal to
1-00000 00000 00000 00199 71742 08125 50527 03251.
1
Therefore, - X
n nx/L0 — 1
86736173798840354
, or M is equal to
= 0-4342944819.
199717420812550527
As a second example, let it be required to find by the
same formula the logarithm of 3, which is nearly
n M (n\/S 1) = — ^ *
^ ^ ^ «(VW—-1) ~ ViO—l’
n being as before a very great number. Let us suppose
also in this case that n = 260 ; then after 60 extractions
of the square root we have ”y'3 equal to
1-00000 0-0000 00000 0095 28942 64074 58S32.
4 b
562
Construc¬
tion of Lo¬
garithms.
'   *
LOGARITHMS.
Therefore, taking the value of nyT0 as found in last ex¬
ample, we have
n^/S— 1 _ 95289426407458932
l0g- 3 ~ ^/10— 1 ” 199717420812550527
= *477121254719662.
This method of computing logarithms is evidently at¬
tended with great labour, on account of the number of ex¬
tractions of roots which it requires to obtain a result true
to a moderate number of places of figures. But the two
series which we have given serve to simplify and com¬
plete it. For, whatever be the number y, it is only neces¬
sary to proceed with the extractions of the square root, till
we have obtained for nA^/y a value which is unity follow¬
ed by a decimal fraction ; and then — 1 being a
fraction, its powers will also be fractions so much the
smaller as their exponents are greater; thus a certain
number of terms of the series will express the logarithm
to as many decimal places as may be required.
There are yet other artifices by which the series
l°g*^=:M|?/—1——1)2 + 3 (y—l)3—K#—l)4 + &c*}
may be transformed into others which shall always con¬
verge, and in particular the following. Let 1 + m be sub¬
stituted in the series for y ; then it becomes
l°g.(l+«)=M^—^-+ —^ —&c.)
In like manner, if 1 — u be substituted for y, we have
Let the latter equation be subtracted from the former;
and since log. (1-j-«) — l°g* ( 1 — w)> is equal to log.
1 -}- u
1 — n
log:.
we shall have
1 -|- w
1 — u
= 2M{“ + £ + t + t + &-}'
which series, by substituting z for
\ u
1 — u
and
quently :
+ 1
for u, will be otherwise expressed thus,
! +
1
1
33 ‘ 5*35
7*37
+
1
9-3s>
&c.^
— -A- + 3*B J-C -j- -^E &c.
where A is put for B for A, C for JL —
for -A —
3'
&c.
A =
B =
C =
D =
E =
F =
G =
H =
I —
K -
L -
3’ 33 9 35 9
The calculation will be as follows:
i A =
Ic-
| D =
i E =
iG =
!iHf
9 ^ —
M = L L -
•666666666666
•074074074074
•008230452674
•000914494742
•000101610527
•000011290059
•000001254451
•000000139383
•000000015487
•000000001721
•000000000191
•000000000021
A = -666666666666
^ B = -024691358025
^ C = -001646090535
| D = -000130642106
^ E r= -000011290056
j-1! F = -000001026369
iV G = -000000096496
TV H = -000000009292
tV 1 = -000000000911
iV K — -000000000091
gV L - -000000000001
Construc¬
tion of Lo-
garithms.
,„g.,= 2M\^±+i(^f+i£Ty+ &c. } ;
which is not only simple, but has also the property of con¬
verging in every case.
As an example of the utility of this formula, we shall
employ it to compute the Napierian logarithm of 2, which
will be
Nap. log. 2 = -693147180551
Thus, by a very easy calculation, we have obtained the
Napierian logarithm of 2 true to the first ten places of
figures ; the accurate value, as far as the 12th place, being
0-693147180560.
If this very simple process, by which we have found the
logarithm of 2 (the whole of which is here actually put
down), be compared with the laborious calculations which
must have been performed to have found the same loga¬
rithm by the method explained in the beginning of this sec¬
tion, the great superiority of this method to the other, and
even to the second method, by which we found the value
of M, and the logarithm of 3, must be very apparent.
In the same manner as we have found the logarithm of
2, we may find those of 3, 5, &c. In computing the loga¬
rithm of 3, the series would converge by the powers of the
3 1
fraction and in computing the logarithm of 5 it
would converge by the powers of
AA — 2.; but in each
5+ 1
D
of these cases the series would converge slower, and of
course the labour would be greater than in computing the
logarithm of 2. And if the number whose logarithm was
required was still more considerable; as, for example, 199,
the series would converge so slow as to be useless.
We may however avoid this inconvenience by again
transforming this last formula into another which shall ex¬
press the logarithm of any number by means of a series,
and a logarithm supposed to be previously known. To
effect this new transformation, let | U = 1 + -, and
1 — u n
consequently u these values being substituted in
the formula,log.2m(u + -A + ^- + ^- + &c.I
we have log. ^1 + equal to
2M {§4^ + *1 (»TTi)5 + &c- }
but log. ^1 + ^ = log. AdA = log. (n + z) — log. n,
therefore, log. (n z) ■= log. n +
aM {2^ + * ferh) + i fe)5 +
By the assistance of this formula, and the known properties
of logarithms, we may proceed calculating the logarithm of
one number from that of another as follows.
To find the Napierian logarithm of 3 from that of 2, al-
2n z
— sp¬
read y found. We have here n — 2,z-=: 1, and j “"1
Therefore the logarithm of 3 is
\°g.2+ 2 (5 + + 5^5+7^7 +&»•)
= log. 2 + A + j B + j C + f D + 5 E + *<•-
LOGARITHMS.
tfo0nnofLo.where A is put for f, B for A, c for and so on.
garithms.
25’
The calculation may stand, thus:
A
B=*VA =
C = B =
D = AC =
E = A D =
F = A E =
g = gV F =
h = ^g =
400000000000
•016000000000
000640000000
000025600000
•000001024000
000000040960
000000001638
■000000000066
A — -400000000000
i B =-005333333333
J- C = -000128000000
f D =-000003657143
^ E =-000000113778
JT F = -000000003724
jV G = -000000000126
rV H =r -000000000004
•405465108108
Nap. log. 2 = -693147180551
log. 4 + 2
a
3-93 + 5-95 ^ 7-97 + &C*^
log. 4 + A+ |B + j-C + fD+&c.
where A = f, B = ^y A, C = ^ B, &c.
The calculation.
A = -222222222222
B — A zr -002743484225
C = -Jy B zz -000033870176
D = ^y C =z -000000418150
E = ^y D Z= -000000005162
F = Jr E zz -000000000064
A zz -222222222222
I- B zz -000914494742
£ C zz -000006774035
| D zz -000000059736
E z:-000000000574
T\ F zz -000000000006
•223143551315
Nap. log. 4 zz 1-386294361102
Nap. log. 5 zz 1-609437912417
This result is also correct to the first ten places.
The logarithm of 6 is found from those of 2 and 3, be¬
cause 6 zz 2 X 3, therefore log. 6 zz log. 2 + log. 3.
Nap. log. 2 zz 0-693147180551
Nap. log. 3 zz 1-098612288659
Nap. log. 6 zz 1-791759469210
This result is correct as far as the tenth decimal place.
We might find the logarithm of 7 from that of 6, that
is, from the logarithms of 3 and 2, in the same manner as
we have found the logarithms of 5 and 3 ; but it may be
more readily found from the logarithms of 2 and 5 thus.
Because - * A ■ zz therefore log. 2+2 log. 5 —
50
2 log. 7 zz log. jg, and consequently
log. 7 zz i log. 2 + log. 5
563
Construc¬
tion of I.o-
garitiims.
i, ao
i log-3a-
,50
Now the logarithm of — may be readily obtained from
log.s= 2M{^1+ *(*-=!) + }(^j)S+ &c.}
Nap. log. 3 z= 1-098612288659
This logarithm is true to 10 decimal places, the accurate
value to 12 figures being 1-098612288668, which would
have been our result had the correct value of log. 2, viz.
•693147180560 been employed.
The Napierian logarithm of 4 is immediately had from
that of 2 by considering that as 4 zz 22, therefore log. 4
zz log. 2 + log. 2.
Nap. log. 2 zz -693147180551
2
z + l
' 50
For, substituting — for 2, the formula gives
NaP- log. 49 = 2 (99 + ^995 + 54J95 + &c-)
zzA + £B + ]C + &c.
, . 2 A B
where A = —,6 = —,° =
92.II2’
&c. This series
Nap. log. 4 zz 1-386294361102
This is also true to 10 places besides the integer.
To find the Napierian logarithm of 5, from that of 4;
we have w zz 4, z zz 1, and -—^—- zz 4, therefore the lo-
2ra + 1 a
garithm of 5 is expressed by
converges with great rapidity, and a few of its terms will
be sufficient to give the logarithm of 7, as appears from
the following operation.
A zz -020202020202
B zz —A A = -000002061220
C zz ,-A- B zz -000000000210
A zz -020202020202
£B zz -000000687073
l-C zz -000000000042
50
Nap. log. — zz -020202707317
1 log. 2 zz 0-346573590275
log. 5 zz 1-609437912417
1-956011502692
50
4 log. ~ zz 0-010101353658
Nap. log. 7 zz 1-945910149034
This logarithm, like those we found before, is correct in
the first ten decimal places.
The logarithms of 8, 9, and 10 are immediately obtain¬
ed from those of 2, 3, and 5, as follows:
Nap. log. 2 zz 0-693147180551
3
Nap. log. 8 zz 2-079441541653
Nap. log. 3
1-098612288659
2
Nap. log. 9 zz 2-197224577318
Nap. log. 2 zz 0-693147180551
Nap. log. 5 z: 1-609437912417
Nap. log. 10 zz 2-302585092968
u
564
LOGARITH M S.
Construe- Thus by a few calculations we have found the Napier-
tion of Lo-jan logarithms of the first ten numbers, each true to ten
ganthms. jecjmaj p]aces . anci since the Napierian logarithm of 10
is now known, the modulus of the common system, which
is the reciprocal of that logarithm, will also be known, and
will be
= *4)342944819.
2*302585092968
The common logarithms of the first ten numbers may
now be found from the Napierian logarithms by multiply¬
ing each of the latter by the modulus, or dividing by its
reciprocal, that is, by the Napierian logarithm of 10. And
as the modulus of the common system is so important an
element in the theory of logarithms, we shall give its value,
together with that of its reciprocal, as far as the 30th de¬
cimal place.
M = *434294481903251827651128918916
1 = 2*302585092994045684017991454684
M
The formulae already given are sufficient for finding the
logarithms of all numbers whatever throughout the table ;
but there are yet others which may often be applied with
great advantage, and we shall now investigate some of
these.
Because
!+
lo
If we now suppose
so that
z — 1
— 1
1
z + 1
log
2n2— 1’
(» — 1) (» + 1)’
then the formula becomes
(n — 1) (h + 1)
2M
/ 1—
\ 2»2 — 1
(sArr) +K»At) + &c-}
But log.
-7-x = 2 log.
O—1)0 + i)
o + 1), therefore, putting N for the series
log. O — 1) — J°g*
2M
{aAn + i (^Ar)3-1- KaAn)'4- &c-}
2 tt2
we have this formula,
2 log. n — log. 0 — 1) — J°g* 0 + J) = N ;
and hence, as often as we have the logarithms of any two
of three numbers whose common difference is unity, the
logarithm of the remaining number may be found. Exam¬
ple : Given log. 9 = 0*95424250943, log. 10 1; to find
the common logarithm of 11. *
Here we have ?i — 10, so that the formula gives in this
case 2 log. 10— log. 9—log. 11 = N, and hence we have
log. 11 — 2 log. 10 — log. 9 — N,
. 2M , 2M , „
whereN=Tg-9+3^p+ &c.
M being *43429448190.
Calculation of N.
A = *00436476866
B =
199
A
3*1992
= *00000003674
N zr 0*00436480540
log. 9 = 0*95424250943
log. 9 + N - 0*95860731483
2 log. 10 z= 2-00000000000
log. 11 - 1*04139268517
Here the series expressed by N converges very fast, so Construe-
that two of its terms are sufficient to give the logarithm Bon of Lo-
true to 10 places of decimals. But the logarithm of 1 logarithms,
may be expressed by the logarithms of smaller numbers,
and a series which converges still more rapidly, by the
following artifice, which will apply also to some other num¬
bers. Because the numbers 98, 99, and 100 are the pro¬
ducts of numbers, the greatest of which is 11, for 98 z= 2
X 7', 99 — 9 X 11, and 100 = 10 X 10, it follows that if
we have an equation composed of terms which are the lo¬
garithms of these three numbers, it may be resolved into
another, the terms of which shall be the logarithms of the
number 11 and other smaller numbers. Now by the pre¬
ceding formula, if we put 99 for ti, we have
2 log. 99 — log. 98 — log. 100 = N,
that is, substituting log. 9 + log. 11 for log. 99, log. 2 +
2 log. 7 for log. 98, and 2 log. 10 for log. 100*
2 log. 9 + 2 log. 11 — log. 2 — 2 log. 7 — 2 log. 10 — N,
and hence by transposition, &c.
log. 11 zr | N + ^ log. 2 + log. 7 — log. 9 + log. 10 ;
and in this equation
N zz ^ ^ + &C.
19601 ‘ 3 196013
The first term alone of this series is sufficient to give the
logarithm of 11 true to 14 places.
Another formula, by which the logarithm of a number
is expressed by the logarithms of other numbers and a
series, may be found as follows,
llesuming the formula
.og. *= 2M { ^ , (+;) + ^ (i^)" + &c. }
put 2
i.z+1 ' 3\z+U * 5\z+
 (n — l)2 (» + 2) _ «3 — 3 » + 2
— (n — 2) (n + l)2
1 2
n3 — 3 n — 2’
then
.s+i
— 3}i'
z . 2.
Let these values of z, and —j—:, be substituted in the
2+1
formula, and it becomes
(n-l)> + 2) f 2 /
2)0+1)2 \ n3—3n ^ 3 \r,
log
;)+&c-}
(n—2)(n + \)2 "" n3—3n ‘ 3 \n3—3nJ
But the quantity on the left-hand side of this equation is
manifestly equal to 2 log. (n — 1) + log. (n + 2) — log.
(n — 2)— 2 log. O + 1)5 therefore, putting P for the
series,
2 -\.i( ?_y+i/ ?__y+&c 1
^3\n3—3nJ ^ s W—3n) ^ C J
2M
l
[ n3—3n
we have this formula,
log.(w + 2) + 2 log-O—1)—log-O—2)—21og-0+ 1)=P*
By this formula we may find, with great facility, the loga¬
rithm of any one of the four numbers n — 2, n— 1, w + 1,
w + 2, having the logarithms of the other three. We may
also employ it in the calculation of logarithms, as in the fol¬
lowing example. Let the numbers 5, 6, 7, 8, be substi¬
tuted successively in the formula; then, observing that
log. 6 zz log. 2 + log. 3, and log. 8 zz 3 log. 2, we have
these four equations,
2M
log. 7 + 2 log. 2 — 3 log. 3 zz -^r- +
2M
3*553
&c.
-2 log. 7+ log. 2 + 2 log. 5 = ^ +~+ &c.
4 log. 3-4 log. 2-log. 5 = ^+ 3^5+ 4-c.
1 c ki 0101 « 2M. 2M10
log. 5-5 log. 3 + 2 log. 7 = ^ + &c
Let log. 2, log. 3, log. 5, and log. 7, be now considered as
LOGARITHMS.
565
Construe- four unknown quantities, and by resolving those equations
tion of Lo- jn the usual manner, the logarithms may be determined,
ganthms. Resuming once more the formula
>og.*=2M{*-=i+i(^)S+&c.}
let
5) (n — 5)
(n + 3) (?i — 3) (rc + 4) (?i — 4)
be substituted in it
instead of z, then, by this substitution,
z+l
will become
— 72
—7 an(l ^ie formula will be transformed to
n* — 2o?r + 72
lo<r.
n?(n 5) (n — 5)
O I
log- (1 + Io) + los- i1
+
(n + 3) (n — 3) O + 4) 0 — 4)
- —2M( . - A2, , S2, , AT + &c. 1
\«4—25re2 + 72 3 W4—25?*2 + 72/ j
Hence, putting the latter side of this equation equal to Q,
we have this formula,
2 log. n + log. O + 5) + log. 0—5) — log. O + 3) ) _0
—log. 0—3)—log. O + 4) — log. O—4) -f- Q /
which may be applied in the calculation of logarithms in
the same manner as the former.
But when it is required to find the logarithm of a higher
number, as, for example, 1231, we may proceed as follows.
log. 1231 = log. (1230 + 1) = log. 11230 (l + ~) )
= log. 1230 +log. (l+ji)-
Again, log. 1230 = log. 2 -f- log. 5 -f- log. 123, and log.
123 = log. | 120 (l + i) } =log. 120+log. (l + 1),
log. 120 = log. (23 x 3 x 5) =: 3 log. 2 -f- log. 3 log. 5.
Therefore log. 1231 = 4 log. 2 log. 3 -}- 2 log. 5 -f.
JL)
1230/
Thus the logarithm of the proposed number is expressed
by the logarithms of 2, 3, 5, and the logarithms of
1 +m1 + i^o’ all of which may be easily found by
the formulae already delivered.
Trigono- III.—NATURE AND CALCULATION OF SIXES, TANGENTS, &C.
metrical
The trigonometrical formulae given in the Arithmetic of
Sines (See Algebra) contain the principles requisite for
constructing tables in which the lengths of the sines, cosines,
tangents, cotangents, secants, and cosecants of given angles,
are exhibited for every degree, minute, and second of space
of the quadrant. Such tables are known as Trigonometri¬
cal Canons. It is evident that such tables, when accu¬
rately computed, are invaluable, and will prevent the labour
and trouble of calculating afresh, on every new occasion, the
sine, cosine, &c., of any angle that may be required.
I rigonometrical Canons are generally calculated to a
radius unity, or 1; but when this is the case, all the results are
multiplied by 10,000, or any high power of 10, in order to
avoid printing cyphers to the immediate right of the deci¬
mal point of the sines of all small angles.
Since the length of the semi - circumference of a
circle has been approximated to, and found to be tt =
3’]41592653589/932 when radius = 1; and since the num¬
ber of degrees in the semi-perimeter is 180° = 10800'; hence
1 of space = T of an arc = 0-000290888204. Now,
Canon.
since the small angle of T is subtended by an arc of theTAgonome-
same magnitude, the sine of T will also be a small quantity, trical
and may be regarded as equal to the arc. Thus the sine
T = length of an arc of T = -000290888204. In this
manner the sine of T may be determined, but more le¬
gitimately from the formula of cos 2 A = 2 cos2 A — 1.
cos A = (1 +cos 2A), when A not ^>90° ; and since
this is true whatever the angle A be, it is true when for A
we write —. Hence,
2
cos A = V2 0 + cos A) ; cos ^ ^1 + cos
= J i^i + cosA^; Cos^=: a/i^I+cos^;
23
&c. =
A
&c.
&c. =
&c.
% = nA (1 + “s24)
Let A receive a particular value, as 30°; then cos 2A
= cos 60° = Wherefore,
cos 30° = Va (1 + cos 60°) = (1 + &) — ~~
= 0-8660254;
cos 15° = \AH1 +cos 30°) = Vi (1 + 0-8660254)
= 0-9659258 ;
cos 7° 30' = Vi (1 + cos 15°) = V| Q + 0-9659258)
= 0-9914449;
&c. = &c. = &c.
If now we proceed in this manner and compute eleven
’ we shall at last
bisections of the angle 30
30'
that is,
21
come to cos
)° A , 30°\
n=Vi (^+cos —J
> or
sin
21
= T:
= 1: 0-000290888204
30 x 60 x 1 225 ./
cos — = cos —— x 1 = cos 52 -73437o ;
2U 256
*. cos 52""734375 = 0-99999996782, which is a very
little greater than the cosine of T ;
sin52"-734375 =a/i - cos2 ^
2U v gu
= 0-000255663462.
But the sines of very small angles increasing and de¬
creasing as the angles themselves, that is, as the number of
minutes they contain,
• U. c^ 300 U 30° u. 30 x 60 x 1’
... sin 1 : sin—= 1 : —= 1 :
225
256
.*. sin T = 0-000290888204.
So also cos T = Vl - sin2 T = VI -(0-000290888204)2
= 0-9999999577.
If sin 30” be determined from the formula,
sin A = ^ (Vl + S4n ^A. — Vl — sin 2A}, we have
sin 30" = (Vl + sin T — Vl — sin T}
= 0"000145199, which is very nearly equal to half
the sine of T, since the angle is small;
.-. cos 30” = Vl - cos2 30” = Vl - (0-000145199)2
= 0-9999999896.
Since the sine and cosine of T and 30” are known, the
sines and cosines of all angles from T or 30" up to 90°, dif¬
fering from one another by T or 30", can easily be deter¬
mined. This is effected by the convenient formulae of
sin nA=2 sin (ra — 1)A . cos A — sin (n-2)A, and
cos nA = 2 cos (n — 1)A . cos A — cos (n — 2)A,
in which, make A = T, and for n write successively the
natural numbers 2, 3, &c., and
566
LOGARITHMS.
Trigonome
trical
Canon.
sin 2'= 2 sin 1'. cos 1' — sin O'= 00005817764
sin 3'= 2 sin 2' . cos 1' — sin 1'= 0'000872664o
sin 4'= 2 sin 3'. cos I'-sin 2'= 0-0011635526
&c. = &c. = &c.
cos 2' = 2 cos 1'. cos 1' - cos 0' = 0-9999998308
cos 3’= 2 cos 2'. cos 1' — cos 1' = 0-9999996192
cos 4'= 2 cos 3'. cos T —cos 2'= 0-9999993231
&c. = &c. = &c.
Now it would be very inconvenient to register so many
cyphers which necessarily enter the values of the sines of
small angles ; therefore, in order to avoid this, the sines,
cosines, and the quantities which are derived from them,
are multiplied by 10,000, or a suitable power of 10; that
is, the decimal point is removed four or more places to the
right, previous to their being registered in the tables. If
the real values of the sines, cosines, and the other quantities
dependent thereon, be tabulated, without being multiplied
by any power of 10, the tables are known as Tables of
Natural Sines, Cosines, Tangents, &c.
In this manner, therefore, we can easily derive from the
preceding results the sines and cosines of all angles from
1' to 90°.
The same quantities may also be obtained from the for¬
mula sin (A + B) + sin (A — B) = 2 sin A cos B, which
may be thrown into the form of
/ B A2
sin (A + B) = sin A + |sin A —sin (A —B)j - sin A/ 2 sin- J;
so that ifB = T, and if for A we write successively 1', 2', 3',
&c., we have, e.g. when A = T, and B = 1',
sin 2' = sin 1' + (sin T — sin O') — sin T . (2 sin 30")2.
In either case, we shall have a long multiplication to per¬
form, but the same result.
But we need not proceed in these calculations beyond the
sine and cosine of 45°, for the same values will recur from
45° to 90°. The reason of this is because sin (45° + A)
— cos
^ 90° —(45° + A) y =cos (45° —A); and also
cos (45° + A) = sin ^90° — (45° + A)^ = sin (45° — A).
sin 60°
&c.
cos 60°
cos 60°
&c.
58',
59'
58'
2' = sin 2' +sin 59°
= &c.
T = cos T — cos 59'
2' = cos 2' — cos 59'
= &c.
When the sines and cosines of all angles from 0° up to
90° have been computed, they form the basis for calculating
the tangents and cotangents, the secants and cosecants, of
all angles from 0° up to 90°. For tan A = sin ^ ; cot A =
Trigonoirj
trical
Canon.
cos A 1
sec A = ■
1
cos A
cosec A = -
1
sin A tan’ “ cos A’ sin A’
But if we suppose that the tangents of all angles from
0° up to 45° have been already tabulated, those from 45°
up to 90° may be obtained very simply from the formula
2 tan 2 A = tan (45° +A)-tan (45° —A).
Let now A receive increments of 1' at a time ;
.-. tan 45° 1' = 2 tan 2' + tan 44° 59'
tan 45° 2'= 2 tan 4' +tan 44° 58'
tan 45° 3'= 2 tan 6' +tan 44° 57',
&c. = &c.
The tangents of all angles being known, the cotangents
are deduced therefrom ; and although the sines and cosines
will enable us to find the cosecants and secants respectively,
yet the same quantities will be found much more simply by
the following formulae :—
A
2 sec A = tan ^45° +
+ cot
O * a A
2 cosec A = tan — +cot —.
UJ £
)
and
Hence a trigonometrical canon of sines and cosines is com¬
pleted at 45°.
When, however, the sines and cosines have been com¬
puted from 1' up to 30°, the labour and risk of error in find¬
ing long products may be much diminished, by determining
the value of the sine or cosine by addition and subtraction.
Thus, we have
2 sin A .cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A —B), and
2 sin A . sin B = cos (A — B) — cos (A + B).
Let A = 30°, then 2 sin A = 2 sin 30° = 1 ;
.*. cos B = sin (30° + B) + sin (30° — B ) (i.), and
sin B = cos (30° — B) — cos (30° + B) (n.).
In these expressions, let B increase by V at a time, from
0° up to 30°, and we shall have all sines and cosines from
30° up to 60° : for
sin 30° T = cos T —sin 29° 59'
sin 30° 2' = cos 2' - sin 29° 58'
&c. = &c.
cos 30° T = cos 29° 59'—sin T
cos 30° 2' = cos 29° 58' — sin 2'
&c. = &c.
Again, in order to derive the sines and cosines of all
angles from 60° up to 90°, we have
2 cos A . sin B = sin (A + B) — sin (A — B), and,
2 cos A.cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A —B).
Let A = 60°, then 2 cos A = 2 cos 60° = 1;
sin B = sin (60° + B) - sin (60° — B), (m.), and
cos B = cos (60° + B) + cos (60° - B), (iv.).
Give B all values from 0° up to 30°, the increase being
by T at a time ;
sin 60° T = sin I' + sin 59° 59'
Let A increase by 1' at a time, then, on sec A and cosec A
becoming sec 45°, and cosec 45°, we shall have the one the
complement of the other, since sec A = cosec (90° — A) ;
.*. sec T = ^ (tan 45° 0' 30" +cot 45° 0' 30")
sec 2' = ^- (tan 45° 1' +cot 45° T)
sec 3' = £ (tan 45° 1' 30" +cot 45° T 30")
&c.' = &c.
cosec ]' = ■£ (tan 30" +cot 30")
cosec 2' = i (tan I' + cotT)
cosec 3' = i (tan T 30" + cot T 30")
&c. = &c.
We have already seen, that with respect to the sines and
cosines, the tabulated results need be carried no further
than 45° ; the same may be said of the other elements which
have been mentioned. For tan A = cot (90° — A) ; sec A
= cosec (90°—A). Hence, at the top of trigonometrical
tables the angles increase forwards from 0° to 45°, while
at the bottom they proceed backwards fi-om 45° to 90°.
In the construction of these trigonometrical canons, how¬
ever, it is absolutely necessary to have formulae of verifi¬
cation, or checks to verify, or rather to examine, the accu¬
racy of the results as they progress from 0° up to 45° ; for
an error in one result is communicated to each quantity.
These formulae of verification are, besides I. n. m. rv.:—
cos (36° + A) — cos (72° — A) + cos (36° — A) — cos (72° + A)=cos A;
sin A + sin (36°-A) + sin (720 + A)=sm (36° + A) + sin (72°-A);
sin (54° + A) + sin (54°-A)-sin (18° +A) —sin (18°—A)=cos A.
&c. &c.
Suppose now that the sines, cosines, &c., of all angles have
been calculated, radius being unity, and that we multiply
each natural sine, cosine, &c., by 10,000,000,000= 1010, the
logarithm of which is 10, then if of each of these new values
we take the logarithm, and register such values in tables,
we shall have a logarithmic canon of sines, cosines, &c.; and,
therefore, the logarithms of the sines instead of the sines
themselves. These logarithmic sines, &c., are found to be
much more convenient in calculation than the natural sines,
which are hence omitted in logarithmic tables. The real
logarithm is found by subtracting 10 from the characteris¬
tics of the tabulated logarithms.
567
LOGIC.
INTRODUCTION.
chology.
CHAPTER I.
The Psychological Data of Logic.
The rela- 1 • Logic is the theory of inference. Round this asser-
ition be- tion circulate all endeavours towards precise definition of
tween logic the science. Its function would thus be very incompletely
and psy- described, if we were to refuse including, under the name
of inference, any processes of thought having data narrower
than those of the Syllogism. But we ought to compre-
hend, within the sphere of inference, all processes wherein
a truth, involved in a thought or thoughts given as antece¬
dent, is evolved in a thought which is found as consequent.
On this understanding of the term, the Laws of Inference
may rightly he said to be those which it is the function of
Logic to develope into a system.
Logic, as being thus a systematic development of certain
mental laws, takes its place among the sciences constitut¬
ing the Philosophy of Mind. It is one of those derivative
sciences, which branch off on all sides from Psychology,
the one original and central science of the cycle.
The data which it has imperatively to demand from psy¬
chology are, doubtless, both fewer and nearer to the surface,
than those which are required by any other science standing
in the same predicament. They are so few, and so inti¬
mately related to each other, that in one page of the
great psychological volume we read them all: they are so
simple and obvious, that psychological controversies raise
questions only as to the way of naming them, and leave the
facts themselves quite untouched. They might be, and
very often are, taken for granted without reference to the
science which is their real source; and the borrowing is
still further disguised when they are merely, one after an¬
other, brought to light as they are needed for use.
But there are more reasons than one for treating them
differently.
The chief reason is this. The laws of thought which
logic developes are necessary and universal. Therefore
we are, especially if we aim at studying the science with
scientific precision, in danger of forgetting that its truths,
though not measured by experience, become known to us
only through experience, that is, in the actual exercise of
thought; that those forms of thought, to which all logical
laws are relative, are themselves actually conditioned, and
conditioned from without as well as from within ; and that,
if the laws are to have practical applicability as regulative
canons of knowledge, their foundation must be firmly laid
among the actualities of mental manifestation. The depen¬
dence of logic on psychology must be broadly asserted, in
the way of protest against systems which seek to divorce it
from experience.
Again, the province of logic cannot be clearly distin¬
guished, unless its data have been expressly separated from
the uses to which it puts them. It must assume Apprehen¬
sion and Judgment, as the Forms of those thoughts which
are the constitutive factors of inference: it must assume
the Laws, both subjective and objective, by which Appre¬
hension and Judgment are universally governed. Its duty
is the development of those laws as bearing on those forms.
Lastly, however readily the data of our science might be
admitted if presented in a loose and unscientific shape, it is
by psychology that they have been systematized, justified,
and designated. They are not available for precise and
exhaustive use, unless they are laid down and named with
the utmost exactness which psychological analysis has made Introduc-
it possible to attain. tion.
2. It may be desirable to begin our hasty psychological The modes
survey, by explicitly setting aside those classes of mental of con-
phenomena whose laws are not logical. sciousness
When the phenomena of consciousness are considered
subjectively, or purely as functions of the conscious mind, i(? y
they seem to be naturally distributable into four Primary
Modes. With three of these logic is in no way concerned.
It does not deal with Feeling (or cognition without distinct
evolution of the objects), in either of its objective varieties
of sensation and emotion ; nor with Wishing or Appetency,
either as desire orasaversion ; nor with Volition, the conse¬
quent of wishing, as that is of cognition. Its sphere lies
wholly within the fourth of the modes ; that is, among the
facts which are describable as Thinking or Cognition, pure
and proper : in other words, it lies among the phenomena
which only are strictly describable, in the current phrase,
as operations of Intellect or Understanding.
Nor is it as to all of these that logic requires to assume
anything. It ignores, especially, one of the two great di¬
visions into which, through differences in the character of
cognizable objects, all human thought or knowledge is dis¬
tributable. We know or think of an object, either directly,
or through another object which represents it. Know¬
ledge of the former kind has been called Immediate, In¬
tuitive, or Presentative ; that of the latter kind, Mediate
or Representative. All objects that are cognizable imme¬
diately, may also be known mediately or representatively ;
but by far the most valuable part of our knowledge has ob¬
jects which are cognizable mediately and not otherwise.
It is only with facts of mediate knowledge that logic
can deal. It is when, and only when, reproduced from
the past in present facts of thought, that immediate cogni¬
tions or their objects are susceptible of analysis or evolu¬
tion. Consequently, these yield materials open to logical
scrutiny, when, but only when, they are so reproduced;
while, further, there is exposed to such scrutiny the whole
gigantic mass of those complex cognitions, whose promi¬
nent elements are objects mediately known, and in which
immediate cognition supplies only, as it always must, ele¬
ments which are implicitly and obscurely assumed.
3. From the field of logic there are thus shut out all Discursive
those mental facts, which are not contained in the sphere of thought the
mediate thinking. Within that sphere, the field of the matter
science receives still another limitation. The only matter loSic<
with which it deals is that which the schoolmen called Dis¬
course or Discursive Thought.
The name hints at the character of the thing. Discur¬
sive thinking is a passing from thought to thought. Logic
evolves, not laws which govern any one fact of mediate
thinking taken singly, but relations between two or more
such facts, or laws which govern the derivation of one such
fact from another or others. That which logic scrutinizes
is not one fact of thought, but a process constituted by a
plurality of such facts. It considers Thinking as Knowledge
or Cognition, that is, as having objects which are truths;
but it assumes and systematizes those laws only in virtue
of which, one or more facts of knowledge being given, other
facts of knowledge may be elicited from them. The logi¬
cal question is not, whether a given, judgment or assertion
is true or false. It is only whether, in virtue of certain
568
Introduc¬
tion.
Mediate
thinking
formally
distin¬
guishable
as appre¬
hension or
judgment.
LOGIC.
laws of thought, there does or does not subsist, between
two or more judgments or assertions, the correlation of an¬
tecedent and consequent; whether, one or more of the as¬
sertions being admitted, another must be admitted, or must
be denied, or may be either denied or admitted. In short,
the processes whose laws the science digests, possess always
the essential characteristics of inference ; and they are al¬
ways, also, reducible into a form to which that name is di¬
rectly and properly applicable.
Psychologically or subjectively considered, discursive
thought exhibits no distinctive characteristics beyond those
which belong to it as being necessarily mediate or representa¬
tive. It is always resolvable into a series ol'judgments. Its
peculiarity lies in the relation between the constitutive judg¬
ments: it is a relation in which the objective side is the more
prominentof the two. We might say, indeed, that the x’elation
subsists, not between the acts of judging, but between the
judgments ; not between one mental fact and another, but
between their several results or products. The ideas which
are the factors of each judgment must represent objects
which, if not real, are at least thinkable: each judg¬
ment is given to logic in that aspect. It is only after having
been so viewed, that the judgment is, as it were, turned
round, to be examined from the opposite, the subjective
side. A certain relation between thinkable objects being as¬
sumed in the antecedent judgment or judgments, the Laws
of Thought compel us to think another relation between
thinkable objects in the judgment which is the consequent.1
4. All the laws of discursive thought bear on certain
Forms, in which, and in which only, the facts of mediate
thinking which constitute the process are possible.
Mediate thinking must always take the one or the
other of two forms; forms whose difference is as truly
subjective or formal as those which mark the four primary
modes of consciousness. It must be either a fact of Appre¬
hension or a fact of Judgment; species recognised most
readily through the test of expression as brought to light
by logical analysis. Every fact of thought expressible by a
Term (that is, by a word or words interpretable as the name
of an object or objects), is formally a fact of apprehension.
Every fact of thought expressible by a Proposition or Asser-
1 In the nomenclature of the German schools, the name Thinking
or Thought is confined (at widest) to Thought Discursive. The same
limitation has of late come into use among us. It is adopted by Sir
William Hamilton, who acknowledges only this meaning of the word,
and that other in which it covers all kinds of mental phenomena.
“ Thought and Thinking are used in a more and in a less restricted
signification. In the former meaning, they are limited to the
discursive energies alone ; in the latter, they are co-extensive with
consciousness.” {Edition of Reid, p. 222). In this view, perception,
whether external or internal, is not thinking in the narrow sense
of the term ; neither is imagination, whether it be simply repro¬
ductive, on the one hand, or creative or synthetic on the other.
In the text, the word Thinking is used as synonymous with In¬
tellect or Intelligence. In the psychological scheme which was
hinted at in the last section, Thinking, Intelligence, Cognition, is
regarded as distributable into modes or kinds on each of two prin¬
ciples. Considered subjectively or formally, it must take place in
the one or the other of the two forms which are called Apprehension
and Judgment. Considered objectively, that is, as modified by the
character of the objects known or thought of, thinking falls, first,
into the two genera of Immediate and Mediate. Immediate think¬
ing is of two species, Self-Consciousness and Consciousness Percep¬
tive (perception, internal and external); facts of both kinds being
indeed actually complex, and especially having Feeling as an ele¬
ment, but both being susceptible of being regarded abstractively as
facts of pure and proper thinking or cognition. Mediate thinking
embraces two species; first, Imagination proper, that is, the think¬
ing of individual objects not present (which, again, may be either
simply reproductive or synthetic); and, secondly, Conception pro¬
per, or the thinking of universals. Both Imagination and Concep¬
tion take spontaneously the form of Apprehension; but both, be¬
sides presupposing Judgments, yield matter for new Judgments,
which are necessarily Mediate.
tion or Predication, is formally a fact of judgment. Every Introduc-
thinkable object, or group of objects, no matter how com- tion.
plex our thought of it may be, is denotable by a term, if
only we have words adequate to express all the elements
which we think of it as involving. Every act of thought in
which we explicate a relation, is denotable by a proposition,
and requires the propositional form.
5. (1.) The first formal determination of Judgment is The formal
one which, as we shall find, lies at the very root of all logi- character-
cal doctrine. A judgment, or the proposition which ex- ?stics of
presses it, must always be either Affirmative or Negative : aJudSment.
judgment which should be neither the one nor the other is
utterly inconceivable : there is no medium between affirma¬
tion and negation.
(2.) Every judgment, further, is formally resolvable into
the affirmation or denial of a Relation ; and relation implies
plurality of ideas or objects related. We shall immedi¬
ately, it is true, encounter a class of cases in which there
is not really such a plurality ; and the possibility of these
will at once prescribe a limit to logical analysis, and serve as
a point of departure for the development of judgments
really founded on relation. In the mean time, it must be
noted that the formally relative character of all judgments,
impressing itself necessarily on the propositions by which
all judgments must be expressed, makes it possible, while
for exact logical scrutiny it is necessary, to dissect all pro¬
positions into three factors or constitutive elements. They
are these: the two Terms (Subject and Predicate), which are
names of the ideas or objects correlated; and the Copula, in
which the relation is asserted. The subject denotes that
which is the datum or antecedent of the judgment, that which
is given to be determined by the other term. The predicate
denotes that which is the quaesitum or consequent, that by
which the subject is determined. The copula asserts the
relation, but it asserts nothing more ; and, that we may
make the closest possible approach to a pure affirmation or
denial, it must always, for strict logical use, be either “ is”
or “ is not,” “ are ” or “ are not.” It might be said, that
the terms are the objective factors of a proposition, and that
the copula is its subjective factor.
(3.) There emerges thus, as necessary to be assumed in
all further steps, the doctrine of that which logicians call
the Qrm/zX?/of propositions. Judgments and propositions
must be either Affirmative ov Negative ; and the quality of
a given proposition is signified by its copula.
6. The formal theory of judgment, in itself exceedingly The formal
simple, becomes perplexingly complicated through the com- ®^r“ct®r*
plexity inseparable from the theory of apprehension. apprehen-
Apprehension, as the name is here understood, is thegion
Simple Apprehension of the logicians ; that is, mere appre¬
hension not evolved into judgment. We give the fact that
name, when we desire to describe it by reference to the
thinking subject, or as a mental act or phenomenon : when
we desire to describe it as representative of an object or
objects, it may be, and is, called an Idea or Notion. The
idea or notion is that which is directly denoted in language
by a Term; and a term is thus, mediately, the name of
an object or objects. The names apprehension and idea
denote one and the same fact; but they denote it as re¬
garded from two opposite points of view, from either of
which it may be contemplated, but not from both at once.
The differences between objects apprehensible, must mo¬
dify variously the character of the ideas and terms through
which they are thought. But, of all such differences, there
is only one which modifies the form of apprehension neces¬
sarily and always, and which, therefore, possesses a peremp¬
tory logical value. It is the difference between the Infi*-
vidual and the Universal. This difference yields two varieties
of apprehension ; namely, Imagination and Conception. We
LOGIC.
Introduc- apprehend the individual in imagination, which, objectively
non. viewed, gives an Image: we apprehend the universal in
conception, which, objectively viewed, gives a Concept.
The image is expressed in words by a Singular Term; the
concept by a Common or Generic Term.
The Singular Term is a name ibr an object thought as hav¬
ing unity, or as being one object. Itsunityor individuality
may be constituted by parts, each of which might in its turn
be thought as one; but it is thought under some relation
yielding a unity, which cannot be thought away until some
other relation is substituted for the first. “Aristotle,” “John
Milton,” “ This man,” are not more distinctly singular terms,
than are these: “The course of conduct to be adopted,”
“ The (individual) series of fancies which lately floated
through my mind.” “ Yonder forest” is a singular term;
so are “ That tree of yonder forest,” “ The gnarled bough
of that tree.”
The Common Term is the Name of a Class, a name for a
plurality of objects, a name applicable to any or all of them
in respect of a certain relation between them. Its meaning
as a name of objects is not exhausted unless it is applied to
all; as “ All poets,” “ All the trees in the woodbut, con¬
tinuing to think of the objects under the same relation, we
may apply it to some, or to any number of objects fewer
than all, as “ Some poets,” “ Most of the trees in the wood.”
One feature of contrast should here be noted, as having
a wide logical applicability. Apprehension may be either
Director Symbolic. Imagination is a direct apprehension :
if we think of an individual object through a name, we think
symbolically; but it is not necessary we should so think of
such an object. A person remembered is thought of directly
when we call up his image, the representation of his ap¬
pearance. Contrariwise (and this is the point to be noted),
conception is necessarily symbolic. That which is signified
by a common term, cannot be represented in thought other¬
wise than through a symbol; and wmrds, if not the only
possible symbols, are the only ones that are fully adequate
for the purpose. Why the case should so stand, is a ques¬
tion very abstruse, and not logical. But some of the reasons
may come to light when wre have examined the common
term a little more closely, and have discovered that it repre¬
sents, not anything actually known before, but a complex
thought which has resulted from a comparison of known
objects. In the meantime it should be remembered that,
in a certain view, “concept” and “common term” mean
one and the same thing; that, at the very least, the thought
which we call a concept is not only not expressible, but not
even thinkable, unless through the common term.
lie exten- 7. The signification of the common term is double. It
n and is a name both of substance and of attribute : it is a name
I'nimnL ^)0t'1 objects possessing an attribute, and of an attribute
immon Possessed by objects.
.ms. Most obviously it is, as it was already described, the
name of a class, of a plurality of objects. But it is a name
of these as thought under a relation; and that relation is,
their possession of a common attribute. It is, indeed, ap¬
plicable to all and each of the objects, just because, and in
so far as, they are thought as possessing a certain attribute,
or a combination of attributes, which combination is usually
thinkable as one attribute more or less complex.
If we attempt to trace hypothetically the formation of a
common term, we shall find that the discovery of the attri¬
bute must have preceded the imposition of the name.
One of the conditions under which only we can think of
objects, is that of Number, which developes itself in the
phases of unity, plurality, and totality. If our given ob¬
jects are more than one, our contemplation of them is ob¬
scure and unsatisfactory: we constantly strive in thought
to attain unity. But, an individual and simple unity being
here unattainable, we endeavour at least to gain a com-
VOL. XIII.
569
plex unity, that is, a totality constituted by parts. We en- Introduc-
deavour to think of our plurality of objects in a relation in t'011-
which they are such constitutive parts. But such a rela-
tion must be that of resemblance: it must lie in the fact,
ascertained by us, or for us, through observation, that each
of the objects possesses a certain attribute or property.
The common term, borrowed or invented, will then enable
us to think of our objects as being “all,” but only as being
“ all” in respect of their possession of the common attribute.
Now, this two-fold relation of the common term is the
most fruitful of all logical data. Theremre we had better
seize, at once, names by which both of its members may be
technically described. The objective relation of the term,
its signification as being a name of objects, will be allied its
Extension: its attributive relation, its signification as a
name of attribute, will be called its Comprehension. The
common term “man” has extension, as being a name for all
and each of the persons constituting the class ; it has com¬
prehension, as being a name for the attribute “ human
nature.”
The Extension of the common term is, naturally and ne¬
cessarily, the more prominent relation of the two, in thought
as well as in expression. It costs an effort to think, and it
requires an abstract form to express, the common term as
the name of an attribute. The common term, as the name
of a class of objects, is readily thought, and finds its expres¬
sion in a concrete form. Again, the relation of number,
or of whole and part (involving quantity in one phase or
another), is an element of every thought in which a con¬
cept is one of the factors. The question must always be
raised, whether the objects thought of are all, or only some,
of the objects constituting the class: the question is, in
other words, whether a given term is, in a case under ex¬
amination, used in the whole, or only in a part, of its
extension.
There emerges thus the doctrine of that which logicians
call Quantity. Every common term must be considered
with reference to its quantity. It must either be Distri~
Luted, that is, applied to all the objects of the class ; or it
must be Undistributed, that is, applied to few^er than all of
the objects. Distribution and non-distribution are indicated
by prefixed Quantitative Signs: “all” or “any” for the
former, “some” for the latter. A proposition, again, is
specially said to be Universal when its subject is distributed,
that is, when the antecedent of the judgment is the whole
of a class; it is said to be Particular when the subject is
undistributed.
8. Logic does not require to assume that common terms Generali-
have undergone any deeper probing, than that which de- nation and
tects in them the formal expression of the correlation be- sPecifica-
tween substance and attribute, and of that reference of tlon‘
objects to classes for the sake of which the correlation is
thought of. But both their character, and the limits which
circumscribe logical dealing with them, may be more clearly
understood, through a cursory glance at those objective
conditions by which their formation is determined.
Classification, as a process yielding concepts and terms
which import real knowledge, is very far from being arbi¬
trary. When we endeavour to refer objects to a class, in
virtue of a common attribute, that which is sought is, in
effect, some one law under which we may know or believe
that all the objects are placed. But every thinkable object
is, in virtue of the complications involved in life and na¬
ture, amenable to many laws, and may therefore be thought
of as possessing each of many attributes. Each individual
object may be placed in any of many classes, or have
affirmed of it any of many common terms, denoting attri¬
butes common to it and to other objects, that is, laws which
both they and it obey. So, likewise, of any class of objects (if
we set aside the unpractical case of a class wide enough to
4 o
LOGIC.
570
Introduc- contain all others), it must be afnrmnble that it is included
tion. jn gome other class ; while of most classes it must be affirm-
' able that they are, when considered with reference to di¬
verse attributes or laws, included in each of many others.
Thus common terms are affirmable of each other; and it is
out of such affirmation, with the negations accompanying
it, that there comes the only matter of reasoning difficult
enough to reward scientific scrutiny, or complex enough
to bring into play the highest logical doctrines.
Again, the classes which are thus comparable can very sel¬
dom be co-extensive: those which wo do compare in ordi¬
nary facts of thinking never are so. Common terms, accord¬
ingly, distribute themselves into systems, each of which con¬
stitutes a graduated series. A class containing certain ob¬
jects is placed in a class containing these objects, together
with others. This second class is similarly placed in another,
containing all its objects, but not these alone ; and the series
may so rise in many successive steps. Thus we may pass
from “ man” to “ animal,” from “ animal” to “ creature or¬
ganized,” and thence, if we will, to “ created being.” When
terms are taken in such an order, their extension increases
at every step; each succeeding class is thought of as con¬
taining more objects than the class which last preceded it.
A very little reflection will show that, contrariwise, the com¬
prehension of the terms has decreased at every step. Each
succeeding term implies an attribute (simple or complex)
fewer than that by which it was last preceded. “ Animal,”
being the name of a class containing objects besides “ man,”
ceases to suggest the attributes which distinguish man from
those other objects ; and “ organized creature,” as being the
name of a class containing both “ animals” and “ plants,”
ceases to suggest the attributes which distinguish “ani¬
mals” on the one side, and “ plants” on the other. In short,
when we think according to this order, we are, step by step,
thinking in objects, and thinking out attributes. This is the
course of thought which is usually called Generalization.
The counterpart of it is the process of Specification or
Determination. In it we begin with the most extensive
class, and descend, step by step, till we reach the lowest,
In so doing, we are, quite as evidently, thinking out objects
and thinking in attributes. Each successive class in the
descent contains fewer objects than the last; but each pos¬
sesses, in addition to the attribute of the preceding class,
the attribute possessed by its objects, and wanting to the
objects which with it make up the class preceding.
Thus there comes to the surface one of the most valu¬
able of all the laws from which logic draws corollaries bear¬
ing on inference. It is the Law of the Inverse Ratio which
subsists between the Extension of common terms and their
Comprehension.
Corollaries 9. There may be noted, further, in the way of corollaries,
as to com- one or two features of the common term, which are im-
mon terms. p0rtant as bearing on its logical uses.
(1.) The concept tends to fall back into the image. It
is usually held that all class-names must originally have
been the names of individuals; nor is it easy to suppose
any other source for them. At all events, when we con¬
sider the existing state of language, without speculating as
to its formation, it becomes evident that the common
term, as being a name applicable to every object of the
class, has a suggestive force, leading us downwards towards
imagination of objects individual. In this aspect, the term
may be regarded as giving an inadequate idea, an obscure
and vague image, of the individual,—an image that becomes
more and more indistinct, the wider the generalization is
which the term presupposes. Concepts, therefore, though
properly representing, not objects, but the manner in which
we think of them, cannot entirely lose their hold of objects ;
and reality, actual existence, operates as a normal limit to
the formation of concepts and common terms.
(2.) The concept, however, qua concept, is not used for Introduc.
the purpose of suggesting any reference to individuality. tion.
It is a thought of relation, and therefore a complex thought:
its elements are discoverable, and may be brought to light
in the form of a judgment. The signification of a common
term is most clearly and fully perceived, when it is regarded
as being an abbreviated symbol of a complex proposition,
the import of which might be formulized in some such
shape as this: “ All the objects thought of are objects pos¬
sessing a certain attribute, and therefore constituting a
certain class.”
Indeed, this manner of considering terms, as being short¬
hand expressions for propositions previously gained, is ca¬
pable of being put to very various uses. All logical rules
which are easily available, and all primary logical principles,
are brought to bear by the separate extrication, from pro¬
positions, of the terms which are their objective factors. If
we attempt logically to compare propositions without such
dissection, they can be treated only through the cumbrous
and derivative rules of hypotheticals, or other complex forms
of predication. Categorical predication, the normal and
simple expression of judgment, yields the terms immedi¬
ately and easily. But such predication is often not attain¬
able till propositions have been condensed into the form of
terms; and it is, perhaps, traceable always to such a con¬
densation, which we perform spontaneously and continually,
guided by the irresistible desire of making language keep
pace, as far as its natural slowness will allow, with the elec¬
tric rapidity of unexpressed thought. This condensation
comes into action with especial frequency in our thinking
of universals ; since these are never thought unless through
words.
CHAPTER II.
The Function and Axioms of Logical Science.
10. Knowledge requires both to be gained and to be verified. The two-
It is desirable that we should obtain aid, through systematic code of
laws, both for discovering new truths and for testing the ^®cuur®‘ve
results of alleged discovery. A Theory of Derivative Know- oug
ledge would be complete, if it issued a twofold code, rul¬
ing, with scientific accuracy, processes of both kinds.
A system aiming at the former of these ends is properly
constructive or positive : if it is capable of justifying its pro¬
mise, operations directed by it will yield positive additions
to our knowledge. A system aiming at the other end :s
no more than regulative or negative: it can only enable us
to decide, whether that which is presented as knowledge
deserves or does not deserve the name.
It is confessed by all that the Code of Discovery has never
yet been thoroughly digested; it is believed generally, and
perhaps universally, that it must always at many points re¬
main imperfect. In all the shapes in which it has been
promulgated, it is described commonly, though neither quite
correctly nor quite completely, as the Philosophy of Induc¬
tion. Some of those who have legislated for this region of
logical science maintain it to be practically independent of
the other; not that they hold the testing of results to be
unimportant, but that they believe this duty to need no
scientific assistance, and to be safely left to native sense and
practised sagacity. By such thinkers, the laws of discovery
are asserted to constitute the only logical system that is worthy
of study. Others allow, more correctly, that a developed theory
of the processes by which thought may be tested, is impera¬
tively necessary as the foundation for a theory of discovery.
These speculators usually consider the systematized theory
of induction or discovery as constituting, in one department
or in several, an Applied or Particular Logic; in respect that
it is a scheme in which logical laws, the laws for the testing
of thought, are applied to special uses, varied by the vary¬
ing character of the purpose and the matter.
LOGIC.
Introduc
tion.
The Testing of Discursive Thought is the function under¬
taken by that system of logical science, which has been
' called the Aristotelian, from its founder or greatest exposi¬
tor ; the Syllogistic, from the process which is its highest de¬
velopment. It has been spoken of as a Pure Logic, because
it is, or may be made, as far free from assumptions foreign to
it, as any science can be which has human thought for its
matter, and by which, therefore, certain laws of the human
mind must be taken for granted, on the faith either of
ordinary experience or of psychological analysis. It has been
called Universal Logic, because its laws are applicable in¬
differently to all processes of discursive thinking, whatever
may be the kind of the matter or objects thought of. Often,
also, for the last of these reasons, it is called Formal Logic:
its laws are laws, not of the matter of thought, but of the
form or manner in which the matter is thought of. It pro¬
fesses to assign laws through which, on the assumption that
the data of derivative knowledge are true, it may always be
determined, either that the results are true, or that their truth
or falsehood is not fixed by the data. This profession the
science makes good, with a comprehensive precision which
lias, paradoxically enough, been turned into a ground of ob¬
jection to it.
571
First deter- 11. "I hat which will here be attempted is an exposition
mination of of the laws constituting the science of Pure or Universal
tion of C’ Lo»ic' Thes?> indeed, are the only laws which can correctly
logic; the caiIed logical. The theory of discovery is logical so far
regulation only as it rests on those laws, as it must do by implication
of explica- even when it does not expressly assume them; and it is
tire only through them that the process of discovery can be
thought, philosophically theorized, with reference either to its capa¬
bilities or to its shortcomings.
It is difficult, perhaps impossible, to reach a formal defi¬
nition of Logic, which shall at once mark out precisely the
limits of the science, and describe its function clearly and
exactly.1 All the purposes of such a definition will be at¬
tained, if we can apprehend correctly these three points:
first, the character of the mental process which the science
examines; secondly, the character of the law which regu¬
lates the process, and the development of which is the duty
undertaken by the science ; thirdly, the character of those
objective conditions under which only the process is pos¬
sible, and with reference to which, therefore, the law must
be expounded.
1 In the following definitions and illustrations, that which is
signified by the name “ Thought ” is discursive thought. “ Logic is
the a priori science of the necessary laws of thought, with reference,
not to particular objects, but to all objects whatever.” (Kant, Logik •
Einleitung). “ Logic is the science of the rules of thought.” ....
“ It takes no account of differences among the objects. It con¬
tains, therefore, rules for thought as thought; and these rules must
consequently be universal and necessary, that is, they must be
laws.”. (Kiesewetter, Logik, L, pp. (5) 7, ed. 1824). “ Pure logic is
the science of the form of thought.” (Iloffbauer, Lopf/t, p. 27, ed.
1810). “ Logic is the science of the laws of thought as thought—that
is, of the necessary conditions to which thought, considered in
itself, is subject. This is technically called its Form. Logic,
therefore, supposes an abstraction from all consideration of the
matter of thought—that is, the infinitude of determinate objects in
relation to one or other of which it is actually manifested.” (Sir
W. Hamilton, Edition of Reid, p. 698). “ Logic is a formal science:
it takes no consideration of real existence or of its relations, but
is occupied solely about that existence and those relations which
arise through, and are regulated by, the conditions of thought
itself. . “ Logic is discriminated from psychology, metaphy¬
sics, &c.,^ as a rational., not a real—as a formal, not a material—
science. . . . “It has, in propriety of speech, nothing to do with the
process or operation, but is conversant only with its laws ” (Hamil¬
ton, Discussions, pp. 144, 136, 134). “Analytical logic is the
science of the formal laws of inference.” (Karslake, Aids to the
Study of Logic, part i., p. 11). “ Logic is the science of the laws
and products of pure or formal thinking.” (Mansel, Prolegomena
Logica, p. 245). \ > j
(1.) Logic is the Regulative Theory of Explicative Introduc-
1 bought. It it were necessary to lay down an express de- ti°n-
finition of the science, this assertion might be offered as v'—
being such: all closer examination yields only explanations
of it. But not a little explanation is required.
1 hinking may be either Explicative or Analytic on the one
hand, Ampliative or Synthetic on the other.1 For processes
of either kind, there must be given one thought at least—a
datum or Antecedent. We explicate that thought when we
extricate or evolve from it another thought, a thought de-
scribable as a Consequent of the first. Inference, reasoning,
discursive thought, is merely explication of thought through
analysis. If, at any step in the progress of our thinking,
we assume any thought not involved in those which had
previously been given or evolved, we ampliate our thought,
we augment the matter of our thinking by the addition of
a new datum or antecedent. If this new datum is syn¬
thesized or combined with our old ones, or with the thoughts
which have been explicated from them, we may institute a
new process of explication, in which we infer from our am-
pliated aggregate of data.
It is for pure explication only that logic is competent to
legislate. A process to which logical canons are applicable,
must be one in which there takes place nothing beyond this;
that the constitutive elements of a given thought or thoughts
are detected through analysis, and that there is evolved
some thought which was involved or implied in the thought
or thoughts given. The consequent differs from the ante¬
cedent in this only; that the former explicates, brings to
light, enables us to think distinctly, something which in the
latter was only implied, and, therefore, thought more or less
obscurely. Derivative thought, like water flowing through
conduit-pipes, cannot rise above the level of its fountain,
i he truth or falsehood of the thought or thoughts assumed
as the starting-point, must be determined by objective con¬
siderations, not by the laws of thought. In the same pre¬
dicament is any uninvolved thought that may be inter¬
polated in the course of the evolution; and, indeed, the in¬
troduction of any such thought just makes the beginning
of a new process of evolution.
12. (2.) Explicative thought is regulated exclusively by
one law, the Law of Consistency.
The character of this law determines, in several succes¬
sive steps, the character of the process of explication.
In the first place, it determines the character of the ante¬
cedent. If there could be any such thing as a simple
thought—a thought which is not analysable into constitutive
thoughts, or in which no other thought is implied—such a
thought would not be explicable or subject to the law of
consistency; and if’ in any individual case, we cannot dis¬
cover what thoughts a given thought implies, that thought
is for us inexplicable. Accordingly, a thought given for
explication must be assumed to be complex.
Further, the complex thought, given for explication, must
be resolvable into the thought of a relation. What this
relation is, we cannot think clearly, unless in the form of a
judgment, expressible by aproposition. When we ask whether
ideas or terms are consistent or inconsistent with each other,
the question really is, in what manner the relation presup¬
posed between the ideas qualifies them for being combined
as terms of a judgment. Further still, the testing of consis¬
tency or inconsistency cannot be exhaustive, until thejudg-
menthas been analysed into the elements which in the proposi¬
tion are signified by the subject, the predicate, and the copula.
Logical rules being most conveniently enounced with re¬
ference, not to the judgments and compared ideas, but to the
propositions and terms through which these are expressed,
Second de¬
termina¬
tion of the
function of
logic; the
develop¬
ment of the
principle of
non-contra¬
diction.
* Analytic and synthetic (Kant); Lxjdicative and ampliative
(Hamilton).
572
LOGIC,
Introduc¬
tion.
Third de¬
termina¬
tion of the
function of
logic; the
develop¬
ment of the
principle
under uni¬
versal ob¬
jective
conditions.
the law is technically named with the same reference. It
is thus called The Law of Non-contradiction.
This law, then, might be thus set forth, with reference
both to the thought and to its expression, and in the nega¬
tive aspect which is fittest for laws having uses regulative or
prohibitory. “ Ideas must not be combined in a judgment,
in a form inconsistent with the relation presupposed be¬
tween them or the objects they represent. Terms must
not be combined in a proposition, in a form contradictory
of their presupposed signification.”
13. (3.) This law, self-evident to the extreme of trivi¬
ality, is not available for use until it has been specificated in
more degrees than one, through consideration of the Cha¬
racter of those Objects which are Thinkable.
Thinking is possible only when there is given to it mat¬
ter to be thought of: there must be not only a thinking
subject, but a thinkable object. Thinking, accordingly, is
conditioned, limited, determined, in each of its two opposite
relations. It is conditioned not only subjectively, that is,
by the laws which regulate thinking as a function of the
thinking mind, but also objectively, that is, by the charac¬
ter of the objects of which it is possible for man to think.
Logic is enabled to elicit formal laws which are univer¬
sally applicable, not by achieving the impossibility ofignor-
ing the objects of thought, but by considering, of the differ¬
ences in the kinds of objects, those only which necessarily
modify the form of thought or the manner of thinking.
Now the number of those differences is the smallest that
admits difference at all. We think of objects either, first,
as having existence actual or possible; or, secondly, as
having also mutual relation. The former of these objective
conditions yields the idea of Individuality, the latter that
of Universality. Under the one idea or the other all think¬
able objects are thought. Individuality, as being the form
of existence, lays the foundation of know ledge through in¬
tuition ; universality, as being the form of relation, makes
representative thought available as the instrument of know¬
ledge explicative or discursive.1
14. The law of non-contradiction receives its simplest ap¬
plication in Judgments w'hose Objects are Individual. Ihis
application likewise yields the normal form of the law, the
form from which all other forms of it are derived, and into
y— which all of them are in the last analysis reducible. That,
ulerimy or ^ jts Amplest shape, the law is (as we shall see) not so
< 4 eteuce. as to avoid the double censure of triviality and
barrenness, is a fact which would prove only, if proof were
needed, that thinking which attempts to compare objects
merely as individuals, without regard to their attributes oi
laws, "not only requires no express rules, but is wasted on
matter which can yield no real development of knowledge.
It is nevertheless true, and demonstrable, that the most
complex reasonings in which classes of objects are com¬
pared, owe their validity to that one self-evident principle,
and that all logical canons are merely corollaries from it.
It is indeed impossible to think, even of individuals, un¬
less under the condition of relation. Individuality implies
the relation of number. Therefore, at the very outset, there
comes up an indirect refutation of the possibility of con¬
structing a system of logic, which shall be purely a theory of
thought, and shall presuppose nothing whatever in regard
to the objects thought of.
If, then, a thought having an individual object or objects
is to be explicated into the form of judgment, there stands,
as a barrier at the entrance of the field, that subjective law
of thought which determines all judgments as being either
affirmative or negative. We must either affirm or deny: no
other form of judgment is possible.
1 See Note at the end of the Chapter.
All propo¬
sitions re¬
solvable
into asser¬
tions of
Whether, again, we are to affirm or to deny, is a question Introduc*
determined by this law, which governs thought in its relation tion.
to all thinkable objects. “ All objects are primarily thought
of under the one or the other of the counter-relations of
Identity and Difference” Of objects individual, when we
attempt to consider them purely in their individual aspect,
this is a palpable truism. Any one given object is identi¬
cal with nothing but itself; it is non-identical with every
other object. If, then, one object only is given, and if an
affirmative assertion is demanded, the only such assertion
which the case allows is the tautological and trivial affirma¬
tion,—“ The object is itself: A is A which is an applica¬
tion of the equally barren formula,—“ Every thing is that
which it is.” If, again, with the same datum, a negative as¬
sertion is required, we can frame only this negation,—“ The
object is not any thing which is not itself: A is not any
thing which is not A ( = A is not Not-A) or, in the for-
mulized shape, “ A thing is not that which it is not.”
It is needless to say that, plainly, any other assertions than
the two set down, w ould be contradictory of the assumption
of the individuality of A.
But it must be asserted, broadly and peremptorily, that
all the laws of inference are resolvable into this doctrine :
—“ An affirmation is an assertion of identity ; a negation is
an assertion of non-identity ; and no medium is thinkable
between the one assertion and the other.” In laying down
this proposition, we allege the Law of Non-contradiction,
and couch it in a shape pointing straight to its place as the
central law of logical science.
15. The law of non-contradiction is one and indivisible.
But it may be regarded from any of more points of view
than one ; and one of these will suggest itself rather than
the others, when the law comes to be applied on any spe¬
cial occasion. Accordingly it developes itself in one or
another of three specific forms, which admit of being stated
as three separate canons. These may be described as being
The Three Logical Axioms.
Each of these, it must carefully be noted, is merely a
partial evolution of the one central law; each of them im¬
plies the other two, and would lose not only its force, but
even its meaning, if either of the others were wanting. It
thus becomes extremely difficult to keep them separate in
expression; and, besides this, it is often a matter of choice,
to be fixed by the particular aspect in which we contem¬
plate a given process of thought, which of the three is to
be held as the rule directly bearing on it. For all these
reasons it may be doubted, whether the older practice of
leaving the law unevolved, was better or worse than that
attempt at distinct evolution of it, which has been adopted
by the ablest of the modern logicians, and is here followed
in deference to their opinion.
The logical axioms may be introduced in some such
shape as the following :—
First, Affirmative judgments are ruled by the Lavv of
Identity. “ An affirmative proposition is not secured against
inconsistency, unless its predicate may be thought as iden¬
tical with the subject.” The primary formula of affirmation
is this:—“ A is A.”
Secondly, Negative judgments are ruled by the Law of
Difference or Non-identity. “ A negative proposition is not
secured against inconsistency, unless its predicate may be
thought as non-identical with the subject.” The primary
formula of negation is this:—ii A is not Not-A.
Thirdly, Any two ideas must be either affirmable or de¬
niable of each other. “ Of any term as subject, any other
term must be either affirmable or deniable as predicate.
This axiom is usually called the Law of Excluded Middle,
a name intimating the impossibility of any assertion inter¬
mediate between the two. It has also been called the Law of
Detemhnability or Determination. The formula is this: •
The three
logical
axioms
yielded by
the prin¬
ciple. The
laws of
identity,
difference,
and deter¬
mination.
LOGIC.
573
j
Introduc¬
tion.
“ Every thing is either A or Not-A: every thing is either a
given thing, or something which is not that given thing.”1
Even when viewed from this distant and somewhat hazy
station, the axioms yield, more easily than it can be gained
otherwise, one distinction which we shall find to be very
widely useful. Two Terms, differing in this only, that the
one wants, while the other has, the prefixed symbol of nega¬
tion, are said to be Terms Contradictory. Thus, A and Not-
A are contradictory terms. Two terms so related cannot be
either affirmed or denied of the same object or group of
objects. Of whatever object or objects A may be accepted
as a name, Not-A must be understood as a name that covers
every thinkable object besides. Such terms are the only
terms which are formally and necessarily exclusive or con¬
tradictory of each other. If any two terms not formally
so distinguished are held to be contradictories, it is because
their relation is thought as being equivalent to that of for¬
mal contradiction.2
1 The only point seeming to require comment is the position of
the Third Axiom, which some logicians have mistaken so far as to
attempt deducing it from the other two. It lies, in fact, subjec¬
tively deeper than either of them : a proposition disobeying either
of them would be inconsistent with its data, but yet possible; a pro¬
position disobeying the third axiom is inconceivable. The deter¬
mination towards either affirmation or negation is a law of judg¬
ment, discoverable before all scrutiny of objective relations. Yet
the third axiom, in the shape in which it has just been couched (or
in any other making it available for use), is not independent of the
other two. Though we know before-hand that, if we are to assert
at all, we must either affirm or deny, we yet do not, surely, know
what terms must be affirmable or deniable of what others, till we
have, through the first and second axioms, resolved affirmation and
negation into assertions of identity and difference. This resolution
being made, we are reminded that any two terms must denote
either one and the same object, or two objects which are different.
If the former is the case, there is ground for affirmation ; if the
latter, there is ground for negation: and thus only does it appear
that predication of the one kind or the other is possible with any
two terms.
2 The formal evolution of the Law of Non-contradiction into the
Three Axioms has been a gradual process, brought to its consumma¬
tion by the German logicians since the time of Kant. The laws of
identity and difference have often been treated and expressed as
one, oftenest called the Law of Contradiction; and, perhaps, the
doctrine is most clearly apprehended when taken in this way.
The older logicians, as well as some of the more recent, seem to
have frequently lost their way to the strict application of the law,
through want of distinct thinking of the Quantitative Sign as an
integral part of the term ; an indistinctness which issued in the ex¬
plaining away of numerical identity and difference into identities
and differences specific and generic. The law of excluded middle,
constantly and inevitably assumed and acted on, was kept in the
background through the very facts of its palpability and its ori¬
ginally subjective obligation. Its formal introduction into logic
as a separate axiom appears to be modern. Baehmann has collected
a good many points in the recent history of the three axioms. (Sys¬
tem der Logik, part L, sect. 2).
By Kant himself, and by several other German writers, there is
added to the law of non-contradiction, as being also a logical law,
Leibnitz’s principle of the Sufficient lleason. There is unques¬
tionable soundness in the objection taken to this addition by Sir
AVilliam Hamilton, and by more than one of the Germans. If the
doctrine means that nothing can exist without a sufficient reason,
it is an assertion of the metaphysical law of causality ; if it means
that nothing can be believed or known without a sufficient reason,
it is an assertion developed purely out of the laws of identity and
difference.
The law of non-contradiction was neither generalized, nor for¬
mally planted at the root of the science, by any of the Greek lo¬
gicians. (See Prantl, Geschichte der Logik im Abendlande, vol. i.,
1855). Prantl, however, cites references by Plato to the law of iden¬
tity (the bearing of which he questions) : and he has made, from
Aristotle, a large collection of passages which yield unequivocal as¬
sertions of all the three axioms; while, also, the law of identity is ex¬
plicitly declared by Aristotle to be the firmest principle of thought.
The following, selected from Aristotle by Trendelenburg for his
Elementa Logiees Aristoteleoe (ed. 1852, §§ 9,10,) are probably more
marked than any other of Prantl’s quotations.—“ To mvto uuot
VTrtsi^yjii) T£ xcc\ pcy vKotpyuv fcbvvonov otvrtp xui xktcc to avro.
16. The axioms, as universal laws of thought, must cover Introduc-
all possible cases. The case, also, which has been considered, tion.
deserved special notice ; because the supposition of one
object, as the only thing given to be positively thought of, The bear-
brings out, with a clearness not otherwise attainable, the ing ot the
primary idea of negation, as an explication of non-identity.1^.^!1™'
That, in attempting affirmation with such data, we ^considered
driven on an assertion which is no real explication at all, isas facts 0f
a fact not only to be accounted for easily, but leading us naming,
rapidly towards the development of the axioms in those
cases for which the question of tHeir use is important.
The datum of a proposition is, a relation between that
which is denoted by the subject and that which is denoted
by the predicate. But when we were required to think of
A only, no predicate was given. For negation we found a
predicate, by seizing on the supposition, implied in the one¬
ness of the subject, that there must be other thinkable ob¬
jects besides that, whatever it may be, which our subject
signifies. But, the subject being, by the hypothesis, not
only one, but something as to which we know positively
nothing except its unity, a datum for real affirmation was
wanting.
What would have sufficed to supply the want ? Another
Name, say B, for the thing denoted by the subject: out of
this would have come the affirmation, “ A is B.”
Now, the interpretation to which a proposition thus ge¬
nerated is open, is one which may be put on all propositions
whatever. Every affirmative proposition is equivalent to
an assertion, that the subject and the predicate are but two
different names for one and the same object, or group of
objects : every negative proposition is equivalent to an as¬
sertion, that the subject is a name for one object, or group
of objects, and that the predicate is a name for an object
or group of objects different from the first. Besides being
universally applicable, this is, of all interpretations of the
proposition, that which is most purely formal; and, as being
such, it has a peculiar aptitude for logical use. On this
reading, the doctrine that affirmation and negation are as¬
sertions, respectively, of identity and non-identity, falls back
into the class of truisms, if indeed it ever quitted or was in
danger of quitting that class. A system of logical doctrines,
seeking no further interpretation of the proposition, would
be the nearest conceivable approach to a purely formal de¬
velopment of the science. We may often have occasion to
recur to this reading, as the readiest means of showing how
the special logical laws are only corollaries from the axioms.1
.... uVtyi txoZv iorl fiefiottuTotTYi tuv dpyuu’ .... uhvvcc-
tov ovtivovv Totlrrov vxo^xpelictviiv nuxi xxi [/.V] tivxt. . . .
orxme; ot XTro^etxvvi/Ts; ii$ Txvrriii xvxyovruv iayxTnv (Meta-
physica, iv. 3). “ A£< ttxi/ to x’KriSs; xvto exvTU opeoMyoopotvov etvxi
kxvtyi. (Analytica Priora, i. 32 ; where the law is alleged as justi¬
fying the syllogistic redaction). “ ’ Ai/ti'Qxois 0e xi/Tt5e<us ft; ovx,
eort poeTX^v xx# xurqir poopiov S’ xvrtipxaeu; to piev ri xxtx Tivog
xxzxtyxats, to SJ tI xtto tivo$ xTroipxot;.'’ (Analytica Posteriora,
i. 2). The express reference of logical rules to axiomatic princi¬
ples has been traced to Galen. He, in his treatise Le Methodo
Medendi, states, as examples of such, (’Koytxxl xpyxt,) several
axioms, for the explicit treatment of which he refers to his work
On Demonstration, now lost. Among the instances he gives are
these : the mathematical axioms, the law of causality, and the law
of excluded middle; “to' crspl ttxvtos xvxyxx'tov ij xxtx^xoxuv sj
aKotyaoxeiv” (See Prantl, p. 562).
1 “ A proposition is a speech consisting of two names copulated,
by which he that speaketh signifies he conceives the latter name to
be the name of the same thing, whereof the former is the name, or
(which is all one), that the former name is comprehended by the
latter.” . . . . “ An affirmative proposition is that whose predicate
is a positive name, as “ man is a living creature ;” a negative, that
whose predicate is a negative name, as “ roan is not a stone.”
(Hobbes, Computation or Logie, parti., chap, iii., §§ 2-6). On this
interpretation of the proposition, as a Fact of Naming, Mr Mill, re¬
jecting it as insufficient for founding the strongly objective position
he is to take up, makes these remarks:—“ The assertion which,
574
Introduc¬
tion.
The bear¬
ing of the
law on pro¬
positions
considered
as predi¬
cating at¬
tributes
and classes.
LOGIC.
Let us, in the meantime, test it by an example or two.
“ All logical doctrines are truths.” It is meant, of course,
not that logical doctrines are the only truths, but that they
are some of those objects we call truths: “ All logical doc¬
trines—are—some truths.” Plainly, the assertion is resolv¬
able into this other; that the objects which we call “ all lo¬
gical doctrines,” are the very same group of objects which we
call also “ some truths.” Our names being assumed to be
justified by the fact, every individual thing denotable by
either name is denotable likewise by the other: the one
group of objects receives#two different names, when it is
considered from two several points of view. Again, “ Logi¬
cal doctrines are not paradoxes.” Here we speak not only
of “ all” logical doctrines, but also of “ all” paradoxes : we
assert that the objects we call by the first name are not to
be found anywhere among the things we call by the latter.
The assertion admits this analysis :—The objects called “ all
logical doctrines,” are non-identical with the objects called
“ all paradoxes.” Each of the objects receiving the one
name is an object different from each and all of the objects
receiving the other : “ logical doctrines” and “ paradoxes”
are names of two groups of objects, neither of which con¬
tains any individual object identical with any individual ob¬
ject contained in the other.
17. The meaning of a proposition is not exhausted when
it is read as a Fact of Naming. Perhaps every proposition
has a deeper meaning. This is certainly true of all propo¬
sitions which assert any knowledge worthy of analysis; and
the relations which ground the higher kinds of inference
cannot be fully theorized until the analysis is carried further.
A name is not given without a reason; and almost every
name intimates more or less fully the reason for which it
was given.
All the reasons for names are resolvable into our con¬
sidering of objects as Substances possessing Attributes;
and, in respect of such attributes, objects are distributed
into Classes, the names of which are Common Terms. The
subject may now be itself the name of a group of objects
constituting a class or a part of one ; the predicate may be
the name of an attribute which is possessed or not pos¬
sessed by those objects. But, since the predicate is itself
also a class-name, there arises the further question, whether
the class named in the subject is a part only of the predi¬
cate-class, or the whole of it, or no part of it at all.
In assuming even the applicability of two names to the
same object, we had travelled far from the narrow nook of
thought, which gave us, through the pure formulae, our first
glimpse of the developments receivable by the law of non¬
contradiction. We have travelled yet farther in assuming
that each of the names is significant; and, when we regard
the names as being, both of them, names of attributes, and
through these of classes, we have reached the most cum¬
brous of the complications under which the question of
identity or non-identity can be contemplated.
If we stop short at the point which exhibits the subject-
term as being the name of a substance, or of a group of
objects considered as substances, while the predicate is re¬
according to Hobbes, is the only one made in any proposition,
really is made in every proposition; and his analysis has conse¬
quently one of the requisites for being the true one. We may go
a step further : it is the only analysis that is rigorously true of all
propositions without exception. What he gives as the meaning of
propositions, is part of the meaning of all propositions, and the
whole meaning of some If, then, this be all the meaning
necessarily implied in the form of discourse called a proposition,
why do I object to it as the scientific definition of what a propo¬
sition means ? Because, though the mere collocation which makes
the proposition a proposition, conveys no more meaning than Hobbes
contends for, that same collocation combined with other circum¬
stances, that form combined with other matter, does convey more,
and much more.'5 (Mill, of Logic, book i., chap, v., § 2).
garded merely as being the name of an attribute possessed Introduc¬
er not possessed by that object or objects, we may appear tion.
for a moment to have lost our way. The question, whether
an object possesses or wants an attribute, is not very obvi¬
ously resolvable into the question, whether the subject is or
is not identical with the predicate. But even the most
common expressions yield this interpretation; and the fre¬
quent shortcoming of the predicate—its expression through
an adjective—is rapidly supplied, both in thought and in
expression, when we take the further step of regarding the
predicate as being the name of a class. Both terms of the
proposition may now take the form of substantives ; both,
if common terms, may be taken as names directly denoting
groups of objects, and only implying the attributes in re¬
spect of which the class-names are given.
If we assert that “ All men are imperfect,” the full mean¬
ing of the allegation is, that all men are a part of the class
“ imperfect beings;” that, in other words, “ All men—are
—some imperfect beings.” If we assert that “ No men
are unimprovable,” we signify that no men are any part of
the class of unimprovable beings ; that “ No men—are—
any beings unimprovable.” In the one case we assert that
the objects called, when thought of with reference to a cer¬
tain attribute, “ all men,” are the same objects which, when
thought of with reference to a certain other attribute, are
called “some beings imperfect;” in the other case we assert,
that the objects receiving the name “ all men,” are non¬
identical with “ all” the objects receiving the name “ beings
unimprovable.”
In a word, the relation of identity or non-identity, with
the determination of thought towards the assertion of either
the one or the other, covers all the complications, various
as they are, which are made possible through the mutual
ramifications of classes, as included one in another, wholly
or partly, or as mutually excluded in whole. We have
only to presuppose the correlation of Whole and Part (a cor¬
relation not arising in the comparison of individuals); to
watch carefully, as to each of our common terms, whether
as used in our propositions it denotes all, or only some, of
the objects denotable by it, or constituting the class it sig¬
nifies ; and to remember that, of each term in its relation
to the other, the words indicating whole or part (“ all,”
“ any,” or “ some”), must be thought as integral parts.
These precautions being taken, predication through com¬
mon terms is interpretable as an assertion of the relation of
identity or non-identity, with the same ease as that which
we find in so interpreting predication through singular
terms.1
18. Exception has frequently been taken to the formal The neces-
statement of the law of non-contradiction as the one central Slt7 of
doctrine of logic. It is not alleged that the law is either
deniable, or so much as doubtful; but it is said (and this is 0f i^icai
the objection most frequently urged), that it is a mere truism, science,
a truth so obvious as not to deserve explicit notice.
The same charge may be brought, with equal fairness,
against the geometrical axioms ; and these might be treated
as the logical axioms have so often been. The truism, the
“ trifling proposition,” that “ Things which are equal to the
same thing are equal to one another,” might be refused a
formal place in geometry ; and the student might be invited
1 It is especially to be observed that, when the quantitative
signs are accepted as integral parts of the given terms, the iden¬
tity or difference of the objects is strict and literal. We are thus
rescued from all necessity of loosely translating identity and dif¬
ference into likeness or unlikeness, or of instituting ifine distinc¬
tions between identity specific and identity individual, between
identity total and identity partial ; from all those artificial expe¬
dients, in short, which have often perplexed so seriously the theory
of inference, and made it so difficult to trace the laws of the pro¬
cess upwards to the one central principle.
LOGIC.
575
Introduc- to supply for himself it and its fellows, in the demonstration
tion. of those initial theorems for which no derivative ground had
as yet been laid down. Perhaps the practical evil would
not be heavy ; but the symmetry and coherence of an exact
science would be annihilated.
When the logical axioms are refused their legitimate
place, the mischief worked is incalculably greater than any
that could arise from a similar procedure in mathematics.
There have been constructed very many logical systems,
which are quite adequate for the testing of any argument that
could be given, and which yet want, not only the formal
statement of the axioms, but all express reference to them.
A science so treated cannot fail to lose much of that sys¬
tematic coherence, which is the scientific and philosophical
characteristic ; and no science loses, through such treatment,
more of that character than ours. It becomes an aggregate
of rules which are really derivative, but which, not being
centralized in their common source, not only exhibit no ap¬
parent unity or correlation, but degenerate (a weakness in¬
cident to a science so exclusively formal) into mere tech¬
nical rules, usable and used without conscious reference
to any principle at all.
In a word, the construction of logic through secondary
laws exclusively, does and must destroy, or seriously impair,
its unity as a science. Consequently, there is thus injured,
likewise, the evidence of its speculative validity as an analysis
of predication and inference. It is yet a worse evil, that
this course of treatment diminishes largely the value of the
study as a philosophical discipline of thought. In justice
alike to the science, and to ourselves its students, unity of
system, and consistent development of doctrines, should be
steadily aimed at; and it must firmly be maintained that
this purpose can neither be reached, nor so much as ap¬
proximated, unless the law of non-contradiction be expressly
laid down as the axiomatic foundation, and unless, also, there
be expressly resolved into that law all doctrines whose de¬
pendence on it is not self-evident.
Develop- 19. It is possible to test the validity of every inference,
ment of the by a direct analysis of its propositions as assertions of iden-
axioms in tity or difference. For some of the purposes which the
reference science is designed to serve, such analysis would be quite
internet- sufficient* It might, for instance, yield an exhaustive and
able^16 ' competent theory of immediate inference. But it would
not enable us thoroughly to theorize the syllogism. Syllo¬
gistic arguments given might be adequately treated in this
fashion ; but the character of the syllogism as a representa¬
tion of several distinguishable processes of thought cowld
not be efficiently displayed, without exhibition of those ob¬
jective modifications under which the relations of the syllo¬
gistic elements come to have place.
With a view to such developments, and also for another
reason, the three axioms will here be presented in one or
two of the shapes which they may assume, when they are
considered with pre-supposition of interpretation of the terms
used in propositions.
The other reason is this. The doctrine, that inference is
merely an explication of the implied, although it is a truth
both undeniable and instructive, is a truth which is far from
being palatable. When we are first asked to make ourselves
familiar with it, we are apt to forget how mighty is the dif¬
ference between implication and explication. It costs us an
effort to become convinced that tlie difference is that be¬
tween obscure thinking and thinking that is distinct—be¬
tween a thought which is isolated in consciousness and a
thought of which we are conscious as an element in a sys¬
tem ; that it is the difference between impotence and power,
between a cloudy dawn and a sunny noon-day. It is de¬
sirable, then, to place this difference in full light.
Now, the contrariety of character between a thought im¬
plied in the subject of a proposition and the same thought
evolved in the predicate, has been anxiously brought out
by the framers of those forms of the axioms which are here
selected from many others. The concrete character of tlm
cases contemplated in these theorems causes difficulties of
expression, which make it desirable to give alternative views,^
both for avoidance of mistake, and for the suggestion of
reflection.
(1.) Whatever is implied in the signification of a term
given as the subject of a proposition, may, as predicate, be
explicitly affirmed of the subject. Any notion which is im¬
plicitly thought in the subject may be explicitly affirmed
in the predicate. Of any object or objects denoted by the
subject, there may be affirmed in the predicate any attribute
consistent with our thought or notion of the subject.
(2.) Whatever is inconsistent with the signification of a
term given as the subject of a proposition, may, as predicate,
be denied of the subject. Any notion, the contradictory of
which is implicitly thought in the subject, may be explicitly
denied in the predicate. Of any object or objects denoted by
the subject, there may be denied in the predicate any attri¬
bute inconsistent with our thought or notion of the subject.
(3.) Of any term given as the subject of a proposition,
any other term must be either affirmable or deniable as pre¬
dicate. Of any object or objects denoted by the subject,
any attribute whatever must be either affirmable or deniable
in the predicate.
Introduc¬
tion.
20. It is only for the sake of predication and inference The objec-
through common terms—for the sake of processes explicat- tive rela-
ing the relation between class and class of objects compared tions of
in respect of diverse attributes—that logic is worth elaborat-
ing into a scientific shape. Knowledge worthy of the name ence
—knowledge the acquisition of which is a duty adequate to through
the capacities of intelligent beings—knowledge fitting man common
to act, imposing on him responsibilities, and enabling him terms,
to merit rewards—is a knowledge of the attributes of objects,
of the laws by w hich they are governed, of the compass of
those several laws, and of the fine and manifold relations in
which, through likeness and unlikeness of law, man is placed
towards man, and each man towards nature and the Power
that governs it and him. Our knowledge of individuals is
clear and bright, and shines out spontaneously through in¬
tuitions, which dawn on us without our seeking; but the
light which thus we see, illuminates a region within which
rational life has hardly begun to germinate. Our know¬
ledge of laws is reached only through self-determined
energy, through struggles to emerge from doubt, and con-
tendings against error, and slow and painful ascent from
height to height of cognition. But, wdiile w e do struggle,
and contend, and rise, the horizon broadens round us, and
our mental vision gains new strength and delicacy from
exertion. The idea of law itself passes into that of causa¬
lity : objects which obey law do so either as causes or as
effects. Out of causality again emerges the great idea of
purpose; for purpose is preconceived effect, and the effi¬
cient cause becomes operative towards this effect as means.
Purpose carries us upward, through cause, into the sphere
of mind, of thought and will as attributes of beings capable
of designing ; while here we find ourselves to have adven¬
tured into a field of inference, widening our view as we
advance, till we have reached the contemplation of one
overruling Purpose, of which perceived objects, and dis¬
covered laws, and physical causes, and human will, are but
the exponents, and consequents, and ministers.
In all the paths which mind can traverse, logical laws are
operative as prohibitions guarding against divergence. Lo¬
gic is concerned, not with the matter of thinking, but only
with its forms. Over these, however, it holds exclusive sway.
And there is a necessity for the exercise of its powers,—a
necessity which becomes the more pressing as the known
relations of objects grow wider and more complex. The
576
LOGIC.
Introduc- law of non-contradiction could not be violated at all, were
ti°n. it not for the need we lie under of thinking through words,
whenever we do think of any thing that is not individual.
If every object had but one name, violation of the law
would be practically impossible. It is because every ob¬
ject has many names, that the natural course of thinking
betrays us into judgments in which the law is unconsci¬
ously broken. It is because of the intertwining and often
conflicting relations of all thinkable objects, that words are
so apt to be used as symbols for thoughts which they do not
clearly represent; and the more various and extensive the
relations are, the more imminent becomes the danger of self-
deception. Therefore it is that logical laws are valuable,
not to supply matter for thought, but to test the genuine¬
ness of thought, and to protect thinking from being dis¬
guised through its expression.
The rela¬
tions of
logic, to
truth.
21. Logical laws are the scaffolding which gives support
to derivative knowledge in the course of its construction.
When the structure has been completed, they become
for us the plummet and level, through the use of which may
be determined the firmness or instability with which it bears
on its foundation. But logic does not, and cannot, carry a
single stone to the building.
It enables us to explicate, not the relations in which ob¬
jects exist, but only the relations in which they are thought.
The attempt to fix the truth or falsehood of any one pro¬
position given in isolation, is not more palpably extra-logi¬
cal, than is that of incorporating into the science principles
really metaphysical or ontological, that is, bearing on the
universal relations between knowledge and existence. This
consideration justifies and commai^s the positive exclusion
of all such doctrines as those of the Categories, and of Mo¬
dality in Propositions. A prohibition which there may be
a greater risk of disobeying, is that which excludes all ques¬
tions as to the objective truth of given classifications, that is,
as to the relations actually connecting or separating the ob¬
jects designated by given common terms. All judgments
given for logical analysis, are, for logic, virtually hypothetical.
The objects thought as constituting the class may be non¬
existent ; the law through which they are combined may
be imaginary; some or all of the objects may be exempt
from the law. It is always important, it is often unspeak¬
ably so, that we should learn whether it is true that none
of these negations has place, and whether therefore a given
class-name implies a fact of real and positive knowledge.
But this is a question to which, in all its parts, logic stands
resolutely silent.
The science must, indeed, look abroad on those objective
conditions, those relations between thinking and that which
is thinkable, by which the human intellect is fenced in, round
and round. But it asks only how those conditions modify
the manner of thinking; it takes account of none of them
but such as do necessarily determine thinking towards one
or another of its only possible forms: and it scrutinizes them
for no further purpose than that of eliciting and explaining
those forms. When the astronomer looks down from his
watch-tower, he is pleased and grateful to see how the sun
illuminates the earth, and diffuses life and gladness over
the expanse of animal and vegetable nature ; but his duty
is that of surveying the heavens, and discovering the laws
which guide the stars in their courses. With no less satis¬
faction does the logician perceive that truths, good for man,
are revealed in those intuitions on which all thinking rests;
but it is no part of his function even to assert those truths,
far less to justify or systematize them.
Thus is Logic placed towards all those principles which
it either developes, or assumes as given. The correlation
of identity and non-identity is itself a law metaphysical as
well as logical, a law of existence as well as a law of thought;
but it is only in the latter aspect that it is logically import¬
ant. So is it as to all those other relations, without the Introdue-
assumption of which the law of non-contradiction cannot tion.
be developed. Number, quantity, whole and part, are
sufficiently treated for our purpose, when they are regarded
as conditions determining the forms in which objects are
thought of. Perhaps, again, the relation of substantiality
covers, in logic, a wider ground than any other of those mo¬
difying conditions. But the most paradoxical or sceptical
denials or doubts as to this relation would leave, untouched,
the formal view which we have to take of substance and
attribute, as being actually correlatives, and thinkable only
together, but as admitting of being thought from either of
two opposite points of view, which give prominence alter¬
nately to the one and to the other.
In short, Logic seeks to develope one principle only—the
central Law of Non-contradiction. It developes that law
with reference to certain modifying principles: but these it
assumes only as given in actual experience, and does not
seek to develope; and, further, it assumes them only as be¬
ing (what they undeniably are) psychological laws, laws
regulating thought—declining to inquire into their ontologi¬
cal character as laws of being.
22. The desire of illustrating clearly drives us often, in The postu
logical writing or teaching, on exemplification through pro- lates of lo-
positions whose terms have meanings known to those we ad- gical
dress. There is a danger in this. The truth or falsehoodscience-
of each of the propositions being thus known, the mind is
allured away from the logical question, whether one pro¬
position does or does not follow from another. Symbolic
terms, of the algebraic type, are, in spite of their dryness and
repulsiveness, by far the aptest for logical examples.
We cannot see distinctly what the problems are which
the science is able to solve, until we consider it as working
on materials of this indeterminate character.
Logic neither undertakes nor requires any interpretation
of given terms. It is bound to deal with terms which may
mean any object whatever, and which are not given as the
names of any fixed objects. But no terms can be treated
by logical re-agents, unless they are given in a shape that
fits them to the crucible. Every term must signify some¬
thing ; and logic cannot deal with terms unless there be
given to it. the minimum of their signification. The science,
like every other, has its Postulates.
The Postulates are specificated sufficiently, when they
are stated with reference to the narrowest data. They are
two. Logic must require, as preliminary conditions of its
activity, answers to one or both of two queries bearing on
every given term. First, Is the term singular or common ?
Secondly, If the term is singular, no further information is
required. But, if it is common, this other question must be
put: Is it in the given case distributed or undistributed ?—
Is it used in the w hole of its extension, or only in a part of
it ? Both queries bear on the Quantity of the terms, the
question which, as we have seen, arises secondarily in logic.
If we had to deal only with the Quality of propositions,
which is the primary logical question, it would not be neces¬
sary to put them.1
1 Both of these demands are virtually embraced in Hamil¬
ton’s Fundamental Postulate *f Logic : “ That we be allowed to
state in language what is contained in thought.” (Baynes, New
Analytic of Logical Forms (1850), p. 4). There will hereafter be
much of reference to the opinions of that distinguished thinker and
profound scholar. Therefore it may be well to say, here, that the
present writer’s acquaintance with them is derived exclusively
from the outline just referred to, which was published with Sir
William Hamilton’s sanction; from Sir William Hamilton’s volume
of Discussions (1852); from incidental notes in his edition of
Keid (1846), especially those on Reid’s Account of Aristotle's
Logic; and from a few observations furnished by him to the last
edition (1854) of Mr Thomson’s Outline of the Necessary Laws of
Thought. It is to be hoped that the promised publication of Sir
J
LOGIC.
577
Introduc- Both queries are, to a certain extent, answered by the
tion. forms in which assertions are usually couched, when these
' have, as in ordinary speech, terms of fixed signification.
But, when they are not so answered, the answer must be
sought, that it may be incorporated in the expression of the
terms. Singular terms require and receive no Quantitative
Signs. Common terms do require either “ all” (“ any ”) or
“ some,” and should have the one or the other, whether they
be subjects or predicates.
I he postulates are reasonable. They do not stretch a
step beyond those two objective conditions (individuality
and universality), by the one or the other of which actual
thinking is formally modified. The logician is bound to
provide laws applicable to terms whose meaning is as arbi¬
trary as that of algebraic symbols. But the algebraist, too,
has his formal postulates. His a, b, c, and x, y, z, are
thus far fixed in signification, that all of them denote num¬
bers ; and he is warned, by pre-arranged marks, whether the
numbers are integers, or fractions, or powers. Our terms,
even though symbolic, are thus far fixed in signification,
that they must denote possible objects of thought, and ob¬
jects thought under one or another of certain conditions.
In demanding what the given conditions are, we ask for ex¬
planations exactly parallel to those which are allowed to the
mathematician. No narrower pre-information will suffice,
if logic is to be anything better than a theory of dreams.
The formal 23. The postulates being granted, let us ask, lastly, what
lo'dcalana- ^ata’ fashed with them, give a hold to laws purely logi-
lysis.a ca'* ^le reladons of common terms are the only ones with
reference to which it is worth while to generalize the cases.
First, The narrowest datum on which logic can work with¬
out foreign aid, is one proposition,—the assertion, through
a copula, of identity or non-identity between two terms
quantitatively determined. From such a datum, the science
can regulate and justify the evolution of certain other pro¬
positions by Immediate Inference.
Secondly, Logic can work with incalculably greater free¬
dom on two propositions given. These are data for the
normal form of Mediate or Syllogistic Inference. (1.) The
data may not yield, by inference, any third proposition. If
so, the reasons of the lailure can be shown. (2.) The data
may yield, by inference, a third proposition. If so, the
science can direct the evolution of that proposition, and
assign reasons both why it is evolvable, and why no others
are so. (3.) While, in both cases, the reasons are ulti¬
mately traceable to the logical axioms, it can be shown,
through derivative laws, that the result depends immedi¬
ately on the question, whether the given terms do or do not
constitute a series, related to each other both in Extension
and in Comprehension.*
William Hamilton’s Lectures will speedily furnish information, of
which, in regard to points not a few, the students of his masterly
logical system are still very much in want.
* Something, perhaps, should here be said, of the reasons which
have seemed to justify the raising, in the present chapter, of questions
in regard to the function and limits of logical science. Fewr or none
of these needed to have been touched on, if it had been sufficient to
regard logic exclusively from the practical side. All of them (and,
it may be, others also) imperatively demand attention from those
who would form a right estimate of logic as a system of speculation,
' those who would know what value it has in itself as an exposition
of the regulative theory of human thought.
In this country, there has never been seriously contemplated the
possibility of a Logic absolutely pure or a priori, that is, of a system
of logical science not only thoroughly demonstrative in its deduc¬
tions, but not acknowledging even any data that are empirical. The
possibility was broadly averred by Kant; and the endeavour was
made to work it out in not a few German works, among which may
be named especially those of Kiesewetter and Iloffbauer, and the
symmetrically systematic treatise of Twesten. Gradually it came to
be perceived,that even the ablest thinkers who had taken up this po¬
rtion, had not been able to proceed a step without silently assuming
empirical or psychological data. Those earlier writers who exhibit^-
VOL. XIII.
ed the fullest proofs of this assertion were Troxler and Bachmann.
The attack on the Kantist limitation of the sphere of logic was next
undertaken, on much deeper philosophical principles, by the same
energetic iconoclast, of whom, not very long ago, Kosenkrantz com-
plained, that he ‘‘ had brought philosophy (that is, Hegelism)
to a stand-still.” In Trendelenburg’s Logische Untersuchungen
(1840), every inch of ground was cut away from under the feet of
those logicians who aimed at constructing the science without pre¬
suppositions. Yet the writings of this singularly acute and learned
controversialist are not the only symptoms indicating that, in Ger¬
many itself, the reaction has issued in an oscillation stretching
equally far from the truth on the other side. It is not easy to see
how Trendelenburg himself could frame, in consistency with his
leading opinions, a positive theory of predication and inference
which should be anything else than a hybrid generated between
logic and metaphysics. The instructive treatise of Drobisch, also
(Neue Darstellung der Logik, 2d edit. 1851), incorporates objective
elements so freely, and brings them to bear on the formal laws of
thought with such intimacy of relation, that the latter are fairly
overbalanced, and the science ceases to be operative as yielding
readily practical tests for explicative thought.
But Drobisch’s mode of working out the details does seem not to
be necessitated by his own opinion as to the function of the science.
A paragraph of his preface, explaining that opinion, may serve to
illustrate the position which, here and afterwards, it is endeavoured
to make good in the text.
“ Trendelenburg says, of the formal logic, ‘ that it desires to
understand concept, judgment, inference, from the self-referred
activity of thought; that hence it separates thinking from its
object, as if the mirror which receives the light were separated from
the ray which falls on it; but that such separation is hazardous,
since the law of reflection is not conditioned by the mirror alone.’
This view is incorrect.
“ Formal logic does not presuppose a pure thinking, and does
not undertake to analyse or develope the forms of such thinking in
the abstract. Its presupposition is that concrete thinking which
is in the most intimate union with cognition. From such thinking,
the science, through abstraction, gains its fundamental forms; and
then, according to the laws yielded by consideration of the rela¬
tions of the forms, it connects the forms with each other, and thus
reaches derivative forms. Forms without matter or content logic
does not know; it knows only those forms which are independent of
the special matter that may be placed in them, and for which,
therefore, the matter, although it can never be dispensed with,
remains indeterminate and accidental.
“ The fundamental forms of thinking are gained in a manner like
that which yields the fundamental forms of geometry. These are
only the remainders, which abstraction leaves over from the phy¬
sical and chemical properties of bodies perceived through the senses.
The idea of empty space is an abstraction, foreign both to sensuous
intuition and to its reproduction in memory; the geometrical sur¬
face requires a second abstraction; the line and the point require
a third and a fourth. In like manner does logic arrive at the con¬
cept, its marks and its relations. But geometry is not contented
either with the discovery of the fundamental forms, or with the
classification of corporeal forms as presented by experience : through
combination of the fundamental forms, it reaches ideal construc¬
tions, in which indeed it partly reconstructs that which is given
and actual, but partly comes on formations which appear to us like
strangers in the known world of sense. In a manner exactly simi¬
lar—in the doctrines of judgment and inference, of divisions and
proofs—does logic deal with the fundamental forms of concepts;
while it allows itself to be guided by nothing but the consistency
of the forms of thought with each other, the consistency of thinking
with its own principles. This consistency is the only logical truth.”
Of recent English works, two should be particularly referred to,
as placing the function of logic on a solid and philosophical basis:
to both of these more obligations than one are here due ; Mr Kars-
lake’s masterly sketch, the Aids to the Study of Logic, book i.; “ Pure
Analytical Logic” (1851); and Mr Mansel’s treatise, alike acute
and comprehensive, the Prolegomena Logica (1851). Much of
valuable suggestion in regard to principles is furnished also by
Mr Chretien’s Essay on Logical Method (1848). Mr Moberly's
Lectures on Logic (1848) may be advantageously consulted for
several points of special doctrine ; and Mr Kidd’s Delineation of
the Primary Principles of Reasoning (1856), is exceedingly instruc¬
tive, both in its original matter, and in its analytic comparison of
recent logical systems.
This may be as fit a place as any, for alluding to the mathe¬
matical theories of thought, of which several have been propounded
by actively thinking men, both in other days and in our own.
Some of these have been content with expressing logical doctrines
and i ules in mathematical forms z others have insisted on seeking
the foundations of logical science in principles really mathemuti-
4 i>
578
LOGIC.
Doctrine of cal. To the valuable German treatise just quoted from, there is
terms. annexed a “ Logico-Mathematical Appendix,” in which long and
complex trains of reasoning are designated by algebraic symbols.
The reduction of all thinking under an elaborate series of symbolic
formulas is the design of an exceedingly subtle and able work, Dr
Boole’s Investigation of the haws of Thought (1854). In Mr De
Morgan’s Formal Logic (1847) the practical side is often approached
very closely, and the pure laws of thought are developed in seve¬
ral of their relations with very great skill; but the principles of
logic are thoroughly subordinated to those of mathematics.
All attempts to incorporate into the universal theory of thought a
special and systematic development of relations of number and quan¬
tity, must be protested against with equal firmness, whichever side of
the question we may look to. If the systems are to be estimated spe¬
culatively, as philosophical expositions of the laws which regulate
all thinking, it must be said that they are faulty both by defect and
by excess. They endeavour to theorize all thinking, by examining
thought only as exerted on one kind of objects : they allege, as
bearing on thought universally, laws which rule it only in certain
cases. If, again, the systems are supposed to furnish rules avail¬
able for practice, they must be pronounced to be both unnecessary Doctrine of
and ineffective ; and this objection lies, not only against the in- terms,
trusion of mathematical principles, but also against the adoption
of mathematical forms for any purpose beyond that of incidental
illustration. No cumbrous scheme of exponential notation is
needed, and none such is sufficient, for the actual guidance of
thought when its objects are not mathematical: when its objects
are so, the science of mathematics is both bound, and is the only
science that is qualified, to yield the principles on which rules
may be founded. The question may be considered, also, with re¬
ference to the value of logical study as a discipline of the mind.
Now the mathematico-logical theories tend, one and all of them,
and tend the more strongly the nearer they bring their rules to¬
wards the forms of the higher mathematics, to convert logical
study into a mere cramming of the memory with formulae, and
logical practice into a mechanical manipulation of rules not known
to have reasons. Even in its genuine shape, the science is, on ac¬
count of its formal character, liable to both of these dangers : and
the duty of its expounders is to guard against them, not, certainly,
to run wilfully into their way.
PART FIRST.—THE DOCTRINE OF TERMS.
The signi¬
fication of
terms, sin¬
gular and
common.
24. We have already learned that, and how, the two aspects
in which objects may be regarded, as individuals or as mem¬
bers of a class, impose on judgments and propositions the
only objective modifications to which they are universally
subject. The Terms through which objects are thought must
be either Singulars or Universals. It remains only, in re¬
ference to terms considered as elements of judgment and
predication, to place their characteristics in the position in
which they are directly available as the foundation of logi¬
cal rules. Here the principal question is that of the man¬
ner in which both images and concepts, and also the rela¬
tions of these to each other, are denoted by words.
Singular terms call for little examination. Common terms
must be scrutinized very exactly; both by reason of the
difficulties they involve, and because inferences through
them, being the highest formal developments of thought,
are the processes whose laws constitute the highest sections
of logical doctrine.
For almost all logical purposes, it is sufficient to consider
terms as the Names of Objects of Thought. Singular terms
are thus names of objects thought of as individuals ; com¬
mon terms are the names of classes thought of as constituted
by individuals or kinds of individuals. But we must always
hold ourselves prepared to fall back, when it shall be neces¬
sary, on these two limiting facts :—first, that logic, both in
assuming data and in working out results, has regard, not to
the question whether objects are real, but only to the ques¬
tion whether and how they are thinkable and thought of;
secondly, that terms denote objects only as thought of
under some given relation.
The words 2o. The relations under which we can think of objects
which con- may be either comparatively simple, or indefinitely complex,
statute Further, the expressibility of a relation in few words, or
terms. jfg requiring of many, may frequently be determined by
circumstances extraneous to the character of the relation.1
Therefore, a term may consist either of one word, of seve¬
ral, or of many. But its one word, if it has no more, or its
leading word—that which expresses the most prominent idea
of a group—must, admittedly, in the first place, be a noun,
either substantive or adjective; and, next, it may rightly
be held, that a common term does not bring out completely
the concept of which it is a sign, unless its one word or
leading word is specifically a noun-substantive. An adjec-
^ Very many short or simple terms, both ordinary and technical,
imply ideas which are exceedingly complex. Such terms are con¬
ventional abridgments, adopted for the acceleration of thought, as
well as of speech ; and they are of constant occurrence as names of
objects possessing universal interest and importance. They carry
with them both advantages and dangers.
tive, indeed, does often do duty as a predicate; but a sub¬
stantive is required for giving easy and full expression to an
idea constituting a subject. Now, a given proposition is
not adequately developed, unless it has a form enabling us,
without interpolation, to extricate from it all its possible
results ; and some of these results are not attainable unless
through transposition of the terms.1
26. We must now note, in a general way, the manner in The man-
which the singular and the common term severally signify ner of sig-
the individual and the class. nification
(1.) Nouns may denote individuality in any of several ways.of words
1 hey may be proper names ; as of persons or places: ‘ Na- ino. termg
poleon, Socrates ; England, Edinburgh.” Only it should be 1 0
noted that, names of persons having long fallen short of the
demand, many or most of such words are really common
terms, though interpreted as singulars, through our know¬
ledge of the circumstances in which they are used. The words,
again, may be words which are strictly common terms, but
whose meaning is individualized by the accompaniment of
definitive descriptions: “ The man whom I saw yesterday
1 A word or phrase which may by itself be a term, is said to be
Categorematic (xarrryeptiv, to predicate) ; one which cannot, is Syn-
categorematic. By a noun is meant a noun in its nominative case :
the oblique cases are excluded, with all other parts of speech.
Many logicians take this distinction ; that a substantive is required
as subject of a proposition, but that an adjective may be logically
accepted as the predicate. According, however, to the view
stated in the text, such an expression as “ Some men are good,” is
elliptical, and should, for logical treatment, be explicated into
“ Some men are good persons.” In such fillings-up, we are doubt¬
less exposed to the risk of limiting the predicate to a meaning nar¬
rower than the datum ; but this is not difficult of avoidance. There
are strong reasons for insisting on the doctrine, that substantives
are the only parts of speech truly categorematic. “ The predi¬
cate as predicate carries with it the mark of dependence ; it does
not become a free concept, till it assumes the form of substance,
and may in this form become subject.” (Trendelenburg, Lo-
gische Untersuchungen, ii. 144 ; see also Ritter, Abriss dtr Philoso-
phischen Logik (1829), p. 68). When we set about bringing logi¬
cally to light the relations of given terms, we are not entitled to
suppose that each of our terms will continue to discharge the
function it had in the proposition which gave it to us; and we are
bound, in setting forth our data for logical manipulation, to give
to each of their elements a form which shall bring out its character
as fully as possible, and qualify it for discharging any function
which any possible variety of inference can impose on it. The
imperfection of the evolution which the adjective yields is exposed
as soon as we attempt logical conversion. The example, as above
expanded, furnishes at once the converse,—“ Some good persons are
men ;” but, as first set down, it would not yield any intelligible con¬
verse, unless either the substantive were interpolated in the pro¬
cess, or the proposition thrown into one or another of those abstract
shapes, which, as we shall see, are almost utterly unmanageable.
LOGIC.
Doctrine of “ the meadow which lies before my window“ the argument
terms, by which you convinced me.” Nor will a term be the less
v'—a singular, though the descriptive addition be by itself in¬
sufficient to indicate, or may even leave it uncertain to the
speaker himself, what individual it is meant to designate.
“ Yonder hill,” may require a gesture to determine the one
hill intended; “ the most profound philosopher of our age,”
may be a name for a person undetermined by those who
use the phrase,1
Another class of cases is more apt to be mistaken. A
thing is thought of as an individual, whenever it is thought
as one object, although its unity should be made up of
several or many individual parts ; and any given individual
may itself be next thought of as a part of some other
thing, which in its turn is thought of as an individual.
Thus, among objects of perception, we may think succes¬
sively of “ that trunk, that tree, that forest:” and so, like¬
wise, may it be for phenomena of reflective conscious¬
ness —“ The idea I have at this moment, the judgment
of which that idea was an element, the course of reasoning
in which that judgment was one of many steps.” Examples
like these, which would fall under the scholastic description
of an integral whole, are not the only ones. Even the lo¬
gical whole, that is, the class constituted by the individuals
designated by the common term, may itself be abstractively
thought of as one object. The distributive all (= each),
leaves the common term as the sign of a true concept; the
collective all ( = all taken together), transforms it into the
sign of an individual unity.2
(2.) In regard to the manner of signification in common
terms there is required one remark only. Common terms
are the names of classes, constituted, either immediately or
through intermediate steps, by individuals, which are thought
of together in respect of their possession of certain common
attributes. Sometimes the term distinctly states the attri¬
bute ; but, even so, the objects or substances continue to be,
in speech as in thought, more prominent than the attributes.
Much more frequently, and especially when the objects con¬
stituting the class are many, the common term is an arbi¬
trary name, which briefly, but directly, denotes the class,
and is applicable to each and all of the objects, while it
merely implies or connotes the attributes. Indeed, both
in common life and in science, it is much oftener easy, from
a large combination of obvious characteristics, to place ob¬
jects in a certain class and give them a conventional class-
name, than to fix with strict accuracy the attributes which
are essential and peculiar to the class.
The quan- 27. Out of the essential distinction between the two kinds
tity of of terms, there arises a broad distinction in the manner in
terms. which they are severally usable.
Individual objects are thinkable only as indivisible units.
Consequently, a singular term can never, without altogether
losing its character, denote anything less than the object of
which it is at first assumed as a name.
Classes of objects, on the other hand, may be thought
either in whole or in part. We may think, either of all the
objects constituting the class, or only of fewer than all of those
objects ; and we cannot think the concept, or use the class-
name, otherwise than for thinking and expressing either the
one or the other of the two alternatives. A common term
may be understood as denoting all the objects of the class ;
it does, in every proposition, denote either all or fewer than
all of them.
1 An object indicated thus indefinitely was called by the old
logicians an individuum vagum. It was a disputed point whe¬
ther the term denoting it were properly a singular, or a common
term used particularly.
2 See, among other explanations, that of Wallis, Institutio Lo-
gicce, part i., cap. ii.
579
A common term, when it is used to denote all the objects Doctrine of
of the class, is said to be taken Universally, or to be Distri- terms.
buted; that is, to be spread over the whole class, or to be Y—
applied to all the objects distributively, not collectively—to
each, not to all together. A common term, when it is used
to denote fewer than all the objects of the class, is said to
be taken Particularly, or to be Undistributed.
A common term, therefore, may, in a useful sense, be said
to have Quantity ; its quantity being variable, as universal
or particular. It is scarcely correct, and not at all useful, to
consider a singular term as having quantity. When it is
said that a singular term is equivalent to a common term
distributed, all that is meant is, that it does not admit of non¬
distribution or particularization.
W e must be able, then, whenever a common term is
given, either to assume or to infer whether it is distributed
or undistributed. The state of the fact is, for the subject
at least of a proposition, indicated in common language, by
a variety of prefixed phrases. Two of these are, for con¬
venience, used always in logic; and, it may here be ob¬
served, the signs should, for logical working, be prefixed to
the predicate as well as to the subject.
28. The ordinary Signs of Distribution1 are fully inter- The signs
pretable for us, because the universality of terms has no of. the.dis*
degrees, and is Definite. The number of individuals con- ^‘bution
tained in a class may indeed be, and almost always is, in- term™111011
determinate; but, be they few or many, we do, in distri¬
buting the class-name, definitely embrace all of them
under it.
All logicians adopt, as the sign of distribution in af¬
firmative propositions, the one prefix “ all ” or “ every.”
Some adopt it for negatives also ; but such a use of it is apt
to mislead. In the expression “ All X’s are Y’s,” the sub¬
ject is understood by every one to be distributed; but in
“ All X’s are not Y’s,” most persons would interpret the
sign as intimating non-distribution.2 It is safest not to in¬
cur the risk. It may be avoided by using the prefix “any”
in negation. This sign is useable without any difficulty for
the predicate; and it is best to use it as a prefix for the
subject also. If there is thought to be a needless awkward¬
ness in such phrases as “ Any X’s are not any Y’s,”'1 we might
content ourselves with an indesignate subject, and say, “ The
X’s are not any Y7’sa form which by most hearers would
be interpreted as distributing the subject, while it may, at
all events, be taken in that sense by agreement.4
1 They are such as these : “ all, every, any, whatever.” Both of
the articles, too, are so used when joined with ampliative phrases;
as, “ The man (or a man) who has true self-respect, is not likely to
refuse due respect to others.”
2 “ All X’s are not Y’s,” is naturally understood as being merely
a denial of the assertion that all the X’s are Y’s ; as equivalent to
this: “ It is not true that all the X’s are Y’s.” But we are entitled
to make this denial, if it be true that even “ Some of the X’s are not
Y’s,” or that “There is some (or any) X which is not a Yand
this is all the meaning we commonly attach to our “ All X’s are not
Y’s.” In so interpreting it we are, as in numberless other instances,
working out logical doctrines without being aware that we are doing
so. “ Some X’s are not Y’s” is logically the contradictory of “ All
X’s are Y’s,” that is, a proposition necessarily inconsistent with it.
3 Ordinary language would give this arrangement;—“Not any
X’s are Y’s;” and this again would pass into “ No X’s are Y’s.”
These forms, and especially that which both displaces and incor¬
porates the negative sign of the copula, are apt to tempt us into
mistaking, for a moment, the quality of the proposition, and sup¬
posing it affirmative. The alternative afterwards proposed has the
opposite fault: it conceals the quantity, and might lead us to sup¬
pose the proposition particular.
4 Propositions whose subject has no prefix of quantity are
usually called Indefinite, more properly (Hamilton) Indesignate.
The subject, if a common term, must necessarily be either distri¬
buted or undistributed ; and logicians are wont to say that we can¬
not decide which of the two it is, until we have interpreted the
terms, and considered the matter of the judgment. But. when such
580
LOGIC.
Doctrine of 29. The ordinary Si^rns of Non-distribution1 are not fully
terms, interpretable for us. Each of them, besides directly siyni-
-/ fying particularity, does also denote or imply some closer
The signs specification ; and the particularity is the only part of their
of the non- meaning that yields an idea logically available,
distribu- 'pjie on]v quantitative distinction with which a universal
turn of t]ieory of thought can deal, is the all-pervading distinction
<erms.°n between “all” on the one side, and “not-all,” or “fewer-
than-all,” on the other; between a whole on the one side,
and, on the other, something of which we can say only that
it is some part or other of that whole. Accordingly, all the
ordinary signs of particularity must, so far as logically cog¬
nizable, be taken as equivalents; and, for convenience, all
of them are translated into the technical “some.” Were it
not that even one of the parts of the logical whole is enough
to let in the logical “some,” it would be exactly parallel to
one popular phrase. Our “ Some X’s are Y’s,” were it not
that it might possibly mean only “One X is Y,” would be
equivalent to the assertion, “ There are X’s which are Y’s.”
The true character of Logical Particularity requires to be
very precisely understood. It is in all respects Indefinite.
(1.) In the common use of words, a proposition introduced
by any of the limitative signs is (unless accompanied by an
explanation) understood naturally and fairly as a proposition
implying another. Our usual “some” means “some, but
not allor, “ some at most.” If we explicitly assert that
“ Some are —we are understood as implying that “ Some
(or many) are not —.” No man asserts merely of “some”
if he might assert of “ all.”2
The “some” of logic is equivalent to “some at least;”
“ some, it may or may not be all.” And why ? Because
this is the minimum of signification bearable by any limi¬
tative sign of quantity. So much as this must be signified
by each of them; so much may be assumed as involved in
every assertion of the sort; and if, in a given instance, more
is signified, the overplus may and should be treated as a
separate proposition.3
(2.) All the ordinary signs are more or less definite in
their reference upwards to the whole class: they hint at or
tell of a proportion borne by the part to the whole. Some
of them leave that proportion quite uncertain ; others de¬
scribe it vaguely ; and others specificate till they reach nu¬
merical determination.
The logical “some” utterly ignores such reference. This
a proposition is negative, probably no man would dream of inter¬
preting it particularly ; and even when it is affirmative, we do
certainly tend to give the same interpretation. On common talk,
or on oratorical or poetical effusion, it would be unreasonable to
impose very severe restrictions. But in argument it would hardly
be unfair to insist on interpreting universally, as against an oppon¬
ent, every indesignate proposition he adduces. A reasoner who ex¬
presses particular assertions without explicit limitation, must do
so either because he designs to be ambiguous, or because he thinks
confusedly, or because he is (perhaps unconsciously) suppressing
some step of reasoning which it would be right to force out into
explicit statement. Sanderson places such assertions among his
“ Suppositiones,” or propositions implying others; and he interprets
his example as a disjunctive : “ A ship is necessary for crossing the
strait; that is, this, that, or the other ship is necessary.” (Lo-
gicce Artis Compendium, lib. ii., cap. 2.)
1 Some, a few, a very few, few (= many not), a great many, not a
few (= many), most, a small, large, or considerable number, a ma¬
jority, a minority, a small or large proportion, nearly all, all but a
few, more or less than half, &c.
u If I say, in common phrase, that “ Some men are wise,” I am
understood to imply an opinion, that some men, or many, are not
wise.
3 If I use the “ some” in its logically restricted sense, and thus
design to convey no implied meaning at all, I may say that “ Some
men are mortal since I know that “ All men are mortal,” an as¬
sertion by which mine is covered. If I were to speak with impli¬
cation of the usual annexum, my reason for saying that “ Some
men are mortal ’ would be, that 1 hold some or many men not to
be so.
is plain from the explanations already given. If the number Doctrine of
of objects in a class were exactly ascertainable, our “ some ” terms,
would be broad enough to cover all of them but one, and
narrow enough to admit one and keep out all the rest.1
(3.) Of the ordinary signs, some are definite, others
quite indefinite, in their reference downwards towards the
objects constituting the class. “ Certain men (quidam
homines)'' is an example of the first kind; “ Some men or
other [aliqui homines)," belongs to the second.
The logical “some” is totally indeterminate in its re¬
ference to the constitutive objects. It is always “aliqui,”
never “ quidam it designates some objects or other of the
class, not some certain objects definitely pointed out.2
Both the second rule and the third seem to grow out of
a consideration which may be explained thus. By making
our quantitative limitation definite in either direction, up¬
wards or downwards, we should really have thought out a
new class, constituted by so many of the objects as we had
thought of or named. The common attribute of the class
would be the fact that the objects are so specified by us.
And all so specified by us being signified by the term (say,
“some certain X’s”), this term would really, paradoxical as
it may appear, be a common term distributed. It would be
equivalent to “all those X’s I am thinking of.”
1 Whenever particularity is carried, though it were but by a single
step, beyond, the negation of totality (“ not-all”),we have passed out
of the sphere of logic into that of arithmetic or mathematics. Num¬
ber, it is true, is a logical praacognitum. But the positive ideas
which logic postulates under it are only unity, plurality, and tota¬
lity ; and, specially, it postulates plurality only as being in thought
the necessary link between unity and totality. It does not seek
to develope plurality, positively, into any of those indefinitely vari¬
ous specifications which the repetition of the unit makes possible.
When logic does aim at such development (and some very able
logicians have tortured it into the task), it attempts what it cannot
and need not do. It sets about performing, clumsily and imper-
fectly, a duty which the appropriate sciences of number and
quantity execute with promptness and perfection.
So long, indeed, as the proportional specifications of particularity
remain very vague, arithmetic and algebra give assistance so slight,
that problems of the sort, though insoluble by pure or uiyversal
logic, are fairly and conveniently assignable to logic mixed or ap¬
plied. Many such problems fall directly, or may easily be brought,
within the scope of the rules given by logicians for modal proposi¬
tions. Others are so easily dealt with as to require no rules be¬
yond those of common sense. The premise “ Most of the X’s are
Y’s,” evidently allows a wider inference than the premise “ A few
of the X’s are Y’s.” As soon as we move on beyond such a point
as this, we are, if we insist on continuing to use logical forms, do¬
ing really nothing more than throwing into logical forms results
which we have gained by previous calculations, arithmetical or
algebraical. This is true even of the simplest and most ingenious
of all the devices of the mathematico-logicians ;—Mr De Morgan’s
principle, called by Sir W. Hamilton the “ ultra-total quantifica¬
tion of the middle term.” The principle is this : that a half, and
anything more than a half, are together in excess of the whole;
and it yields a formula which merely saves us the trouble of work¬
ing a simple equation, having oftenest an indeterminate solution.
2 This third point, though implied in several of the received
logical rules, has sometimes been overlooked. Surely it was so by
those of the old logicians, who gave “ quidam" as the logical sign.
One or two of the Germans complicate the theory of predication
needlessly, by admitting both readings.
Compare these two propositions : “Some X’s are Y’s;” “ Some X’s
are not Y’s.” The popular “ some,” when unqualified, is naturally
understood as indefinite; therefore common sense would lead us to
say that, for all we know, both propositions may be true, but that
the one or the other of them must be true. Logic, understanding
the quantity of both X’s as limited indefinitely, gives the same
verdict. But sense and science would agree in granting a new
trial, if the subject were, both times, “ some certain X’s.” We
should then have to call for evidence showing, whether the X’s
selected in the first proposition are the same X’s which are selected
in the second ; or whether the two subjects designate two different
sets of X’s. If the sets are the same, one of the propositions must
be false. If the sets are different, neither the truth nor the false¬
hood of the one would entitle us to infer either the falsehood or
the truth of the other.
LOGIC.
581
Doctrine of
terms.
Definiteness, in short, is the distinctive characteristic of
universality or distribution ; indefiniteness is that of parti¬
cularity or non-distribution.1
Develop- 30. We must now treat, more closely than before, both
ment of of the relations, the objective and the attributive, which
exten- together constitute the totality of the concept, and of its
sign the common term. Out of these will emerge by
degrees one logical doctrine after another, till they yield at
last their highest results in the theory of the syllogism.
The reference made by a common term to the objects
thought as contained in the class, is called the Extension,
Sphere, or Compass of the term: or, otherwise, the extension,
sphere, or compass of a common term may be said to be con¬
stituted by all the objects thought as contained in the class.
In the broadest view, therefore, the extension of a com¬
mon term is constituted by all the individual objects; and
in any more limited view we can take, this ultimate re¬
ference to the individuals is silently implied. But the af¬
firmation of extension by an enumeration of individuals,
would be seldom (ifever) possible, and always useless. Every
common term presupposes, in one view or another, several
or many steps of generalization. Thus it has under it
other common terms denoting contained classes of objects ;
while each of these may have other common terms under
it; and so on, it may be, through many stages. When,
therefore, common terms only are compared in respect of
extension, the Extension of a Common Term is said to be
constituted by all those other common terms, which are the
names of classes or kinds of objects thought as included in the
class denoted by it. Thus, one common term may have its
extension constituted directly by several other common
terms; each of which, again, lias its extension constituted
directly by several others: and, of course, the extension of
the first covers all the extensions of all the others.
Concepts or common terms may be said to be Ordinated
in Extension, when they are arranged in an order correspond¬
ing to the steps of generalization or specification. Ordina¬
tion is most conveniently made from highest to lowest,—that
is, from the one widest class, which contains all the others,
down to the one or more narrowest classes, in which the data
do notallow us to include any others. In respect of extension,
we descend in the order of specification. The highest or
most extensive term in such a series is said to be Superordi¬
nate to all the others; terms yielded by one and the same
step of generalization or specification are Co-ordinate; every
term lower than the highest is Subordinate to all terms whose
extension is greater, while it is superordinate to all, if there
are any, whose extension is less. There are used also, as
descriptive of ordination in extension (not in comprehen¬
sion), the names Subalternant and Subalternate; to which
there should be, and sometimes is, added, the name Co¬
alternate.2
It must be noted very particularly (though the point was
observed before), that, as we descend in extension we are,
at every step, thinking away objects, but thinking in addi¬
tional attributes; that, as we ascend in extension, we are
thinking in objects, but thinking away attributes.3
1 Consult, as to all the quantitative signs, Hamilton’s Discussions,
the Logical Appendix.
8 Thus, let us, assuming terms whose meaning and relations are
simple and obvious, start from the class “ organized beings” as a su¬
perordinate. One step lower in specification gives us, as the two
classes constituting that class, “ animals” and “vegetables,” which
are therefore subordinate to thefirstclass, co-ordinate with each other,
superordinate to any kind we may place under either. If, neglect-
ing the class “ vegetables,” we descend in a loose specification with
the term “ animals,” it might give us the six classes, “ men, beasts,
birds, fishes, reptiles, insects;” and these classes would be, all of
them, subordinate directly to “ animal,” indirectly to “ organized
beingthey would be co-ordinates of each other ; and, if our spe¬
cification stop here, they would have no subordinates.
3 Thus, our example sets out, in descent, from an indeterminate
31. The reference made by a common term to the attri- Doctrine of
bute (simple or complex) thought as possessed by all the ^ terms. ^
objects of the class is called the Comprehension, Intension, "
or Content of the term : or, otherwise, the intension, compre- Develop-
hension, or content of a common term may be said to be Inent °* t'10
constituted by the attribute (simple or complex) thought
as possessed by all the objects. common
If a term given to have its comprehension evolved, pre-terms,
supposes but one step of generalization, the attribute is
simple, or one; and no further evolution is possible than that
which is yielded by the immediate import of the name.
But each additional step of generalization gives an additional
element to the attribute, which thus becomes complex ; and
each of these steps yields a new common term, the state¬
ment of which is a step in the evolution of the comprehen¬
sion of the given term. Common terms which thus evolve
the comprehension of a given common term, may be said to
be terms signifying attributes which are implied in the at¬
tribute given ; or they signify attributes in respect of which
the objects constituting the given class may be thought of
as being included also in some other class or classes.
Cases yielding no possibility of evolution being ex¬
cluded as barren, the Comprehension ofa Common Term is
said to be constituted by those common terms, which are thus
significant of implied attributes. These are often, with
suggestive propriety, called the Marks of the given term or
concept.
Suppose, now, that there is given to us a series of terms
ordinated in extension; and that we are called on to find
among these the terms which are the intensive or attribu¬
tive marks of some one term of the series. In what direc¬
tion shall we look?—upwards or downwards?
The attributive marks must, all of them, be possessed by
all the objects of that class of which the term whose compre¬
hension is sought is a name. Consequently, the marks of
the term will not be found in any one of the terms lower
or less extensive than it is; for each of these lower terms sig¬
nifies some attribute, possessed, indeed, by some objects of
the class we start from, but wanting to others.
The marks of a term must be sought among the terms
more extensive than itself. The objects of the given class
possess the attribute signified by the term whose marks we
seek: they possess also some other attribute, which is pos¬
sessed by other objects besides ; that is, they possess also
some attribute in respect of which the given objects and
these others are included in another class, which accord¬
ingly is more extensive than the first. The name of this
more extensive class is a mark of the given class, in so tar
as it signifies an attribute possessed by all the objects con¬
tained in that class.1
but large number of beings thought of as possessing the one attri¬
bute of “organization.” At our next step, whether we regard the one
term or the other in the co-ordination, we have a class containing
fewer objects. For “ animal” and “ vegetable” together are re¬
quired for including all “organized beings;” and each of the two
classes wants all the “ organized beings” contained in the other.
But, contrariwise, whichever of the two subordinate classes we
contemplate, we see that its constitutive objects, though fewer than
all “ organized beings,” possess an attribute which is not possessed
by all organized beings, and is not the attribute on the thought of
which the class was founded. “ Animals” have the special attri¬
butes constituting “animal life;” vegetables have the special attri¬
butes constituting “ vegetable life.” It is needless to carry the ana¬
lysis through the third stage.
The character of the ordination might be perceived from a dif¬
ferent point of view, if we were to substitute, for each of the terms,
its contradictory. “ If negations are joined in thought to two
concepts relatively higher and lower, there arises thus a reversal
of their subordination. For, through the concept which contains
the negation of a species, more objects may be thought than through
those concepts which make up the negation of the genus.” (Schulze,
Grundsdtze der Allgemeinen Logik, 1831, p. 54).
1 Thus, the series of the last section does not yield any mark of
the term “ organized being;” no one of the lower classes signifies
582
LOGIC.
Doctrine of Common terms may be Ordinated in Comprehension as
terms, well as in extension ; and it appears plainly, that the order
in the one case must be exactly the reverse of that in the
other. If arranged from highest to lowest, they will now
stand in the order of steps in a presupposed generalization.
Again, to a series ordinated in comprehension there may
be applied the same set of comparative names which were
applied in the former ordination:—Superordinate, Co-ordi¬
nate, Subordinate. But, while co-ordinates continue to
hold the same place, the terms which before were superor¬
dinate have now become subordinate, and contrariwise.1
It is manifest, likewise, that, terms being given as ex¬
pressly ordinated, either in extension or in comprehension,
the other ordination is given by implication.
The law of 32. The results now gained enable us to generalize the
concepts distinctive law of concepts and common terms,
monTerms Extension and comprehension stand towards each other
C1 ls‘ in an inverse ratio. By how- much the more (or fewer)
objects a class is thought as containing, by so much the
fewer (or more) attributes are the objects thought as pos¬
sessing : by how much the more (or fewer) the attributes
are, by so much the fewer (or more) are the objects.
For predication through common terms this is the uni¬
versal Quantitative Law. Such predication, governed pri¬
marily and qualitatively by the principle of non-contradic¬
tion, is governed secondarily, and in the way of quantitative
restriction, by this law of inverse determination.
All such predication may correctly be said to be nothing
more than an explication, in the form of judgments and
propositions, of those relations between the terms, which
are implied in a pre-formed ordination. The same asser¬
tion may be made as to inference: for inference is merely
a series of predications or propositions, in which implied
relations are successively and systematically evolved.
The ab¬
stractive
separation
of the two
wholes of
the con¬
cept.
33. There is one limitation, narrowing our use of the de¬
terminative law of concepts when we come to use it in pre¬
dication. To this limitation our attention cannot be too
early called.
The concept, that which a common term signifies, is
thought as a whole, whose parts also are thinkable. It has
parts both of extension and of comprehension : it has parts
when it is considered in its relation to objects ; it has parts
when it is considered in its relation to attributes. Its to¬
tality is constituted by both kinds of parts taken together,
not by either kind independently of the other.
If we are to think the concept, that is, the whole of signi¬
fication of a common term, without any attempt at evolv¬
ing the parts of either kind, we may and must think it as
a whole whose constitution implies parts of both kinds.
But, if we desire to find the parts, or any of them—to
determine what the parts are, and to think them, or any of
any attribute possessed by all organized beings. But, as a mark
either of the term “ animal,” or of the term “ vegetable,” we may
assign “ organization,” the attribute signified by the term “ orga¬
nized being ;” and, as a mark of “ man,” or any of its co-ordinates,
we may assign ‘‘ animal life” as a mark in the first degree, and
“organization” as a mark in the second. All animals may be
marked as organized beings; all men may be marked as animals
and organized beings.
1 The terms of the example in the last section would have stood
thus when ordinated in extension from above :—-
!• Organized being; 2. Animal + vegetable; 3. Man + beast +
bird + fish + reptile + insect.
the same terms ordinated from above in comprehension would
stand thus :—
1. Man + beast + bird + fish + reptile + insect; 2. Animal +
vegetable; 3. Organized being.
M hen explicit ordination is required as an aid for analysis, it is
sa est an easiest to make it in the descending order of Extension.
I he counter-relations rre discoverable at a glance.
them, distinctly—we cannot do so in both relations at once* Doctrine of
We must seek, either to evolve the parts of the extension of terms,
the common term, leaving the comprehension unevolved
as given, or to evolve the parts of the comprehension, leav¬
ing the extension unevolved as given. The complete evolu¬
tion of the signification of a common term X, is a task to be
performed only by the working of two problems, which
must be solved separately. We must evolve the sphere, or
extension, by determining what are all the kinds of X’s,
while we take for granted the attributes common to all the
things so called; and we must evolve the comprehension,
by determining what are the attributes common to all X’s,
while we take for granted the compass of the objects which
bear the name. We must either think explicitly in exten¬
sion, while we imply comprehension; or think explicitly in
comprehension, while we imply extension.
While, therefore, a concept is one whole, yet, in reference
to the possibility of abstractive analysis, its totality may be
and by logicians frequently and conveniently is, said to be
constituted by Two Wholes. A concept, or its sign the
common term, is evolvable so far only as it may be re¬
garded as involving, on the one hand, a whole of extension
constituted by objects, and, on the other hand, a whole of
comprehension constituted by attributes.*
* The whole of extension has often been called the “logical
whole ;” and the whole of comprehension has, by some of those
logicians who have generalized its laws, been said to possess the
character assigned, by others than logicians, to a “ metaphysical
whole.” The names point to a distinction worth noting.
Yet the warning must be added, that they will deceive if they
tempt us to infer the exclusion of comprehension from logical scru¬
tiny. The warning is the more needed, because this aspect of the
concept is by far the more difficult of the two, both for thought and
for expression; and because in our logical systems the weakest point
is the development of it.
So much of doctrine will hereafter be founded on the correlation
of extension and comprehension, that it may be well, once for all,
to bespeak close attention to the principle, and to notice generally,
at the cost of a little anticipation, the historical position which the
doctrine holds in the science.
Neither of the two relations of the concept could be, or ever has
been, altogether overlooked. But extension, which always predo¬
minates in thought, and thus modifies all natural forms of speech,
long usurped in the logical field a place almost so broad as to leave
no room for comprehension. So it was with Aristotle. So, like¬
wise, was it with the schoolmen, who held that the totum univer¬
sale, the whole of extension, is that with which only logic has
directly to do; and that the science cannot look further away from
it than for seeking marks (notoe) by which the mutual relations
of universal wholes and parts may be determined. Thus compre¬
hension lay in the dark.
“ The distinction,” says Hamilton (Discussions, p. 641*), “ as
limited to the doctrine of single notions, was first signalized by the
Port-Royal logicians, under the names of extension and compre¬
hension. Leibnitz and his followers preferred the more antithetic
titles of extension and intension (though intension be here some¬
what deflected from its proper meaning, that of degree'I; and the
quantitas ambitus and quantitas complexus have, among sundry other
synonymes, been employed in modern times—not exclusively, for
Aristotle uses to and to Xi^u^o/^ivov. The best expression,
I think, for the distinction, is breadth (nXaVa;, latitudo), and depth
(Bu6t;, profunditas)” (See the Port-Royal Logique, part i., chap, vi.)
Both the correlation and its law (of the inverse ratio), speedily be¬
came familiar to all logical students. “ It is,” says Reid, “ an axiom
in logic, that the more extensive any general term is, it is the less
comprehensive; and, on the contrary, the more comprehensive, the
less extensive.” (Hamilton’s Reid, p. 390.) But in our climate, the
doctrine bore no fruit.
In the Logik of Kant the correlation is alleged, and the law of
the inverse ratio stated : the first steps also are taken towards those
applications of the principle which speedily followed. Since then,
it has been trite doctrine in the German schools, that a definition
is a predication making distinct the comprehension of a concept;
that a division is a predication making distinct the extension : and,
while the German logicians have not all generalized with equal
clearness the law of the inverse ratio, their success in expiscating
the theory of both processes has been proportional to the clearness
with which they have apprehended the principle. Compare, for
LOGIC.
583
tions.
Doctrine of >nstalice> Tvvesten with Fries. At this point, however, the German
o 0si- logicians have come to a stand. With a solitary exception, none
-1 of them, so far as we know, has suspected the possibility of bring¬
ing the double relation of the concept to bear on the syllogism.
The one exception is Beneke; who, however, after having seemingly
grasped the principle very firmly, lets it slip out of his hands be¬
fore it has yielded any generalized doctrine. (See his Lehrbuch der
Logik, 1832, chap, viii., §§ 170, 171, 182.) It should be added that
Beneke saw, very clearly, how the distribution of the predicate in
affirmative propositions is necessary for the consistent development
of the relation of comprehension. (See his sect. 182, foot of page
124.)
This one hesitating anticipation required in fairness to be no¬
ticed. But it leaves untouched the essential originality, as well as
the whole value, of Sir William Hamilton’s masterly application
of the counter-wholes to the elucidation and firmer grounding of
the theory of the syllogism. This deepest section of his logical sys¬
tem seems to have been as yet little studied. But it may not be
presumptuous to hint a belief, that his formal doctrine of the Doctrine of
thorough-going quantification of the predicate will be found to have Proposi-
its chief value, and perhaps its only practical applicability, in its tions.
efficiency as an instrument for evolving the syllogistic bearings of
the comprehension and extension of concepts. Some of these bear¬
ings it will be attempted by and by to explain.
Yet, further, it has to be remarked that, contemporaneously with
Hamilton, two other great logicians have seized the same thought;
both of them, however, grasping it from the negative side, and not
working it out to any positive formal results. Professor Trendel¬
enburg lays it down in the broadest terms, that the law of the
syllogism can be understood only through the mutual relation of
extension and comprehension. (Logische Untersuchungen, 1840,
ii., pp. 232-250, § 16.) Mr Mill has a much less firm hold of the
idea, mainly by reason of his avoidance of the formal point of view ;
but in the counter-relation of the two wholes lies the clue to the
distinction which he has used so skilfully in working out his own
system—that between the denotation and the connotation of terms.
PART II.—THE DOCTRINE OF PROPOSITIONS.
CHAPTER I.
The Forms of Categorical Predication.
The oha- 34. The only kind of proposition which is the direct ex-
racter of pression of a simple judgment, is that which is technically
Credica ^ ca^et^ ^'e Categorical. F rom those other kinds which
tion 1Ca are usually compared with it by logicians, it may be dis¬
tinguished with sufficient exactness, when it is described
as being an assertion or predication, affirmative or negative,
not limited either by a condition or by an alternative.1
All categorical propositions are formally resolvable,
though not all with equal ease, into three parts or factors:—
The Subject, which is a name for that which is spoken of;
the Predicate, which is a name for that which is said of
that which is spoken of; the Copula, a verb, in which the
assertion is expressed, and which likewise qualifies the as¬
sertion as an affirmation or a denial. The subject and pre¬
dicate are called the Terms of the proposition.
In many common forms of speech, the copula is mixed
up with the predicate : but they may always be separated;
and for exact logical analysis they must be so. The pure
copula is always “is” or “is not,” “are” or “are not;”
words which, when discharging this function, do not import
existence, nor even any mode of time, but merely the fact
that the things thought as denoted severally by the subject
and by the predicate, are thought in relation to each other.2
I’roposi- 35. The Quality of a proposition is the character of the
tions quail- predication it contains. As being the expression of a
solvable ^"judgment, predication can have only the one or the other
into asser- two characters, and cannot have neither. It must be
tions of 
identity or .
difference 1 “ X is Y” is a categorical proposition. Examples of the other
kinds are these :—Of the Hypothetical, “ If X is Y, it is Z of the
Disjunctive, “X is either Y or Z.”
* The assertion, “ The world—is,” passes readily into the explicit
form, “ The world—is—something that exists.” Many other resolu¬
tions are equally easy. “ John thinks,” becomes “ John—is—a per¬
son thinking.” The first in each of these pairs of propositions would
have been called, by the old logicians, a propositio secundi adjecti (or
adjacentis), as having but one factor expressly adjected to the
subject; the latter would be a propositio tertii adjecti (or adja¬
centis), as having a second factor also expressed.
The infinitive mood is a substantive, and is most easily useable
in its gerundive form; and cases where it is one of the terms are
those that oftenest present the predicate before the subject. “ It
is pleasant to know = All knowing is a thing pleasant.” The pro¬
positions which the Germans have called existential, expressible
by impersonal verbs (as “ it thunders, it rains”), may always be
regarded as expressions of an incomplete cognition, of a thought
which we either cannot analyse or have not taken the trouble to
attempt analysing.
either Affirmative or Negative. The copula, which ex¬
presses the act of predication, must either want, or have,
the negative sign “ not.”
The question of quality emerges in regard to every pro¬
position. It is the primary question, and also the most im¬
portant of all.
The doctrine to be kept steadily in view is that which
has already been laid down, and in part illustrated. In
the data of every proposition, there is an hypothetical pre¬
supposition of duality: two ideas are given, whose de-
signative terms are available as subject and predicate.
The proposition intimates whether, in respect of the re¬
lation under which the objects are thought, the duality
can or cannot be reduced to unity. The terms having
been compared, the proposition expresses the determina¬
tion of the thinker on this question ; whether the object
or objects denoted by the subject be identical or non-iden¬
tical with the object or objects denoted by the predicate.
An affirmative proposition predicates the identity of sub¬
ject and predicate ; it does so in all circumstances. The
objects are asserted to be the same objects; although, when
regarded from one point of view, they bear the name given
them in the subject, and, from another point of view, the
name (if it be a different name) given them in the predi¬
cate. So a negative proposition predicates in all circum¬
stances non-identity or difference ; it asserts that, what¬
ever may be the names, or whatever the points of view
from which the objects are regarded, the one object, or
group of objects, is a different object or group from the
other.
The question of identity or difference is the main ques¬
tion as to all objects compared in judgment; as to certain
kinds of objects it is the only question.
36. When both subject and predicate are singular terms,
the quality of the proposition is the only point to be consi¬
dered. Especially, there can be no question as to the quan¬
tity of the terms, each of which must signify an individual
object, and cannot admit any limitation to its meaning. The
proposition is a pure predication of identity or non-identity.
Of the individual designated by the subject there may be
affirmed, as predicate, any term which is merely another
name for the same individual. Of that individual there
must be denied, as predicate, any and every term which is a
name for any other individual.
Cases of either sort arise too infrequently, and, when they
do arise, are too easily disposed of, to require special rules.
Predication
through
singular
terms.
37. The question of QwaftftY?/arises when common termsThe quan-
enter into propositions, as subject, or as predicate, or as tity of
both. Common terms being capable of signifying either co"^n00
584 LOG I C.
Doctrine of all the objects of a class or less-than-all of them, the cjiies-
proposi- tion 0f quantity relates to the terms. Are they distributed
tions. or undistributed?
The answer to this question as to the terms, serves only
to guard and limit the affirmation or negation made by the
copula. Rigidly and rightly considered, the determination
of the quantity of a term, whether through its known mean¬
ing, or through interpretation of its sign, is nothing more
than a method of protection against that ambiguity, which
besets common terms on account of their capability of de¬
noting either all or less-than-all. That which is properly a
term in a proposition (whether subject or predicate), is not
the common term in its capability of quantitative signifi¬
cation, but the common term as definitely interpreted to
mean all or some.
This interpretation being gained, we proceed, when both
terms are common, to decide whether the objects denoted
by our subject (all, or some, of the objects constituting a
certain class), are, or are not, the very same objects denoted
by our predicate (all, or some, of the objects constituting a
certain other class).
In a word, the determination of the quantity of the terms
in a proposition, is nothing else or more than a step of pre¬
paration, in cases requiring it, for the determination between
identity and non-identity, and for the consequent choice
between affirmation and negation.1
The four 38. In regard to quantity, the received logical doctrine
received an(] nomenclature may be set down as follows:—
forms of Propositions whose subjects are common terms, are said
through10n t0 have quantity, that is, variable quantity. A proposition
common 18 sa‘d t0 be Universal in respect of quantity, when its sub¬
terms. ject is distributed ; it is called Particular when its subject is
undistributed. The quantitative sign of the subject, “all,”
“ any,” or “ some,” if not given, is to be supplied. A pro¬
position whose subject is a singular term cannot receive a
sign, but must be treated as a universal.
It is admitted, by all logicians, that the predicate, when
it is a common term, must, like the subject, have its quan¬
tity positively determined: it must, in every proposition,
be either distributed or undistributed. Ordinary language,
however, does not indicate the quantity of the predicate by
any prefixed signs; and, in the received logical systems,
no sign is supplied. It is held that the necessity for
one is superseded by a fixed rule of interpretation. The
quantity of the predicate, we are told, is fixed by the quality
of the proposition, without any regard to its quantity : the
predicate is distributed in all negative propositions, whether
universal or particular; it is undistributed in all affirmatives.
The reasons assigned for the rule are these.—A negative
proposition cannot but distribute the predicate; for when,
of anything whatever denoted by the subject, we deny the
class denoted by the predicate, we deny that the subject is
to be found anywhere in the predicate-class, or makes any
1 “ All metals are minerals = All metals—are—some minerals.”
The terms might be held to be the two class-names “ metals,” “ mi¬
nerals;” and in this view the proposition might be described as be¬
ing an assertion of partial identity between the two classes. “ The
whole class metals—is identical with—some part or other of the
class minerals.” But such an analysis is apt to cause indistinct¬
ness of thought, and that because it does not go far enough. Our
terms are properly not the class-names taken without fixing of
quantity, but these names as quantitatively determined by the
signs; in other words, our terms here are names positively used
to designate all the objects of the first class—some or other of the
objects of the second. Thus regarded, the proposition is seen to
be an assertion of total identity, betw een the objects denoted by the
first name and the objects denoted by the second. “ The objects
which, in respect of certain properties possessed by them, and not
possessed by any other objects, 1 call ‘ all metals’ —are (or are the
same objects with)—the objects which, in respect of certain pro¬
perties possessed by them, but possessed also by other objects, I call
‘ some minerals.’ ”
part of it; or we affirm, in effect, that the subject is excluded Doctrine of
from the whole of the predicate. On the other hand, it is proposi-
allowed, that an affirmative proposition either may or may tlons-
not distribute the predicate. When, of anything whatever
denoted by the subject, we affirm the class denoted by the
predicate, we may mean, either that the subject constitutes
the whole class, or only that the subject is contained in the
class, or is a part of it. In the first case the predicate is
distributed; in the second it is not so. But, it is alleged,
the latter case of the two is the only one with which logic
can deal. The narrowest meaning which an affirmative
can bear, is the assertion that the subject is a part of the pre¬
dicate ; so much, therefore, may always be safely assumed.
If the signification of the proposition really does embrace
the wider alternative, the fact is discoverable only by means
lying beyond the sphere of logic, a purely formal science,
which possesses no machinery for interpreting the terms, or
for otherwise working on the matter of propositions.1
Accordingly, the common scheme of propositions, and
the scheme of inferences founded on it, are confined to
forms of predication from which affirmatives that distribute
the predicate, and negatives that do not, are alike excluded.
This exclusion being made, the possible Forms of Predi¬
cation, through common terms, are necessarily no more than
four. For the sake of brevity in naming, those four kinds of
propositions are noted by the first four vowels. The letter
A denotes a universal affirmative (subject distributed, predi¬
cate undistributed) ; I denotes a particular affirmative (sub¬
ject undistributed, predicate undistributed); E denotes a
universal negative (subject distributed, predicate distri¬
buted) ; O denotes a particular negative (subject undistri¬
buted, predicate distributed).
The designation of propositions as universal or particular,
in respect of the quantity of the subject, cannot be ques¬
tioned. The four forms marked by the vowels are likewise
unchallengeable.
But it has lately been questioned whether logic is either
bound, or so much as entitled, to exclude all forms of predi¬
cation besides the A, I, E, O. Both of the exclusions have
been condemned; not only the exclusion of affirmatives which
distribute the predicate, but even the exclusion of negatives
whose predicate is undistributed. These points, therefore,
must be more closely examined.
It has likewise been proposed, that, in the preparation of
propositions for logical treatment, the signs of quantity be
prefixed to predicate as well as to subject. This express
signature of the quantity of the predicate is fruitful in results,
to an extent which would scarcely be anticipated from an
expedient so simple and so purely formal. It will be adopted
in our further progress, with all examples where exact
analysis is aimed at.2
1 It is not to be wondered at, that the peremptory refusal to look
at the meaning of the terms should be adhered to by the German
logicians; among so many of whom, since the time of Kant, the purely
formal or a priori character of logical science has been a cardinal
article of faith. Yet, in not a few of the German systems of logic, the
doctrine of definitions and divisions (which are admitted to be uni¬
versal affirmatives distributing the predicate), is very thoroughly ex¬
pounded, the case being treated as exceptional. It might surprise us
more that the refusal should be insisted on so generally among Eng¬
lish logicians; since by them the exclusion of matter from logical
scrutiny has, though usually asserted as a rule, been scarcely ever
traced up to principles, while it has been practically departed from
in many other points of doctrine.
2 The express signature of predicates is a proposal of Sir William
Hamilton’s. Lambert, indeed (JYeues Organon, 1764, p. 115), had
invented a scheme of logical notation, in which effect was given to
the quantity of every term ; and Ploucquet (1761) had suggested
the prefixing of the quantitative sign to the predicate inall assertions
expressed for logical use. (See Fries, System der Logik, ed. 1837,
p. 103.) But the signature of the predicate was still, by all later
logicians, unadopted. Its effects are surprising. Doctrines already
admitted and proved are, by means of it, made more easily expli-
LOGIC.
Uoctrine of
proposi¬
tions.
The eight
possible
forms of
predication
through
common
terms.
39. Every proposition has two alternatives of quality.
Every common term has two alternatives of quantity; and
the terms of every proposition are two; consequently, if
quality is to have no effect, every proposition has four alter¬
natives of quantity. If, then, we look merely to the com¬
binations of number, the possible forms of predication must
be eight.
The following formulae exemplify these eight kinds of
propositions, note the quantities, and explicate the asserted
identities and differences:—
585
40. More than one characteristic feature of predication Doctrine of
may be thrown into light, if we consider every proposition prpposi-
as being, actually or possibly, the answer to a question. A Oons.
problem is propounded in thought: a judgment isthesolu-
The six
T A. All X’s are some Y’s — All the X’s—are identical with—
some or other of the Y’s.
2. I. Some X’s are some Y’s = Some or other of the X’s—are iden¬
tical with—some or other of the Y’s.
3. A2. All X’s are all Y’s = All the X’s—are identical with—all
the Y’s.
4. I2. Some X’s are all Y’s = Some or other of the X’s—are iden¬
tical with—all the Y’s.
5. E. Any X’s are not any Y’s = All the X’s—are non-identical
with—all the Y’s.
6. 0. Some X’s are not any Y’s = Some or other of the X’s—are
non-identical with—all the Y’s.
7. JE. Any X’s are not some Y’s = All the X’s—are non-identical
with—some or other of the Y's.
8. JO. Some X’s are not some Y’s = Some or other of the X’s—are
non-identical with—some or other of the Y’s.1
To the received scheme of predication, there would thus
be added four forms, two affirmatives and two negatives.
All of these express possible forms of thought; and, ac¬
cordingly, admission has been demanded for all of them, as
necessary for the completion of that theory of thought
which logic undertakes to set forth. Admission, again, has
been demanded for the affirmatives, but refused to the ne¬
gatives. The grounds of both claims require examination.2
cable; other doctrines become traceable to principles which had
hitherto been overlooked; and there are brought to the surface
new doctrines, which had been unsuspected because the quantity of
the predicate, through its want of express marks, had not been at¬
tended to unless when it bore on questions already raised.
1 Examples in Significant Terms.
1. A. All men are imperfect = All men—are—some beings im¬
perfect.
2. I. Some men are happy = Some men—are—some beings hajtpy.
3. A2. All men are responsible animals= All men—are—all ani¬
mals responsible.
4. I2. Some men are logicians — Some men—are—all logicians.
5. E. No men are stones = Any men—are not—any stones.
6. 0. Some men are not wise =: Some men—are not—any persons
wise.
7. JE. No men are some Z’s = Any men—are not—some (or other)
of the Z’s.
8. JO. Some men are not some Z’s = Some men (or other)—are not
—some (or other) of the Z’s.
2 The A2 at least might have been expected to be acknowledged
by some of the German logicians, who perceived so exactly the cha¬
racter of definitions and divisions, and were compelled to admit that
these are instances of that form. But they content themselves with
repeating the old declaration, that the distribution of the predicate
in affirmatives, when it does occur, is “ accidental”—“ not cogniz¬
able from the position at which logic takes its stand.” If the view
be correct which will be stated in the text, it is more to be re¬
gretted that they had not given reception to I2, especially since
one of them has been quite aware that it is the full and only ade¬
quate converse of A. The observation is Beneke’s, in a passage of
his Lehrbuch, p. 182, which has already been referred to (note to sec-
tion 33.) The only formal recognition of the distributed predicate in
affirmatives, which we have observed among the German logicians,
is that of Hoff bauer, who not only recognizes reciprocal proposi¬
tions (A ), but lays down rules for syllogisms having both pre-
mises of that character. (Anfangsgriinde der Logik, ed. 1810, pp.
v7, 100, 185.)
n io-r Mr oo°rg,<; Bent.ham’s 0utline of a New System of Logic
(itW, p. 133), all the eight possible forms are correctly set forth.
But the writer instantly loses hold of the clue he had grasped • in¬
deed, he goes so far astray as to maintain, that in negatives it is a
matter of indifference whether the predicate be distributed or not.
VOL. XIII.
He ends by returning to the A, E, I, 0. In Mr Solly’s Syllabus o/available
Logic (1839, p. 47), the eight forms are stated as arithmetically forms of
possible; and their character is shown by the prefixing of signs to PredicatioD
the predicate. But the four added forms are at once thrown aside, through
as never introduced in practice. The claim for all the eight is common
made by Sir William Hamilton; and all of them are worked by him terms,
into his scheme of syllogisms. The admission of both quantities
of predicate, with both qualities of copula, makes up his “ Tho¬
rough-going quantification of the predicate.” (See his Discussions,
Appendix ii.; and Baynes’ New Analytic.) Mr Thomson (I,aws of
Thought, 1842, 1849, 1854) rejects the additional negatives, but
incorporates the additional affirmatives into his syllogistic tables.
They are his U and Y. The symbols here proposed for those two
affirmatives (A2 and I2) seem to have some advantages. While
easily pronounceable, they intimate a relation of the" two forms
to. the received A and I; and the character of this relation is
faintly hinted at, when the added forms are symbolized as higher
powers of the old ones. The propriety of the two negative symbols,
JE and JO, is a matter of very little consequence : they are to be"
thrown aside; and it is enough that we have brief modes of naming
them in discussing the reasons for and against their reception.
In reference to Sir W. Hamilton’s system, it may be well to re¬
mark, that his invaluable suggestion of always marking expressly the
quantity of the predicate is one thing, that his proposed extension
of the propositional forms by “ thorough-going quantification” is
another. In Mr Baynes’ Appendix are interesting quotations from
old logicians, who have contemplated the distribution of the predi¬
cate in affirmatives, and signified it by the universal sign. Instances,
too, are cited, in which the bearing of this distribution on the syl¬
logism is hinted at. J
Perhaps the following passages are more decided in the applica¬
tion of the distributed predicate, than any of Mr Baynes’ quota¬
tions. They carry us from the fourteenth century to the sixteenth ;
from an Englishman, the “ prince of nominalists,” one of the
greatest of the earlier schoolmen, to a Scotsman, who has been called
the last of the schoolmen, and was far from being the least subtle
of the band.
In Occam’s Summa Totius Logicce, one chapter (lib. iii., cap. 13)
is described in its title as showing “ in what cases we may syllo¬
gize from two affirmative premises in the second figure.” Two
cases are described. The first is that in which the middle term
is a singular. It is the second case that interests us here. “ Secun-
dus casus est, quando medius terminus sumitur cum signo univer-
sali. Tunc semper contingit inferre conelusionem affirmativam, in
qua major extremitas praedicatur de minori. Bene enim sequitur :
‘ Omnis homo est omne risibile : Socrates est omne risibile; ergo So¬
crates est homo.’ ” “ Iste autem discursus probatur per hoc : quod
semper tails propositio major convertitur in unam universalem
affirmativam; qua conversione facta, patet quod discursus est in
prima figura, regulatus per dici de omni.” The A2 is here given
twice. Only it is noticeable that the proposition is not considered, as
it might have been, to be convertible into another A2 (which would
have yielded an unrecognized mood in the first figure) ; and hence it
is that the predicate of the conclusion is undistributed. In the next
paragraph the I2 is, though not exemplified, unequivocally de¬
scribed ; and it is correctly alleged to justify syllogisms with two
particular premises. “ Et est sciendum, quod in duobus prmdictis
casibus non solum contingit arguere ex universalibus affirmativis ;
sed etiam contingit arguere ex omnibus affirmativis partieularibus ;
et eodem modo probantur tales syllogism! ex particularibus sicut
ex universalibus. . . . Et tenet talis discursus, non gratia
materise, sed gratia formas : quia, in omni materia, observato quod
medius terminus sit terminus discretus, vel sumptus cum signo uni-
versali in majori, discursus est bonus.”
The other authority is Joannes Major (John Mair), now remem¬
bered only as an historian; who, besides teaching in Paris, was a re¬
gent, and afterwards provost, of the College of St Salvator in the
Scottish University of Saint Andrews. His Introductorium in Aris-
totelicam Dialecticen, printed at Paris in 1527, while it shows close
study of Occam’s doctrines, is prominently marked by the writer’s
characteristic independence of thought. He makes very frequent
use of the distributed predicate in affirmatives. The following
points are especially noticeable.
1. Instead of rejecting the form, he merely says it is uncommon :
“ affirmativae praedicatum raro distribuitur.” (fol. cxlviii., col. d.)
2. In expounding the reciprocity of deduction and induction
(“ descensus” and “ascensus ”), he insists on the universality of the
predicate, in a collective acceptation of the sign, as a fixed datum •
4 E
LOGIC.
586
Doctrine of tion. We ask, what is B ? We answer, B is X. That
proposi- which is denoted by the subject is always the datum ; some-
tions. thing expressible as a predicate is the qucesitum. The sub-
ject may be called the antecedent, the predicate the conse¬
quent ; and the hypothetical or conditional form of stating a
proposition places the terms expressly in that relation :—“ If
B is B, it is X.”
We have seen, already, that concepts are the only conse¬
quents yielding any positive knowledge worth having; that
common terms are the only predicates yielding affirmative
propositions worth expressing. Among common terms,
then, our predicates are sought. We desire to affirm of our
subject the name of a class. A known class will yield a
predicate, if we can think that our subject makes even a
part of it; and, if this is all we can think, our predicate will
be undistributed. If our subject is a singular term, our
affirmation cannot embrace the predicate more widely.
The individual denoted by it can be only one or another
of the objects which constitute the class indicated in our
predicate.
But, if our subject is a common term, the objects it de¬
notes may be either some, or all, of the things constituting
a class denoted by another common term; or, again, they may
not be any of the things constituting that class. Thus
there arise three cases, all of them possible, actual, and
more or less frequent.
First, We may be entitled to think of the objects de¬
noted by the subject as being only some, not more, or to
think of them as being certainly some, though we do not
know whether they are or are not all, of the things denotable
by the predicate. Either state of our knowledge will yield
an affirmative predication, having the character of the affir¬
matives in the received list. It will be an affirmative with an
undistributed predicate, an A or an I, as the subject is distri¬
buted or undistributed. Such propositions may conveniently
be called Propositions of Inclusion : they assert only that the
subject is included in the class which yields the predicate.
Propositions of inclusion make up a very large majority
of the affirmatives that actually occur; and perhaps they
are, without exception, the only affirmatives which we ever
use exhaustively as data, unless when, as in scientific dis¬
cussions, we reason from definitions.
Secondly, however, there do occur also affirmatives which
may be called Propositions of Constitution. In these, the
things denoted by the subject are thought of as being all
the things denotable by the predicate : they are asserted to
constitute the class of which the predicate is a name. The
propositions are affirmatives with distributed predicates.
“ constantia est haec propositio : isti pomi sunt omnes pomi. . . .
istas arbores sunt omnes arbores.” (/oZ. cxiii., a, b.) 3. He indorses
Occam’s verdict on the second figure, lays down a principle for
protection against resulting fallacies, and assigns a practical reason
for the limitations assumed in the received syllogistic rules. “ Di¬
ces forte, hsec consequentia est bona: ‘ omnis homo omne animal
est; et omnis asinus est animal: ergo omnis asinus est homo.’ . . .
Respondetur in uno verbo. Ubi a mendis, ratione quorum regulae
sunt traditse, praecavetur, majore particular! aut utravis prsemis-
sarum affirmativa, discursus in hac figura, sicut in aliis, est forma-
lis. . . . Primi regularum traditores de propositionibus com-
muniter consuetis loquuti sunt; hoc est, de affirmativa cum prse-
dicato distribubili non distributo, et de negativa cum praadicato
distribufo.” (fol. clvi., c.) 4. Afterwards he deals similarly with
the third figure, (fol. clviii, b.)
It may he noted, also, that both of those dialecticians treat, and
Occam very diffusely, a current scholastic distinction which appears
in one of Mr Baynes’ quotations. The “ suppositio ” of terms in
propositions (that is, their objective reference), was said to be of
two kinds, “ determinate ” and “ confusa the latter, again, being
either “ confusa tantum ” or ‘‘ confusa et distributa.” The com¬
plexity and vacillation of the old rules of “ suppositio ” seem to
have sprung from two sources: an indistinct apprehension of the
effect which non-distribution of the predicate has on affirmation;
and a frequent attempt to identify singular terms with common
terms undistributed.
Universal propositions of this type, the A 2 of our formulae, Doctrine of
are exemplified by definitions, and also by logical divisions, proposi-
Particular propositions of the kind, the 12 of our formulae— tions.
particular propositions which are interpreted imperfectly
unless the predicate is held to be distributed—occur more
frequently than we are apt to suppose. We shall encounter
them, by and by, as being really the only complete and
direct converses of the A of the received scheme.
Propositions really treatable as A2 and 12, have been
currently handled by logicians, and are very frequent in
ordinary thought. They are technically spoken of as ex¬
clusive propositions: “Men are the only responsible ani¬
mals.” They are usually treated as compound. The ex¬
ample is resolved into these two assertions :—1. “ Men are
responsible animals;” that is, they are some at least of the
class ; the question, whether they are the whole class, being
supposed to be in the first instance undecided : 2. “ Crea¬
tures which are not responsible animals are not men.”
But, if we allow distribution of the predicate, the proposi¬
tion is interpretable as expressing one simple judgment:
“All men—are—all responsible animals.”1
When, therefore, the purpose is to predicate a relation
between the subject and a class, there are data for affirma¬
tion, first, when we are able to assert inclusion ; secondly,
when we are able to assert constitution.
Thirdly, The same purpose being entertained, we have
data for negation, when we are able to assert exclusion. A
Proposition of Exclusion is one which asserts that the things
denoted by the subject are excluded from the class denoted
by the predicate; that, in other words, they do not make
any part of that class, or that they are non-identical with all
the things which that class contains. Evidently such pro¬
positions have the predicate distributed. They are the E
and O of the received scheme.
They are not only of continual occurrence, but widely
useful. In every kind of inquiry, we are able to deny a
great deal more than we are able to affirm; and a denial
which entitles us to set aside a whole class of things as be¬
ing not the things we are interested in, is often one of the
most valuable of all steps towards our learning what the
things we investigate positively are.
41. When we desire to explicate our implied knowledge The two
by referring our objects to a class, the three judgments ex-
pressible by the three kinds of propositions which have now pre(jical
been explained, appear to be all the judgments that can tion
either constitute positive knowledge, or be steps leading through
towards it. We must assert either inclusion, by A or I; common
or constitution, by A2 or I2; or total exclusion, by E or O.terras-
Propositions having the character of our seventh and
eighth formulae, ^E and £0, do not seem to occur at all.
Can there be detected, in actual thought, any examples of
1 For the only uses to which it is here intended to apply either
A2 or I2, it is scarcely necessary to raise a question, which, however,
would require consideration if these forms were to be worked up into
additional syllogistic moods. The “ all” of the received A is distri¬
butive. Can it be so in these added forms ? or, is it necessarily col¬
lective ? Sir William Hamilton declares incidentally that the
totality may be thought either way. “We can say, as we think,
affirmatively, { All triangles are all trilaterals :’ This collectively,
‘ the whole (or class) triangle is the whole (or class) trilateral:’
this distributively, ‘ every (or each several) triangle is every (or
each several) trilateral.’ ” (Discussions, Appendix ii., p. 627.) It is
difficult to see one’s way clearly through the distributive interpre¬
tation. Perhaps it may be justified thus :—Let the given proposi¬
tion be, “ All X’s are all Y’s.” Collectively taken, the assertion is,
that the aggregate of the X’s is the same with the aggregate of the
Y’s; that is, the whole class X is the same with the whole class Y.
Distributively taken, it may be regarded through the names:—
each of the things which, when viewed from a certain point, we call
X, would, when viewed from another point, be each of the things
we call Y.
LOGIC.
587
tions.
Doctrine of negatives, whose predicate, when its true function is brought
proposi- to light, proves to be undistributed ? One should not ex-
pect to find such. They could not serve any conceivable
^ use, either as data for inference, or as conclusions to be in¬
ferred. We know, or are on the way towards knowing,
when we are able to assert, either that our subject is in a
class, or that it constitutes a class, or that it is out of a, class.
But the propositions in question do not assert any of these
three things. They assert, not knowledge, but doubt: and
the doubt which they do assert does not cover any the tiniest
germ of knowledge, in regard to the objects from which
we started,—those which are denoted by the subject, and
which we wish to determine, positively or negatively,
through the predicate.
In the formation of an opinion in regard to them, the
indefinite character of logical particularity must be kept
sternly in view. If the logical “ some” were definite, those
negatives would be virtually the received E and O. They
would assert the exclusion of the subject, not, indeed, from
the whole class denoted by the term which is formally the
predicate, but from a certain fixed part of that class, which
part wmuld really be a sub-class, and ought to yield a name
which would be the true predicate. But the logical “ some”
is, and must be, indefinite ; and it is on this footing that the
propositions have been placed, when they are asserted to be
forms of thought, the analysis of which ought to have a place
in logic.
Whenever the subject of a proposition is indeterminate
in quantity, because particular (as “ some or other of the
X’s”), we have a very narrow field both for predication and
for inference. The defect, however, is often unavoidable.
The subject is our datum ; it is the name of that which
is given us to be judged of. But, be our subject quantita¬
tively determinate or not (“ all” or “ some”), we seek for
it a predicate which shall force us to assert, on pain of
self-contradiction, the identity or non-identity of the ob¬
jects denoted by the subject with objects denoted by the
predicate. A predicate quantitatively undetermined by
being particular, will yield an affirmation, A or I. In
judging that “ The X’s (all or some) are some or other
of the Y’s,” we have found for our subject a positive
place in the field of our knowledge,—a place somewhere
among the objects we call Y’s: we have identified our
subject with some or other of the Y’s; and we are put on
the track towards discovering its place still more exactly,
through subsequent scrutiny of the Y’s. But, if we must
judge negatively, an undistributed predicate does not fix the
place of our subject anywhere, either among or not among
the objects we already know. The assertion that the X’s
(all or some) are not some or other of the Y’s, does not
contradict either the assertion that our given X’s are things
different from all the Y’s, or the assertion that they are
identical with some things or other lying in those parts of
the sphere of the Y’s, which our given predicate must have
left unfilled. In a word, our proposition is nothing better
than an involved expression for a barren alternative. Our
X’s, we learn, either are Y’s, or they are not Y’s; which is
no more than what we know to be true, by the axiom of
determination, in regard to any term whatever in its relation
to any other.
It is well, then, that propositions having this character
should be recognized as expressing possible forms of
thought; it is well that we should know every garb, in
which even doubt and ignorance may clothe themselves.
But there does not appear to be any sufficient reason for
complicating the rules either of inference or of predica¬
tion, by extending them to forms which yield no real ex¬
plication of any given thought. Certainly such a pro¬
position is never given to be inferred from. If such a
proposition is the only one that can be inferred from an¬
other, the fact is a significant testimony to the poverty of Doctrine of
the datum.1 proposi¬
tions.
42. Our scrutiny of the eight possible forms of predica-
tion leads to this result. r^lie special
The four forms of the schools retain their place without U*sitjf^)gr0"
challenge from any quarter; and doctrines bearing on them ^ constitu.
must always constitute the main part in the logical theory tion.
both of predication and of inference. Our chief duty must
be the development of them : of the two affirmatives, A
and I, propositions of inclusion ; of the two negatives, E
and O, propositions of exclusion.
But there do not seem to be good reasons for absolutely
refusing a place in the logical system to propositions of con¬
stitution—the affirmatives which have been marked as A2
and I2. When an affirmation in which the predicate is dis¬
tributed occurs in actual reasoning, we cannot apply to it
rules which suppose its predicate to be undistributed, with¬
out the risk of either contracting unduly the limits of in¬
ference from it, or admitting wrongly the validity of infer¬
ences through which it may have been gained.
The latter of the dangers is probably the more imminent
of the two. The increase in the power of inference through
distribution of the predicate proves, on narrow inspection,
to be by no means so large as we might expect it to be.
Besides this, neither of the added forms can actually occur
in reasoning, as data or premises, unless in the way of ex¬
ception, and in circumstances making it easy for any one
familiar with logical principles to apply the necessary cor¬
rection to the conclusion. At all events, no attempt will
here be made to work these forms, as premises, into the
received scheme of the categorical syllogism.
But they should and will be used, as materials of great value
for fortifying some weak points of the current logical sys¬
tem. Definitions and divisions cannot be thoroughly un¬
derstood, unless through the A2. Disjunctive propositions
rest wholly on it. The I2, again, is imperatively required
for giving consistency and completeness to the theory of
conversion ; and through this process it has bearings on the
syllogism.
If the current objection is urged, that the mere form of
an affirmative does not enable us to know whether the pre¬
dicate actually is distributed or not, the answer is not far
to seek. It is true that we are not, qua logicians, able to
interpret our terms, far less to decide the question of truth
or falsehood for any one proposition considered by itself.
But, even when one proposition only is given, we are en¬
titled, before we undertake dealing with it, to demand, from
without, all the information required for enabling us to
apply logical laws.
The information we do demand is not extensive. It is
wholly embraced in the two postulates laid down in our
preliminary inquiries. We ask to be informed, in regard
to every term given, whether it is to be understood as a
singular or as a common term. If it has the latter meaning,
we ask to be informed whether it is distributed or undistri¬
buted. For negatives, the information comes of itself. For
affirmatives, we are entitled to summon it. If such a pro¬
position is really either an A2 or an I2, we have a right to
require warning of the fact. If, on the other hand, we
evolve either lorm for ourselves, we are equally well en¬
titled to make the peculiarity clear, by prefixing of the
quantitative sign to the predicate.
43. All predication is reducible into categorical forms; The inter-
and, as it has already been alleged, every categorical pre- pretation
dication may be dissected into the three constitutive fac- °f Prop08*'
tors of the proposition,—Subject, Predicate, and Copula. A tl0n"'
1 See Note First at the end of the chapter.
588
LOGIC.
Doctrine of proposition is not naturalized in our realm,—it has neither
proposi- acquired logical privileges, nor become fully amenable to
tions. l0<riCal laws,—until it has submitted itself to both steps of
this transformation, and has completed its legitimation by
obedience to the postulates.
Such a process of preparation, while it lies beyond the
function of pure logic, pre-supposes, likewise, interpretation
of the terms; a duty which is still more distant from ours,
and which can seldom be performed efficiently without a
scrutiny, utterly extra-logical, of the truth or falsehood of
the given assertions.
But, in a system of applied logic, an introductory section
might, fitly and advantageously, be employed in such an
analysis of the ordinary forms of predication, as should ex¬
hibit their relations to the logical forms, and found rules or
aids both for interpretation and for transformation. Even
for the design here entertained, some such assistance may
advisably be offered; although it cannot, and need not,
embrace any modes of expression except a few of those
which are likely to prove most troublesome in elementary
logical study. Assertions made for purposes other than
logical, do seldom wear a shape fitting them for logical use ;
and we may warrantably turn aside for a little, to examine
some of the most common varieties of predication, and to
discover, if we can, in what way, and how far, they may be
made available as elements of inference. A few hints to
this effect are thrown into the second of the notes appended
to the present chapter.
Note I.
Sir IF. Hamilton’s Partial Negatives.
Our seventh and eighth propositions, marked as JE and |0, are
the new and peculiar forms of predication in Sir William Hamil¬
ton’s system : they are his Partial Negatives, Toto-partial and
Parti-partial. Forms so authoritatively recommended cannot he so
much as questioned, without a painful distrust in one’s own judg¬
ment ; nor can they be set aside but with reluctance and hesitation,
even if the ground of dissent should seem to he very firm. It is
right that the argument should be stated more precisely than in
the text; although the points cannot he brought out without as¬
suming doctrines which have to be explained afterwards.
1. It is alleged, in the text, that the propositions JE and JO
leave open the universally prevailing alternative of the excluded
middle: “ Our given X’s either are or are not Y’s.” The quantity of
the subject being here inditferent, let the universal proposition
JE be taken for illustration: “The X’s (any X’s) are not some
or other of the Y’s.” (1.) This is not inconsistent with the asser¬
tion (A) that “ All the X’s are some or other of the Y’s for, though
the X’s are not some or other undetermined Y’s, they may be some
other Y’s also undetermined. I may say that “ Men are not some
or other of the objects we call imperfect beings,” without contradict¬
ing the true assertion, that “ Men are some or other of those beings.”
I may say that men are not to be found in some undetermined part
of the class of imperfect beings, although I know that men are to
be found in some other undetermined part of the class. (2.) The
proposition is not inconsistent with the assertion (E) that “ None
of the X’s are any of the Y’s :” indeed, the assertion that “ The X’s
are not some undetermined Y’s,” is implied in the assertion that
“ The X’s are not any Y’s it is a clumsy subalternate. If I choose
to assert, “ Men are not some or other of the objects we call stones,”
I assert a part of the wider truth, that “ Men are not any of those
objects.” The assertion that men are not in some undetermined
part of the class, is covered by the assertion that men are not in
any part of the class. (3.) Accordingly, our proposition is con¬
sistent both with the proposition of inclusion, “ All the X’s are Y’s,”
and with the pi'oposition of exclusion, “ The X’s (any) are not Y’s.”
It leaves untouched the disjunctive proposition, “ The X’s are either
\ s or not ^ s.” This proposition collects the whole of our posi-
tne knowledge of the X s; and that knowledge is really no know¬
ledge at all. Anything whatever must be either Y or not Y; so
exe ore, of course, must our X’s be. (4.) We may regard the
proposition as a fact of naming. The question then is this : Is our
predicate a name which may be given to the things for which our
subject is another name ? May the things which, looking at them
in respect of certain of their attributes, we call X’s, be also called
Y’s, in respect of certain other attributes? The question cannot Doctrine of
be answered. Our predicate Y may be a name, both for our X’s proposi-
and for other things; or it may not be a name for any of our X’s. tions.
2. It appears, then, that of the three kinds of propositions which v ,
have, in the text, been asserted to be the only ones available for
the explication of implied knowledge, there are two towards which
the propositions in question are indifferent. Such a proposition is
consistent with a proposition of inclusion : it is consistent with a
proposition of exclusion. Now these two are the only kinds of pro¬
positions taken account of in the received logical systems. There¬
fore, if a proposition were given in either of the two new forms,
we could not, with the same subject and predicate discharging the
same functions, evolve, for the application of the common rules,
either an affirmative (A or I), or a negative (E or 0).
3. It must be allowed, however, that our propositions do give
us hold of a predication of one sort. They are inconsistent with
our third kind of propositions, those of constitution. If it is true
that our X’s are not some or other of the Y’s, it cannot be true
that they are all the Y’s: since the X’s are different things from
some Y’s or other, they cannot be identical with all the Y’s. If,
then, we assert, in our new forms, that “ The X’s (any or some) are
not some Y’s,” we cannot, without self-contradiction, assert that
“The X’s (all or some) are all the Y’s.” Therefore, JE and JO
severally contradict our A2 and I3. If we are to gain an expres¬
sion for the contradictory thus implied, and if we are still to adhere
to our given subject as subject, we evolve such an assertion as this:
“ The X’s (all or some) either are not Y’s, or, if they are Y’s, they
are not the only Y’s.” We are still forced into the disjunctive
proposition, if we are to express all that our relation implies. But
the positive member of our alternative has now received a negative
limitation; and in this limitation lies the only force of our propo¬
sition as an element of knowledge.
4. It has such a force.' For there is extricable, from our newly-
gained disjunctive, a proposition in a received form, which, while
it leaves open the A and I like our datum, does also like it con¬
tradict categorically the A2 or I2. It is expressible so as to cover
both of the challenged forms ; “ There are Y’s which are not our
X’s = Some Y’s or other—are not—our X’s.” (I.) If our given
proposition was “ Some X’s are not some Y’s,” our evolved pro¬
position is, “ Some Y’s are not some X’s.” This assertion fulfils
the conditions above alleged; but, being a re-emergence of the
challengeable form, it may be passed over. (2.) If our given pro¬
position was, “ The X’s (any X’s) are not some Y’s, the evolved
proposition is, “ Some Y’s are not any X’s.” This proposition calls
for particular examination. In the first place, it is not inconsistent
with the assertion that “ All X’s are some Y’s” (A). It is true
that “ Some men are not (any) sages;” though it is also true that
“ All sages are (some) men.” Secondly, it is not inconsistent with
the assertion that “ No X’s are any Y’s” (E) : indeed, the assertion
that “ Some stones are not (any) men,” might be worked out of
the assertion that “ No men are (any) stones.” Further, it is
plainly inconsistent with the assertion that “ All the X’s are all
the Y’s” (A2): and thus it is also inconsistent with the I2. If
there are any Y’s besides the X’s, we cannot say, consistently, that
the X’s, or some of them, comprehend all the Y’s. Lastly, the pro¬
position we have thus gained is in one of the received forms : it
is an 0, a particular negative with distributed predicate.
5. Our extricated proposition, then, is a proposition of exclusion,
a workable assertion of non-identity. But mark how it stands re¬
latively to the point from which we started. Our terms have ex¬
changed functions. Our subject has become predicate; our predi¬
cate has become subject. Our given subject, that term which was
proposed for determination, was “ the X’s we sought to determine
that term negatively through the term “ some Y’s.” We failed in
the attempt: we have failed even now. What we have been able
to do is, not to determine X through Y, but to determine Y through
X. We have asserted, in our new proposition, nothing about X as
subject: we have asserted something about Y, shelving X into the
office of predicate. In short, when we endeavoured to use the pro¬
position as given, we discovered that we had grasped it by the
wrong handle : when thus treated it slipt away from us. We have
next seized it from the opposite side; and now our hold is firm.
6. Technically described, our change of position has been this:
we have Converted the given proposition. Our 0 fulfils all the
logical conditions of a valid converse. We were unable to extri¬
cate from our datum, either by affirmation or by negation, any
determination as to our subject through our predicate. But con¬
version has yielded us a negative determination of our predicate
through our subject.
7. If, then, it were conceivable that there should be actually
given a proposition in the seventh form, our only feasible method
of procedure would be founded on the theory, that our datum is a
product of perplexed and mistaken thought. In form denying the
LOGIC.
589
Doctrine of Predicate of the subject, but not really amounting to such a denial,
proposi- it does really imply an assertion in which the subject is denied of
tions. the predicate. Any one who should think in such a form, must,
v t we would assume, have mistaken the substance for the attribute;
and contrariwise. We should have to evolve the positive thought,
and make it distinct, by transposing the terms. If such an expe¬
dient is not proposed in the text, it is because it does not seem to
be the fact, that confusion of thought ever does show itself in this
out-of-the-way guise.
8. The strongest claim of the seventh form to admission into the
syllogistic system, rests on this relation between the proposition and
its converse. But the claim takes the case from the side opposite
to that on which we have hitherto looked at it.
It is a received and unchallengeable logical doctrine, that, all
negatives being held to distribute the predicate, the 0 of the com¬
mon scheme does not admit conversion into any proposition of that
scheme : (its conversion by contraposition is really a conversion, not
of the 0, but of an I inferred from it). In a just conversion, while
the quality of the proposition must remain unchanged, the terms
must be transposed as wholes, quantity included. Given, then,
“ Some X’s—are not—any Y’s” (0); the subject “ Some X’s” can¬
not do duty as predicate. The impossibility of directly converting
0, cripples seriously our dealing with two of the syllogistic moods,
Baroco and Bocardo.
If our seventh form be admitted, it gives instant relief. It yields
a converse of O : “ Any Y’s—are not—some X’s.” All the four
kinds of propositions are now convertible ; and the two formidable
syllogisms are lowered from their bad eminence.
9. The question is, what has been gained by this transformation
of the 0 ? Why, we have displaced an assertion expressing a preg¬
nant, though narrow thought, and have erected in its place the ex¬
pression of an empty shadow of thinking. We had received a nega¬
tive determination of our limited subject; we have transformed it
into a total want of determination of our more extensive predicate.
We have been allowed to start from a judgment which, though the
narrowest that is knowledge at all, is yet, within its small bounds,
a knowledge precise and usable : we have wilfully thrown ourselves
back into a position of pure doubt, a position from which we cannot
rise unless by returning to the very point we had deserted.
10. The particular negative (0) of the received doctrine is the
weakest of all possible judgments. The relation which it asserts
is the narrowest that can yield any knowledge whatever: the
amount of inference it allows is smaller than that given by any
other proposition. One of the most telling proofs of its feebleness
is the fact that, while it does deny something of the subject, it does
not really either affirm or deny anything categorically of the pre¬
dicate. The old logicians have recognised this fact, in pronounc¬
ing the 0 to be inconvertible: and, in the face of the temptation
held out by a dazzling promise of increase in the forms of predi¬
cation, the belief forces itself on us, that the old logicians were in
the right.
11. One other query may be hazarded, bearing on that thorough
extrication of the two wholes of the concept, the application of
which to the theory of the syllogism is so admirable and original a
feature in Sir W. Hamilton’s system. Sufficient data being sup¬
plied, as they are in the premises of a syllogism, we ought to be
able to determine, as to each of the three syllogistic propositions,
in which of the two wholes it predicates. E and 0 are easily
dealt with as propositions of inclusion, when the contradictory of
the predicate is taken as the class. But how as to JE or £0, if
these present themselves ? Are they in any way thinkable, as pre¬
dications either in extension or in comprehension ?
Note II.
Hints for the Interpretation of Propositions.
I. When forms of expression, designed for the excitement of ima¬
gination or emotion, are to be logically used, they must either be
translated into assertions expressive of pure thought; or, if any of
the ideas denoted cannot be so translated, these must be neglected,
as not logically cognizable. Thus, all figurative phrases must be
brought within our grasp by direct assertion of the relation they
imply : “ All flesh is grass,” finds its equivalent in “ Man is as
fading as grass.” Exclamations, again, are assertions intensified
in meaning through indications of emotion. The emotive or inten¬
sive phrase may be made logically available when it is not a sign
of quantity, but not when it is : “ How miserable are some men !”
is fairly interpretable into ‘‘Some men are very miserable ;” £< How
many men are miserable 1” cannot find a direct equivalent. Again,
assertions made passionately, fall often, both in oratory and in com¬
mon speech, into the form of question : the Interrogation is the
favourite figure of Demosthenes. The assertion extricable is the
answer; the quality of which is opposed to that of the question.
II. When we pass to assertions which may be taken to be already Doctrine of
expressions of pure thinking, the first point that arises is the cha- proposi-
racter of the Copula, raising the question of Modality. Pure cate- tions.
goricals are such as have been considered in the text. Modals have,
as a copula, not the verb “ to be” by itself, but this with some
phrase which adds to or restricts its meaning. There seems to be
no reason for questioning the sentence which excludes modals from
logical treatment; but they are often interpretable into a shape
which gives effect to the modal element, through its incorporation
into one of the terms.
1. Treated in the most systematic way, modality is of three
kinds, giving Kant’s Judgments Problematical, Assertory, and
Apodeictic (or Demonstrative). These are founded on the rela¬
tions of possibility, reality, and necessity, and are expressible in
the copula (affirmatively) by “ may be,” “ is,” and “ must be.”
When considered psychologically and metaphysically, these varie¬
ties of thought are very important. In this view, “ may be” is an
expression, not of knowledge, but of a doubt which may or may not
lead to knowledge. The imperative “ must,” on the other hand,
seems to give voice to the only form, in which we can directly think
the necessity attending our immediate cognition of d priori truths.
That necessity cannot pass into the form of universality through
“ all,” until we have both represented the primitive cognition,
and determined, rightly or wrongly, the sphere in which the law
works. When this step has been taken, the “ must” becomes
quantitative; and the copula may be “is.” Now, unless when
the method next to be noticed is accessible, the hint just thrown out
appears to indicate the only manner in which the threefold moda¬
lity can be regarded as bearing on pure categorical predication.
The “ is” being accepted as the copula, the “ must,” when inter¬
pretable at all under this condition, signifies the universality of
the subject; the “ may be” its particularity. “ Body must occupy
space;” that is, “ All bodies occupy space.” “ Body may be
visible;” that is, “Some bodies are visible, some (as gases) are
not.”
2. Modality is frequently constituted by qualifying phrases,
which (as is often true also of the “must,” and “may”) are
easily transferable from copula to predicate. “ John—is probably
—dead,” becomes pure as “John—is—a person probably dead ;”
and this transformation of the proposition would commonly, though
not invariably, fit it for use in a given case.
3. The most stubborn kind of modality is made by the element
of time, which often resists successfully all attempts at displace¬
ment. The logical copula merely connects subject and predicate,
on the hypothesis that both denote objects which do or may exist.
“ X is Y” has logically no more meaning than this : “ If X is, and
if Y is, X is Y.” Even our “ is,” because suggesting the idea of
time, is not theoretically perfect as a symbol of the relation be¬
tween the terms: there is a strong temptation (which must be re¬
sisted for avoidance of counterbalancing evils) to the substitution
for it of mathematical signs like the =. But, when an assertion
is made as to the past (and the same thing might be said of the
future), we cannot, by any exertion, shake out the actuality which
clings to the root of it. Allegations of historical facts cannot be¬
come pure categoricals, without destruction of their essential im¬
port. The truth is, that narrative propositions, qua allegations of
past individual facts, are not adequate data for reasoning that em¬
braces classes of objects and their laws. Nor are they really so
used. The simplest general reflection that can insinuate itself into
the body of a history, will, if founded on an incident or characteris¬
tic appearing in the story, be found to have silently transformed
the individual fact into an instance exemplifying some principle,
holding for all time, and expressible, though not expressed, in pure
categorical form. When, in historical writing, an inference is
drawn from one individual fact to another, it might be logically
tested in a fashion which, though of the roughest, and involving
inquiries extra-logical, may sometimes be useful. It will, in par¬
ticular, save needless trouble, when we encounter an argument in
which the copula does not always appear in the same tense. Let
us ask ourselves, after having examined the matter of the proposi¬
tions, whether the change of time is essential or inessential to the
mutual relations of the terms. If it is inessential, we may shut
our eyes to the discrepancy. The test is stood successfully by
such an argument as this : “ Sages deserve fame (that is, always);
Socrates was a sage : therefore Socrates deserved fame (or even
Socrates deserves it).”
III. In a third class of propositions, the difficulty arises from the
Terms. Each proposition of this class is resolvable into more pro¬
positions than one; though it is a question, to be answered only
from scrutiny of the use the assertion is put to in a given case,
whether it is to be so resolved, or to be treated as one assertion.
Such propositions are describable by old names, as “ propositiones
compositce,” or compound ; or as “ exponibiles,,, in respect of their
590
LOGIC.
Doctrine of susceptibility of analysis ; and some of them have, by certain logi-
proposi- cians, been regarded as a species of modals.
tions All such forms are instances of the abbreviations to which lan-
v y guage has recourse, in its vain endeavour to keep pace with the ra-
pidity of thought. The varieties are as indefinitely numerous as the
kinds of the occasions. The following are a few of those which oc¬
cur most frequently in immediate relation to trains of reasoning :—
1. A Hypothetical proposition is the condensed expression of an
inference, without categorical assertion of the premise : “If X is
Y, Y is Z.” The propositions called Inferential and Causal have
the same import, with this difference, that they categorically assert
the premise, sometimes through a participle: “X is Y, therefore
Y is Z : Y is Z because X is Y : X, being Y, is Z.” If the infer¬
ential relation appears on the face of the compound proposition,
it may be dealt with logically: if it does not, if it merely asserts
the connection of two facts not formally related through a law
of thought, the relation lies beyond the logical sphere.
2. A Disjunctive proposition, if affirmative, is equivalent to the
assertion that one or another of two or more categorical propositions
is true : “ A is either X, or Y, or Z : either X, or Y, or Z, is A.”
If negative, it denies each of the alternatives: “ A is neither X,
nor Y, nor Z : neither X, nor Y, nor Z, is A.”
Both hypotheticals and disjunctives will have to be treated
more closely in a further stage of our progress.
3. The propositions oftenest called Copulatives are categorical
affirmatives, in which either term, or both, are resolvable into
simpler terms, co-ordinates of each other : “ A is X, and Y, and Z :
X. and Y, and Z, are A.” If the terms are common terms, A may
be the name of a class, X, Y, and Z the names of sub-classes con¬
stituting it; and in this case the proposition is treatable as an
equivalent of the affirmative disjunctive. Such a proposition is
an A2. Very frequently this analysis is inapplicable : “ Honesty
and industry are virtues : industry is commendable and self-re¬
warding.” But an assertion having the same form is often, in
reality, one assertion only, the complex term being taken collec¬
tively : “ Honesty and industry give promise of success j” that is,
all combinations of honesty and industry give such promise.
4. Exclusive propositions are marked by such phrases as “ only,”
connected with the predicate, and always (if we mistake not) truly
referable to it: “ All X’s (or some X’s) are the only Y’s.”
It has already been observed that, in making affirmative asser¬
tions of this sort, we really bring into actual use the questioned
forms A2 and I2 ; and it has been pointed out, likewise, that another
proposition may be held as implied. The full expression of the
thought, in this view, gives these two predications : (1.) “ All (or
some) X’s are some Y’s (2.) “ Things which are not Y’s are not
X’s.”
A proposition exclusive by negation would be such as this : “ The
X’s (or some X’s) are not the only Y’s.” Such an assertion is not
expressible by one proposition, in any of the eight forms of predica¬
tion : it is not so even by or JO, unless the “ some” of the pre¬
dicate were to be interpreted definitely. Its whole signification is
reachable only through analysis into its two factors: (1.) “ All
(or some) X’s are some Y’s(2.) “ Some Y’s are not any X’s.”
5. Exceptive propositions are marked, in the subject, by phrases
like “ but, except, unless, besides,” which are equivalents of “ not;”
while “ only,” too, has certainly an exceptive force (of negation)
when joined with the subject.
Accordingly, the affirmation “ All objects besides the X’s are
Y’s,” is directly equivalent to the affirmation, “ All objects which
are not X’s are some Y’s (= All Not-X’s are Y’s).” But it presup¬
poses or implies also the negation : “ The X’s are not any objects
which are Not-Y’s (=The X’s are not Not-Y’s).” So the negation,
“ No objects but the X’s are Y’s,” is exponible into the expressed
negation, “ No objects not X’s are any Y’s,” and the implied affir¬
mation, “ All the X’s are some Y’s.”
When either exclusive propositions or exceptives appear in a
chain of reasoning, it will almost always be found, that the expressed
factor is that for the sake of which the allegation is introduced,
and that no use is made of the implied one. But the implication
requires to be remembered, in case of its emerging so as to cause a
fallacy; and confused thinking may be made still more confused,
through these or any other of the complex kinds of propositions.
6. A Comparative proposition presupposes another, with which it
might stand undissected. The assertion that “ Washington was a
greater man than Napoleon,” assumes that “Napoleon was a great
man.”
7. Restrictive propositions are not always analysable on the
same principle. Sometimes such a proposition is, even in the shape
in which it is given, a true and simple categorical, having a term
which denotes (perhaps not so neatly as might be) a very complex
idea. Often, as in the case of the “ reduplicativse” of the school¬
men, it is virtually an inference. “ Man, so far as he is an ani¬
mal, is mortal,” seems fairly interpretable into “ Man, being an Doctrine i
animal, is mortal:” and this, again, is a causal proposition.
IV. Sometimes there insinuate themselves into reasoning, asser¬
tions of a kind, which it is not difficult to dispose of when their
true character is understood. Their distinctive feature is not con¬
densation, but expansion. They are best illustrated by proposi¬
tions usually called Adversative, which assert, in any of several
ways, a contrariety between one proposition and another.
1. The reason for adoption of the adversative form is frequently
the desire to use that excitative power over imagination and feeling,
which is possessed by the antithesis. In such a case, it will seldom
be possible to determine the logical bearing of the proposition,
until it has been thrown into another shape; and the choice may
lie between any of several shapes, one of which only will exhibit the
intended function of the proposition as a step of inference. Thus,
if a proposition like this were to find its way into argument: “ Life
is short, but art is long,” it would probably have to be interpreted
as meaning, either that life is too short for the mastery of art; or
that the complete study of art is too arduous for one short human
life.
2. The adversative factor of the proposition may be merely
explanatory or limitative. It may have been introduced in order
to make it quite clear, either that certain cases are excluded from
the scope of the principal assertion, or that certain cases are in¬
cluded in it. The context ought to show plainly, which of the two
factors is the assertion founded on in the reasoning, and which is a
mere gloss not entering into the argument at all.
CHAPTER II.
The Laws of Categorical Predication through Common
Terms.
44. Let two terms be given, with the postulated expla- Mixed pre-
nations ; and, the question of inference being postponed, dication,
let it be required only to predicate or form propositions with through
them. Logic can work the problem no further, than by ex-
hibiting all the propositional forms in which it is possible fo^on
to combine the terms, whether affirmatively or negatively.
Which of the propositions, if any, would be true in respect
of the relation between the objects signified by the terms,
or which false in respect of that relation, is a point to be
determined, as to each proposition considered by itself,
through knowledge of the matter, and not otherwise.
When any of the terms are singulars, the propositional
scheme which has been examined must, as framed with ex¬
clusive reference to common terms, be in part inapplicable.
But, the singular term being treated as a common term
distributed, forms will arise which are virtually equivalent
to certain of our six. Some of the six are without any such
parallels.
In the first place, both terms may be singular. In this
very simple and unfruitful case, the only possible predica¬
tions are equivalents of A2 and E.
A greater variety of forms, as well as a wider possibility
of inference, is produced by Mixed Predication, in which
the given terms are, the one a common term, the other a
singular. Now, we do not naturally think a singular term
as predicate, either affirmatively or negatively, wffien the
other term is common. Accordingly, with reference to the
functions of the terms, a distinction may advantageously be
taken, between forms which do spontaneously present them¬
selves, and others which are gained only through logical
analysis, or through a process of reflection virtually amount¬
ing to it.
1. Two of the six forms are in all cases excluded: I, by
the impossibility of particularizing the singular term; A2
by the impossibility of thinking an individual as constitut¬
ing a class.
2. Equivalents of the other four forms are admissible, but
under dissimilar conditions. (1.) The E is possible with
either position of the terms. It occurs naturally and con¬
tinually with the singular as subject: “ John is not an (any)
archbishop.” With that term as predicate it occurs, per-
LOGIC.
591
Doctrine of haps, never, unless as the result of a scrutiny for purposes
proposi- really logical; as, for instance, when we wish to change the
tions. form 0f a given argument. Technically speaking, it arises
through conversion. (2.) The occurrence of A is both pos¬
sible and incessant, the singular being the subject: “ John
is a (some) good man. (3.) The I2, possible only when the
singular is the predicate, is in the same predicament with
the second variety of the E. It is, although the received lo¬
gical rules disguise the fact, the just converse of A. (4.) The
O is possible with the singular as predicate; but this, the
vreakest of all predicative forms, is stricken with more stub¬
born barrenness through the inflexibility of the singular.
Probably the proposition is without example in ordinary and
unanalytic thought; and its uses of any sort must be very rare.
These mixed forms are evidently ruled, with exceptions
neither many nor obscure, by the same laws which govern
predication through terms all of which are common. In¬
ference from them, also, both immediate and mediate, is
similarly placed towards inference proceeding purely through
common terms. It seems sufficient, therefore, to have in¬
dicated, as here, the forms of mixed predication. No at¬
tempt will be made to assign for them any special laws of
inference.1
Predica- 45. Our attention will henceforth be directed exclusively
tkm, to Predication and Inference through Common Terms,
through Predication through common terms is limited, in more
termsTn quarters than one, by a corollary already noticed as follow-
extension ing fr°m th0 primary law of the concept, that is, the Inverse
and in com- Ratio of the terms.
prehension. We cannot, in one and the same judgment, analyse a
concept, or make a predication giving the result of the ana¬
lysis, in both of the wholes which together make up the
synthetic totality of the concept. “We must either think
explicitly in extension, and imply comprehension ; or think
explicitly in comprehension, and imply extension.”
Every term, with which there are given to us materials per¬
mitting predications of it in both wholes, must be thought
as standing in an ordinated series, of which it is not either
extreme. Upwards from it in extension there must stand
terms, one, or more than one, which are names of classes
that contain, step by step, more objects, because the objects
possess, step by step, fewer attributes. Downwards from it
in extension there must stand terms, one, or more than one,
which are names of classes that contain, step by step, fewer
objects, because the objects possess, step by step, more attri¬
butes. The term from which we start takes, naturally, as
antecedent, the function of subject in predication. We
may find predicates for it by looking either upwards or
downwards. Rut we cannot look both ways at once: and
we gain one predicate or set of predicates by searching in
1 Here arises a psychological question. It was noted, in the in¬
troduction, that, in the German nomenclature, the word “ thought”
does not include any cognition that is not discursive. It might
have been added that, by Kant, the name is specificated a step fur¬
ther, so as to signify only “ cognition through concepts.” If the
word is to be thus narrowly understood, it can scarcely cover pre¬
dication or inference in which any of the terms are singulars; yet
these are logically treatable, and must therefore be admitted to
signify thoughts. Some of the Kantist logicians have sought to
remove the difficulty, by maintaining, that the significate of a sin¬
gular term becomes a true concept, whenever it is an element in a
judgment logically analysable. But, surely, such a theory ignores
the distinctive character of the concept. The singular term is the
symbol of an image (Bild), representative of an intuition (Anschau-
ung) real or possible. That the representation is partial, incom¬
plete, is nothing more than what seems to be true of every image.
That the representation, if denoted by words, is symbolic, is a fact
which cannot change its objective reference. Conception is neces¬
sarily symbolic ; but symbolic cognition is not necessarily concep¬
tion. Some of Mr Mansel’s speculations bear closely and instruc¬
tively on this question.
the one direction, another predicate or set of predicates by Doctrine ol
searching in the other. proposi-
The result, then, is this. Every proposition, framed with Dons,
two common terms, must be either a 'predication in exten- v'—
sion or a predication in comprehension. It must be, either,
a predication of the subject in (or out of) the extension oi
another term, which is the predicate; or a predication of
the subject in (or out of) the comprehension of another
term as predicate. It cannot be both. We predicate of a
term, as subject, in the extension of the predicate, by
affirming of it a term denoting a more extensive class.
We predicate of a term, as subject, in the comprehension of
the predicate, by affirming of it a term denoting a less
extensive class. Thus, of the subject-term “ animals,” we
predicate in extension by affirming of it “ organized beings,”
as predicate: we predicate of it in comprehension by
affirming of it “ birds.”
Suppose a proposition is given, but only one. If, as in
those examples, we happen to know the actual relations of
the objects denoted by the terms, we can say, peremptorily,
in which of the two wholes the predication is. But the
question cannot be determined in the absence of such in¬
formation. No assistance is yielded by any forms of ex¬
pression, either usually occurring or at all likely to occur.
Nor would it be easy, if so much as possible, to devise
technical expressions adequate to the purpose. Abstract
phrases, into which predications in comprehension are ana¬
lytically resolvable, are in very many instances not extant:
and it seems impossible so to mould them, that they shall
fully denote the quantity of the terms. We think and
speak, by preference, concretely ; and we thus suggest pre¬
dication in extension. If an assertion has really the oppo¬
site character, the fact must be inferred from data which
are wanting in the case supposed. We say, in extension,
“ All animals are organized beings.” But we say, likewise,
in comprehension, “ Some animals are birds.”1
46. Suppose, then, that there are given two common Predication
terms, under the conditions postulated, but without anywitl1 two
further datum. Logic, if called on only to form one pro-
position, can determine nothing more than this: that the given.
only alternatives of predication are yielded by A, I, E, and and with
O ; or by A2 and P, also, if these are admitted. terms
Much closer determinations, indeed, can be reached, if given inan
any one of those propositions be supposed to be formed, ordinated
and assumed to be either true or false. All the forms are serles•
so related to each other, through direct applicability of the
logical axioms, that the assumed truth or falsehood of any
one of them warrants us, with certain restrictions, in assert¬
ing the falsehood or truth of each of the others. These
mutual relations are, by many logicians, considered, under
the name of Opposition, as affections of the proposition ;
and the laws governing them are treated as laws of predi¬
cation.
Strictly taken, this evolution of one proposition from an¬
other is inference, not mere predication : and other kinds
of inference from one proposition have also to be examined.
All will be taken together at the next and last step in our
study of the proposition.
1 The only available forms of expression (and even these but
partially sufficient), would be gained through explicit signature of
the quantity of predicates.—In dealing with the references which
concrete and abstract thinking severally have to the two wholes of
the concept, Mr Karslake has broken up ground which may here¬
after prove to be very fertile. Again, the combination of con¬
crete terms and abstract in the same proposition, the one as sub¬
ject, the other as predicate, is, if it occurs spontaneously, a symptom
of confused thought. If it is introduced wilfully, as it sometimes
is in the logical treatment of given examples, it generates the same
confusion, of which it is a natural expression. (See Hamilton’s
Discussions, p. 646.) “ Whiteness,” says Occam, “ is not white.”
592
LOGIC.
tions.
Doctrine of But the difference between predication and inference is
proposi- nothing beyond a difference in the form of the data. We
predicate in framing a proposition from given terms : we
infer in framing a proposition from one or more given pro¬
positions. It is a doctrine to be insisted on, that inference
is merely predication taking place in more steps than one ;
and that all the laws of inference are but variations, de¬
signed to meet greater or less complication of materials, of
the logical axioms, which are strictly laws of predication.1
This is one reason for considering exactly, from the po¬
sition now reached, the laws which govern the formation
of propositions from given terms, in a class of cases differ¬
ing considerably from that which has just been laid aside.
Let there be given common terms, either two, or more than
two ; and let there be given with them, not the quantitative
signs, but, which is much more, an explicit ordination of
the terms. The ordination may be indifferently in exten¬
sion or in comprehension, provided only we be informed in
which of the two it is.
Is such an ordination ever actually given ? And is it
recognisable without interpretation of the terms ? Both
questions must be answered in the affirmative. On the
one hand, it is, as we shall immediately see, the datum of
every definition and of every logical division. On the
other hand stands a fact which concerns the logician still
more nearly. In every syllogism, having premises which
allow any inference, there are given three terms: and, if
these terms are common, there is implied, and easily ex¬
tricable, an ordination of these, the discovery of which does
not require any scrutiny of their meaning. The ordina¬
tion being gained, we may, by combining the terms two
and two, form, not only the conclusion of the given syllo¬
gism, but also several or many other propositions. All
these results are accessible through canons, which are
nothing but corollaries, the simplest, and most obvious, from
the principle of the concept, the law of the inverse ratio.
We shall have laid the broadest and firmest foundation
for a just understanding of the character of syllogistic rea¬
soning, if we satisfy ourselves, at present, that all syllogistic
conclusions are attainable through direct comparison of the
terms of the argument, without the explicit statement of
the relations of the terms in the form of propositions. All
Inference, whether Immediate, that is, from one proposi-
sition, or Mediate, that is, from propositions more than one,
is merely an explicit assertion of the implied relations of
terms. The process is called inference, when the relations
of two or more terms are given as already explicated in
propositions; and when the problem proposed is the ana¬
lysing of those propositions, for the purpose of discovering
what other relations are implied in the assumed ones, and
may, therefore, be expressly educed from them. The
process would not be called inference, but predication, if
the relations of the terms were given as unexplicated ;
which is the case when the terms are only described for us
as holding certain places in an ordinated scale. The theory
of reasoning is not reduced to its utmost simplicity until it
has been made evident, that the process, into whichever of the
two forms the data may throw it, is really one and the same.
Therefore it is desirable that we should, at once, put our¬
selves in possession of the laws which regulate predication
through common terms, both in extension and in compre¬
hension. Another reason is this. When we come to study
inference specially, its two kinds, immediate and mediate,
must be taken separately. Some of these laws of predica¬
tion bear on the one kind of inference, some on the other;
consequently, if not now collected, they would appear only Doctrine of
as isolated theorems. Some of them, too, would not come proposi-
clearly into light at all. tions.
I. Predication in Extension.
.4/. Let there be given, as ordinated in extension, from T'16 lawsof
highest to lowest, a series of two or more terms: and let it Pre(iication
be required to predicate with these in extension, both af- exten'
firmatively and negatively ; that is, let it be required to as- mationand
sert of one term, given as subject, that it is in, or out of, the negation,
extension of another term found as predicate. The possi¬
bilities of affirmation and negation, and the quantitative de¬
terminations of the terms, are set forth in the folio win <r rules.
•'see, afterwards, Doctrine of Inference, chapter i.—Compare Man-
j6. ’ , ‘ ° f°fena>]}V- 196, 207. By Twesten (Die Logik, insbesondere
i Anahjak, 1825), all the forms of thought are exhibited in an
cen ing series, whose members increase in complexity according
to the character and number of the data. r j b
(l.) AFFIRMATION.
I. Of any subordinate term, there may be affirmed any
term positively superordinate to it, either immediately or
mediately. This is the one universal canon.
Co-ordinates are here excluded from consideration. All
the objects of the subordinate class are, through the rela¬
tions involved in the character of concepts, included in
each of the classes positively superordinate to it. All the
objects which, in respect of a certain attribute, are called
by the name of the subordinate class, are some or other of
the objects which, in respect of other attributes, receive the
names of the superordinate classes. If the given series,
ordinated from highest to lowest, be X, Y, Z, we may af¬
firm that “ All the Z’s are some Y’sthat “ All the Y’s are
some X’s and that “ All the Z’s are some X’s.”
II. Of a subordinate term, given as distributed, a positive
superordinate may be thus affirmed, through any of several
presuppositions; and these, if successively engrafted on each
other, will throw the process into several different forms.
(1.) Of a subordinate term there may be affirmed, uni¬
versally, any term thought as superordinate to it, imme¬
diately or in the first degree. There is thus formed a simple
predication of identity in A ; as, “ All the Z’s are some
Y’s” ; or, “ All the Y’s are some X’s.”
(2.) In such a proposition there is implied another. The
subordinate being given as distributed, there may be af¬
firmed of it, as undistributed, the same superordinate. If
all the objects of the lower class are included in the higher
class, some at least of them must be so. We have thus
from one predication of identity derived a second, from an
A an I: “ Some of the Z’s are some Y’s;” or, “ Some of the
T s are some X’s.” The process is an immediate inference
by subalternation.
(3.) Of a subordinate term (distributed or undistributed),
there may be affirmed, in A or I, a term thought as super¬
ordinate to it mediately in the second degree ; that is, a
term thought as immediately superordinate to the immediate
superordinate of the given term. The objects (all or some)
of the given class Z are identical with some or other of the
objects of the class immediately superordinate, Y ; and all
the objects of the class Y are identical with some or other
of the objects of its immediate superordinate, Z : there¬
fore, necessarily, there are, in the intermediate class Y,
objects which, in respect of one attribute, receive the sub¬
ordinate name Z; while, in respect of another attribute,
they receive the superordinate name X. If all the iden¬
tities which are thus discoverable are explicitly enunciated,
they yield the three following propositions:—“ All (or some)
Z’s are some Y’s (A or I)”; “All the Y’s are some X’s (A)”;
“All (or some) Z’s are some X’s (A or I).” The third asser¬
tion of identity is elicited from the first and second, con¬
sidered in relation to each other. “ The Z’s (all or some)
are identical with some or other of the Y’s (A or I); and
all the Vs are identical with some or other of the X’s
(A or I) : therefore the Z’s (all or some) are identical with
some or other of the X’s (A or I).” In this explicated
LOGIC. 593
Doctrine of form of all the steps, the process is a mediate inference of
proposi- the least complex kind. The three propositions constitute
tions. an Affirmative Syllogism.1
(4.) Of a subordinate term (distributed or undistributed),
there may be affirmed, in A or I, a term thought as super¬
ordinate to it in any degree beyond the second. When
such a process is evolved at every step, it is found to consist
in repeated predications of identity : it is, in fact, an exten¬
sion, through higher degrees, of the process of syllogistic
inference. The series of propositions is called by logicians
a Sorites; the ultimate conclusion of which must, on such
data as these, be affirmative, but may be either universal or
particular.
(ll.) NEGATION.
As affirmation in extension rests on the law of identity,
applied to objects thought as included in classes, so nega¬
tion in extension rests on the law of difference, applied to
objects thought as excluded from classes. If, of either Z
or Y, I am entitled to deny X, this must be because I think
of X as being something different from Z or Y: X must
be thought as equivalent to Not-Z or Not-Y. It follows,
that negation is not applicable to a series of terms positively
ordinated, unless by substituting, in the predicate, the con¬
tradictory of a term for the term itself; as if, for “ All X’s
are some Y’s,” we should take the equivalent negation,
“ The X’s are not any Not-Y’s.”
But negation finds a place without this expedient, as soon
as there is incorporated into our positive series of terms a
Co-ordinate of any one of them. Terms co-ordinate are
thought as being, not indeed absolutely, but within the
given sphere of thought, contradictories of each other.2 Thus,
if our thinking is limited by its hypothesis to the class of
objects which we call “ organized beings,” that class may
be further thought as containing only two sub-classes, “ ani¬
mals” and “vegetables:” hence all organized beings which
are animals, are thinkable also as being “ not-vegetables
and so the opposite way. Co-ordinate classes must admit
of being so thought, if they are to obey the law which
makes such classes to be exclusive of each other. Any
two classes being thought as co-ordinate, all the objects of
each are thought as having some attribute wanting in all
the objects of the other. Therefore any object which is in
the one class cannot be in the other: the two terms must
be names for two groups of objects totally different.
One special remark is required. If we either know the
meanings of terms, or have received an ordinated series, we
can determine peremptorily, as to any proposition framed
with a higher term and a lower, in which of the two wholes
of the predicate the predication is made. But every pro¬
position denying one co-ordinate of another, may be re¬
garded as being either in extension or in comprehension :
for each of the terms excludes the other in both relations.
The rules cannot conveniently be grouped, like those for
affirmation, under one canon covering all possible cases.
Here, accordingly, we hover very near to debateable ground,
which must afterwards be fairly traversed. If the terms of a con¬
clusion are thought as ordinated in one degree, it is reached
through simple subalternation. But the question may be raised,
even now: whether, supposing it is only through inclusion in Y
that we do actually think the inclusion of Z in X, both of the steps
constituting the premises must necessarily be thought explicitly in
the form of judgments; or whether one of them may not, without
detriment to the process, continue unexplicated and only implied.
This inevitable limitation of the sphere, within which the laws
of difference and excluded middle must work when the terms con¬
stitute an ordinated series, is strongly put by Trendelenburg, and
grounds his attack on division by dichotomy. (See his Logische
Untersuchungen, vol. ii., p. 317, and elsewhere; and his Elementa
Logices Aristotelea, § 58.) It is also very firmly apprehended by
Mr De Morgan. {Formal Logic, p. 38, and passim.)
VOL. XIII.
But, throughout all of them, the co-ordinate takes the place Doctrine of
which, in the affirmative rules, was held by one of the super- proposi-
ordinates. Let X, Y, Z, be given in ordination as before, t*011®-
and let a, b, c, be co-ordinates of those three terms severally,
I. Of any common term, there may be denied univer¬
sally any term thought as co-ordinate to it.
There is thus formed, on principles already explained, a
simple predication of non-identity in E : as, “ Any X’s are
not any a’sand so of the other terms.
II. Of any common term, there may be denied particu¬
larly any term thought as co-ordinate to it.
The process is an immediate inference by subalternation,
yielding an O : as, “ Some X’s are not any a’s.” Its prin¬
ciple is that of the corresponding affirmation.
III. Of a subordinate term (distributed or undistributed),
there may be denied any of the co-ordinates of any of its
superordinates.
There arise, in this way, when all steps are explicated,
processes of mediate inference, corresponding to those for
affirmation, only with substitution of a co-ordinate for the
superordinate of a superordinate. The principle is very
plain. . The subordinate is included in the superordinate;
from the superordinate its co-ordinate is excluded: there¬
fore the co-ordinate is excluded from the subordinate.
(1.) Of the subordinate (distributed or undistributed),
there may be denied, in E or O, any co-ordinate of its
superordinate in the first degree.
A co-ordinate of Y will be signified by b, which is thus
equivalent to “ Not-Y.” Our terms will then yield these
three predications, the first of identity, the other two of
non-identity : “ The Z’s (all or some) are some Y’s (A or I);
any Y’s are not any b’s (E): therefore the Z’s (any or some)
are not any Us” (E or O). The series of identities and
differences is self-evident. The three propositions consti¬
tute a Negative Syllogism. Accordingly this kind of syl¬
logistic inference is, when analyzed in reference to the
wholes of the terms, resolvable into an ordination having
a different character from that which produced affirmative
conclusions. The terms rise by one step only; and the
higher term of the two, instead of rising by inclusion into a
third, diverges by exclusion into the parallel or co-ordinate.1
(2.) Of a subordinate term (distributed or undistributed),
there may be denied, in E or O, any co-ordinate of any
term superordinate to it in any degree beyond the first.
Such a process yields a Sorites, whose conclusion may be
universal or particular, but must be negative.
II. Predication in Comprehension.
48. We must, and do, predicate in comprehension as well rm,,. ln,„a
as in extension. predication
Not only, however, is it true, as has already been re- in compre-
marked, that we naturally express ourselves in those con- tension:
crete forms which are appropriate to extension; but, further, affirmatl0n
we never do, naturally or spontaneously, either think or neor<i‘
1 It does not seem possible to escape from this result of the ana-
lysis, if the negative forms are to be preserved. Nor can it be said
to trench, in the slightest degree, on that more exact analysis of the
Syllogism, which will, by and by, be attempted on the same principle.
But, if it is insisted on that the syllogism shall exhibit the X, Y,
Z, in a regular scale of positive ordination, the negative syllogism
may be made to do so by being transformed into an affirmative
one. This is effected through a process which we shall immediately
become acquainted with,—Contraposition. The excluding of the
subject from the sphere of the predicate, is equivalent to the
including of it in the sphere (indefinitely wider) of the contradic¬
tory of the predicate. The proposition “ The Y’s are not any fc’a,”
thus becomes <£ All the Y’s are some Not-b's.,'> Our negative syl¬
logism might, through this change, become affirmative thus : “ The
Z’s (all or some) are some Y’s (A or I); all the Y’s are some
Not-Vs (A): therefore the Z’s (all or some) are some Not-V*
(A or I).” Our ordinated terms are now these : “ Not-b, Y, Z •”
and the analysis of the affirmative syllogism is exactly applicable.
4 F
594
LOGIC.
Doctrine of speak in systematic pursuance of that couise of thought
proposi- which predication in comprehension would signify. We
tions. think from objects as data; and we scrutinize their attri-
butes only as enabling us to place the objects in classes, to
think of them as amenable to laws. Predication in com¬
prehension does not emerge spontaneously in reasoning, un¬
less in conjunction with predication in the opposite relation,
and with a view to the ultimate establishment of that other.
So far in the background does predication in comprehen¬
sion lie, that it is only modern logicians that have given
systematic attention to its bearings on any doctrines of the
science ; while even of these there is only one who has
brought to light its highest results. The four received
forms of propositions, on which exclusively the received
logical system rests, do not allow correct expression for this
relation of the concept: and inferences bearing on it,
whether mediate or immediate, require one additional form
before they can be enunciated so that their validity shall
be self-evident.
With anticipation, therefore, of uses to be found here¬
after, it is well that the laws of predication in comprehen¬
sion should be briefly set forth. They do not require to
be elaborated so formally as those of extension, with re¬
ference to which, mainly, the laws of inference will be ex¬
pressed. But the right apprehension of them demands
patient attention, on account both of the smallness of the
assistance which the orthodox systems give towards it, and
because of the difficulty we all have in seizing this relation
distinctly.
If we adopt, for exemplification, the same three symbolic
terms as before, the ordination of these must, by reason of
the inverse ratio of the wholes, take place in the opposite
order. Ordinated in comprehension, from highest to lowest,
they will stand thus: Z, Y, X. It will be convenient, also,
to illustrate the sequence by predication with significant
terms.: as these, for the three in their order:—“ Man, ani¬
mal, organized being.”
(l.) AFFIRMATION.
I. Of any term subordinate in comprehension, it is true,
first, that there may be affirmed of it any term superordinate
to it in the same relation; secondly, that the affirmation
must be particular; thirdly, that the affirmation must, if
its interpretation is to be exhaustive, be held to have its
predicate distributed, that is, to be in I2 not in I. The
proof is easy.
Let our affirmation be this: “Some Y’s are Z’s: some
animals are men.” When we thus, in respect of compre¬
hension, ascend in passing from subject to predicate, we do,
by the same step, descend in extension.
(1.) From whichsoever of the two sides we regard the
terms, it is clear that affirmation is possible. The attribute,
whose possession by certain objects is intimated by the
subject, is possessed also by all the objects named in the
predicate. Terms rise in comprehension, and fall in ex¬
tension, not by signifying fewer and fewer attributes, but
by adding, at each step, a new attribute to the first. There
cannot but be objects nameable by both terms.
(2.) The increase in signified attributes carries with it a
decrease in contained objects. The predicate, as implying
one attribute more than the subject, cannot completely fill
the extension of the subject: the subject-class must con¬
tain, besides the objects that are in the predicate-class,
those objects also which are not in it as not possessing its
attribute. The affirmation must be particular.
(3.) Ihe distribution of the predicate becomes most
promptly visible if we first affirm with the same terms in
extension. We thus gain the assertion : “ All Z’s are some
Y s: All men are some animals.” The counter-relation
is incompletely rendered, if it is held to yield anything
less than an exact and complete reversal of this affir- Doctrine of
mation. The affirmation in comprehension must be an proposi-
I2: “ Some Y’s are all Z’s; some animals are all men.” tions.
The nature of the ordinative relation elicits clearly the ■'''
same signification. It is true, of some of the Y’s, not that
they are a part of the class Z, but that they constitute the
whole of it: there are, by the hypothesis, no Z’s besides
those that are Y’s. There are certain objects which are
“ animals:” but these we can call only “ some animals
because there are other animals besides them. Of those
objects it is not true, that they are the same objects with
“ some” of those we call “ men,” and different objects from
“ some other” men: it is true that they are the same ob¬
jects to “ all” of which we give the name “ men.” The
interpretation of the affirmation as I, “ Some animals are
some men,” is doubtless safe, as asserting within the truth.
It might, also, be formally justifiable, if we were to read
the quantitative sign as “ some at most.” But, first, this is
not the logical reading; and, next, if it were adopted, the
affirmation would violate the sound precept of the logicians
—that every proposition shall explicate completely the re¬
lations implied in its data.
II. The affirmation being already particular, subalternate
inference from it is not possible according to the received
scheme. But, if we are to adopt the I2, we must hold it
as admitting a subalternate, through a formal limitation of
the predicate, implying a real limitation of the subject also.
This subalternate is just the I, which usually takes the
place of the I2. “ Some animals are all men :” therefore,
also, “ Some animals (but a narrower ‘ some’ than the first)
are some men.”
III. Mediate inference is possible through affirmation in
comprehension, as widely as through affirmation in exten¬
sion. But it is expressible only through the admission of
I2, if the propositions are to contain on the face of them
evidence of the validity of the process.
It is sufficient, for the present, to set down, in the rela¬
tion of comprehension, the universal mode of the same syl¬
logism which already exemplified the relation of extension,
together with a parallel in significant terms. “ Some X’s
are all Y’s (I2); some Y’s are all Z’s (I2) : therefore, some
X’s are all Z’s (I2).” “ Some organized creatures are all
animals; some animals are all men: therefore some orga¬
nized creatures are all men.” Breaking loose from almost
every formal rule of the syllogism, this argument does not
violate any one of its philosophical laws.
(n.) NEGATION.
I. II. Co-ordinates, when considered without reference
to ether terms in a series, are indifferent to the two wholes
of the concept. It follows, that the same two rules which
stand first and second for predication in extension, may
hold, and for the same reasons, a corresponding place here.
III. Of a term subordinate in comprehension there may
be denied any of the co-ordinates of any of its superor¬
dinates. But the denial must be particular.
In respect of the quality of the proposition, this rule is
proveable by the same considerations which established the
parallel rule in extension. The limitation of quantity requires
no illustration beyond those already given in this section.
In negation, as in affirmation, the mediate inferences thus
formed might be, though they never have been, carried up¬
wards from the simple syllogism into the sorites.
III. TAe Transference of Predication from Whole to Whole. The laws
rv i? i. • regulating
49. For the perfecting of our insight into the character the trans-
of predication in extension and comprehension, it is neces- ference of
sary to consider cursorily a relation which must afterwards predication
be scrutinized more minutely, as yielding one of the kinds ^rom. 'V0 0
of immediate inference. ,owl“,le'
LOGIC.
Doctrine of It is self-evident, that we may not only predicate in either
proposi- whole, but also transfer a given predication from the one to
tions. tjie ot]len it Seems to be almost equally plain, that the
process which is called Conversion is nothing else than
such a transference. Its theory is not made complete until
it is contemplated in that aspect. The rules of the pro¬
cess will immediately be assigned; but the foundation for
them ought to be here laid, in a few theorems, which appear
to require little, if anything, either of proof or of illustration.
(1.) Any two common terms may be ordinated in either
whole; and ordination in either implies and yields ordina¬
tion in the other.
(2.) Consequently, any two ordinated terms may yield
either a predication in extension, or a predication in com¬
prehension.
(3.) By reason of the inverse ratio of the two wholes, the
terms must, in the two propositions, discharge opposite
functions: that which is subject in the one must be pre¬
dicate in the other. If X is in the extension of Y, Y must
be in the comprehension of X.
(4.) Consequently, again, if there be given a proposition
which predicates in the one whole, it may, by a simple re¬
versal of the functions of the terms, be transformed into a
proposition predicating in the other whole.
(5.) The process of conversion is nothing else than such
a transference of predication from a given whole into the
other. The special rules of conversion find their principle
in the law of the concept: they are merely adapted forms
of those corollaries of that law, which regulate predication
in the two wholes.1
595
CHAPTER III.
The Laws of Definition and Division.
The form 50. Affirmative propositions, having both terms distri-
terOfdefi."buted’ haye uses which give them a special scientific and
nition and Philosophical value : A2 is the form necessarily assumed by
division. Definitions and Divisions correctly constructed. The cha¬
racter, likewise, of definition and division, is dependent on
the doctrine of the concept. A definition is nothing else
than a development of the comprehension of a common
term, through terms lying above it in extension. A divi¬
sion is a development of the extension of a common term,
through terms lying above it in comprehension. Both may
be said to have for their purpose the making concepts more
distinct; the one by evolving concepts in whose extension
the given concept lies, the other by evolving concepts in
whose comprehension it lies. It is a consequence flowing
necessarily from the mutual and inverse relation of the two
wholes of the concept, that its comprehension shall be made
more distinct through its extension,and its extension through
its comprehension. We determine what are the attributes
of given objects, by finding what classes they may be thought
in : we determine what objects are contained in given
classes, by finding what attributes they may be thought as
possessing.2
This view of the character of Conversion does seem, not only to
flow, by consequence obvious as well as necessary, from the prin¬
ciple of the concept, but to be necessary for thoroughly grounding
the theory of the process. But certainly, so far as we know, it has
not been stated by any, even of those recent logicians by whom, in
this country and in Germany, the mutual relations of extension
and comprehension have, in their hearing on other logical doctrines,
been most deeply probed.
2 Division and definition have long been thus analyzed by the
German logicians; the latter as an evolution of the comprehen¬
sion of a concept, the former as an evolution of its extension. Their
theory of division is almost complete: their theory of definition
is not so near to being so. It does not seem correct to say, as it
is said by some (not all) of them, that the concept is made more
clear by division, more “ distinct” by definition : in the appro-
51. Our thinking of objects may pass through very many Doctrine of
stages, on its way towards becoming a knowledge of the proposi-
objects. The principal of those stages may be said to be tions.
three ; and to these have been assigned names, the technical 'v—'''
meanings of which, being specifications of the ordinary The three
meanings, require some explanation. Our ideas of objects stages in
may be either Obscure, Clear, or Distinct.1 First, Our idea ^ de‘
of an object is obscure, when we are not able positively to pf i°}Pe™en
distinguish it from other objects; when we are unable to
determine the question of identity or non-identity. Such
a thought of the object is not knowledge of it in any sense.
Secondly, Our idea of an object is clear, when we are able
to distinguish it from other objects; when we are able to
determine the question of identity or non-identity. Our
thinking of individual objects must rise to this point before
we can be said to know them: and, while objects are con¬
templated merely as individuals, this point cannot be tran¬
scended. But, in whatever light objects are regarded, clear¬
ness in our thinking of them must have place if any further
step is to be taken. Thirdly, Our idea of objects is distinct,
when, besides being able to distinguish them from others,
we are able also to distinguish the relations between them
and other objects. The distinguishing of the relations be¬
tween objects is attainable only through the detection and
discrimination of their attributes, and the consequent distri¬
bution of them in thought into classes. Perfect distinctness
of thinking, in this appropriated signification of the phrase,
is evidently not attainable in regard to any object of human
knowledge : and, as far as there are relations of an object
which we cannot distinguish from others, our idea is indis¬
tinct. Distinctness, therefore, is relative,—relative to the
purpose of our thinking: and the practical question in a
given case is, whether, with reference to the purpose, the
distinctness is adequate or inadequate.
Accordingly, obscure thinking cannot yield terms of any
kind that shall be useable with intelligence. Clear think¬
ing may be represented either by singular or by common
terms. 1 hinking which, besides being clear, is also dis¬
tinct, can be signified by common terms only.
52. Having gained a clear idea of a class of objects de- Definition
noted by a common term, we next seek to make that idea and divi-
distinct, by evolving such relations to other objects assion.as
are implied in the notion of the class. Using our common making
term as subject, we attain a step in distinctness by each distinct3
other common term which we are able to affirm as predicate
of it. Such affirmation we can justify to ourselves through,
but only through, a preconceived ordination, in which our
common term is one of the members; and we have the
affirmation when we place our common term either in the
extension or in the comprehension of another common term.
Further, when we place a term Y in either whole of another
term, as either X or Z, we do so really for the purpose of
evolving an element in the other whole of Y. The inter¬
lacement and inversion of the two wholes are inextricable
and constant.
On the one hand, looking upwards in the scale of ex¬
tension, we place our given class in a higher class, which,
besides our given objects, contains also others having certain
of the attributes of ours. Thus we affirm, in extension,
that “ All Y’s are X’s that “ All animals are beings or¬
ganized that all animals are contained in the class of or¬
ganized beings. In so predicating, we make our idea of
priated meaning of those terms, as explained immediately, increase
of “ distinctness” appears to be what is gained in both ways. (But
see Mansel, Prolegomena Logica, pp. 186-194.)
1 The distinction, currently applied in the German schools, and
lately beginning to be familiar among us, is Leibnitz’s. It is laid
down in his Meditationes de Cognitione, Veritate, et Ideis, and illus¬
trated in his Nouveaux Phsais, book ii., chap. 22 : (Opera ed. Erd¬
mann, pp. 79-81, 288-292).
596 LOGIC.
Doctrine of “animals” more distinct, by evolving the fact that animals
proposi- p0ssess the attribute of organization ; that is, that “ orga-
tions■ nization” is a part of the comprehension of “ animal.”
On the other hand, looking downwards in the scale of
extension, we place our given class in a lower class, which
contains fewer than all the objects of our class, because all
the objects it does contain possess attributes not possessed
by all our objects. Thus we affirm, in comprehension,
that “ Some Y’s are Z’s :” that “ Some animals are men
that some animals possess the attribute humanity. In so
predicating, we make our idea of “ animals” more distinct,
by evolving the fact that some animals belong to the class
man ; that is, that “ man” is a part of the extension of
“ animal.”
Thus we have made our idea of a given term more
distinct by two steps in opposite directions, through our
possession of two other terms, the one higher than it in
extension, the other lower. By placing Y in the extension
of X, we enable ourselves to infer that X is in the compre¬
hension of Y. By placing Y in the comprehension of Z, we
enable ourselves to infer that Z is in the extension of Y.
Ilypothe- 53. Suppose our whole knowledge of a common term Y,
tical or 0f the objects denotable by it, to be present to the mind
growth of a jn tjie implicative shape of a series of terms, ordinated in ex-
anda'divi tensi°n 5 suppose that the series stretches from our common
sion : the term both ways, upwards and downwards; and suppose, also,
first step, that it embraces no co-ordinate terms. The knowledge
thus implied would be completely explicated by two succes¬
sive affirmations. In each of these Y would be the sub¬
ject : while the predicates would be the other terms of the
series; the higher terms in the one affirmation, the lower
in the other.
Let our series be this : “ Organized beings—Animals—
Men—Europeans—Scotsmen ;” and let it be understood as
an implicit expression of the complex idea signified by the
term “ Men.”
In extension we may affirm, that “ All men are ani¬
mals and beings organized.” Analytically taken, the asser¬
tion is this : “ All men—are—some of those beings who are
both animals and beings organized; or, “ All men—are—some
of those beings who possess the attributes animal life and
organization.” We have evolved two attributes which are
in the comprehension of the term “ man.” Conversion
makes the assertion a predication in comprehension : “ Some
of those beings who possess the attributes animal life and
organization—are—all men.” Our proposition is, in fact,
a definition. It is, doubtless, an unsatisfactory and imper¬
fect definition; and it betrays its faultiness by the non¬
distribution of one of its terms. But it is the only defini¬
tion of “ man” which our data allow us to form.
In comprehension, again, we may affirm, that “ Some
men are Europeans and Scotsmen.” Analyzing the asser¬
tion, we have it thus : “ Some men—are—all those beings
who are both Europeans and Scotsmen ;” or, “ Some men
—are—all those beings who, while they are in the class
Europeans, constitute the class Scotsmen.” We have
evolved two classes, both of which are in the extension
of the term “ man.” Conversion makes the assertion a pre¬
dication in extension : “ All those beings who are both
Europeans and Scotsmen—are—some men.” Our propo¬
sition is, in fact, a logical division. It is an imperfect
division ; and the non-distribution of one of the terms brings
the imperfection to the surface. But it is the only division
of “man” that can be developed from the data.
The definition and division we have formed are both of
them imperfect: they want something they should have,
but they may be said to be also redundant: they have
something which, in most cases, they need not have. It is
well to clear away the redundancy before scrutinizing the
grounds of the incompleteness.
54. In attempting to frame either a definition or a divi- Doctrine of
sion, we pay especial attention to two points of limitation, proposi-
We aim at simplifying both thought and expression. En- tions.
tertaining this design, we directly explicate those elements
only of the idea, those relations only of the objects, which Definition
we foresee to be available in the subsequent progress of our
reasoning. We leave undeveloped all elements or relations, their se_
which do not seem to have a prospective bearing; and we COnd step
do so with safety, if the elements we neglect cannot emerge of growth,
as we proceed in thought.
Perhaps we are well acquainted with the objects com¬
pared ; while, also, our field of reasoning is not to spread
beyond a few of their relations. In such a case we shall
usually, even if we have antecedently thought out a long
series of ordinated terms, neglect all except one of the
higher terms, or all except one of the lower. If we should
wish to define the term “ man,” from materials supplied by
the ordination lately given, either the attribute of animal
life or that of organization would oftenest be the only one
of the two in which we are directly interested. If the case
be so, we shall content ourselves with asserting, either that
“ Man is an animal,” or that “ Man is an organized being.”
So, if we wish to divide the term “ man,” we shall almost
always assert only, either that “ Some men are Europeans,”
or that “ Some men are Scotsmen :” we shall not make both
assertions. In a word, we evolve only one step in the
ordination; whether that be the first step either way from
our given term, or a step more distant.
There are, however, three cases at least, all of them not
only supposable, but actual, in which it becomes necessary
to evolve more steps than one, or even a considerable num¬
ber. In the first case, either definition or division is at¬
tempted, when our knowledge of the objects is so narrow
as to yield only a series of terms, which do not justify a
sufficient number of exclusions (co-ordinates being here
the terms that will be wanting). Secondly, either may be
attempted, when language does not furnish words clearly
implicative of suppressed steps in a series. Lastly, either
may be attempted, when, though knowledge and language
should both be sufficient for their work, our definition or
our division is designed to be the foundation of a very wide
and complicated system of knowledge. Scientific defini¬
tions and divisions, for example, especially the former, are
often necessarily complex, setting forth several steps from
an ordinated series of terms; and the desire to simplify and
abridge the series is one of the strongest of those many
reasons, which justify the invention of technical names.
55. The incompleteness of our examples of growing de- Definition
finition and division is a point lying much deeper than their at its third
redundancy. The reason of it, and the remedy, require to steP °|
be considered with especial closeness in their bearing on grovvt •
the definition.
(1.) It is, as we have seen, necessary to a definition, that
the term to be defined be placed in the extension of at least
one other term. The objects denoted by the given term
are thus included in a class, all the objects of which have a
certain attribute; and this attribute is a mark of the given
term, that is, a part of its comprehension.
In defining “ man” from our series of terms, we must be
able to predicate of it one of the superordinates in extension.
We must at least be able to affirm, that “ All men are ani¬
mals and, for most definitions of the term, the wider
affirmation, of “ organized beings,” will not be required.
(2.) Such a placing of the term in the extension of a
superordinate, or even in that of several or many such, is
not sufficient. By the hypothesis involved in ordination,
there may be, and we know that in fact there always are,
other terms, thinkable as co-ordinates of the given term.
Of each of these co-ordinates the superordinate might be
affirmed, as well as of the term to be defined. Therefore
LOGIC.
Doctrine of it is that, in our embryo definition, the superordinate term
proposi- was undistributed: “ All men—are—some animals there
tions. may an(j we know there are, other animals besides men.1
(3.) What is sought, in addition to the superordinate, is,
the means of distinguishing the given term from its co-ordi¬
nates. But distinction is negation. Therefore, besides
affirming the superordinate, vve must be able to deny all the
co-ordinates. We must have, for incorporation, as a sub¬
ordinate element of our predicate, the import of a proposi¬
tion of exclusion.
Suppose we know only that there are animals which are not
men. The two co-ordinate terms “ men,” and “ not-men”
(animals being implied), constitute together the immediate
extension of the term “ animaland either of the two is,
by the law of predication for co-ordinates, deniable of the
other. This filling up of the class “animal” by the two
subclasses, would enable us to frame a definition, which
could hardly ever be useful, but which might sometimes be
the only one attainable, while in form it would be quite
regular, though very awkward: “ All men —are—all animals
that are not Not-men.”
But we may know something more : vve may know names
denoting all the co-ordinates of “ man :” we may know that
there are (according to a loose zoology, more generally
understood than more scientific ones) five kinds of ani¬
mals besides man. These five, taken together, become equi¬
valent to our “animals that are not-men.” Our definition
will now stand thus: “ All men—are—all animals that are
not beasts, nor birds, nor fishes, nor reptiles, nor insects.”
But the definition, so altered, is still of little use. It cannot
become extensively available, so long as it is merely nega¬
tive of the co-ordinates.
(4.) The definition may be perfected when we have dis¬
covered some attribute, which is either possessed by the
class denoted by the term to be defined, and wanting to
all its co-ordinates, or possessed by all the latter, and want¬
ing to the former. Such an attribute (in the former case),
or its contradictory, denoting the want of it (in the latter),
is a mark of the given term. The co-ordinates, as not
possessing the mark, are thinkable as all of them contained
in the contradictory of the given term, and may, therefore,
be denied of it. The legitimacy of this denial is implied,
when we affirm that the attribute, or its contradictory, is a
mark of the term to be defined.
The schoolmen were wont to assign “ rationality” as an
attribute which is a mark of man, because alleged to be
wanting to all other animals. “ Not-rationality,” the want
of rationality, its contradictory, would thus be the attribute
possessed by the co-ordinates, and wanting to man. Ac¬
cepting this mark, we should now be able to express our
definition in either of two shapes. Negatively, we should
say, “ All men—are—all animals that are not non-rational;”
and here “non-rational” takes the place, and is an exact equi¬
valent, of our “ not-men,” and “ neither beasts nor” other
animals. Affirmatively, we should say, with exact identity
of meaning: “ All men—are—all animals that are rational.”
It has been necessary, for the completion of the analysis,
1 Students of the science, who may be disposed to bestow close
attention on the theory of the Definition, may be invited to scru¬
tinize for uhemselves the point which it is here attempted to bring
out; namely, the function of co-ordination in the process of de¬
fining—the fact that one of the elements of the definition (it is that
which the schools call the Specific Difference) is equivalent to a ne¬
gation of the co-ordinates of the definitum. The embryo of this
doctrine lurks in several systems of logic. But it does not seem to
have anywhere come fairly above ground. Indeed, in some of the
best of the German books, the difficulty (which has not been over¬
looked) of determining the relations between the definitum and the
specific difference has proved to be insurmountable. Twesten, the
most clearly systematic among the formal logicians of Germany,
has (strange to say) expressly denied the applicability of co-ordi¬
nates as elements of a definition. (Die Logik, p. 211.)
597
to bring out the negative form of the definition. But the Doctrine of
affirmative form is always, and rightly, preferred when it is Pr?P08i-
attainable : the distinctive mark is more readily useable in v tl0DS- j
this shape. Besides this, it does more frequently offer itself ^
in this shape than in the negative. It is usually easier to
discover, by observation, an attribute possessed by one class
and wanting in others, than to discover an attribute which,
while wanting in one class, can peremptorily be asserted to
be universal in each of several others.
(5.) In respect of formation, as it thus appears, a defini¬
tion grows out of two several assertions. These are, both
of them, in extension, though in different degrees; and,
further, they are opposed in quality. It has been affirmed
that the definitum (the term defined), is identical with a
part of the extension of a superordinate term : it has been
denied that the definitum is identical with the extension of
any co-ordinate terms.
(6.) In result, a definition is, in the form it commonly
wears, a predication in extension ; because the term given
to be defined tends naturally to preserve its place as sub¬
ject. But, as its terms, being equivalents, are interchange¬
able, conversion throws it into comprehension. Which of
the forms it may take, is a question utterly indifferent. For
it is an affirmation that the Vejiniturn and the De/initio, the
subject and the predicate, are terms identical both in ex¬
tension and in comprehension; that they are merely two
several names for one and the same class of objects.
It is, however, the comprehension only that the defini¬
tion evolves: the defined term being one of the two terms,
the other term explicates those terms which constitute its
comprehension. The proposition is an assertion that the
comprehension of the term defined is constituted by cer¬
tain attributes ; that the comprehension of “ man ” is consti¬
tuted by “ animality” and “ rationality.” Looking to the
other side, all that we are told is this: that the extension
of “ man” is constituted by all objects, whatever they may
be, which possess both of those attributes.
56. The way having been found to the removal of in- Division at
completeness in a definition, similar dealing with a division its third
is much facilitated. 8teP of
The term to be divided is the name of a class: it will ^row th'
be divided in one step, when we have affirmed of it the
names of all the co-ordinate sub-classes which constitute,
in one degree, the extension of that class. The divided
class, and the aggregate of the sub-classes into which it is
divided, are co-extensive. The objects which, when thought
of in one group, are denoted by the one given term,
are the same objects which, when thought of in several
groups, are adequately denoted, all of them, by the enu¬
meration of the terms we have evolved out of the given one.
The subject and the predicate of a proposition enunciating
the division, are but different names for one and the same
aggregate of objects : therefore they are interchangeable ;
and the conversion of the proposition is free both ways.
So long as our terms were only the given term on the
one side, and one, or some, of the terms subordinate in ex¬
tension on the other, one of the terms (the term given) was
necessarily undistributed. We had to say, before, “ Some
men—are—all Europeans;”or, “AllEuropeans—are—some
men.” But, in order to complete our division, we learn
that the class “ man,” when we divide it on the principle of
local habitation, may be loosely distributed into five sub¬
classes. At length, therefore, by uniting the names of all
those sub-classes to form one of our terms, we gain a pro¬
position in which both terms are distributed. We say,
“ All men—are—all Europeans, all Asiatics, all Africans,
all Americans, all Australasians;” or, “ All Europeans,
all Asiatics, all Africans, all Americans, all Australasians—
are—all men.”
These forms of expression, however, are awkward, and may
598 LOGIC.
Doctrine of be deceptive. If they are to be adopted, the “ all ” will be
proposi- understood (naturally, and perhaps unavoidably), not distri-
tions. butively, but collectively. On this footing the terms are
equivalent to singulars ; and the propositions are unman¬
ageable. But let our “ all ” be understood distributively :
we are thus led to the alternative or disjunctive form of
speech in the enumeration of the subordinate terms. “ All
men—are—all men who are either Europeans, or Asiatics,
or Africans, or Americans, or Australasians or, “ Every
several man—is—every several man who is either an Euro¬
pean, or an Asiatic, or an African, or an American, or an
Australasianand so when the terms are reversed.
Now, it is in this alternative shape, though without sig¬
nature of the predicate, that we do always, in ordinary
thought and speech, express a division. We say : “Every
man is either a European, an Asiatic, an African, an Ame¬
rican, or an Australasian or, “ Every one who is either a
European, an Asiatic, an African, an American, or an Aus¬
tralasian, is a man.” This fact is a guide-post, pointing out
the road by which we reach the application of divisions in
reasoning.
Divisions may, of course, be carried dowm in more steps
than one ; in as many steps, indeed, as our presupposed ordi¬
nation allows, and the purpose of the division makes to be
desirable. But, cumbrous even when embracing one step
only, they become, when stretched farther, almost inex¬
pressible in the shape of explicit propositions. In such
cases, and sometimes in the simpler ones, they are usually
left unexplicated. Scientific writers, especially in the
sciences of Classification (where both definitions and divi¬
sions are often exceedingly complex), content themselves
with exhibiting the ordinated series of terms in a tabular
shape : and from this series special propositions are extrica¬
ble when called for.
A division, then, is a proposition which, when the term
to be divided is taken in its natural function as subject, is a
predication in comprehension, but which is readily trans¬
formable into a predication in extension. It is the exten¬
sion only of the divided term that is evolved. The divided
term being one of the terms, the other explicates the terms
which constitute its extension. The proposition is an as¬
sertion that the extension of the divided term is constituted
by certain sub-classes; that the extension of “ man ” is
constituted by all the objects of the five named classes. On
the other side, we are told only this: that the comprehen¬
sion of “ man” is constituted by all the attributes, whatever
they may be, which are possessed by all those objects.
Division 57. The theory of division is not yet wholly before us.
witlfiTfi1 ’ comP^ete<^ when we contrast the process with defini¬
tion1 6 n " ^on’ ^le resu^ rests> as closely as that of definition, on pre¬
formed propositions. The character of these is unchanged;
but their relative prominence is reversed.
(1.) There is, in division, a mutual negation of two co¬
ordinates ; and this negation has for its basis the necessary
inconsistency between a term and its contradictory.
Of the evolved terms constituting the extension of the
given term, we fix our attention on some one : if we take
more than one, these are thought as one. We must be able
to think of this one term, and of all the others taken toge¬
ther, as being contradictories of each other. If “ European”
is the term we attend to, the other four are for us equiva-
knt to “ Not-European.” Our implied negation is, that
Europeans on the one side, and all its co-ordinates on the
other, are mutually exclusive ; that Europeans are not any
pei sons who are either Asiatics or persons of any of the
other classes. But this is on the assumption that the same
negation might be made through the contradictories ; that
we should be expressing the same denial, although with a
narrower assumed knowledge, by saying, that “Europeans
are not Non-Europeans.” - ° r
Each of the co-ordinates must thus, in its turn, be thought Doctrine of
as deniable of all the rest, or as having all these as constitut- proposi-
ing its contradictory. If it were not so, there would be a tions.
manifest confusion of identities. '
(2.) The negation of co-ordinates, which is left as im¬
plied in the definition, is, in the division, the element which
is explicitly set forth. The thorough-going exclusion of
the evolved terms from each other, is expressly signified
by the alternative words “ either” and “ or.”
(3.) There is affirmation with two terms, a super-ordi¬
nate and a subordinate. And, in division, though not in
definition, the affirmation is at least double, and may be
regarded as being often manifold.
There is presupposed the inclusion of all the evolved
terms in the extension of the term given to be divided:
“ Europeans are men;” “ Asiatics are men :” and so on. This
is self-evident as to all the positive terms. Each of our
evolved terms, then is, virtually, “ Men who are Europeans,
Asiatics,” and so on. But, though we were to pass only from
“ Europeans” to its contradictory, there would be the same
implication : and this view brings out the point with especial
distinctness. We must here have the same inclusion :
“ All Non-Europeans are men :” the contradictory term is,
virtually, “ men who are Non-Europeans.” If the contra¬
dictory of “ Europeans” were taken without this limitation,
it must denote all thinkable objects besides Europeans :
it would cease to be truly co-ordinate with Europeans; and
the foundation of the division would be overthrown.
In a word, the contradiction, and consequent exclusion,
which are thought in the process of dividing, are a contra¬
diction and exclusion not absolute or pure, but only within
the sphere or extension of the given term. The objects
thought as constituting that sphere, are posited or assumed
in the whole process: they constitute what has aptly (though
not with this reference) been called the “ Universe” of all
the propositions which the division either expresses or im¬
plies.1 The terms contradictory of each other, whether
explicitly or virtually, are not pure contradictories, but only
contradictories within the given sphere.
(4.) The affirmation of inclusion, which, in the defini¬
tion, is the element explicitly set forth, is, in the division, the
element which is left as implied. It lies, indeed, so deeply
hidden, that logicians have sometimes overlooked it: a de¬
cisive instance is described in the next section.
58. Every division, however complex, is thus reducible, Divis;on
at each of its steps, to a Dichotomy; that is, to the division t,y dicho-
of a class into two sub-classes opposed to each other by tomy.
contradiction. The term X, if divisible positively by seve¬
ral terms, of which Y is one, is divisible also by the terms
Y and Not-Y.
Dichotomy is not only the normal form of division, the
form in which the primary principle appears most clearly. It
is also a form of division which has practical uses, and which
has, by some thinkers, been adopted as the explicit basis of
all classification.2 Requiring no positive assumption as to
any of the co-ordinates but one, and regarding all the others
as merely contradictory of the first, it has been vaunted as
the ideal of a process fulfilling the requirements of a pure
or a priori logic. In confutation of this claim it has been
alleged, that the negative co-ordinate is not a pure contra¬
dictory of the positive : that when the class X is supposed
to be divided into the sub-classes Y and Not-Y, the second
sub-class is really “ Those X’s which are Not-Y’s.
1 De Morgan, Formal Logic, p. 38.
1 It is enough to instance Peter Ramus among older thinkers,
Jeremy Bentham among moderns. The latter name is certainly a
symptom that dichotomy cannot be without its practical uses. As
to the theoretical difficulties attending it, see especially Trendelen¬
burg.
LOGIC.
599
Doctrine of The correct view seems to be that, of which an explana-
proposi- tion was attempted in the last section. It is true that
, tx0DS‘ J both of the co-ordinate terms are positively limited, each
^ of them being in thought included in the superordinate:
the members which really divide the class X are these:
“ The X’s which are Y’s“ The X’s which are Not-Y’s
The contradiction of terms which is gained, a formal and
direct contradiction within the sphere of the term given
to be divided, is the only contradiction which the case
admits ; and, within the sphere thought of, it is a pure con¬
tradiction.
Even so considered, the facts refute the claim of dicho¬
tomy to being an application of the laws of pure thought,
without any consideration of matter. But this, as we have
seen, is a claim that cannot validly be urged in behalf of
any logical law whatever. Least of all is it tenable in
regard to laws which, assuming concepts and common terms
as given, must presuppose some of the widest and most per¬
plexing of the objective relations, under which only actual
knowledge is possible.1
The five
predi-
cables.
59. In all those logical systems which found their theory
of definition and division on the scholastic and Aristotelian
opinions, that theory rests, for both processes, on the scheme
of the Predicables. The doctrine of the predicables is, in
some of its parts, clear and valuable : in others it is difficult
alike of explanation and of application. So much of it must
here be described, as shall exhibit the bearing of the ana¬
lysis above proposed on the common rules of definition
and division.
Predicables are terms affirmable, as predicates, of other
terms. Further, the identical affirmation of singulars being
neglected, all predicables are said to be common terms.
All the common terms which are affirmatively predicable of
others, must import, relatively to the subject of the propo¬
sition, one or another of five things. The Predicables are
five :—Genus, Species, Difference, Property, and Accident.
(1.) Of any term given as subject, we may affirm, as pre¬
dicate, its genus. The genus is the widest class in which,
according to the view supposed in a given process of thought,
the subject can be held as included.
(2.) Of the subject we may affirm its species. The spe¬
cies is any one of several narrower classes, actual or think¬
able, which together make up the genus or widest class.
In it, as in the genus, the subject is presupposed to be in¬
cluded.
(3.) Of the subject we may affirm a difference. The
idea attached to this term has been defined and limited very
variously. It receives, probably, the fullest justice when
we say, that a difference is an attribute possessed by a whole
class, and by that class alone,—that it is an attribute pos¬
sessed by all the objects of a class, and not by any other
objects. It is an attribute universal and peculiar to the
objects of a class. Since there are two classes, a more ex-
1 The dichotomous division has its chief value in the earlier
progress of a science : there it is an admirable and often a decisive
test. The principle of it, and often its form, enter widely into
those processes of applied logic which are described as processes
or methods of induction. But its direct use goes no further than
allowing us to throw aside, by repeated exclusions, classes of ob¬
jects which observation has shown to be alien from the purpose
of our inquiry. It thus narrows, by successive steps, the ground
over which our new observations have to be carried. We com¬
mence our scrutiny of the class X, by distributing it into two sub¬
classes.^ The one of these is Y, of whose laws or attributes we know
something : the other is Not-Y, in regard to which, as yet, we may
know nothing. If Y does not satisfy the conditions of our prob-
em, both Y and the containing class X are dismissed from our
thoughts. Our field lies now in the class Not-Y; and it may
similarly yield Z and Not-Z, to be dealt with as before. This is
one of the uses of the process; but its variability, as a groundwork
ot exclusion, is very great.
tensive and a less extensive (the genus and the species), Doctrine of
in either of which the subject may be included, the differ- proposi-
ence may, correspondingly, be of two several kinds. A tions.
generic difference is an attribute universal and peculiar
to a genus, and thus distinguishing the genus from all other
possible genera : a specific difference is related in the same
way to a species. The former is of little or no use.
(4.) Of the subject we may affirm a property. This
term, which has been described as variously as the differ¬
ence, may be explained thus. A property is an attribute
possessed by a whole class, but not by that class alone : it
is an attribute possessed by all the objects of a class, but
possessed also by other objects ; it is an attribute universal
but not peculiar to the objects of a class. Property, like
difference, might be either generic or specific: but pro¬
perty is plainly useless both for definition and for division,
unless in the way of preparatory exclusion ; therefore the
distinction has not been worked out. When the name is
applied at all, property seems always to be held specific.
(5.) Of the subject we may affirm an accident. An ac¬
cident may be said to be an attribute which is possessed by
some of the objects of a class, but is not thought of as pos¬
sessed by all of them. As we are here touching on indi¬
viduality, accident is always held as specific; the species
being, in this scheme, the lowest class, between which and
the individual objects no class is thought as intervening.
Accidents are further said to be either separable or inse¬
parable. An inseparable accident is an attribute which we
cannot, a separable accident is an attribute which we can,
think of the subject as not possessing.1
60. It has often been made a ground of objection to the The uses of
predicables, that the criteria by which they are distin- the predi-
guished from each other presuppose an objective cer-cables in
tainty, an insight into the true nature of the objects com- and^ivi-
pared, which is alike impossible of attainment, and beyond sion
the range of logical scrutiny. The charge is good against
not a few of the explanations that have been given, espe¬
cially of the last three. But the essential character of the
scheme is quite in accordance with the fact, that all classifi¬
cation is merely relative, that the placing of objects in
classes is nothing more than an operation of thought. The
scheme, likewise, is easily useable, within proper logical
bounds, as a means of explicating the results of a classifica¬
tion which has been thought out, whether in consonance, or
in repugnance, to the real character of the objects.
This much having been premised, we shall readily per¬
ceive the bearings of the scheme on definition and division.
(1.) It is observable, in the first place, that the scheme
supposes an ordination, of classes or common terms, em¬
bracing only two steps, a superordinate and a subordinate,
—the genus and the species. It is admitted that more
are frequently required ; and the terminology has been
tortured into elasticity, to make it answer the demand as
fully as possible. Genus and species, we are warned, are
relative terms: every class is a species in reference to a
more extensive class; every class is a genus in reference
to a class less extensive. We are allowed to speak of a
summum genus, and of subaltern genera contained in it;
and we receive from some quarters a license to introduce
sub-species.
(2.) Still, the range of terminology is palpably inadequate
to many scientific purposes. It is especially so for those
sciences, which have to distribute and redistribute, by inclu¬
sions and exclusions multifariously repeated, a vast number
1 In regard, here, to difference and property, and also in the
next section, obligations are due to an Examination of some Pas¬
sages in hr Whateh/s Logic, by George Cornewall Lewis, 1829.
Other recent writers, also, in England, have speculated much and
acutely on the doctrine of the predicables. They are scrutinized
very closely in Mansel’s edition of Aldrich.
600 LOGIC.
Doctrine of of known objects, related to each other by many inosculat-
proposi- ing points of resemblance and difference. For division in
tions- such cases, the scheme is impotent: it is weak for defini-
tion, unless where the objects to be defined have already
had their leading relations thoroughly ascertained. In the
physical sciences, particularly those dealing with organic
bodies, animate or inanimate, special schemes have been
constructed to meet the special claims. Indeed, there has
lingered, in the technical nomenclature of modern science,
hardly more than one little fragment of the Greek and me¬
diaeval structure. Genus and species, the two inherited
names which alone keep their places, are used, by prefer¬
ence, to signify such classes as are characterized by firmly-
marked points of resemblance and difference, and held, on
strong grounds, to be actually related to each other by im¬
mediate ordination.
(3.) When the relations of objects have been precisely
fixed, the scholastic scheme is perfectly fitted for expli¬
cating our knowledge of them in a definition. Accordingly,
it is a received point of logical phraseology, that those de¬
finitions only which admit of being referred to the table of
the predicables, are to be regarded as properly and strictly
definitions. Such as are not so referable are by logicians
usually called “ descriptions.”
A Definition proper, then, is a proposition defining a spe¬
cies : of the species it affirms its genus and its specific dif¬
ference. For a definition of “man,” “animal” may be
taken as the genus; as the name of a more extensive class
containing the species “ man,” and also other species. “ Ra¬
tional ” may be accepted as the specific difference ; as the
mark which distinguishes man from other species of ani¬
mals. We thus gain the definition: “Man is an animal
rationalthe formation of which, from the ordinated terms,
we have already endeavoured to watch.
Into the regular definition, then, there enter the first
three of the predicables: the species, yielding the subject,
the term to be defined; the genus, and the specific dif¬
ference, yielding the terms constituting the predicate, which
is the defining term.
(4.) Neither for definition, nor for division, do the last
two of the predicables offer any materials.1 * * *
1 The Accident is properly affirmable of individuals only. If if
is affirmable of more individuals than one, and if, in respect of it,
these individuals are to be compared, they thus come to be thought
of as a class (named or unnamed); and the accident becomes a dif¬
ference, a species, or a genus. The accident, qua accident, is no
element, no part, either in the extension or in the comprehension
of the genus or the species, the only two classes whose formation
the scheme presupposes. “ Alexander is a soldierbut his being
so is merely an accident, an unimportant attribute, so long as he
is considered merely as a man or rational being. “ Alexander,
and a good many others, are soldiers; therefore they are brave
men.” Here there is assumed a new reference to classes, in virtue
of which “ soldiers” has become the name of a class, which contains
the class constituted by the named individuals, and is in its turn
contained in the class “ brave men.”
The avowed difficulty, again, of determining, whether a given
accident is separable or inseparable, must be solved by considera¬
tions which are entirely extra-logical.
The position of Property is essentially the same as that of acci¬
dent, yet with an instructive difference. Accident not entering at
all into our pre-formation of the genus and species, we had to travel
quite aside from the given series of terms in order to make it logi¬
cally available. Property does enter by implication into our idea
of the species, and through it into our idea of the genus. Thus, in
reference to the species and genus which yielded our definition of
man,'5 organization is a property of “ man.” It did not aid our de¬
finition, because it is possessed by other objects besides man; but it
61. The view which has here been described,—that of Doctrine of
regarding definitions as being strictly and necessarily evo- prpposi-
lutions of the comprehension, divisions as being strictly and tl0DS‘ )
necessarily evolutions of the extension, of the term defined Vu“'‘
or divided,—does seem to furnish, and to be the only view ^t'on
capable of furnishing, reasons, scientific and universally valid, of definj_
on which to rest the received formulae and rules of both pro- tjon an(i
cesses. division.
The rules, indeed, are manifest corollaries from those doc¬
trines, which it has been endeavoured to exhibit as govern¬
ing the development of each whole of a common term.
Whether either a definition or a division be a true
statement of the relations of the objects which the terms
denote, is a question which logic cannot answer. All de¬
finitions and all divisions are, for logic, hypothetical merely:
they are explicit assertions of objective relations ; but these
are such only as are presupposed in the meaning of the
terms. Now, these relations are not exactly discoverable,
unless through a distinct apprehension of the classification
or ordination of the terms which are to appear in the propo¬
sition, as term defined, and as terms whose combination is to
constitute the term defining. If a definition is to be framed,
an ordination of the terms is the best preparation that can
be made for it. If a definition is to be tested, the expli¬
cating of the ordination which it implies will be the readiest
means of determining its value.1
is implied both in the species and in the genus: men are organized
beings; so are animals. If, then, we wish to make “ organization”
available for definition, what we have to do is, not to desert the
ordination given, but to carry it upward till it culminates in a
wider class. By taking one step, we transform the property into
a genus, available as part of a defining term : “ All animals are
organized beings possessing sensitive life.” By taking two steps,
we transform the property into a species requiring to be defined:
,£ All organized beings are created things, having parts which ope¬
rate on each other.”
1 Logical division, the exhaustive enumeration of the subclasses
constituting a given class, cannot well be confounded with real
division, or partition, the separation of an integral whole into its
parts. Whether, again, definition by genus and species should be
called “ real” or “ nominal,” is a question which has been answered
both ways; because different logicians have attached different mean¬
ings to the epithets. Sir W. Hamilton calls logical definition “ no¬
tional;” and the same specific name may be given to logical divi¬
sion, if there should seem to be any risk of mistake.
The following are the rules for both processes, which, given by
Aldrich, reappear with variations in most of our standard English
books. (Hansel’s Aldrich, pp. 30, 35) :—
I. DEFINITION.
“(1.) Let the definition be adequate; otherwise it does not ex¬
plain the definitum. For that definition which is more limited
than the definitum, explains only a part, whereas the definitum is
a whole: a definition which is more extensive explains a whole,
whereof the definitum is only a part. (2.) Let the definition be of
itself clearer than the name defined. I say, of itself,per se, because,
per accidens, that may be less understood which is better known by
its own nature. (3.) Let the definition be expressed in a just
number of proper words (words not figurative); for, from meta¬
phors arises ambiguity, from too much brevity arises obscurity,
and from prolixity arises confusion.”
II. DIVISION.
“ (1.) Let the dividentia or dividing members, severally, contain
less, that is, signify less” (that is, let each of them be less exten¬
sive) “than the divisum or whole divided; for the whole is greater
than the several parts. (2.) Let the dividing members, conjointly,
contain neither more nor less than the whole divided; for the
whole is equal to all its parts. (3.) Let the dividing members be
opposite, that is, not contained in each other; for, without distinc¬
tion, partition is fruitless.”
LOGIC.
601
Doctrine of
inference.
V—-—/ CHAPTER I.
The Character and Kinds of Inference.
The charac- (32. The scholastic logicians described the science as
ference"* analyzin£ the Deducts ol’ three mental operations, specifi¬
cally different: Apprehension, Judgment, and Reasoning.
There is a psychological difference between the first two
of these, the difference between thought unevolved and
thought evolved : and the two kinds of facts yield products
differing in form. It is now allowed, generally and rightly,
that there is no such difference between judgment and rea¬
soning : the latter operation is constituted by repetitions of
the former. Whether we judge or reason, we are alike
explicating, in forms yielding propositions, implied relations
of given ideas and objects.1
The forms, however, in which the data may be pre¬
sented, differ so far as to modify secondarily the forms of
explication, and especially by causing diversities in the de¬
gree of complexity. It is, therefore, desirable that the most
prominent of the explicative forms should be studied sepa¬
rately. There is thus a practical reason for logically treat¬
ing judgment and predication apart from reasoning or in¬
ference, and also for considering severally the leading
varieties in the forms of inference.
The only formal difference which can enable us to dis¬
tinguish, consistently and firmly, between predication and
inference, is that which arises out of the distinction be¬
tween apprehension and judgment. A process in which a
proposition is evolved directly from given terms, is a mere
predication. Every process in which a proposition is evolved
directly from one or more given propositions, must be con¬
sidered as an inference.
The kinds 63. Every inference contains, in expression as in thought,
of infer- two parts, that which is given and that which is sought,—
ence; im- the Antecedent and the Consequent. The immediate con-
nnd met secluent musfc be one proposition only. But the antecedent
diate. * may be either simple or complex: it may be constituted
by one proposition only, or by more propositions than one.
An inference, whose antecedent is constituted by one
proposition, is an Immediate Inference. There is expli¬
cated, in the antecedent, a relation between two terms:
there is explicated, in the consequent, between the same
two terms, another relation which had been implied in the
given one.
An inference, whose antecedent is constituted by more
propositions than one, is a Mediate Inference. The simplest
case, that in which the antecedent propositions are two, is
1 “ According to these definitions [Locke’s], supposing the equa¬
lity of two lines A and B to be perceived immediately in conse¬
quence of their coincidence, the judgment of the mind is intuitive :
supposing A to coincide with B, and B with C, the relation between
A and C is perceived by reasoning. This is certainly not agree¬
able to common language. The truth of mathematical axioms has
always been supposed to he intuitively obvious: and the first of
these affirms, that, if A be equal to B, and B to C, A and C are
equal. Admitting, however, Locke’s definition to he just, it might
easily be shown, that the faculty which perceives the relation be¬
tween A and C, is the same with the faculty which perceives the
relation between A and B and between B and C. When the rela¬
tion of equality between A and B has once been perceived, A and
B become different names for the same thing. That the power of
reasoning (or, as it has been sometimes called, the Discursive
acuity), is implied in the powers of intuition and memory, ap-
pears also from an examination of the structure of syllogisms. It
is impossible to conceive an understanding so formed, as to perceive
the truth of the major and minor propositions, and not to perceive
the truth of the conclusion.” (Dugald Stewart, Outline*, part i.,
sect. 9.) > > r >
VOL. XIII.
Doctrine of
inference.
the Syllogism. The syllogism is the norm of all inferences ^ * v ^
whose antecedent is more complex ; and all such inferences
may, by those who think it worth while, be resolved into a
series of syllogisms.1
By syllogistic inference we seek to explicate, in the con¬
sequent or conclusion, a relation between two terms. In
the premises or antecedent propositions, there is not expli¬
cated any relation between those two terms; but in each
of them there is explicated a relation between one of the
two terms and a third. This third, or mediating term,
stands so related to the other two, that the explicated re¬
lations between them and it imply a relation between the
two themselves; and this is the relation which is expli¬
cated in the consequent.
In every process of inference, the consequent is the ex¬
plicit assertion of an identity or non-identity between its
two terms; which identity or non-identity was implied in
the antecedent. When the predications are through com¬
mon terms, the Quality of the consequent, as affirmative or
negative, is determined, in the last resort, by reference to
the ordination of the terms. The Quantity of each term of
the consequent is limited by the quantity of each of the
terms of the antecedent; and this quantity is traceable spe¬
cially to the extension of each of those terms.
CHAPTER II.
Immediate Categorical Inference.
64. All processes of immediate inference, whose validity The modes
is determinable by rules purely formal, may be embraced °f imi]ie'
under four kinds. We infer immediately, either by Con-
traposition, by Subalternation, by Opposition (proper), or their se-"
by Conversion. veral cha_
I hese several kinds of processes stand towards each other racters.
in different relations of likeness and unlikeness. They may
advantageously be compared from two different points of
view.
(1.) The terms being common terms, each proposition,
both antecedent and consequent, must be a predication of
the subject, either in (or out of) the extension of the pre¬
dicate, or in (or out of) its comprehension. If the matter
of the assertions is not known, the data are not wide enough
to indicate in which of the wholes the predication is. But
certain points are ascertainable without interpretation of the
terms.
In their relation to the two wholes, the first three pro¬
cesses are unlike the fourth. In inference by Contraposi¬
tion, Subalternation, and Opposition, the antecedent and the
consequent predicate in the same wdiole: both predicate
1 By the older logicians, and by those of this country till recently,
the name of Inference, Reasoning, Discourse (Shakspere’s “ dit-
course of reason”), was limited to the syllogism and processes yet
more complex. The extension of it, so as to embrace the processes
here called immediate inferences, seems to have been first made by
some of the German logicians after Wolf: it was adopted by Kant,
who has been followed in this point by all his countrymen. By
more than one of these, however, it has been shown, that his dis¬
tinction of the two kinds, as being respectively inferences of the
understanding, and inferences of the reason, is not so much as con¬
sistent with his own psychology.
The secondary difference between inference and simple predi¬
cation being recognized, the old limitation of the former name
not only is incorrect, but tends to disguise from us the real charac¬
ter of inferences which are immediate. Any valid reason for re¬
fusing the name to processes of this sort, would tell with equal force
against the syllogism.
4 G
PART III.—THE DOCTRINE OF INFERENCE.
602
L) 0 G I' C.
Doctrine of either in extension or in comprehension. In inference by
inference. Conversion, the antecedent being a predication in one whole,
v'—the consequent is a predication in the other: the process
consists, as has already been alleged, in the transference of
predication from extension into comprehension, or contrari¬
wise.
(2.) The processes fall into other groups, when we con¬
sider the relation of truth or falsehood between antecedent
and consequent. In this respect the first, second, and
fourth kinds are unlike the third.
Contraposition, Subalternation, and Conversion, yield con¬
sequents, whose truth or falsehood, when it is determinable,
agrees with the truth or falsehood of the antecedent. If
the antecedent is admitted as true, the consequent must be
admitted: if the antecedent is denied, the consequent must
be denied. Opposition (proper) yields consequents, whose
truth or falsehood, when it is determinable, is opposed to
the truth or falsehood of the antecedent. If the antecedent
is admitted, the consequent must be denied: if the antece¬
dent is denied, the consequent must be admitted.1
Inference Contraposition we gain a consequent, which must
by contra- ^ ac]mjttet| jf the antecedent is admitted, and denied if the
position. 1
antecedent is denied.
We shall call the antecedent the Contraponend, the con¬
sequent the Contraposita.2
The process consists in transforming, through the law of
non-contradiction, a given Affirmative into a Negative,
which is accepted as equivalent or equipollent, or a given
Negative into an equivalent Affirmative. In botli cases the
method is, to substitute for the predicate the term which is
its contradictory, and then, as a necessary consequence, to
change the character of the copula.3 The principle is self-
evident : what is done is to apply one of the logical axioms
in its simplest shape. If, of a given term, we can affirm an¬
other, we must be entitled, of the first term, to deny a term
which is contradictory of that other: if, of a given term, we
can deny another, we must be entitled, of the first term, to
affirm the contradictory of that other. If the X’s are con¬
tained in the sphere of the Y’s, they must be excluded from
the whole of the sphere of the objects which are Not-Y’s: if
the X’s are excluded from the sphere of the Y’s, they must
be contained in the sphere of the objects which are Not-Y’s.
The affirmative becomes a negative, when, instead of
1 Those who refuse to these processes the name of Inference, rest
on this allegation; that, since the terms of the antecedent and those of
the consequent are the same, the two propositions must merely ex¬
press the same thought in two different forms.—Of Conversion this
is plainly not true. It is far from being a matter of indifference to
the real character of a judgment, which of its terms is taken as sub¬
ject, and which as predicate: so much is evident without reference
to the wholes of the concept, the examination of which founds more
deeply the reasons of the difference. As to Opposition proper, the
case is perhaps still clearer. We cannot be said to express the same
judgment, in enunciating one proposition which is true, and another
which, however closely related to the former, must be false. In re¬
spect to Subalterriation, the question is narrower, lying merely be¬
tween the “all” and the “ some” of the subject. But here, like¬
wise, the doubt falls away, when we remember that, on the strict
analysis which we are bound to aim at, that which is really either
subject or predicate, is not a common term which is distributable,
but that term peremptorily fixed as being either distributed or
undistributed. “ All X’s,” and “ some X’s,” are the names of two
several sets of objects. If there be any of the immediate inferences
whose claim to the inferential character is reasonably doubtful, it
is Contraposition, to which we now pass.
' The caution must be given that, in several of our English books
of logic, the name of contraposition is given, not to this process,
but to a twofold one, in which there really take place, first, con¬
traposition; secondly, conversion of the contraposita. We shall
speak of this complex process as Conversion through Contraposition.
3 The subject, as denoting the notion or object given to be deter¬
mined, must remain unchanged. It cannot be displaced by its con¬
tradictory, until it has first, by conversion, become predicate.
affirming the predicate, we deny its contradictory. Thus, Doctrine of
“ AH X’s are some Y’s” (A), becomes “ The X’s are not any inference.
Not-Y’s” (E). The negative becomes affirmative, when,
instead of denying the predicate, we affirm its contradic¬
tory. Tims, “ Some X’s are not any Y’s” (O), becomes
“ Some X’s are some Not-Y’s” (I). There is in this way a
possibility of contraposition, in both directions, between A
and E, between I and O.1
1 This is a process which serves so many uses in the analysis of the
syllogism, that it demands particular notice. The doubt, however,
as to its claim to being held a genuine inference, is raised at once by
some of the phrases which have just been applied to it. Two pro¬
positions, strictly and absolutely equivalent, cannot but be mere
varieties of expression for one and the same judgment. But, on
the other hand, it is questionable whether any two propositions do
stand in such a relation. The minute anatomy of thought would
exhibit fine differences in the character of the acts, even between
cases of equivalence through synonymous terms, or through other
variations not logically cognizable. One judgment is not in all
points necessarily identical with another, though the two compare
the same objects : the identity fails, as soon as there creeps in the
slightest discrepancy between the relations in which the objects are
thought.
It is fairly maintainable, that the contraponend and the contra¬
posita are not absolutely equivalent,—that each of them brings out
distinctly an element of thought which is merely implied in the other.
I have, it may indeed be said, the same thought, a thought constituted
bv the very same factors, when I place X somewhere or other in the
positive and limited sphere of the Y’s, and when I exclude it from
all points of the negative and undetermined sphere of the Xot-Y’s.
Thus much may be admitted, that the two thoughts grasp one and
the same relation of the objects. But they apprehend it from two
opposite points of view. Subjectively or psychologically, it is
not the same act of thought that places an object in one sphere
and out of another. Objectively, again, or with reference to the
products of the acts, the reality of a difference is made probable,
if not absolutely certain, when we attempt using the one proposi¬
tion or the other, alternatively, as a premise in a syllogism. Each
of the two places the terms in a certain relation, not yielded by the
other, to the other terms of the argument. Sometimes, therefore,
the one proposition enables us to construct a good argument, while
the other would generate a bad one : at other times the argument
admits only one fixed form, if the one proposition is adopted, but is
made flexible through the substitution of the other.
The question, as to the true relation between the contraponend and
the contraposita, was pressed on modern logicians by Kant’s “ Cate¬
gories of the Understanding.” He recognized, in respect of quality,
not only the affirmative judgment (X—is—Y), and the negative
(X—is not—Y) ; but also the limitative or infinite (X—is—
Not-Y). The negatively-determined term, (as “ not-man”), was ad¬
mitted by Aristotle (Be Enunciatione, passim) : and from his name
for it, ovofAtz ctogio-rov, Boethius, and after him the schoolmen, called
it (too widely) an “infinite term.”
The old writers, moreover, acknowledged the infinite term as a
datum, not for the predicate only, but also for the subject. When
such a term does become the subject, the proposition has a peculiar
character: it represents the explicit assertion of the ordinary “ ex-
ceptives.” “All things except the X’s are Y’s,” gives, directly,
“ All not-X’s are Y’s.”
It is curious to mark those ancient forms re-appearing, as data,
in two recent systems.
1. Exceptive propositions give the foundation to Dr Boole’s in¬
genious method of resolving (as others have attempted to resolve
otherwise) all assertion into affirmation. His formula, “Y = X
- Z,” is interpretable as “The Y’s—are—those X’s which are
not Z’s.” If, then, it is presupposed (as his notation postulates),
that X is a genus containing the two species Y and Z, the assertion
may take this form: “ The Y’s—are—Not-Zs;’ which is equi¬
valent to denying a term of its co-ordinate.
2. The infinite term, again, yields the characteristic forms to
the scheme of predication worked out by Professor De Morgan,
through the terms which he inconveniently calls contraries (i.e.,
contradictories in the received nomenclature, as X and Not-X). Ad¬
mitting “ infinites,” both as subjects and as predicates, he gains, as
data for inference, eight “ standard varieties of assertion,” all treat¬
able as A, E, I, 0. The first four have, as subjects, positive terms
(X) : the last four have infinite subjects (not-X), and are virtually
exceptives. Mr De Morgan is perfectly correct in deriving from each
of his eight leading propositions two others, which thus make up his
“ contranominal” forms of predication to twenty-four. Only, not
distinguishing between conversion proper and conversion through
LOGIC.
603
Doctrine of 66. In a large majority of logical systems, the name of
inference. Opposition is so applied, as to include Subalternation along
with those other three relations to which, here, the name is
The kinds limited. The three are these : Contrariety, Sub-contrariety,
of opposi- an,j Contradiction. The outline of the scheme, thus em-
non as com- bracing all the four, may be used as an introduction to our
sc ibcd separate examination or each.
No propositional forms but A, E, I, and O, being ad¬
mitted, we can, with any two common terms, form four pro¬
positions only. Any two of these are said to be opposed to
each other, in respect that they must differ either in quantity
or in quality, or in both. The kinds of opposition thus ap¬
pearing are four.
I. Propositions agreeing in quality, but differing in quan¬
tity, are called, in reference to each other, Subalterns. The
universal is the Subalternant, the particular the Subalter¬
nate. Any two terms furnish two pairs of subalterns: A
and I, E and O. The same laws govern both pairs : hence
the relation has only one name.
II. Any two terms furnish also two pairs of propositions,
agreeing in quantity, but differing m quality. The same
laws do not govern both pairs: there are two relations, and
hence two names. (1.) The two universals, A and E, are
called Contraries. (2.) The two particulars, I and O, are
called Subcontraries.
III. Propositions differing both in quantity and in quality
are called Contradictories. Any two terms furnish two such
pairs : A and O, E and I. There is here but one relation,
and hence one name.
It is convenient to be thus enabled to look, at one glance,
over all the possible combinations of the same two terms in
assertions of inclusion and exclusion. The survey is usually
facilitated, in the books, by the placing of the four symbolic
letters in the angles of a square; the universals standing
above and the particulars below, affirmatives on the left
hand and negatives on the right. The relations or affec¬
tions of each two propositions are then expressible by
names placed in the sides of the square and in its dia¬
gonals.1
. But subalternation, yielding a consequent consistent with
the antecedent, and the other relations, yielding conse¬
quents inconsistent with the antecedents, ought, as modes
of inference, to be in some way distinguished from each
other: and the name of opposition, aptly designating the
last three, is hardly germain to the first.
n/char-6" 67. The rules which determine the deducible truth or
tor of in- falsehood of the consequents gained through Opposition
fai ence by proper, are, for all the modes, so very obvious, that in most
opposition of our English treatises they are laid down without proof,
tooper. B(:t it is right to show, as briefly as may be, yet without
contraposition, he leaves in implication, in each of his deductions,
one stop, which, if supplied, would enable us to make all his infer¬
ences through the received rules. The omitted step is always a
simple converse, from which his second consequent is deducible : for
A and 0 it is the converse of the first consequent, for E and I the
converse of the given antecedent, llis first and eighth forms will
illustrate both cases. 1. “All X’s—are—Y’b (A^^Contraposita :
The X’s—are not—Not-Y’s (E)= Converse ; The Not-Y’s—are not
-X s (I'Y) — Contraposita : All Not-Y’s—are—Not-X's (A).” 2.
“ &ome Not-X’s—are—Not-\r’s (I)= Contraposita : Some Not X’s
are not (0)—Converse of the I: Some Not-Y’s—are—Not-
X's (l)=Contraposita; Some Not-Y’s—are not—X’s (0).” All Mr
De Morgan s eight contranominals are set forth by Boethius, in his
Introductio in Syllogismos Categoricos {Opera, ed. 1570, p. 570, and
elsewhere).
1 \\ e very often speak of assertions which we hold to he contra¬
dictory of each other, as being “ diametrically opposed.” The
phrase is one of many which have migrated into common life from
tne scholastic cloisters. Substitute, for the square in whose angles
tLe symbolic letters are now usually placed, a circle described
about it. The diagonals of the square become diameters of the
circle; and the cairs of contradictories stand at their extremities.
leaps in argument, bow they are traceable to the law of Doctrine of
non-contradiction in one or more of its phases. inference.
That which we seek to infer through opposition, is not a
Consequent consistent with the antecedent; not a conse¬
quent whose truth is involved in the truth, or its falsehood
in the falsehood, of the antecedent. We seek a consequent
inconsistent with the antecedent,—a consequent so related to
the antecedent, that the truth of the latter shall involve the
falsehood of the former, and the falsehood of the latter the
truth of the former. In a word, our two propositions ought
to be so related, that the laws of difference and excluded
middle shall strike at them directly: they should be per¬
emptorily and necessarily contradictory of each other; like
the assertion, “ X is Y,” as compared with the assertion,
“ X is Not-Y.”
But our subject, being a common term, may be either
distributed or undistributed. This variability takes away
the power of applying the two laws with the same simple
universality, in which they govern propositions whose sub¬
jects are singulars. We have to take account of the iden¬
tity and non-identity of classes and parts of classes, in all
the modes of combination allowed by the four propositional
forms. Having completed this inspection, we find that the
contradiction between antecedent and consequent is not
universally and formally guaranteed, unless when the two
propositions have a maximum of difference, that is, unless
when they differ both in quality and in quantity.
Accordingly, propositions thus related are called Contra¬
dictories by way of eminence. This kind of opposition
leads always from affirmation to denial, and from denial to
affirmation. Its rules, if first established, facilitate the proof
of the rules governing the other two: Contrary opposition,
which leads only from affirmation to denial; Subcontrary
opposition, which leads only from denial to affirmation.
Subalternation, which leads from affirmation to affirmation,
or from denial to denial, will find its place afterwards, and
complete our review of the relations connecting all propo¬
sitions framed with the same subject and the same pre¬
dicate.
68. That relation of propositions which, as yielding the Inference
only peremptory inconsistency, is emphatically called Con- ^ contra-
tradiction, subsists between A and O, and between E and I.
Of any two contradictory propositions, the one must betrueiJ0S1 10n‘
and the other false. If the antecedent is admitted, the
consequent must be denied: if the antecedent is denied,
the consequent must be admitted.
If we had to seek the contradictory of a given proposi¬
tion, the problem would in effect be this : Given an asser¬
tion which is assumed to be either true or false ; to find
the narrowest assertion that would, in all possible instances,
be inconsistent with the assumption.
The solution might be attained very easily through the
laws which govern concepts. If we start from one of the
universals as true, we assume that a whole class of objects
have (or want) a certain attribute. We have thus a pro¬
position either in A or in E. Evidently inconsistent with
this would be the truth of the opposite universal (E or A),
asserting that none of the objects have (or want) the attri¬
bute. But, if our first universal were assumed to be false,
there would not be a necessary inconsistency between this
assumption and the truth of. the opposite universal. Though
we have denied that all the objects have (or want) the at¬
tribute, we may still be able either to affirm, or to deny,
that none of them have (or want) it. A thorough-going
inconsistency, therefore, does not subsist between the uni¬
versals. But there is such an inconsistency between a uni¬
versal and the opposite particular. If it be true that all
the objects have the attribute, it must be false that some of
them have it not: if it be false that all the objects have it,
it must be true that some of them have it not. The eon-
604
LOGIC.
Doctrine of tradiction keeps its hold, whether we take, as our antece-
inference. t]ie uniVersal or the particular.
vThe leaning of affirmation and negation on identity and
difference, and the necessary determination of thought to¬
wards the one or the other, may be brought to light as af¬
fecting these results, by the scrutiny of an example. The
A and O will suffice: “ All X’s are some Y’s” (A) ;
“ Some X’s are not any Y’s” (O).
The A is interpretable thus: “ All the objects we call X—
are identical with—some of the objects we call Y.” The O
is thus interpretable: “ Some of the objects we call X—are
non-identical with—all the objects we call Y.”
In the first place, both of these assertions cannot be
true. If we are entitled to affirm that all the objects X are
the same objects which (with others) we call Y, we are
much within the mark of safety, when we deny that some of
the objects X are different objects from all those which we
call Y. If we are entitled to affirm that some of the ob¬
jects X are different objects from all those we call Y, we
cannot possibly affirm also, that all the objects X are the
same objects with some of those we call Y. If both asser¬
tions were true, there would be some X’s which are iden¬
tical with some Y’s, yet non-identical with any Y’s. We
should, in effect, have affirmed, of the same subject, two
contradictory predicates, Y and Not-Y.
On the other hand, both of the assertions cannot be
false. Every thinkable object must be either Y or Not-Y.
All the X’s must either be some of the Y’s, that is, identi¬
cal with some of the objects in the sphere of Y ; or they
must be some of the Not-Y’s, that is, some of the objects
which are beyond that sphere.
In short, the one of the two assertions must be true, the
other false. If the antecedent is given as true, we do, in
other words, affirm the identity or non-identity of the ob¬
jects designated by the terms : the consequent in this case
involves a denial of that identity or non-identity. If the
antecedent is given as false, we thus deny the identity or
non-identity of the objects: and in this case the consequent
involves an affirmation of that identity or non-identity.
Inference 69. The relation of Contrariety subsists between A and E.
by contrary Qf two contrary propositions, both cannot be true, but both
opposition. may fa]se_ tjie antecedent is admitted, the consequent
must be denied : but though the antecedent should be de¬
nied, the consequent is not therefore necessarily admitted.
(1.) The objects denoted by the term which is the sub¬
ject are the same in the two propositions: “ All the X’s
are Y’s” (A); “ the X’s are not Y’s” (E). If both were
true, the two would coalesce into the one self-contradictory
assertion, that the X’s are both Y’s and Not-Y’s. There¬
fore, if either is true, the other must be false.
(2.) The assumption that A is false, amounts to this only :
it is not true that all the objects of a class possess a certain
attribute. But this leaves open either of two cases. First,
it may be true that none of the objects of the class possess
the attribute ; that is, in other words, the E is true. Se¬
condly, it may be true, that some of the objects do possess
the attribute; that is, the I is true. But if the I is true,
its contradictory must be false: and that contradictory is
the E. I he same proof would be applicable if we made
the E our starting-point. Therefore, though one of the
contraries is false, the other may be either false or true.
by^sub-06 „ | ration of Subcontrariety subsists between I and
contrary , ' Of two subcontrary propositions, both cannot be false,
opposition. hoth may be true. It the antecedent is denied, the
consequent must be admitted : but though the antecedent
should be admitted, the consequent is not therefore neces¬
sarily denied.
Our propositions are these : “ Some X’s are Y’s” (I) ;
ome X s are not Y’s” (O). Evidently there are here the
narrowest possible grounds of determination. The inter- Doctrine of
pretation of the sign of quantitative limitation must be nar- inference,
rowly looked to.
(1.) If the subject were quantitatively definite, it would
signify, for each of the two propositions, “ Certain X’s
“ Those X’s of which I now think.” We should, on that
supposition, have to demand an answer to the question ;
whether the X’s thought of in the I are the same X’s which
are thought of in the O, or a different group of X’s. If
they are the same X’s, the two propositions have the same
subject, and are inconsistent. If the X’s are different X’s,
the two propositions have different subjects ; and an asser¬
tion in regard to the one subject determines nothing for an
assertion in regard to the other. In effect, the term “ Cer¬
tain X’s” is, as was noted in a preceding section, virtually
equivalent to a common term distributed: the propositions
are in substance universal, both of them, however, having,
as subjects, terms which are ambiguous.
(2.) The subject being quantitatively indefinite, according
to the orthodox logical interpretation of the sign, the case
stands quite otherwise. The subject constitutes, of the ob¬
jects denotable by the subject-term, a part which is in every
direction indefinite: the part is some or other, a few or
many, some and perhaps all, but without our being entitled
positively to assume all.
First, then, let either of the propositions be assumed to be
false. It is false that “ Some X’s are Y’s” (I). But, by the
law of excluded middle, all the X’s, like all other thinkable
things, must either be or not be Y’s. Since, then, we have
denied the assertion that some of them are Y’s, we are
driven on the assertion that some of them are not Y s. If
the I is false, the O must be true. Starting from the O, we
should reach the same result in regard to the I.—The de¬
monstration may be made more exact, if we choose to an¬
ticipate the doctrine of subalternation. It is false that
“ Some X’s are Y’s” (I) : therefore the contradictory of the
I must be true ; that is, it is true that “ The X’s (any) are
not Y’s” (E). Therefore the subalternate of the E must
be true ; that is, it is true that “ Some of the X’s are not
Y’s” (O).
Next, let either of the propositions be given as true. It
is true that “ Some X’s are Y’s” (I). Noticing is thus given
as to the whole class X : for aught we know, all the X’s
may be Y’s, or some of them may not be Y’s. If “ All the
X’s are Y’s” (A), the O will be false, as being the contradic¬
tory of A : if “ Some of the X’s are not Y’s,” this is a direct
assertion of the truth of the O.
71. The relation of Subalternation subsists between A inference
and I, and between E and O. By subalternation we may by subal-
infer, either from whole to part, or from part to whole ; from ternation.
subalternant to subalternate, or from subalternate to subal¬
ternant.
In inference from Subalternant to Subalternate, if the an¬
tecedent is admitted, the consequent must be admitted. In
inference from Subalternate to Subalternant, if the antece¬
dent is denied, the consequent must be denied.
The peremptory consequences go no further. If the
subalternant, as antecedent, is denied, the subalternate, as
consequent, is not therefore, necessarily, either denied or ad¬
mitted. If the subalternate, as antecedent, is admitted, the
subalternant, as consequent, is not therefore, necessarily,
either admitted or denied.
Let our propositions be the affirmatives: “ All the X’s
are Y’s” (A); “ Some of the X’s are Y’s” (I). None of
the preceding modes of inference lean, so openly as this,
on the laws of predication through ordinated terms. From
these laws, indeed, the rules might be directly deduced.
The “ all X’s” and “ some X’s,” stand really in the relation
of superordinate and subordinate. If the “ some X’s” had
a name, as “ all Z’s,” they would constitute a sub-class in-
LOGIC.
605
Doctrine of eluded in the class X; and, if the fact were so, all the
inference, cases both of affirmation and of denial would be regulated,
^ directly, by the canons laid down for predication in exten¬
sion. But subalternation stands on the hypothesis, that the
class denoted by the subject has not been divided into sub¬
classes ; and, on this footing, the rules may be justified by
an immediate appeal to the elementary and universal prin¬
ciples of predication.
(1.) Of two subaltern propositions, both may be true, or
both false.
Formally, we cannot determine which of the alternatives
holds. If all the objects denotable by the subject-term are
denotable also by the predicate-term, the A is true; and
consequently the I also is true, the particular sign having
its usual logical meaning. If none of the objects denotable
by the subject-term are denotable by the predicate-term,
we should contradict this assertion by affirming the predi¬
cate of the subject either in whole or in part: A and I
would, both of them, be false. The negatives are readily
determinable in the same way.
(2.) If the subalternant is true, the subalternate must be
true: if the subalternant is false, the subalternate may be
either false or true.
The first section of this rule follows from the character
of the logical “ some,” of which we have just been reminded.
This, the most obvious law of subalternation, is also that
which is most widely applicable. But suppose A to be
false: it is false that “ All the X’s are Y’s.” This assump¬
tion is consistent with the supposition that the E is true;
and, if so, I, the contradictory of E, is false. It is consis¬
tent also with the supposition that the I is true: though it
is not true that all the objects of a class have the attribute
Y, it may be true that some of them have it.
(3.) If the subalternate is false, the subalternant must be
false; if the subalternate is true, the subalternant may be
either true or false.
On the one hand, suppose the subalternate I to be false.
Then its contradictory E must be true ; and A, the contrary
of E, must be false. Or take it thus: By hypothesis, the
I is false. Assume the A to be true ; therefore all its sub¬
alternates are true, which is contradictory of the hypothesis:
therefore, by the law of excluded middle, the A must be
false.
On the other hand, suppose the subalternate I to be true.
Having learned nothing as to the whole class of X’s, we are
at liberty to assert also that the A is true. Or, with equal
right, we may assert that O, the subcontrary, is true; but,
if so, the A, its contradictory, must be false.
The re. 72. By Conversion we gain a consequent, which must be
ceived admitted if the antecedent is admitted. When the conver-
rules of in- sion is thorough, the consequent must also be denied if the
ference by antecedent is denied. Thorough conversion is reciprocal,
conversion. But a defect in the received method of converting A makes
it an exception: the denial of A, as antecedent, does not
enforce the denial of the proposition usually accepted as its
consequent.
The common doctrine of Conversion may be explained
as follows:—
Conversion of a proposition is the transposition of its
terms. I he antecedent is called the Convertend, or Ex-
posita (the proposition set forth to be converted) ; the con¬
sequent is called the Converse (the given proposition con¬
verted). I he formal rule is this : that no term which was
undistributed in the convertend shall be distributed in the
converse. The reason is plain. Conversion is an illative or
inferential process: it aims, in the narrowest view, at de¬
ducing a proposition which must be true if the given pro¬
position is true; and from an assertion of il some” given as
true, we cannot deduce an assertion of “all” as true. The
received propositional forms, A, E, I, O, being regarded as
the only cognizable forms, the non-distribution of terms in Doctrine of
some of these makes it impossible, that each of them shall inference.
yield a converse of the same form as the convertend. Ac-
cordingly, three methods of conversion are laid down, as ap¬
plicable severally to the several forms: Simple Conversion ;
Conversion Per Accidens; Conversion by (properly through
or after) Contraposition.
(1.) Simple Conversion is a mere transposition of the terms
of the convertend, both quantity and quality remaining un¬
changed. We may thus convert E, which, distributing both
terms, yields another E. The given predicate, being dis¬
tributed, becomes legitimately the subject of a universal:
the given subject, being distributed, becomes legitimately
the predicate of a negative. Thus, also, we may convert I,
which, distributing neither term, yields another I. The pre¬
dicate, though undistributed, is legitimately usable as the
subject of a particular: the subject, though undistributed,
is legitimately usable as the predicate of an affirmative.
Thus: “ The X’s are not any Y’s,” gives, “ The Y’s are
not any X’s.” “ Some X’s are some Y’s,” gives, “ Some Y’s
are some X’s.”
(2.) Conversion per accidens is a transposition of the
terms of the convertend, without change of the quality, but
with a limitation of the quantity from universal to parti¬
cular. A is not convertible simply into an A, because its
predicate is undistributed. But we may convert it, per ac¬
cidens, into an I: its predicate, though undistributed, may
become the subject of a particular. “ All X’s are some
Y’s,” cannot become “ All Y’s are X’sbut it does give,
“ Some Y’s are X’s.” Thus, also, it is said, we may con¬
vert E into O. But the process yielding the O is really
double: its second step is an inference from subalternant
to subalternate. “ The X’s are not Y’s,” gives, by simple
conversion, “ The Y’s are not X’swhence comes, by sub¬
alternation, “ Some Y’s are not X’s.” For E, indeed, the
process is seldom, if ever, put to use.
(3.) Conversion through Contraposition is truly, like the
conversion of E into O, a double process. From the con¬
vertend there is first inferred an equivalent contraposita ;
and then this contraposita is converted. This complexity
must be exhibited, if we are to explain rightly the character
of the process. Being usually required only for O and A,
it is treated in most of the books with exclusive reference
to them. But it covers E likewise. (1.) O cannot be con¬
verted directly. For its subject, being undistributed, cannot
become the predicate of a negative; and the attempt to infer
an affirmative with the same terms, would be self-evidently
absurd. But, the negative sign of the copula being trans¬
ferred to the predicate, we have thus inferred, from the O,
its contraposita, an equipollent I: “ Some X’s are not Y’s,”
becomes “ Some X’s—are—(some) Not-Y’s.” This contra¬
posita I is then simply converted into another I: “ Some
Not-Y’s are X’s.” (2.) A, though convertible directly, per
accidens, is also convertible through contraposition. We
first contrapose, by substituting, for the affirmation of the
predicate, the denial of its contradictory, which transforms
A into E: “All X’s are (some) Y’s,” gives, “ The X’s—are
not—(any) Not-Y’s.” The contraposita E is then simply
converted into E : “ The Not-Y’s—are not—(any) X’s.”
(3.) E also is evidently so convertible: its contraposita is an
A, the converse of which, per accidens, is an I. But, for E,
no use is made of the process. (4.) I is evidently not so
convertible: its contraposita would be an O; which does
not admit direct conversion.1
1 The Rules of Conversion, by all its three methods, were sym¬
bolized by the schoolmen in two mnemonic lines, in which the
vowels of the nominative words designate the forms A, E, I, 0.
“ Feci simpliciter convertitur; ev<z per accid.;
Faxo (or asto) per contra.: sic fit conversio tota.”
If, the antecedent being true, the consequent is therefore true, why
GOG
L O G I C.
Doctrine of Some logicians, both ancient and modern, have denied, on
inference. ;nsufficient grounds, the competency of conversion through
contraposition. They hold O to be inconvertible ; and, of
course, they decline to use the indirect process for A. They
thus narrow our power of dealing with the two most difficult
of the syllogistic moods.
Systemati'
zation of
the rules
of conver¬
sion.
73. The received doctrine, when reduced thoroughly to
a system, gives the following results :—
(1.) There are really no more than two methods of con¬
version : conversion simple, applicable to E and I; conver¬
sion per accidens, applicable to A. O is not convertible
by either method.
(2.) Every proposition admits contraposition; and of every
form, except I, the contraposita is convertible. O becomes
thus convertible indirectly, but not otherwise: its contra¬
posita, an I, may be converted simply. A and E also arc
convertible through contraposition : the contraposita of A,
being an E, is convertible simply ; the contraposita of E, be¬
ing an A, is convertible per accidens.
(3.) Since the converse of E admits a subalternate, E is
thus indirectly convertible into O.
(4.) The four received forms of propositions thus admit,
either directly or indirectly, the following converses, all of
which are currently recognized:—A yields directly I, in¬
directly E: E yields directly E, indirectly O : I yields
directly I: O yields indirectly I. E yields also, indirectly,
an I, not currently recognized.
The rule by which these processes are guarded, and the
directions given for its use, are traceable upwards, by a very
short resolution, to the law of non-contradiction, as brought
to bear on predication through common terms. The ob¬
jects denoted by the subject (of which the quantitative sign
is an integral part), and the objects denoted by the predi¬
cate (the quantitative sign again considered), are thought
as identical when the convertend is affirmative, as non¬
identical when the convertend is negative. If both con¬
vertend and converse affirm when the objects are thought
as identical, and deny when the objects are thought as non¬
identical, each of the terms may be indifferently subject or
predicate. The rule, as to distribution of terms, simply
prohibits us from interpolating, through either term of the
converse, assertion in regard to any objects not named in
the convertend.
Supple- 74. The strict application of the law of identity shows,
men t to the at a glance, that the converses of E, I, and O, must be false
doctrine of jf tjle convertends ax*e false. It shows also that, and how,
conversion. consequence should, but, on the ordinary interpretation
of I, does not, follow as to the converse of A.
Whenever “ all” is given in the convertend, we are un¬
questionably entitled to “all” in the converse. We have a
right to infer, in converting A, not I merely, but P. “ All
X’s—are—some Y’s,” being an affirmation of the identity
of subject and predicate, yields, lawfully, “ Some Y’s—are
—all X’s.” If the A is denied, so must the P be: if it is
denied that “ All men—are—(some) liars,” it must be de¬
nied that “ Some liars—are—all men (the only men).”
But, P being unacknowledged in the orthodox scheme, the
recognized and only possible converse of A is I: and, mani¬
festly, though it were denied that “All the X’s are some
Y’s,” this does not necessitate the denial that “ Some Y’s
are some X’s.”
^ Is the received converse of A, then, logically incorrect ?
Not in the least. The case is only that, read as an I, it
do geometers prove both a theorem and its converse ? Because the
pi oposition which they (and all of us, sometimes, in common speech)
call a converse, is not a logical converse. It has not either term the
same with either term of the proposition which is nominally its
alleges less widely than it might: the fault, like every othe1 Doctrine of
in the current systems, lies on the side of safety. inference. :
The truth is, that, in the conversion of A into I, there lies v—
hidden a process of subalternation. The A yields I2 as its
exhaustive converse, which is true if the convertend be true,
but false ii the convertend be false. The I, which is usually
accepted as the converse of the A, is virtually a subalter¬
nate of this full converse : it is true, by the principle of sub-
alternation, if its subalternant is true; but it may, by the
same principle, be either true or false if its subalternant be
false.1
4 he process of conversion has thus been considered from
the common pesition, with the one exception of A. Its
laws liave been referred to the principle of non-contradic¬
tion, as it affects propositions regarded without the analytic
dissection of the wholes of the common term. So long as
we do not seek to apply the process to any use beyond the
determination of the consequent, no deeper analysis is re¬
quired.
But, when we have to consider the bearing of conversion
on the syllogism, it will become imperatively necessary to
look at the process from a more commanding station. Its
true character, as being a transference of predication from
extension to comprehension, or contrariwise, will then come
out with irresistible force of evidence.
75. In the preceding treatment of the doctrine of imme- Inferences
diate inference, no predicative forms are accepted as data,from ancl* to
except the received propositions of inclusion and exclusion, ProPosi’
r 1 1 ’ tions of
. constitu-
1 This cryptic process may be brought to the surface without I2, ^on
but still more readily through it.
(1.) Let both A and I be given : “All the X’s are some Y’s,”
and “ Some X’s are some Y’s.” The I, “ Some Y’s are some X’s,”
which we are required to accept as the converse of the former, is
the full and genuine converse of the latter. Surely it will not be
maintained that the subalternant can yield no wider inference than
the subalternate. Our process implies our having first inferred an I
from A by subalternation, and then simply converted the I. It is
thus, in fact, that the conversion of A into I is justified by Boethius.
(Opera, p. 575.)
(2.) If I2 is taken into account, there emerges a relation of the
propositions, which is disguised by the imperfection of the quanti¬
tative signs, yet is exactly conformable to admitted logical laws.
I is virtually a subalternate of I2, and is therefore inferrible from,
it. Given l2 : “ Some X’s—are—all Y’s (the only Y’s) we find
I: “ Some X’s (fewer than the first ‘ some ’)—are—some Y’s.” If
a part of the X’s constitute a whole class Y, then, plainly, a part
of that part of the X’s must constitute a part of the class Y. AVhen
we compare our two propositions, we discover that our indeter¬
minate particularity, though still indeterminate, has shrunk in
the higher limit of its dimensions. The “ some X’s ” of our I are
only “some of the some X’s” of our I2. It is true that“ Some mor¬
tal creatures are all (the only) human beings and what follows,
on the principle of subalternation, is, that “ Some of those some
mortal creatures are some human beings.”
The question raised by the assumed falsehood of A is here equally
easy of decision. There is no inconsistency in our holding I2 to be
false (as it must be, if the conyertend A is so), and in yet finding
it impossible to determine whether the subalternate I be false or
true. Our denying an assertion, made as to the whole of the first
and larger part of our X’s, does not give the slightest reason for
denying the same assertion as to a part of that part.
In that aspect of the case which was first presented, the conver¬
sion of A into I was alleged to imply a subalternation followed by a
conversion: in the other aspect, it has been alleged to imply a con¬
version followed by a subalternation. The two views, though the
latter more directly than the other, conduct us to the same re¬
sult. It is demonstrable, on grounds purely logical, that, when
we accept, as a conversion of A, its transformation into an I, the
inference covers a part of the subject-class, which, although
indeterminate, is yet smaller, possibly or actually, and must ne¬
cessarily be thought as smaller, than the part as to which the in¬
ference might have been drawn. If, therefore, in a process of
reasoning, an A is one of our steps, and if, requiring to convert it,
we content ourselves with I, we are indeed safe as to the subse¬
quent progress of the argument ; but we have narrowed our data in
a way which may force a narrowing of our ultimate result.
LOGIC.
607
Doctrine of A, I, E, O. Nor has it been necessary to take account of
inference. any other lorms, unless in showing that F gives the only
hill expression for the converse of A.
If the two propositions of constitution, A2 and F, are
combined, first with each other, and afterwards with each
of the four received forms, there appear nine pairs of predi¬
cations, involving a new series of relations. These are sin¬
gularly barren as grounds of immediate inference. The
fact intimates, not only how seldom such assertions can
enter into our ordinary trains of thinking; but likewise how
little reason there is for hoping, that their incorporation with
the received scheme would materially increase the applica¬
bilities of logical science.
One striking point is this. No two of the new pairs of
propositions would be formally contradictories: no two are
so related, that the one must be true and the other false.
We gain only relations corresponding to subalternation and
contrariety, with one which resembles subcontrariety.
This supplementary scheme of inference, in short, is
philosophically interesting rather than practically useful.
The subjoined summary will indicate all the results that can
here be dealt with.*
* The details may he gleaned from the table given (with warning
that it “ may not be quite accurate in details”), by Hamilton, Discus¬
sions, Appendix, ii., p. 637. In that table, a distinct separation is
made, between the relations arising out of the two interpretations
of the limitative sign, as “ some at least,” and “ some at most;” both
of which Sir W. Hamilton desires to introduce into the science.
Neither of the interpretations seems to be excluded by Mr Thom¬
son in his “ Tables of Opposition of Judgments.” (Laws of Thought,
ed. 1854, p. 197.) Notice has already been given, that, in the
present treatise, the received interpretation, “ some at least,” is
steadily adhered to : if there be any deviation, it is an oversight.
1. The following four pairs of propositions are virtually con¬
traries : A and I2, A2 and E, A2 and 0, I2 and E. On the assump¬
tion, that the “ some ” is “ some at least,” both cannot be true, but
both may be false. We may infer, therefore, from the truth of
either to the falsehood of the other, but not inversely.
2. On the same assumption, these two pairs are virtually subal¬
terns : A2 is subalternant, I is subalternate; l2 is subalternant, I is
subalternate. If the subalternant is true, the subalternate is true,
an din ay be inferred from it. If “ All X’s are all Y’s,” it follows,
that “ Some X’s are some Y’s:” the quantity of both terms is ex¬
pressly limited. If, again, “ Some X’s are all Y’s,” it follows, that
“ Some X’s are some Y’s.” The quantity of the predicate is ex¬
pressly limited, but that of the subject also is limited in reality :
the “ some X’s ” which are identical with “some Y’s,” are not
thought as being as extensive with, but as being possibly only a
part of, the “ some X’s” which are identical with “ all Y’s.”
In regard, however, to those six pairs of propositions, the oppo¬
site interpretation of the “ some” would leave the relations unaf¬
fected. As to the other three pairs, the case stands quite other¬
wise.
3. In either view, I2 and 0 approach the relation of subcontra¬
ries. (1.) If the “ some ” is “ some at least,” the two propositions
stand thus :—If I2 is true, O must be false ; admitting l2, therefore,
we may inferentially deny 0. But, if O is true, I2 may be either
true or false. And both may be false. (2.) If the “ some ” is
“ some at most,” then, since this excludes “all,” I2 being true, 0
is inferentially true likewise. If it be assumed as true (see Hamil¬
ton, p. 636), that “ Some dogs (but not all) are all animals that
bark,” it must follow, as true, that “ Some dogs (but not all) are
not any animals that bark.”
4. The two pairs still to be considered are, A2 and A, A2 and I2.
The relations of both are troublesome. By Mr Thomson these pairs
are described as “ inconsistent,” (that is, as affirmatives standing in
the relation of contrariety). In Hamilton’s table, the pairs are
<c inconsistent ” on the assumption of “some at most:” on the
other assumption, they are not marked at all; but neither is any
inference stated as admissible'from the one to the other. In other
passages, however, Sir W. Hamilton seems to disallow the consis¬
tency of A2 and A, from which doctrine would follow the inconsis¬
tency of the other pair.
(1.) If the “ some ” is “ some at most,” the pairs stand, plainly,
in relations of contrariety ; the causes of the inconsistency lying
more or less deep according to the quantity of the terms. (2.) If
the “ some ” is “ some at least,” it is not easy to discover sufficient
reasons for refusing to classify the pairs with the other subalterns.
For, in this view, in the first place, A is only an incomplete or
r cautious assertion of A2, and may safely be inferred from it: if it Doctrine of
is true that “ All X’s are all Y’s,” it must be true that “ All X’s inference,
are at least some of the Y’s, and perhaps all of them.” Or we
might take the question thus : If the X’s constitute the class Y,
every individual X must be identical with some one or other of the
.Y’s. This, perhaps, is the plainer case of the two. If, again, the
limitation, which here falls on the predicate, were to be transferred
to the subject, the A2 would yield I2. “ Some at least, and perhaps
all, the X’s, are all Y’s.” But as to this derivative assertion (l2),
even though we should be satisfied that it sustains the formal test,
we cannot but see that it serves no use. The limitation of the pre¬
dicate had given us, in the A, an assertion easily thinkable as con¬
tained under the admitted A2 : but the limitation of the subject is
virtually a thinking awmy of our A2, and the substituting, in its
place, of a judgment which leaves the A2 as doubted.
This glance towards the practical side, suggests yet a wider con¬
sideration. Using words in their ordinary meanings, no one would
dream of inferring, from A2, either A or I2. But why ? Because
our spontaneous “ some ” is always “ some at most, some not all.”
In any use, therefore, which is not guarded by technical rules, the
pairs would do duty as contraries.
Still, it must be added (not without reluctance), the more cauti¬
ous interpretation of the “ some ” is, in the first place, the only one
that can be brought to bear on the received logical system. That
system falls to pieces as soon as the other interpretation is let in.
Inference, for instance, from subalternant to subalternate, with all
its syllogistic applications, requires the former as a foundation.
Again, it has not yet been made unquestionable, that the “some not
all” is positively required, even for the new system which has been
proposed as supplementary to the old. At all events, the dealing
with it must be left to those by whom the thorough development of
the new system may be undertaken.
CHAPTER III.
CATEGORICAL INFERENCE, MEDIATE OR SYLLOGISTIC.
DIVISION I.—THE FORMAL DOCTRINE OF THE SYLLOGISM.
Article I.—TJte Form of the Syllogism.
76. A simple Categorical Syllogism lias three terms : the The formal
Major, the Minor, and the Middle.1 Each of these occurs elements of
twice in the process. The minor and major terms are, re- the syllo-
spectively, the subject and the predicate of the consequent, sism‘
and are often spoken of as the Extremes. The middle
term is that which appears only in the antecedent. All
the three names are significant. The middle term is in¬
troduced merely as a standard by which each of the other
two may be measured: and, when an affirmative syllogism
is reduced to its normal shape, this term is found to stand
between the others, including the one, and being included
in the other.2 In a syllogism so reduced, the minor term
•is seen to be that term which is included in the middle, the
major term to be that which includes it.
The syllogism, when fully set forth, lias three proposi¬
tions. Two of these, which together constitute the antece¬
dent of the inference, are called the Premises: and this
name is applicable, not merely because they are made to
stand before the consequent when the argument is set down
for logical analysis, but also because they are the data and
presuppositions of the process. The third proposition is the
consequent.
1 This division of the chapter on the syllogism is designed to be
an exposition of the received syllogistic scheme, embracing both the
formal principles and all the special rules that have practical uses,
and deviating as little as possible from the method followed in the
standard books. Archbishop Whately’s exposition, here as elsewhere,
•is admirable; and the details of processes are worked out with great
exactness by Iluyshe, Treatise on Logic, 1842. The doctrine is very
instructively summed up from a higher point of view by Solly.
2 The name “ Argument,” used commonly and conveniently to
signify the process of inference as a wffiole, was currently applied
by old logicians to the middle term. This meaning of the word has
uses dialectical or rhetorical. The discovery of arguments, in proof
of proposed conclusions, is resolvable into the discovery of middle
terms.
608
LOGIC.
Doctrine of The premise, whose two terms are the major and the
inference. middle, is called the Major Premise : the premise, whose
two terms are the minor and the middle, is called the Minor
Premise : the one proposition which is the consequent, and
whose terms are the minor and the major, is called the Con¬
clusion.1
The order of the propositions is a matter indifferent to
the character of the argument. If we propose the conse¬
quent, in the shape of a problem or question, to be solved or
answered through the antecedent, the conclusion, when as¬
certained, may stand first; and the premises will then follow
as a reason, introduced by causal particles, as “ because.”
But, in logical treatment of arguments, we assume the pre¬
mises as given, and place them first; and we add the con¬
clusion, introducing it by illative particles, as “ therefore.”
The order of the premises, again, has been fixed differ¬
ently in different logical schools. The real course of the
argument is best seen when the minor premise is put be¬
fore the major. Some points of incidental illustration will,
even now, become clearest when this order is adopted:
and, in the last stage of our dealing with the categorical
syllogism, it will force itself on us continually. But, the
purpose, in the meantime, being to lay down and explain the
received rules, the other order must be adopted. All those
scholastic rules and schemes, which depend on arrangement
of the propositions, suppose them to stand in this order:
Major Premise ; Minor Premise; Conclusion.2
77. In the Conclusion, as we have seen, the function of
each of the terms is fixed. The minor is the subject, the
major the predicate. The fact which fixes it is, the rejec¬
tion of all propositional forms except A, I, E, and O. If
the other possible forms were admitted, the function of the
terms in the conclusion would be indifferent.
The function of the terms is not fixed in the Premises.
The Middle Term, occurring once in each of these, may have
its function varied in any of four several ways; and each
of these variations may, in certain circumstances, be adopted
without invalidating the argument. Accordingly, there are
four admissible variations of the function of the middle
term; and these yield the Four Syllogistic Figures. The
Figure of a syllogism is its structure with reference to the
function of the middle term. Figure, accordingly, is deter¬
mined exclusively by the premises.
In the First Figure, the middle term is the subject of the
major premise, and the predicate of the minor; in the Second
Figure, it is the predicate of both premises; in the Third
Figure, it is the subject of both premises ; in the Fourth
Figure, it is the predicate of the major premise, and the
subject of the minor.3 * *
The figure
and mood
of the syl¬
logism.
1 Other designative names have been given to the premises seve-
rally, but with varieties of application. The major has been called
the Proposition, and, by some of the Germans, the liule (a name
bearing on the first figure). The minor has been called the Assump¬
tion, a name fitter perhaps for the major. It has more aptly beer
called the Subsumption (rr position of minor under middle); and
this name, like so many others of the science, has found its way intc
the nomenclature of business t the word lingers, though with almost
total loss of meaning, in the forms of Scottish law-writs. Hamilton
calls the major premise the Sumption, the minor the Subsumption.
2 Hamilton has summed up much information as to the order ir
which the premises have been arranged at different periods in the
history of the science. (Discussions, p. 645 ; and note in Thomson’s
Laws of Thought, 1854 ; p. 224.)
Ihe fourth figure emerges, necessarily, when we look at the
syllogism in this unanalytic way, asking only whether the middle
erm is subject or predicate. But the figure falls away, as being a
varia ion of the first, if, dissecting the premises, we inquire which
erm is contained in which. So examined, the syllogism gives three
figures only : the first (covering the fourth), in which the middle
cun 18 e ^e.erJ extremes ; the second, in which it stands above
.° 1 ’. e 111 ’ ^ it stands under both. Aristotle, adopt¬
ing this deeper analysis, and fixing no order of premises, recognised
The subject being always understood to stand before the Doctrine of
predicate, the following table exhibits the position of the inference,
terms in each of the four figures. Here, and afterwards.
M denotes the middle term, S the minor, P the major.
figure I.
Major Premise  M P
Minor Premise  S M
Conclusion..   S P
figure II. figure III. figure IV.
PM M P P M
S M M S MS
S P S P S P
The structure of a syllogism, in reference to the quan¬
tity and quality of its propositions, is called its Mood. Those
forms of predication only being taken into account which
are denoted by A, E, I, and O, the moods arithmetically
possible are sixty-four. For any one of the four forms
might supposably be either major premise, minor premise,
or conclusion; and each, appearing in any one proposition,
might be accompanied in each of the other two propositions
by any form of the four. But, as we shall immediately
learn, a very large majority of the sixty-four moods would
produce arguments totally invalid.
Article II.— The Principle of the First Syllogistic Figure.
78. By a large majority of logicians, the First Figure has rj^g cjja_
been recognized as the normal form of the syllogism. In racter of
support of this opinion there is alleged the fact, that in this the first
figure, and in it only, the middle term, the sign of the syllogistic
thought through which the other two terms are united in fig111'6*
one judgment in the conclusion, occupies its just place in
relation to the other two : it includes the minor term, and
is itself included either in the major term or in its contra¬
dictory.
The terms are so related in the follow,ing syllogism of the
first figure, in which, to exhibit the relation more clearly,
the minor premise is placed before the major:—“ All the S’s
are M’s ; all the M’s are P’s : therefore, all the S’s are P’s.”
“ The minor is included in the middle; the middle is in
eluded in the major: therefore, the minor is included in thi
major.”
So is it, too, though the syllogism have a negative con¬
clusion ; as thus: “ All the S’s are M’s; the M’s are not
P’s: therefore, the S’s are not P’s.” For the argument may
be analysed in this way:—“ The minor is included in the
middle ; the middle is included in the contradictory of the
major: therefore, the minor is included in the contradic¬
tory of the major.”
Let us examine, generally, the character of an argument
thus framed. In the first place, it bears on the face of it a
reference, more direct than that made by any other form, to
the principle of non-contradiction. It is an unmistakeable
passage from one identity or non-identity to another. It is
a formula exemplifying a law: “ things which are identical
with the same thing are identical with each other.” In our
affirmative example, it was asserted that S is identical with
a part of M, and the whole of M (including, of course, that
part) with a part of P. Hence it was inferred, that S is iden¬
tical with a part of P, or that the things called S are the same
things which, with other things, are called P. To the nega¬
tive example the same reasoning is applicable, with the sub¬
stitution of Not-P for P.
In the next place, such an argument exhibits, in their
natural order of sequence, the steps of a process of deduc¬
tion. It is asserted that a given case is included in a class
of cases, which are known to be governed by a law or prin¬
ciple assumed as already established. It is inferred that
the given case is governed by that law or principle. “ The
three figures only; and on this view we must in the end fall back.
The source whence the schoolmen borrowed the fourth figure is
doubtful. This figure has, by long tradition, been ascribed to
Galen; but, after careful inspection of the fragmentary logical
notices scattered through his medical writings, both Hamilton and
Trendelenburg have failed to discover it.
logic. 609
Doctrine of given case S is included in the class of cases M; the whole
inference, class of cases M is governed by the law P (or No P): there-
fore, the case S is governed by the law P (or Not-P).”
The dictum 79. Accordingly, there has been assigned, as the supreme
in “Vir and °nIy oriSinal Law of the Syllogism, the maxim which,
whdeof G from on.e of its expressions, is called the Dictum (or dicta)
extension. (^e owme de nullo. In all its shapes, it considers two of
the terms as constituting an ordinated series. But it is
usually framed so as to interpret the ordination from the side
of extension ; seldomer so as to interpret it from the side of
comprehension. It must be examined in both aspects.
(1.) The dictum, as it appears when the terms are read in
extension, is most frequently enounced in such a shape as
this : “ Whatever is predicated (affirmatively or negatively)
of a class, may be predicated in like manner (that is, affir¬
matively or negatively) of everything included in the class.”
A closer approximation to the scheme of the predicables is
gained by this expression : “ Whatever is predicated of a
genus, is predicable also of a species included in the genus.1
In the major premise : Of a class or genus M—there is
affirmed or denied—some thing denoted by P.
In the minor premise : The species S—is affirmed to be
—included in the genus M.
In the conclusion : Of the species S—there is affirmed or
denied—that which is denoted by P.
The terms directly ordinated are the middle and the
minor; the former is the genus, the latter an included
species. The major term denotes an attribute, which is
asserted to be possessed or not possessed by the genus, and
which, therefore, through a double subalternation, is inferred
to be possessed or not possessed by the species. “ All the
M’s have the attribute P (and, consequently, some M’s have
it); but the S’s are some M’s : therefore the S’s have the
attribute P.”
Again, in the dictum, as thus read, the major term is not
expressly embraced in the ordination. It does not directly
require to be so. In both of its appearances it is a predi¬
cate, interpretable as the name of an attribute ; and there¬
fore it does not necessarily receive a place in a series con¬
stituted by terms which are regarded as the names of classes,
containing objects or substances. But its place, as the most
extensive term in the ordination, is unavoidably implied : it
is impossible to read, analytically, any syllogism exemplify¬
ing the dictum, without bringing this relation to light. The
three propositions of a syllogism purely affirmative, are asser¬
tions of three successive and widening steps of inclusion :
the propositions of a syllogism which introduces negatives
are readily and correctly interpretable in the same way, if
only we substitute for the major term its contradictory.
The completed ordination of the terms in extension, from
narrowest to widest, is this : “ S, M, P (or Not-P).” This
gradation is explicated, step by step, when the syllogistic
propositions are arranged thus : minor premise, major pre¬
mise, conclusion. “ All (or some) S’s are in M ; all M’s are
in P (or in Not-P): therefore all (or some) S’s are in P
(or in Not-P).”2
QuMqaid de omni valet, valet etiam de quibusdam et singulis
(the dictum de omni ”); quidquid de nullo valet, valet nec de
quibusdam nec de singulis (the “ dictum de nullo ”).—Quidquid
valet de genere, valet etiam de specie: quidquid repugnat generi,
repugnat etiam speciei. x o o
Ibis resolution of negative syllogisms into affirmatives is, evi-
ent y, througn contraposition of the major premise and the conclu¬
sion. t is possible in the first figure, because in it the major term
is always a predicate. Since, therefore, it is always competent
thus to substitute, for a proposition of exclusion, its equipollent
proposition of inclusion, the dictum de nullo might be dispensed
with. But, though the contraposition is often convenient, and
though, especially, it gives the clearest view over the ordination of
the terms ; yet it is not a safe operation where the validity of a
chain of syllogisms is under scrutiny. If we were to contrapose a
VOL. XIII.
Otherwise, indeed, syllogisms in which negatives are in- Doctrine of
troduced might, easily, be traced back to a pre-ordination inference,
without displacement of the negations. The middle term
and the major would, in this view, be taken as co-ordinates,
which, by the law of the concept, must be denied of each
other. The minor would then denote a species : the middle
and major would denote two genera proximate to it, and
mutually co-ordinate and exclusive. The ascending ordi¬
nation would be : “ S, M + P.” *
80. (2.) When the terms are read in comprehension, the The dictum
dictum takes several forms, of which this is the most com- in its refer-
mon : “ The mark of a mark is a mark of a thing.”2 Thatence to the
is, an attribute of a second attribute is an attribute of any whole of
object or substance possessing the second attribute. The tension'
first attribute is the major term ; the second attribute is the iension'
middle term ; that which is regarded as a substance is the
minor term. The negative expression of the maxim is
needless, and tends to perplex : it is sufficient, as before, to
substitute, when negation is introduced, the contradictory
of the major term for that term itself. “ If P (or Not-P)
is a mark or attribute of M, and if M is a mark or attribute
of the object or objects S, then P (or Not-P) is a mark or
attribute of S.”
The meaning of the rule in this shape is plain ; and its
truth, as a simple application of the law of identity, is self-
evident. The use of it in testing syllogistic examples is
troublesome ; because it throws us on those abstract phrases,
which, though distinctively significative of the relation of
comprehension, are unusual and unmanageable.
We are guided towards concrete phrases, by an expres¬
sion of the dictum supplied to the schoolmen by Aristotle
himself,—an expression which, while it is more readily ap¬
plicable to comprehension than to extension, does not ex¬
pressly allege either. It is the widest, and perhaps the
most apt, of all the shapes in which the dictum can be
couched. “ That which is predicated of the predicate, may
be predicated of the subject.” That which (in the major
premise) is predicated of the predicate (of the minor pre-
nise), may (in the conclusion) be predicated of the subject
(of the minor premise).3
In the major premise : Of M—there is affirmed—the
mark or attribute P (or Not-P).
In the minor premise : Of S—there is affirmed—the
mark or attribute M.
.*. In the conclusion : Of S—there is affirmed—the mark
or attribute P (or Not-P).
In the comprehensive form of the dictum, the terms di¬
rectly ordinated are the middle and the major. The major
is in the comprehension of the middle, being a mark of it:
the major is the less comprehensive, the middle the more
comprehensive, of the two. The minor term denotes a sub¬
stance or substances, an object or group of objects, which
is a serted to possess the attribute denoted by the middle;
negative conclusion, we might, when it next emerges as a premise,
require to re-contrapose.
1 For a characteristically acute statement of difficulties, which the
last two or three paragraphs, as well as similar resolutions elsewhere,
are designed to meet, seeTrendelenburg, Logische Untersuchungen, ii.,
238, &c. His objections are two: first, that when the dictum is
considered in extension, the major term falls out of the scale of sub¬
ordination ; secondly, that when one of the premises is negative, the
subordination breaks down altogether.
2 Nota notae est etiam nota rei : (repugnans not® repugnat
rei).
3 Prasdicatum prmdicati est etiam praedicatum subjecti. "Oro-.
xktu rod xKrrryofovfiivov Xiyircu, ordvra. xa.1 xocru rod doroxsig.'ivov priSritri.
ra.i. (Categ., cap. 5). In toto esse vel de omni prasdicari df-
citur, quoties non potest inveniri aliquid subjecti, ad quod illud
quod prasdicatur dici non possit. In toto vero non esse vel de nullo
prmdicari dicitur, quoties nihil subjecti poterit inveniri, ad quod
illud quod praedicatur dici possit.” (Boethius, Be Syllogismo Cate-
gorieo, Opera, p. 591).
4 ii
LOGIC.
610
Doctrine of and it is therefore inferred to possess the attribute denoted
inference, by ti]e major, which is a part of the attribute denoted by
the middle. “ The attribute M comprehends the attribute P
(or Not-P); the S’s (all or some) possess the comprehending
attribute M : therefore the S’s (all or some) possess the com¬
prehended attribute P (or Not-P).”
When the dictum was analysed extensively, the major
term, being used only as an attributive name, did not require
to be expressly referred to an ordination constituted by terms
which were considered as names of substances. Now, when
the dictum is analysed comprehensively, the minor term,
which in 'both of its appearances is only a name denoting
substance, does not require to be expressly referred to an
ordination containing terms which are considered as names
of attributes. But it may be so referred : and the presup¬
posed series is not complete until the minor term is placed
as one extreme of it.1 The minor term, which was found
to be the least extensive of the series, is necessarily the most
comprehensive. The completed ordination of the terms in
comprehension, from narrowest to widest, is this : “ P (or
Not-P), M, S.” This gradation is, of course, explicated,
when the propositions are arranged in the order opposite
to that which exhibited the widening scale of extension :
conclusion, major premise, minor premise. The retention of
the negative predications might here, as in the other view, be
justified through the assumption of co-ordination, and conse
quent exclusion, between the middle term and the major.
The special 81. The dictum de omni et nullo, in all its forms, is
laws of the plainly nothing more than a corollary, or pair of corolla-
inferre’d1'6 r'es’ *rom ^ie principle °f predication through common
from the terms. It is required only to accept two, at most, of the
dictum. special laws deduced from that principle ; and to explain
their applicability to cases in which the antecedent is not
one proposition but two. The Law of Affirmation through
Suballernation, expressed so as to cover more degrees than
two, guides us through all syllogisms purely affirmative:
while, as it has been shown, tlie negations of a syllogism may
be displaced, and this one law be applied to all. If given
negations are retained, we have only to accept, along with
the law of affirmation through subalternation, the Law of
Negation through Co-ordination.
The first figure is subject to three Special Laws. These,
though they are proveable, and will be proved, otherwise,
are dedueible, readily and instructively, from the dictum.
The extensive form of the dictum is most conveniently avail¬
able for the purpose.
(1.) The Minor premise must be Affirmative. In that
premise, the minor term is subject, the middle is predicate.
The rule therefore says, simply, that the minor term must
be included in the middle, not excluded from it; that it
must be describable (if it be a common term), as one of
those species which the middle term, a genus, is supposed
to contain. If it were not so included, so describable, no¬
thing would be asserted to be “ contained in the class,” no
species to be contained in the genus. Whether the major
term were affirmable or deniable of the middle, there would
be no data for determining whether it were affirmable or
deniable of the minor. In a word, there would be wanting
the lowest step of the ordination in extension, the step out
of which all the others come.
Ihe middle term signifies a class ; the major signifies an
attribute belonging to the class, or wanting jn it. The
minor signifies something which is placed in that class ; and,
being so placed, it must possess the class-attribute, or want
an attribute not found in the class. The middle term is in-
Consult, again, for the questions raised here and in the last sec-
10,n’ Trendelenburg, ii.., 239. He there animadverts .on the “Hota
not®, (the form of the dictum adopted by Kant), which he rightly
recognises as a reading of the dictum in comprehension.
troduced to be a link in thought between the minor ami Doctrine of
the major : it is clasped to both. But, if the minor is not inference,
in the middle, the hold on that side has snapped.
(2.) The Major premise must be Universal. In that pre¬
mise, the middle term is subject, the major is predicate.
Consequently, the rule alleges, that the whole class desig¬
nated by the middle term must possess the attribute de¬
noted by the major ; or, in other words, that in this premise
the middle term must be distributed. The reason stares us
irrthe face. For the minor premise asserts, not that the
minor term constitutes a class M, but only that it is in that
class, or makes some part or other of it. If, then, it were
only alleged, in the major premise, that some part or other
of the class M possesses the attribute P (or Not-P), this
might or might not be the same part which has been affirmed
of S. The identity of S with a part of M possessing P, or
its contradictory, cannot be made peremptory at any cheaper
rate, than the assertion that the whole of M possesses P, or
its contradictory.
But, it is to be observed, this necessity, for distribution of
the middle term in the major premise, arises out of .two
features in the minor premise. First, That premise has an
undistributed predicate (M) : it affirms only that S is some
part of the class M. Secondly, It affirms only that S is
some undetermined part of M. Suppose that the part of M
were there definitely identified; and that a part of M simi¬
larly identified were to become subject of the major premise.
It might then be determinable, and signifiable through the
form of expression, whether the part first named and that
named second were one and the same, or two several parts.
In the former case, the chain of identity would be unbroken :
in the latter, it would be broken, and further progress from
contained term to term containing would be impossible.
(3.) The Quality of the major premise determines the
quality of the conclusion ; the Quantity of the minor premise
limits the quantity of the conclusion. This law, in both of
its parts, is almost self-evident to every one who understands
the character of the syllogism.
In the major premise it is asserted, either that the middle
term has, or that it has not, the attribute denoted by the
major term. If it has the attribute, the minor term also
must have it, being a part of the middle : if the middle
wants it, so must the minor. The minor premise, again,
affirms, that either the whole class denotable by the minor
term, or a part only of that class, is in the middle. If it
has affirmed of the whole class, the predication in the con¬
clusion may be made of the whole class (though, of course,
we might hence subalternate to a part) : if it has affirmed
of a part only, it is of a part only that we can predicate in
the conclusion.
Article III.—Laws, Universal and Special, cf the Syllo¬
gistic Figures.
82. The dictum may be brought to bear on any syllo- The two
gism whatever. For every syllogism of the second, third, syllogistic
or fourth figure, admits of being transformed into a syllo- canons-
gism of the first. But it is desired by those who hold the
pre-eminence of the first figure, and insisted on by some of
those who deny it, that we be enabled to test every syllo¬
gism as given, without questioning as to its figure, or making
any change on its structure.
Such a test is supplied by two rules, the first justifying
conclusions which are affirmative, the second those that
are negative. They have been called the Canons of the
Syllogism.
They are these : “Two terms which agree with the same
third term, agree with each other. Two terms, whereof the
one agrees and the other disagrees with the same third term,
disagree with each other.”-
1 These expressions of the canons .are, in substance, Aldrich’s and
LOGIC.
Doctrine of Two terms are said by many logicians to “ agree,” or to be
inference, “congruent” or “ consistent,” when they may be the terms of
v*—' an affirmative proposition. Two terms are said to “dis¬
agree,” or to be “ incongruous” or “ inconsistent,” when they
can only be the terms of a negative proposition. This
phraseology being adopted in the canons, agreement of
terms in a given proposition is affirmation, disagreement is
negation. The two terms first mentioned are the Minor
and Major, the third term is the Middle.
The canons, accordingly, are interpretable by direct re¬
ference to the character of the copula in each of the three
propositions of the syllogism. They might thus take the
following shapes:—
First, “ If there are given, as premises, two propositions,
in which there is asserted, between M as one term, and S
and P successively as the other term, a relation expressed
by affirmation, there is implied, between S and P, a relation
which must be expressed by affirmation in the conclusion.”
Secondly, “ If there are given, as premises, two proposi¬
tions, in which, between M as one term, and S and P suc¬
cessively as the other term, there are asserted relations,
which are expressed in either of the premises by affirmation
and in the other by negation, there is implied, between S
and P, a relation which must be expressed by negation in
the conclusion.”
So interpreted, the canons are evidently direct applica¬
tions of the laws of identity and difference ; for affirmation
is the expression of identity, negation of difference.
The identities and differences are explicable in this way.
1. Two things, or groups of things, which are identical
with a third thing, or group of things, must be identical with
each other. If it be assumed that both S and P are iden¬
tical with M, S and P must be identical with each other;
or the names S and P are but two names for the same thing,
or group of things. 2. If, of two things, or groups of things*
the one is identical, the other non-identical, with a third
thing, or group of things, the two must be non-identical with
each other. If it be assumed either that S is identical, and
P non-identical, with M; or that S is non-identical, and P
identical, with M : S and P must be non-identical with each
other i or the names S and P are names for two different
things, or groups of things.
. I* we accept, and steadily keep hold of, the quantitative
signs, “ all, any, some,” as integral parts of the terms, the
applicability of the canons, as expressions of the two primary
laws of predication, is thorough-going. It is plain, too, that
the canons, in all their expressions, leave the function of
each of the terms, as subject or predicate, completely open
for all the three propositions. The only limitation is, the
prohibition of all forms except A, E, I, and O.
The weakness of the canons lies, first, and positively, in
their leaving the quantitative signs unaccounted for. The
reasons which make these possible and necessary, do not
emerge till we fall back on the dictum, and on those laws
611
of common terms out of which it has grown. But it may Doctrine of
even be questioned, whether the canons do not necessarily, inference.
whenever the use of them requires interpretation of the
quantitative signs,—presuppose the dictum, or the law of
logical totality, from which the dictum itself springs.1
83. The canons, then, enable us to consider every syllogism, The six
whatever be its figure, as constituted by three assertions of universal
identity or difference between the three terms, taken two rules dedu-
and two. But, in order to determine positively what the cible from
objects are, which are asserted to be identical or different the canons-
we have to hold the quantitative sign of each term as being
a part of it; and, in order to test decisively the question
of identity or difference, we have to assume that “all” in¬
cludes some, or that a whole includes its part.
On this footing there are deducible from the canons six
maxims, which are describable as Universal Rules of the
Syllogism. Violations of these are, for mediate inference
the only Fallacies, or faults making an argument inconclu¬
sive, which logic can detect without extraneous aid.
(1.) A Syllogism has Three Terms. It is invalid if it has
either fewer or more. A proof of this rule would be merely
a repeated description of the nature of the syllogism; and,
if the rule is accepted with presupposition of its reasons’
the rules of quantity may be regarded, as corollaries, from it.
1 he violation of any of them is resolvable into the intro¬
duction of a fourth term.
Fewer terms than three no syllogism is in any danger of
having. But, seeming to have three only, it may really
have more than three, through the ambiguity of words.
-this rule, indeed, is designed chiefly as a preliminary caution,
against the fallacies which may insinuate themselves into
reasoning by means of the fact, that there is no term, how-
Whately s. They are thus given by Burgersdyk, as bearing on syllo¬
gisms having a singular as middle term,—the “ expository syllo¬
gisms of the schools: “ Quascunque uni tertio singular! conve-
munt, ea quoque inter se conveniunt. Quorum unum alicui tertio
singulari convenit, alterum non convenit, ea quoque inter se non
conveniunt. Smiglecius carries them up directly to Identity and
ifference: Quae sunt eadem uni tertio, sunt eadem inter se.
Quando est idem alicui, cui aliud non est idem, ipsa quoque
non erunt idem inter se.” (Disputatio xiii., Quaistio 14.) Kecker-
mann unites the two, calling the complex law “ The Principle of
term0h^etc0n, ^ ^ ^ PrinciPle in virtue of which the middle
erm becomes a measure of the other two: “ Quaecunque in uni
tertio conveniunt, inter se conveniunt: quae vero in uni tertio dis-
This f ’ lnter 86 diSSei,ltiUnt-” (^tematis Logici, lib. iii., cap. 5.)
his form requires a gloss : the agreement or difference “ in” the
middle term, is agreement or difference in the quality of the pre-
mises,—the reference of the syllogism to the canons, as universally
uperseding the dictum, was a step not taken till the latest times of
scholasticism; and it has very frequently been p^tesLd agS
two paragraphs may call for some illustration.
(1.) Gwen this syllogism in All: “ AH M’s are P’s; some S’s are
^ M th<\reIore s0™6 8 8 are P’s-”' The data here are not the classes
fcvM, and P : the identity or non-identity of these classes as wholes
is not put in question. The quantity of predicates being brought
out, it appears that our terms are these : “ some S’s •” “ all M’s ”
(“ some M’s,” however, being implied, and requiring to be expli-
cated) ; some P s. The assertions of identity are these: (1.)
The objects called “ all M’s,” are the same objects which are also
called some P s ; (2.) The objects called “ some S’s,” are the same
objects which are also called “ some M’s therefore (3.), the objects
called some S s, are the same objects which are also called “ some
■ (2.) Bven when the quantitative signs are thus incorporated,
there is still required, as the example shows, one interpretation of
tnem. We cannot gain our inference, without assuming that “ all”
imphes some. If this assumption is refused us, we cannot show
that the premises assert the identity of S and P with the same
third term. But how do we come by the assumption ? Can we do
so without the idea of classification ? Or can classification supply
it, unless through the dictum or its principle ? J
If this doubt is well-founded, the canons are even weaker than
the text has positively alleged them to be. They are sufficient,
without the dictum, to justify syllogisms having a singular middle
term. They cannot justify syllogisms whose middle is a common
term, unless through a presupposition, of which the dictum, or the
higher law of conceptive totality, is an element.
However, the assertion may be held to rest on the still wider
truth, that a whole contains its part.
(3.) In spite of theoretical difficulties, the convenience of the
canons, is great. And, if the quantitative signs are taken as integral
parts of the terms, and if, also, interpretation of these is admitted to
the extent of the implication of “ some” in ‘ ‘ all,” they do, as alleged
in the text, carry us through syllogisms of any form. When, again,
the conclusion is an E or an I, it is a matter of indifference to the
application of the canons, which of the terms S and P is subiect of
the conclusion, and which predicate : the terms of E and I are reci¬
procal ; and simple conversion yields a new E or I. But conclusions
in A and 0 tie us down to S as subject, and P as predicate. A is
convertible only into I2, a form not received: 0 is not directlv
convertible at all. The fact that conversion would change the cha¬
racter of the predication in reference to the wholes of the concept
is not forced on our consideration when we test a syllogism bv the
canons. jo j *
612
LOGIC.
Doctrine of ever simple, which the poverty of speech does not make to
inference, be capable of bearing more than one signification. If any
,WV—' name furnishes a term susceptible of two meanings, and
if it bears one of these on its first appearance in a syllo¬
gism, and the other in its second, it has really furnished
not one term, but two ; a term denoting one set of objects,
another term denoting a different set. The syllogism,
therefore, has four terms, not three ; and, at some point or
other, the chain of comparison is broken. The middle
term is, unquestionably, in greater danger of having two
meanings, than either of the other terms is : and the intru¬
sion of a fourth term in disguise is often described as the
Fallacy of Ambiguous Middle. But the other terms like¬
wise require to be watched.
(2.) The Middle term must be Distributed in one of the
premises. The violation of this rule is the Fallacy of Un¬
distributed Middle.
The rule is a consequence, following from the indefinite
character of the part signified by the logical “ some.” M
is introduced into the premises, in order that S and P may
severally be compared with it. If it is twice undistributed,
it may, for all we know, be double; and, if it is double, the
syllogism has four terms. If S were compared with “ some
part or other” ofM, and, again, P with “ some part or other”
of M, it would be- left absolutely uncertain whether they
have been compared with the same part, or with two parts
that are different. No ground would have been laid down
for determining their mutual difference or identity. But,
if one of them is compared with the whole of M, and pro¬
nounced to be either the same or not the same with that
whole, it is enough that the other should be compared with
a part of the whole of M : since the first term, having been
compared with the whole, must have been compared with
this part. Accordingly, one distribution of the middle term
is sufficient.1
(3.) Neither the Minor term nor the Major must be
Distributed in the Conclusion, if it was Undistributed in
its Premise. Violation of this rule is an Illicit Process,
and is, therefore, of two kinds : Illicit Process of the Minor,
Illicit Process of the Major.
When we remember that the quantitative sign is a part
of every term given in the process, we shall perceive at
once that a breach of the rule would amount to the intro¬
duction of a fourth term. There is given in the premise
a relation between M and “ some S’s ” or “ some P’s.”
This gives us no right to infer, in the conclusion, anything
in regard to “all S’s,” or “all P’s.”2
(4.) If both Premises are Affirmative, the Conclusion must
be Affirmative.
This is evident, both from the words of the canons, and
from their principle. The case is that which the first canon
covers. Assertion of the identity of M both with S and
with P, cannot, without self-contradiction, yield assertion
of the non-identity of S and P with each other.
1 In the first and second figures, the middle never twice distri¬
buted. When it is so in other figures, the conclusion obtainable is
exactly the same as it would have been if the middle had been dis¬
tributed only once. The moods, in which the double distribution
occurs, have premises needlessly wide for the conclusions.
2 The two kinds of Illicit, Process are not fallacies lying equally
deep. In committing an illicit process of the minor, we have only
inferred a universal, A or E, in a case where, if there be no other
fallacy, we might have inferred a particular, I or 0. The error
is easily corrigible. But an illicit process of the major is, when it
is the one fault, a fault that is incurable. It is forced on us by our
having premises from which no inference at all could be drawn.
It is possible only when the conclusion is negative, E or 0 ; these
conclusions only having a distributed major. In the premise, then,
the major term, being by hypothesis undistributed, must have been
cither the subject of a particular, I or O, or the predicate of an
affirmative, A or I. It will immediately appear, from the special
rules of the figures, that, in such circumstances, inference is always
impossible.
(5.) If either of the Premises is Negative, the Conclusion Doctrine on
must be Negative. inference.
The case is covered by the second canon. If S (or P)
is M, and if P (or S) is not M, S and P must be, not one
thing, but two different things.
(6.) From Premises, both of which are Negative, no Con¬
clusion can be inferred.
The case, not being covered by either of the canons, is
thus virtually excluded ; and it is self-evident that the ex¬
clusion is right. The assertion that both S and P are non¬
identical with M, leaves it utterly undetermined whether
they are or are not identical with each other.
A violation of the first rule is a fallacy which throws the
reasoning out of the very form of a syllogism. Violations
of the second and third rules are fallacies of Quantity.
Violations of the fourth, fifth, and sixth rules are fallacies
of Quality. When the error does not flow from the most
abundant of all sources, the ambiguity of terms, the fal¬
lacies most likely to occur are those of quantity; namely,
undistributed middle and illicit process.1
There are annexed a few examples, in which the Six Rules
are palpably violated.2
1 There have been laid down several other rules, all of which
are truly derivative, either from the six above given, or from othe>'
obvious laws.
For example: When a universal Conclusion may be inferred,
there may be inferred also a Particular. This is nothing more than
an assertion of the possibility of immediate inference, from the
truth of the subalternant to the truth of the subalternate. But the
point is worth observing; since it has a bearing on the scheme of
the syllogistic moods.
Two of the scholastic rules deserve the subordinate place assigned
to them by Whately. The violation of either of them warns us,
that there must have been committed one or another of the falla¬
cies of quantity. They may be numbered as supplementary to the
six of the text.
(7.) When one of the premises is Particular, the conclusion must-
be Particular. The transgression of this rule is a symptom of
illicit process of the minor.
This, and the fifth rule of the text, are combined by many of the
old logicians into the one rule : That the conclusion, both in qua¬
lity and in quantity, follows the Worse, or weaker, premise;
“ Conclusio sequitur partem deteriorem.” Negation is “ worse”
than affirmation, particularity than universality.
(8.) From premises, both of which are Particular, no Conclusion
follows. The transgression of this rule is a symptom, either of
undistributed middle, or of illicit process of the major, the two
fallacies which arise out of bad premises.
Premises in 00, as being both negative, are condemned other¬
wise. Premises in II plainly give undistributed middle. Pre¬
mises in 10 (the major premise first), require 0 in the conclusion,
and give illicit process of the major; while in Figure III. there will
also be undistributed middle. Premises in 01 give undistributed
middle, when that term is subject of the major premise (that is, in
Figures I. and III.): they give illicit process of the major, when that
term is subject of the major premise (that is, in Figures II. and 1V.).
8 Breaches of the Six Syllogistic Rules.
Rulel. Nettles are stinging plants; and fig-trees are nettles:
therefore it must be true that fig-trees sting. “ All M’s—are—some
P’s ; all S’s—are—some M’s : .\ all S’s—are—some P’s” (Am¬
biguous middle, making four terms).—The fig belongs to a tribe of
plants, the typical name of which (Lindley’s “ Urticales”) is taken
from the common nettle.
Rule 2. Since many plants are beautiful, and many plants are
rare; may we not infer, that among the things that are rare, there
are some that are beautiful? “Some M’s—are—some P’s; some
M’s—are—someS’s; .*. some S’s—are—some P’s” (Undistributed
middle).
Rule 3. (1.) Interest attaches to all plants, and rarity may be
asserted of many plants; is it therefore true that every thing rare
is also interesting ? “ All M’s—are—some P’s ; some M’s—are—
some S’s: .•. all S’s—are—some P’s.” (Illicit process of minor).
(2.) We infer that there is no beauty in flower-beds; because
grassy surfaces are beautiful, and flower-beds are not grassy sur¬
faces. “ All M’s—are—some P’s ; any S’s—are not—any M’s
.-. any S’s—are not—any P’s.” (Illicit process of major).
Rule 4. Assuming that every exotic plant is interesting, but that
not a few such plants are useless; should we be in any danger of
LOGIC.
613
eleven
valid
moods.
Doctrine of M. When the sixty-four possible Moods of the syllo-
inference. gism are tested by the six rules, it is discovered that
fifty-three of them do necessarily, whatever the figure may
Determina- be, yield bad conclusions. None of them can violate the
tion of the ru]e: but all of them violate either rules of quality,
or rules of quantity, or rules of both kinds. Accordingly,
no more than eleven of the sixty-four can ever be valid.1
First, There are thirty-two moods which appear, on
the face of them, to involve fallacies of quality. Our
fourth rule is transgressed by AAE, AAO, AIO, IAO ;
our fifth by AEA, AEI, AOA, AOI, EAA, EAI, EIA,
Eli, IEA, IEI, OAA, OAI; our sixth by EEA, EEE,
EEI, EEO, EOA, EOE, EOI, EOO, OEA, OEE, OEI,
OEO, OOA, OOE, OOI, 000.
Secondly, There are twenty-one moods which, when
the distribution of the terms is examined, are found to
involve fallacies of quantity.
inferring that few things which are useless are also interesting ?
•* All M’s—are—some P’s; some M’s—are—some S’s: .'.some S’s
—are not—any P’s.” , (Both premises affirmative; conclusion
negative).
Rule 5. If all imperfect plants want true flowers, and if true
flowers grow on all trees; we are surely not tempted to infer that
trees are imperfect plants. “ Any P’s—are not—any M’s ; all S s
—are—some M’s: .•. all S’s—are—Some P’s.” (One premise nega¬
tive ; conclusion affirmative).
Rule 6. If we wish to determine whether the potatoe-plant is or
is not a nightshade (Solarium), we shall hardly suppose ourselves
to have sufficient data, though we know that neither any potato,
nor any nightshade, produces fruit which can safely he eaten.
“ Any P’s—are not—any M’s; any S’s—are not—any M’s.” (Both
premises negative; no conclusion possible).
In a preceding article of the Encyclopaedia [Fallacy], the prin¬
cipal sources of inconclusiveness in argumentation were described in
outline. The topic is hardly anywhere tseated so thoroughly, and
nowhere so practically, as in Whately’s dissertation, “Of Fallacies.”
Fallacy may have place, either in the form of an argument, or in
its matter. If it is formal, the conclusion does not follow from the
premises; and the logical rules expose the flaw. If it is material,
the conclusion does follow from the premises; and logical rules
have no bearing : but, here, the fault may be, either in the premises,
or in the conclusion. Accordingly, all the kinds of fallacy may be
distributed in the following way. Either they are Fallacies of In¬
ference, which are formal, but may be either patent or latent; or
they are Fallacies of Assumption or of Exposition, both of which are
material. Not infrequently, an argument combines fallacies of more
kinds than one.
(1.) A fallacy of inference is patent, when the logical rules detect
it without interpretation of terms. It is latent, when interpretation
of terms must precede logical analysis. The latency of formal fal¬
lacies arises always from the ambiguity of words ; and the treatises
on fallacies, which are so full in many logical works, are chiefly
occupied in explaining the causes and kinds of ambiguity. (2.) A
fallacy of assumption consists in arguing from one or more premises
which are not true or not admitted. It is most frequently latent;
the faulty premise being virtually, but not obviously, either iden¬
tical with the conclusion or dependent on it. This latency is the case
of “petitio principii” or “quassiti,” the begging of the question; and
the name “ arguing in a circle” should mean a repetition of this
error, by inferring back to something which was really a preceding
premise. (3.) A fallacy of exposition is a mis-statement of the ques¬
tion which is at issue. Its scholastic name is “ ignoratio elenchi,”
the ignoring or shunning of the conclusion which would contradict
the position of the adversary : the argument has as its result an
“ irrelevant conclusion,” a conclusion different from that which
ought to have been proved. This fallacy is signified by the common
expression of “ shifting the ground.” A union of it with ambiguity
of terms is perhaps the most frequent of all flaws in reasoning.
To it ai e referable instances in which any principle, rightly plead¬
able in some cases, is applied to a case which it does not cover.
This is exemplified by the “ argumentum ad verecundiam,” the
appeal to authority; and by the “ argumentum ad hominem,” the
attempt to show that an opponent’s position is taxable with incon¬
sistency : and in a similar predicament are illegitimate endeavours
to influence judgment through emotion.
1 Henceforth, in this division, the common order of the premises,
as being that which is taken for granted in the received doctrine
of mood and figure, must be steadily adhered to. The major pre¬
mise precedes the minor.
(1.) The supplementary rule, numbered as our seventh, Doctrine of
gives notice that the third rule is violated by AIA, A IE, inference.
AOE, EIE, IAA, IAE, IEE, OAE.
(2.) The supplementary rule, numbered as our eighth,
gives notice that either the second rule or the third must
be violated by IIA, HE, III, IIO, IOA, IOE, 101,100,
OIA, OIE, Oil, 010.
(3.) The mood IEO necessarily violates the third rule
through illicit process of the major. The major term is
distributed in the conclusion ; while it cannot, whether as
subject or as predicate, have been distributed in its premise.
Not a few of the moods thus excluded, violate evidently
more rules than one.
The other moods, which only can ever yield a valid in¬
ference, are these eleven: four moods having affirmative
conclusions, AAA, AAI, All, IAI; seven moods having
negative conclusions, AEE, AEO, AOO, EAE, EAO,
EIO, OAO.1
85. It must now be considered how the relation of Mood Determina-
is affected by the relation of Figure. ti011 of the
We see that there are no more than eleven combinations ^uenty"j.d
of propositions, which can, in any figure, stand the test of
the syllogistic rules. Further, the functions imposed on the fio-ure.
terms, as subject or predicate, in the premises of the Four
Figures, vary far enough to make us expect, before minute
inspection, that a mood may be valid in one figure yet invalid
in others. And the fact is so.
The moods are not applicable to use, unless through the
adoption of one or another of those modes of constructing
premises which constitute the figures. Accordingly, we
may henceforth understand, by a mood, a Mood in a given
Figure. Of the eleven valid moods, each of the figures
admits six; whence, of Moods in Figure, there are in all
Twenty-Four. Five of these, however, noted in the fol¬
lowing list by italic letters, are unused, as giving particular
conclusions where the premises allow the conclusions to be
universal. These particular conclusions, indeed, may always
be held to have been reached through subaltern inference
from the universals.
Figure I. has these moods; AAA, AAI, EAE, EAO, All, EIO.
Figure II. ... ... EAE, EAO, AEE, AEO, EIO, AOO.
Figure III. ... ... AAI, IAI, All, EAO, EIO, OAO.
Figure IV. ... ... AAI, AEE, AEO, IAI, EAO, EIO.8
1 The moods might be scrutinized, also, in another and quicker
way. The exclusion of the bad moods is gained, by far most readily,
through this question : How many pairs of premises are there,
which, as being neither both negative nor both particular, may
yield some conclusion or other ? There are nine such pairs ; but
one of them, IE, breaks down when closely handled. Therefore
the valid pairs of premises are only eight: AA, AE, and EA, both
universals; AI, IA, AO, El, OA, of which the one is universal,
the other particular. Each of the three pairs of universals admits
two conclusions, a universal and a particular : each of the others is
tied down to one particular conclusion. The conclusions being sup¬
plied, we have the same eleven moods which had been discovered
through the more cumbrous process.
3 This table allows a comparison of the figures, in reference both
to the structure of their syllogisms, and to the forms of propositions
which are attainable as conclusions through them. Of many con¬
siderations which suggest themselves, the following are the most
important:—
I. Of the eleven moods, there are only two which distribute their
terms widely enough to sustain, without lapsing into fallacies of
quantity, all the changes of structure which the variation of figure
causes in premises. These, as we should expect, are negative
moods; they are EAO and EIO. But, though these moods are
good in all the four figures, the former is useless in two of them.
Still, the fact stands, that, in all figures, EA, and even El, are good
premises.
II. The figures differ widely, in respect of the range of their
conclusions.
(1.) The pre-eminent power of the First Figure is shown in two
features. It is the only figure in which we can prove a universal
614
LOGIC.
Doctrine of 86. These twenty-four valid Moods in Figure are easily
inference, ascertained, through application of the six universal rules
of the syllogism to those modifications of the functions of
The special the terms in premises, which severally constitute the four
rules of the syllogistic figures. The limitations which the six rules
four fi- impose on the character, both qualitative and quantitative,
gures. ^ (.jjg propositions admissible to constitute a syllogism in
each of the figures, might be gathered from the table, just
set down, of the moods in figure. But some uses are served
by the generalizing of those limitations into Special Rules
of the Figures, and by a brief deduction of these from the
six universal rules.1
Figure I.
The three special rules of the First Figure have already
been proved through the dictum. They are proveable, also,
through the canons and the deduced universal rules; not
with so close a reference to principles, but much more
briefly than in the other way.
(1.) The Minor premise must be Affirmative. Suppose
it negative: the major premise must then, by the sixth
rule, be affirmative; and the major term, being its pre¬
dicate, will be undistributed. But, by the fifth rule, the
conclusion must be negative, and will accordingly have its
predicate, the major term, distributed. Therefore, a breach
of this special rule would cause the incurable fallacy of an
illicit process of the major.
(2.) The Major premise must be Universal. Let it be
particular; in other words, let its subject, the middle term,
be undistributed. By the special rule just proved, the
minor premise must be affirmative, and will not distribute its
predicate, the middle term. Therefore, a breach of this
rule produces the incurable fallacy of undistributed middle.
(3.) The Quality of the major premise determines the
quality of the conclusion ; the Quantity of the minor pre¬
mise limits the quantity of the conclusion. (1.) If the major
premise were negative, and the conclusion affirmative, the
fifth rule would be violated : if the minor premise were
affirmative, and the conclusion negative, then (besides the
qualitative fallacy caused by the two affirmative premises), the
major, being predicate of both propositions, would suffer
illicit process. (2.) The minor term, being subject both
of the minor premise and of the conclusion, would suffer
illicit process if it were undistributed in the former, and
distributed in the latter. If the minor premise is universal,
the conclusion may be so : and subalternation would thence
yield a particular.
Figure II.
The special rules of the Second Figure are three.
affirmative j and it is the only figure in which we can prove con¬
clusions having all the four forms, A, E, I, and 0.
(2.) The Second Figure allows no conclusions but negatives.
(3.) The Third Figure allows no conclusions but particulars.
(4.) While the Fourth Figure allows all forms of conclusion ex¬
cept A, its weakness is shown by this fact, among others : that in
it we can prove an I only, from the same premises which, by being
merely transposed, would fall into the first figure, and give a con¬
clusion in A.
(1.) One of the Premises must be Negative. The middle Doctrine oi
term, being the predicate of both premises, would be inference,
twice undistributed if both were affirmative.
(2.) The Conclusion must be Negative. One of the pre¬
mises being negative, the conclusion also must be so, by
the fifth rule.
(3.) I he Major premise must be Universal. It must be
so on pain of illicit process of the major term. The
conclusion, being negative, distributes that term; conse¬
quently, it must be distributed in its premise, of which it is
the subject.
Figure III.
The special rules of the Third Figure are two.
(1.) The Minor premise must be Affirmative. If it were
negative, the major premise must, by the sixth rule, be
affirmative, and would not distribute its predicate, the major
term. But, by the fifth rule, the conclusion must be nega¬
tive, by reason of the negative premise: consequently, the
major term would here be distributed ; in other words, there
would be committed an illicit process of the major.
(2.) The Conclusion must be Particular. By the rule
just proved, the minor premise is affirmative ; and the
minor term, being its predicate, is undistributed : conse¬
quently, if that term were distributed in the conclusion,
there would be an illicit process of the minor.
Figure IV.
The awkwardness of the Fourth Figure is never more
striking, than when the attempt is made to lay down special
rules for its construction. The three following are the
most comprehensive of those that have been applied to
it:—
(1.) If the Major premise is Affirmative, the Minor pre¬
mise must be Universal. The middle term, being the pre¬
dicate of the major premise, is undistributed when that pre¬
mise is affirmative. If, then, the minor premise were par¬
ticular, the middle, being subject, would be again undistri¬
buted. I he rule must be obeyed, for the avoidance of
undistributed middle.
(2.) If one premise is Negative, the Major premise must
be Universal. If the major premise were particular, the
major term, being its subject, would be undistributed. But,
by the hypothesis and the fifth rule, the conclusion must
be negative, and the major term must there be distributed.
The penalty for breach of the rule is illicit process of the
major.
(3.) If the Minor premise is Affirmative, the Conclusion
must be Particular. The minor term, being predicate of
its premise, is, by the hypothesis, undistributed: conse¬
quently, it cannot be distributed in the conclusion. The
rule is fenced by illicit process of the minor. It is this
limitation that makes premises in AA so much less valu¬
able in this figure, than they are when transposed into the
first, where the term which was subject of the conclusion
becomes predicate, and is, therefore, left undistributed with¬
out harm.1
III. The several pairs of premises are very unequally applicalf
to the proof of conclusions belonging to the four several kind
The data sufficient for establishing propositions Particular, or Nt
gative, are, in a humbling degree, more various than those that ar
required for establishing Universals, or Affirmatives. The fiv
subalternated conclusions being thrown out of account, the reckon
ing for the other nineteen stands as follows :—
. rooods proving universal conclusions are five: those prov
mg particulars are fourteen.
(2.) The moods proving affirmatives are seven; those provin
negatives are twelve. 1
0 by "eight Provea^le one mood ; E by four moods ; I by six ; am
n.eatest demonstrations of the Special Rules o
thf first • S1X/u?es’ are those of Huyshe. The third rule o
the first figure is not given in the English books.
87. Those logicians who maintain the pre-eminent vali- Thereduc*
dity of the first figure, describe syllogisms in it as Perfecttio1?of sy1‘
and Direct; syllogisms in the other three figures as Imper- logIsms-
feet and Indirect.2 All syllogisms of the indirect figures
1 These are the rules of the Fourth Figure assigned in the Port-
Royal Logic, and by several of the German logicians, as Hoffbauer
and Bachmann. Huyshe s rules are these three: 1. The Major premise
must not be 0, else there is an illicit process of the major; 2. The
Minor premise must not be 0, else there is an undistributed middle;
3. The Conclusion must not be A, else there is an illicit process of
the minor.
2 In some of the more complex of the old systems, the name of
“ Indirect” is given to certain moods, of which there are not here
recognized any, except such as slip in under the disguise of the
LOGIC.
615
Doctrine of admit of being transformed into syllogisms of the first
inference, figure. The process of transformation is called Reduc-
tion.
The method which must chiefly be available is evidently
the conversion of one or both of the premises. In re¬
ducing from the second figure, where the middle term has
already its right place in the minor premise, the conver¬
sion of the major premise would seem to be sufficient.
For the third figure we should require conversion of the
minor premise; for the fourth figure, conversion of both.
But, conversion having been performed, we should
sometimes have gained premises which, though good in
the given figure, are not so in the first. Thus AE, valid
data in the second figure, would, in the first, yield an illi¬
cit process of the major. EA, however, are good premises
in the first figure: therefore the remedy is found in the
transposition of the premises, which, also, in some cases,
supersedes conversion of them.
Finally, if the premises are transposed, the major and
minor terms have exchanged functions. Effect must be
given to this exchange by the conversion of the conclu¬
sion.
There are required, accordingly, for reduction, all the
three methods; conversion of one or both premises, as a
step to be taken almost always; transposition of the pre¬
mises, when they would otherwise be bad; conversion of
the conclusion, when the premises have been transposed.
The conclusion of the given indirect syllogism, when it
has not been converted in the reduction, is proved directly
by the new syllogism in the first figure. If it has been
converted, there is proved, in the new syllogism, a con¬
clusion from which the given one may be inferred by re¬
conversion.
With these alternatives open, reduction is possible and
easy for all the indirect moods except two; AOQ in the
second figure, OAO in the third. The difficulty with
these lies in the impossibility of directly converting O.
The obstacle may be cleared away through contraposition.
But an indirect reduction of another kind is also available.
The Rules of Reduction for all the indirect moods, and
the relations between them and the moods of the first
figure, were abbreviated by the schoolmen into clumsy
names, in which certain of the letters have conventional
meanings. For further aid to the memory, the names
were cast into five halting hexameters, in several readings,
of which the following is one :—
I. iArbArA, cElArEnt, primce, dArll, fExlOque :
II. cEsArE, eAmEstrEs, /EstlnO, &ArOcO, secundce:
III. tertia dArApil, dlsAmls, rfAtlsI, /ElAjotOn,
/ErLsO, AOcArdO, habet: quarto, insuper addit
IV. irAmAntlyo, cAmEnEs, c?I»iArI^,/E^AjoO,/rE«I^On.
Of the twenty-four valid moods in figure, the scheme
rejects the five which have subalternated conclusions ; and
these, when they have to be referred to, may be described
as Nameless Moods. The Named Moods, denoted by the
leading words in the verses, are thus nineteen.
I he First Figure has four named moods. Its admissible
number of six is completed by two nameless moods, AAI
and EAO, whose conclusions are severally subalternated
from those of Barbara and Celarent.
The Second Figure has four named moods. It has two
nameless moods, EAO, and AEO, standing respectively
under Cesare and Camestres.
1 he Third Figure has six named moods. Its conclusions,
being all particulars, cannot have subalternates.
The Fourth Figure has five named moods. Its one
nameless mood is AEO, under Camenes.
The names given to the moods in the “ Barbara” lines Doctrine of
signify the rules of reduction in this way:—The vowels inference,
mark, self-evidently, the quantity and quality of the propo-
sitions constituting each mood. Of the consonants, those
only are significant which are printed in italics. (1.)
The b, c, d, and f, the initial letters of the four names in
figure first, are the only initials used for any of the other
names. An indirect mood is thus signified to be reducible
to that direct mood, whose name begins with the same
letter. (2.) The other significant consonants are four: s
directs Simple Conversion ; p Conversion per accidem ; m
Transposition of Premises {metathesis or mutatio)-, c Re¬
duction through Contradiction. The proposition to be
operated on through s, p, or c, is that which is symbolized
by the vowel immediately preceding the consonant: the
place of m in the name is indifferent. The process of
reduction is illustrated in the second of the annexed notes.
Note I.
EXAMPLES OF THE NINETEEN NAMED MOODS.
Each of the moods is here exemplified twice: first, by a formula
framed with symbolic terms, each of which receives the signature
of quantity; next, by an argument in significant terms. The mat¬
ter of all the arguments is gathered from the Preface to Bishop
Butler’s Sermons. There might have been found, probably, apter
instances than several of them; but brevity of expression has had
to be studied.
Figure I.
1. Barbara.
A. All M’s—are-—some P’s.
A. All S’s—are—some M’s.
.*. A. All S’s—are—some P’s.
A. All beings who on reflection approve virtue—are—beings
conscious of obligation to act virtuously.
A. All men—are—beings who on reflection approve virtue,,
.•. A. All men—are—beings conscious of obligation to act vir¬
tuously.
St. Celarent.
E. Any M’s—are not—any P’s.
A. All S’s—are—some M’s.
.•. E. Any S’s—are not—any P’s.
E. Beings conscious of law—are not—beings entitled to disobey
law.
A. All men—are—beings conscious of law.
E. Men—are not—beings entitled to disobey law.
3. Darii.
A. All M’s—are—some P’s.
I. Some S’s—are—some M’s.
.'. I. Some S’s—are—some P’s.
A. All beings conscious of law—are—beings liable to punish¬
ment.
I. Some living creatures—are—beings conscious of law.
.’. I. Some living creatures—are—beings liable to punishment.
4. Ferio.
E. Any M’s—are not—any P’s.
I. Some S’s—are—some M’s.
.\ 0. Some S’s—are not—any P’s.
E. Beings conscious of law—are not—beings exempt from
punishment.
I. Some living creatures—are—beings conscious of law.
.'. 0. Some living creatures—are not—beings exempt from punish¬
ment.
Figure II.
1. Cesare.
E. Any P’s—are not—any M’s.
A. All S’s—are—some M’s.
E. Any S’s—are not—any P’s.
E. Parts wanting mutual relation—are not—means conducing
to one end.
A. All parts of a system—are—means conducing to one end.
/. E. Parts of a system—are not—parts wanting mutual relation.
2. Camestres.
A. All P’s—are—some M’s.
E. Any S’s—are not—any M’s.
.*. E. Any S’s—are not—any P’s.
fourth figure. The received moods yield to them the premises with¬
out change, and the conclusion by conversion.
616
LOGIC,
Doctrine of
inference.
A. All parts of a system—are—means conducing to one end.
E. Parts wanting mutual relation—are not—means conducing
to one end.
.•. E. Parts wanting mutual relation—are not—Parts of a system.
3. Festino.
E. Any P’s—are not—any M!s.
I. Some S’s—are—some M’s.
.-. 0. Some S’s—are not—any P’s.
E. Parts of a system—are not—things without a bearing on
one design.
I. Some parts of a whole—are—things without a bearing on
one design.
0. Some parts of a whole—are not—parts of a system.
4. Baroco.
A. All P’s—are—some M’s.
0. Some S’s—are not—any M’s.
0. Some S’s—are not—any P’s.
A. All systems—are—things presupposing mutual relation of
parts. .
0. Some wholes—are not—things presupposing mutual relation
of parts.
0. Some wholes—are not—systems.
Figure III.
1. Darapti.
A. All M’s—are—some P’s.
A. All M’s—are—some S’s.
.*. I. Some S’s—are—some P’s.
A. All beings obeying the supreme law of their nature—are—
beings acting rightly.
A. All beings obeying the supreme law of their nature—are—
beings acting naturally.
I. Some beings acting naturally—are—beings acting rightly.
2. Bisamis.
I. Some M’s—are—some P’s.
A. All M’s—are—some S’s .
.*. I. Some S’s—are—some P’s.
L Some laws of being—are—laws of supreme obligation.
A. All laws of being—are—laws sanctioned by a penalty.
I. Some laws sanctioned by a penalty—are—laws of supreme
obligation.
3. Datisi.
A. All M’s—are—some P’s.
I. Some M’s—are—some S’s.
.•. I. Some S’s—are—some P’s.
A. All judgments of reflection—are—laws superior in obliga¬
tion to mere propensions.
I. Some judgments of reflection—are—judgments of con¬
science.
I. Some judgments of conscience—are—laws superior in obli¬
gation to mere propensions.
(The truth asserted in the minor premise might have been
alleged in I2. The conversion of the I2 into A would throw
the argument into the First Figure, and justify a conclusion
in A.)
4. Felapton.
E, Any M’s—are not—any P’s.
A. All M’s—are—some S’s.
.•. O. Some S’s—are not—any P’s.
E. Judgments of conscience—are not—laws affecting the in¬
dividual only.
A. All judgments of conscience—are—judgments of reflection.
.•. 0. Some judgments of reflection—-are not—laws affecting the
individual only.
5. Feriso.
E. Any M’s—are not—any P’s.
I. Some M’s—are—some S’s.
.*. 0. Some S’s—are not—any P’s.
E. Beings obeying laws of their nature—are not—beings acting
unnaturally.
I. Some beings obeying laws of their nature—are—beings acting
rightly.
0. Some beings acting rightly—are not—beings acting un¬
naturally.
(■^■ereJ again> the datum of the minor premise would justify an
12, and enable us to reach, in the First Figure, a conclusion in E).
6. Bocardo.
0. Some M’s—are not—any P’s.
A. All M’s—are—some S’s.
.*. 0. Some S’s—are not—any P’s.
0. Some beings obeying laws of their nature—are not—beings
acting rightly.
A. All beings obeying laws of their nature—are—beings acting
naturally.
•. 0. Some beings acting naturally—are not—beings acting rightly.
Figure IV.
(The examples in this Figure are purposely constructed with
materials already used for the First).
1. Bramantip.
A. All P’s—&re—some M’s.
A. All M’s—are—some S’s.
.*. I. Some S’s—are—some P’s.
(The Premises justify the conclusion, in l2, “ Some S’s—are—all
P’s.” See, in the next note, the last of the paragraphs dealing
with this mood.)
A. All men—are—beings who approve virtue.
A. All beings who approve virtue—are—beings conscious of ob¬
ligation to virtue.
.•. I. Some beings conscious of obligation to virtue—are—men.
2. Camenes.
A. All P’s—are—some M’s.
E. Any M’s—are not—any S’s.
.•. E. Any S’s—are not—any P’s.
A. All men—are—beings conscious of law.
E. Beings conscious of law—are not—beings entitled to disobey
law.
.•. E. Beings entitled to disobey law—are not—men.
3. Dimaris.
I. Some P’s—are—some M’s.
A. All M’s—are—some S’s.
.•. I. Some S’s—are—some P’s.
I. Some living creatures—are—beings conscious of law.
A. All beings conscious of law—are—beings liable to punish¬
ment.
.•. I. Some beings liable to punishment—are—living creatures.
4. Fesapo.
E. Any P’s—are not—any M’s.
A. All M’s—are—some S’s.
.•. 0. Some S's—are not—any P’s.
E. Beings exempt from punishment—are not—beings conscious
of law.
A. All beings conscious of law—are—living creatures.
.-. 0. Some living creatures—are not—beings exempt from punish¬
ment.
5. Fresiso.
E. Any P’s —are not—any M’s.
I. Some M’s—are—some S’s.
.•. 0. Some S’s—are not—any P’s.
E. Beings exempt from punishment—are not—beings conscious
of law.
I, Some beings conscious of law—are—living creatures.
.-. 0. Some living creatures—are not—beings exempt from punish¬
ment.
Note II.
ILLUSTRATIONS OF SYLLOGISTIC REDUCTION.
1. Ostensive or Direct Reduction.
1. The application of all the rules, except that indicated for two
of the moods by c, is obvious and easy. A very few moods will
suffice as examples.
Figure II.
The structure of this figure is such, that conversion of its major
premise throws it into Figure first. That premise, being for Cesare
an E, may be converted simply. We thus gain premises which,
continuing to be in EA, are good for proving, in Celarent, the E
of the reducend.
Cesare Reduced to Celarent.
Doctrine of
inference.
The P’s—are not—any M’s—E.
All the S’s—are—some M’s—A.
.-. The S’s—are not—any P’s—E.
The M’s—are not—any P’s—E.
All the S’s—are—some M’s—A.
.•.The S’s—are not—any P’s—E.
Camestres, similarly, would fall into Figure first, if the major
premise were converted. But, that premise being an A, its con¬
verse would be an I j and the resulting mood would be IE, in¬
volving illicit process of the major. If, however, the given pre-
..
LOGIC.
617
Doctrine ofmises are transposed, they become EA; and the premise which is
inference, now the major admits simple conversion into E. The conversion
being performed, we have EA, the premises of Celarent. But the
terms of the given conclusion have in these premises exchanged
functions : therefore, our new conclusion must be the converse of
the given one; and the new conclusion may be an E. The process,
in fact, is equivalent to the transforming of Camestres into Cesare,
followed by the reduction of Cesare to Celarent.
Camestres Reduced to Celarent.
All the P’s—are—some M’s—A. The M’s—are not—any S’s—E.
The S’s—are not—any M’s—E. All the P’s—are—some M’s—A.
.•.The S’s—are not—any P’s—E. The P’s—are not—any S’s—E.
Figure III.
Disamis is in the same predicament with Camestres; only that,
the Figure being the third, the premise which would suggest itself
for conversion is the minor. There would emerge bad premises in
II. The remedy is found by reversing the premises, converting the
I which has thus become the minor, and giving effect to the reversal
by conversion of the given conclusion. The same result would fol¬
low, if Datisi were first formed from the given Disamis, and then
reduced to Darii by simple conversion of the minor premise.
Disamis Reduced to Darii.
Some M’s—are—some P’s—I. All M’s—are—some S’s—A.
All M’s—are—some S’s—A. Some P’s—are—some M’s—I.
Some S’s—are—some P’s—I. /.Some P’s—are—some S’s—I.
Figure IV.
Fresison has premises which, by simple conversion of both, be¬
come El in Figure first. Therefore it is manageable by this, the
process which would naturally be first thought of.
Fresison Reduced to Ferio.
The P’s—are not—any M’s—E. The M’s—are not—any P’s—E.
Some M’s—are—some S’s—I. Some S’s—are—some M’s—I.
/.Some S’s—are not—any P’s—O. /.Some S’s—are not—any P’s—O.
Camenes, on the other hand, if so treated, would give premises
in IE, yielding no conclusion. But Figure first would be gained,
also, by transposition of the premises, which would then be those
of Celarent. This, with the consequent conversion of the conclusion,
is the method ordered.
Camenes Reduced to Celarent.
All P’s—are—some M’s—A. The M’s—are not—any S’s—E.
The M’s—are not—any S’s—E. All P’s—are—some M’s—A.
/. The S’s—are not—any P’s—E. .*. The P’s—are not—any S’s —E.
Those old logicians, who framed the name Bramantip, followed
Boethius in admitting, under the name of Conversion per accidens,
all conversions in which the matter allowed change of quantity, whe¬
ther by particularizing or by universalizing. When we admit, as
we should, no conversions but such as are correct formally, the
name is deceptive: its p orders an operation which is impracti¬
cable. If the given conclusion is to be dealt with at one sweep,
what has to be done is the conversion of I, illogically, into A. The
rationale of the process (in the more obvious view of it) is this:
—The premises, being transposed, become AA in Figure first.
They yield, in the nameless mood AAI, a conclusion which is
the simple converse of the given one. But they yield also, in Bar¬
bara, a conclusion in A. We may adopt the conclusion in A, not
as holding it to be a good converse of our I, but because it follows
from the premises. We do adopt it, in obedience to the principle
of the scheme, that of always inferring, from premises, the widest
conclusion they permit. If we still wish for the I, we may earn it
lawfully by subalternation from the A.
Bramantip Reduced to Barbara (or AAI).
P’s—are—some M’s—A. All M’s—are—some S’s—A.
All M’s—are—some S’s—A. All P’s—are—some M’s—A.
/. Some S’s—are—some P’s—I. /. All P’s—are—some S’s—A.
(/. Some P’s—are—some S’s—I.)
But Bramantip should be looked into more closely. Its premises
justify a conclusion, not in I merely, but in I2 : “ Some S’s—are—
all P’s.” The simple converse of this is, “ All P’s—are—some S’s,”
being the A which we have just gained in Barbara. When we
conclude in I from the premises of this mood, we are really inferring
a subalternate of the conclusion to which we were entitled. Bra¬
mantip, however, is the only mood of the nineteen, the analysis of
which requires, for its completion, any propositional form besides
the received four.
2. Indirect Reduction.
2. The moods Baroco and Bocardo are, in the syllogistic doctrine,
the crux logicorum. Their inflexibility arises from the double
occurrence of 0. The character of the conclusion compels us to
ook for reduction into herioj and this mood is not approachable
through any of the methods s, p, m.
VOL. XIII.
Those who named the two unmanageable moods, were logicians Doctrine of
who refused to allow the conversion of 0 through contraposition, inference.
On this footing, it is impossible to transform either of the two into
any other syllogism that shall yield, either the given conclusion, or
an equivalent of it. We cannot, in the first figure, prove, from
the data, that the given conclusion must be true if the premises are
so. In short, that which is called ostensive reduction is impos¬
sible. But the syllogism may be reduced indirectly. We can
prove, not properly in, but only through, the First Figure, that, if
the premises are true, the given conclusion cannot be false.
'Hiis manner of arguing is founded on the doctrine of contradic¬
tory propositions; the two which come into play being 0 and A, the
given conclusion and its contradictory. It is proved that, if the pre¬
mises of the given syllogism are assumed to be true, the A must be
false: whence, by the rule of contradictories, it is inferred that the
O must be true. The only assumptions required are two, which are
involved in the nature of all inference: first, that the premises of
a syllogism are admitted, or are assumed to be true ; secondly, that,
if the conclusion of a valid syllogism be false, one or both of the
premises must be false. The process of which these are the prin¬
ciples is called Indirect Reduction—Reduction ad impossibile or
absurdum, or ex impossibili or absurdo.
The steps are the following;—The premise denoted by the vowel
preceding the c is thrown aside; and there is substituted for it the
contradictory of the given conclusion. From this new premise (an
A), and the retained premise (another A), there is inferred an A in
Barbara. The reduction is thus completed, according to the rules
symbolized in the name.—But, if we stop here, we have proved
nothing to the purpose. Our new conclusion in A has not even
the same terms with the given conclusion in 0. We have pro¬
moted our given middle term to the rank of major in dealing with
Baroco, to that of minor in dealing with Bocardo. In effect, the
syllogism in Barbara has merely supplied one datum for a process
of inference through contradiction, in which the essential part of
the operation lies.
The A which is the conclusion in Barbara is found, on compa¬
rison, to be the contradictory of the O which was the premise
elided from the given syllogism. But this 0, as a datum, must be
assumed to be true : therefore the A must be false. Now, the A
has been inferred validly from its premises: therefore, one or both
of these must be false. The premise borrowed from the given syl¬
logism must, as a datum, be true: therefore the falsity must lie in
the premise which we constructed for ourselves. But this pre¬
mise is the contradictory of our given conclusion ; and, the contra¬
dictory being false (having been proved to be inconsistent with
the original data), the given conclusion must be true. Q. E. D.
Baroco Reduced to Barbara.
All P’s—are—some M’s—A. All P’s—are—some M’s—A.
Some S’s—are not—any M’s—O. All S’s—are—some P’s—A.
/. Some S’s—are not—any P’s—O. /. All S’s—are—some M’s—A.
A, the conclusion in Barbara, is the contradictory of 0, the re¬
jected premise in Baroco : the 0 being assumed as true, the A must
be false. Consequently, one or both of the premises of the Barbara
must be false. Its major premise must be assumed as true, having
been a premise in the given Baroco: therefore the minor premise
must be false. But this minor premise is the contradictory of the
given conclusion ; therefore the given conclusion must be true.
Bocardo Reduced to Barbara.
Some M’s—are not—any P’s—O. All S’s—are—some P’s—A.
All M’s—are—some S’s—A. All M’s—are—some S’s—A.
/. Some S’s—are not—any P’s—O. /. AM M’s—are—some P’s—A.
The subsequent inferences proceed, step by step, as for Baroco.
3. The demonstration that a proposed conclusion must be true,
because it is impossible that it can be false, is not only always
cumbrous, but also, in many instances, slow in generating convic¬
tion. It is never used, by logicians or by others, when it can be
escaped from. Yet it is of common use and very wide applica¬
bility. Even axioms, whether popular or philosophical, may have
their meaning, if not their truth, brought out more clearly, when
it is shown that the denial of them must lead to consequences which
are absurd. In controversy, demonstration through impossibility
lies at the root of the argument ad hominem: an opponent de¬
nying a conclusion of ours, we endeavour to prove that his denial
is contradictory of propositions which he himself admits. In geo¬
metry, indirect demonstration is familiar; and the name, Re-
ductio ad absurdum, which mathematicians are wont to give it,
comes from its syllogistic application, and is needlessly retained
when reduction is not aimed at.
It may be worth while to observe two points of difference, be¬
tween the logical uses of indirect demonstration on the one hand,
and the scientific and popular uses of it on the other.
First, In the search for propositions whose truth is inconsistent
with the falsity of a proposition to be proved, an expounder of the
4 I
618
LOGIC.
Doctrine of exact sciences has before him a field of choice broadening with
inference, every truth he has already been able to prove. The impossibility of
i j the falsehood of a theorem is demonstrable through the inconsistency
of the falsehood with any of the truths which, whether as axioms
or as propositions proved, have previously received a place in the
system. Even in questions involving contingent truths the posi¬
tion of"a reasoner is not dissimilar to this.—Contrariwise, in the
indirect reduction of a syllogism, the logician can assume nothing
except his two premises. But, as we have learned, nothing else is
necessary. The logical procedure is, in fact, with the one excep¬
tion of its working towards the first figure, the very same pH^ess
which is and must be followed, in all demonstrations through con¬
tradiction. The search for data is only a gathering of the mate¬
rials, out of which is woven a chain of reasoning, every link of
which depends on the law of contradiction, and is transmutable
into the strictest logical forms.
Secondly, In mathematics always, in other kinds of matter not
seldom, the inconsistency founded on lies between propositions logi¬
cally describable, not as contradictories, but only as contraries : that
is, it lies between E and A. Why, it may be asked, is this sufficient ?
For plain reasons, indicating very frequent cases. In the first place,
contraries cannot both be true: if we can hold the one to be true,
we may infer the falsity of the other. Again, in the exact sciences,
it is evident that no propositions are particular: all are either
universal or singular. Therefore the law of contradiction presses
from all sides on the contraries, with the same force as on contra¬
dictories when they are possible. This remark might be stretched
very far indeed beyond the bounds of the sciences treating number
and^quantity. All philosophical doctrines, whether of mind or of
matter, are strictly universals. But the illustration of this point
would lead us much out of our way.
4. Wider Applicabilities of Reduction. Doctrine ot
5. If the Reduction of syllogisms were merely a game to be played
at (and sometimes it has been elaborated till the practical sinks out
of sight), the ball might evidently be tossed from any of the four
quarters of the field, and pass from any one hand into any other.
It would be difficult to exhaust, for any given syllogism, the possi¬
bilities of metamorphosis through such operations as the rules of
reduction allow.
In transferring imperfect syllogisms to the first figure, the qua¬
lity of the propositions would raise no very strong barrier between
the affirmative moods and the negative: the quantity of the terms
would fix the only peremptory limit. Reduction ex impossibi/.i is
as apt, and as easy, for any other moods, as for the two which have
a monopoly of it; although, for some of them, we should have to
be content with arguing from the contrary instead of the contra¬
dictory. Further, moods of any figure might he changed into moods
of any other.
The scrutiny of syllogisms for such purposes as this, does, in more
instances than one, point to curious relations between moods, all
of them traceable ultimately to the fundamental laws. The inquiry
might be made, in logical teaching, a useful discipline of sagacity
and exactness; and it might also draw the study of the syllogism
away from that mechanical reliance on rules, into which the very
symmetry and completeness of the scholastic system are apt to make
it degenerate.
But the results have no claim to reception in an outline of logical
science.
DIVISION H.—THE SYLLOGISM ANALYSED IN EXTENSION AND
COMPREHENSION.
3. Reduction through Contraposition.
4. Contraposition, and Conversion of the Coutraposita, being
allowed for 0 and A, Baroco and Bocardo may be reduced directly
or ostensively.
The principle of the process appears most clearly, when we sup¬
pose the contraposition to be first completed, to the effect of throw¬
ing the syllogism into another mood in the same figure. In the
second figure, our negative conclusion must be retained: there¬
fore, for Baroco, we must transform the AO of the premises into
EL The syllogism thus passes into Festino. Indeed, in framing
a syllogism from given materials, it is often a matter of indifference
which of these two moods we throw it into. The relation between
Baroco and Festino is paralleled, in the third figure, by that be¬
tween Bocardo and Disamis: the transformation is here effected by
transforming each of the O’s into an I. The syllogisms thus framed,
in Festino and Disamis, are then subject to the ordinary rules of
Ostensive Reduction.
Some of the logicians who admit this method, have emulated the
schoolmen in the fabrication of names, designed to intimate, like the
old ones, the manner of performing the process at one step. In these
names, the c denotes conversion, through contraposition, of the pre¬
ceding proposition : m denotes transposition of premises as before.
In this way, Baroco is represented by Facoro, and Bocardo by Do-
camo. But these names, though adopted by Whately, fail to point
out all the steps. If we must have names, exactness would require
such as these still more whimsical ones—Facoco, Docamoc.
Baroco, thus treated, gives a syllogism in Ferio, proving the
given conclusion. Bocardo gives a syllogism in Darii, proving the
converse of the contraposita of the given conclusion.
The reduction, whether taken at one step or in two, requires no
illustration beyond the examples.
Baroco—Reduced (through Festino) to—Ferio.
1. Baroco. 2. Festino.
All P’s—are—some M’s—A. The P’s—are not—any things not M’s—E.
Some S’s—are not—any M’s—O. Some S’s—are—some things not M’s—I.
.*. Some S’s—are not—any P’s—O. .*. Some S’s—are not—any P’s—O.
3. Ferio.
Things not M’s—are not—any P’s—E.
Some S’s—are—some things not M’s—I.
Some S’s—are not—any P’s—0.
Bocardo—Reduced (through Disamis) to—Darii.
1. Bocardo. 2. Disamis.
M’s—are not—any P’s—O. Some M’s—are—some things not P’s—I.
All M’s—are—some S’s—A. All M’s—are—some S’s—A.
*"• oome S’s—are not—any P’s—O. .\ Some S’s—are—some things not P’s—I.
3. Darii.
All M’s—are—some S’s—A.
Some things not P’s—are—some M’s—I.
.’.Some things not P’s—are—some S’s—I.
.*• Some S’s—are—some things not P’s—I.
.*. Some S’s—are not—any P’s—0.
88. If we were to be content with possessing a set °f^he0bfe^g
rules enabling us to test, easily and infallibly, the conclu- ^0°es 0f
siveness of every argument that could be proposed, the syllo- predication
gism would have been dissected deeply enough, when it had 0n the
yielded the two canons, and the corollaries flowing from structure of
them. Differences of figure would have no importance : ^ sy1Io-
the process of reduction and its principle might, with equal Slsm-
safety, have been left unexamined. If, again, seeking for
a higher law, we still aimed only at forcing the indirect
moods into the precinct over which the dictum bears sway,
the end would have been attained when the study of the
scholastic scheme had put it in our power to transform
every imperfect syllogism into one of the perfect forms
which are to be found in the first figure.
But, while the canons, and the rules of reduction, have
each a substantive logical value, the syllogism is most in¬
completely understood, if it is studied only through either
of those media, or even through both. The former, taken
alone, would leave us where we should be left, in biological
science, if we had qualified ourselves only for distinguishing
and describing a part of the animal body, without having
learned anythingas to the physiological relations between the
given object and others. By the latter method, on the other
hand, we should, indeed, begin the study of functions; but
we should drop it before having gone further than the col¬
lection of data : our position would be that of the anatomist,
who, after having microscopically determined the structure
of the animal tissues, should refrain from asking how that
structure affects the action of the organs which the tissues
constitute.
Reasoning through common terms has pre-formed classi¬
fications as its data. It is merely an explication, an evolu¬
tion into the form of judgments and propositions, of rela¬
tions implied in a presupposed ordination of the concepts
and terms.
What the ordination is, that is presupposed in a given
process of mediate inference, we ascertain at a glance
when the syllogism is in the first figure. In that figure
we infer, in regular descent of extension, from term con¬
taining to term contained; from the major, through the
middle, to the minor. This order of the terms is neces¬
sarily, for the first figure, the order of extension assumed
in the pre-formed series of terms. The order of compre¬
hension is, of course, that order reversed.
LOGIC.
Doctrine of What the presupposed ordination of terms is, in a syllo-
inference. gism in any of the indirect moods, is learned through the
relation of that mood to a mood in the first figure. That
relation has been exhibited to us, for all the indirect
moods, in the Rules of Reduction. Though reduction
should in itself be held worthless, its rules are invaluable,
as facilitating progress to something beyond them. They
are premises, regularly and completely arranged, from
which may be inferred, more easily by far than if we wanted
them, the true relations of the several syllogistic figures, the
truths in virtue of which each of the figures has a place,
though not all a place equally high, in the actual system of
human intelligence.
The rules bridge over, for occasional passage, the gap
which yawns between the first figure and the others.
Where their foundations are dug into, modes of thought
are laid bare, which unite all the figures into one symme¬
trical formation.1
1 The principle which it is here attempted to bring to hear on the
syllogism, is that whose positive applicability to such a use may fairly
be said to have been undreamt of till it was declared by Sir William
Hamilton, and which has hitherto been so applied by him alone.
(See Note to Section 33.) Those students of the science (and they
do seem to he as yet few) who, in their inspection of Hamilton’s
logical system, have advanced, from his doctrine of quantification, to
this deeper-lying section of his theory, will perceive already, that the
purpose for which the principle is here used is different from his;—
if, indeed, those scanty notices, which only have hitherto been made
public, entitle us to judge precisely as to his views of the ultimate
bearing of the principle.
Both in the New Analytic, and in Hamilton’s own Appendix to
the Discussions, the point which comes out most prominently is,
the reducibility of all the three receivable syllogistic figures un¬
der one law. The characteristic differences of the three figures,
as traceable to the wholes in which their propositions severally pre¬
dicate, are, indeed, exhibited to demonstration ; hut reduction of
the second and third figures to the first seems to be condemned, as a
process both needless and unscientific. The opinion which has forced
itself on the present writer is this: that the first figure, as founded
on the ordinated hierarchy of the three terms, while the others are
not so, must retain its Aristotelic pre-eminence; that the functions
of the other figures, as expressions for processes of thought, do not
appear clearly unless through comparison with the first figure ;
that reduction by the common rules gives the only means of such
a comparison ; and that the view here taken of conversion, as a
transference of predication from whole to whole, reconciles reduc¬
tion completely to the true theory of the relation between exten¬
sion and comprehension.
Trendelenburg, it was already observed, asserts peremptorily the
necessity for considering both wholes, if we are to have a philoso¬
phical theory of the syllogism. But he treats the question quite
generally, and also (it may rightly be said) no more than nega¬
tively. Even here, he stands much closer to Schleiermacher than
to Hamilton. He maintains the insufficiency of the analysis in ex¬
tension : but, taking his position as an out-and-out adversary of the
Formal Logic, he abstains from all attempts at positive application
of the principle to the formal syllogistic scheme. Indeed, his com¬
parison of the wholes leads him, at once, on to that objective ground,
on which he aspires to founding logical science. That the distance
between his point of view and Hamilton’s may be the more clearly
seen, there are here set down, from his Logische Untersuchungen
(sect, xvi., vol. ii.), a few of those passages in which his opinions
appear with the smallest admixture of the metaphysical element.
After having observed that the usual form of the “ Dictum” con¬
templates extension, and that the “ Nota notae” contemplates com¬
prehension, he proceeds thus : “ The syllogism emerges out of the
reciprocal reference of comprehension and extension. If the com¬
prehension of a concept (the positive or negative law) is applied to
its extension, there arises the categorical syllogism. The compre¬
hension (major term) of a concept (middle term) governs its exten¬
sion (any of the species, minor term). If, on the other hand,
the same law is expressed for all the species, and if, out of this
content (or comprehension) of the extension, the comprehension of
the containing universal is collected, there arises the disjunctive
syllogism. The species constitute the middle term, or concept,
whose comprehension becomes the comprehension of the genus.”
(Pp. 239, 240) “ Comprehension and extension, in the rela¬
tion of Law and Phenomenon, constitute the essential elements
(Seiten) of the concept; and their reciprocal relation constitutes
619
89. Two preliminary points require to be considered, for Doctrine of
enabling us to extricate, out of the received syllogistic inference,
doctrines, all the relations of the syllogism, both to the
extension and to the comprehension of its three terms. The differ-
In the first place, the forms of predication, on the analysis ences in the
of which the received system rests, are those in which the cliaracter
terms are concrete, not abstract. It is, in fact, all but ^c^j’n
impossible, as we have already seen, to express intelligibly between
differences of quantity, when abstract terms are adopted the first
throughout; while, likewise, the union of concrete terms figure and
with abstract, both betrays and causes confusion of thought.the other
Concrete terms, however, point directly to predication in th^ee•
extension ; and this is one of several reasons why the rela¬
tion of comprehension has been so much overlooked.
Secondly, the conversion of a proposition is nothing else
or more than the transference of predication from the one
whole into the other. When this doctrine is called to
mind, it becomes evident how thoroughly the relations of
the figures to the wholes are implied in the rules of reduc¬
tion.
These considerations being premised, it is the easiest
thing in the world to mark, for all syllogisms whose propo¬
sitions are either A, E, I, or O, the whole in which every
one of the propositions predicates.
Considered without reference to the wholes of predica¬
tion, the three receivable figures severally exhibit the three
terms as formally ordinated in this way. In figure first,
the middle stands between the minor and the major; in
figure second, the middle stands above both of them, the one
being predicated in, the other out of it; in figure third,
the middle stands below both of them, being predicated in
both, or in the one and out of the other. When we have dis¬
covered in which of the wholes it is that each of the pre¬
dications takes place, we have discovered also how it is, that,
in the second and third figures, the middle term has come
to hold a position different from that which should belong
to it, as being the connecting link of thought between the
minor and the major.
I. In the first figure, each of the three propositions is
a Predication in Extension. The minor term is placed in
the extension of the middle, the middle in the extension
of the major, or of its contradictory ; and, consequently, the
minor is placed in the extension of the major, or of its con¬
tradictory.
Clearly, too, by converting all the three propositions, we
should gain three propositions in comprehension. If, in¬
deed, we are prohibited from adopting any propositional
forms except the received four, the syllogism formed must
be bad. But if the conversion were made thorough,
through additional forms, the new syllogism would not
violate, either the law of mediate inference, or any of the
common rules. This view, however, is neglected in the
books.
its life.” (P. 241) “ What vouches, then, for the completeness
of the forms of the syllogism ? The comprehension is referred to
the extension ; and out of the extension the comprehension is de¬
termined, and that both positively and negatively.” (P. 248) 
“ Must the syllogism, then, be nothing hut a subjective function
without a real counterpart ? No. The comprehension, represent¬
ing the law of the extension, contains the possibility of the syl¬
logism ; and therein also is its objective value intimated. To the
genetic universal, which rests on an original community of thought
and existence, there corresponds the quantitative universal. The
necessary ground (reason) hence clothes itself in the expression of
a universal fact, and becomes, in this form, the middle concept of
an objective syllogism. That which, in the real, is the ground
(reason), becomes, in the logical, the middle term of the syllogism.
Aristotle himself acutely pointed out this parallelism. (Analyt.
Post, ii., 2, 11, 12 ; De Anima, ii., 2 : compare Trendelenburg’s
Elementa Logices Aristoteleas, § 58, &c.) But the formal logic, which
would have nothing to do with the real, allowed this profound sug¬
gestion to lie unused.” (P. 280).
620
LOGIC.
Doctrine of In a word, the first figure predicates exclusively in one
inference, whole.
II. None of the other three figures predicates exclu¬
sively in one whole. In each of them, two of the propo¬
sitions are predications in the one whole; while the third
is a predication in the other.
The several indirect moods stand in two several rela¬
tions to the first figure, indicated respectively by their re¬
quiring or not requiring, in reduction, transposition of pre¬
mises, and consequent conversion of the conclusion. This
difference makes it impossible to lay down, for syllogisms
expressible through the four received forms of predication,
laws systematically distinguishing each of the indirect
figures from the others. But an approach is made to such
laws in the following statement:—
Figure II.
In Cesare, Festino, and Baroco, the major premise pre¬
dicates in comprehension; the minor and the conclusion
predicate in extension. In Camestres, whose premises in
this order are bad for the first figure, the major premise
predicates in extension; the minor and the conclusion pre¬
dicate in comprehension. In this figure, for all moods, the
whole in which the minor premise predicates, determines
the whole predicated in by the conclusion.
Figure III.
In Darapti, Datisi, Felapton, and Feriso, the minor
premise predicates in comprehension; the major and the
conclusion predicate in extension. In Disatnis and Bocardo,
whose premises (equivalents through contraposition) are in
this order bad for the first figure, the minor premise pre¬
dicates in extension ; the major and the conclusion predi¬
cate in comprehension. In this figure, for all moods, the
whole in which the major premise predicates, determines
the whole for the conclusion.
Figure IV.
In Bramantip, Camenes, and Dimaris, both premises
predicate in extension; the conclusion predicates in
comprehension. In Fesapo and Fresison, both premises
predicate in comprehension; the conclusion predicates in
extension. In the moods whose premises must be
transposed to pass into the first figure, the conclusion is in
comprehension; in those whose premises do not require
transposition, the conclusion is in extension.
The predi¬
cations of
the first
figure ana¬
lysed in
extension.
90. The general character of the First Figure has already
come out so clearly, as to call, now, for no special explana¬
tion.
It is distinctively the form of Deductive Thinking. It
presupposes the classification of objects in the progressive
order of generalization ; and, starting from the widest class,
it infers, through a class intermediate, the inclusion of a
lowest class within the sphere of the highest.
A principle or law, assumed as already established, is in¬
ferred to govern or not to govern a given case, because it
is asserted that the given case is included in a class of cases
which are known to be governed or not to be governed by
the assumed law or principle. The given case S is included
in the class of cases M ; the whole class of cases M is go¬
verned by the law P or Not-P : therefore the case S is go¬
verned by the law P or Not-P. Or, otherwise, for negatives,
the case S is included in the class of cases M; the whole
class of cases M is excluded from the cases governed by
the law P: therefore the case S is excluded from the class
of cases governed by the law P. The ordination of terms
is, always, from most to least extensive, P (or Not-P), M, S.
There thus appears, first of all, the distinction between
the two Affirmative moods of the figure, Barbara and
Darii, and the two Negative moods, Celarent and Feno. Doctrine ot
The difference arises whollyout of the quality of the assump- inference,
tion made in the major premise. That premise determines
the conclusion to affirmation or to negation. When it is
affirmative, the inclusion of the terms is direct in all its
three steps. When it is negative, the inclusion in the
second step, and, consequently, that in the third, may still
be held to be a direct inclusion in the contradictory of the
major. But the laws of ordination would allow us, also, for
negatives, to hold the second step as being an exclusion of
co-ordinates (M excluded from the extension of P), and
the third step, consequently, as an exclusion of a sub¬
ordinate from a co-ordinate of its superordinate (S excluded
from the extension of P).
Next appears the distinction between the two Universal
moods, Barbara and Celarent, and the two Particular
moods, Darii and Ferio. This difference arises wholly out
of the quantity of the subsumption made in the minor pre¬
mise. According as all of the S’s, or only some of them,
are placed in the middle term, so all, or only some, are
inferred to be in, or out of, the major. The difference
may, in effect, be considered as accidental: it arises pro¬
perly out of our poverty in class-names. The objects desig¬
nated by our minor term are for us a whole : they are a whole
which we are not compelled to regard as constituted by
parts: they are our lowest datum, which must pass, through
the middle term, into or out of the major, without change
or analysis. In this figure, indeed, the minor term may be
a singular, without any impinging either on principle or on
form. If we give to the minor term the signature “some,”
this is only because we have not a name narrow enough to
yield “ allwe cannot specificate the objects more exactly
than by saying, that they are “ some” of the objects consti¬
tuting the class S. If we were to describe them as “ All
the objects which are called some S’s,” we should have
ground for a universal conclusion : and this suggestion may
help to show how these particular moods are really inessen¬
tial variations of the universal ones.1
91. The mutual dependence of comprehension and ex- predi¬
tension makes inference to be possible, though the deduc- c^tl0ns of
tive sequence of the terms is departed from. But the fiJureTnJ
departure imposes limitations, either on the quality of the both
conclusion or on its quantity. wholes.
When the sequence is deserted in the premise which
either is the major as given, or would be the major if the
sequence were obeyed, the conclusion is made negative.
This is the predicament of the Second Figure. Its charac¬
teristic shortcoming, when looked at from the objective side,
lies in this. While it asserts, in its lowest step, the minor
premise, that S is one of the class of cases M, it does not
assert, in the major premise, either that the class of cases
M is included under, or excluded from, the operation of
the law P. Flence there are no data for affirmation: and
it is only indirectly that even negation is justified.
I. The normal character of the figure is exhibited by Ce¬
sare, and its subalternate mood Festino. In the minor pre¬
mise of these, the foundation is laid for a deductive argu¬
ment. The minor is placed in the extension of the middle.
But there does not follow a major premise, which shall place
1 This universalizing of the minor term would he useful, also, if
we were to attempt expressing Perio in comprehension. It would
enable us to dispense altogether with Hamilton’s partial negatives.
It serves the same use in the second and third figures, for moods
which have the conclusion in 0. For the universalizing may be
used, in the indirect figures, not indeed always for the minor term,
but always for the term which would be the minor if the syllogism
were reduced to Figure first. Festino is thus manageable directly,
Baroco through it, but not otherwise ; Felapton and*Feriso directly.
Bocardo cannot discard the partial negatives in comprehension,
unless by being transformed into the affirmative mood Disamis:
Fesapo is independent of them, without being universalized.
LOGIC.
621
Doctrine of the middle term either in or out of the extension of the
inference. major. We turn abruptly round, and predicate in com-
v-~-' prehension. The placing of the major in the comprehen¬
sion of the middle would plainly determine nothing, the
middle having in the other premise been considered only
in part. Therefore we exclude the major term from the
comprehension of the middle.
II. The necessity of transforming Baroco into Festino,
through contraposition, if it is to exhibit the ordination of
terms in any workable shape, is prognosticated by its initial
step. Its minor premise excludes the minor from the ex¬
tension of the middle, and thus seems to bar all further
progress.
Ill- Camestres is merely Cesare, with the premises mis¬
placed, and with the legitimate functions of the minor and
major terms consequently interchanged.
The predi- 92. The position of the Third Figure is this. It deserts
cations of t]ie sequence of deduction in its initial step: its minor
fi ureTn Premise5 or that which is the minor when the deductive
bQth sequence is established, predicates in comprehension. The
wholes. consequent limitation of the result falls on the quantity:
the conclusion is necessarily joar^'cw/ar.
The root of the restriction lies in the opposite quarter
from that which made the second figure negative. The
compass of the law P is here definitively fixed, either posi¬
tively or negatively; but the cases to be placed within the
law, or out of it, are assumed as being only a part of S.
The reason is, that, in our lowest step, we want the clue
to the ordination. We are not able to assert, in our minor
premise, that the S’s, or any of them, are in the class of
cases M: we are able to assert, only, that the cases M, or
some of them, possess the attribute S; and, not holding
ourselves entitled to aver that they are in exclusive posses¬
sion of that attribute, we say only that the M’s, or some of
them, are some of the S’s. Accordingly, when, in our major
premise, all the M’s have been asserted to be under, or free
from, the law P, it is only of some of the S’s that we can
infer the subjection to the law, or freedom from it.
The moods of this figure, when they are examined with
reference to the deductive sequence of terms, and the con¬
sequent relations to the first figure, are found to fall into
three classes. In scrutinising all of these, we must remem¬
ber that, as a consequence of the imperfection of knowledge
implied in the lower of the premises, the minor term must
pass through the syllogism unchanged, as “ some S’s.”
I. The character of the figure appears most purely in
Datisi, and the parallel negative, Feriso. The particularity
of the minor term being kept in view, the terms appear
as rising by steps, each of which is a part only of the higher.
Our “ some S’s” are a part of the class M ; the whole class
M is a part of the class P (or Not-P): consequently the
“ some S’s” are a part of the class P (or Not-P). The data
do not exceed the minimum required for justifying the
result.
II. In Darapti, and its negative Felapton, the data do ex¬
ceed the minimum; for, though the subsumption is wider
than in the first two moods, the conclusion is not so. When all
the propositions have been made predications in extension,
their import, quantities being fully expressed, is this: “ Some
S s are all M’s; all M’s are some P’s (or Not-P’s) : there¬
fore some S s are some P’s (or Not-P’s).” The class which,
for want ol a more precise name, we call “ some S’s,” is
not, as before, a part ot the class M : it is identical with
that class, or constitutes the whole of it. The subordina¬
tion of the minor term to the middle is merely formal;
and even the appearance of subordination vanishes when
the minor premise is fully converted. The ordination pre¬
supposed is not genuine. “ Some S’s” and “ all M’s” are
equipollent terms, identical both in extension and in com¬
prehension.
III. JDisamis, and its negative Bocardo, are in the same Doctrine of
situation as Camestres. Disamis takes a circuitous path inference,
to reach the conclusion of Datisi: and Bocardo, going still
further astray, by starting from a negation in its lower
premise, cannot be brought to exhibit the deductive rela¬
tions of its terms, otherwise than by a process which is
equivalent to its passage through Disamis.
93. The rules for reduction exposed the Fourth Figure, The predi-
as being a deformed variety of the first. Inspection of the cations of
wholes of predication at once renders the reason of the the fourth
rules, and shows the source of the clumsiness. figure in
I he five moods fall obviously into two classes, differing ^|o'jes
diametrically in the character of their deviations from the W ° eS’
deductive progress.
I. In Bramantip, Camenes, and Dimaris, we have re¬
ceived good premises for Barbara, Celarent, and Darii:
and we retain these as predications in extension. But we
misplace them ; or, without misplacing, we mistake the func¬
tions of the major and minor terms. From our premises
in extension, we draw, by a sudden inversion, a conclu¬
sion in comprehension.
II. In Fesapo and Fresison, both premises predicate
in comprehension. These would yield, also, in compre¬
hension, good conclusions, but only in ^E, unless we
were to universalize the minor term. The conclusions
which we do infer are predications in extension. Fesapo,
again, is, in respect of ordination, situated similarly to
Felapton.
It is plain that, in neither of the classes, does the charac¬
ter of the premises present any feature entitling the figure
to be ranked as natural or independent. In the moods of
the first class, we have simply misused premises which are
good for the first figure, and which are expressed in a form
fitting them for convenient use. In the moods of the
second class, the difficulty of managing the given predica¬
tions in comprehension does make it more difficult, but
still not impossible, to reach the pure deductive sequence.
If the figure had any claim to a place in the legitimate
system, it could only be in respect of these two moods, or
rather in respect of Fresison alone.
94. A Proposition must be a Predication in one Whole. The trans-
But every proposition may, through conversion, become a formabili
predication in the whole opposite to that in which it was of a11 s>'110’
given. Consequently, every one of the nineteen or twenty- fxhaus'tfve
four syllogisms of the scholastic scheme might be made conversion,
to assume a new form, by having each of its three proposi¬
tions converted.
The new syllogisms, however, would correctly represent the
old, on this condition only, that the conversion should every¬
where be not only safe but exhaustive. Not only must no
term be distributed in the converse, which was undistributed
in the convertend ; but, also, no term must be undistributed
in the converse which was distributed in the convertend.
Clearly, if this requirement were not complied with, the
converted syllogisms might, through failure of distribution,
contain fallacies of quantity not committed in the syllo¬
gisms from which they had been formed.
The condition, however, cannot he fulfilled through me¬
thods of conversion obeying the common rules, or confined
to the four propositional forms A, E, I, O.
Ordinary speech, like ordinary thinking, proceeds by pre¬
ference in the whole of extension : we never do, continuously
or systematically, either think or speak in comprehension.
The received doctrine of predication, and the syllogistic the¬
ory which assumes it, are alike accommodated to this univer¬
sal tendency. The four propositional forms are designed, and
are adequate, to express processes of thought, which are con¬
ducted explicitly in extension, comprehension being only
silently implied. I he mediaeval theory of the categorical
622
LOGIC.
Doctrine of syllogism, in which the doctrine of predication receives its
inference, highest development, takes for granted predication in ex-
tension only. Accepting the first figure as the norm, it
lays down, indeed, general principles, which are correctly
applicable to propositions expressed in either whole: but
its whole array of specific rules is worked out on the suppo¬
sition, that the propositions of that figure predicate in ex¬
tension, and not otherwise.
In every one of the indirect moods there are, as we have
discovered, propositions which, extension being accepted
as the form of the first figure, must be interpreted as pre¬
dications in comprehension, in virtue of that ordination of
terms, of which the first figure is an explication. No
serious difficulty arises hence, so long as we rest satisfied
with treating syllogisms in the scholastic fashion. Almost
all those propositions in comprehension, which appear in any
of the indirect moods, are expressible in one or another of
the four established forms: indeed, the genuine conclusion
of Bramantip is the only exception. Even though we pass
to reduction, those forms are sufficient for exhaustive conver¬
sions in all cases, except the minor premises of the three
anomalous moods, Darapti, Felaplon, and Fesapo.
If, however, we aim at a conversion of all the proposi¬
tions of a syllogism, there is not found, among the fourteen
named moods of the three genuine figures, any one for
which the A, E, I, O are sufficient. The P is peremptorily
called for as expressing the only thorough converse of A.
Even the ^E, too, would have to be taken as the converse
of O if conversion of it were insisted on. This weak form
is indeed avoidable, through universalizing of minor terms,
for all moods except Baroco and Bocardo: but for these it
is inevitable, unless we hold (as we ought) that they are
not directly expressible through conversion.
To a series of syllogisms thus made up almost all the
specific rules of the common system would clearly be inap¬
plicable. But it is a test of the soundness of the orthodox
system, so far as it goes, that alkthe principles on which its
rules are founded tell on the transformed syllogisms with
undeviating exactness.
The predi- rpjie possibility 0f tilus setting forth any syllogism of
cations oi 4 * cj j j o
the first t^ie common scheme in each of two convertible shapes, is
figure ana- a point of doctrine for which we cannot be too thankful,
lysed in It is at once a decisive proof, and an instructive illustration,
compre- 0f that theory of the counter-relations connecting the wholes
hension. 0f a concept) without which the laws of the syllogism are left
destitute of a firm philosophical foundation.
But nothing of a practical applicability seems to be at¬
tainable through the exhaustive transformation of the re¬
ceived moods. It is enough, at all events, for the purpose
here in view, that the process be exemplified by exhibition
of the forms which the Named Moods of the First Figure
put on, through exhaustive conversion of all their propo¬
sitions.
The premises in extension are here set down in the
usual order. For expression of the syllogism in compre¬
hension, they must of course be transposed; since the con¬
version of the conclusion makes its terms exchange func¬
tions.
Barbara.
1. In Extension.
Major Premise  All M’s—are—Some P’s (A).
Minor Premise  All S’s—are—Some M’s (A).
Conclusion   All S’s—are—Some P’s (A).
2. In Comprehension.
Major Premise  Some M’s—are—All S’s (I2).
Minor Premise  Some P’s—are—All M’s (I3).
Conclusion   Some P’s—are—All S’s (I2).
Celarent.
1. In Extension.
Major Premise  Any M’s—are not—Any P’s (E).
Minor Premise  All S’s—are—some M’s (A).
Conclusion \ Any S’s—are not—any P’s (E).
2. In Comprehension.
Major Premise  Some M’s—are—all S’s (I2).
Minor Premise   Any P’s—are not—any M’s (E).
Conclusion \ Any P’s—are not—any S’s (E).
Doctrine of
inference.
Darii.
1. In Extension.
Major Premise  All M’s—are—some P’s (A).
Minor Premise  Some S’s—are—some M’s (I).
Conclusion \ Some S’s—are—some P’s (I).
2. In Comprehension.
Major Premise  Some M’s—are—some S’s (I).
Minor Premise  Some P’s—are—all M’s (l2).
Conclusion •. Some P’s—are—some S’s (I).
Ferio.
1. In Extension.
Major Premise  Any M’s—are not—any P’s (E).
Minor Premise  Some S’s—are—some M’s (I).
Conclusion \ Some S’s—are not—any P’s (0).
2. In Comprehension.
Major Premise  Some M’s—are—some S’s (I).
Minor Premise  Any P’s—are not—any M’s (E).
Conclusion .., •. Any P’s—are not—some S’s (JE).1
1 The Toto-Partial Negative in Ferio is avoidable, if, adopting a
hint already thrown out, we read the mood as Celarent, by inter¬
preting the minor term as distributed: “ All the things we call
some S’s.” Its transference to comprehension then yields again
PEE.
If, throwing aside figure fourth, we do thoroughly convert all
the propositions of all the fourteen named moods in the others, we
double our list of admissible moods. The twenty-eight thus ap¬
pearing are just so many of Mr Thomson’s or of Sir William Hamil¬
ton’s. It may be convenient, both for students of those systems,
and for any who may wish to test minutely the suggestions here
offered, that the twenty-eight be summarily identified with the
corresponding moods of those authors. Mr Thomson (p. 248), has
tabularized all Sir W. Hamilton’s moods, translating the names
into his own symbolic letters. A, E, I, 0, retain their old signifi¬
cations : our A2, Hamilton’s toto-total affirmative, is Thomson’s
U; our I2, the parti-total affirmative, is his Y; our £E, the
toto-partial negative, is «; our |0, the parti-partial negative,
is a. Our own symbols, here to be repeated, are easily interpre¬
table into either of the other sets.
The formal outline of Hamilton’s scheme is this. The first three
figures only are admitted. The eight possible forms of predica¬
tion being accepted, there are, in each figure, twelve valid affirma¬
tive moods. Each of these yields in each figure two negative
moods : No; 1, by making the major premise negative ; No. 2, by
making the minor premise negative. There are thus, in each of
the three figures, 36 moods: 12 Affirmative, and 24 Negative. Sir
W. Hamilton’s moods are, accordingly, 108 in all. Mr Thomson
reduces the number to 63, by rejecting 45 moods, which introduce
JE or JO, or both.
In identifying the moods, we must bear in mind certain conse¬
quences of the conversion. By converting the conclusions, we
make transposition of premises necessary for all the three admitted
figures. The conversion, also, throws the Second Figure into the
Third, and the Third into the Second.
In the Fourth Figure, conversion of all propositions would only
displace one anomaly to make room for another. Not recognised
in the new scheme, it can be treated only by having all its predica¬
tions thrown into the same whole, and the premises arranged for the
first figure. If they are all expressed in extension, we gain, except
for one mood, named syllogisms of the common scheme; and its
moods, so treated, may then be transferred, if we will, to compre¬
hension.
In the following summary, the Named Moods, and their conver-
sive equivalents, are referred to the numbers which the Affirma¬
tives bear in Mr Thomson’s table, from i. to xii., the Negatives
under each being noted as 1 and 2.
3
LOGIC.
Doctrine of THE NINETEEN MOODS,
inference.
v j ^ ^ ; Figure I.
1. Common Form.
1. Barbara AAA — Fo. iii.
2. Celarent EAE — From Fo. ix., A2AA : Feg. 1.
3. Darii All — Fo. v.
4. Ferio EIO — From Fo. xi., A2II: Feg. 1.
2. Converted Form.
1. Barbara I2I2Ia — Fo. iv.
2. Celarent PEE —FromFo. x., I3AaIa: Feg. 2.
3. Darii IPI — Fo. vi.
4. Ferio IEJE —From Fo. xii., IA2I: Feg. 2.
Figure II.
1. Common Form.
5. Cesare... EAE —From Fo. ix., A2AA: Feg. 1.
6. Camestres AEE — From Fo. x., AA2I: Feg. 2.
7. Festino EIO —From Fo. xi., A2II: Feg. 1.
8. Baroco AOO — From Fo. iv., API2 : Feg. 2.
2. Converted Form ; yielding Figure III.
5. Cesare PEE — From Fo. x., PA2P: Feg. 2.
6. Camestres ....EPE — From Fo. ix., A2PA : Feg. 2.
7. Festino IE£E — From Fo. xii., IA2I: Feg. 2.
8. Baroco .., JEPJE —From Fo. iii., APA : Feg. 1.
Figure III.
1. Common Form.
9. Darapti AAI — Fo. ii.
10. Disamis IAI — Fo. vi.
11. Datisi All —■ Fo. v.
12. Felapton EAO — From Fo. vii., A2AI: Feg. 1.
13. Feriso  EIO — From Fo. xi., A2II: Feg. 1.
14. Bocardo OAO —FromFo. iv., PAP: Feg. 1.
2. Converted Form ; yielding Figure II.
9. Darapti PPI — Fo. ii.
10. Disamis PII — Fo. v.
11. Datisi IPI — Fo. vi.
12. Felapton PE JE — From Fo. viii. PA2A: Feg. 2.
13. Feriso IE£E — From Fo. xii., IA2I: Feg. 2.
14. Bocardo PJEJE—From Fo. iii., PAA: Feg. 2.
Figure IV.
1. Common Form.
15. Bramantip ...AAI(rather P)— Unacknowledged.
16. Camenes AEE —Unacknowledged.
17. Dimaris IAI —Unacknowledged.
18. Fesapo EAO — Unacknowledged.
18. Fresison EIO — Unacknowledged.
2. Re-arranged Form; yielding Figure I. in Extension.
15. Bramantip ...AAA — Fo. iii. (=Barbara).
16. Camenes EAE — From Fo. ix., Feg. 1: (=Celarent).
17. Dimaris All — Fo. v. (=Darii).
18. Fesapo EPO — From Fo. viii., A2PP : Feg. 1.
19. Fresison EIO — From Fo. xi., Feg. 1; (=Ferio).
When Fesapo, as thus thrown into the first figure, is transferred
from extension to comprehension, it gives AE|E, from Fo. viii.,
AA2A, Feg. 2. The readings of the other moodsof the fourth figure
in comprehension, are supplied by the named moods of the first
figure.
DIVISION IH.—THE FUNCTIONS OF THE SYLLOGISM AND OF
THE SYLLOGISTIC FIGUKES.
Abbrevia- 96. Thought is more rapid than speech, by an excess
tions of which hardly can be over-estimated. Of the characteristics
thought, common to all languages, as well as of those which are pecu-
pression"of liar to eacll) an immense proportion are, as it has justly
steps in ° ^een sa^> nothing else than expedients devised for the
reasoning, purpose of abbreviation. The inequality of the race
causes diversity in the kinds of motion. Thought may
proceed by steps; language, in the endeavour to keep
623
up with it, must and does advance by leaps. When we doctrine of
throw our thinking into words, though it be only m self- v '
communing, we continually pass, with a bound, over those v
steps which, for ourselves, are plainly and necessarily im¬
plied : when we aim at imparting our thoughts to others,
we suppress similarly everything which it seems safe to leave
in implication.
The desire of compression becomes especially active when
concepts are the elements ; for here we are forced on words,
on common terms, as well in silent thought as in utterance.
This is one of the causes why, although imagination may
dart from object to object with the swiftness of the tele¬
graphic flash, reasoning, burdened by its weight of words,
must travel from truth to truth with comparative slowness.
But we strive incessantly to expedite the journey.
Thus, as has already been observed, propositions, after
having been distinctly thought, are made to yield complex
terms, which supply their place : “ This man is amiable,”
is substantially preserved in the form, “ This amiable
man.” Such abbreviation gives, among other products,
the means of substituting, for the cumbrous form of
hypothetical reasoning, the simpler form of reasoning
categorically. In the meantime, dealing with the latter
species of thinking, we have to note the fact, that mediate
inference brings the abbreviative tendency to light in
another shape. In a large majority of actual instances,
such inference assumes an appearance which disguises
its real character. We have reached the utmost limits
of direct abridgment: we strive towards the same end by
having recourse to suppression. Not merely when we im¬
part thought, but also very often when we think without
communication, we evolve to ourselves, we extricate in ex¬
plicit judgments and propositions, those steps only of our
reasoning which the state of our knowledge causes to need
explication.
We suppress one of the two premises of a syllogism:
often we throw the whole of it into one complex assertion:
“ The X’s are Y’s, therefore they are Z’s”; or, “ The X’s,
being Ys, are Z’s.” A syllogism expressed thus incom¬
pletely is technically called an Enthymeme}
The state of things may be best observed through the
First Figure. This figure, when considered as to its matter,
is a process in which a given principle or law, the compass
of which is known, is applied to a given case, or cases.
The major premise asserts that certain cases M are governed
by the law P ; the minor premise asserts that the given case
S is one of those certain cases M; the conclusion asserts
that the given case S is governed by the law P.
Now, in solitary thinking, it can happen but seldom,—in
the transference of thought from mind to mind it will not
happen very often,—that both of the antecedent truths shall
demand to be explicitly brought up to the surface. In most
instances, the premise which we wish to present clearly, to
ourselves or to others, is the minor, asserting the identity
of the given case S with one of the cases M. We follow
this assertion immediately, by inferring that the case S is
governed by the law P. The implied assertion of the major
premise, that all the cases M are governed by the law P,
may safely be left unexplicated if two conditions concur:
first, that it shall be undeniable; secondly, that it shall ne¬
cessarily be suggested by the two express assertions. The
suppression of the minor premise may have place when our
position is reversed. But that of the major is by far the
more common: we leave the compass of the law unexpressed;
we affirm only the inclusion of the given case in that compass.
1 This is the scholastic meaning of the word : hut, as Hamilton
has shown, it had, in its Aristotelic acceptation, no reference to
form. Aristotle’s syllogism was an inference in matter necessary ;
his enthymeme was an inference in matter probable. (See also Bach-
mann, p. 260.)
624
LOGIC.
Doctrine of 97. The necessity of the suppressed premise, as one of
inference. tlie steps in mediate inference, is demonstrable indirectly,
through the supposition of its being either supplied wrongly
The logical or denied.
necessity Let the terms be symbols of indeterminate meaning: “All
of expli- Y’g are X’s; therefore all Y’s are Z’s.” Evidently there is
eating sup- jiere an argUment? on the validity of which a person unfa-
premises. miliar with logical analysis might be puzzled to decide.
Every one wmuld perceive that some assertion is implied:
many might supply the deficiency wrongly. “ All Z’s are
X’s” might suggest itself to some, and would vitiate the
argument. The right premise wanted, the major, is, “ All
X’s are Z’s.” Let that premise be denied, and any one would
pronounce the reasoning inconclusive.
When the terms are determinately significant, our pre¬
vious knowledge, and our practice in reasoning, concur to
make it very unlikely that we shall catch up a wrong pre¬
mise instead of the missing one. But we shall always dis¬
cover the necessity for supplying something. “ This theory
is a novelty in science ; therefore it is dangerous.” The re¬
quired major is the assertion, that “ All scientific novelties
are dangerous.” Those who admit this major must admit
the conclusion : those who deny it are entitled to assert that
the conclusion is unproved. “ All Mr M.’s opinions deserve
great deference : therefore the opinion that we can infer from
one premise deserves great deference.” Palpably, there is
here implied a minor premise, asserting that the opinion
inferred of is an opinion of Mr M.’s. It being admitted,
the reasoning is good: if it be denied, the reasoning goes
for nothing.
To the argument thus raised, no sufficient answer has
been given, by any of those who have maintained the in¬
essentiality of the suppressed premise. They have not been
able to show how we could dispense with the major premise.
Its suppression indicates, only, that the compass of the law
which founds the argument is supposed to be so evident,
and so directly suggested, as to make the statement of it
unnecessary.1
Supposed 98. With the suppression, much less usual, of the minor
suppres- premise, the objectors have dealt less closely. But one
minorV^6 arSumen^ referable to this premise brings out a distinction,
logistic wh’ch disposes of many very plausible instances urged as
premise. difficulties.
“ A naturalist finds the remains of a horned quadruped,
and pronounces that it was a ruminant animal. The rea¬
soning here, if considered as class-reasoning, is perfectly
expressed by a single premise with the conclusion. All
* There is felt, it must be confessed, a difficulty, seemingly insur
mountable, in seeing how Mr Mill’s acute and instructive theory o:
the syllogism affects the major premise farther than by throwing it £
step out of the way, while requiring also its being brought back, wher
required, for the thorough testing of the argument. “ All inferenc<
is from particulars to particulars: general propositions are merely
registers of such inferences already made, and short formula? foi
making more. The major premise of a syllogism, consequently, is s
formula of this description ; and the conclusion is not an inference
drawn from the formula, but an inference drawn according to the for¬
mula ; the real logical antecedent or premises being the particulai
facts from which the general proposition was collected by induction
these facts, and the individual instances which supplied them, ma\
have been forgotten ; but a record remains, not indeed descriptivt
of the facts themselves, but showing how those cases may be distin¬
guished, respecting which the facts, when known, were considered
o warrant a given inference. According to the indications of this
record we draw our conclusion, which is, to all intents and pur-
poses a condusion from the forgotten facts. For this it is essen-
tiai that we should read the record correctly ; and the rules of the
sy ogism are a set of precautions to ensure our doing so.” (System
whiehT« ti°0k U;’ Chap‘ 3’ Sect' 4-) That the univei-sal proposition
tive Wh lm!JOfv.Pre“iSe °f the firSt fiSure> must> if ^ is a deriva
induction IrW1u-e)7 have been guined through antecedenl
> ruth which cannot be too pressingly insisted on.
horned quadrupeds are ruminant; therefore this horned Doctrine of
quadruped was ruminant. A logician may say, ‘ Yes; but inference,
you here comprise in the conclusion two facts or proposi-
tions; and when these are separated, you obtain a regular
syllogism. All horned quadrupeds are ruminant; this qua¬
druped had horns: therefore it was ruminant.’ The intro¬
duction of a separate proposition, nevertheless, is obviously
forced; it adds no strength to the inference, and represents
no separate mental operation.”1
The introduction of it would, at all events, be in many
cases quite needless. Not a few of the stereotyped logi¬
cal examples are in the same predicament with this, of
seeking to expand into a syllogism an inference which may
be regarded as not really syllogistic,—as being, not me¬
diate, but really immediate. It has appeared already that
a syllogism in the first figure is a process of double subal¬
ternation. When we can safely infer from the subalternant
directly to a subalternate, we always do so ; but, if we cannot,
we may still be able to infer, from the subalternant, through
a proximate subalternate, to the still lower subalternate in
which we are interested. In the former case, we have an Im¬
mediate inference; in the latter, we have an inference Mediate
or Syllogistic. In which of the two forms we shall either
think or speak, is a question which we decide by considering
the circumstances in which we are, or suppose ourselves to
be. In the first form of the example quoted, the subalter¬
nate term, “ this horned quadruped,” expresses a complex
idea, which is supposed to have been antecedently extri¬
cated from the proposition, “ This animal is a horned qua¬
druped.” It is assumed, in short (as in an instance so simple
it safely may be), that the fact of the animal being a horned
quadruped is not worth explication into a proposition ; and,
on this assumption, our inference is immediate. But, if we
were anxious to invite to that fact the attention either of our¬
selves or of others, we should require to explicate it: and
the inference would become mediate. The minor premise
would certainly, in this alternative, be expressed; and, fur¬
ther, if the compass of the law were doubtful (if, for exam¬
ple, we addressed ourselves to persons unfamiliar with zoo-
l°gy), the major premise would have to be expressed also.
In a word, arguments, where the minor premise seems to
be suppressed, are really, in a majority of instances, as in this,
cases of simple subalternation. There is no spell in the
triplicity of the syllogism; and an inference not requiring
expansion into the syllogistic shape, should never be vio¬
lently stretched into it.
99. In every argument, then, which is actually thought The func-
as a mediate inference, two premises are necessary as the tion t,ie
Antecedent; although, not in communication only, butsy1Io.glsrn
also in uncommunicated thought, one of the two may be c“tr‘i^1a,j11'ed
unevolved when the argument first presents itself, and may Senera Y-
remain unevolved unless a call arises for analysis. The
accusation made against the syllogism, of representing, as
embraced in mediate inference, more steps than those which
it really contains, cannot be entertained.
The alternative charge, that the conclusion of a syllogism
is virtually implied in its two premises together, is true ; and
the admission will be estimated very lightly, by those who
have a just insight into the close limitations which shut in
human reasoning on all sides.2 Every original or primitive
truth is individual, and is gained, not by reasoning, but by
observation of our own thoughts or of the world around us.
1 Bailey, Theory of Reasoning (1851), page 81; a treatise whose
objections to the received theory of the syllogism imply several
very valuable suggestions.
2 “ The general principle of the syllogism is formal identity; that
is, identity between the antecedent and the consequent. One of
the premises must contain the conclusion : the other must declare
that the conclusion is there contained.” (Galluppi, Lezioni di Lo-
gica e Metafisica, ed. 1854, i. 306.)
LOGIC.
Doctrine of Even one such truth cannot be generalized, that is, it can-
inference. not be asserted to be a truth in more instances than one,
-v--'' unless through processes which are derivative thinking of
one kind or another,—processes which must be inferences,
either directly from one judgment to another, or indirectly
from one judgment to another, through a third. The ne¬
cessity of the truth revealed in a presentative cognition
finds its normal expression in “ this must.” It is not till
wre have reflectively thought out the possibilities of gene¬
ralization, that the same truth is expressible as necessary
through “ all are.” Still more evidently is it impossible
that, otherwise than through inference, such generalized
truths can be brought to bear on cases, their application
to which had not been directly observed.
Knowledge is digested through the two processes thus
described: the ascent from this and that observed ob¬
ject to the generalized law of the class; the descent from
the law to objects known only as included in the class.
The processes are Induction and Deduction. Both are
merely the disentanglement of relations given in com¬
plication, the distribution of known facts in masses as
exponents of discovered laws. They yield systems in
which our knowledge is symmetrically arranged, by in¬
duction according to the principle which rules its develop¬
ment into a whole, by deduction according to the prin¬
ciple which guides the determination of its several parts.
That, by neither method of procedure, can any truth be
discovered which is really different from the truths that
lay at the root, is a fact which, while it springs necessarily
from the limited character of human thought, does still leave
to both methods their inestimable value. Between unrea¬
soned knowledge, and knowledge systematically reasoned,
there lies the world-wide distance between confusion and
distinctness, between thick mist and brilliant sunshine, be¬
tween the inert lifelessness of chaos and the rejoicing ani¬
mation of the peopled earth.
On the operations which thus bring light out of darkness,
logical laws merely keep a watch. They are guide-posts
marking the track, topographical maps signalizing the points
of the journey where thought is in danger of going astray
They are nothing more. Those laws of logical analysis,
which require the throwing of the results of the operations
into certain shapes, are only the alphabet through which
we must read the inscriptions by the way-side, the key to
the cypher which notes the facts discovered by the local
survey.
This is the function discharged by all laws of Inference,
from those of the simplest to those of the most complex
kinds. It is emphatically the function of the laws ruling the
Categorical Syllogism, a process which is the central point
of all derivative thinking, rising above and passing beyond
immediate inference on the one side, and standing on the
other as the basis of all those more complex reasonings
which take the more difficult syllogistic forms.
625
any exception, because of an occasion presenting some Doctrine of
fact or facts, whose subjection or non-subjection to a inference,
known law is not immediately obvious. We know the
law ; and we know its compass : there is thus matter
for a major premise: all facts of a certain kind are either
covered by the law, or are beyond the sphere of its opera¬
tion. We know, likewise, that the fact about which we
wish to reason is one of the facts which thus stand within
or without the domain of the law ; and this knowledge sup¬
plies a minor premise. Our data having thus been placed in
exact relations to each other, there follows, inevitably, the
judgment, that the narrower fact is subject or not subject to
the law. The inference has been set in a form making it
both clear and readily testable : and this formal setting forth
of it has been made possible, by our having already ar¬
ranged the three terms in a scale of ordination.
Perfect as a form of inference, the first figure is, just
because of the regular sequence of gradation which it as¬
sumes, less likely to occur in ordinary thinking, whether
with or without expression of both premises, than either of
the other figures. In many actual cafes, if not in most, the
consequent is attainable through an immediate subalterna¬
tion. Its uses are scientific oftener than popular. 11 is in¬
valuable as exhibiting the principle on which mediate in¬
ference must ultimately rest; and as thus being, directly or
indirectly, the most decisive instrument for testing the
validity of arguments that are either disputed or not dis¬
tinctly wrought out.1
101. The Second Figure expresses a knowledge deficient The special
by one step only, but that a step so important as seriously functions
to cripple the inference. of the se'
The thinking which it expresses is indistinct, in the£ond
wider of the two judgments which supply the premises. 'S111’6,
In the major premise, as it has been shown, we turn aside
from the route of deduction. We do not directly think the
compass of the law, either positively or negatively : we do not
explicitly place our intermediate cases either within the law
or out of it. We start from the thought of the law itself,
and predicate of it that it lies out of all the intermediate
cases. Doubtless, this assertion implies that the cases are
out of the operation of the law; but it does not clearly ex¬
press the thought of this second assertion. The difference
of form or expression is symptomatic of a real difference in
thinking: the source of the difference lies in our not having
systematically ordinated the thoughts denoted by the three
terms; and we suffer for the shortcoming, bv being tied down
to a negative major premise. The inclusion of our given
narrowest case among the intermediate cases, yields a minor
premise; but the exclusion of that case from the law is the
only consequent attainable.
If, however, a negative conclusion only is aimed at,
this figure is equally available with the first; and, when the
’] he special 100. The specific uses of live Syllogism vary with the
funcuons several figures. Enough has been seen already to show
figure n?Ile ^ie firsl: three, which only deserve scientific
recognition, can be without applicability. We gain a bird’s-
eye prospect of the relation between the syllogistic figures,
in the course of that coasting voyage which we pursue un¬
der the pilotage of the scholastic rules; but the system of
stratification, which contains the wealth of the gold-region,
lies concealed, until, having mastered the doctrine of the
W holes of Predication, we travel into the heart of the
country, to survey it as mining engineers.
The I irst F igure is the characteristic expression of know¬
ledge already systematized, of deduction from principles
accepted as ruling within a certain sphere.
W hen, for the explication of such knowledge, mediate
inference is requisite, it is almost always, if not without
VOL. XIIT-
1 To the first figure is applicable, one might even say exclusively,
Mr Mill’s description of the function of the syllogism (note to section
97), as being a code of rules for the interpretation of that abbre¬
viated record of knowledge, which is embodied in universal pro¬
positions.
The protest of Ramus, against the speculative tendencies of the
Aristotelians, guided him and his followers to some instructive
views as to the functions of the several syllogistic figures. They
declared the third figure to be (oftenest in an enthymematic form),
the first and most natural mode of diancetic or discursive thinking.
Dividing, as usual, by dichotomy, they placed over against it a class
containing the other two figures. But, in that class, the second
figure, as having the simpler formal relation between the middle
and the extremes, stood before the first. “ The figure which Aristotle
calls the first, is in the order of nature the last.” This remark is
Milton’s, whose logical treatise illustrates very ingeniously the
Ramist system of dialectics. (Compare Ramus, Instituiiones Dialec-
ticce, lib. ii., capp. 10,11, 12; with Milton, Artis Logicce Plenior
Institution in his Prose Works by Birch, ii, 545-551.)
4 K.
626 LOGIC.
”>octrine of major is the suppressed premise, it will be filled up for
yference. either figure, according to the greater or less distinctness
with which the thinker has classified his knowledge of the
matter handled. Where, indeed, the aim is the detection
of differences, while positive attributes, as clearly known,
are not attended to, our familiar deductions are likely to
fall into the second figure rather than into the first. For
the law of identity and non-identity, which glimmers out
from afar, above all our thinking, as the twin star by which
it must always steer, has its most obvious bearing when the
middle term has the same function in both premises.
The consideration last hinted at is applicable with pecu¬
liar force to the remaining figure, which, as having distinc¬
tive uses infinitely wider than the second, must receive
much closer attention.
The special 102. The practical uses of the Third Figure are both
functions more various, and more firmly marked, than those served
of the third by either of the others.
figure. It is distinctively the exceptive figure. A law being
asserted as universal, the exhibition of any instance (our
middle term) in which it is violated, entitles us to deny
the universality in our conclusion. Both positively and
negatively, also, it is the form by far most natural for
exemplification: the middle term is set forth as being,
in a given class of objects, an instance in which a law is
either obeyed or not obeyed; and hence we infer that there
are instances in which the law either holds or does not.
Further, both exception and example are sufficient, though
there be but one instance of the sort. Hence our middle
term is often a singular. This figure lends itself easily to
the reception of such a middle, while no other will: and
even uninstructed thought, guided by a twinkling suspicion
of the ultimate laws of thinking, throws such reasonings
into a shape in which the third figure is involved. In all
applications such as those just described, the argument pro¬
ceeds safely, and needs little or nothing either of warning
or of guidance.
But the fact stands differently in regard to the most im¬
portant of all the uses to which the figure may be applied ; a
use, indeed, towards which the others are only the first steps.
The third is distinctively the Inductive Figure : and its
character, as applicable to this purpose, must be looked at
with all the closeness which our opportunities permit.
When we reason in the third figure, we start, as in the
second, from a knowledge which is, at one point, incom¬
pletely systematized. IMt now the cloud overhangs the
opposite quarter of our h tizon.
We possess the law; and we know its compass, either
positively or negatively. The major premise asserts, of its
two terms, the relation which they would be found to bear if
our terms were thought in their just ordination: our inter¬
mediate class of cases is governed by the law, or disobeys
it. It is in the minor premise that the clue of the deductive
maze has been lost. We cannot there assert, that the case or
cases as to which we desire to infer, or any of them, are in¬
cluded in the intermediate class; we can assert only that
the intermediate class, or some part of it, is included among
the cases about which we are directly concerned.
Our position is seductively promising. The intermediate
class, denoted by our middle term, is pronounced to be,
wholly or partly, either identical with both of the classes
denoted by our other terms, or identical with the one of
the two, and non-identical with the other. But, in the
step signified by our minor premise, we have turned aside
trom the deductive sequence; and the penalty must be
pai . Our conclusion is valid only as to a part of the class
ot cases about which we aimed at inference. We are not
secured against disappointment unless, being forewarned of
e imitation, we have in the beginning narrowed our
sphere to a part of that class. It; not having thus pro¬
tected ourselves, we draw an universal conclusion, we have Doctrine of
stumbled into an illicit process of the minor term. inference.
The process which has thus been described, from the ob-
jective side, is that which bears the name of Induction.
Our universal affirmative propositions, those which express
the whole compass of laws, and which become available as
the major and confining premises for processes of deduc¬
tion, have, if they are truths derived from others, been an¬
tecedently gained, by us or for us, through induction.
Further, those inductions, as actually performed, proceed
from data no wider than those explained here, and in the
formal scrutiny of the third figure. Yet induction takes
place, naturally and usually, in forms which, when com¬
pletely and exactly set forth, fall into the third figure:
while, if it be, in certain circumstances, referable directly to
the first, its mood is inevitably one of the two which autho¬
rize only particular conclusions. Consequently, an incalcu¬
lably large proportion of the universal affirmatives, from
which, in deduction, we travel downwards, have been
reached by a method whose prohibitory laws have been
disobeyed. Our ordinary inductions, having conclusions
universal instead of particular, are logically inconclusive.
Some logicians have rightly called them Imperfect Induc¬
tions. There is, indeed, a possible process, describable as a
Perfect Induction. As deduction is valid only from a whole
to any of its parts, from a genus to any of its species; so in¬
duction is valid or perfect only from all the parts to the
whole, from all the species to the genus. If, being able to
assume only that a law governs some of the species, we
hence infer that it governs the genus, our induction is im¬
perfect, and our inference fallacious. If, being able to as¬
sume that a law governs all the species, we were hence to in¬
fer that it governs the genus, our induction would be perfect,
and our inference valid.1 But the data for such a process are
never extant when they are most wanted: our common pro¬
cedure does never, in the most favourable circumstances,
supply them completely. All these truths must be reso¬
lutely faced.
103. The Third Figure, while it may, doubtless, like the The bear-
second, be adopted needlessly, is yet the only form which ings of the
inference can naturally assume when we are bent, not on thiyd figure
determining or specificating universal truths already known, °“iintiuc'
but on enlarging our knowledge, by widening our sphere of
generalization. In deduction we argue from the subalter¬
nant to the subalternate, from a given class to something
contained in it. “Because all are,some are:” the inference is
good. In the imperfect induction we argue from the sub¬
alternate to the subalternant, from something given as con¬
tained in a class to the class itself. Our inference is bad,
as passing beyond the sphere of our immediate premises:
whether we conclude, peremptorily, that, because some are,
all are; or only that, because some known objects of the
class are, therefore some unexamined objects of it must be
also.
It is because of the logical weakness, which thus per-
1 The Perfect Induction is dealt with by Joannes Major, in one
of the passages already quoted from (note 2 to section 39). Dero-
don exemplifies it by the following syllogism, which is really in
AA2A of the third figure: “ Ignis, aer, aqua, et terra, sunt cor¬
pora ; sed ignis, aer, aqua, et terra, sunt omne elementum: ergo
omne elementum est corpus.” (Logica Eestituta, 1659, p. 602.)
The following are the two formulae of perfect induction proposed
by Sir William Hamilton in 1833:—
X, Y, Z, are A : A contains X, Y, Z.
X, Y, Z. are (whole) B: or, X, Y, Z, constitute B.
.•. B is A. .*. A contains B.
See his Discussions, p. 161; and compare Baynes, New Analytic, pp.
71, &c. Consult also Mansel, Prolegomena Logica, pp. 207—211; Tren¬
delenburg, Logische Untersuchungen, ii., pp. 261—3; Drobisch, Neue
Darstellung, §§ 140-146. On the objective side, see Whately,
Elements of Logic, book iv., chap, i., § 1.
L 0 (
Doctrine of vades all ordinary inductions, that arguments from experi-
m erence. ence, analogy, or example, in questions relating to human
character and conduct, are so apt to be delusive, and re¬
quire to be scrutinized with so much jealousy. It is be¬
cause of the same weakness, that arguments of the same
type, when used as instruments in the construction of
scientific systems, are felt to need fencing round by an
airay of checks and counter-checks. Such an array con¬
stitutes the code of laws which is usually called the Philo-
sop ly of Induction ; a code diversely promulgated by diverse
lawgivers, and admittedly susceptible, in all its editions,
both or improvement and of enlargement.
Perhaps the simplest view which can be taken, of the de¬
sign aimed at in the inductive laws, is this. The imper¬
fect induction leads to a conclusion, which, if stated as uni-
veisal, involves a logical error : it is required to reduce that
error to as narrow a limit as possible; and it is an end not
only desirable, but in many cases attainable, that the error
shall be narrowed to a minimum which is practically inap¬
preciable^ If, the conclusion being stated as an universal
(“ all are” or “all are not”), the attempt is yet made to give
warning of its amount, that amount might be indicated, in
the predicate, through the degrees of a modal scale, loosely
indicable thus: “Perhaps, probably, very probably, pro¬
bably in a very high degree, probably in the highest de¬
gree thinkable below demonstrative certainty.” If, on the
other hand, it were attempted to intimate the amount of the
error through the subject of the conclusion, the notice
might be given through a corresponding scale of quantita¬
tive symbols: as, “A few, many, very many, almost all,
all that there is any reason for believing to exist.” The
raising of the inductive conclusion to the highest of these
degrees, whether of qualitative probability, or of quantita¬
tive inclusion, may be said to be the end aimed at through
the inductive laws; such laws, for instance, as those which
Mr Mill proposes under his four “ Methods of Experi¬
mental Inquiry,” the methods of Agreement, Difference,
Jtesidues, and Concomitant Variations.
How are any such laws effectual ? And how is truth
attainable through a process which, so far as we have yet
examined it, appears to leave open the chance of error?
Laws are applicable to the case, truth is attainable through
the process, by reason of this fact. The explicative pro¬
cess is and must be, at one stage or another, ampliated
by an assumption not implied in the data. Further, that
which is assumed must be a necessary and universal truth ;
it must be a truth which thus lies above the universe of ex¬
perience, but which becomes known to us only through our
experience of individual facts, while it is expressible only by
reference to the relations under which those facts became
objects of cognition. When regarded in its most concrete
and complex aspect, the principle is spoken of by such
phrases as “ The uniformity of nature.” Specificated from
a higher point of view, it yields the assertion that “ Every
fact or phenomenon is governed by a law or laws:” and,
when we look down on it from a station yet more elevated,
it resolves itself into the doctrine, that “ Like causes pro¬
duce like effects.”
I his principle rules human activity quite as sternly as it
rules the passivity of corporeal matter. But the laws, the
causes, are not the same. Will, indeed, predominates over
both regions; that all-directing and sustaining Will, in the
thought of which is found the last solution of the problem
raised, when we trace law and cause upwards into pre-formed
purpose or design. That universal energy, however, beinjj
revei entl} taken for granted, we see that mind exercises
volition of its own, that it acts, or exercises its powers, in
virtue of will; while body merely obeys the universal laws
of its nature, whether left to itself, or influenced, in confor¬
mity with these by the will of man. Hence it is that the
generalization of reasonings about mind is, and must always
i I c. 627
continue to be, so much more hesitating and precarious Doctrine of
than similar generalization about things corporeal. Given inference.
a cause, that is, given all the elements of a cause; it must
always be possible to prognosticate the effect. But we
may know all the causes which immediately influence
body: we never do or can know all the causes which im¬
mediately influence mind; and this impotence imposes a
limit on the certainty, both of a generalized law, and of its
application to an individual fact.
104. Though the fourth figure is certainly useless, it is The uses of
clear that both the second and the third represent forms of syllogistic
reasoning, which are not only actual but frequent; while the reduction,
third, likewise, is the natural form of our common generali¬
zations.
Reduction of syllogisms, then, to the first figure, cannot
well be maintained to be necessary on a ground which has
been hinted at by one great philosopher, and regularly de¬
veloped by another.1 The imperfect moods, it has been
said, are really Mixed Inferences: each of them implies one
or more immediate inferences by conversion : and it is
from these implied premises, not from the expressed ones,
that the conclusion is mediately inferred. The substitut¬
ing of the implied propositions for the expressed ones, is
the reduction of the syllogism.
The process of thought supposed by this theory, is not
that which actually takes place. When an argument is
expressible as a syllogism in a mood of any indirect figure
we have really thought in that figure, not in the first. ’
But reduction, though it does not show what the given
inference really was, does show what it might have been :
and herein is its usefulness to be found. We had fallen
into the given figure, because, whether through imperfect
knowledge or through want of reflection, we had not dis¬
tinctly thought the three concepts of our reasoning, in the
relations winch they must bear to each other as members in
a classified series. Reduction brings those relations to light,
exhibiting the three terms as being, successively, contained’
containing and contained, and containing. Now, like¬
wise, there becomes directly applicable to our argument
the law of subalternation, the highest concrete principle by
which reasoning through common terms admits of beine
tested. &
Accoi dingly, the transformation of Indirect syllogisms
into Direct, should be considered as being only a valuable
means of analysing, to the furthest possible point, the ele¬
ments of a given argument. Every indirect syllogism may,
with immediate reference to its conclusion, be held to be a
genuine form of thought, resting on a foundation which,
though neither the widest nor the deepest of those that un¬
derlie it, is yet perfectly strong enough for its support.
Now, therefore, when our study of the simple categori¬
cal syllogism is completed, not only may we ask, wfoether
the attempt has been made to propound any laws go¬
verning, indifferently, syllogisms of every form ; but we
may also collect some of those many codes of maxims, in
which it has been attempted to draw to a point the func¬
tions and formal rules of the several figures.
105. The question as to universal laws of the syllogism a
reminds us of the two Syllogistic Canons. These,° the of proposed
oldest laws of the sort, were sufficiently examined in a pre- syllogistic
■     —  canons.
1 The hint is Aristotle’s: Analytica Priora, lib. i., cap. 1; sub
finem. It is developed by Kant, in one of his minor treatises:
Pie falsche Spitzfindigkeit der Figuren. By him, and those who have
followed him most closely in the application of his doctrines to
logic, such as Kiesewetter, the indirect syllogisms are called Mixed
or Hybrid. Schulze calls them syllogisms Extraordinary or Trans¬
posed : Orundsdtze der allgemeinen Logik, ed. 1831, p. 118. Kant’s
view had been virtually anticipated by the paradoxically acute
Derodon : Logica Restituta, p. 647.
LOGIC.
628
Doctrine of ceding division of the present chapter. But emphatic
inference, commemoration is here deserved by that resolution of the
canons into the laws of identity and difference, which was
then quoted from Smiglecius.1 Somewhat later than his
time, the same reference was carried yet farther. “ for all
syllogisms,” says Derodon, “ whether affirmative or nega¬
tive, "this one principle is sufficient; that things which are
the same with a third thing are the same with each other.
The principle requires no limitation whatever.”2 3
In the logical systems of the modern Germans, the ulti¬
mate dependence of the syllogistic rules on the laws of
identity and difference, is generally insisted on, and more or
less satisfactorily traced. But we do not encounter, among
them, more than a solitary attempt to deduce, for the syllo¬
gism, one universal canon, exhibiting the application of the
two axioms to the concept. These logicians, however, are
very lavish in generalizations of the rules and characteris¬
tics of the several figures ; and some of the doctrines they
have proposed may usefully be cited.
In the First Figure, says Lambert, the middle term is
a ground or reason ; in the Second it is a difference; in
the Third it is an example; in the Fourth it is a ground
of reciprocity. “ I. The law of the First Figure is the
Dictum de omni et nullo: What is predicated of all A’s,
may be predicated of every A. II. 1 he law of the Second
Figure is the Dictum de diverse: Things which are differ¬
ent, cannot be predicated of each other. III. The law of
the Third Figure is the Dictum de exmplo: When we
find things A which are B’s, there are A’s which are B’s.
IV. The law of the Fourth Figure is the Dictum de reci-
proco. (1.) If no M is B, no B Is this or that M. (2.) If
C is or is not this or that B, there are B’s which are or are
not C’s.”
By the same close analyst, the functions of the four figures
are otherwise distinguished In this way :—“(1.) The First
•"igure appropriates to the thing what we know of its attri-
ute. It infers from the genus to the species. (2.) The
-econd Figure leads to the difference of things, and re¬
moves contusion of concepts. (3.J The Third Figure gives
examples and exceptions for propositions which appear uni¬
versal. (4.) The Fourth Figure finds species for the genus,
in Bramantip and Dimaris ■ it shows that the species does
not exhaust the genus, in Fesapo and Fresiso ; and it de¬
nies the species of that, whereof the genus is denied, in
Camenes.”* We shall not again find mention of the fourth
figure.
Consideration is called for by a generalization wider than
this. Herbart distributes the three figures into two classes.
The First and Second are called Syllogisms of Subsumption,
in respect that in each of them the minor term is subsumed
or subordinated under the middle : the Third Figure is said
to have Syllogisms of Substitution, their character consisting,
it is alleged, in the substitution of one term for another.
One of the most acute thinkers of Herbart’s philosophi¬
cal school, while dissenting in part from the distribution,
has expressed the laws of the three figures with pregnant
brevity. “ The First Figure,” says Drobisch. “ may be said
to reach its conclusion through subsumption, the Second
1 Section 82; and its second note.
2 Logica Restituta, pp. 642, 644. Negative syllogisms he brings
under the law of affirmation by contraposition. The absolute iden¬
tity of the objects denoted by the extremes he maintains chiefly on
metaphysical grounds, similar to those urged by Smiglecius : but
one section in his argument shows him to have apprehended (not
very distinctly) the doctrine, that the quantitative signs are in¬
tegral parts of the terms.
3 Lambert, Neues Organon, 1764, vol. i., pp. 136-143 ; “ Dianoio-
ogie, section iv. Mr Thomson has traced the substance of Lam-
ert s laws, except that for the fourth figure, to Keckermann ; and
perhaps they are still older. (Thomson, Laws of Thought, p. 228;
Keckermann, Systerna Logica, [Plenius], ed. 1614, lib. in., capp. 5,
6, 8, 9, pp. 746, 756, 757.)
through opposition, the Third through substitution.”1 He Doctrine of
assigns both a universal law of the syllogism and special inference,
laws for the three figures, in the following propositions. In
the first of these, M denotes the middle term, A and B
the terms of the conclusion; the functions of all these
terms, as subject or predicate, being left unfixed.
“ A conclusion will always be yielded, when it can be
shown, that the whole or a part of the sphere of A, through
its relation to the sphere of M, and the relation of M to the
sphere of B, is either contained in the sphere of B, or ex¬
cluded from it.—I. For obtaining syllogisms of the first
figure in conformity with this universal principle, the appli¬
cation of the two following laws is sufficient: (1.) In that,
wherein the whole is contained, there is contained also its
part; (2.) From that, wherefrom the whole is excluded,
there is excluded also its part.—II. Syllogisms in the
second figure are yielded through application of these two
laws: (1.) The part of a whole is excluded from that
which is excluded from the whole ; (2.) That which is ex¬
cluded from the whole is also excluded from its part.—III.
Syllogisms in the third figure are yielded through applica¬
tion of this law: Identical determinations of a concept
may be substituted for each other.”
Twesten gives thus the laws of the three figures. “ I. In
the First Figure, we infer from the genus to that which
is under it, by the so-called Dictum de omni et nullo. It
may be regarded as a widened subalternation. II. In the
Second Figure, from the opposite relation of two concepts
to a third, we infer to their own opposition. It may be re¬
garded as a widened opposition. III. We may consider
the Third Figure as an application of the analytic [explica¬
tive] law, that there is given, with a concept, the agreement
of its marks. The procedure in it is according to this prin¬
ciple : Concepts which may be predicated of the same
subject, may be predicated of each other, though only with
limited quantity or modality; concepts, on the contrary, of
which the one, but not the other, may be predicated of a
certain subject, may be denied of each other, under the
same limitation as before.”2
106. The only other shape of the laws calling for cita- SirWilliam
tion, is that in which they have most recently appeared, Hamilton’s
and in which they are designed to cover, not only the cur- syllog>stlc
rent syllogistic scheme, but likewise all the new moods
proposed by their author.
The form in which Sir William Hamilton expresses his
one universal canon of the syllogism is this. “ What worse
relation of subject and predicate subsists between either of
two terms and a common third term, with which both are
related, and one at least positively so: that relation sub¬
sists between those two terms themselves.” The same law
is given by Mr Thomson, in a form bringing it nearer to
being a combination of the two received canons. “ The
agreement or disagreement of one conception with another,
is ascertained by a third conception; inasmuch as this,
wholly or by the same part, agrees with both, or with only
one, of the conceptions compared.”
To the work last quoted from, the author of the universal
canon furnished also the following specificated applica¬
tions of it to the several figures:—
1 Herbart, Einleitung in die Philosophic, ed. 1850, p. 111. Dro¬
bisch, Neue Darstellung der Logik, ed. 1851, sections 81-88. The
distinction between Darapti and Felapton on the one side, Datisi
and Feriso on the other, was not overlooked by Herbart. But, fol¬
lowed by Drobisch, he uses it by founding on the double distribu¬
tion of the middle in the first two of those moods, and taking them
as the norms of his “ substitutive inferences.” Surely, however,
the character of the third figure is very loosely apprehended when
it is said to rest on substitution.
3 Twesten, Lie Logik, insbesondere die Analytik, 1825, §§ 105-
109.
LOGIC.
629
Doctrine of
inference.
“ Figure I.—In as far as two notions are related, either
both positively, or the one positively and the other negatively,
to a third notion, to which the one is subject and the other
predicate ; they are related, positively or negatively, to each
other as subject and predicate.
Figure II.—In as far as two notions, both subjects, are,
either each positively, or the one positively and the other
negatively, related to a common predicate-notion ; m so
far are those notions, positively or negatively, subject and
predicate of each other.
Figure III.—In as far as two notions, both predicates,
are, either each positively, or the one positively and the other
negatively, related to a common subject-notion ; in so far
are those notions, positively or negatively, subject and
predicate of each other.”1
The propositions which have been cited, in this section
and the last, may suggest more reflections than one.
Each of the codes of laws struggles towards one prin¬
ciple, and is clearly intelligible when that principle is
understood and remembered : we are led, everywhere,
to look back on the law of non-contradiction, with a
beckoning, more or less emphatic, towards the character
of concepts as the objects on which the law is brought
to bear. Each of the codes, again, is, for those who
have mastered the received rules of the syllogism, easily
interpretable, as being nothing else than a generaliza¬
tion of them. But, on the other hand, the bolder the
generalization is, the more difficult does it become to de¬
scend again to the received rules; if, indeed, we have not,
at one or two points, been guided completely beyond sight
of them.2
CHAPTER IV.
COMPLEX MODES OF INFERENCE.
the name ofExponible” or “ Compound” prepositions, Doctrine of
we have already made up a passing acquaintance.1 These nrference.
are formally distinguished from categoricals by their com- ““
plexity : each of them is constituted by two or more pro¬
positions that are categorical. Each of them, again, may
be analyzed into its constitutive categoricals. Further,
most of the kinds of exponibles do not become rightly avail¬
able as data for inference, till that analysis has been per¬
formed. The inferences then issuing from such proposi¬
tions are traceable immediately to the relations of the terms,
and consequently are ruled directly by the laws of cate¬
goricals.
This limitation of use, however, does not affect all ex¬
ponibles. The exception which has place is indicated by
a difference in form. While, in most kinds, certain of the
constitutive propositions are only implied, there are two of
the kinds in which all the constitutive propositions are ex¬
plicitly set forth. Propositions of those two kinds may be
inferred from, without being subjected to an analysis deep
enough to lay bare the implied relations of the terms. In
inferring from them, we may content ourselves with assum¬
ing a relation, explicated in our complex proposition, be¬
tween the propositions which constitute it. The peculiar
character of the relation so assumed, impresses a peculiar
form on the inference for which it becomes a datum.
The two kinds of complex propositions, which are sus¬
ceptible of being thus dealt with, may have their common
character indicated if they are called Conjunctives.
A Conjunctive Proposition neither affirms nor denies any
of the constitutive propositions: it merely asserts a rela¬
tion between them. It is either an Hypothetical (or Con¬
ditional) proposition, or a Disjunctive.3
An Hypothetical proposition is constituted by two cate¬
goricals ; and it asserts that, on the hypothesis or condition
that one of the constitutive propositions is true, the other
is true also. “ If X is Y. ("then) Y is Z or, “ If X is Y,
DIVISION I.—INFERENCE BY COMBINATION OF CATEGORICAL
WITH NON-CATEGORICAL PREMISES.
Thecha- 107. We assert and reason categorically, through as-
racter of sumption of the relations between terms. This is the form
conjunctive judgment naturally and spontaneously takes when
proposi- jtg (jata ai.g pOSitiveiy assumed; and no long series of judg¬
ments deviates steadily from it. That we may be able to
adopt it, we continually throw into the shape of complex
ideas and terms the judgments which we desire to develope
further. To this form, likewise, thought must be reduced,
before the primary logical laws can be made to bear directly
on it.
But there are propositional forms which are not catego¬
rical. Such may be said to be all those with which, under
1 Baynes, New Analytic, p. 53. Thomson, Outline of the Laws
of Thought, pp. 214-230. We have it not now to learn that parti¬
cularity is a “ worse” relation than universality, negation than
affirmation. For the full development of Sir W. Hamilton’s scheme,
however, it has to be remembered, that in extension the subject is
“ worse” than the predicate, being thought as quantitatively a part
of it; that in comprehension, for the same reason, the predicate is
“ worse” than the subject.
2 The following works may be referred to, for other comparisons
of the figures:—Melanchthon, Be Dialectica, lib. iii.; La Logique
(de Port-Royal), partie Hi., chaps. 5, 6, 7 ; Wolf, Philosophia lia-
tionalis, 1728, pp. 311, 317, 320 ; Wytter.bach, Prascepia Philoso¬
phies Logicce, part iii., chap. 6, § 13; Maass, Grundriss der Logik,
ed. 1806, p. 222—(the only one of the recent German logicians,
so far as we know, that has attempted to generalize the rules of
the fourth figure) ; Hoffbauer, Anfangsgriinde der Logik, ed. 1810,
pp. 164, &c.; Kiesewetter, Grundriss ’einer allgemeinen Logik, ed.
1824, vol. i., pp. (109), 403, 405, &c.; Fries, System der Logik, ed.
1837, p. 165; Kidd, Primary Principles of Reasoning, 1856, chap,
v., sect. 4. For Mr Mill’s reading of the law' of the first figure, see
his System of Logie, book ii., chap. 2., §§ 3, 4; and Mr Kidd’s ob¬
servations on the passage in hap. iii., § 1.
1 Note II. to Part III., Chapter I.: Interpretation of Propositions.
3 The name Conjunctive, for the genus, is that of the Port-Royal
Logic, as well as of earlier works. There is an awkwardness, ob¬
vious and undeniable, in adopting this as a generic name, while
the name disjunctive is applied to one of the two species. But
the fault seems to be less than that of the terminology adopted
by Whately, and others, from Aldrich, Sanderson, and most of the
older English logicians. These give to the genus the name “hypo¬
thetical and they designate the two species as “ conditional” and
“ disjunctive.” But the words “ hypothetical” and “ conditional”
are palpably synonymes : nor is the name “ hypothetical” very apt
for disjunctives.
In their treatment of the complex modes of inference, the Ger¬
man logicians, almost to a man, are elaborately and most ingeni¬
ously minute; but, alike in nomenclature, in method, and in re¬
sulting theory, they are as discordant as the extreme difficulty of
the problems would make one expect to find them. Most of them
cling, more or less closely, to the remarkably subtle analysis of
Lambert. From him, likewise, one or two English writers have
taken some of the mnemonic names (“ Saccapa, Caspida,” &c.), by
which, emulating the “ Barbara” verses, he sought to symbolize
the rules of those complexly-complex inferences, a few of which are
touched on in the third division of the present chapter. It is but
a very small part of those speculations that can be put to use in the
summary here attempted.
Fries’s distribution of judgments and propositions (System, p.
102), is worth notice for its bearing on complex inferences. Judg¬
ments fall, in respect of relation, into three classes. The relation
of subject andtpredicate gives the Categorical Judgment; the rela¬
tion of reason and consequent gives the Hypothetical; the relation
of co-ordinates to the containing whole gives the Divisive. The
divisives, again, are of two species : the Conjunctive, which is the
“ copulative” of many old logicians ; the Disjunctive, which is the
proposition commonly bearing that name. Copulatives, however,
as was already observed, are really categoricals (Note II. to Part
III., chap, i.); and, besides, they give but imperfect expression to
that divisive relation, which is adequately set forth by disjunc¬
tives (compare section 56). The same remarks are applicable to
the propositions which Drobisch calls “ Divisive,” as “ B is partly
X, partly Y, partly Z.”
630
Doctrine of (then) Y is not Z.” The conditioning proposition is called
in erence.^ t])e Antecedent, the proposition conditioned is the Conse-
quent. The two propositions, accordingly, have functions
corresponding, severally, to those discharged by the two
terms of a categorical. A function parallel to that of the
copula belongs to the “ Consequencethat is, the words
“ if” and “ then,” which express the relation between the
constitutive propositions. Through these words (or more
commonly, in our language, through the former alone),
there is denoted the affirmation of the consequent, on con¬
dition of the affirmation of the antecedent. 3
A Disjunctive proposition is constituted by two or more
categoricals: it asserts that one or another of these must be
true, and the others false. “ Either B is X, or B is Y or B
is Zor, “ Either B is X, or C is X, or D is X.” In al¬
most every actual case, one of the terms (simple or com¬
plex) is, as in these examples, common to all the constitu¬
tive propositions ; and, when the fact is so, the disjunctive
is conveniently abridged into a form which would make it
useable as a categorical having one term alternatively com-
P v‘» “u!? 18 eithei' X’ or Y’ or Z: Either or C, or D,
is X. The place of the categorical copula is taken by the
“ Alternative” words “ either” and “ or.” The import of
these is double : they denote the affirmation of one or
another of the constitutive propositions, and the denial of
all the others. The constitutive propositions, again, repre¬
sent the categorical terms ; but none of them is tied down
as in hypotheticals, to the function of antecedent or conse¬
quent. For the character of the disjunctive relation in¬
volves an inconsistency, absolutely reciprocal, between any
one of them singly, and each and all of the others.1
tivejpro'po- 108- When conjunctive propositions are considered as
sitions as premises or antecedents of inference, three points come to
antecedents hght.
First: The only inferences affected by the conjunctive
character are mediate. The conjunctive proposition is one
othei-180: 3 SeC°nd ProPosition must be supplied as the
Secondly: A conjunctive proposition of either kind may
with another premise of the same kind, yield a conclusion
also of the same kind. But such syllogisms, purely hypo¬
thetical or disjunctive, neither evolve, nor depend on, the
assumed relations of the constitutive propositions: they are
genuine categorical syllogisms, hidden under a disguise,
which is thrown over them by the uncertainty of the thinker
as to the legitimacy of the assumptions they postulate.
7 he pure hypothetical inference springs from doubt as to
the truth of the premises: the pure disjunctive inference
spnngs from doubt as to the extension or comprehension of
the terms.
The only syllogisms which do depend on and evolve the
relations of the constitutive propositions, are those mixed
ones in which the conclusion is categorical. The major
!innmiSR1Sf cr I!01!! ,kin<?S’ V16 £iven conjunctive proposi-
• mt, for both kinds, the minor premise must be cate¬
gorical. In other words, the conditional or disjunctive
re ation is evolved, by being brought to bear on an uncon-
ditional and positive assertion of fact. In mixed hypothe-
SLSyl,rmVhe minor Premise is categorical, both for¬
mally and in substance, in mixed disjunctive syllogisms,
LOGIC.
of infer¬
ence.
» B th,'pHy d 1SJ'U v11VG negation are sucl1 as the following:
Evialo f X’ n0r Y’ nor Z : Neither B, nor C, nor D is X ”
the character assV-er’ tf,h?Se^a11 short> by m°re features than one, of
deed thev mav ■1?x1ed,ln the text to the disjunctive proper. In-
one term neg^ivfiy^^pig^^f^8 ^®rmativ® pategur>icalS? having
X, nor Y, nor Z • That £>?• C • B~l®~somethlng which is neither
The introduction ofsn.h a 18 nelther B’ nor C> nor D_is_X.”
premise is categorical wouldI'l)I)OSlt+^n aS^ Premise> when the other
to the categorical laws. ^ leaVG the syllogism directly amenable
always in substenco t f Y dlSJ,mCtlve form ? but lfc is Doctrine of
idontitv nr Vff categorical, an unqualified assertion of inference.
cate ^ dlfference between its subject and its predi-
t' There ^Ppears a point’ whlch> for the theory of
these inferences is the most important of all. The validity
of categonca! inference, from premises one of which is con-
mise shnllT °n t,:iSp°Stlllate : that the conjunctive pre-
m se shall be accepted as an affirmation of the result of cer-
wo kind? pr°fCes,ses‘ These Processes have, for the
dpki d d‘fferen Characters’ and rest °n different prin-
An hypothetical proposition affirms the validity of an
ndn? f?!! lnerenCe‘ 11 asserts that’the antecedent being
admitted, the consequent must be inferred from it. The
necessity of the inference may appear on the face of the
ypothetical proposition ; but much more frequently it does
not. in either case, the proposition merely asserts that the
in erence is valid, while it presupposes the process by which
tbe vahehty is established. It thus depends on one or more
ot the Jaws of inference, and is traceable through them to
the axioms of identity and difference.1
(2.) A disjunctive proposition affirms the- completeness
and accuracy of an antecedent process, which either is a
ogical division, or is ruled by the same principles as it. It
asserts that the constitutive propositions set forth all the
dividmg members of the whole, and that these members
exclude each other. It thus depends on the axiom of ex¬
cluded middle.
1 his analysis of disjunctives covers all the actual cases,
rirst: JNone of the constitutive propositions may have any
of then-terms identical: “Either B is X, or C is Y, or D
is A. buck a proposition is easily referable to a division
having a very wide divisum : “ All possible cases are cases,
either of B being X, or of C being Y, or of D being Z.”
Secondly: Each of the^constitutive propositions repeating
one term, the disjunctive proposition may have singular
terms only, and will thus assert, alternatively, individual
identities only. In this unusual case, the assertion depends,
obviousJy as woh as directly, on the law of excluded middle.
1 nirdly: When its terms are common, one of themoccurrino-
in each of the constitutive propositions, the same depem
dence holds through the law of the concept. In such cases,
a, disjunctive proposition, in its abridged form, really asserts,
ot one of its terms (usually, but not necessarily, the subject),
that its extension is constituted by the terms constituting
the predicate. The predicate is an enumeration of co-ordi¬
nate terms, which are parts, and all the parts, of the exten¬
sion of the subject. The proposition (if held to be a cate-
goncal, as it may be), is an A‘2; and it affirms, or implies, a
ogical division carried down to one step only. It is so ex¬
pressed as to signify, both the mutual exclusion of the parts,
and the equivalence of their sum to the whole. Thus the
assertion that “ All the B’s are either X’s, or Y’s, or Z’s ”
is mterpretable as, or out of, this assertion; that the class B
is constituted in extension by the three sub-classes X, Y,
and Z. Categorical inference from such a premise is not
possible, unless the members of the division are both mu¬
tually exclusive, and in their combination exhaustive.
109. From the description of the hypothetical proposi-The struc-
i't50’ JeiC- co^le Pnce two laws of the Categorico-ture and
ypothetical Syllogism, which is oftenest described simply ruIes of the
as Hypothetical. Each governs one of its two moods,—the hyPofhe'
      tical syllo-
, Tr , , " gism.
van , an many other foreign logicians, place the hypothetical
Pr°P°SB!?n alleging that it requires, for its justification,
rme 0 e sufficient reason.” But it was maintained, in
Uip1 naL ^ectlon that this doctrine, if understood as
nf iffpnfi 10n a Purely formal, is resoluble into the axioms
of identity and difference.
LOGIC. 631
Doctrine of Constructive or Positive mood, and the Destructive or
inference^ Emotive.1
(1.) The Mood of Position rests directly on the principle
of inference : if the antecedent is admitted, the consequent
may be inferred. The minor premise, therefore, is an affir¬
mation of the antecedent, the conclusion an affirmation of
the consequent. “ If X is Y, Y is Z ; but X is Y: there¬
fore Y is Z.” “ If every X is Y, no X is Z; but every X
is Y: therefore no X is Z.”
(2.) The Mood of Amotion rests on an immediate corol¬
lary of the principle, the same which is used for indirect
demonstration. The inference expressed in the major pre¬
mise being assumed to be valid, its consequent cannot be
false, unless because its antecedent is so: if the consequent
is false, the antecedent must be so likewise. Thus we gain
the law of the mood, which is this: If the consequent is
denied, there may be inferred the contradictory of the ante¬
cedent. The minor premise, therefore, is any proposition
expressing an absolute denial of the consequent: the con¬
clusion is any proposition expressing an absolute denial of
the antecedent. In applying these rules to common terms,
we have to bear in mind the rules of opposition. “ If X is
Y, X is Z ; but X is not Z : therefore X is not Y.” “If no
X’s are Y’s, all X’s are Z’s; but some X’s are not Z’s: there¬
fore some X’s are Y’s.” “ If some X’s are Y’s, some B’s are
Z’s; but no B’s are Z’s: therefore no X’s are Y’s.”
(3.) No conclusion can be drawn, with any minor pre¬
mise, from either of the other two assumptions which are
possible ; the affirmation of the consequent, the denial of the
antecedent. Neither of these assertions would affect the
character of the major premise as an inference.
(4.) All hypothetical syllogisms may be reduced to cate-
goricals. The positive mood falls directly into the first
figure, the amotive mood into the second. Our second
example in the first mood might easily be resolved, thus,
into Celarent; “ Any X’s which are Y’s are not any Z’s;
but all X’s are some X’s which are Y’s: therefore no X’s
are any Z’s.” Often, however, the categorical expression
of the major premise becomes extremely unwieldy. In
these cases the books, both English and foreign, advise the
substitution of such unanalytic forms as those adopted in the
following reduction, into Camestres, for the last example
under the second mood: “ All cases in which some X’s are
Y’s, are some cases in which some B’s are Z’s; the present
case is not any case in which some B’s are Z’s: therefore
the present case is not any case in which some X’s are Y’s.”
ofTheT HO* Lastly, however, the frequency of such difficulties,
pothetical t^e reduction of hypothetical, points significantly to in-
syllogism. adequacy of the merely formal analysis. Other circum¬
stances strengthen the suspicion.
The two syllogisms last treated exemplify an instructive
distinction.
In the former of these, the conjunctive premise is, in
effect, an enthymeme; and if for it there were substituted
the missing premise, our given minor and conclusion would
form with it a simple categorical syllogism: “ No Y’s are
Z’s ; all X’s are Y’s: therefore no X’s are Z’s.” But this is
nothing more than explicating fully the conjunctive premise
itself. There is no difference, logically appreciable, between
the argument just set down, and this other: “ If no Y’s are
Z’s, and if all X’s are Y’s, no X’s are Z’s.” Indeed, if we
take up our ground very firmly, it may become probable
to us that the latter form, as enouncing merely the relation
of antecedent and consequent, is the precise and proper
logical expression of the argument; that the former ex-
1 Mood of Position, the “ Modus ponens, a positione antecedentis
ad positionem consequentisMood of Amotion, the “ Modus tollens,
ab amotione, remotione, vel eversione consequentis ad amotioncm
antecedentis.”
presses too much, in respect that it seems to assert the truth Doctrine of
of the antecedent, an assertion which does not logically inference,
come into question. In truth, as has already been shown, Vs-«—
categorical predication and inference rest on presupposi¬
tions. In actual thinking, we have, or endeavour to find,
positive reasons, justifying the throwing of our thoughts
into the categorical form. But logic is indifferent to these
reasons: it accepts the assumptions as given ; and it traces
them to their consequences at the risk of those who give
them.
But, again, the last of our examples exhibits another re¬
lation. The terms of the conjunctive premise are four; the
inference which it alleges must be a complex inference, for
the explication of which materials are not given. Some
logicians are inclined to refuse to such propositions the
character of genuine hypothetical ; but this denial rests on
a narrow view of the process.1 It is quite conceivable that
we should make such an assertion as this: “ If all good
actions are self-rewarding, there are men who are inde¬
pendent of worldly honoursand, if the relation between
the antecedent and the consequent is admitted, we may
argue from this premise, either by position or by amotion.
But the relation must be admitted, if the argument is to
have any force, or even any meaning; and the character
of the data makes it impossible for us to verify the relation,
unless we ampliate our reasoning by assuming premises
which are not given, and which have terms wanting also in
our data.
In both of our examples, however, presuppositions are
absolutely required. The cases differ only in the amount
and kind of these. In neither of them is the hypothetical
proposition, as given, sufficient to determine the validity of
the inference : it must be assisted, for both, by assumptions
throwing us back on categorical forms and categorical laws.
All the doubts converge on one question, suggesting an
answer that may be challenged as a paradox. Is there, in
a categorico-hypothetical syllogism, any actual inference
whatever ? Is it really any thing more than the statement
of a categorical inference, followed by an assertion (involv¬
ing no inference at all), that there is an actual case on which
that inference bears ?
111. As, in hypothetical propositions, the validity of the The struc-
asserted inference must be assumed; so, in Disjunctives, itture and
must be assumed, first, that the alternatives exclude each r^1®8
other; secondly, that the alternatives given are the only al- dlsJu^ctlve
ternatives possible. If either of these assumptions is with- ^ slsn1,
held, we are in the same position as we should be placed in
by denying the validity of the hypothetical inference. No
conclusion could be drawn from the disjunctive, whatever
premise might be taken with it.
Categorico-Disjunctive Syllogisms (oftenest called simply
Disjunctive) have two moods, which may be named, with ex¬
planation, like those which we have from hypotheticals. The
mood in which the conclusion is affirmative may be called
the Constructive, or the Mood of Position; that in which
the conclusion is negative may be called the Destructive,
or the Mood of Amotion. But the introduction of negation
into the disjunctive premise, through the alternative, creates
a contrariety of relation between the minor premise and the
conclusion. When the conclusion is affirmative, the minor
premise must be negative ; when the conclusion is negative,
the minor premise must be affirmative.2 * *
1 See Mansel, Prolegomena Logica, pp. 216,217. Drobisch (p. 61)
holds all hypothetical judgments, and also all disjunctives, to be
truly synthetic; and his principle lies at the root of the view here
taken of both.
2 Hence, as it has correctly been observed, the scholastic names
of the disjunctive moods, “ Modus ponens,” and “ Modus tollens,”
have not the same aptness as in their other application. The first
is properly the “ Modus tollendo-ponen*; ab amotione ad posi-
632
LOGIC.
Doctrine of All alternatives but one being denied in the minor pre¬
inference. remaining alternative must be categorically affirmed
in the conclusion: all alternatives but one being affirmed
in the minor premise, the remaining alternative must be
categorically denied in the conclusion. These assertions
are, for the two moods, rules governing all cases in which
the conclusion can be categorical. If the affirmations or
denials of the minor premise were to fall short of exhaust¬
ing all the alternatives but one, the conclusion must be
disjunctive; and the argument would thus be taken out of
the class of inferences here in question.
The rules are easily traceable to the law of non-contra-
diction, in its application to the simplest case that can yield
real inference. Let there be given two names of thinkable
objects, B and C. There is then possible the disjunctive
assertion : “ Either B is C, or B is not C.” Since B can¬
not be both C and Not-C, it follows, first, that, if B is not
Not-C, it must be C ; next, that, if B is C, it is not Not-C.
The introduction of a third object would give a positive
term, as D, which must be thought as equivalent to Not-C,
that is, as being contradictory of C. “ B is either C or D :
if B is not C, it must be D : if B is C, it cannot be D.”
When the given alternatives are more than two, the principle
must still be strictly adhered to. Any one alternative, or
group of alternatives, being affirmed or denied in the minor
premise, all the others must be held as together constituting
the contradictory of that alternative or group. All the va¬
rieties of combination which many alternatives make pos¬
sible, must be treated in the same way. Thus, let the given
major premise be this: “ B is either C, or D, or E.” For
categorical conclusions, we must fix on some one alternative,
and exclude from it all the rest. Affirmatively we may con¬
clude “B is neither C nor D ; therefore B is E nega¬
tively, “ B is either C or D; therefore B is not E.”
Analysis U2. The books do not attempt the reduction of disjunc-
iuncttveS" l‘ve syll0gisms into categoricals, unless by first reducing
syllogism, tlmm to hypothetical, through change of the disjunctive
premise. The change to be made on it is dictated by
the character of the other premise. Thus, for the first
example just given, the major premise would pass into the
hypothetical proposition, “ If B is neither C nor D, it is E:”
for the second example, it would take this shape: “ If B is
either C or D, it is not E.”
This reduction, through hypotheticals, not only leads us
back towards categorical forms, but likewise exhibits clearly
the principle of the reasoning. It exposes, further, the cha¬
racter of the antecedent process through which, when the
terms are common terms (the only case deserving minute
inspection), the disjunctive proposition has come into exist¬
ence. Our last proposition of the sort is equivalent to the
assertion, that the class B is constituted by the sub-classes
C, D, and E ; that “ all” the objects we call B are contained
in three sub-classes, to which, severally and exclusively of
each other, we give the names C, D, and E. What, in this
view, is the minor premise ? More particularly, what is its
subject? Its subject is, “ Some or certain B’s or, “ the
B’s we are thinking of.” If the premise is affirmative, it is
a direct subalternate of the major premise. It affirms that
the B’s in question are contained in one of the sub-classes,
as C ; or, alternatively, that they are included either in one
or another of them, as C or D. It follows, inevitably, in
the conclusion, that the B’s in question are excluded from
one and all of the sub-classes co-ordinate to those in which
those B s have been included. If, again, the minor premise
is negative, the conclusion is gained on the same principle.
^ S cluestion, being excluded from certain of the
sub-classes, must be included in some one of the others;
tjonem. the second is the “Modus ponendo-tollens ; a positione
and, if they have been excluded from all the sub-classes but Doctrine of
one, they must be included in that one. inference.
In short, the disjunctive syllogism, like the hypothetical,
sets forth, in its major premise, the result of an antecedent
process; and it adds to this, in the minor premise, an as¬
sertion of fact. Fhe hypothetical sets forth a pre-formed
inference; the disjunctive sets forth a pre-formed ordination
of terms, issuing in a logical division. But the latter goes
further than the former: it does seem to be a real in¬
ference. It silently assumes a premise which is fbrmulized
in the expression of the law of excluded middle (“ B is
either C or Not-C, and cannot be both”); or in the rule
of predication thence derived, that co-ordinate terms must
be denied of each other. Thus, the ordination and divi¬
sion explicated in the major premise being presupposed,
our last two examples are analyzable into these categorical
forms: (1.) All B’s which are neither C’s nor D’s are E’s;
certain B’s are B’s which are neither C’s nor D’s: there¬
fore certain B’s are E’s {Barbara or Darii). (2.) B’s which
are either C’s or D’s are not E’s; certain B’s are B’s which
are either C’s or D’s: therefore certain B’s are not E’s
{Cdarent or Ferio).
DIVISION II.—INFERENCE FROM PREMISES INVOLVING
ULTRA-SYLLOGISTIC SUBSUMPTIONS.
113. The name Sorites is given to a complex argument, The struc-
resolvable, by expression of steps implied, into a series of ture and
simple syllogisms, in which the conclusion of each but the rules of t'10
last becomes a premise in the next following.1 It is need- catfgorical
less to examine any of its kinds, except that in which allsorites-
the propositions are categorical.
The sorites may take, by two several arrangements of
the propositions, either of two forms. The one is the Direct,
common, or Aristotelian; the other the Reversed, or Go-
clenian.2 The rules of either are readily gained from those
of the other. The first of the two may serve as our model:
it is both the more commonly treated, and by much the
more natural.
The following argument exemplifies the Direct Sorites :
“ A is M ; M is N ; N is P ; P is Q ; Q is B : therefore A
is B.” The last proposition is the only one presented as a
conclusion : all the others appear as premises. The predi¬
cate of each premise, except the last, becomes the subject
of the next premise: the conclusion has for its subject the
subject of the first premise, for its predicate the predicate
of the last.
The sorites is resolvable into a number of simple syllo¬
gisms, less by one than the number of its premises. Thus,
our example, having five premises, yields four syllogisms.
Of these, again, the sorites expresses no conclusion, except
that of the very last, which becomes the conclusion of the
sorites itself: it expresses no minor premise, except that
1 Sorites (from ruqot, a heap), cumulative argument. “ Quemad-
modum Soriti resistas ? quern, si necesse sit, Latino verho liceat
Acervahm appellare : sed nihil opus est.” (Cicero, De Divinatione,
lib. ii., cap. 2.) The Germans call it the “ chain-syllogism” (Ketten-
schluss). Most of them, also, give the name of “ syllogistic-chain”
(Schlusskette) to a form of argument which requires only a passing
notice, that which the old logicians usually called the Epicheirema.
It is a syllogism in which one or both of the premises are enthy-
memes; as this : “M is P (because M is C): S is M (because S is D):
therefore S is P.” The parenthetical assertions evidently exercise
no influence on the conclusion : they are given only as reasons for
admitting the premises. If a complete explication of the argument
were required, we should have to construct two other syllogisms
by supplying the missing premises, “ C is P,” and “ D is M.”
These “ prosyllogisms” being set down side by side, there might
be placed below them, as “ episyllogism,” the given syllogism,
with its premises freed from their enthymematic supplement.
1 Prom Goclen or Goclenius of Marburg, who, about the end of
the sixteenth century, first analyzed it.
LOGIC.
633
Doctrine of of the first syllogism, which is the first proposition of the
inference, sorites : all the other premises are majors.
^ The extricated syllogisms of our example are the follow¬
ing ; and in these it is observable, that the subject of the
conclusion passes on as the subject of each minor premise.
1.
M is N;
A is M:
(.-. A is N.)
2.
N is P;
(A is N):
(.-. A is P.)
3.
P is Q;
(A is P):
(.•. A is Q.)
4.
Q, is B;
(A is Q):
A is B.
The rules of the sorites are readily deducible from this
analysis.
(1.) All the constitutive syllogisms must be in the First
Figure.1 When the conclusion is negative, the second
figure is reachable, but only through conversions ; and
when the conclusion is in A, all the indirect figures are
plainly inapplicable.
(2.) Only one Premise can be Particular; and that must
be the first of the expressed series. The reason is evident.
All the others are major premises; and, in the first figure,
the major must be universal.
(3.) Only one Premise can be Negative; and that must
be the last of the expressed series. If any other were ne¬
gative, the suppressed conclusion of its syllogism must be
negative. But this conclusion becomes the suppressed minor
premise of the next syllogism; and that premise must, in
the first figure, be affirmative.
(4.) The Conclusion of the sorites may be an A, when
all the premises are A: it may be an I, when the first pre¬
mise is I, and all the others A: it may be an E, when the
last premise is E, and all the others A : it may be an O,
when the first premise is I, the last E, and all the others A.
The Reversed Sorites differs from the Direct in the order
of the premises only, which is exactly transposed. The same
example, so treated, stands thus: “ Q. is B ; P is Q ; N is P;
M is N ; A is M : therefore A is B.” Here the subject of
each premise but the last becomes the predicate of the next;
the conclusion takes its subject from the last premise, its
predicate from the first. The premises now expressed are
the minors of the constitutive syllogisms, excepting the first
premise, which is a major. The only changes which the
rules of the common sorites undergo are these; that the
premise which may be particular is the last, that which may
be negative the first.
The extricated syllogisms are the following. The series
is necessarily different from that yielded by the other form ;
and the predicate of the conclusion does duty as predicate
of each major premise.
1.
Q is B;
P is Q :
(.-. P is B.)
2'
(P is B);
N is P :
(.*. N is B.)
3.
(N is B);
M is N:
(/. M is B.)
4.
(M is B);
A is M :
A is B.
Analysis of, H4. The dissection of the sorites into simple syllogisms
the catego- is not necessary. If it is accepted as given, the force of
neal the reasoning is quite as evident as the dissection could
writes. make it; while the process may still more easily be referred
to a higher principle.
Suppose (and the case is supposable, though not more),
that, in an argument as complex as that in the example,
all the terms are singulars. Each affirmation is then an
assertion, that subject and predicate are but two names for
one and the same individual object. Quantity not being in
question, the quality of the propositions is the only point
to be considered. Evidently the rule of the direct sorites
holds: negation is admissible only at the last step. If it
intruded earlier, the chain of identities would be broken ;
and any further assertions of identity would have no bear¬
ing on those that had preceded.
. 1 See- however, as to this question, Lambert, Mues Organon
1-* P' 188-190; Twesten, Logik, pp. 1.33, 138; Bachmann, Logi,
p. 254 ; Drobisch, Neue Darstellung, pp. 116-124.
VOL. XIII.
If the terms are common terms, the same principle is Doctrine of
applicable, with this limitation only : that our affirmations inference,
are now assertions of inclusion, (“ All A’s are some M’s”) ;
while our negations are assertions of exclusion, “ (The Q’s
are not any B’s”). The antecedent of our thinking, the
term whose relations are in question, is A, the subject of
the conclusion. The common sorites (in this, as in most
other points, an apter development of the argument than
the other), deals with this term by a regular process of
generalization. It begins by asserting the inclusion of A
in the class M, that is, its identity with some of the M’s : it
next includes this class M in the wider class N ; N in the
wider class P ; P in the wider class Q; and Q in the wider
class B. Hence follows necessarily the inclusion of A in B,
the widest of all the classes, that is, the identity of A with
some of the B’s.
The affirmative sorites does, in fact, nothing else than
explicate, step by step, the affirmations implied in a series
of terms positively pre-ordinated in extension thus, from
highest to lowest: B, Q, P, N, M, A. Of each subordi¬
nate term, its superordinate may be affirmed universally:
of the lowest of all the terms, A, the highest, B, may be so
affirmed. The syllogisms, evolvable out of the common
sorites, trace the A, stage by stage, from lower class to
higher. But the case is parallel to that, already observed
on, of the supposed suppression of the minor premise in a
simple syllogism: the evidence which supports the reason¬
ing is in as little need of the minute explication here as
there.
The rules show themselves spontaneously, when the argu¬
ment is regarded in the aspect just described. If our ante¬
cedent is “some A’s,” then of “some A’s” only, through¬
out the process, can either affirmation or denial take place:
the first premise is particular; so must be the conclusion.
It is equally manifest that no premise but the first can be
particular. The inclusion of a term in a class would avail
us nothing, unless we were able, in our next step, to in¬
clude the whole of that class in the next higher. Again,
if negation is introduced at any step before the last, the
chain of the positive ordination has snapped. In asserting,
for instance, not that “ the N’s are P’s,” but that “ the N’s
are not P’s,” we should pass from the series of terms with
which we began, A, M, N, into a new series, P, Q, B, of
whose relations to the first series we know nothing. At
our last step the crossing of the frontier is safe; because
our journey is at an end. Instead of asserting that “ the
Q’s are B’s,” we might assert that “ the Q’s are not B’s
whence it would follow that the A’s, already identified with
some of the Q’s, are not B’s.
The clue thus furnished would make the scrutiny of the
Reversed Sorites very instructive. Its assertions proceed
in the order of specification ; but they necessarily oscillate.
They must do so in order that,—while they began by assert¬
ing something of Q, the highest of the subordinate terms,—
each lower term in its turn may, through a higher, be
directly connected with the superordinate B, till the lowest
specification is reached, and A brought into relation with B.
The evolved syllogisms of the two forms bring up curi¬
ously, too, the bearings of the two wholes of the concept.
The direct sorites is evolved through repeated dealing
with A, as an object or objects to be referred to classes till
it reaches B. The reversed sorites is evolved through
repeated dealing with B, as an attribute to be predicated
of object after object, till at last it becomes possible to
predicate it of A. The former proceeds in extension, the
latter in comprehension.
DIVISION III.—INFERENCE BY COMBINATION OF COMPLEX The mixed
MODES. sorites and
the dilem-
11.5. The complex forms of predication and reasoning “a.
4 L
634
LOGIC.
Doctrine of which have now been examined, admit various combinations,
inference. which have been, by many logicians, scrutinized with great
y v > patience and sagacity. But the theory of them cannot be
said to be perfect; and they are certainly curious rather than
useful. All of them carry us, by a greater or less distance,
still further away from that direct comparison of terms,
which, as expressed in categorical propositions, we have
had to accept as the normal form of explicative thinking.
It must here suffice to point out, very generally, some
of the most prominent among those complexly complicated
shapes of reasoning.
I. A Sorites may be constructed with propositions all of
which are Hypothetical. Or all its premises may be Hypo¬
thetical, except the last: this premise being Categorical,
so will be the conclusion.—To the Disjunctive Sorites, al¬
most all logicians have refused admission ; and rightly. It
is quite possible; but, yielding nothing except a growing
congeries of alternatives, it expresses only a deeper and
deeper plunging into doubts.
II. The very complex argument, called the Dilemma, has
a celebrity which claims for it somewhat closer attention.
When expressed so as to bring out all its elements, it is
describable as being an Hypothetico-Disjunctive Syllogism.
Its major premise is an hypothetical proposition, one of
whose constitutive propositions (either antecedent or con¬
sequent) is categorical, the other disjunctive. The minor
premise is in form disjunctive, and may be either affir¬
mative or negative. (1.) The minor premise may affirm,
exhaustively, the disjunctive proposition of the major; and,
in this case, the conclusion affirms the categorical propo¬
sition of the major. But this inference is valid only when
the major premise has its categorical proposition as conse¬
quent. (2.) The minor premise may deny, exhaustively,
the disjunctive proposition of the major; and in this case the
conclusion denies the categorical proposition of the major.
This inference is valid only when the major premise has its
categorical proposition as antecedent. In short, there are
thus two moods, corresponding in character to the construc¬
tive and destructive moods in hypotheticals. The argu¬
ment may be analyzed and tested as an hypothetical.
The following are examples.—1. {Major) If either A is
B, or E is F, then C is D; {Minor) Either A is B, or E
is F: {Conclusion) Therefore C is D.—2. If A is B, then
either C is D, or E is F; but neither C is D, nor E is F:
therefore A is not B.1
1 Thomson, Laws of Thought, p. 267 ; Fries, System, p. 61. The
name of Dilemma is by some logicians used more widely than here :
by others it is perversely limited to the sophistical arguments
spoken of in the next paragraph. The name was most probably
applied to this kind of inference, to intimate the compound charac¬
ter of the disjunctive assumption The argument was also
called by the Latins the “ syllogismus cornutuswhence the
phrase of “ placing one on, or between, the horns of a dilemma.”
The word Dilemma supposes two alternatives only: if the alter¬
natives are more than two, the argument is properly a Trilemma
or Polylemma. There are three alternatives in the first of the
following examples. “ A chess-player may argue thus: Whether
I move my king, or cover him, or take the piece which has given
him check, I must be checkmated at the next move; but I must do
one or another of the three things : therefore I must be checkmated
at the next move.” (Drobisch, p. 111.) “ If man is incapable of
The Greek dialecticians prided themselves on the exhibi- Doctrine of
tion of dilemmas which they alleged to be insoluble. These inference,
were arguments so framed, that it is necessary to admit both
the affirmative minor premise and the negative, and thus to
reach both of two contradictory conclusions. All such argu¬
ments must, of course, have a fallacy somewhere. Several
of the ancient examples are constructed so dexterously, that
the detection of the flaw is difficult; but it is always pos¬
sible, while often there are more flaws than one.—In the first
place, the arguments are sometimes not given in the form
just described; and, when their propositions are examined,
it is found that they cannot be thrown into that form, or
into any other that guarantees any conclusion. In such
cases, the fallacy is formal, and logically discoverable.
Next, if a genuine form is given or attainable, the admis¬
sion of the conclusion, as a logical consequent of the pre¬
mises, leaves the argument worthless, unless there have
concurred three conditions, all material or extralogical.
(1.) The disjunctive proposition of the major must "be a
genuine disjunctive: its alternatives must be both exclu¬
sive and exhaustive. Here, more probably than elsewhere,
will be found the weakness of a sophistical dilemma: either
it ignores some alternative thinkable under the terms; or
it asserts, as mutually exclusive, cases which are reconcile-
able. (2.) The inference, hypothetically stated in the major,
must be valid, either ex facie or through extraneous suppo¬
sitions. (3.) The assertion of fact made in the minor pre¬
mise must be admitted as true.1 (\v. s.)
improvement, he must be either a divinity or a brute; but man is
neither the one nor the other : therefore man is not incapable of im¬
provement.” (Troxler, ii. 103.)
1 It may be worth while to illustrate, by two of the most
famous among the ancient examples, the complications through
which it was attempted to veil the weak points of sophistical
dilemmas.
The first is known as the “ Syllogismus Crocodilinus.”—A croco¬
dile, having seized an infant, promises to give it back if the mother
will say truly what is to happen to it. She, perhaps rashly, asserts,
“ You will not give it back.” Thereupon both parties play the
sophist. The crocodile argues thus : “ If you have spoken truly, I
cannot give back the child without contradicting your assertion;
if you have spoken falsely, I cannot give it back, because you have
not fulfilled the agreement: therefore I cannot give it back,
whether you speak truly or falsely.” The mother replies : “ If I
have spoken truly, you must give back the child in terms of the
agreement; if I speak falsely, this can only be because you have
given back the child : therefore, in either view, the child must be
given back.”
The other example is the “ Sophism of Euathlus,” which might
have been named, quite as fairly, from the other party to the dis¬
pute. Neither of them is represented as having been more success¬
ful than the crocodile or the mother, in discovering, for the division
on which the disjunctive rests, a foundation justly applicable
to the facts of the case.—Euathlus had received lessons from
Protagoras, the rhetorician, on condition that the fee should
be paid if the pupil were successful in the first cause he pleaded.
Euathlus delaying to undertake any cause, Protagoras sues him;
and this is consequently the young man’s first law-suit. The
master argues in this way : “ If I am successful in the cause,
you must pay me in virtue of the sentence; if I am unsuccess¬
ful, you must pay me in fulfilment of the contract.” The pupil
retorts: “ If I am successful, I am free by the sentence; if I am
unsuccessful, I am free by the contract.”
LOG
LOT
635
Logrono . LOGRONO, a walled town of Spain, capital of the
[I province of the same name, stands on the right bank of the
Loire. Ebro, here crossed by a handsome stone bridge, 65 miles
E. by N. from Burgos. It is a well-built town, having a
number of churches, convents, and hospitals, a Jesuit col¬
lege, theatre, and orphan asylum. The chief manufactures
are leather, hats, soap, and brandy. Pop. 6843.
LOHEIA, a seaport-town of Arabia, Yemen, on the Red
Sea, in N. Lat. 15. 42., E. Long. 42. 43. A few of the
houses are built of stone, but the majority of them are mere
mud huts covered with grass. The harbour is capacious,
but is so shallow that vessels cannot approach within some
distance of the town. A considerable trade is carried on in
coffee, which, however, is of inferior quality to that of Mocha
or Hodeida. Pop. about 4000.
LOIR-ET-CHER, a central department of France,
formed from a part of the old province of Orleanais, is
bounded on the N. by the department of Eure-et-Loir, on
the E. by those of Loiret and Cher, on the S. by that of
Indre, and on the W. by those of Indre-et-Loire and Sarthe.
It is situate between N. Lat. 47. 12. and 48. 8., and between
W. Long. 0. 40. and 2. 15., and has an area of 2389 square
miles. This department is divided into two nearly equal
parts by the Loire, and is named from its affluents the Loir and
Cher, which water it in the N. and S. The Cher receives
the Sauldre and the Feuzon ; the Loire, the Cosson, and the
Beuvron. The Loire, the Loir, and the Cher are the only
navigable rivers; the first has on its left bank a great number
of small lakes and ponds. Blois, its capital, with 17,749 in¬
habitants, is situate on the line of railway which runs along
the N. bank of the Loire, and connects Nantes with Paris.
The mineral wealth of this department is neither abundant
nor varied. Gun-flints used to be worked here more ex¬
tensively than in any other part of France, but the recent
invention of percussion-locks for fire-arms has ruined this
branch of industry. There are some iron mines ; also quar¬
ries of alabaster, lime, and potter’s clay. The principal ma¬
nufactures are,—woollen and cotton cloths, leather, gloves,
native sugar, earthenware, porcelain, glass, and gun-flints.
Agriculture is in a very flourishing condition. The coun¬
try is generally flat, and in the N. it is exceedingly fertile,
producing cereals of all kinds, besides hemp, beet-root, and
red and white wines. The trade of the department is
much facilitated by the Cher Canal: corn, wine, brandy
and wool are the principal articles of commerce. It has
three arrondissements, subdivided as follows:—
Cantons. Communes. Pop. in 1851.
Blois   10 138 131,817
Romorantin  6 48 50,522
Venddme   8 110 79,553
Total  24 296 261,892
LOIRE, a department of France, comprising the old
province of Forez, with parts of Beaujolais and Lyonnais,
is bounded on the N. by the department of Saone-et-Loire,
on the E. by those of the Rhone and Isere, on the S. by
those of Ardeche and Haute-Loire, and on the W. by
those of Puy-de-D6me and Allier. It is situate between
N. Lat. 45. 13. and 46. 17., and E. Long. 3. 40. and 4. 45.,
and has an area of 1834 square miles. This department,
forming the basin of the River Loire, which flows through
its centre, is inclosed on the E. and W. by offshoots from
the group of the Cevennes Mountains. The highest point
in the department is Mont Pilat, 3985 feet above sea-level.
A small portion of the S.E. is drained by the Rhone. This
river and the Loire are the only navigable ones in the de¬
partment. A railway runs from Roanne to St Etienne, and
thence to Lyons. The coal-fields occupying the high
ground on the E. are of great value and extent; they fur¬
nish annually a third of the entire coal raised in the king¬
dom. Mines of lead and iron are also worked. The manu¬
factures are extensive and important. The principal are Loire,
silk, cotton, and linen. Machinery and fire-arms are pro-
duced in great abundance. The soil, sandy and clayey in
Montbrison and Roanne, and granitic in St Etienne, is not
in general fertile. Agriculture, accordingly, is not in a very
advanced state. The corn and wine are not equal to the
local consumption. Horses and cattle are inferior; the
sheep are small, with coarse wool, but very agreeable flesh.
There are also extensive forests of pine, beech, and oak.
The department is divided into three arrondissements,
which are subdivided as follows :—
Cantons. Communes. Pop. in 1851.
Saint-Etienne  9 74 205,148
Montbrison   9 138 132,116
Roanne  10 109 135,324
Total  28 321 472,588
The chief town is St Etienne, with a population (1851)
of 56,000.
Loire {Haute), a department of France, which takes
its name from its position on the upper part of the basin of
the River Loire. It is formed of part of Languedoc (the
old district of Velay, Vivarais, and Gevaudan), with por¬
tions of Auvergne and Forez, and is bounded on the N. by
the departments of Loire and Puy-de-D6me, E. by those of
Loire and Ardeche, S. by those of Ardeche and Lozere,
and W. by that of Cantal. It is situate between N. Lat.
44. 40. and 45. 25., and between E. Long. 3. 4. and 4. 26,
and has an area of upwards of 1920 square miles. Lying
along the N. slope of the Cevennes, the surface is exceedingly
mountainous and irregular. It is traversed by the moun¬
tain chains of Yelay and Forez, which are for the most part
volcanic. The W. of this department is drained by the
River Allier ; the E. and the centre by the Loire, and its
tributaries—the Gazeille, theLignon, and the Somme on the
right; and the Borne, the Arzon, and the Ance on the
left. The mineral wealth of the district is not great; yet
there are two coal mines in the canton of Auzon of some
value, and lead and antimony are also worked. The in¬
dustrial manufactures are considerable, consisting mainly
of lace, ribbons, linen, and woollens. Two-thirds of the
population are engaged in this way. There are also tan¬
neries, brick and tile works, and potteries. A considerable
number are engaged in felling timber in the forests, which
is sawn into planks, and floated down the .Allier. Agricul¬
ture is in a backward state; the soil is generally barren,
the climate severe, and, in the uplands especially, cultiva¬
tion is almost impossible. Nevertheless, the growth of
corn and potatoes is equal to the consumption. Wine,
however, is scarce, and of an inferior quality. A great
number of horses and mules are reared, and Mezenc is
noted for dairy produce and honey. The principal town is
Puy, with a population of 15,723 inhabitants. The depart¬
ment is divided into three arrondissements, which are sub¬
divided as follows:—
Cantons. Communes. Pop. in 1851.
Puy  14 111 134,430
Yssengeaux  6 39 87,161
Brioude  8 106 83,024
Total  28 256 304,615
l^oniR-Inferieure, a department of France, situate,
as its name indicates, at the embouchure of the River
Loire, on the W. coast of that country. It comprises the
S.E. extremity of the old province of Bretagne ; is bounded
on the N. by the department of Ille-et-Vilaine and Morbi-
han, on the E. by those of Mayenne and Maine-et-Loire, on
the S. by that of Vendee, and on the WT. by the Atlantic
Ocean. It is situate between N. Lat. 46. 53. and 47. 50.,
and between W. Long. 0. 55. and 2. 32., and has an area of
2595 square miles ; is traversed by the Loire from E. to W.,
and divided by it into twTo unequal portions, the larger lying
636 L O I
Loire to the N. The most, important towns of this department—
Jl Aneenis, Nantes, and Paimbceuf—are situate upon the Loire,
^ Loiret. tjie afguents nf which in this department are very numerous ;
tlie more important are,—the Erdre, on the right or N. side,
which has its embouchure at Nantes ; the Sevre-Nantaise
and the Achenau on the left. The Achenau is connected
with Grandlieu, the largest lake in France, and the N. tri¬
butaries drain the numerous small lakes and extensive bogs
and marshes of that district. The Vilaine borders on the
department on the N.W. There is a canal between Nantes
and Brest; and the former town, the capital of the depart¬
ment, is connected with Paris by a railway through Angers,
Tours, and Orleans. The minerals are considerable ; the
principal being salt, iron, coal, granite, and kaolin. Agri¬
culture is in a more flourishing condition here than in any
other part of Bretagne. It is rich in grain, especially rye
and buckwheat; and common white wine is produced in
great abundance. Cattle of the Breton breed are reared
in the rich meadows and pasture-lands along the Loire; also
horses, swine, and sheep. Here, as elsewhere in Bretagne,
great attention is given to the nurture of bees. The com¬
merce, of which Nantes (pop. 96,000) is the centre, is very
extensive ; the chief articles of which are grain, wine and
spirits, timber, fish, and salt. There are five arrondisse-
ments in this department, subdivided as follows :—
Cantons. Communes. Pop. in 1851.
Nantes  17 71 240,440
Ancenis  5 28 48,102
Chateaubriant  7 37 71,462
Paimboeuf.  5 25 46,766
Savenay   11 51 128,893
Total  45 212 535,664
Loire, La (anc. Liger), the longest river in France, rises
at the foot of Gerbier des Jones, among the Cevennes
Mountains, in the department of Ardeche, and after a
westerly course of 540 miles, falls into the Bay of Biscay.
This river drains a district of France nearly equal in extent to
one-fourth of the entire kingdom. It becomes navigable
at Roanne, and passes the flourishing towns of Orleans,
Blois, Tours, Saumur, and Nantes. The navigation is in¬
terrupted, however, during four or five months in the year,
by frost or floods. To obviate some of the difficulties in¬
cidental to the navigation of this river, a lateral canal has
been formed along a part of its course, extending from the
Canal du Centre to the Canal de Briare. The Loire com¬
municates with the Rhone and Seine by means of canals.
I he affluents of this river are very numerous and impor¬
tant ; many of them navigable. Those on the right are,—
the Arroux, the Nievre, the Maine (formed by tbe union
of the Mayenne and the Sarthe); on the left the Alliet, the
Loiret, the Cher, the Indre, the Vienne, the Thoue, and
the Sevre-Nantaise. To prevent the Loire from spread¬
ing over the low grounds along its course, it has been
banked in by dykes, built much above its ordinary level.
I hese embankments were never known to give way pre¬
vious to the great floods of 1846. They gave way at the
same place during the fearful inundations of June 1856,
carrying away the bridge and village of Savounieres, and
inundating the communes of La Riche-extra and La Cha-
pelle-aux-Naux, causing a dreadful loss of life and property.
I he mouth of the river is about 7 miles wide, measured from
St Nazaire to Paimboeuf. Ships find great difficulty in taking
the mouth of the river, owing to the exposed nature of its
position, and to the numerous sandbanks which traverse it.
LOIRE1, a department of France, formed from the old
province of Orleanais (Orleanais proper, Gatinais, and So-
logne), and a small part, of Berry. It is bounded on the N.
y t ie c epartments of Seine-et-Marne and Seine-et-Oise,
on t le E. by that of Yonne, on the S. by those of Nievre,
Uier, and Loir-et-Cher, and on the W. by those of Loir-
et-Uier and Eure-et-Loir; and is situate between the
L O K
parallels of N. Lat. 47. 30. and 48. 30., and the meridian of
Paris passes through it. It has an area of 2551 square miles.
1 he surface is partly flat, and partly undulating, and is al- T Jl
most destitute of hills, with the exception of a low ridge in ^ 0 man‘
the E., forming the watershed of the rivers Seine and Loire. * v
I he latter river traverses the department from E. to W.,
and divides it unequally. It receives as a tributary the Loiret,
which gives its name to the department. The other streams
are the Loing and the Essone. The water communication
is rendered very complete by the canals of Orleans, Loing,
Bnare, and the lateral canal of the Loire. The number of
small lakes and ponds is very great—nearly 800 in all. The
mineral wealth of Loiret is not great, being confined prin¬
cipally to lime, building stone, marl, and potter’s clay.
Manufactures have made little progress, and have fallen off
considerably of late, especially at Orleans. More than half
of the department is arable, and remarkably fertile: the
N. particularly so, forming part of the garden of France.
The chief crop is wheat; saffron also is much grown; and
wine is abundant. The forests of Orleans and Montargis
are extensive. Cattle are very good, and the breed ^of
sheep is improving. Bees are much attended to. There is
an important trade in corn, wine, spirits, fruits, fish, honey,
saffron, wool, cattle, and timber.
The capital is Orleans, with a population of (in 1851)
47,393. This department is divided into four arrondisse-
ments, which, with their subdivisions, are as follows:—
Cantons. Communes. Pop. in 1851.
Orleans  14 106 154,600
Gien  5 49 49,162
Montargis  7 95 76,434
Pithiviers  5 98 60,833
Total  31 348 341,029
LOJA, a town of Spain, province of Granada, situate in
a deep and beautiful valley, through which flows the Genii,
here crossed by a Moorish bridge, 25 miles W.S.W. of Gra¬
nada. The situation is very steep, and the streets are very
irregular. The castle stands on a rock in the centre of the
town, which, from being the key to Granada, was once a
place of great military importance. The town is still in a
thriving condition, and carries on manufactures of coarse
woollens, silks, paper, and leather. Pop. about 14,000.
LOKEREN, a town of Belgium, province of East Flan¬
ders, on the right bank of the Drume, and on the Ghent
and Antwerp Railway, 12 miles E.N.E. of the former town.
The houses are generally large and commodious, and the
streets wide and regular; and altogether the town has the
appearance of a “ large, quiet, Flemish village.” The mar¬
ket-place is large and handsome; and among the public
buildings are,—a spacious church with tower, a town-house,
prison, and hospital. Its linen fabrics are celebrated, and
it has also manufactures of cotton goods, flannels, lace, lea¬
ther, tobacco, &c. It also carries on an active trade in its
manufactures and agricultural produce. Pop. (1851) 16,470.
LOKMAN, a philosopher mentioned in the Koran, is
said to have been born about the time of David. One tra¬
dition represents him as a descendant of the Arab tribe of
Ad, who, on account of his piety and wisdom, was saved
when the rest of his family perished by divine wrath. Ac¬
cording to another, he was an Ethiopian slave, noted alike
for bodily deformity and a gift for composing fables and
apologues. I his account of Lokman, resembling so closely
the traditional history ot ^Esop, together with many traits
common alike to both these fabulists, has led to the preva¬
lent opinion that they were the same individual. The
various reports agree in ascribing to Lokman extraordinary
longevity. His extant Fables bear evident marks of modern
alteration, both in their diction and their incidents. They
were first published with a Latin translation of the Arabic,
by Erpenius (Leyden, 1615). Galland produced a French
translation of the Fables of Lokman and Bidpai, or Pilpay,
L O L
Lollards, at Paris in 1724. The latest editions of Lokman are those
of Caussin, Paris, 1818; Freytag, Bonn, 1823; and Rd-
diger, Halle, 1830.
LOLLARDS, The, a religious sect, made their first
appearance about the beginning of the fourteenth century.
Among the various opinions touching the origin of their name,
the most common is that which traces it to Walter Lollard,
who was burnt for heresy at Cologne in 1322. Without
doubt, however, he, instead of giving, owed his surname to
the sect. The correct opinion is, that the Lollards received
their distinctive title from their marked attention to the
worship, and especially to the praise of God. From the
German word lullen, lollen, or lallen, meaning “ to sing in
a low tone,” they were called Lullhards, Lollhards, or Lol¬
lards. Their habit of frequent prayer was the cause of their
other title, Beghards, derived from beggen, to “ beg” or “ be¬
seech.” The term Lollards was often applied to sects known
by other appellations, amongst which the most noted were
the Cellites, or Alexians, of Antwerp. These, during the
raging of a virulent pestilence, tended the couch of the dying
which the priests had forsaken, and accompanied the dead
to the grave, chanting as they went their usual mournful
melodies. To the same humane duties did the Lollards of
both sexes, over the greater part of Germany and the
Netherlands, devote their lives, trusting for their livelihood
to the benevolence of the pious, and to the gratitude of
those whom they relieved. The priesthood, vexed that
their indolence had become so apparent by contrast with
such active benevolence, keenly persecuted the Lollards,
and arraigned them before the pontiffs for many faults and
errors. Fastening upon the vices of some mere formalists
who had joined the sect, they laid the hollow deceit of a
few to the charge of all, and, in the course of time, applied
the term Lollard as an epithet of contempt and reproach
to all whom they considered hypocritical. The magistrates,
however, appreciating the public services of the Lollards,
advocated their cause with the pontiffs, and obtained for
them a withdrawal from the jurisdiction of the Inquisition
to that of the bishops alone. This freedom from molesta¬
tion was perfected in 1472, when Charles Duke of Bur¬
gundy procured a decree from Sixtus IV., absolving the
Lollards from the authority of the bishops, and constituting
them a religious order. Additional privileges were con¬
ferred upon them in 1506 by Julius II. Many of their
societies existed in Antwerp, Cologne, and Utrecht; and,
according to Trithemius, their number in Germany amounted
to 80,000.
The term Lollards, from being fixed as a stigma upon
all those who simply disavowed ecclesiastical practice, came
to be applied to those also who denied ecclesiastical doctrine.
Accordingly, Walter, above mentioned, received his sur¬
name of Lollard on account of his rejection of the mass,
extreme unction, and penances, and also, it is said, of bap¬
tism and repentance. For a similar reason, and not because,
as some suppose, they came from Germany, the followers
of Wickliffe in England were called Lollards. Their chief
heresy was the denial of the Roman Catholic doctrine, that
unbaptized infants must necessarily perish ; and accordingly
when Henry IV. enacted the statute concerning the burn¬
ing of heretics this tenet was appointed the test for all
suspected of Lollardism. Countenanced by many of the
nobility, who concealed their envy of the wealth of the priest¬
hood iinder the mask of zeal for church reform, the Lol¬
lards increased in numbers and in confidence. At the be¬
ginning of the reign of Henry V. they affixed placards at
flm different church doors in London, threatening to shake
off by force the load of persecution under which they had
so long groaned. Following up this menace, they mustered
an army of about 20,000 under their leader, Lord Cobham,
but were speedily dispersed by the prompt conduct of the
king, and were afterwards kept under check by additional
L O M 637
enactments. The Council of Constance, by removing many Lolli
of the most glaring ecclesiastical abuses, caused a reaction II
in favour of the church, and thus weakened the strength of ,j0mbard-
the Lollards. \ et this sect, still attracting within their pale
all those who longed to lay their hands upon the ecclesias¬
tical patrimony, continued to weather the storms of perse¬
cution that at intervals assailed them, and in the reign of
Henry VIII. were the first to adopt those reformed doc¬
trines that finally removed all distinction between them and
the rest of the nation. Previous to this period, however, it
is calculated by Fox that more than 100 of their number
were burnt at the stake.
LOLLI, Antonio, a celebrated violinist, was born at
Bergamo, in the N. of Italy, in 1728, according to some
authorities; or in 1733, according to his pupil, Michel
Woldemar. He appears to have been a self-taught vio¬
linist. About 1760 he travelled in the Netherlands and in
Holland, and went thence into Germany. He visited St
Petersburg in 1773, and Paris in 1789, where his extraor¬
dinary command of the violin excited much attention. He
performed in London in 1785, where he was considered as
a madman, but soon returned to Italy. After appearing at
Berlin, Copenhagen, and Vienna, he visited Palermo in
1793, and Naples in 1796. He died at Palermo in 1802.
The conquest of difficulties seems to have been his chief
ambition, and he is said to have had no feeling for measure
in his playing. Besides his sonatas and concertos, he pub¬
lished a School for the Violin, with accompaniments for
a second violin, viola, and bass. Lolli, like some other
violinists of his time, often altered the tuning of his violin
in order to execute certain passages, or to obtain particular
effects. Some writers, unacquainted with the compositions
of Lolli and other violinists of the last century, have
wrongly ascribed to Paganini alone the artifice of altering
the tuning of the violin for purposes of effect, or of execu-
t‘on' (g. f. g.)
LOMBARD, Peter, surnamed Master of the Sentences,
the son of obscure parents, was born at a village near
Novara, in Lombardy, about the beginning of the twelfth
century. After receiving his elementary education at Bo-
logna, he removed to France, bearing a recommendation to
St Bernard, by whom he was placed at the famous school
of Rheims. Attracted to the University of Paris by the
eminence of its professors, he became so noted there for his
attainments, that he was successively appointed tutor to
Philip, the son of Louis le Gros, a professor of theology,
and, in 1159, Bishop of Paris. Fie died in 1164. The
chief work of Peter Lombard, and that which gave him his
surname, is his Sententiarum libri quatuor (Nuremberg
1474), being a collection of sentences or passages from the
fathers bearing upon the disputed doctrines in theology.
By such a concentrated weight of authority, he attempted
to quiet all religious doubts and controversies, and to bind
the spirit of free inquiry with the bonds of the church’s de¬
cisions. A contrary result, however, followed. Failing to
reconcile the opposing doctrines, contained in different
quotations, the book of Sentences readily furnished both
matter and occasion for controversies, which its.timid and fal¬
tering speculation failed to decide. It even expressly started
difficulties which it never attempted to settle. Yet this
work upholding, both by precept and example, the supreme
authority of the church in questions of doctrine, and form¬
ing the first complete summary of the theology of the mid¬
dle ages, was employed in the schools as a manual, and
became the text-book of numerous and important commen¬
taries. Its greatest merit, however, consists in its having
embodied the intellectual spirit of that age, and laid the
foundation of the scholastic philosophy. Some of Peter
Lombard’s views touching the human nature of Christ have
been censured, and sixteen of his articles were condemned
by the divines of Paris in 1300.
f
638 LOME
Lombards. LOMBARDS, or more correctly Longobards, a north-
i ern nation who settled in Italy in the sixth century, and
founded a kingdom, which lasted 206 years, 568-774.
The name of Longobards is of doubtful origin, some
derive it from lack, a word signifying winter, whilst others
think that it comes from the two German words langen
harden, or the long halberts they were supposed to use in
war. But Paulus Diaconus, their historian, and himself a
Longobard, who lived in the eighth century, tells us that
they were called Longobards from the length of their beards,
having formerly been called Winili:—“ Cerium est Lango-
bardos, ab intactce ferro barba longitudine, cum primitus
Winili dicti fuerint, ita postmodum appellatos. Namjuxta
illorum linguam, lang longam, baert barbam signijicat?
{De Gestis Longob. i. 9.) Possibly they may have received
this name on their first arriving among the Germanic
ations, who wore no beard.
Scanty, and often contradictory, are the earliest records
of the Longobards, until they settled on the Danube, in
the time of Odoacer. They are supposed to have left
Scandinavia at an unknown period, under the conduct of
their chiefs, Ibor and Aion, and after attacking and over¬
coming the Vandals, to have settled in the N. of Germany.
Velleius Paterculus, who attributes to them more than
German ferocity, states that they were conquered under
Augustus by Tiberius Caesar"; and Strabo and Ptolemy
mention them as established on the right bank of the Elbe,
and forming part of the confederation of the Suevi. Tacitus
adds, that, being few in number, and surrounded by power¬
ful neighbours, they maintained their independence by con¬
stant warfare. Ibor and Aion were succeeded by Agil-
mund, who is commonly reckoned the first king of the
Longobards.
Towards the end of the fifth century they settled on the
left bank of the Danube, in the country of the Rugians,
who had been almost exterminated by Odoacer. During
their stay in this country they rendered themselves formid¬
able to the neighbouring nations, and carried on successful
wars with the Heruli. In 526 they were allowed by the
Emperor Justinian to settle in Pannonia and Noricum,
under their king, Audoin. It was here that the enmity
which had long existed between them and the Gepidse
broke out into open war. In a great battle fought in 551,
Turismund, the son of the king of the Gepidae, was slain
in single combat by the son of Audoin, Alboin, who shortly
after succeeded his father as king of the Longobards. The
first act of Alboin was to form an alliance with Baian, the
chagan of the Avars, in order jointly to attack the Gepidae,
whose country was to be given up to the Avars. In 566
the two allied nations, from different sides, invaded the
country of the Gepidae, whose king, Cunimund, a brother
of Turismund, hastened to meet the Longobards, and give
them battle. Alboin slew him with his own hand, defeated
his army, and killed so great a number of them, that the
Gepidae ceased from that time to be a nation. He cut off
Cunimund’s head, and had a cup made of his skull, called,
in the language of the Longobards, scala, which he made
use of in all public entertainments. Having, among other
captives, taken the king’s daughter, Rosamund, he married
her after the death of his former wife, Clotsuinda, the
daughter of Clothaire, King of the Franks.
By this victory Alboin gained such reputation, that his
friendship was courted by Justinian, on whose application
6000 Longobards were sent to the assistance of Narses
against the Goths. The success of the Romans in this
expedition, and the subsequent invasion of Italy by the
Longobards, have been noticed under the art. Italy. Al-
mn was slain in his own palace, through the treachery of
ns wife, on the 28th June 573, being the fourth year of
•1S fei^.n^n Italy- was one day feasting at Verona,
m the height of his mirth he sent for the queen, and filling
ARDS.
the cup which he had made of Cunimund’s skull, he com- Lombards,
manded her to drink merrily with her father. Rosamund,
struck with horror, hurried out of the room, and, incensed
against her husband for thus barbarously triumphing over
the misfortunes of her family, resolved to make him pay
dear for his inhuman and insulting conduct. She dis¬
covered her intention to Helmichild, the king’s shield-
bearer, who suggested that Peredeus, a youth of great
courage and bodily strength, should be balled into the
conspiracy. Peredeus refused to be in any way accessory
to the death of his sovereign, and in this resolution he
persisted, until, by a shameful stratagem, he was forced
to comply with the queen’s wishes. Knowing that he
carried on an intrigue with one of her ladies, Rosamund
placed herself one night in that lady’s bed, and received
the youth as if she had been his mistress. Then dis¬
covering herself to the deceived lover, she told him that he
must now either put the king to death, or be put to death
by him. Peredeus, knowing that after >vhat he had done,
his safety depended upon the death of the king, engaged
at length in the treason. One day, therefore, the queen
having lulled Alboin to sleep after dinner, introduced Pere¬
deus into his chamber, who fell upon the king with his
dagger. Alboin started up and laid hold of his sword,
which he had always by him ; but having in vain attempted
to draw it, the queen having beforehand fastened it in the
scabbard, he defended himself with a footstool till he was
at last overpowered and despatched with many wounds.
Such is the story related by Paulus Diaconus, who adds
that he had himself seen the fatal cup of Cunimund’s skull in
the hands of King Rachis. Agnellus of Ravenna, however,
tells the story somewhat differently, as he does not men¬
tion Peredeus, and makes Helmichild the deceived lover
and unwilling murderer of Alboin.
Rosamund had promised to Helmichild that, as soon as
the king was despatched, she would marry him, and bestow
upon him the kingdom of the Longobards. The first part
of her promise she immediately fulfilled, but she was so
far from being able to bestow the crown upon him, that
they were both of them obliged to save themselves by
flight. They fled to Longinus, the exarch of Ravenna,
taking with them the jewels and treasure of the late king,
and were received with great marks of friendship and kind¬
ness. But Rosamund had not been long in Ravenna, be¬
fore the exarch, thinking that a favourable opportunity now
offered for making himself king of Italy by her means, de¬
clared that it was his intention to marry her, provided, by
some means or other, she despatched Helmichild. Rosa¬
mund, highly pleased with the proposal, resolved to get rid
of the person whom she had only married in order to gra¬
tify her revenge. Accordingly, having prepared a strong
poison, and mixed it with wine, she gave it to her husband
as he came out of the bath and called for drink, according
to his custom. Helmichild had not half emptied the cup
when, by the sudden and strange sensation which he felt
in his bowels, he concluded what it was, and with the sword
pointed at the queen’s breast, compelled her to drink the
rest. They both died in a few hours; and Longinus, laying
aside all thoughts of making himself king of Italy, sent
Albsuinda, the daughter of Alboin by Rosamund, and the
king’s treasure to Constantinople.
The Longobards then chose Clephis, one of the nobility,
as their king. He exercised great cruelty on the con¬
quered Italians; but, after a short reign of eighteen
months, both he and his wife were murdered by a servant;
and there ensued an interregnum of ten years, during
which the country was governed by thirty-six dukes, whose
appointment dated from the first days of the invasion of
Italy. The dukes now acted as independent sovereigns,
and, in order to extend their respective territories, they
carried on constant wars with the Greeks and the Franks,
LOME
Lombards, and even among themselves. Their government was cha-
racterized by great cruelty to the conquered race, whose
towns were repeatedly pillaged and burnt. Many of* the
Roman nobles were put to death to get possession of their
wealth, and all the others whose lives were spared were
divided among their guests,—hospites, as the Longobards
insultingly called themselves,—and compelled to pay them
one-third of the raw produce of their lands. The Romans
at length resolved to avail themselves of the anarchy which
the private warfares of the dukes had produced among the
Longobards, and, by the aid of the Greeks or the Franks,
to try to expel them altogether from the country. Ac¬
cordingly, Pope Pelagius II. sent a Roman patrician with
money to implore succour from Constantinople. The Em¬
peror Mauritius being prevented by his wars with the Arabs
and the Persians from attending personally to the applica¬
tion, appointed Smaragdus, a general of great reputation,
to replace Longinus at Ravenna, and, at the same time,
sent an embassy with a present of 50,000 golden solidi to
Childebertus, the King of the Franks of Austrasia, request¬
ing him to move against the Longobards. The threatened
invasion so alarmed the Longobards, that they re-established
the monarchical form of government, and chose Autharis,
the son of Clephis, as their king (584-590).
Autharis, considering that the power of the dukes was
well established, and that they would not be willing to part
with the authority which they had so long enjoyed, allowed
them to continue in their government, but obliged them to
contribute a moiety of their revenues towards the main¬
tenance and support of his royal dignity. He reserved to
himself the supreme dominion and authority, and took an
oath from the dukes, that in time of war they would readily
assist him to the utmost of their power. Though he could
remove them at pleasure, yet he deprived none of them of
their dukedoms except in cases of treason, nor gave them
to others except when their male issue failed. From an
obscure and questionable passage of Paulus Diaconus, it
would seem that Autharis also released the Italians from
the tribute of one-third of the raw produce of the soil, and
caused them instead to give up one-third of their lands to
the Longobards, who from that time ceased to be hospites,
and became settlers in the country. Autharis succeeded in
checking theft, murder, and adultery, and was the first Lon-
gobard king who embraced Christianity. Most of his sub¬
jects followed his example ; but, as they were all instructed
by Arian bishops, they continued long infected with that
heresy, which occasioned great disputes between them and
the orthodox bishops of the cities subject to their sway.
Three times did Childebertus descend into Italy in ful¬
filment of his engagement with the emperor, but he was
always repulsed by the young and brave Autharis, who, in
his victorious career, is said to have overrun the whole
peninsula as far as Reggio, and, planting his halbert in the
Sicilian Straits, to have said, that those would be the limits
of the Longobard kingdom. The fourth Italian campaign
of Childebertus had an origin quite characteristic of the
times. He had asked in marriage Theodelinda, a daughter
of Garibald, Duke of Bavaria, but afterwards he had
changed his mind and refused to marry her. She was
then sought and obtained by Autharis, who, in his youth¬
ful impatience to see his bride, sent a second embassy, in
which he himself went as one of the number. On the em¬
bassy being introduced to the presence of the duke, Au¬
tharis advanced to the throne and stated that, though not
the ambassador, he was the friend of the king, who had
trusted him with the delicate commission of giving him a
faithful report of the beauty of his bride. Theodelinda
being sent for, Autharis, greatly captivated with her charms,
after a pause of silent rapture, hailed her as the Queen of
the Longobards, and requested that, according to the cus¬
tom of the nation, she would present a goblet of wine to the
ARDS. 639
first of her new subjects. The request being granted, Lombards.
Theodelinda handed round the goblet. When Autharis’ ^
turn arrived, on returning the goblet, he made the fair
princess blush by softly pressing her hand, and stealthily
bringing it to his lips and forehead. Theodelinda confided
to her nurse the indiscreet familiarity of the stranger, and
was cheered by the assurance that such boldness could pro¬
ceed only from the king her husband, who by his beauty
and courage appeared worthy of her love. The embassy
returned, escorted by Bavarian envoys. No sooner did
they reach the Italian frontier than Autharis made himself
known to them by raising himself on his horse, darting his
battle-axe with incomparable strength and dexterity against
a tree, and adding, “ Such is the wound that Autharis can
inflict.” Childebertus, on hearing of the intended mar¬
riage, resolved to prevent it, and immediately attacked
Bavaria. Theodelinda was obliged to escape for her safety,
with her brother Gundoald, to Italy, where she was met
near Verona by Autharis, and the marriage celebrated with
great solemnity on the 15th May 589. The following
year Childebertus invaded Italy with a powerful army ; but,
after pillaging several towns, and in vain attempting to be¬
siege Pavia, he withdrew without any lasting conquests.
Autharis died the same year, and his youthful widow was
allowed to bestow, with her hand, the sceptre of the Lon¬
gobard kingdom. Her choice fell on Agilulfus, Duke of
Turin, 590-615, who concluded a peace with the Franks,
reduced several rebellious dukes to obedience, and carried
on a successful war with the Greeks. His reign marks an
important period in the history of the Longobards and of
Italy. Through the influence of Theodelinda, to whom we
have several interesting letters from Pope Gregory the Great,
he renounced the erroneous tenets of Arius, and joined the
Catholic church. His example was eventually followed by
his whole nation, whose gradual fusion with the conquered
race dates from that time. Many churches had then their
property restored; bishops, hitherto persecuted, began to
be honoured; numerous monasteries were founded. The
palace formerly erected by Theodoric at Monza, near
Milan, was restored and enlarged; and adjoining it, the
piety of Agilulfus and Theodelinda erected and richly en¬
dowed a basilica in honour of St John the Baptist. In
this basilica are still preserved three crowns offered by
them, one of which, the famous iron crown with which the
kings of Italy, and occasionally the emperors, were after¬
wards crowned, is supposed to be the identical crown
placed by Theodelinda on the head of Agilulfus. St
Columba, the Irish monk, when he was obliged to escape
from Theodoric, King of Burgundy, found a hospitable re¬
ception at the court of Pavia, 612 or 613, whence he soon
retired to a desert valley of the Apennines, and, under the
auspices of Theodelinda, founded the monastery of Bobbio.
Both he and his early successors brought together to Bobbio
many manuscripts from France and Britanny, which, being
scattered among the Vatican, the Ambrosian, and other
libraries, at the suppression of that monastery during the
late French wars, acquired great celebrity in our times as the
Codices Palimpsesti, among which Cardinal Mai, then libra¬
rian of the Ambrosian, discovered the lost work De Repub-
lica of Cicero, and other fragments of the ancient writers.
The next two reigns afford nothing remarkable. Ada-
loald, the son of Agilulfus, who was proclaimed king at the
age of twelve, under the regency of Theodelinda (615-625)
having gone mad, was dethroned and succeeded by Arioald,
Duke of Turin, the husband of his sister Gundeberga (625-
636). On a false accusation of infidelity, Arioald threw
Gundeberga into prison; but, after having kept her three
years in confinement, he consented, at the intercession of her
relative, Clotharius, King of the Franks, that her innocence
should be tested by a single combat between her accuser
and a nobleman who undertook to defend her. The ac-
640
L O M -B
ARDS.
Lombards, cuser having been slain, she was declared innocent, and
s—■v^/ released ; this was the first instance of a trial by combat in
the history of Italy.
On the death of Arioald, Gundeberga was allowed, as it
had been previously permitted to her mother Theodelinda,
to choose a husband and king. She proposed to Rotharis,
Duke of Brescia, who was married, to give up his wife,
and take with her hand the Longobard crown. Rotharis
(636-652) however, was not more attached to her than he
had been to his first wife. Gundeberga was soon shut up
in a room of the palace at Pavia, whence she was released
after five years at the intercession of the Frank king Clo-
doveus. Rotharis carried on successful wars with the
Greeks of Ravenna, and made himself master of part of
their possessions near Venice. He took also and destroyed
Genoa, and conquered all the maritime country from the
Gulf of Spezia to Nice. But his reign was chiefly remarkable
for the introduction of written laws amongst the Longobards,
who, before his time, had been governed only by tradition.
He was succeeded by his son Rodoald, who perished after
six months by the hand of an assassin, whose wife he had
violated. Of the reign of his brother-in-law and successor,
Aripertus (652-661), very little is known, except that, at his
death, he divided his kingdom between his two sons, Gode-
bertus and Bertharidus, who resided, the former at Pavia,
and the latter at Milan. Each brother soon endeavoured
to get possession of the whole kingdom. Godebertus ap¬
plied for support to Grimoald, the powerful Duke of Bene-
vento, who, availing himself of the fraternal dissensions,
betook himself to Pavia, where he treacherously slew Gode¬
bertus in his own palace, and proclaimed himself King of
the Longobards (662-671). Bertharidus fled from Milan,
and repaired for safety to the chagan of the Avars.
To give a shadow of right to his usurpation, Grimoald
married Godebertus’ sister, a granddaughter of Theode¬
linda, whose memory was still worshipped by the Longo¬
bards. He was no sooner seated on his throne, than he
was obliged to go to the assistance of Benevento, which
had been besieged by the Emperor Constans II., with a
large army collected from the various Greek possessions
in Southern Italy. After several engagements, Constans
wras compelled to raise the siege and withdraw to Rome,
whence after a few days he departed, carrying with him
the brass roof of the Pantheon, and all the ancient bronzes,
ot which he stripped the old capitol. On his return from
Benevento, Grimoald sent an embassy to the chagan of the
Avars, asking that Bertharidus should be delivered to him.
The chagan refused to give up his guest, but, to avoid a
war, expelled him from his country. Bertharidus, aware of
the chivalrous disposition of his rival, returned to Italy, and
from Lodi, sent his faithful shield-bearer to ask him for
hospitality and security. Grimoald generously received
him, and assigned him a dwelling and a large pension from
the public treasury; but his house was soon frequented by
so many noblemen as to excite the suspicion of Grimoald,
who was prevailed upon by his courtiers to despatch him.
Bertharidus, informed of the plot against his life, sought
refuge among the Franks, whom he induced to make a de¬
scent into Italy. Grimoald rushed to meet them near Asti,
and defeated them (665) by a stratagem. He had encamped
limself near the enemy, but suddenly, as if inspired by fear,
he raised the camp, leaving behind baggage, food, and a
at ge quantity of wine. The Franks entered and pillaged
deserted camp, and gave themselves up to drinking till
past midnight, when they were suddenly fallen upon, and
completely routed by Grimoald.
he usurpation of Grimoald was one of the causes of the
su sequent anarchy, gradual decay, and final overthrow of
I 6 0nf?. a'( kingdom. By the great honours and gifts
v>VaS ° ^ ^ bestow on the dukes who had supported
, e so much raised their power and importance, that, in¬
stead of mere delegates of the royal authority, they began Lombards,
to consider themselves, and to act as, independent princes;
whilst, on the other hand, his success encouraged every one
of them to aim at the supreme power. After his death, his
son Garibald, a boy, was on the throne a few months, but
was easily expelled by Bertharidus, who, on hearing the news
of his rival’s death, hurried to Italy, and was welcomed by
the Longobards as their king. During his long reign
(671-688), with the exception of the rebellion of Alachis,
Duke of Trent, peace generally prevailed in the country.
In 678 he associated with himself on the throne his son
Cunibert, whose reign (688-700), after the death of his
father, was a constant struggle with the rebellious dukes.
One of these, the same Alachis who had revolted against
Bertharidus, and been forgiven, was, for a short time, so
successful as to drive him from Pavia, and oblige him to
take refuge on an island of the Lake of Como, where he for¬
tified himself. But Alachis was finally routed, and slain
in a great battle fought near Coronata, and Cunibert re¬
mained in the undisputed possession of the kingdom. He
left the throne to his son Luitbert, a boy, under the guar¬
dianship of Ansprandus, a nobleman of great wisdom and
influence ; but Ragimbertus, his own cousin, dethroned him,
and remained a few months in power. He was succeeded
by his son, Aribertus II. (701-712), who seized Luitbert,
and had him killed in a bath, and defeating the remnants of
his party, compelled Ansprandus to seek safety at the court
of Theodebertus, Duke of Bavaria. Ansprandus succeeded,
after nine years, in obtaining the support of a Bavarian army,
which, swelled by numerous Longobard exiles, enabled
him to attack and defeat Aribertus, who was drowned in
swimming across the Ticino on his flight to France. An¬
sprandus survived his victory only three months, and left the
throne to his son Luitprand (712-744), who proved by far
the greatest of Longobard kings; although his ambition
prepared the ruin of the kingdom.
Luitprand was impatient to enlarge his dominions, and
for this an opportunity was soon offered by the dissensions
which at this time arose between the Greeks and the Ro¬
mans ; the origin of which, however, as well as the events
to which they gave rise, are obscurely and differently told
by the contemporary chroniclers. The first misunderstand¬
ing between Gregory II. and Leo Isauricus, who had
ascended the imperial throne in 717, seems to have arisen
out of a new tax which the latter imposed on the Italians,
and the pope resisted. The emperor, resorting at first to
fraud, sent three officers to Rome, with private orders either
to despatch the pope, or to convey him prisoner to Con¬
stantinople. At the same time, he wrote to Marinus, Duke
of Rome, enjoining him to assist his officers in their under¬
taking. Before they were able to put their design into exe¬
cution, Marinus died and the whole plot was discovered.
Two of the conspirators were apprehended by the Romans
and put to death; the third escaped into a monastery, where
he took the monastic habit, and ended his days. A new duke
was sent from Constantinople, with orders to depose the
pope, but he did not even dare to attempt it. Hereupon
Paul, the new exarch, who had been sent in 725 to govern
Italy, in compliance with the emperor’s orders, resolved to
proceed no longer by secret plots, but by open force. Ac¬
cordingly, he drew together a considerable body of troops,
and sent them against Rome, with orders to seize the pope
and send him in chains to Constantinople. But on this
occasion the Duke of Spoleto, and other powerful Longo¬
bards, joined the inhabitants of Rome, who, being by this
reinforcement far superior in strength and number, met the
Greeks near Pons Salarius, and completely routed them.
It was easy to foresee the storm which the news of this
defeat would raise at the imperial court against Rome. But
a new and more irritating cause came at this time to widen
the breach between Greeks and Romans. The Emperor
LOME
Lombards. Leo, by his famous edict, forbidding the worship of images,
and ordering them to be everywhere pulled down and de¬
stroyed, so tar incensed his eastern subjects, that, in many
places, they openly revolted, and, falling upon the emperor’s
officers, drove them out of the cities. Leo strictly enjoined
his officers in the west, especially the exarch of Ravenna,
to see his edict obeyed in their respective governments,
and wrote to the pope, promising him his favour if he com¬
plied with the edict, and, it he opposed it, declaring him a
rebel, and no longer invested with the papal dignity. But
Gregory was so tar from yielding to the emperor’s tlweats
or promises, that, on the contrary, he excommunicated the
exarch for attempting to put the edict in execution, and
at the same time wrote to the Venetians, to Luitprand,
and to the Longobard dukes, exhorting them to continue
steadfast in the Catholic faith, and to oppose with all their
might such an innovation. Gregory’s letters made such an
impression on the minds of the people of Italy, that, though
of different interests, and often at war with one another,
they all united, protesting they would defend the Catholic
faith, and the life of the pope, at the expense of their own.
In the meantime, the exarch Paul, having gained a party
at Ravenna, began to remove the images out of the churches:
a proceeding which incensed die adverse party to such a
degree, that, rushing to arms, and falling upon the Icono¬
clasts, or image-breakers, as they styled them, a civil war
was raised within the walls of Ravenna. Great numbers
were killed on both sides; but those who were for the
worship of images having prevailed in the end, a dreadful
slaughter was made of the Iconoclasts, and, among the rest,
the exarch himself was killed. In Naples, Exhilaratus,
duke of that city, in compliance with the imperial orders, did
all that lay in his power to persuade the people to receive the
edict; but finding his endeavours thwarted by the pope, he
hired assassins to murder him. But the plot being discovered,
both he and his son were torn to pieces by the Neapolitans,
and they shortly after expelled his successor Peter, who had
published a libel against the pope.
Leo, hearing of the murder of the exarch, and the general
revolt of the cities, and not doubting that the pope was the
chief author of so much mischief, sent the eunuch Eutychius
to Italy as exarch, strictly enjoining him to have the pope
despatched by some means or other. Eutychius went to
Naples, and spared no pains to get the pope into his power.
He sent a messenger to Rome with an order from the em¬
peror, commanding his officers in that city to put the pope
to death without fail. But the messenger being appre¬
hended, and the order found upon him, he was only saved
from death by the interposition of the pope himself, who
thereupon issued an excommunication against the exarch.
Eutychius having brought with him from Constantinople
a good number of troops, quelled the rebellion at Ravenna,
and severely punished its authors. As for the rebellious
Romans, he was well apprised that he could never reduce
them, as long as they were supported by the Longobards;
and, therefore, he employed all his art and policy to bring
Luitprand over to his own interests.
Luitprand, however, far from detaching himself from the
Romans, thought that the religious feuds afforded him now
a favourable opportunity for extending his dominions at the
expense of the Greeks. Having, therefore, drawn together all
his forces, he unexpectedly appeared before Ravenna, which
he closely besieged. I he exarch, who had little expected such
a surprise, defended the place with such courage and resolu¬
tion, that Luitprand, despairing of success, raised the siege,
and led his army against Classis, at a small distance from Ra¬
venna, which he took, plundered, and levelled with the ground.
The severe treatment which its inhabitants met with from
the king, threw the citizens of Ravenna into such consterna¬
tion, that Luitprand resolved to take advantage of their fear,
and returning before the city, by frequent attacks, harassed
VOL. XIII.
ARDS. 641
the inhabitants to such a degree, that the exarch, finding Lombards,
they could hold out no longer, withdrew7 privately to Venice. ^
Luitprand, informed of his retreat, attacked the town with
more violence than ever, and, having carried it by storm,
gave it up to be plundered by his soldiers. The reduction
of Ravenna was followed by the surrender of several towns
of the exarchate, which Luitprand reduced to a dukedom,
appointing Hildebrand, his young nephew, to govern it,
and giving him Peredeus, Duke of Vicenza, as his guardian.
Among the cities taken by Luitprand at this time, we find
Sutri, near Rome, of which the king, at the request of the
pope, made a gift to the apostles Peter and Paul: the
first instance, often repeated in later years, of restoring to
St Peter the cities taken from the empire.
'1 he progress of the Longobards greatly alarmed Gregory
II., who, being no less jealous of their power than his pre¬
decessors had been, resolved by some means or other to put
a stop to their conquests. The only prince in Italy to whom
he could have recourse, w7as Ursus, Duke of Venice. To
him, accordingly, he wrote a very pressing letter, conjuring
him to assist his worthy son, the exarch, and to attempt
with him the recovery of Ravenna. Ursus and the Vene¬
tians, moved with the pope’s letter, and, at the same time,
alarmed at the growth of so powerful a neighbour, promised
to assist the exarch with the whole strength of the republic,
and fitted out a fleet, pretending that it was designed for
the service of the emperor against the Saracens. The
exarch, meanwhile, abandoning Venice as it were in despair
of bringing Ursus over to his party, raised, in the places
still subject to the emperor, what forces he could, and
marched with them towards Imola; but turning suddenly
towards Ravenna, he laid siege to that city by land, whilst
the Venetians invested it by sea. Peredeus defended the
town with great courage and resolution ; but the Venetians
having at length forced open one of the gates on the sea¬
ward face, the city was taken, and he himself slain in at¬
tempting to drive the enemy from the posts they had seized.
Luitprand was then at Pavia; but Ravenna was taken be¬
fore he could assemble troops to relieve it.
In the meantime, Thrasimund, Duke of Spoleto, who had
expelled his father from the dukedom, and forced him to
take the habit of a monk, and Romuald, Duke of Bene-
vento, having both revolted, the exarch offered to assist
the king with all his means, provided he would in return
support him against the pope and the Romans, who had
sided with the rebellious dukes. Luitprand readily closed
with this proposal, and the two armies joined and marched
towards Spoleto. At their approach, the duke, despairing
of being able to resist, came out with a small attendance to
meet them, and throwing himself at the king’s feet, sued
for pardon; which Luitprand not only granted, but con¬
firmed him in the dukedom. From Spoleto the two armies
marched, in pursuance of the treaty, to Rome, and encamped
in the meadows of Nero between the Tiber and the Vati¬
can. Gregory had fortified the city in the best manner he
could ; but being sensible that the Romans alone could not
long hold out against two such armies, taking with him some
of the principal inhabitants, he went to wait upon the king
in his camp, where he softened Luitprand to such a degree,
that throwing himself at his feet, in the presence of the whole
army, the king begged pardon for entering into an alliance
against him, and assuring him of his protection for the liiture,
he went with them to the church of St Peter, where, dis¬
arming himself, he laid his girdle, his sword, and his gaunt¬
let, with his royal mantle, his crown of gold, and cross of
silver, on the apostle’s sepulchre. After this, he reconciled
the pope with the exarch, who was received into the city,
where he remained for some time, maintaining a friendly
correspondence with the pope.
Gregory did not long survive his success. At his death
(February 731), his successor, Gregory III., wrote several
4 m
LOMBARDS.
642
Lombards, letters to Leo, soliciting him more pressingly than ever to
v . revoke the edict; and, at the same time, held in the Vati¬
can a council of 93 Italian bishops, who issued an anathema
against the Iconoclasts. Leo, however, instead of listen¬
ing to the pope’s remonstrances, not only insisted upon his
edict being received in Rome, but confiscated all the patri¬
mony which the Roman Church had in Sicily and Calabria.
On this the Romans, provoked more than ever against
Leo, renounced their allegiance to him, paid him no more
tribute, and appointed their own magistrates under the pope,
not as their prince but as their head. From these slender
beginnings the sovereignty of the popes in Italy took its
rise.
At this time Luitprand having fallen dangerously ill, the
Longohards chose his nephew, Hildebrand, as his succes¬
sor ; but as the king recovered, Hildebrand remained, in
name more than in power, his companion on the throne.
Luitprand was soon called upon to put down a new rebel¬
lion of the Duke of Spoleto, who was obliged to flee for
safety to Rome. Gregory having refused to give him up,
the king, before returning to Pavia, took possession of four
towns of the Roman territory. Thrasimund, with die aid
of the Romans, regained his estates, but did not care to
retake and restore to the pope the four towns. Gregory
then, finding himself at once betrayed by a faithless ally,
and threatened by the warlike and victorious Luitprand, re¬
solved to recur to the protection of the Franks, the only
nation capable of coping with the Longobards. They were
at this time governed by Charles Martel, who having gained
a signal victory over the Saracens in the neighbourhood of
Tours (October 732), was generally reputed the best com¬
mander of his time. To him, therefore, Gregory sent a
solemn embassy, with a great number of relics, earnestly
entreating him to take the Romans and the Church under
his protection. The ambassadors wex*e received with extra¬
ordinary marks of honour, and concluded a treaty by which
Charles engaged to march into Italy in person, in defence
of the Romans and the Church, if they should be attacked
by the Longobards. On the other hand, the Romans were
to acknowledge him as their protector, and confer upon him
the honour of the consulship, as it had been formerly con¬
ferred on Clovis by the Emperor Anastasius, after that prince
had defeated the Visigoths.
Luitprand in the mean time marched against Thrasimund,
and besieged him at Spoleto; but Gregory did not live to
see the fruit of his negotiations. He died in 741, the year
in which the Emperor Leo and Charles Martel died, and
was succeeded by Zachary, a Greek, who, trusting more to
his own means than to the aid of the Franks, gave up the
alliance of the faithless duke, and came to terms with Luit¬
prand. Thrasimund, finding all resistance hopeless, sur¬
rendered to the king, who compelled him to take the dress
of a monk, as he had done to his father. Zachary not only
obtained the restoration of the four cities from the king, as
well as of a district of the Sabina, which had been seized
thirty years before, but in 743 prevailed also upon him to
give up his intended attack against Ravenna, and to restore
Cesena to the exarch.
At the death of Luitprand, his colleague Hildebrand was
left on the throne only seven months, when, being expelled,
Rachis, Duke of Friuli, was elected in his place (744-749).
D uring the first years of his reign, Rachis remained at peace
with his neighbours, but in the year 749 he invaded the
Roman territory, and marched against Perugia. It was
whilst he besieged this town, that Zachary, the able and
successful negotiator, accompanied by a large number of
ecclesiastics and Roman noblemen, went to meet him, and,
by vividly painting the punishment that would be hereafter
inflicted in the other world on those who violated the rights
of the Church, so powerfully operated on his mind, that the
king raised the siege, and proceeding to Rome, received from
the pope the tonsure and the habit of a monk, and retired Lombards,
to the Benedictine monastery of Monte Cassino. Tasia,
his wife, and Ratrude, his daughter, who had accompanied
him to Rome, took the habit of nuns, and founded a con¬
vent at Piomberuola, in the vicinity of his. Even in our
days, the traveller who visits Monte Cassino is shown a
spot where the vineyard planted and cultivated by King
Rachis is said once to have stood.
^ Astolphus, his brother, succeeded him on the throne (749-
(56), and soon showed his warlike and grasping disposition.
After making himself master of Ravenna and the Pentapolis,
as the five allied cities of Rimini, Pesaro, Fano, Sinigaglia,
and Ancona, were then called, he marched towards Rome ;
and, treating it already as a conquered town, demanded a
yearly tax of a golden solidus from each citizen. Stephen
II. who, on the death of Zachary (March 12, 752), had been
raised to the papal chair, after vain attempts to appease
Astolphus by negotiations, and a fruitless application for aid
to Constantine Copronimus, the successor of Leo on the
imperial throne, had at last recourse to the assistance of
Pepin, the son, and no less wise and powerful successor of
Charles Martel. After the preliminary negotiations, whilst
a Longobard army was encamped near Rome, Stephen went
to Pavia, and having again in vain tried to soften Astolphus,
he proceeded to France, and met Pepin at the chateau of
Pontyon, on the 6th of June 754. In the spring of the
following year, Pepin, accompanied by the pope, crossed
the Alps, defeated Astolphus near Susa, and besieging him
at Pavia, obliged him to sue for peace. It was granted
upon the condition that the exarchate and the towns taken
from the Romans should be given up, not to the emperor,
but to the pope.
No sooner, however, had Pepin recrossed the Alps than
Astolphus, far from fulfilling the terms agreed upon,
marched against Rome, laid waste its neighbourhood, and
repeatedly stormed the city itself. Stephen had again re¬
course to Pepin, who descended rapidly by Mount Cenis
into Italy, invested Pavia, and, by a vigorous prosecution of
the siege, forced Astolphus to add to the restitution of the
exarchate and the Pentapolis, the surrender of Comacchio.
Fulrad, Abbot of St Denis, was despatched to the ceded
towns to take hostages, and to receive the keys, which he
deposited in the confessional of St Peter’s at Rome.
Astolphus died shortly after by a fall from his horse,
and Desiderius, Duke of Tuscany, was proclaimed king by
the army. Many of the Longobards, however, would not
yield him allegiance, and adhered to Rachis, who came
out of his monastery with the desire to resume the sceptre.
The two rivals were on the point of deciding their contest
by arms, when, through the interference of the pope, the
monk was prevailed upon to return to Monte Cassino, and
Desiderius remained in the undisputed possession of the
kingdom (756-774).
At the beginning of his reign, Desiderius tried to esta¬
blish such a close alliance with the Franks as might fur¬
ther his projects of aggrandizement in Italy, by giving his
daughter Ermengarda in marriage to Charles, usually called
Charlemagne, the son of Pepin. Pope Stephen III. en¬
deavoured in vain to prevent an alliance which afterwards
was to be a source of enmity between the two sovereigns.
Charles, in 771, divorced his wife, on the pretext of bar¬
renness, and sent her back to her father, who, in revenge,
not only received with hospitality the two sons and the
widow of Carleman, but supported their claims to the pa¬
ternal estates, ot which Charlemagne had deprived them.
1 he following year, 772, Desiderius occupied Sinigaglia,
Montefeltro, and other Roman towns, and extended his
depredations to the gates of Rome. Adrian, who had just
been raised to the papal chair, having failed in his efforts
to induce the king to leave Rome unmolested, and to re¬
store the places occupied, following the example of his
L O M
L 0 M
643
Lombardy, predecessors, applied at length to Charlemagne. In the
v——' autumn of 773, the French monarch marched with a large
army across the Mount Cenis to Susa, where he was stop¬
ped by the strong line of fortifications, called the Chiuse
d’Italia, erected by the Longobards. Whilst unsuccess¬
fully endeavouring to force his passage, a deacon from Ra¬
venna, said to have been sent by the pope, showed him a
detour, by which he was able to descend into the valley and
attack the Longobards on their rear. They, taken by sur¬
prise, fled from the enemy with scarcely any resistance.
Desiderius sought refuge within the walls of Pavia, and his
son Adelchis fled to Verona. The latter place was soon
captured, and Adelchis obliged to retire to Constantinople.
The defence of Pavia was brave and protracted, but com¬
pelled at length by famine and pestilence to surrender
(774), Desiderius and his family were made prisoners, and
sent to spend the rest of their days in France.
Thus ended the kingdom of the Longobards, who in the
course of 206 years had neither been able to complete the
conquest of Italy, nor to make the conquered race their
friends; had neither preserved their original barbarity, nor
adopted the polished manners of the Latin race. It is im¬
possible to know what their language was, though, from those
few words that are found with a Latin termination in
their laws and in Paulus Diaconus, it may be inferred that
it vvas a dialect of the German, not very different from the
ancient Saxon. It would seem, however, that it was never
a written language, and that it was soon dropped, even in
their national songs, as Paulus Diaconus quotes none of
them, though he quotes some in the Saxon and Bavarian
languages. Paulus Diaconus, their only national writer,
composed his History in Latin ; after the fall of the mon¬
arch?/ even their laws were writte?i in Latin, and evi¬
dently framed by Latin jurists or clergymen.
It has already been mentioned, that Ilotharis was the
first king of the Longobards who introduced written laws
among them. Grimoald, Luitprand, Rachis, and Astol-
phus, were the other legislators. Their edicts, as they were Lombardy,
called, after they had been maturely examined and ap- ^ , v-»_y
proved of by the principal lords of the kingdom, were
enacted in public assemblies, from which the ecclesiastical
order and the people were excluded ; so that the legisla¬
tive power was lodged exclusively in the king and the
nobles. These laws, having been respected by Charle¬
magne, survived for several centuries the fall of the king¬
dom ; and many of them, embodied in the local traditions
and statutes of the Italian communes of the middle ages,
continued to have their influence till very recent times.
We shall conclude this short historical sketch of the
Longobards with the observation, that the two centuries of
their power mark the worst period, both for arts and litera¬
ture, in Italy. The evil genius of destruction was con¬
stantly and unsparingly at work. Bad taste, ignorance,
and blind superstition, spread all over the country. Even
some of the heathen practices, which the Longobards had
brought with them from their native forests, when they
adopted Christianity, crept into their new religion. Many
centuries elapsed before the worshipping of images of
vipers, the holding an old walnut-tree as sacred, and such
like superstitions, were totally uprooted at Benevento, where
Longobard sway lasted the longest. The first glimpses
of an improvement and of some learning, though in a
monastic form, do not appear till some time after the
fall of the Longobard kingdom. Though the later so¬
vereigns, after they had renounced the tenets of Arius,
founded many churches and monasteries, yet there are no
monuments standing which are supposed to show what
really Longobard architecture was in those times; what
is sometimes called the Lombard stijle, belongs undoubt¬
edly to a much later period. Of the original Longobard
nation scarcely anything remained but their name, pre¬
served in its shortened ibrm of Lombards, to the inhabi¬
tants of that part of Italy where their principal settlement
and the residence of their government had been. (* * *)
LOMBARDY, OR LOMBARDO-VENETIAN KINGDOM.
This beautiful kingdom, comprising one of the richest and
most interesting parts of Italy, and forming one of the most
valuable provinces of the Austrian Empire, came by degrees
and at long intervals into the possession of the House of
Austria. The war of the Spanish succession contributed
to form its nucleus, and, a century afterwards, the late
French wars enlarged it to its present size.
After the battle of Turin, won by the Imperial army
under the command of Prince Eugene of Savoy, Septem¬
ber 7, 1706, the duchy of Lombardy, which the French
occupied in virtue of the Spanish rights, was surrendered
to Austria by the treaty of March 13, 1707, between the
Emperor Joseph I. and Louis XIV. Thus Spain, after
having held it for nearly two centuries, lost it without her
concurrence or previous consent to the treaty having been
asked. The duchy of Mantua, which its last Duke Fer¬
dinand Gonzaga had allowed the French to occupy during
the wax*, was also given up to Austria by Louis XIV., in
order to obtain more favoui’able terms for himself. After
the victories of Napoleon in Italy, these possessions, by the
treaty ot Campoformio, October 17, 1797, were given up
to France, and went to form part of the short-lived Cisal¬
pine republic. Austria received in exchange most of the
territories of the Venetian republic, Venice itself in¬
cluded, to which, as a free state, Napoleon had already put
an end.
By the final treaty of Vienna of 1815, Austria preserved
all the Venetian States; had Lombardy and the duchy of
Mantua restored to her; and, to round these possessions, she
received in addition the districts of the Valteline, Bormio,
and Chiavenna, formerly part of the Swiss canton of the
Grisons, and the Polesine, detached from the papal terri¬
tory on the left bank of the Po. With the exception of
Istria and the other former Venetian possessions beyond
the Isonzo, all these states were erected by the treaty into
the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, which is thus a com¬
pact territory, bounded on the N. by Switzerland and the
Tyrol, on the E. by Illyi’ia and the Adriatic Sea, on the S.
by the Papal States and the duchies of Parma and Modena,
and on the W. by Piedmont.
A view of the history of the country down to our own
times has already been given in this work, under the head
of Italy ; and under Lombards will be found a notice of
the northern invaders, from whom the name of Lombardy
was derived. To avoid repetition, a fuller account of the
stirring events from 1846 to 1850 will be given in the
article Sardinia {Kingdom of), with the history of which,
during that period, the history of Lombardy is closely
connected.
The kingdom extends over an area of nearly 13,208
square miles. Great part of it is a plain, sloping southwards
towards the Po and the Adriatic from the main chain of the
Alps, which form its northern boundary from the Swiss
canton of Lugano to the frontiers of Carinthia. Some of
their lower ranges enter the kingdom, and inclose entirely
the districts of Valteline, Bormio, and Chiavenna, where
their loftiest points are,—the Splugen, 8130; the Legnone, on
the Lake of Como, 8120; the Godena, 7549 ; the Tremezzo,
644 LOME
Lombardy. 5106; and the Como di Canzo, 4260 feet in height. Some
of the mountains on the frontier towards the Tyrol are still
higher.
The principal rivers are the Po and the Adige. The
former (Padus, Eridanus), the largest river in Italy, rises'from
two springs on the eastern side of Monte Viso, one of the
highest summits of the Western Alps, at a height of 6562 feet
above the level of the sea, and after a course of more than
380 miles, enters the Adriatic by many mouths. In its
progress it receives the waters of numerous tributaries, the
principal of which, on its northern side, and within the king¬
dom, are the Ticino, which takes its rise from several small
lakes near the summit of Mount St Gothard, and joins the
Po 4 miles below Pavia; and the Adda and the Mincio,
the former issuing from the Lake of Como, and the latter
from the Lake of Garda. The whole valley of the Po de¬
clines towards the E., but in its lower part so gently, that
the fall of water in that river, from where it is joined by
the Ticino, near Pavia, to its mouth, a direct distance of
nearly 180 miles, is not more than about 328 feet. But
though languid in its current, in the spring it is generally
so much swollen as to cause extensive inundations on both
its banks. A more detailed account of this important river
will be found under the head Po in this work.
The Adige or Etsch, next to the Po the largest river in
Italy, rises in the Rhaetian Alps of the German Tyrol, in
a small lake near the village of Reschen, and after being
increased by the Eisach and other smaller tributaries, it
flows by Trent, where it becomes navigable for large boats,
and enters the Italian plains,above Verona. After a course
of more than 200 miles it enters the Adriatic near Chioggia,
a few miles N. of the mouth of the Po. The Brenta, the
Piave, the Tagliamento and the Isonzo, are all consider¬
able streams, navigable for small boats, and enter the Adriatic
N.E. of the Adige.
There are two descriptions of lakes—those of fresh water
on the northern frontier at the foot of the Alps, and those
of salt water in the flat country on the borders of the
Adriatic. The former lakes are of unspeakable advantage,
for, never being frozen in winter, they serve the purpose
of internal communication, and feed the numerous streams
for the irrigation of the lower country. The most remark¬
able of them, for extent as well as for the picturesque
scenery on their banks, are the following:—Is/, The Lago
Maggiore or di Locarno ( Verbanm), the most westerly of
them. It begins in the Swiss canton of Ticino, and, en¬
tering Italy, extends into the boundaries of Lombardy and
of Sardinia to Sesto. It is formed by twenty-six brooks,
and chiefly by the Ticino, which retains the same name in
issuing from the lake till it joins the Po. It is nearly 50
• miles long, and varies from 5 to 8 miles in breadth.
It is about 640 feet above the level of the sea, and reaches
the great depth, according to Jacini, of 2624 feet, or 1984
feet lower than the sea level. In this lake are the Bou-
ROMean Islands, of which a description has been given
in this work. 2d, The Lago di Lugano, which also is partly
in the Swiss territory, and is about 24 miles in length,
and from 2^ to 6 miles in breadth. It is of great depth,
and its surface is 870 feet above the level of the sea. It
receives the water of forty-three rivulets, and discharges
it partly by the small river Tresa into the Lago Maggiore,
and partly by an artificial canal into the small lake of Piano
on the L. 3d, The Lago di Como (Larins), which is
surrounded by lofty, abrupt mountains, that constitute the
great romantic beauty of its borders. It has a depth of 1928
feet, is well stocked with fish, and its banks are studded with
arms and picturesque villages. Its elevation above the sea
is about 650 feet; the length is 27 miles, or 33 if the small
Lago di Riva at its northern end be included; and its
breadth varies from l^ to 3% miles. At Bellagio it divides
into two arms, of which the south-western one, ending at
A H D Y.
Como, has no outlet; but at the extremity of the south-east- Lombardy,
ern arm, near Lecco, it discharges itself by the Adda, which,
with 195 smaller streams, has already fed it with water. 4th,
The Lago dTseo (Sebinus), 18 miles long and 5 broad.
This lake is 630 feet above the level of the sea, and in
some parts has a depth of 985 feet. In its centre there is
an island 1^ mile long. It is chiefly supplied by the
Borlezza and the Oglio torrents, the latter of which, after
passing through the lake, finds the only exit for its wa¬
ters at Sarnico. 5th, The Lago d’Idro, through which
the River Chiese (Clusius) passes before it joins the Oglio,
is only 7 miles long. 6th, The Lago di Garda, the ancient
Benacus, the largest and one of the most beautiful of the
lakes ofltaly. It is nearly 40 miles in length and 10 miles in
its greatest breadth. Its surface is 255 feet above the level
of the sea, and its greatest ascertained depth is 941 feet.
It is chiefly fed by the River Sarta, and the discharge of its
waters at Peschiera forms the River Mincio. Being nearly
in a straight direction from N.N.E. to S.S.W., the winds
from the Alps sweep down it with unbroken violence, and
cause most violent storms. It was the subject of the pane¬
gyrics of Virgil, of Pliny, and of Catullus, and was rendered
celebrated by the victories of Napoleon over Wurmser in
the year 1796. 7/A, The small lakes of Varese and Pusiano
need only be mentioned.
The salt-water lakes and lagoons are formed by the rivers
which descend from the Alps, and spread along the shores of
the Adriatic; they are defended from the sea by steep arti¬
ficial walls, not unlike the dykes in Holland, which, in some
degree, prevent the influence of the rise and fall of the tides;
but in some cases, where the force of the sea has broken
through, harbours have been formed. Of such havens, there
are four large ones, viz., Malamoco, San Nicolo, Chioggia,
and Tre-Porti; and two inconsiderable, viz., Lido Maggiore,
and St Erasmo.
There are mineral springs of various degrees of efficacy
and reputation for medicinal purposes. The most remark¬
able of them are at Bormio and Massimo, in the Valteline ;
at Albano, in the province of Padua; at Caldiero, near
Verona; at Recoaro, in the province of Vicenza; at Tres-
corre and St Pellegrino, in the province of Bergamo; and
Cenedo and Piano, in that of Treviso. The climate is mild,
except on the border mountains. On the plains the snow
scarcely ever remains on the ground, and it is rarely that ice
is found in the still lagoons near Venice. What falls from
the heavens in winter is much more commonly in the form of
rain than of hail or snow. The winter scarcely lasts more
than two months; and in February the fields are covered
with new grass. In May the hot weather begins, and the
harvest is secured in June and July. In September and
October the annual labours of the vintage are performed.
The climate, on the whole, is healthy, except in those
districts where rice is extensively cultivated, as well as in
the vicinity of Mantua, and in the marshy districts extend¬
ing from the mouth of the Po towards Venice.
The kingdom is divided into two governments or divi¬
sions : Venice, which extends from the Isonzo to the Mincio,
including all the seashore on the Adriatic to the mouth of
the Po: and Milan, which, besides Lombardy proper, in¬
cludes the former duchy of Mantua, the Grisons districts,
&c. Each government is divided into provinces ; each pro¬
vince is subdivided into districts ; and each district into
communes for the administration, and into parishes with
regard to ecclesiastical matters. In 1856, with an area of
13,208 square miles, it had 5,503,473 inhabitants, or 416
to the square mile : all of these, with the exception of 7000
Jews, adhering to the Roman Catholic church. Of this
population, 2,493,968 belonged tothegovernment of Venice,
being, over an area of 6938 square miles, 359 to the mile;
whilst the government of Milan, extending over 6270 square
miles, had 3,009,505 inhabitants, or 480 to each square
LOME
om ar c]ensest population of any European country.
In the large towns there are more women than men ; but
in the small villages the proportion of men is so much
greater, that in Lombardy alone there is a surplus male po¬
pulation of nearly 35,000. On an average of sixteen years,
there is yearly a marriage in 117, a birth in 23, and a
death in 29 inhabitants. Out of 10,000 deaths in Lom¬
bardy, 3538 occur, according to Springer, in the first year
of life; 1255 occur from 1 to 4; 818 from 4 to 20; 1173
from 20 to 40; 1369 from 40 to 70; 1576 from 70 to
80; 269 from 80 to 100; and 2 beyond 100 years of age.
The annexed table shows the divisions into provinces, dis¬
tricts, communes, and parishes, and the respective popu¬
lation of each province:—
Provinces.
Government
of Milan.
Milan  
Como 
Bergamo....
Brescia 
Mantua 
Lodi 
Cremona ...
Pavia  
Sondrio 
Total.
Government
of Venice.
Udine 
Vicenza 
Padua 
Verona 
Treviso  
Venezia 
Rovigo 
Belluno 
Total 
Lombardy..
Total.
102
78
102
180
329 336
525 I 481
359
235
73
175
168
166
79
2109
182
124
104
113
104
53
65
68
813
2109
2922
448
312
184
160
174
144
135
Population in
1838.
2374
286
226
267
257
275
163
96
109
1679
2374
4053
522,397
373,216
344,207
336,604
252,406
206,314
188,565
157,022
90,903
2,471,634
621,455
432,772
385,810
359,897
269,534
222,166
208.290
173,879
100,157
2,773,960
436,697
328,284
317,882
310,733
298,482
285,330
176,814
160,582
2,314,804
2,773,960
5,088,764
1855.
3,009,505
2,493,968
3,009,505
5,503,473
The whole country is governed by a viceroy, who is
always an imperial archduke, resides at Milan, and receives
an allowance of L.6000 a-year; his entire expenses, at the
same time, being defrayed by the state. Under him are
governors of the two divisions of Milan and Venice. There
is a military commander-in-chief, who resides at Verona,
and who, with the assistance of a military board, has the
direction of the army, and of the several fortresses, with
their stores and garrisons. Six regiments of infantry, and
two of cavalry, were recruited in the kingdom before 1848 ;
but since that time, the conscription has fallen more hea¬
vily, and the contingent has varied in each year. In 1856
it was 6977 for the Lombard, and 5829 for the Venetian
provinces, or at the rate of per 1000 of the population.
At Verona is also the supreme senate of the kingdom, which
hears the final appeals from the courts of Venice and Milan.
Since 1848 there has been no viceroy, and all the vice¬
regal powers were till very lately in the hands of Marshal
Kadetzky, the commander-in-chief. In February 1857 he
retired, and the Archduke Maximilian, a brother of the
present emperor, was appointed governor-general.
1 he chiefs or heads of the ecclesiastical body are,—the
Patriarch of Venice, who extends his jurisdiction over the
archbishopric of Udine and the suffragan bishoprics of
Adria, Ceneda, Chioggia, Concordia, Belluno, Padua, Tra-
viso, Verona, Vicenza,and other sees in Istria and Dalmatia;
and the Archbishop of Milan, who is the metropolitan of
the episcopal sees of Bergamo, Brescia, Como, Crema,
Cremona, Lodi, Mantua, and Pavia.
A R D Y. 645
The government is an unlimited monarchy. The law ofLombardy.
April 15, 1815, called into existence provincial assemblies 'wv-w/
{congregazioni provinciali) of deputies, selected by the
government out of three names given for each deputy by
the communes; and created, likewise, central assemblies
{congregazioni centrali) for the two divisions of Milan
and Venice, of representatives named directly by the go¬
vernment, But the functions of these congregations are
merely to represent to the sovereign the wishes and wants
of the people, and to suggest such measures as may be con¬
ducive to the welfare of the country. They do not in any
way extend to the voting or altering of the taxes, to the
framing of the laws, or even to the prevention or suspen¬
sion of the operation of such laws as may be promulgated
by the central authority at Vienna, or by the local viceroy.
The resolutions and observations of the provincial congre¬
gations are to be submitted to the central congregations,
and, if approved of, transmitted by them to the viceroy or
governor-general. They have no means of direct commu¬
nication with the imperial government at Vienna. Accord¬
ing to the law, there is no fixed time for the meeting of
these congregations; but the viceroy, or governor-general,
after previously obtaining the permission tfom the aulic
council at Vienna, may summon them whenever it is deemed
advisable. The central congregations were never sum¬
moned till 1845 ; after the insurrection of 1848, they were,
for the first time, recalled into existence in July 1855.
1 heir attributions were defined by an imperial ordinance
of November 3, 1856; but they were not assembled till
the end of January 1857. The provincial congregations
have been summoned oftener; but their suggestions and
representations have remained useless for the want of the
central congregations, which are their legal organ of com¬
munication with the government.
The communal or municipal representation given to Lom¬
bardy, by the edict of December 1755, which had been ab¬
rogated under the French government, was recalled into
existence, and applied to the whole kingdom, in 1816. All
landholders, who are neither under age, nor soldiers, nor
curates, nor debtors of their respective communes, includ¬
ing the legal representatives of w'omen and minors, meet
twice a-year in a general assembly (convocato), to discuss
the budget of the coming year (the presuntivo), and to ap¬
prove of the expenses of the past year (the consuntivo); to
appoint teachers, doctors, surgeons, and midwives; to de¬
cide upon roads, works of public utility, assistance to the
poor, and to vote the taxes required for carrying them out.
They also name a triennial committee of three of their
members, who, after their nomination has been approved
by the government, administer gratuitously the communal
property, carry out the resolutions of the convocato, make
the first investigation about crimes, and have the supposed
criminals arrested by the gendarmes, &c. Each convocato
is presided over by a commissary, who ought to confine
himself to record the resolutions of the meeting, and pre¬
vent their overstepping their attributions, without giving
any vote himself, or influencing public opinion in any w'ay :
a part of the law scarcely, if at all, attended to of late years.
All communes that have more than 300 landholders, to
avoid too numerous a meeting, appoint a triennial council
of thirty members, to whom all municipal attributions are
delegated.
The revenue of the kingdom is derived from direct and
indirect taxes, and in some degree from national domains,
part of which once belonged to the Church. The most
important tax is the territorial impost, an ancient payment,
which has been alike collected under the several rulers who
have at different times administered the finances of the
country. In order to equalize its rate according to the pro¬
ductive powers of the soil, the Emperor Charles VI., in
1718, named a commission to form a catasto, or general
640
LOMBARDY.
Lombardy, registry, in which the extent and value of all lands and
buildings that were capable of giving any income, however
small, should be duly entered. Its execution was impeded
many years by the opposition of privileged classes, and by
the war of 1733 ; but it was resumed in 1749, and finished
in 1760, when it came into force. The value of property
was set down in scudi (about 3s. 7d.), and the assessment
was in cents (centesimi) of lire (^ths of Id.) on each scudo.
Not many years elapsed, however, before it w'as found that
the valuation in some instances fell short of, and in others
exceeded, the real income 5 and that, theielore, the taxes
weighed in a very unequal degree upon different estates.
At fength, in 1822, with a view to rectify the valuation, and
equalize the impost, a new general cadaster for the whole
kingdom was begun; but the commissioners appointed to
do ft have proceeded so slowly, that as yet it is completed
only for the Venetian, and for a few of the Lombard pro¬
vinces. The new cadaster registers, not the capital value
of property, as in the old one, but the supposed net yearly
income in Austrian lire, and rates the corresponding tax
in cents of lire.
This tax, which before 1802 was only 11 centesimi (9 for
public, and 2 for municipal burdens), had increased in 1847
to about 24, and in 1851 it reached at least 34 centesimi
for each scudo of valuation. The 11 cents paid at the be¬
ginning of the century were then reckoned to represent
about 22 per cent of the net income : in the same proportion,
the present tax of 34 cents would absorb nearly 70 per cent,
of the net income. But the production of the soil has so much
increased during these fifty years, that, according to Signor
Jacini’s account, in his interesting work, lately published,
on landed property in Lombardy {La Proprietd Fondiaria
e le Popolazioni Agricole in Lombardia), those 34 cents
represent on an average only 32 per cent, of the net income,
though numerous instances occur in which they represent
50, and even 60 per cent. Such is the case with the marcite,
or winter meadows, the produce of which has scarcely in¬
creased from what it was already in the last century; and
with lands derived from mortmains, which, in compliance
with the spirit prevailing at the time, were greatly over¬
charged at the original formation of the cadaster. In several
districts, however (as the Polesine, part of the provinces of
Brescia and Milan, &c.), military rates, local municipal taxes
for roads, drainage, &c., are so much higher than those
above stated, that taxes of one kind or another are said to
absorb from 60 to 70 per cent, of the actual income.
With these exceptions, all public burdens on the landed
property in the kingdom, for the present year 1857, may be
stated to amount to 36 per cent, of its net revenue, of which
nearly 23£ per cent, forms the direct government tax. About
6£ per cent, is for local taxes, collected and employed by
the municipal authorities; 2 per cent, for extra taxes, to
meet military expenses of 1848 and 1849 ; and the remain¬
ing 4 per cent, is absorbed by the tax on the transfer of
property, introduced by the law of February 1850, by the
forced loan of the same year, &c. As this impost is col¬
lected from the proprietor, it is regularly paid, and attended
with little cost in the collection.
The whole produce of the direct government tax on
land in 1856 was, in round numbers, for Lombardy,
L.950,000, and for the Venetian provinces, L.676,666—total,
L.1,626,666; being for Lombardy alone above L.465,006
more than what it was before 1849.
Previous to 1846, the kingdom had to transmit to the
imperial treasury at Vienna a net yearly sum of L.1,066,666,
in two half-yearly remittances. Neither the gross sum of
the revenue at present produced by the kingdom, nor the
clear amount that reaches the imperial treasury, are known ;
but an idea of them may be gathered from the fact, that
the gross sum of direct and indirect taxes for the govern¬
ment of Lombardy alone, in 1855 and 1856, averaged Lombardy,
from L.2,833,333 to L.2,933,333. /
By comparing these items with the gross revenue of the
Austrian empire, which, in 1855, according to the official
returns, was L.26,378,688, of which L.6,074,812 were de¬
rived exclusively from the direct land tax, the following in¬
teresting results may be gathered. The Lombardo-Vene¬
tian kingdom, which is nearly one-fifteenth in area, and little
more than one-seventh in population, contributes not much
less than one-fourth of the whole direct land tax revenue
of the empire; and Lombardy alone, which, compared to
the whole Austrian empire, has less than one-thirtieth of its
extent, and one-thirteenth of its population, contributes
more than one-ninth of the whole gross revenue of the
empire. The results will be equally remarkable if their
respective agricultural wealth is compared. The official
returns of 1850, w'hilst giving L. 129,846,800 as the whole
gross agricultural produce of the empire, stated that of
Lombardy as L.12,021,000, or less than one-tenth; yet
the landed property in Lombardy pays about one-sixth of
the direct revenue derived from the whole landed pro¬
perty of the empire.
Lombardy extends over about 5,292,447 English acres,
of which 340,277 acres are lakes, rivers, and barren rocks,
which, yielding no produce, are not included in the general
cadaster. The remaining 4,952,170 acres are all surveyed
lands, of which a little more than one-half, or 2,799,224
acres, are regularly cultivated, and the other 2,152,946 acres
consist of woods, indifferent mountain pastures, marshy
tracts, building land, or poor land, yielding scarcely any
produce. The net income from all the surveyed land be¬
ing, according to Jacini, more than L.4,300,000, gives an
average return of about 17s. 4d. for each English acre. But
as that landed property is encumbered with L.1,7,566,666
of mortgages, producing L.790,500 of interest at the aver¬
age rate of 4^ per cent., it follows that, after deducting that
interest, and the L.1,500,000 of government and municipal
taxes, the net income that remains to the Lombard pro¬
prietors from theif lands will be reduced to L.2,009,500,
which, capitalized at 3^- per cent., the usual rate at which
land is valued in the country, gives L.57,414,285 as the
net value of the landed property of Lombardy. Though
there are many large estates, yet most of this property is
much divided, and its subdivisions increase every year.
The number of landholders, which in 1838 was 385,826, in
1850 had increased to 437,725. But as many of those who
hold property in various districts reappear several times in
the returns, it is estimated that the land is actually distri¬
buted among 350,000 different owners; of whom about
3000 belong to the class of noblemen, and own, in the ag¬
gregate, less than one-fifteenth of the soil. There is there¬
fore a landholder for every 8 inhabitants, for every 15J
acres of the whole area, or for every 8 acres of the culti¬
vated land of Lombardy.
For the Venetian provinces there are no such detailed
statistics. Their surveyed lands, capable of yielding a re¬
turn however small, extend over 4,511,506 acres, of which
54,899 acres are exclusively devoted to vineyards. Nearly
one-half of the whole extent, or 2,213,400 acres are arable
lands, in many of which mulberry or olive trees, and vines,
are scattered among the corn fields.
The following table shows the whole rateable income
from lands and buildings in the Venetian provinces, as well
as the comparative wealth of each province:—
Provinces. Income.
V enice L.203,597
Padua  296,676
Rovigo  151,112
Verona  298,356
Treviso  210,481
Provinces. Income.
Belluno   L.49,229
Vicenza 317,661
Friuli 212,663
Total L.1,739,775
LOMBARDY.
647
ombardy. The quantity of cultivated lands in Lombardy, and their
relation to the whole area in each province, as well as the
mortgages that encumber them, and their net value, will be Lombardy,
seen from the annexed table :— v ,r
Bergamo..,
Sondrio ..
Brescia....
Como 
Mantua...,
Milano 
Cremona..,
Lodi 
Pavia 
Total..
Lands regularly cultivated.
Irrigated.
Acres.
137,593
7,191
268,035
7,824
48,929
121,402
123,606
196,258
144,814
Not
irrigated.
Acres.
241,080
62,970
193,582
239,913
459,091
263,800
168,50 2
43,561
71,567
1,055,652 1,744,066
Total.
Acres.
378,673
70,161
461,617
247,737
508,020
385,202
292,108
239,819
216,381
2,799,718
Total extent
of surveyed
and unsur-
veyed lands.
Acres.
1,062,839
1,002,790
760,618
613,091
558,725
450,984
305,433
290,359
247,608
5,292,447
Value of surveyed
lands and build
ings.
L.
9,500,000
1.766.667
12,333,333
6.766.667
9.266.666
16,566,667
8,900,000
8.166.667
7,533,333
80,800,000
Average
value of
each acre
cultivated or
built upon.
L. s. d.
62 0 0
62 8 8
66 0 8
67 6 8
45 0 8
106 6 8
75 5 4
84 10 8
86 3 4
71 6 8
Amount of
mortgages.
L.
1,680,000
26,667
2,166,666
1.616.667
1,610,000
6.766.667
2,100,000
800,000
800,000
17,566,667
Net value of
the property.
L.
7,820,000
1,740,000
10,166,667
5,150,000
7.656.666
9,800,000
6,800,000
7.366.667
6,733,333
63,233,333
Ratio of the
mortgages to
the value of
the property.
17,68 per cent
1-50
17-57
23-89
17-37
40-84
23-59
9-79
10-62
24-74 per cent.
In few parts of Italy is education so general as in the
Lombardo-Venetian kingdom. In Lombardy alone, in
1854, there were 5488 public and private institutions for
elementary education,—2822 for men, and 2666 for wo¬
men. In the same year, the children of an age to go to
school were 192,545 boys, and 191,224 girls ; and those who
actually went were 146,907 boys and 128,199 girls. The
largest attendance was in the province of Bergamo, where,
out of 57,010 children, 50,784 went to school; and the
worst in the province of Mantua, in which, out of 33,895
children, only 16,445 frequented schools. For the higher
branches of education there are lyceums at Bergamo, Bre¬
scia, Como,Cremona, Mantua, Vicenza, Treviso and Udine;
seminaries attached to every episcopal see; the universities
of Pavia and Padua; medical and surgical colleges at
Milan; several scientific and literary institutions, &c. In
1855 there were 12 newspapers and 47 scientific and lite¬
rary journals and reviews published in the kingdom. Of
the 6874 works published in the Austrian empire in 1853,
1444 were published in Lombardy, and 1194 in the Vene¬
tian territory; total 2638,—of which 128 in folio, 621 in
4to, &c.; 2550 of them w-ere in Italian, 50 in Latin, 8 in
French, 7 in Greek, 4 in English, 4 in Armenian, 4 in
German, and 11 in other languages. The largest items
were—
Ascetics 
Medicinal and Veterinary  
Novels and Tales 
Theatre   
Theology and Ecclesiastical History.
Historical 
Legal, Economical, Statistical 
Education 
Philology, Antiquity, &c 
Geography and Ethnography 
Chemistry and Natural Philosophy.
Agriculture and Horticulture 
Belles Lettres 
Commerce and Industry 
The Fine Arts.  
Poetry  
Architecture, Railroads, &c 
Encyclopaedias, Collections, &c 
In
Lombardy.
.. 161
.. 139
.. 122
.. 113
.. 112
.. 119
.. 84
.. 93
.. 75
.. 81
.. 63
.. 58
.. 33
.. 29
.. 27
.. 26
.. 23
.. 17
In the
Venetian.
53
161
36
14
99
64
185
59
90
73
23
14
3
24
43
50
47
114
In Lombardy, in every 26 births, there is one illegitimate
child; the proportion is about the same in the Venetian
provinces. \et the state of public morality, especially
among the numerous agricultural classes living scattered in
towns and villages, is much better than what that number
would represent, as many legitimate children, secretly left
at the foundling hospitals by parents utterly destitute of
means to rear them up, are calculated as illegitimate. They
are often the unfortunate offspring of marriages entered into
too hastily, and without means, by very young men, in the
hope of evading the law of conscription.
The poor find some relief in their want and illness from
numerous hospitals, houses of refuge, charitable institutions,
&c. The aggregate income of all these establishments in
Lombardy in 1844 was L.427,022, of which L.149,980 being
absorbed by burdens and expenses of administration, there
remained L.286,797 a-year for charitable purposes. Their
revenue has increased considerably since that time. There
are besides 27 Monti di Petid, or public pawning-houses
lending money at a very low interest. Their total circula¬
tion is nearly L.100,000 a-year, for which they receive
about 300,000 articles in pawn.
Great convenience is also afforded to the poorer classes
by savings-banks, the first of which was opened at Milan in
1823. At present there are 14 in Lombardy, all under the
management of a central committee. They receive de¬
posits of from 1 to 300 lire (from 8d. to L.10), on which
they pay an interest of 3-£ per cent. From the 1st July
1823 to the 31st December 1855, they had issued
169,989 account-books, and had received 1,108,598 depo¬
sits for L.4,967,510, on which I..479,697 of interest had
accumulated; they had made 526,439 reimbursements to
the amount of L.3,715,756. On the 1st of January 1856
they had a balance of L.1,731,450 deposited by 66,134 dif¬
ferent persons, giving an average of L.26 for each person.
On the 30th December of the same year the amount depo¬
sited had increased to L. 1,897,562. In the government of
Venice it is only within these few years that savings-banks
have been introduced; but their operations as yet are not
very considerable. On the 31st December 1854, they held
a balance of L.62,998, deposited by 1837 persons, each at
an average amount of L.34, 5s. 4d.
The whole kingdom may be divided into three distinct
regions:—
1. The Mountain Region, which comprises the whole pro¬
vince of Sondrio, the greater part of the provinces of Como,
Bergamo, and Belluno, more than two-fifths of the province
of Brescia, and some districts of the provinces of Udine
and Vicenza; altogether about one-third of the kingdom.
It is the region where property is mostly subdivided. Its
trees are chiefly fir, larch, birch, oak, and chestnut. There
are summer pastures in the mountain slopes and valleys.
The vine, the mulberry, and common fruit trees, are grown
on its southern declivities, which are cultivated with great
care and labour; the ground is formed in terraces, which
are sometimes supplied with earth from some distance to
replace what is washed away by the heavy rains.
2. The Hilly or Sub-Alpine Region and Upper Flat
Country.—It embraces the southern part of the provinces of
Como and Belluno ; the northern part of the provinces of
Milan, Mantua, Verona, Vicenza, Treviso, and Udine ; and
the central districts of the provinces of Bergamo and Bre¬
scia. Its chief productions are,—silk of the finest descrip¬
tion, wine, maize, millet, chestnuts, fruit, and vegetables.
Even lemons are grown on the southern shore of die lake
648 LOMBARDY.
Lombardy, of Garda. It is the region which contains most of the the courts of law are supplied with most abundant processes Lombardy,
i «- v—J manufactures of the kingdom. from the several parties. The volume of water is reckoned
3. rYhe Low Flat Country, which comprises the southern by means of a local measure called the oncia, being about
part of the provinces of Brescia, Bergamo, Milan, Mantua, two English inches. A mechanical contrivance, invented
Padua, Treviso, and Udine ; and the whole provinces of by Ferrari, has for a number of years been applied to the
Pavia, Lodi, Cremona, Rovigo, and Venice, including the measuring of water, and has been found to be accurate in
marshy lands and extensive lagoons all along the shore its operation.
of the Adriatic. It is the region of irrigation and of mala- The value of water depends upon a variety of circum-
ria< In many of its districts, sickness is marked in the stances, and the purchaser can afford to pay more for that
complexion of the inhabitants, and numbers of Tyrolese which is applied to gardens and to meadows than for what is
and Illyrian peasants who descend from their mountains to wanted on arable land. The water of the canals is of
gather the harvest, fall victims to the marsh fevers. The more value than that which comes immediately from
whole central part of the basin of the Po, on its left bank, springs or from small brooks. That water which has
is within this region. Its chief productions are,—the Par- passed over the land is worth more than that immediately
mesan cheese, rice, silk, wine, maize, flax. Property is less from the canals, as it is supposed to bring with it more
subdivided than in the two other regions. nutritive particles. In the vicinity of Milan the water of
As Lombardy is the most densely peopled, so it is the the Vettabbia is more valued than any other, because it
best cultivated district in Europe. Its wealth and prosperity contains particles of matter collected from the filth of the
being derived chiefly from the productions of the soil, an city. In that neighbourhood, the common water obtained
extended view of its agriculture must be of much import- from the other canals is generally, where a constant stream
ance; and we enter upon the subject here, because in the is bought, paid for at the rate of from LAO to L.50 the
description of the agriculture of the other parts of Italy, oncia. If it be bought for the winter only, the payment is
it will only be necessary, in the progress of this work, to not more than the same number of shillings. Some in-
refer generally to the practices of Lombardy, and to point stances are stated by a writer of accuracy and veracity,
out the few differences that may exist. where an oncia of water has been sold for more than
The importance of irrigation is more felt, and the prac- L.600. (Breislak, Descrizione Geologica della Provincia
tice of it more extended, in Lombardy, than in any other di Mila?io.) See Irrigation and Hydrodynamics.
part of Europe. This depends much on the physical fea- Whatever may have been the original component parts
tures of the country, which, as it has been stated, forms in of the soil of Lombardy, yet from the great facilities for
great part a gentle slope from the foot of the mountains, irrigation, those lands which are susceptible of that ope-
where are those large reservoirs of water already described, ration have become the most productive of any in the king-
to the bed of the Po, into which finally empty themselves dom, or perhaps of any in Europe. There are, however,
the numerous streams that, issuing from the lakes, serve the some exceptions ; they are indeed but few, and chiefly
double purpose of internal navigation and of irrigation. confined to the vicinity of Mantua, where, even with great
The facilities for irrigation in the best districts have been power of watering, the land, which is mere sand, does not
much increased by the construction of canals, which, whilst produce copiously.
they serve the purpose of inland navigation, are made use These watered lands may he divided into three classes:
of to convey streams of water over the fields, which pass The first of them, “ convertible meadows,” or, in Italian,
from the property of one proprietor to that of another, till Pratia Vicenda, are the most abundant, and are constantly
they again enter the canals at a lower level. Some of these increasing. They are prepared to be laid down in grass
canals are the work of remote ages. The most ancient, as by previous corn or green crops, and those are preferred
well as the most considerable of these, is the Naviglio which require good manuring, and also best tend to clean
Grande, which was opened in the year 1270. the land from weeds. The course adopted, therefore, is
An ancient law of Lombardy has contributed, from the to grow maiz and then wheat, or to sow hemp, succeeded
most remote period, to the extension of the distribution of by millet, and that followed by wheat; or, in the first, year,
water. The whole of that substance was the property of to sow hemp and then millet, in the second year maiz,
the sovereign. An individual, or a corporate body, might and in the third wheat. In each of these rotations a half
purchase the water, and thereby acquire the right to con- fallow is introduced, and the ground three or four times
duct it by canals in any direction, and there to sell it to ploughed, and such fallowing is either in the spring or the
the cultivators. But they could not carry it through gar- autumn, as may best suit the variations in the rotation. Red
dens or pleasure-grounds, and were bound to pay the clover is generally sown in the wheat, which yields a good
owners of the land the value of that portion which w^as made crop the first year after the wheat harvest, which usually
use of for the passage of the water. In process of time the takes place in June, and in the following spring ; but after
right of the sovereign over the water was ceded to those that it disappears, and gives place to most abundant crops
who became the purchasers thereof, and was at length ex- of white clover. It continues in grass for three, or in
tended to those who had springs on their ground, or should some cases four years, during which time it is mowed
afterwards discover any. three, four, and even five times in the course of the sum-
The value of water in Lombardy is best seen by a com- mer. During the process of fallowing, great pains are
parison of the rent paid for land of the same quality, accord- taken to remove any such inequalities of the surface as
mg to the power of obtaining irrigation. Dry meadows would impede the equal distribution of the water over the
will let at irom 24s. to 40s. per English acre, and that so whole of the field. The soil is removed by a machine con-
situated as to be accessible to water is eagerly rented at trived for that purpose, from any part above the level of
ii om 48s. to 160s. per acre, according to its greater or less the field, and thrown into the hollows. The field is di-
capability of obtaining water. vided into narrow beds, between each of which is a water-
1 he purchase and sale of water is a traffic of much im- furrow. In the process of watering, these become first
portance in Lombardy. There are individuals whose sole filled, and then from them the water is let in till it rises
UtTr]esI^ctable jncomes are derived from such operations, sufficiently high to cover the whole surface of the land.
ie distribution of water is settled for a term, with strict The same furrows, in excessively rainy weather, serve to
covenants n tween the parties. Fixed days and hours are drain the land of its surplus moisture. The mode of
appointet oi opening and shutting the sluices, and watch- ploughing naturally raises the middle of the bed somewhat
u gua.is aie appointed; but, in spite of all precautions, higher than the sides of it, but the difference seldom ex-
LOME
Lombardy.ceeds four or five inches- The application of fields of this
description may be generally stated to be as follows:
Three-sixths grass, one-sixth wheat, one-sixth maiz, and
the remainder flax, beet, rape, or other green crops. There
are, as must be obvious to any one acquainted with agricul¬
ture, many variations; but, assuming the crops to be grown
in that proportion, we cannot be far from accuracy. The
portion of the grass land on these meadows is very great;
in many instances, where there have been but three mow¬
ings and subsequent feedings, they have yielded six Lon¬
don loads of hay to the acre on the average of years, and
in some of the best farms near Lodi, a load more. There
may be mentioned amongst the convertible meadows, those
which are chiefly cultivated with rice, which are on the
lowest level, and where the watering is the rule, and the
letting them dry the exception. The water on them is
stagnant during the greater part of the growth of the
crops ; but, to change the rotation, it is in some years cul¬
tivated along with other plants. Such lands may be gene¬
rally stated to yield, one-half of them rice, and the other
half an equal portion of clover, wheat, and maiz.
The second of the classes of watered lands are those
denominated “ permanent summer meadows ” (Prati sta-
bili estivi). These are, day by day, diminishing in extent,
as the cultivators become convinced that it is more pro¬
fitable to change the plants for a few years, than to leave
them constantly in grass. The difference in produce be¬
tween these and convertible meadows arises chiefly from
the gradual disappearance of the clovers, and their place
being occupied by a variety of the common grasses. They
are fitted more for having their plants converted into hay
than those of the convertible meadows, and less adapted
for the growth of those kinds of grass which are, in confor¬
mity with the general practice of the country, most bene¬
ficial for stall-feeding. After the last mowing, they are
depastured by the oxen.
The most important portion of the land in Lombardy is
that part designated as “ permanent meadows” {Marcite).
In laying them down, great attention is paid to levelling the
surface, so that no inequalities may prevent the regular dis¬
tribution of the water in passing over them, and that in no
part there may be hollow places in which it can become
stagnant. They can only be created in situations where a
flowing stream can in all seasons at pleasure be turned over
them. They are usually laid down by sowing them with
Lolium perenne, or rye-grass, with about one part of red
. clover; and the sweepings of the hay loft are abundantly
scattered. As these meadows grow older, other grasses
appear; and in the latter mowing of each year, a large por¬
tion of white clover is always found. These meadows are
well dunged every year, and the omission of it, even once,
is considered by good cultivators as an unpardonable fault.
Thus, if the other descriptions of land are not manured, it
is because all of them are sacrificed to the winter mea¬
dows. Everywhere are to be seen on them heaps of ma¬
nure, which are to be prepared during the summer, in
A K D Y. 649
order to be carried out and equally spread over the sur- Lombardy,
face in the autumn. Those who intend to mow their
meadows in the middle of December, carry the manure on
them in the latter end of September, and then begin water¬
ing them; but those who design to mow them in January
carry on the manure at the end of October, or till the middle
of November. If sufficient manure be not obtained from
the farm, either ground rape-cake or ashes are used abun¬
dantly for the purpose, and thickly scattered over the soil.
The manure is separated as much as possible before the
watering commences. At first the water is turned over
the meadows in very small quantity, that it may produce
the solution of the manure, and thus sink it down to the
roots of the plants before the force of the stream can carry
it away. Afterwards the water is let on in greater quanti¬
ties, and especially when the temperature of the air is below
the freezing point. At such times the greatest attention is
given to create such a current of water as shall prevent it
from freezing. If the cold is sufficiently strong to form a
thin coat of ice, which rarely happens, the water is in¬
stantly withheld, and thus the soil remains free from frost,
whilst a thin sheet of ice covers it; and if the cold, as
usual, is but for a few days, an additional stream of warmer
water melts the ice or carries it away, and the grass re¬
mains uninjured, and continues to grow. If, however,
the frost should be so strong as to freeze the ground, the
first mowing of the meadow would be lost; but such oc¬
currences are so very rare, that they are looked at without
apprehension, by the cultivators.
As the chief profit as well as the receipt of ready money
to the cultivator depends upon the cheese he makes, it
becomes of great importance to him to have an abundant
supply of green food to produce the milk; and this, which •
to the farmer is afforded in the N. of Europe by the use of
turnips, mangel-wurzel, or meal in tepid water, is supplied
in Lombardy, during ten or eleven months, by his winter
meadows. It is hence not a subject of surprise that every
other portion of'his land is sacrificed by the Lombard farmer
to the necessity of raising the product of his winter permanent
meadows to the highest possible state of productiveness.
As the lands here spoken of are continually in a state of
producing crops, they would in time become exhausted
in spite of the irrigation, if they were suffered to remain
without the application of abundant manure. Although
some considerable quantity of extraneous manure is to be
procured from the large cities, by those cultivators who
carry on their operations near them, or the canals con¬
nected with them, yet the larger portion is provided for by
the live stock which is maintained on the land. The chief
labour of ploughing, except in a part of Pavia, is performed
by oxen, and horses are used for the carts and waggons
only. The cows are kept in the best possible condition, in
order to enable them to yield milk in the greatest quantity,
and of the richest quality. The number of black cattle is
considerable, as will appear from the following official ac¬
count of what existed in 1852 :—
Provinces.
Milan 
Bergamo
Brescia ...
Pavia ....,
Como 
Mantua ..
Lodi 
Sondrio..
Cremona
Total  
Do. in 1854.
11,497
11,069
33,844
4,749
13,846
38,762
8,639
1,632
15,531
139,569
137,219
Cows.
40,704
44,549
15,079
26,231
52.842
10,686
27,452
22.842
8,989
249,374
246,131
Bulls.
615
453
344
917
390
162
816
250
337
4284
4139
Young
Cattle.
2,654
10,849
4,858
3,319
12,355
7,414
4,661
5,558
7,007
58,675
61,661
55,470
66,920
54,125
35,216
79,433
57,024
41,568
30,282
31,864
451,902
449,150
Rams.
21
3,207
925
35
2,433
405
93
3,929
36
11,084
10,712
Sheep.
545
38,033
12,421
218
21,307
4,546
931
25,924
643
104,568
97,405
Lambs.
113
12,263
3,036
31
5,560
1,519
213
6,988
203
29,926
26,381
143
19,207
5,435
30
18,368
414
81
20,943
200
64,821
51,892
Total.
822
72,710
21 817
314
47,668
6,884
1,318
57,784
1,082
210,399
186,390
Pigs.
11,841
15,425
19,554
13,909
8,681
18,705
17,131
5,272
9,425
119,943
106,839
VOL. XIII.
4 N
650
LOMBARDY.
Lombardy. The whole of these animals are constantly fed in their
stalls, or, if sent out to graze, it is but for a very short
period. The use of roots, such as turnips, ruta baga, and
mangel-wurzel, is almost unnecessary, as the cattle can be
supplied with sufficient green food from the meadows the
whole of the year. The farms where the convertible hus¬
bandry is followed have abundance of litter from the straw
of the wheat, but especially from the leaves of the Indian
corn, which, though good food whilst they are green, are,
when they become dry, used in the cattle-stalls for their
bedding. Whilst this practice of stall-feeding has been
found by long experience the most favourable to the health
of the cattle, it is decidedly preferable on account of the
vastly greater quantity of manure which it produces. On
all the meadow farms a great number of pigs are fattened
on whey mixed with the flour of Indian corn. These are
put into the sties when they have attained the weight of
100 or 110 pounds, and are kept there during five or six
months, till they attain the weight of 350 or 360 pounds.
It is found that twenty such pigs yield ample manure for
four or four and a half acres of the meadow-land. This
kind of manure is highly esteemed for that purpose, but
more especially so when proper reservoirs are constructed,
out of the influence of the sun or the rain, for the preser¬
vation of the urine of the animals. In Lombardy are many
small occupiers of land, who have not a number of cows
sufficient to yield as much milk as will make a cheese daily.
These sell their milk to the cheese-makers near them. In
their agreement for the milk for the year, the purchaser
contracts to keep in the seller’s sties a number of fattening
pigs, determined upon by calculation of the quantity of
milk which the cows will yield. The number of swine
fattened by the meadow occupiers, which in 1852 amounted
to 119,913, was reduced in 1854 to 106,839; their flesh is
in part made into hams, bacon, and especially sausages.
In a country where the land is chiefly ploughed with
oxen, and where, as in Lombardy, much work is performed
with the spade and the hoe, the number of other beasts for
draught will be proportionally inconsiderable. This is the
case here, as the following official account shows, as far as
relates to the government of Milan :—
Account of the number of Draught Cattle in 1852 and 1854.
Provinces.
Milan ....
Bergamo ,
Brescia ..
Pavia, 
Como  
Mantua
Lodi 
Sondrio .,
Cremona ,
Total  
Do. in 1844.
Horses.
Mules.
10,519
7,096
8,374
7,207
3,622
8,426
12,129
1,413
11,764
68,550
68,738
1,907
2,227
2,453
349
2,231
1,268
435
462
878
12,210
12,054
Asses.
2.233
2.982
2,818
460
2, 99
1,706
1,029
604
812
15,141
15,557
So scanty a stock of this description of animals can yield
but little manure, how carefully soever it may be preserved;
nor, with the addition made to it by the 186,390 sheep and
goats that are kept, will it bear any comparison with that
arising from the 449,150 head of black cattle.
It deserves notice, with reference to this subject, that
the rural parts of Lombardy exhibit but few houses except
t lose of the mere peasantry. The proprietors of even the
Miia ler properties, though they may in some measure be
Mewed in the light of cultivators, yet, placing their estates
m otier hands, on the system of the mezzeria, seldom find
it. necessary to reside on or near them, and are satisfied
wit.i visiting them at the seasons when the produce is to be
divided. When the estates are of small or of moderate extent, Lombardy
or when they are large and comprehend several farms, the
superintendence is intrusted to their agents. Such agents,
also, in some cases, have the disposal of the share of pro¬
duce, and account for the proceeds to the proprietors of the
soil.
The great body of the population who are in circum¬
stances of even moderate ease are thus collected in the cities
and large towns; and in them is thus also collected that
mass of corrupted vegetable and animal substances which is
most adapted to the purposes of manure, and which is care¬
fully preserved for that application. The cities and towns
thus contain a larger proportion of the whole inhabitants
than most of the other parts of Europe. If the numerical
portion is not greater, the portion who, by their mode of
living, produce the greatest quantities of exuviae, which are
convertible into manure, is much larger. Such of these
substances as are of the liquid kind, or are the most easily
reduced to that form by putrefaction, are carried into the
canals and rivers on which the cities and towns are built;
and, when their water is distributed over the first fields with
a gentle motion, to enrich them by the deposition of the
matter they contain in suspension, no other manure is
required to be applied. Whilst the lower grounds near
the cities are refreshed by these means, the higher grounds
are supplied, with little expense of labour in the con¬
veyance, from the substances which retain a solid or less
soluble form.
With the best farmers it is the custom every year to
clean out the small canals of irrigation that are formed in
every part of the meadow-lands. These ditches contain a
compost of various earths, with a large quantity of vege¬
table and animal matter produced by the decomposition of
many organic substances. It is obvious that each of these
canals becomes a reservoir, in which is deposited the matter
which the water has brought, and which being mixed with
the earth in them, must have a great degree of activity in
promoting vegetation.
In some lands of an inferior quality, the practice of
growing green crops, and ploughing them in to form ma¬
nure, has been introduced. A kind of bean called fisole,
a species of lupin, grows almost spontaneously on some
of even the poor soils. When they are cultivated, they
produce a large quantity of succulent vegetable matter,
which, when covered with earth, and mingled with it,
forms an excellent pabulum for other plants. By two
operations of this kind in succession, some of the poorest
soils on the hills of moderate height have been sufficiently
enriched to bear profitable crops of wheat. There is a
part of Lombardy, not inconsiderable, where very little
or no manure is applied to the land, and yet it is cultivated
with corn, though the crops grown are very scanty. It is
a portion of the delegation of Mantua, and not far from
that city. It is easily susceptible of irrigation, but the soil
is one of the poorest descriptions of sand. It is chiefly
cultivated by small occupiers. These tenants have no
cattle of any kind, and the whole labour is performed by
the sole use of the spade and the hoe. Their dwellings and
their clothing are of the most wretched description ; their
food of the coarsest kind, and of that they have at times a
bare sufficiency. Their usual course of cropping is alter¬
nately with Indian corn and wheat. The farms are from
four to eight acres in extent, and are divided into two equal
parts, growing the two kinds of corn. One-half of the
produce is delivered to the proprietor, out of which he
pays the taxes, and the other is for the subsistence of the
occupier. In some cases the owner takes that half which
consists of wheat, and the tenant is supported on the Indian
corn. The value of these is nearly equal, as the price
of wheat is commonly about one-third higher than that of
maiz, whilst the quantity of the latter exceeds that of the
LOME
Lombardy, former in about the same proportion. As the maiz is
nearly three months in the earth, and the wheat scarcely
more than six months, there is an interval between the
crops, during which the soil, by being frequently turned
over by the spade, imbibes a certain portion of oxygen,
which, with the addition of water by the irrigation, fur¬
nishes food for the plants.
A district adjoining to this, with a soil somewhat less
sterile, but capable of constant irrigation, is chiefly culti¬
vated with rice, growing almost continually, or with very
shoit intervals, in the water. The inhabitants are scarcely
maintained on better or more abundant provisions ; and, on
account of the maladies produced by the stagnant water,
are remarkable for their sickly appearance, and for the short
duration of their lives.
Lombardy comprehends a large portion of the Alps with¬
in its limits, dhe elevated pasture lands on these moun¬
tains are stocked with cattle only during the summer
months. At that time the peasants take up their tempo¬
rary residence in the chalets, and there convert the milk
of the cattle into butter and cheese, as is practised in the
adjoining Swiss cantons. The dung of the cattle serves
to refresh the pastures during the summer, but no extra¬
neous manure is ever applied to them.
Some mineral manures are used, the most important of
which is gypsum, which is ground in mills, and then scat¬
tered on the clovers and the grass. Lime is used as a ma¬
nure in some of the provinces. It is laid on the ground in
heaps in October, and covered with the soil; and after the
sowing of wheat, the compost with the lime, completely
slaked, is spread over the field. The quantity of lime is
very small.
In taking a view of the amount of the produce of land
in Lombardy, it may be best to begin with the estimate of
the marcite, or winter-watered meadows. Ihese are com¬
monly mowed four, five, and even six times in the year;
but it is not very easy to determine the quantity of hay
they yield, because the chief portion of their produce is
consumed by the cattle in the stalls, in the form of grass.
One of the most accurate of the practical cultivators (Berra)
constiucted a weighing-bridge at his farm, over which every
load of grass brought from his meadows, as well as the
manuie carried on them, wras w^eighed and registered.
According to him, the average produce, for a series of
years, wras as follows, in English cwt., and English statute
acres:—
1st mowing in January  n igO
... March    16’512
3d ... May  17 220
4th ... July  9,664
5 th ... September  8,244
That is, 560f cwt., or 30 loads.
The whole of the grass which is cut in January and ii
September is eaten in the green state, and the hay i
made almost exclusively from what is cut in May am
July. In what is converted into hay, it is found that then
is a loss of weight by drying, equal to three-fourths. It ii
supposed that, from its containing so much more wrater, tin
grass cut in January and September would lose five-sixth
of its weight, and that cut in March four-fifths. This viev
would give six loads of the finest hay as the annual pro
uce of an English acre. There is good reason to believi
that this may be near an accurate estimate, because tin
best meadows frequently, in the two mowings of May am
July yield more than at the rate of five loads per acre
but these are in the vicinity of the city of Milan, where the
water that irrigates them is more fully impregnated witi
the rich drains from the city than that at a greater dis
tance from it. From the last mowing in the beginning o:
A R D Y. 651
September, till the end of November, the cows are fed on Lombardy,
the meadows. Thus, to the estimated crops of hay, must be
added the value of this pasture for the cattle during about
two months. The usual price for the best hay in the cities
is about 40s. sterling the load. The cost of making it,
where the weather is so settled as it usually is in Lom¬
bardy, must be trifling, and that, with the mowing and car-
rying> cannot exceed the value of the after-feeding, so that
each acre will give a profit of L.12 sterling annually. It
is not then surprising that such land can be sold as high
as 1000 lire the pertica, or L.200 sterling the English acre,
an occurrence by no means unusual.
1 he profit of these meadows does not arise from the sale
of hay, which, in a country where few horses are kept for
pleasure, must necessarily be very insignificant, but from
the fattening of cattle in a small degree, and the operations
of the dairy as the most important pursuit. The dairies
are extensive, and carried on with the greatest care and
most scrupulous attention to cleanliness. The dairy-farms
in the three provinces of Milan, Lodi, and Pavia, are mostly
occupied by persons of competent capital; many by the
proprietors, and the rest by tenants who are not metayers,
but have leases for a term never exceeding nine years, at
a fixed money rent. They, unlike the farmers in other
parts, are the owners of the live stock, and of the imple¬
ments of husbandry, have comfortable dwellings, are well
informed and active, and with diligence unite much economy.
The dairies of the three provinces of Milan, Lodi, and
Pavia produce the best cheese, distinguished by the name
of Parmesan in most parts of Europe, but in Lombardy
commonly called Formaggio di grana, with the addition
of maggengo or invernengo, according to the season in
which it is made. The annual export of this cheese to
foreign countries amounted to 1,800,000 pounds in the
year 1824, besides what was consumed in the Italian and
German provinces of the Austrian empire. At present,
the annual produce is estimated at 51,520,000 lb., worth
at least L.1,333,333 in the country itself in which it is
made.
I he operative part of making the cheese is confined to
experienced practical men, who acquire a tact that enables
them to time the several steps of the process with great ac¬
curacy, and without the aid of a thermometer to ascertain
the requisite heat of the materials in each of these steps.
From the nature of the climate, the milk will not keep
long, but a cheese must be made every day. The cheeses
are most valuable when they are large; and as the greater
number of farmers have not milk sufficient to make such a
cheese daily, the milk is sent by them to other farmers, so as
to make up the requisite quantity. Sometimes four, or five,
or more, small farms contribute their day’s milk to one who
has more stock, to make the cheese ; and there are instances
where the cheese-maker buys the whole of the milk from
which his cheese is made.
1 he cows are milked evenings and mornings ; in the first
case about five or six o’clock, in the second at day-break, or
just before. The milk of the evening is skimmed of what
cream has risen on it before eight o’clock, and the milk of
the morning, of that small quantity which is thrown up be¬
tween day-break and that hour, and from that cream but¬
ter is made. Though the Parmesan cheese is thus made
from skimmed milk, yet a very large portion of the cream
is still left in it to enrich the cheese. The milk is then
placed in a kettle, and warmed to the heat of 81° Fahren¬
heit, when the rennet is applied, the effect of which is in¬
creased by a small addition of vinegar, and sometimes of
grated cheese, and a very small quantity of pepper. The
other parts of the process so much resemble the practices
in the best dairy-farms in England, as not to require any
special notice.
It is salted after it is made, by sprinkling the surfaee
«
652 LOME
Lombardy, with that substance daily during six weeks, and turning the
v . 7 cheese to imbibe the particles. These cheeses vary in
weight, when fit for sale, from 52 to 122 lb. avoirdu¬
pois*! They are kept some time before they are sold, a
few at eight months, some at one or two years old, a less
number at three, and a few at four years old. It requires
much care to preserve the cheese against the heat of the
climate. At Codogno and other places, where the whole¬
sale trade is carried on, there are large magazines on the
ground-floor, twenty feet in height, with shelves around, on
which each cheese is placed singly. They have large win¬
dows, which are carefully shut to exclude the sun the whole
day, but are opened during the night. It is difficult to es¬
timate correctly the average quantity of butter and cheese
produced from a given number of cows. On one farm, in
the province of Lodi, there were 91 cows, from which were
made 173 cheeses, varying in weight from 50 to 120
lb., but the weight of which the man who weighed them
averaged at 100 lb. each. These had been made in
the preceding six months and a half. Supposing the re¬
mainder of the year to be equally productive, the whole
herd would have yielded, on an average, at the rate of 370
lb. in the year. There was, however, no certain account
of the quantity of butter made on the farm during the
period; and the quantity of cheese alone, though correct,
does not give any certain data upon which to frame an
estimate of the productiveness of the animals. The propor¬
tion which the cheese bears to the butter varies in the dif¬
ferent irrigated provinces. Thus, according to the estimate
of the accurate Signor Berra—
100 lb. of milk yields in Lodi 2-j^th ib. of butter, 6T3j/oth
lb. of cheese.
100 lb. of milk yields in Milan 23;^6o-th lb. of butter, 6-j^th
lb. of cheese.
100 lb. of milk yields in Pavia l-^foth lb. of butter, 5 j^th
lb. of cheese.
The farms in these provinces are generally small. One
of 250 English acres would be denominated large; and
though there are a few that exceed that extent, yet the
greater portion of the irrigable land is occupied by farms
much below one-half of that extent. Amongst the occupa¬
tions that are confined exclusively to the marcite, or winter-
watered meadows, many, perhaps the greater part, do not
exceed forty acres. As the farms are small, so there are
very few great proprietors. The family of Luoghi Pii have
the greatest tract of the best land in the province of Milan,
divided into many farms, and said to amount to 3000 acres.
No other exceeds one-third of that extent.
The value and the rent of land depend less upon the na¬
tural fertility than upon the local situation, on the power of
irrigation it can command, and on the capital expended on
making roads to it, fences around it, and in erecting houses
and agricultural buildings. In the vicinity of the city of
Milan, those winter-watered meadows have the greatest
value which are to the south, and are watered from the
canal of Vettabbia, whose waters bring with them the pre¬
cious manure of that populous place. The price of such
land is about L.130 sterling the English acre, and, if it has
good roads and buildings, may be let to good tenants at
from L.6 to L.7 per acre. The land which has not sufficient
irrigating power to form winter-meadows, but enough for the
purposes of convertible husbandry, is worth from L.50 to
L.60 per English acre, and may be let at from 60s. to 70s. per
acre. In these cases the taxes and repairs are paid by the
proprietor, as well as the contributions collected for keeping
in proper repair the canal by which water is conveyed.
Some parts of the irrigable provinces have lands of infe¬
rior natural quality, but being on the banks of the Po, are
well calculated to grow rice, by their capability of being
constantly flooded.
It is difficult for a stranger to generalize with any accu-
A R D Y.
racy the value of land, or the rent of it in due proportion Lombardy
to the amount of the sum invested on it. An opinion
generally prevails that the capital laid out in land might
be assumed to pay an annual rate of interest of about four
per cent., but that as most of the rent, with the exception
of the irrigated provinces, is paid in produce, those who
employ factors to manage their property, or who man¬
age it themselves, without great judgment and perpetual
watchfulness, could scarcely calculate on obtaining more
than three per cent.
It may serve to give some idea of the difficulty of ascer¬
taining the amount of the rent of land, if a slight view be
taken of the description of the classes of persons occupied
in culti\%tion. The first of these is the affittuario, who
somewhat resembles the middle-man now generally to be
found in Ireland. They rent large portions of land at a
money price, and let it out again to sub-tenants, who
work it, if in small lots, by means of their own family,
with an additional servant or two, or, if large, by day-
labourers and their families, who are established on the
property.
The next class is called conduttori, or jittaiuoli, or
farmers. These are the most advantageous to the proprie¬
tors, and they are tolerably numerous, as well in the Vene¬
tian as in the Lombard provinces. This class compre¬
hends the farmers in the watered provinces, whose chief
object is the making of cheese, in some cases combined
with the culture of rice. These lay out large sums at first,
and have a good stock of cattle and utensils, and a suffi¬
ciency of capital. The advantage of this class to the pro¬
prietor is obvious. They take from him the labour of su¬
perintendence, and all risks from failing years and from loss
of cattle; and, having leases renewed every nine, twelve,
fifteen, or eighteen years, they can have no inducement
to destroy the fertility of the soil. Though many of them
have more extent of land, the greater proportion may be
described as occupying from seven to twenty-five acres.
The third, and by far the largest class of all, are the
coloni, colonists, sometimes called pigionanti chiusu-
ranti, who occupy from an acre and a half to three acres of
land, with a cottage. These premises they take either of
the proprietors, of the middle-man, or of the farmers, and
pay a rent by a share of the produce. Some colonists pay
to their superiors a fixed quantity of corn yearly, or its equi¬
valent in money and an agreed proportion of the other pro¬
ducts, such as wine; or, in many cases, the whole of it is di¬
vided. When these shares are not too small, and the ground
is fruitful, the most common custom is to pay a distinct mea¬
sure of corn, and the half of the wine. The meadow land
is paid for in money, in silk-worms’ eggs, or in cocoons,
f he cattle, perhaps a cow and a donkey, are furnished to
the colonist on credit, and if his terms are favourable, and
he gets forward, he becomes the proprietor of them as
well as of the utensils; but if the land is unproductive,
or the shares of the proprietor too great, he must give up
the cattle and the utensils, and may then be permitted to con¬
tinue on the land, giving to the proprietor one-half the
produce, or, if the crops prove heavy, a still larger share.
The farmers of the great estates in the watered provinces
are in prosperous circumstances, and generally well edu¬
cated persons; and their chief occupation consists in over¬
looking the workmen, and making the due bargains for the
disposal of their produce. They are also necessarily fur¬
nished with some capital, as a proof of which, one near
Lodi, occupying a farm of 250 English acres, upon which
were 58 cows, a bull, and 8 horses, and who had on hand
the cheese made in the six preceding months, asserted that
the value of his stock exceeded L.800 sterling. On that
farm there wrere 22 families of day-labourers. Six or seven
men, the heads of those families, were in the constant em¬
ployment of the occupier, either as herdsmen, ostlers, or
LOMBARDY.
653
Lombardy.
stable-servants. All the rest, and the females and children,
were only employed when there was work to be done, for
which they were paid daily wages, viz., to the men about
fourpence halfpenny a-day, to the women threepence, and
to their children from twopence to threepence, according
to the age or strength. They had also one meal a-day,
consisting of rice and beans, but no wine, and meat only
one day in the year. Some of them were occupied, on
fixed terms, in rearing articles that required much labour to
prepare them, and received a proportion of the product.
Thus, of flax they received one-half, of maiz one-third
or one-fourth, and of rice one-seventh. When not wanted
they may get occasional wages on neighbouring farms. In
most of their habitations they hatch a few eggs of the silk¬
worm, if they can find money or credit to buy mulberry
leaves; and if not, they have some occupation in winding
the silk for those who are a little better situated.
In those provinces of Lombardy which are not to any
extent capable of irrigation, there are few large farms
and no substantial farmers. The greater portion of the
land is divided into small allotments of a few acres,
either directly by the proprietors, or through the manage¬
ment of middle-men. The real cultivators, called also co¬
lonists (colotii), with their wives and children, perform all
the labour, and contract to deliver half of the raw produce
to the proprietor.
Instead of two or three acres of land, a few tenants have
from 15 to 20 acres, and are enabled to keep two or three
cows, and perhaps a horse or a mule. The cattle and uten¬
sils are their own property. They pay a moderate money-
rent for the corn land, and divide with the landlord in equal
portions the wine and the cocoons of the silk-worms. Such
persons, if they perform the work by the members of their
own families, subsist chiefly on maiz, use no wine, and
otherwise practise the most rigid economy, though they do
not become rich, may live in a respectable and comfortable
manner.
The chief product which is furnished by Lombardy to
external commerce is silk, which interests more or less
every family in the country, and receives the greatest share
of general attention. As the quantity and the quality of
the silk depend on the worms that spin it, the subsistence
of those worms becomes an object which engrosses much
consideration. The leaves of the mulberry tree are exclu¬
sively the food of the worms, and the greater weight of
these leaves that can be gathered, the greater is the silk
that is produced. In many parts are numerous nurseries,
where those trees are raised, with most careful cultivation,
from seed.
The wild mulberry, or Moms alba, yields the best leaves
for the nourishment of the worms, and the silk they spin
whilst feeding upon them is of the finest quality; but the
quantity of leaves they-yield is so small, that it requires a
great outlay and a great number of trees to give sustenance
to an extensive silk establishment; on which account they
are grafted with other kinds of mulberry trees, which have
larger and dark green leaves, and in such abundance that
they yield at least double the weight of leaves. The finest
silk is obtained from the wild ungrafted mulberry tree; the
next finest from one of a new species produced by
grafting; tbe third from the grafted white mulberry; and
the coarsest from the black mulberry. The fruit of none
of these trees is in any estimation. In order to procure
more leaves, the cultivators of the trees, every fourth year
after the leaves have been stripped, cut off all the smaller
branches quite close to the principal ones. In the succeed-
ing year the leaves are not taken from the new shoots, but
they are in the next and following years ; and in the fourth
year, the shoots are as bushy and thick as if they had not
been tapped.
It is difficult to form an average of the produce of mul¬
berry leaves from each tree, as much depends on the soil, Lombardy,
but more upon the age of the tree. As soon as they have v-*-'
attained 6 inches in diameter, they yield from 19 to 27
lb., and continually increase their produce till they attain
a diameter of 2 feet, when they yield from 220 to 260 lb.
Having then attained their full growth, they continue to
increase in produce till they yield in some cases, but ex¬
treme ones, as much as 500 lb. The market prices of the
leaves undergo a great fluctuation, varying sometimes 100
per cent, in a fortnight.
Some persons who have none, and others who have but
few mulberry trees, yet breed silk-worms. They are care¬
ful to make contracts for what they expect to want, in
March or April, when they are cheapest. It not unfre-
quently happens, that by a storm of hail the price is so
raised that the breeder, instead of drawing a profit from his
operations, finds he has paid more for the leaves than he can
obtain for the cocoons. There are persons so skilful in
estimating in the spring the weight of leaves which each
tree will produce, that their assistance is commonly re¬
sorted to by those who make bargains for the leaves. When
the worms begin to spin they require such a quantity of
food as to raise the price of leaves; and if at that time a
hail-storm should occur, the advance becomes most ruinous
to the purchaser. In general the mulberry trees are, by
the terms of the leases, let to the farmers or colonists,
who divide the cocoons equally with the proprietors of
the land. The tenant provides half the eggs, and super¬
intends the insects, feeding them, and keeping them clean
whilst they are working; the other half of the eggs, as
well as the leaves, are the contributions of the landlord
to this equally-joint-stock concern. The tenant estimates
what worms can be nourished by the quantity of leaves
the trees upon his farm will feed, and the two parties
procure the estimated weight of eggs. If the tenant mis¬
calculates, or if a hail-storm destroys his calculation, he
is bound to purchase such a portion of leaves as will feed
the insects through their working period.
The eggs of the silk-worms are made an object of trade
by a few persons whose establishments are upon so large
a scale as to make it worthy their attention. They are
sold by weight, generally at about 2s. the English ounce.
The eggs are divided into three classes. The worm from
the first of them casts its skin four times, and is of a large
size, and an ounce contains 24,024 eggs. Supposing each
egg to produce a caterpillar, and each caterpillar a cocoon,
as 110 cocoons weigh 1 lb., the whole ounce of eggs will
yield 218 lb. of cocoons. The second also casts its skin,
but the animal is of a smaller size, as are the cocoons; 1
ounce of them contains 25,185 eggs, and the cocoons
produced from them weigh less, 216 being 1 lb., and con¬
sequently the whole weight of the cocoons is only 96 lb.
The third class casts its skin but three times; 1 ounce con¬
tains 31,004 eggs, 440 cocoons weigh about 1 lb., and the
whole weight of the cocoons is only about 70 lb.
In every house room is made for laying out the worms
and even in the poorest cottages of the colonists it is so
contrived that some space is allotted to them. Tables of
reed are formed, about 2^ feet in breadth, and from 15
to 18 feet in length. These are suspended from the
roof, the upper shelf 2 feet below it, and others at 1 foot
distance, with the lowest of them 2 feet from the floor. The
windows are made of paper, to prevent currents of cold air,
and too great heat; the shutters are of straw, and the door
consists of a piece of old linen cloth. Within, the place is
kept ii) darkness, except when the worms are to be fed
or the place cleaned out, when lamps are used. In many
of these places, thermometers, made of spirit of wine,
are kept to ascertain the temperature; and show no other
change of heat than that between the 16th and 20th
degrees of Reaumur, to which limit it is deemed necessary
654
LOMBARDY.
Lombardy, to confine their range of temperature. Habit, however,
Vs—has given a tact, by which the people ascertain the degree
of heat with tolerable accuracy.
Some of the colonists within a season produce as much
as 1401b. of cocoons. Taking their half of them at 70 lb.,
and estimating them at the average price (for there is great
variation in the price) of Is. 6d. per lb., it will yield for a
month’s labour, L.5, 5s., which is a large sum for persons
in that condition of life in that country. From it, how¬
ever, must be deducted the cost of leaves, when the land¬
lord’s trees do not yield as much sustenance for the in¬
sects as the tenant has calculated when purchasing the eggs.
The planting of mulberry trees, and the consequent
produce of silk, have been constantly increasing of late
years. It is an object of attraction to every grade of
society, from the greatest landholder to the lowest of the
Colonists and day-labourers, whose energy has been stimu¬
lated by the constantly advancing price of raw silk, with
few exceptional years, from 1814 to the present time.
It has been ascertained that three-fourths at least of the
mulberry trees in the kingdom are under 40 years of age,
a id that one-half of that three-fourths are of less than 10
years’ growth. The greater number of them are to be
found in the dry provinces, though their plantation has in¬
creased much even in the irrigated districts. From Milan
to Varese, from that city to Como, and between Lecco
and Bergamo, the cultivation of vines has almost every¬
where given place to that of mulberry trees. They are
very numerous on the hills round Bergamo and Brescia.
In the province of Verona, especially between that capital
and Desenzano, and from Castelnuovo, through Vallego,
quite to Roverbello, the surface of the country consists of
masses of rounded pebbles, washed down at some remote
period from the neighbouring Alps. As much strong soil
is mingled with these stones which is favourable to the mul¬
berry trees, vast numbers have been everywhere planted;
but owing to a prejudice that prevails in these districts
against the practice of engrafting, the quantity of leaves
does not bear the same proportion to the number of trees
as in some parts of Lombardy. Mulberry trees are found,
with less annual expense, more profitable than any trees
cultivated for their fruit. The average profit from each
tree, from five to fifteen years old, is reckoned to be about
five shillings sterling annually.
It appears from the official statistics, that the quantity of
cocoons produced in the kingdom at different recent periods
was as follows :—
is4a
Lombardy.... 19,755,519 lb.
Venice  12,964,559 ...
1852.
33,513,826 lb.
22,335,201 ...
1856.
41,892,283 lb.
22,776,173 ...
Total.... 32,720,078 ... 55,849,027 ... 64,668,456 ...
Supposing these returns exact, the production of cocoons
in the four years from 1848 to 1852 had increased by more
than two-fifths; and if, in the subsequent four years, the
increase is found to be less than one-thirteenth, it must be
borne in mind, that both in 1855 and 1856 almost one-half
of the produce was destroyed by the prevalence of disease
among the silk-worms.
Ihe 64,668,456 lb. of cocoons produced in 1856, at the
low average price of 17jd. per lb., would give a value of
L.4,336,360. According to the ratio shown by Dandolo,
t lose 64,668,456 lb. of cocoons, whilst requiring for their
production the enormous amount of 9,043,499,700 lb. of
mulberry leaves, must have yielded at least 5,021,559 lb.
ot raw silk, which, at a low average price of 19s. 8d. per lb.
or the 3,123,546 lb. belonging to Lombardy, and 16s. 7id.
per i. or 1,898,014 lb. of the inferior kind of the Venetian
provinces, would be worth L.4,647,636. The operation,
1 ei,f 01/’ ° winding the cocoons into raw silk gave a gross
profit of L.311,276. fo
Of that quantity of raw silk only 4,299,471 lb., worth Lombardy.
L.3,965,000, were spun and twisted in the kingdom, viz.,
2,976,557 lb. in Lombardy, and 1,322,914 lb. in Venice.
1 he spinning and twisting manufactures gave employment
for the average period of 50 days a-year,—in Lombardy to
4500 men, 5500 women, and 2000 girls, besides 30,000
women more (the incannatrici) in their own houses; and
produced about 2,822,217 lb. of spun or twisted silk (or-
ganzine), worth, at an average of 23s. per lb., L.3,245,556;
in the Venetian provinces to about 18,000 persons alto¬
gether, and produced 1,256,568 lb., worth, at an average
of 18s. 9d. per lb., L.1,178,000. The gross produce, there¬
fore, of the spinning and twisting manufactures was, in
Lombardy L.317,666, and in Venice, L.78,000. A com¬
paratively small quantity of spun silk is consumed within
the kingdom; much of it is sent to be manufactured in
Austria Proper, in Bohemia, and in Hungary, and a much
larger quantity is exported to France and England.
The subjoined table shows the distribution of the produce
of cocoons over the various provinces in 1856 :—
Produce of Cocoons in 1856.
Lombardy. lb.
Bergamo  12,126,700
Milan   7,717,000
Brescia  7,055,555
Como  4,409,700
Mantua  3,527,778
Cremona  3,307,275
Lodi  2,204,850
Pavia  1,102,425
Sondrio   441,000
Total   41,892,283
Venice. lb.
Verona  9,921,850
Udine   3,968,754
Treviso   3,307,275
Vicenza  2.645,860
Padua  1,102,425
Itovigo  771,700
Venice  661,425
Belluno  396,884
Total  22,776,173
Lombardy  41,892,283
Total  64,668,456
After reviewing the productions of most value, the cheese
and the silk, a slight notice may be taken of the results of
those other operations of agriculture which are almost ex¬
clusively confined to domestic consumption.
Of corn crops, the most extensively grown is maiz. It
is the chief nourishment of the working classes, and is
deemed by them the most healthy and most strengthening
of all grain. It has, too, the advantage of being most easily
converted into wholesome food, requiring, unlike wheat, no
assistance from the baker. It requires only a kettle and a
little fuel to make it into polenta, a kind of thick pudding
or gruel, which, without any addition, forms the common
food of the peasantry. It is also a valuable product on
other accounts. The grains in a green state are a substi¬
tute for green peas; the leaves, when fresh, are a fodder,
on which cattle eagerly feed, and, when dry, they are used
to make excellent beds, or rather mattresses; the stalks
are used for fuel in that country, vjhere fuel is scarce; and,
finally, the feathery tops are converted into brushes for
sweeping the houses.
Maiz is also cheaper than wheat, being commonly sold
at about two-thirds the price of that grain ; but, from its
being the food of the far greater part of the population,
in seasons of great scarcity, such as those following the
harvest of 1816 and 1828, the indispensable demand for it
caused the price to rise higher than that of wheat. More
than one-third of all the arable land of Lombardy is des¬
tined to the cultivation of this grain, and the average product
per acre is greater than that of wheat. 11 is grown almost in¬
discriminately on all kinds of soil, and is to be seen equally on
the cold hills and in the warm valleys of the provinces. The
culture of it does not appear to have received any improve¬
ment since its first introduction. It is in some cases sown
broadcast, and covered in with the plough. From this mode
of sowing it, it can only be cleared of weeds by hand, and the
earth is thrown round the plants in the same way; whereas^
LOME
Lombardy, in the countries where it is sown in rows or drills, these
v'-w' operations can be more advantageously performed by appro¬
priate instruments. I he expense of this hand-hoeing and
shovelling up the earth is said to be equal to the value of
one-third of the gross product of the crop. It is customary,
after the bloom is off, to strip the plant of its leaves, and
also to cut the stalks above the cobs or ears, which, if not
done too early, is not injurious to the grain. There are
several species of this plant. The most common is that
with a large yellow grain, whose cobs grow about half-way
up the stalk, and which ripens in three months, if sown in
the month of May. If it cannot be sown so early, or if it
is sown after a crop of flax, or on clover after the first mow¬
ing, it is usual to sow another kind called brigantino, whose
grains are smaller, and of a darkish brown colour. In the
vicinity of Bergamo, the greatest quantity of maiz is of
this kind. There are some species of this corn of much
smaller grains, called cinquanto and quaranto, from the
number of days which pass between the sowing and the
harvesting. These kinds are commonly sown on the wheat
stubbles, or after a crop of flax or of rape-seed has been
gathered. It is seldom very productive, and, if the field on
which it is sown be poor, scarcely repays more than the
seed and the labour.
In a country where the soil and the climate are so
various as in Lombardy, and where the difference in the
quantity of manure applied to the soil is so great in the
several portions, it is impossible to arrive at any average
calculation of the produce of maiz per acre. Nothing more
can be done here than to state a few facts on the subject.
One very accurate cultivator on the richest irrigable land,
to which abundant manure was applied, stated that his crops
yielded annually in a series of years from 59 to 78 English
bushels an acre. Another also, in the same circumstances,
a few miles distant, gave his range of bushels at from 50 to
78 per acre. The other side of the picture is vastly differ¬
ent. According to an official valuation in the revenue office
at Milan, the following average of the produce of maiz in
some of the poorest provinces is given, viz., in Verona, the
greatest produce is rated at 15 bushels the acre; in Vi¬
cenza, from 32 to 42; in Padua, from 12 to 21 ; and in
Udine, from 13 to 22. No other provinces are noticed in
the account. To this account of the average produce of
maiz may be added calculations made by two of the most
accurate agriculturists of Lombardy. Count Dandolo in¬
forms us, that the average produce from the colonists on
his estates near to Vanese, on whose fields the peasantry
had been induced to plant the beans called Jisole amongst
the maiz, was 21f bushels of maiz, and bushels of
beans. The average on the whole of his estate, including
the part cultivated by himself, is stated to be 32-J bushels
of maiz, and 7|- bushels of beans. Another intelligent
agriculturist asserted, that, according to the best calculation
he could make, and he had taken much pains on the sub¬
ject, the average produce of maiz did not exceed 25 bushels
the acre, which he considered to be a produce one-third
greater than that of wheat. The quantity of maiz grown
in the Lombard provinces in 1854, was, according to the
official returns, 973,024 quarters.
Rice is a plant introduced from India and China at some
distant but not very remote period. According to some,
it was known as early as the tenth century; but no one
large field was cultivated with it, until a patrician of Milan,
in the year 1522, first destined to it some marshy land upon
his own estate in the province of Verona. In the province
of Pavia it is the most profitable grain that is grown ; and
in the provinces of Lodi, Cremona, Verona, Mantua, and
Milan, it always secures to the farmer moderate benefit.
The yearly produce is about 165,072 quarters, much of
which is consumed at home, as those who do not subsist on
maiz alone have one meal a-day of this article. Some of
A R D Y.
655
it is exported, but the amount of that portion falls far short Lombardy,
of the quantity imported for home consumption. Rice is a
marsh plant, and can only be grown where the land can be
covered with water. The evaporation is injurious to human
health, and hence laws are enacted regulating the distance
which must intervene between the rice-fields and the cities
and towns. Without these restrictions, rice would be
more extensively cultivated. Some portion of rice is grown
in the rich provinces, as one of the crops in rotation of con¬
vertible husbandry. In this practice, called risare a vicen-
da, it is most commonly sown after clover. The land is
ploughed very deep, but not harrowed. The water is theu
turned on, so as to cover the surface, and to show any ine¬
qualities which remained by the use of the spade. The
seed is then sown, or rather scattered on the water, having
been previously steeped during eight or ten hours to give
it additional specific gravity, so that it may sink imme¬
diately to the bottom. If it were sowed after clover, two
bushels of seed would be sufficient for one acre. When it
is sowed, as is oftentimes the case, after maiz, the quantity
is usually three bushels.
The time of sowing is from the beginning of April till
the middle of May. It remains covered with water to the
height of from 2 to 3 inches, and in that state remains till
weeding becomes necessary. That early sown requires
the operation to be performed in the middle of May; that
later sown, some time in June. It is executed chiefly by
the females, who, with their lower garments tucked up,
stand in water over the ankles, and with the hand pluck up
the weeds by the roots. If the land were dry, the weeds
would break off, and leave the roots to shoot out again.
The most prevalent weed is the cockfcot grass, which, at
an early period, it is difficult to distinguish from the rice.
Besides this, there are several other weeds, chiefly of the
rush kind. In the first year the operation of weeding is
performed twice. If the same field be sown with the rice
in the next year, once is deemed sufficient. This is the
most expensive part of the process, and is said in the first
year to require 25 days’ work for an acre, which, as the
employment is unpleasant and unhealthy, is commonly paid
for at the rate of about lOd. per day. Much of this work
is executed by the colonists upon plans marked definitely
in their leases. The terms vary excessively, according to
the locality and the soil. A common plan is, for the colo¬
nist to receive one-quarter of the gross produce, after the
quantity used as seed has been abstracted from it. For
this he is bound to perform the following portions of the
labour, viz., the levelling of the surface, the sowing, the
weeding, the reaping, and all the labour not performed by
cattle, until the crop is placed on the threshing-floor. In
the case of some of the poorest land, the colonist receives
one-third instead of one-fourth, of the produce. About
midsummer-day the water is allowed to run off the land,
and during eight or ten days it is suffered to become dry.
This is done to destroy the numerous water insects, which
would prove injurious to the roots of the rice, and cause it
to fall into the water.
Wheat is a grain not extensively cultivated in most
parts of Lombardy, excepting in that portion of it whicL
comprehends the mountainous Alps. There is but one
species of it,—a winter wheat, sown between the first week
of October and the first week of November ; but the best
farmers wish to finish their sowing by the 21st of October,
if the season permit. The wheat is all of the bearded kind,
the preference of which has been owing to the opinion that
the beard is a protection against the fogs of the blooming
season, and against the depredations of the small birds at
the time of the grain ripening. The produce is a kind of
wheat harder than that of the W. and N. of Europe; and
from this circumstance it is better calculated to be con¬
verted into maccaroni than our wheat would be. The
656
LOMBARDY.
Lombardy, product of the crops is less per acre than it is generally in
v y the German dominions of Austria, and less than in England
or in the best parts of the Netherlands.
It is of course most productive on the best lands of the
rich provinces, where irrigation is practicable to the exact
extent which the nature of the crop may require. On that
description of soil it is less profitable than other crops, and,
therefore, only a small portion is applied to its growth; but
even on the best of that land it is a rare event to obtain
sevenfold the quantity of the seed that has been sown. In
the neighbourhood of Mantua, where the poor colonists
grow wheat and maiz in alternate years, where the soil is
sandy, and where, from the paucity of cattle, little manure
is applied, it does not appear that the crop of wheat grown
more than equals four times the seed.
In Verona, the higher part of which is stony, and the
lower part sandy, the best of the land yields 10 bushels,
and the worst only 6^. In Vicenza, where the soil is bet¬
ter, the lands of the "first quality yield 18 bushels, those of
the second 15, the lowest 12. In Padua, the first class of
lands yields 15£ bushels, the second ll£, and the lowest
class only 7 bushels. In Udine, a poor sandy soil, mixed
with many pebbles, and where there are but few cattle, the
first class of soils yields 10^- bushels, the second 9, and the
lowest only 6^-.
It is not easy to ascertain what portion of the fields is
appropriated to the growth of wheat. On the best of the
soils, according to the regular rotation of crops, one-half of
the land is in grasses, the proportion of maize is greater
than that of wheat, and some portion is sown with pulse,
rye, millet, oats, flax, hemp, and other kinds of crops. In
1854 the wheat produced in Lombardy alone amounted to
697,186 quarters. The other kinds of grain are but very
little cultivated.
Few things are more striking to a visitor in Italy from the
N. of Europe, than the straight rows of trees of all kinds
that run through the corn fields, at the foot of which vines
are planted and trained, so as to extend in elegant festoons
from one tree to another, exhibiting the pendant clusters
of grapes. If the same mode of training the vines were
attempted in the somewhat colder climates of France and
Germany, the shade of the trees would prevent the grapes
from ripening. This effect is not produced in Lombardy,
where the berries become ripe, and, when eaten, are of
good flavour; but the wine produced from them is in
general of a bad or very indifferent quality. Though much
of the wine is produced from such vines in the corn fields
as are distinguished by the names of Campi Aratici Vitati,
or of Campi Arborati Vitati, and from vines planted
in rows at such a distance from each other as to admit of
maiz being grown between them, and called Ronchi; yet
in some parts are vineyards properly so called, because, like
those of France and Germany, they alone occupy the ground,
and are, like them, supported by props. The best wine
is produced from the Ronchi, and more especially from the
vineyards properly so called, in which, however, each vine
produces less in quantity than those trained from tree to
tree. The amount of produce varies greatly according to
different years, different districts, and different modes of
cultivation. From an approximate estimation made on
many farms of various soils, it would appear that, in the most
productive districts, the average produce of large vines
trained to the trees around the corn fields is from 48 to
52 gallons for 100 vines; and the average produce of vine¬
yards properly so called, from 58 to 65 gallons of wine to
the acre.
In Lombardy the wine is generally of a bad quality.
Its production is left chiefly to that description of cultiva¬
tors before noticed under the name of colonists, who ex¬
ercise little discretion and little care, either in the choice
of the kind of grapes they plant, or in the management of
the juice. Their chief care is to obtain the largest quan- Lombardy,
tity, without much regard to the flavour or the aptitude
of keeping; and commonly, as soon as it is made, they
divide it in equal shares with their landlords. One cause
to which the inferiority of the wine is attributed arises
from the general predilection in favour of red wine, or, as
it is called, Vino Nero, which is prized according to the
darkness of its colour. In order to produce this deep
colour, the skins of the grapes are left, in the first part
of the process, to ferment with the juice. Sometimes this
is suffered to continue during eight or ten days in a vat
before the liquor is drawn off, and sometimes still longer,
as the longer it continues the darker the wine becomes.
The best wines are produced in the district near Varese, on
the sunny slopes of the hills round the lakes of Como and
Garda, and in the Val Calleppio in the province of Ber¬
gamo. The wines of the localities of Sassella and Inferno,
in the Valtelline, maintain the ancient renown of the
Rhaetian wines, relished by Augustus and celebrated by
Virgil
The wine of the Venetian provinces is, upon the whole,
of a much better quality; its superiority is owing to the
nature of the soil, to a better choice of the kinds of grapes
that are planted, and to the more careful preparation of
their juice. The best qualities are produced in the province
of Treviso, in the Berici and Euganean Hills, between
Vicenza and Padua, in some districts of the province of
Udine, and above all in the province of Verona, well known
for its Valpolicella, the best common wine in the kingdom.
There is no old wine in the country, except in small
quantities, and in the hands of a few amateur proprietors.
The wine of each vintage is sold in the course of the
following year; and when any of it is kept, even though
it should not have become, or shown a tendency to be¬
come, vinegar, it will sell at a lower price than new wine,
because it is milder, and less agreeable to the taste of the
consumer.
Previous to 1851 the annual quantity of wine produced
in the kingdom, in average years, was 85,837,705 gallons,
of which 52,823,203 gallons were produced in the Vene¬
tian, and 33,014,502 in the Lombard provinces. The pro¬
duce of Lombardy not being sufficient for the consumption
of its population, nearly 4,402,000 gallons a-year more were
imported either from the Venetian provinces, which pro¬
duced much more than was required for their own con¬
sumption, or from the neighbouring states of Modena,
Piedmont, and the Papal territory, according to the respec¬
tive local produce and prices. 13ut since 1851, when the
oidium attacked all the vines of the country, the produce
has so fearfully diminished that in 1856 the government
found it necessary to grant a reduction of the direct land-
tax on lands chiefly cultivated with vines, in proportion to
the ascertained amount of loss. The whole produce of
Lombardy, in 1852, was reduced to 11,004,834 gallons,
and that of the Venetian provinces, in 1854, to 7,538,311
gallons of wine. The respective loss of each province was
as follows:—
Government of Milan. Government of Venice.
Gallons of Wine produced in—
1838. 1852.
Mantua...10,347,405 3,439,077
Milan  3,800,585 998,975
Brescia... 3,674,822 747,778
Pavia  3,264,430 651,112
Bergamo.. 2,732,434 1,247,090
Como  2,665,305 1,988,353
Cremona.. 2,663,170 1,981,750
Sondrio... 2,325,190 90,614
Lodi  1,962,910 964,464
1847.
Padova ...10,454,592
Vicenza... 9,904,350
Udine  9,574,206
Verona.... 8,583,770
Treviso.... 7,483,287
Rovigo ... 3,961,740
Venezia... 2,751,209
Belluno... 396,174
1854.
2,531,112
1,320,580
1,210,532
660,290
748,329
352,154
528,232
187,082
Total... 53,109,328, 7,538,311
Total...33,436,251 12,109,213
Potatoes, which form so important a part of the food of
the inhabitants in the more northern parts of Europe, are
L O M
Lombok very little cultivated in Lombardy. They are almost ex-
II clusively confined to the Alpine districts, or, when grown
^Loch^ on ^ie ^eve^ country> are confine<J to the gardens. The
J°c ^ , absence of this root is a subject of sincere regret to the
most patriotic individuals who have devoted their attention
to rural economics. Count Dandolo attributes much of
the dreadful consequences which followed the deficient
harvests of 1816 and 1828, when great numbers perished
from want of common necessaries, to the absence of that
seasonable supply of food which potatoes would then have
furnished. Others have made similar and ineffectual re¬
marks. The taste for polenta is much too deeply rooted,
and the dislike to potatoes so common amongst the work¬
ing classes of the rural districts, that there is no present
prospect of their cultivation being speedily extended.
It is generally believed that more than four-sixths of the
inhabitants of Lombardy subsist wholly by the labours of
the field. Of these, the far greater proportion are of the
description which is here called colonists. They are small
occupiers, dividing the trifling products of the soil with the
proprietors. Their dwellings are small, their furniture and
utensils scanty, and their dress of the coarsest materials.
They generally marry early, and have families, though they
have no prospect of supporting them, beyond the hope that
the half of the produce of maiz on a few acres of land may
yield them food during the year, with the exercise of the
greatest parsimony in its use. In the event of sickness,
they have to resort to hospitals and charitable institutions.
Ihe charity of those who can afford it is bestowed with as
fair liberality as can be expected, considering the numerous
claimants that offer for its reception.
rlhe mining operations are inconsiderable, and are con¬
fined to the procuring of iron in the Alpine valleys of Ber¬
gamo and Brescia, and of copper in Belluno.
The manufactures of the kingdom, with the exception of
that of silk, which gives the most em ployment, and has
already been referred to, are not extensive, but have of late
L O M 657
years been on the increase. There are 33 cotton-spinning bomono-
mills, of the power of 728 horses, and turning, in the aggre- zoff-
gate, 123,402 spindles. The cotton for their consumption
is introduced from Asia and America. In 1854 they span
7,412,160 lb. of cotton, of the value of L.264,718; 3810
persons, of whom 1482 were men, 1152 women, 506 boys,
and 670 girls, found at these mills a daily employment, and
received, on an average, each man from Is. to Is. 4d., each
woman from 7d. to 8d., and each boy or girl from 3^d. to
6d. per day. Cotton-weaving machines in 1845 had 15,602
looms, which in 1854 had increased to 17,014. As they
are chiefly carried on in a small way by families of the lower
classes, they gave employment to 34,000 persons. Their
produce is reckoned at an average value of L.544,948 per
year. The woollen manufactures employ about 700 per¬
sons, but are comparatively insignificant. There are only
3 flax-spinning mills, which turn 11,518 spindles, and em¬
ploy 330 men, 220 women, 64 boys, and 258 girls. Venice
has long been known for its glass manufactures; the annual
average exports of glass, pearls, and beads of the last ten
years has been L. 143,333, of which the largest items
were,—L.25,000 to England; L.15,666 to Calcutta; and
L. 12,666 to France. Milan has been from remote times
celebrated for its weapons and arms; and iron work of all
kinds is still extensively made in the province. Besides the
great branches of manufacture, most of the smaller ones
are carried on, especially those of paper, glass, gold and
silver articles, and domestic utensils.
The foreign trade is not material; and that of Venice
has much declined since its union with Austria. There
are still, however, many ships navigating the Adriatic and
the Mediterranean Seas, now bearing the Austrian flag,
which are built and equipped at Venice. But there is no
reliable information as to the real present amount of im¬
ports and exports, and foreign trade in general; and such
returns as have been published, being very far from correct,
would only lead to erroneous conclusions. (* * *)
LOMBOK, an island in the Indian Archipelago, lying
between S. Lat.8. and 9., and E. Long. 115.40. and 116. 40.;
and separated by the strait of Lombok from the island of Bali
on the W., and by that of Allass from Sumbhawaon the E.
It is about 53 miles in length from N. to S., by about 45
in breadth; and has an estimated area of 1480 square
miles. Two mountain chains extend along the N. and S.
coasts inclosing a well-watered plain, which is laid out in
rice fields. On the slopes of the mountains, maiz and
coffee are reared. In the northern mountain chain is a vol¬
canic peak rising to the height of 12,380 feet. The rivers
and streams are numerous ; and along the coast are several
excellent harbours and roads. The staple production is
rice, which is cultivated with great care, and large quanti¬
ties of which are exported. A considerable trade is carried
on at Ampanam, its chief port. The capital of the island
is Mataram. Pop. estimated at about 250,000. Lombok
is claimed as a dependency by the Dutch.
LOMOND, Locii, the largest and most celebrated of
the Scottish lakes, separating the counties of Dumbarton
and Stirling. It lies nearly N. and S., and is about 25
miles in length. The southern portion of the lake for
nearly one-third of its entire length forms a wide basin of
from 3 to 7 miles in width, and contains about 30 islands,
several ot which are well wooded. The northern portion
is very narrow, averaging little more than a mile in width.
I he loch is deepest in the northern part, where it attains
above 100 fathoms, but gets shallower as it expands towards
the S., where its general depth is under 20 fathoms. The
surface of the water is 22 feet above sea level. Many
streams contribute to its waters from the surrounding un-
VOL. XIII. ° 1
lands, the chief being the Endrick, which joins the lake at
its S.E. angle, and the Falloch Water at its head. The
only outlet is by the Leven, which joins the Clyde at Dum¬
barton, after a course of seven miles. This stream, how¬
ever, has become much obstructed where it receives the
waters of the loch, and consequently, after heavy rains, dis¬
charges the surplus with difficulty. It has been supposed
that this is the main cause of the lake’s surface having risen
of late years above what was considered its natural level.
Conspicuous among the scenery that beautifies the loch is
the lofty Ben Lomond, which rises to the height of 3192
feet above the level of the sea. A steamer plies on the
lake in connection with the Dumbarton Railway, which ter¬
minates at Balloch. It appears from old chronicles, that
the shores of this lake were at one time very productive
and thickly peopled. In 1263 the horsemen under Angus,
King of Man, after having ravaged the shores of the adjoin¬
ing Loch Long, drew their boats over the neck of land
which separates the two waters at Tarbet, massacred the
inhabitants who had taken refuge in the islands, and set fire
to the numerous villages they found on the shores of the
lake. After this expedition, the loch came into the hands
of some of the chief Highland clans, who long carried on
their feuds here. Of these, the Macfarlanes and Macgre-
gors are the most famous, from the sufferings they endured
at the hands of their more powerful neighbours. Esti¬
mated area of loch, 28,000 acres.
LOMONOZOF, Michael Wasitowitz, the father of
Russian poetry and literature, was born in 1711, at a vil¬
lage near Cholmoghory, in the government of Archangel.
In his boyhood he assisted his father in his humble calling
4 o
658 L O M
London, of a fisherman, and with the aid of a priest during the long
vW' winters, acquired the art of reading. The perusal of
Polotski’s poetical version of the Psalms, one of the few
books he had, developed his genius for poetry, and excited
in him a thirst for literary fame. Accordingly, repairing of
his own accord to Moscow, he entered the Zaikonospaski
Monastery, where he applied himself chiefly to the study
of the learned languages. After a short interval spent at
the University of Kiev, he removed in 1734 to the newly-
instituted Academy of St Petersburg, where he devoted
two years to mathematics and natural science. He was
then sent, at the expense of the Academy, to study under
Christian Wolf, at Marburg in Hesse-Cassel. Here, during
his intervals of leisure, he perused the German poets, a
study which he continued when after the lapse of four years
he removed to Freiberg in Saxony, to acquire a practical
knowledge of mineralogy and mining under Henckel. On
his return to St Petersburg in 1741, he was elected an
associate of the Academy. He was appointed in 1745
professor of chemistry; and in 1760 rector of the gym¬
nasium and university. In 1764 he was honoured by the
Empress with the title of counsellor of state. He died
in April 1765, and was interred with great honour.
Lomonozof’s multifarious labours comprise translations
into Russian from several languages living and dead, and
treatises upon meteorology, chemistry, criticism, rhetoric,
LON
history, and chronology. He may be said by his grammar Lomsha
to have drawn out the plan, and by his poetry to have built up ^ 0J,j0n
the fabric of his native language. Besides several odes and
translations in verse, he wrote an heroic poem in two cantos
on Peter the Great, a work said to be unsurpassed by any
Russian poet. He also produced Annals of the Russian
Sovereigns, and the History of Russia from the Origin of
that Nation to the Heath of the Great Duke Yaroslaf I.
The latter has been translated into German and French.
The principal works of Lomonozof have been published in
3 vols. 8vo.
LOMSHA, or Lomza, a town of Russian Poland, capi¬
tal of a cognominal circle in the government of Augustovo,
on the left bank of the Narev, a tributary of the Vistula,
94 miles N.N.E. of Warsaw. It is situate in a wooded
valley, and contains some spacious and well-paved streets.
The principal buildings are, an arsenal, a Piarist college, a
gymnasium, and several churches and convents. The ma¬
nufactures are chiefly confined to iron and paper. Pop.
(1854) 5804.
LONATO, a town of Austrian Lombardy, delegation of
Brescia, and 14 miles E.S.E. of the town of that name.
It is situate on a height about 3 miles from the southern
shore of Lake Garda, and is surrounded by walls, and
further defended by a citadel. Here Bonaparte gained a
victory over the Austrians in 1796. Pop. about 6000.
Origin.
LONDON.
(Latin, Londinium; French, Londres; Italian, Londrd),
the metropolis of the British Empire, and one of the greatest
cities of ancient or modern times, is situate on both banks
of the Thames, about 45 miles above its mouth at the Nore,
and 15 below the highest tideway. Though chiefly within
the county of Middlesex, London includes parts of Surrey
and Kent, and extends into Essex. St Paul’s, the most
striking object in the city, is in Lat. 51. 30. 48. N., Long.
0. 5.48. W. of Greenwich.
In dealing with so important a subject, it will, perhaps,
be expedient to treat shortly of its various branches in the
following order, viz :—
I. Rise, progress, and present extent of London.
II. Number, occupations, and social condition of its in¬
habitants.
HI. Religious worship and education.
IV. Parks, palaces, public buildings, and institutions.
V. Civic government, police, defence, representation, &c.
Its early history is lost in obscurity, and the first authentic
notice of its existence is that of Tacitus {AnnaL, lib. xiv.,
cap. 3), who, in alluding to Londinium, says, “ Cognomento
quidem colonise non insigne, sed copia negotiatorum et
commeatuum maxime celebre.” The derivation of the name
“ London” has been the subject of much conjecture, but
that mentioned by Pennant {London, p. 17) seems most
feasible, viz., Llyn Din, from Llyn, in Celtic, a lake, and din,
a town. It could not, however, have been a place of im¬
portance at the period of Julius Caesar’s invasion, as it is not
noticed in his Commentaries. About 100 years thereafter
the Romans, under Claudius, took possession of the city, and
called it Augusta, in honour of that prince. It was erected
into a prsefecture ; and the inhabitants, nominally citizens of
Rome, were governed by Roman laws and Roman magis¬
trates.
London was not fortified at an early period of the Roman
occupation; for in a.d. 61, the Britons under Boadicea re¬
volted, captured and burned the city, and massacred the
inhabitants. The city was soon, however, rebuilt, but is
supposed to have remained open till the reign of Con¬
stantine the Great. From the number ef coins of his time
found under the walls, it may be inferred that that em¬
peror constructed the walls; and it is alleged that he
made London an episcopal see. The limits ol these walls
have been pretty exactly ascertained. They commenced
near the site of the present Tower, extended along the
Minories and back of Houndsditch, across Bishopsgate
Street, in a straight line, by London Wall, to Cripplegate;
thence southward to Aldersgate, proceeding afterwards by
the back of Christ’s Hospital and Old Newgate, passing
behind the site of Newgate Prison, and so reaching Lud-
gate; again proceeding westwards to the River Fleet,
and terminating at a fort called afterwards Baynard’s
Castle. Their compass was completed by another wall
along the bank of the Thames. Extent of the walls,
from and to the side of the river, 2 miles and 1 furlong;
on the bank, 1 mile and TVth; uniform height, 22 feet.
Through gates in these walls roads led to different parts
of the kingdom. The great Roman roads, Watling Street
and Ermin Street, had their termini at the London Stone,
or Roman Milliarium, a portion of which still remains, and
is inserted in the most conspicuous part of St Swithin’s
Church, abutting on Cannon Street. The names of the
gates are still preserved in streets, &c. viz., Ludgate,
Aldersgate, Moorgate, Bishopsgate, Aldgate, Newgate,
Cripplegate, and Postern Row, on Tower Hill.
After the Romans withdrew their forces from England,
London suffered severely till the Saxons fixed themselves
in the country. It is said to have become then the capital
of the East Saxon kingdom ; at any rate, it quickly regained
its former importance, and is called by Venerable Bede
a “ princely town of trade.” Soon after the introduction of
Christianity, Old St Paul’s, and St Peter’s at Westminster,
were founded.
When the Saxon monarchies were united in the person
of Egbert, London became the capital of the consoli¬
dated kingdom, and such it has continued to be. In the
reign of Alfred it recovered from the effects of the Danish
invasion, as well as from those of a fire, which nearly con¬
sumed it in 893. _
After the battle of Hastings, the city submitted to Wii-
LONDON.
London, liam, who granted it a charter, still extant; and who com-
menced building the Tower of London in 1078. About
this time the capital suffered severely and frequently by
fires, especially in 1077 and 1086.
In the following reign it was visited by a hurricane and
an inundation ; the latter carrying away” the first wooden
bridge over the Thames. Henry I. granted a new charter
to the city in 1100, restoring the privileges it enjoyed pre¬
vious to the Conquest, and conferring on the citizens the
right of electing their own magistrates. It is said that this
document served as the model for Magna Charta. The
population in 1141 was estimated by Peter of Blois at 40,000.
The title of the chief magistrate was changed by Henry II.
from Portreeve to Bailiff; and in 1191 he is called Lord
Mayor in a document issued by the Court of Aldermen.
In 1198 Richard I. committed the duty of fixing a national
standard of weights and measures to the sheriffs of London
and Middlesex. John, by several charters, conferred addi¬
tional favours on the city; among others, the jurisdiction
and conservation of the Rivers Thames and Medway; and
the power of choosing sheriffs.
In 1221 the first stone of the present Westminster Abbey
was laid by Henry III.; and in 1236 water was conveyed
in pipes from the village of Tyburn to the city.
In 1258 and 1270 the city was visited by famine, and in
1348 by a species of plague, on all of which occasions it
suffered grievously.
Under Edward I. London was first divided into twenty-
four wards, each to choose common councilmen and an
alderman. Edward II., in 1316, prohibited as a nuisance the
burning of coal, then lately introduced, but his mistake was
soon discovered and rectified. Under Edward HI. the city
received the perpetual right of magistracy over Southwark.
In 1381 the citizens were alarmed by the insurrection of
Wat Tyler, but this was soon suppressed. Street lamps were
first used in 1416. In the wars of the Roses, London chiefly
favoured the interests of the House of York ; and after the
battle of Barnet, in 1471, Edward IV. knighted the mayor,
recorder, and twelve aldermen. This was the era of the
first printing-press, constructed and worked by Caxton in
Westminster Abbey; as well as of the erection of water
cisterns and conduits in several parts of the city and suburbs.
In the reign of Henry VIL, a disease called the “sweat¬
ing sickness” carried off two mayors and six aldermen,
with many citizens. Some considerable improvements were
made in this reign, as well as in that of Henry VIII., to
which the suppression of religious houses by the latter ma¬
terially contributed ; these giving way to schools, hospitals,
and charitable institutions.
Thanks to the wisdom of Elizabeth, the prosperity of
London rapidly advanced during her reign. The refugees
from the Netherlands introduced numerous manufactures
before unknown in England, and in this way conferred
especial benefits on London.
By maps of the time of Elizabeth and James I., it may
be seen that the chief part of London then consisted of
Newgate Street, Cheapside, the Poultry and Cornhill, and
the various streets and alleys leading from them to the
Thames. Along the Strand, towards Westminster, were
houses on both sides—those to the S., and abutting on the
river, being the palaces of the chief nobility. The names of
Salisbury, Norfolk, Buckingham, Arundel, Essex, &c., have
been perpetuated in the streets nowon the sites of palaces and
gardens formerly belonging to these families. Spring Gar¬
dens formed a series of walks,with bowling-green, &c., extend¬
ing from Charing Cross towards Whitehall Palace, whence
to the Abbey there was a regular street. On the Surrey
side, there were not ten buildings between Lambeth and the
west foot of Blackfnars Bridge; but from that point a row
of houses was continued to the Borough. Southwark then
extended but a short distance along High Street; and there
659
were small scattered houses from Tooley Street to Horsely- London,
down. In the reign of James I. brick was introduced as ^ v J
a substitute for wood in London houses, and the streets were
first paved with stones. The city was severely visited by
the plague in 1604, and again in the reign of Charles I.
During the civil wars, a majority of the corporation took
part with the Commons, and the city treasury wras of great
service to their party.
After the Restoration London began greatly to revive ; Plague and
but a serious check was given to it by the last visit of the Sreat fire*
plague, which raged from June till the end of December
1665, and destroyed nearly a third of the population. This
was speedily followed by the “ Great Fire,” which commenced
2d September 1666, lasted four days and nights, and in that
time ieduced to ashes five-sixths of the whole city within
the walls. The ruins covered a space more than a mile
long and half a mile broad; and the value of buildings
and goods consumed was estimated at ten to twelve millions
sterling. But though severe at the time, this visitation
contributed materially to the improvement of the city. It
was rebuilt on a more commodious plan by Sir Christopher
Wren in about four years. From the time of its recon- Recon¬
struction, few stirring events occurred. The first stone struction
of St Paul’s was laid in 1675. The revocation of theand Srowth
edict of Nantes in 1685 brought to London many French of London'
Protestant families, who peopled Spitalfields, and intro¬
duced the manufacture of silk. The continued growth
ot the city in the reign of Queen Anne occasioned the
act of 1711 for building fifty new churches, the cost
being paid by a tax on all coals brought into the Thames.
The streets were then first generally lighted; fire-engines
were provided, and measures taken for watching the °city.
In her reign, Clerkenwell, Old Street, the lower part of
Shoreditch, Marlborough Street, Soho, Bedford Row', Red
Lion Square, and a district north of Holborn, were annexed
to the metropolis.
In the reign of George I. some additions were made to
London, chiefly to the north of Oxford Street and about
Beikeley Square. In the reign of George II. some new
parishes were erected, viz., St George’s, Bloomsbury; St
Ann’s, Limehouse ; St Paul’s, Deptford; and St Matthew’s,
Bethnal Green. The River Fleet was covered, and a market
built on it; Grosvenor Square, Westminster Bridge, and
Great George Street were built; and roads were formed in
several directions, the principal one skirting the northern
part of the city from Paddington to Islington.
Ihe accession of George III. gave afresh stimulus to
improvement and extension. A new bridge at Blackfriars,
with handsome streets leading to it, and many new dwell¬
ings on the Surrey side, W'ere erected. On the N.W. side
the parishes of St Pancras and Marylebone were formed. At
the same period the street pavement for foot passengers
was first laid down, the kennels removed from the middle
to the sides of the streets, and the numbering of houses
introduced. The American war gave a temporary check
to extension; but soon after the peace of 1783, the ad¬
vance became more rapid than ever. Docks were con¬
structed, the commerce of the city rapidly augmented, the
ground near the water side was covered with buildings,
and, westward, Bedford, Russell, and Brunswick Squares
quickly sprung up. From the Regency in 1811, London
advanced in extent and in elegance still more rapidly.
Regent’s Park was formed, and surrounded by handsome
terraces; and within the last few years the extensive and
fashionable districts called Belgravia and Tyburnia—the
former to the south and tjte latter to the north of Hyde Park
—have been created, arm literally covered with houses
of a high class. In 1851 there were 305,933 inhabited
houses in the metropolis, and there are no less than 6300
streets enumerated in the London Postal Guide for January
660
London.
Boundaries
and divi¬
sions.
Situation
of London.
Health,
mortality,
&c.
LONDON.
It is difficult to assign any distinct boundaries to the
metropolis, as almost continuous lines of houses stretch
like branches from the main trunk of London, to Chiswick,
Ken sal Green, Kilburn, Hampstead, Highgate, Stamford
Hill and Upper Clapton in Middlesex; Stratford and
North Woolwich in Essex; Greenwich and Lee in Kent;
and Dulwich, Norwood, Clapham, Wandsworth, and Putney
in Surrey. These, too, are constantly increasing in length
and breadth; the vacant spaces between distant lines of
road being filled up with extraordinary rapidity. The circle
formed on a radius of 4 miles from Charing Cross excludes
a large portion of London ; but its extreme length may be
set down as 10 miles, and its breadth at about 6. There are
four divisions of the metropolis which, though rather vague, London,
are pretty generally understood by Londoners,—these are,
the City, the West End, Lambeth, and the Borough; the
two first on the Middlesex, and the others on the Surrey side
of the water. The city of London proper has an area of
725 acres, and contains 108 parishes,—97 within, and 11
without the w'alls. In its most limited sense, the metropolis
includes the cities of London and Westminster, the parlia¬
mentary boroughs of Tower Hamlets, Finsbury, Maryle-
bone, Lambeth, and Southwark. Annexed is an account
of the population of the various cities and boroughs above
mentioned, as ascertained by the different censuses, begin¬
ning with the first in 1801 :—
Cities and Boroughs.
London City 
Westminster ditto 
Tower Hamlets Borough.
Finsbury „
Marylebone „
Lambeth „
Southwark 
Total
156,859
158,210
184,568
134,616
97,642
49,886
94,813
876,594
1811.
120,909
162,085
237,487
167,130
126,566
76,806
103,763
994,746
1821.
125,434
182,085
291,650
201,731
174,354
108,565
123,663
1,207,482
1831.
122,863
201,842
357,246
259,123
240,294
160,563
134,117
1,476,048
120,702
219,930
419,730
265,043
287,465
197,412
142,620
1,652,902
1851.
127,869
241,611
539,111
323,772
370,957
251,345
172,863
2,027,528
The metropolitan district comprised within the bills of
mortality includes, with the cities and boroughs embraced
in the foregoing table, other integral parts of London, like
Chelsea, Brompton, and Kensington ; and the suburbs, such
as Greenwich, Wandsworth, Hammersmith, Putney, &c.
In this view, the area of the metropolis is 78,029 acres, com¬
prising 186 parishes, and the present population maybe
estimated at upwards of 2£ millions. Annexed is an account
of the population of this area at the date of each census,
commencing with 1801 :—
Years. Population.
1801  958,863
1811 1,138,815
1821 1,378,947
Years. Population.
1831 1,654,994
1841   1,948,417
1851 2,362,236
But many merchants and citizens, taking advantage of the
easy access to the country afforded by the railways, occupy
houses at such places as Kingston, Esher, Walton, Richmond,
Twickenham, Staines, Windsor, Reigate, Brighton, &c.,
making daily journeys to and from the city, so that they and
their families are not included in the foregoing account.
The situation of London, on the banks of a great tidal
river, is also peculiarly favourable for a large city, in a sani¬
tary point of view. The subsoil is partly clay (the London
clay of the geologist). The valley of the Thames has a
gradual ascent on the north side; and the south side,
though below the level of spring tides, has been well se¬
cured against inundations by embankments. The air is
temperate and rather dry than moist, and the health of the
inhabitants has gradually but rapidly improved from the
earlier part of last century, when the deaths were annually
one in twenty of the population, whereas at present they
are about one in forty.
It may therefore be safely affirmed that, in proportion to
its population, London is much more healthy than any other
great city. The registrar-general and Board of Health, how¬
ever, point outin their various reports to Parliament how much
more salubrious are some parts of the metropolis than others.
But London, comparatively healthy as it is, has been in times
past, and is still, occasionally visited by pestilence. The great
plague of 1665 and its ravages have already been mentioned;
but at that period open drains and filthy habits were the order
of the day. From the bills of mortality for 1665, it appears
that 97,306 burials took place, of which 68,596 were those
of victims to the plague ; while the total baptisms were 9967.
In 1854 there were 84,885 births and 73,697 deaths in
London ; but the rate of mortality in that year was greatly
increased by the cholera, no less than 11,661 persons having
died of that disease. This mortality from cholera, however,
large as it appears, was less than that of 1849; the deaths
in the latter being at the rate of 62, and in the former of
43 to every 10,000 persons living.
Annexed is a statement of the annual rate of mortality
per cent, in London and the whole of England during
each of the five years ending with 1854 :—•
Deaths to 100 Persons Living.
1850. 1851. 1852. 1853. 1854.
London 2-104 2-339 2258 2-435 2929
England 2-077 2-199 2 236 2-288 2-352
Fevers and pulmonary diseases are those most fatal in the
metropolis.
In 1851 there were in London 3149 independent gen-O^upa-
tlemen, and there were also 4674 male and 22,284 female *10n* of
. 7 Londoners,
annuitants.
We extract from the population returns of 1851 and sub¬
join a classified statement of persons, distinguishing their
sexes, employed in the chief trades and professions in the
metropolis:—
Trades and Professions. Males. Females. Total.
Bakers 11,580
Blacksmiths  7,807
Boatmen and bargemen  4,417
Booksellers, publishers, and bookbinders 5,285
Boot and shoe makers 30,855
Brewers  2,617
Bricklayers 13,919
Brush and broom makers  2,289
Butchers  9,586
Cabinetmakers and upholsterers  9,558
Carmen, carriers, and carters  8,656
Carpenters and joiners 23,453
Clerks (commercial) 16,420
Cheesemongers  2,715
Coachmakers (all branches)  4,948
Coal-heavers and labourers  4,020
Coopers    3,876
Curriers, tanners, and workers in leather 5,764
Dressmakers, milliners, and seamstresses ...
Drapers  7,466
Engine and machine makers  6,583
Fishmongers and fish-dealers  2,571
Gardeners  7,958
Greengrocers  3,885
Grocers and tea dealers  7,853
Hatters and hat manufacturers (all
branches)  3,326
Jewellers, goldsmiths, and silversmiths.. 5,388
Law clerks  5,670
Masons, paviours, and stone-cutters  4,578
543 12,123
23 7,830
4,417
293 5,578
7,158 38,013
2,617
13,919
1,205 3,494
9,586
1,451 11,009
41 8,697
23,453
16,420
2,715
81 5,029
... 4,020
3,876
219 5,983
65,138 65,138
958 8,424
9 6,592
157 2,728
692 8,650
980 4,865
698 8,551
1,227 4,553
287 5,675
5,670
4,578
LONDON.
661
London. Trades and Professions. Males.
m ; Merchants (general)   2,871
Milksellers and cow-keepers  3,938
Painters, plumbers, and glaziers 15,369
Plasterers  4,378
Porters, messengers, and errand-boys ....33,059
Printers 10,365
Saddlers, harness and collar makers  2,652
Seamen   11,857
Servants, domestic (general) 32,928
Shipwrights and shipbuilders  3,273
Silk manufacturers (all branches); see
also silk dyers  7,579
Stationers  2,389
Surgeons and other medical men (see
physicians)  5,079
Tailors 22,479
Tavern-keepers, publicans, and victuallers 6,912
Tobacconists, and tobacco and snuff ma¬
nufacturers  1,513
Warehousemen and women  3,988
Watchmakers  4,847
Females. Total.
7 2,878
1,262 5,200
15,369
4,378
262 33,321
10,365
94 2,746
11,857
165,195 198,123
3,273
8,372 15,951
490 2,879
5,079
8,292 30,771
979 7,891
478 1,991
84 4,072
4,847
Commerce. As one of the great occupations of its inhabitants, the com¬
merce of London demands the first notice. The capital of
a great empire, with immense wealth concentrated in it,
having easy access, both by land and water, to all parts of
the kingdom, and every facility of communication with
foreign countries, London has become, with perhaps the
single exception of New York, the greatest commercial
city in the world.
Thames. The commercial growth and prosperity of London are
especially to be ascribed to its great river-port, the Thames.
This famous stream has its source within the borders of
Gloucestershire, a little to the S.W. of Cirencester, and
becomes navigable at Lechlade, 138 miles above London.
It is first affected by the tide about 15 miles above the
metropolis; but before reaching this point, it is swollen by
junction with the Isis, Kennet, Coin, and Wey. The city
corporation are the chief conservators of the river, and ap¬
point a navigation committee, who superintend the towing-
paths, bridges, water-courses, and whatever relates to the
river, as far as a stone a little above Staines Bridge. Higher
up, the supervision is divided between the city and a body
chiefly composed of the landowners on both sides of the
river.
The conservation of the river below London is also in
some measure under the government of the City Corpora¬
tion, but the Trinity House has concurrent jurisdiction, and
no ballast can be raised without its authority. The appoint¬
ment and control of pilots, the placing and repairs of land¬
marks and buoys to indicate the channels, and the establish¬
ment of floating lights, are also under the superintendence
of the Trinity House. Close to London Bridge there is
water sufficient for vessels of 800 tons burthen, and the
legislature has placed the shipping of the port and their
moorings under the direction of the harbour-masters nomi¬
nated by the corporation, and approved by the Trinity House.
Navigation The sinuosities, currents, and shoals in the river, and its
river6 varying depth, render the navigation rather intricate. The
river pilots, who are a distinct class, conduct vessels to
Gravesend, where they are relieved by the sea pilots.
Down to 1800, the commerce of London and the ship¬
ping interest suffered materially from the crowded state of
the river, and the difficulties, delays, and abuses, con¬
nected with the berthing and mooring of vessels, and the
landing and storing of merchandise. These evils led to the
construction of the West India Docks, which were opened
in August 1802.
West India These, next to the Commercial Docks, the oldest in
London, were formed in the gorge of the Isle of Dogs, on
the Middlesex side of the river. They comprise an import
and an export dock (communicating with the river at Black-
wall and Limehouse), and a dock of nineteen acres for
bended timber.
The export dock, occupies about twenty-five, and the London,
import dock thirty acres. The gates are forty-five feet
wide, and admit vessels of 1200 tons. At the highest
spring-tides the water is 24 feet deep; and within the docks
there is sufficient space for 600 vessels of from 250 to 600
tons. The import and export docks are parallel to each
other, but divided by stacks of warehouses. There are
sheds for sheltering the goods; and the chief warehouses are
capable of storing 170,000 hhds. of sugar, besides coffee
and other tropical productions. The whole space occupied
by these docks and warehouses is 295 acres.
The East India Docks at Blackwall now belong to, and East India
are managed by the same company as the West India docks.
Docks. They were commenced in 1803, finished in 1806,
and were intended to accommodate the trade of the East
India Company. They include an import basin of eighteen
acres, an export basin of about nine, and an entrance basin
of 2f acres. The entrance lock is 210 feet wide, the width
of the gates 48 feet, and the depth of water in the docks is
never less than 23 feet. The extent of warehouse-room at
these docks is comparatively small. The East and West
India Docks are well inclosed and guarded, and the buildings
are fireproof.
The London Docks, situate between Ratcliff Highway London
and the Thames, were begun in June 1802, and opened in docks.
January 1805. They consist of two docks; the western
covering twenty acres, and the eastern about seven acres.
The latter is entered from Shadwell, and the former near
Wapping Old Stairs, and also at the Hermitage. The
whole can receive 500 vessels of from 200 to 800 tons.
The entire space inclosed is seventy-one acres. The ware¬
houses are very fine ; the most extraordinary being that for
bonded tobacco. The roof and pillars supporting it are of
iron, and the whole building covers five acres of land, and
is capable of containing 24,000 hhds.
The company is governed by a body of directors, of whom
the lord mayor is one. The regulations to prevent fire
and pilfering are as effectual as in the East and West India
Docks.
St Katharine’s Docks, situate between the London St Katha-
Docks and the Tower, were executed in a year and a half, rine’s
and first opened in October 1828. The whole extent ofdock8,
the property is twenty-four acres, of which nearly one-half
is included in the two docks, communicating by a basin.
The entrance lock, near Irongate Wharf, is 180 feet long,
and 45 feet broad, and admits ships of from 200 to 800
tons. The warehouses are very large and commodious,
and the regulations and charges are similar to those of the
other docks.
Victoria Docks, the last constructed, were completed in Victoria
1855. They are situate in the Plaistow Marshes, imme- dock8<
diately below the East and West India Docks. The por¬
tion of this property appropriated by the Dock Company
for their own purposes is about 200 acres, but the dock
itself occupies but seventy-four, and affords 23£ feet depth
of water. The entrance lock at Bow Creek is 300 leet
long, and 80 wide. There is a half-tide basin of sixteen
acres; and the available warehouse floor is stated to be up¬
wards of eleven acres. The company have also acquired
about an acre and a half between Thames Street and the
river for the erection of an up-town warehouse. One
object of the company is to withdraw from the Thames a
portion of the large fleet of colliers which lie at anchor in
the Pool, and seriously obstruct the traffic on the river.
On the other bank of the Thames, extending along the Commer-
side of the river opposite Limehouse, and terminating nearly cial Jocks,
opposite the entrance to the West India Docks, are the
Commercial, formerly the Greenland Docks, which existed
in the seventeenth century. They are now of great extent,
inclosing 120 acres, of which seventy are water, and were
designed to receive vessels laden with timber, corn, and
*
662
LONDON.
London, other commodities more bulky than costly. These docks
are entered by a basin near Dog-and-Duck Stairs, some¬
times called the East Country Docks, and the main body of
the water within is divided into six unequal parts.
Parallel to these is the Surrey Canal, having an inner
and outer dock at its entrance in Rotherhithe, by which
ships are received, and affording communication with the
Croydon Canal.
The Regent’s Canal was formed to save expense of cart¬
age through London of articles brought by sea, and after¬
wards forwarded for consumption to the N.W. parts of the
metropolis; and also to communicate with the Grand Junc¬
tion Canal. The Regent’s Canal passes from Paddington
by a tunnel under Maida Hill to the Regent’s Park, thence
to Islington, under which it is carried by a tunnel three-
quarters of a mile in length, and so on to Hoxton, Hackney,
and Limehouse. It is 9 miles long, and is provided with
twelve large locks.
It is not easy, within a moderate compass, to give even a
sketch of the foreign commerce of London. It would be
an epitome of that of the world. To the British capital
are brought the products, natural and artificial, of all soils
and all climates. It has in store whatever the ingenuity
and industry of man in any part of the globe can spare to
exchange for what his own country does not yield. We can,
therefore, do little more than state the number and size of
the vessels that belong to and frequent the port, and the
value of the produce and manufactures of the United King¬
dom exported from the same.
Account of the Number and Tonnage of Vessels belonging
to the Port of London on Z\st December 1855.
Description of Vessels.
Sailing vessels
Steamers 
Total.
Under 50 Tons.
Vessels.
617
132
749
Tons.
21,303
4,327
25,630
Above 50 Tons.
Vessels.
1,870
405
2,275
Tons.
663,899
163,406
827,305
Account of the Number and Tonnage of Vessels which have
entered the Port of London from Foreign Countries and
the Colonies, in each of the Jive years ending with 1855.
Years. Vessels. Tonnage. Years. Vessels.
1851  10,341 2,170,322 1854  10,943
1852   9,986 2,160,157 1855  9,770
Tonnage.
2,667,823
2,420,586
1853 11,763 2,594,1
Account of the Number and Tonnage of Coasting Vessels
that entered the Port of London in 1855, distinguishing
British from Foreign.
Description of Vessels.
Sailing vessels.
Steamers 
Total.
British.
Vessels.
17,729
1,297
19,026
Tonnage.
2,438,873
411,444
2,850,317
Foreign.
Vessels.
13
1
14
Ttnnage.
1,801
105
1,906
The conveyance of coals to London employs a great deal
of shipping. They are chiefly brought from the north¬
eastern district of the kingdom, and are sold at the New
Coal Exchange, lately erected in Lower Thames Street.
Account of the Number of Ships laden with Coal which
entered the Port of London in each Year from 1845 to
1855 inclusive.
Years. Ships.
1849  12,074
1850  12,633
1851  11,765
1852  12,035
Very huge quantities of coals now reach London by means
ot the railways which centre in the metropolis.
Years. Ships.
1845  11,987
1846  10,488
1847  11,911
1848  12,267
Years. Ships.
1853  12,111
1854  11,857
1855  10,734
Declared Value of British and Irish Produce and Manu- London.
factures exported from London to Foreign Countries and
the Colonies in 1855 and 1856.
1855  L.20,915,512
1856     25,966,033
The commercial institutions of London are well adapted Institu-
for business by their localities and regulations. The first ti°ns.
object of importance to every ship, on its arrival in port, is
the custom-house.
The present custom-house, opened in May 1817, stands Custom-
in Lower 1 hames Street, with its principal and imposing house,
front, 480 feet long, towards the river, and occupies the site '
of a similar but smaller one destroyed by fire in 1814, as
a preceding one had been in 1718.
The long room is a noble apartment, 186 feet long, 60
broad, and of an appropriate height, with desks on each side
for the several officers; the centre being left for such of the
public as have business there. The other parts are distri¬
buted so as to suit the several branches of the office.
The London customs establishment of clerks, tide-waiters,
&c., amounted in 1856 to 2167 ; though, as but 1620 were
required for all the other English ports, it would seem as if
the numbers here were excessive.
Amount of Customs Duties collected in the Port of London
in 1855 and 1856.
1855  L.11,525,125
1856  12,287,519
The Society of the Trinity House has its chief establish-Trinity
ment in a large and handsome house on Tower Hill,house-
built by Wyatt in 1793. It was incorporated in 1815; but
from the terms of its charter, it evidently had a previous ex¬
istence, and was then established at Deptford Stroud. Its
privileges were confirmed by the charter of 1658, and its
members are now partly men of high rank, and partly those
remarkable for naval knowledge and skill in maritime af¬
fairs. Its duties as to pilots, lighthouses, buoys, ballast,
&c., have already been mentioned. In process of time this
society acquired large property; the net revenue under its
management having, in 1855, amounted to L.204,195.
Until the passing of the act 13th and 17th Vic., c. 131, the
society spent much of its surplus revenue in pensions to
poor and disabled seamen or their widows and orphans;
but this act transfers their revenue, as well as the charge
for maintaining lighthouses, &c., to the Mercantile Marine
Fund. It would appear, from a parliamentary paper lately
published, that the Board of Trade expended in 1856 out
of this fund L.1388 as rewards for the salvage of life.
The Trinity House contains some portraits of naval
heroes, naval trophies, &c.
The Royal Mint, also on Tower Hill, was removed Mint,
thither from the Tower in 1811. The present building,
which is extensive and well suited to its purpose, was com¬
pleted under the direction of Sir R. Smirke. The interior
is appropriately arranged for the manufacture of coin ; and
the machinery combines great ingenuity and beauty. In
consequence of the report of a commission in 1849, the old
company of moneyers was abolished, and a scientific chief
has since been allotted to this department, instead of a
political one.
The amount of gold, silver, and copper money coined
here in the last three years has been as follows:—
Account of the Total Value of Gold, Silver, and Copper
coined at the Mint in each of the Three Years ending
with 1856.
Year.
1854.
1855.
1856.
Total.
Gold.
L.4,152,183
9,008,663
6,002,114
19,162,960
Silver.
L.140,480
195,511
462,528
798,519
Copper.
L.60,866
41,091
11,418
113,375
Total.
L.4,353,529
9,245,265
6,476,060
20,074,854
LONDON.
663
London.
Bank of
England.
Banks.
Royal Ex¬
change.
Stock Ex¬
change.
Manufac¬
tures.
The Bank of England, one of the most attractive objects
in the city, was founded by act of parliament in 1694, and
its business was carried on for many years at Grocers’ Hall.
In 1733 it was transferred to Threadneedle Street, and soon
thereafter the present hall and bullion office were opened.
Between 1770 and 1788 the facade was extended, and two
wings added, under the directions of Sir Robert Taylor and
Sir John Soane. Under the superintendence of the latter,
the front and wings of the original structure were harmo¬
nized. The area of the bank is an irregular quadrangle;
the south or principal front is 365 feet, and the north 410;
the east 245 feet, and the west 440. Its principal entrance
is from Threadneedle Street, the other two from Bartho¬
lomew Lane and Lothbury. The interior contains several
open courts, the rotunda, or circular room, numerous offices,
committee-rooms, and private apartments for the residence
of officers and servants. The business is carried on by a
staff of about 800 clerks, See., whose salaries amount to
nearly L.200,000. The bank has received nine successive
renewals of its charter since it was first granted in 1694, and
measures have been taken in parliament this session (the
first of 1857) for again renewing it.
The act of 1844, still in force, separated the Bank into
two distinct branches, viz.,— 1. The Issue Department, de¬
voted to its business as agent of the state in creating and
issuing paper money, or bank-notes, convertible into gold on
demand; and, 2. The Banking Department, where the pri¬
vate business of deposit and discount is carried on. (For
an account of the Bank of England, see Paper Money.)
There are sixty private and twenty-eight joint-stock
banks in the metropolis. Some few of the former, such
as Child’s, in Fleet Street, were established before the end
of the seventeenth century ; while the joint-stock banks are
all the offspring of the last few years. There is an estab¬
lishment near Lombard Street called the Clearing House,
where a daily exchange of cheques or drafts on city bankers
is effected, and this process tends greatly to facilitate
banking business.
The Royal Exchange, colossal in proportions, and occu¬
pying a commanding position between the Bank of England
and Cornhill, is a spot where great mercantile transactions
are daily concluded. The first exchange was built by Sir
Thomas Gresham, completed in 1567, but destroyed by the
great fire of 1666. It was, however, speedily rebuilt, and
was opened on 28th September 1669. Again destroyed by
fire in 1838, it was rebuilt, and completed in 1846 by Mr
Tite. The present building is quadrangular, and the inte¬
rior surrounded by arcades. In the centre, which is un¬
covered and unprotected from the weather, stands a statue
of Her Majesty by Lough. The outside of the building,
except the grand western entrance, is occupied by small
shops; and on the upper floor is Lloyd’s, where the busi¬
ness of marine insurance is conducted by underwriters.
It has been estimated that, on an average, 200,000 persons
daily visit the exchange, but this can be little more than
conjecture. Merchants and brokers resort much to coffee¬
houses in the vicinity of the Exchange for the transaction
of business.
Most of the larger transactions are negotiated by brokers,
who in general confine themselves to one branch of trade,
with which they are thoroughly acquainted. Thus we have
colonial brokers, insurance brokers, ship brokers, stock
brokers, bill or money brokers, &c.
Near the Royal Exchange and the Bank is the Stock
Exchange, where real and fictitious sales are made of pro¬
perty in the public funds, &c.; the latter for the most part
being a species of gambling.
London, when compared with some of the towns in the
north and west of England, can scarcely be called a manufac¬
turing place; yet the various articles produced here employ
many thousand persons. The silk manufacture especially
employs a large number of hands. Originally introduced London,
by French Protestant refugees, many of their descendants
still continue the trade, which employed, in 1851, 15,764
persons, of whom 8277 were females.
The manufacture of London porter and beer is a much
more lucrative business, but a London brew'ery requires a
very large capital. Sugar-refining and clock and watch
making also prevail to a considerable extent, the latter chiefly
in a district called Clerkenwell. London-built carriages
are generally considered the best, as they are undoubtedly
the most elegant in the world. London enjoys a high
reputation for the manufacture of numerous smaller articles,
such as mathematical, surgical, and musical instruments,
jewellery of the superior kinds, gold and silver plate, &c.
The great number of those employed in house-building
proves that the metropolis is still rapidly extending; and
though this business received a severe check during the
late war with Russia, it was only temporary, as evinced by
the general resumption of building in the various outskirts
of London.
The shops in London are, generally speaking, well Shops and
managed, and many of them are handsomely fitted up, bazaars,
especially those in Bond Street, Regent Street, and Oxford
Street. The wholesale shops or warehouses are chiefly to
be found in the city; the retail shops, particularly those on
a large scale, being more general in the west or fashion¬
able end of the metropolis. The bazaars in London, each
of which forms an aggregation of shops or stalls, are not
now so attractive as they once were. They deal mostly in
fancy goods, furniture, toys, &c. The four great establish¬
ments of the kind are those in Soho Square and Baker
Street, the Pantheon in Oxford Street, and the Pantechni¬
con in Halkin Street, Belgrave Square. The Burlington
and Lowther Arcades contain many shops for the sale of the
like commodities.
Table showing the Area in square miles, and the Popula¬
tion, of the Metropolis, the Number of Houses therein,
and the Number of Families occupying the same in
1851.
Divisions.
PartinMiddlesex
Part in Surrey..
Part in Kent 
Total.
122
Houses.
Inha¬
bited.
213,279
72,344
20,310
305,933
Uninha¬
bited.
10,613
4,524
1,506
16,643
Build
ing.
3,046
1,160
609
4,815
395,703
110,027
27,850
533,580
Popula¬
tion.
1,745,601
482,435
134,202
2,362,238
Account showing the Number of Persons over 20 years of
age in the Metropolis in 1851, distinguishing the Mar¬
ried from the Unmarried.
Sexes.
Of the age of 20 Years and Upwards.
Total.
Bachelors
and
Spinsters.
Husbands
and
Wives.
Widowers
and
Widows.
Males ..
Females
632,545
762,418
196,857
246,124
398,624 37,064
406,266 110,028
In 1851 there were, as above stated, 305,933 inhabited IIouses in
houses in London. These for the most part are built 0fIj0n<ion-
brick, though many of the private houses externally, such
as those of the Duke of Sutherland, Lords Ellesmere and
Spencer in the Green Park; the Duke of Wellington in
Piccadilly, Lord Lansdowne in Berkeley Square, and Mr
Llolford in Park Lane, are either built of or faced with
stone. But it is now very much the practice to cover the
664
LONDON.
London, brick fronts of houses with plaster or cement in imitation of
^ t ^ stone; and though fastidious critics object to the fictitious
character thus imparted to them, there can be no doubt that
its effect is very good. Admirable specimens of this work
may be seen in the magnificent facade of Carlton Gardens
towards St James’s Park, in Belgrave Square, Albert and
Prince’s Gates, Hyde Park, &c.
The upper class live principally in that part of London
west of Regent Street, consisting chiefly of St James’s,
Berkeley, Hanover, Cavendish, Portman, Grosvenor, Bel-
grave, and Eaton Squares, and Park Lane, with the clusters
of streets around them. This class, composed in great part
of members of the legislature and their families and con¬
nections, and forming as a whole what is called the fashion¬
able world, are resident in London for but the smaller por¬
tion of the year. Arriving in time for the beginning of the
parliamentary session in February, they desert London at
its termination in the end of July.
The middle class are scattered over all parts of the
metropolis: their business being carried on for the most
part in the districts east of Regent Street, they become
migratory in the afternoon, some seeking the suburbs, and
others living in the squares, terraces, and streets in such
districts as Pimlico, Brompton, Bayswater, Portland Town,
Camden Town, Holloway, Hackney, Peckham, Camber¬
well, Brixton, Clapham, &c. In the domestic arrange¬
ments of this class, speaking generally, the chief object is
comfort; and this is the prevailing characteristic in the
dwellings of merchants, tradesmen, and professional men of
the metropolis.
The abodes of the poorer classes descend very rapidly in
the scale from comparative comfort to downright misery.
The skilled operative may manage to have a house of his
own, but the more ordinary operative or the labourer must
content himself with a lodging. These classes are pent
up for the most part in such districts as Whitechapel, Beth¬
nal Green, Southwark, Lambeth, Westminster, Chelsea,
Paddington, Marylebone, St Giles, &c. It appears, from
Mr Glover’s Report on the Lodging-houses of London
(January 1855), that there were then 10,284 common lodg¬
ing-houses, more or less under the superintendence of the
police—the estimated population of the same being 82,000.
These are, of course, of the very lowest description,—miser¬
able hovels,—yet much improved under the operation of the
act of 1851 for their better regulation. Several benevo¬
lent societies, such as the Metropolitan Association for Im¬
proving the Dwellings of the Industrious Classes, are strug¬
gling to introduce a better taste among the poor, by build¬
ing model lodging-houses for their use; but their utmost
efforts must be quite inadequate to meet the requirements
of the numbers whom they wish to serve.
In the London Post-Office Directory for 1857 are given
the addresses of no less than 387 licensed hotels and taverns,
and forty-three private hotels. The great hotels, such as
the Clarendon, Mivart’s, &c., are situate chiefly in the west
end of London; and those at the stations of the Great
Western, North-Western, and Great Northern Railways,
are on a gigantic scale. Comfortable commercial hotels are
scattered in great abundance throughout the other parts of
the metropolis ; and the old-fashioned inns are disappearing
fast, or adopting the improvements and conveniences of
the day.
The beer and gin shops are very numerous, the proprie¬
tors of such establishments numbering, in 1851, 7891.
Large numbers of the working-classes dine in the beer-
shops.
It is difficult to form even a conjectural estimate of the
consumption of each description of food in London. But
calculating that, on the average, 3d. per diem for food be
expended for each of the two and a half millions of inhabi¬
tants, the annual expenditure of its population under this head
will amount to L.l 1,406,250. The great provision market8 London,
of London are ten in number, of which Mark Lane is confined
to corn, the New Cattle Market at Holloway is the substi¬
tute for Smithfield Market lately suppressed, Billingsgate
Market that for fish, Covent Garden that for fruit and
vegetables, Leadenhall the principal one for poultry; and
Newgate Market is chiefly for butchers’ meat; the remain¬
ing five being of a more miscellaneous character. There
are also numerous markets on a smaller scale. From these
various sources the retail dealers and shopkeepers draw
their supplies and distribute them to the inhabitants.
From different quarters we have gleaned the following
estimates of the annual consumption of certain articles of
London food. All, however, may be considered applicable
to the period of the last census in 1851:—
Wheat   1,600,000 quarters.
Bullocks   240,000 head.
Sheep   1,700,000 „
Calves    28,000 „
Pigs    35,000 „
Exclusive of large quantities of bacon and ham.
Poultry  3,748,000 head.
Game, &c  1,807,000 „
Fish, wet and dry, of which more
than half were herrings 450,180,900 lb.
Oysters  309,935 barrels.
Potatoes 310,464,000 lb.
Cabbages  89,672,000 „
Onions  1,489,600 „
Apples  725,500 bushels.
Foreign eggs  about 75,000,000
Milk, the produce of  13,000 cows.
Although London is supplied with many excellent springs Water,
of fresh water, they proved, centuries ago, quite inadequate
to the wants of the citizens. As already mentioned, con¬
duits were then adopted as a substitute. The first effort to
supply water on a great scale was made in 1608 by Sir
Hugh Myddelton,—a spirited citizen, who undertook, at his
own risk, to convey a river of fresh and good water to the
city. From this we may presume that in Myddelton’s
time the Thames no longer merited the eulogy of Stowe,
that its “ water was as cleere as that of the sea.” In 1613
the River Lea water was let into the basin at the New River
head at Islington, and thence, at the present day, the New
River Company, with increased means, transmit the water
through pipes to the houses, &c., supplied by them.
At present there are in all nine metropolitan water com¬
panies ; but their supplies were much complained of as in¬
sufficient and unwholesome, especially during the preva¬
lence of cholera in 1832, 1849, and 1854. Remedies have,
as will be seen from the annexed table, been applied to the
first of these evils, and there is now abundance for domestic
purposes, besides a sufficient quantity from the street plugs
for flushing the sewers regularly, and supplying the engines
in cases of fire.
Thus, while 270,581 houses were daily supplied in 1850
with 44,383,332 gallons, it will be seen by the annexed
statement that no less than 81,025,842 gallons were daily
furnished in 1856 to 328,561 houses, leaving only about
12,000 houses unprovided by the water companies, within
the bills of mortality. Great progress has also of late been
made in providing a purer supply.
In consequence of the act of 1852, all water now drawn
from the Thames for human consumption is taken at some
point beyond the influence of the tidal wave, and so un¬
tainted by the impurities of London sewers. The result of a
series of analyses of the water supplied by the various com¬
panies previous and subsequent to 1852, has been published
by the Board of Health. From it we gather that the organic
matter now contained in the water is comparatively trifling.
The establishment of public baths and wash-houses in
various parts of the metropolis is an important improve¬
ment of recent date.
LONDON.
665
London. Table showing the Extent of the Metropolis Water Supply
in ] 856, taken from Parliamentary Returns, prepared
by the Board of Health.
List of Metropolis
Water Companies.
New River 
East London...
Southwark &
Vauxhall....
Lambeth 
West Middle¬
sex  
Chelsea 
Grand Junc¬
tion 
Kent 
Hampstead....
Plumstead &
Woolwich...
Sources of Supply.
River Lea, Chalk
Springs, &c....
River Lea 
River Thames, at
Hampton 
River Thames, at
Thames Ditton
River Thames, at
Hampton 
River Thames,
at Seething
Wells 
River Thames,
at Hampton...
River Ravens-
bourne 
Ponds and Chalk
Well 
Chalk Well.
Totals.
No. of
Houses
supplied
95,083
70,000
41,529
28,541
25,732
25,030
17,221
16,077
6,348
3,000
328,561
Gross Quan¬
tity supplied
per Day.
Gallons.
25,000,000
16,000,000
10,331,122
6,109,000
6,895,368
5,323,000
6,714,292
3,500,000
603,060
550,000
81,025,842
Length of
Mains and
Branches.
Miles.
400to 500
say 450
331
432
206
178
198J
117
124
33*
16
2,086
London
porter.
Fuel.
Light-
The average daily supply which, in 1854, was 164 gal¬
lons per house, amounted in 1856 to 246 gallons. The
annual supply in the latter year would therefore exceed
29,574,432,000 gallons.
The liquid in London next in importance to water is porter
or beer,—a malt liquor of great repute, and looked upon by
the major part of the middle and lower classes as a neces¬
sary of life. The breweries where this beverage is pro¬
duced are the largest manufacturing establishments in the
metropolis; and the capital necessary for the maintenance
of one of them, with its necessary appendages, such as
public-houses for the sale of the porter, drays, horses, &c.,
is enormous. To give some notion of the extent to which
this business is carried, we subjoin a table (the materials
for which are borrowed from M‘Culloch’s Commercial Dic¬
tionary), showing the quantity of malt brewed in 1852 by
each of the fourteen largest houses in London :—
Quarters.
Barclay and Co  112,494
Truman, Hanbury, and
Co  124,416
Meux and Co  66,296
Reid and Co  60,100
Whitbread and Co.... 53,236
Combe and Co  47,304
Elliott and Co  36,222
Quarters-
Hoare and Co  33,769
Calvert and Co  32,310
Mann and Co  30,881
Charrington and Co... 26,366
Taylor and Co  17,660
Goding and Co  16,959
Courage and Co  16,014
The fuel used in London is almost exclusively coal. An¬
nexed is an account of the quantities brought into London
in 1851 and 1852, distinguishing the quantities sea-borne
from those conveyed by railways and canals :—
Coastwise. Inla£adndaclfrS.an<i Total.
1851  3,236,542 tons 254,421 tons. 3,490,963 tons.
1852  3,330,428 ... 414,917 ... 3,745,345 ...
Of course the consumption is materially affected by the
severity or moderation of the winter season.
Ihe general introduction of gas about 1820 wrought
quite a revolution in the lighting of London ; and unques¬
tionably this city, as a whole, is better lighted than any
other metropolis. There are in all sixteen gas companies,
which share among them the business of supplying light of
this kind to the street lamps, shops, and houses of the me¬
tropolis ; and the estimated annual consumption in that
way is about 6,000,000,000 or 7,000,000,000 cubic feet. It
would be impossible to make any similar calculation with
vol. xm.
regard to the consumption of candles, oil, &c. It may be London,
added, that the use of gas in London for domestic purposes v—
is not by any means universal, on account of its greater im¬
purity here than in such places as Liverpool and Edinburgh.
Perhaps nothing proves more decidedly that the pruden- Savings
tial principle is strong among the middle and lower classes banks,
of London than their extensive use of savings banks. The
annexed table shows the number of depositors in the
metropolitan establishments of this kind, and the amount
of their deposits in 1854.
Number of Depositors in London Savings Banks on 20th
November 1854.
In Savings Banks in-
Part of Metropolis in Middlesex
Do. do. Surrey 
Do. do. Kent 
Total.
Number of
Open
Accounts.
226,128
27,083
5,883
259,094
Total Amount
due to
Depositors.
£ s. d.
4,997,150 11 1
539,325 10 2
160,704 1 2
5,697,180 2 5
The first life insurance society in England was esta- Life insu-
blished here in 1766; and there are now (1857) no less than rance-
225 insurance offices in London, of which upwards of
200 undertake the insurance of life. But it is not to be
supposed that all these offices are equally trustworthy.
The number of new offices that are projected every year,
and the number that regularly expire within a similar
period is convincing evidence that this business, if not over¬
done, is mismanaged, or tampered with to a considerable
extent.
Remarkable as London is for its wealth, it has a large Paupers,
pauper population, necessarily a burden on their richer
brethren. It will be seen by the following table that no
less than 77,963 persons were in the various poor-law
unions and other workhouses in the metropolis during the
year ended 25th March 1856.
Table showing the Number of Paupers admitted into the
Poor Law Union and other Workhouses of the Metro¬
polis in the Year ended 25th March 1856, and the Num¬
ber receiving Medical Treatment therein, and the Mor¬
tality during the same period.
Union Workhouses.
Number of
Paupers
admitted.
Number
under
Medical
Treatment.
Deaths.
Part in Middlesex ex-1
elusive of St Pancras V
Parish* )
Surrey 
Kent  
61,768
14,428
1,767
31,075
5,084
1,534
3889
1101
263
Total
77,963
37,693
5253
* No return made to Parliament by this parish.
The amounts received from poor-rates in the metropolis,
and expended for the relief of the poor, in the years 1855
and 1856, were as follows :—
1855. 1856.
Total amounts received from poor-rates L.1,250,737 L.l,360,464
  expended for relief of poor  841,302 875,264
From other sources, such as alms-houses, soup-kitchens,
and the miscellaneous charities with which London abounds,
many poor people derive the means of existence, either
wholly or partially; and an army of street beggars, of whom
the majority are impostors, trade too successfully on the
credulity of the benevolent. The Mendicity Society has
done good service in exposing and punishing many of these
cheats, but their business is too profitable to be easily sur¬
rendered.
4p
666
LONDON.
London. Taken as a body, the people of this great city are re-
v—markable for their love of order; yet the amount of de-
Criminals. moralization and crime is very large, though perhaps not
out of proportion to the population and the temptation that
exists in such a place to breach of the law. It is stated in
the population tables for 1851, that there are in London
upwards of 13,000 males and 18,000 females who have no
stated occupation or ostensible means of existence, or, in
other words, who live by malpractices. And the annexed
account, applicable to 1856, will throw some light on the
nature and probable frequency of the crimes and misde¬
meanours that are most prevalent among them:—
Kature of Offences.
Offences against the person ..,
Offences against property, l
with violence J
Offences against property,)
without violence  }
Malicious offences against 1
property /
Forgery and offences against 1
the currency J
Other offences 
Total
1
■2 oS c3
S « *
j a
.3 O ^ ? O
10,489
398
20,345
2,686
1,319
38,003
73,240
© C'S.S
■2 OS'S
c C 0,o ’
= !
E
6,314
8,659
1,742
16,736
33,451
£ 5
? C O
© r
*• 4-J >-<
162
307
1856
6
237
19
2587
Of the 73,240 persons taken into custody in 1856,45,941 London,
were males, and 27,299 females. Out of these large
numbers but 375 males and 6 females are distinguished as
having received superior instruction, while 8332 males and
7150 females could neither read nor write. Another por¬
tion, viz., 33,946 males and 19,594 females, either could
read and were unable to write, or could read and write but
imperfectly. The remaining 3288 males and 549 females
were capable of reading and writing with facility. Among
the 258 7 who were convicted and sentenced by the supe¬
rior courts, only 15 were found to belong to the better edu¬
cated class. Thus, we may safely infer that a liberal ex¬
tension of education to the poorer classes will operate in an
inverse ratio on crime, and prove to some extent an econo¬
mical measure. In farther confirmation of this conclusion,
we may refer to the good already resulting from the esta¬
blishment of metropolitan ragged schools, for those attend¬
ing them are chiefly drawn from the class whose occupations
go so far to swell the list of crimes and misdemeanours.
The number of churches in London has increased rapidly Religious
within the present century. Thus we find that the Church worship
Building Commission had, in the interval between its for- and ia'
mation in 1818 and 1856, when it merged in the Eccle- fctructl' ••
siastical Commission, built wholly or partly no less than
123 in the metropolis, and private endowments have been
numerous within the same interval. Yet it will be seen
by the annexed table, that for the population of London,
2,362,236 in 1851, there were at that time sittings (includ¬
ing places of worship of every kind) for but 700,000 or
thereby.
* This account does not include offences committed within the city.
Table showing the Amount of Church Accommodation of all kinds in London on Sunday, 2>0lh March 1851,/or its Po¬
pulation q/n2,362,236 ; and the Number of Persons who attended Public Worship on that Day:—
P laces of Worship belonging tc—
/hurch of England 
Rritish Protestant Dissenters.. .
Foreign Protestants 
Roman Catholics   
Other Christian sects   
Jews   
Total.
458
554
9
35
30
11
1097
Sittings.4
409,834
250,970
3,002
18,230
5,995
3,692
691,723 469,168
Number of Persons Attending
Public Worship.f
Morning.
261,246
165,750
1,300
35,994
3,226
1,472
Afternoon. Evening.
76,666
16,690
220
4,660
2,080
539
100,855
157,135
137,799
160
14,394
3,015
813
313,316
Places of Worship.
Morn¬
ing.
434
510
9
35
29
11
1028
After¬
noon.
230
148
1
15
24
6
424
Even¬
ing.
312
502
3
28
26
9
880
* Number of sittings not returned for thirty-five places of worship,
t Number of attendants not returned for fifty-three places of worship.
Sittings Available.
Morning. Afternoon,
406,644
245,284
3,002
18,230
5,845
3,692
682,697
225,864
77,096
1,202
8,992
4,240
2,637
320,031
Evening.
325,343
237,769
780
13.670
4,940
2,897
585,399
There are numerous societies in London for the promo¬
tion of religious knowledge and morality. The chief of
these are,—the Society for Promoting Christian Know-
ledge, founded 1698; the British and Foreign Bible So¬
ciety, established in 1804, and encouraged by all religious
denominations; the Society for Propagating the Gospel
in Foreign Parts, established in 1701 ; the Religious Tract
Society, instituted in 1799; the London Missionary So¬
ciety, and the Church Missionary Society,—the former com¬
mencing its labours in 1795, and the latter in 1799.
Table showing the Number of Sunday Schools in the Metro¬
polis in 1851, and the Number of Scholars attending the
same; distinguishing the Religious Denominations under
which they are maintained.
The education of the people has at length assumed its Educntb'
proper importance in the eyes of the public, and a minister
of education has this year (1857) for the first time taken
his seat in the House of Commons. It will be seen by the
annexed table that there are in London 863 public and 3698
private day schools, exclusive of Sunday schools :—
Table showing the Number of Day Schools in the Metropolis
and attendant Scholars therein in 1851, distinguishing
Prim tefrom Public Schools, and the means by which the
latter are supported.
Description of Schools.
Denomination by which they
are supported.
Church of England 
Protestant Dissenters 
Roman Catholics 
Congregations undefined
Unitarians 
Total Sunday Schools...
5-3
259
373
5
61
3
701
Number of Scholars.
Male.
24,350
35,897
419
5,059
188
65,913
Female.
24,823
42,784
400
4,520
160
72,687
Both
Sexes.
49,173
78,681
819
9,579
348
138,600
Public schools supported 1
by taxation J
Public schools supported 1
by endowments J
Public schools supported 1
by religious bodies..,. J
Other public schools 
Total public day schools
Private day schools 
Total day schools 
i°.§
41
99
581
142
863
3698
4561
Number of Scholars.
Males.
4,768
11,225
68,543
13,139
97,675
43,198
140,873
Females.
2,213
4,803
51,326
11,281
69,623
43,743
113,366
6,981
16,028
119,869
24,420
167,298
86,941
254,239
LON
London. Yet the cost of education here is heavy, and a great many
^ schools are but indifferently conducted. It would, how¬
ever, be preposterous to attempt here any general descrip¬
tion of those establishments, and it will suffice to allude
shortly to those institutions connected with education
which are of the highest degree, or that boast of great an¬
tiquity, wealth, or usefulness.
The University of London, established in 1836, consists
of a body of government examiners, empowered, after due
examination, to grant degrees in arts, law, and medicine, to
the graduates of University and King’s Colleges in London,
and to several other proprietary establishments of a similar
kind. The senate consists of upwards of thirty members,
having a chancellor and vice-chancellor, and the business
of the board, and the examinations at stated periods, are
conducted in Burlington House, Piccadilly.
Schools of anatomy were first instituted in the metropolis
about 1720, and now medical and surgical schools are
attached to all the great London hospitals. Lectures are
delivered during the winter by men distinguished in the
profession, and the extensive and varied practice of the hos¬
pitals is thus combined with theoretical study. Examina¬
tions for licenses or diplomas to practise medicine are con¬
ducted by the College of Physicians in Pall Mall, and simi¬
lar examinations with regard to surgery take place in the
College of Surgeons in Lincoln’s Inn Fields.
In May 1855, by order in council, a government commis¬
sion was established for testing the fitness of candidates for
situations in public offices. The office is in Deans Yard,
Westminster.
University College, in Gower Street, opened in 1828, is
an extensive, well-arranged, and handsome edifice. It is
frequented by students of law, medicine, ancient and mo¬
dern languages, Sec. This college is open to all religious
persuasions.
King’s College, Somerset House, opened in 1831, is, like
the rival institution last mentioned, a proprietary establish¬
ment, but is peculiarly attached to the Church of England,
and instruction in religion here forms part of the course of
education, which in other respects resembles that afforded
in University College.
St Paul’s School, St Paul’s Churchyard, founded by
Dean Colet in 1509, for the gratuitous instruction of 153
boys, was rebuilt in its present classic form, in 1823. The
Mercers Company are the trustees of the institution and
have the presentations. John Milton, and John, Duke of
Marlborough were educated here.
Christ’s Hospital (or the Blue-coat School), originally the
house of the Grey Friars, founded in 1226, was turned
to its present use in 1552, when, according to Stow, “after
the erection of Christ’s Hospital in the late dissolved house
of the Grey Friars, a great number of poor children being
taken in, a school was also ordained there, at the citizens’
charge.” (Stow, ed. 1633, p. 64.) Edward VI. in the same
year granted the hospital a charter, and Charles II. attached
a mathematical school, charging the exchequer with L.1000
per annum for its support. The governing body consists of
the aldermen of London, governors ex officio, and contri¬
butors of L.500 each (formerly L.400) to the hospital funds,
numbering in all, at present (1857), 512. The aldermen
eff the city have each an annual nomination, and the other
governors have presentations as vacancies occur. Most of
the children admitted are those of freemen of London, or
of clergymen of the Established Church; and it lias long
since ceased to be what its founders intended—a charitable
institution. A branch school is maintained at Hertford
tor younger children, including 70 girls; and the total
average number constantly maintained and educated bv
the hospital in 1855 and 1856 was 1240, viz., 860 in the
London establishment, and 470 at Hertford. They are
^ell fed and taken care of, and warmly though fantastically
DON. 667
clothed in the costume of the time of Edward VI. The London,
buildings are old and irregular, except the great hall, com-
pleted in 1829, and which, fronting the opening lately made
in Newgate Street, is one of the chief ornaments of the
city. The revenue and expenditure are generally about
equal; the former in 1855 being L.58,075, 17s., and the
latter L.58,547,4s. 6d. Camden the historian and Richard¬
son the novelist were educated here.
St Peter’s College, Westminster (better known as West¬
minster School), attached to the collegiate church of that
name, or Westminster Abbey, was founded by Queen
Elizabeth in 1560, for forty foundation or queen’s scho¬
lars. Though originally a free school, it no longer bears
that character, as the cost of education, board, and lodging
paid for each of the queen’s scholars is about L.45 a-year.
Besides the master, usher, and scholars on the founda¬
tion, there are five other masters, two ushers, and many
scholars, the latter varying in number from time to time.
The queen’s scholars are selected from the whole school
for proficiency in studies. Eight of the queen’s scholars
are chosen after each examination, four of whom are sent
to Trinity College, Cambridge, and four to Christ Church,
Oxford. Ben Jonson, Dryden, Locke, and Gibbon were
educated here.
Merchant Tailors’ School, “ one notable free grammar
school,” as Stow calls it, was founded in 1561 by the Com¬
pany of Merchant Tailors. The first school perished in the
great fire of 1666, and the present one was erected in 1675
on the same site in Suffolk Lane, Cannon Street. It is
built of brick, and supported on the east by stone pillars,
forming a cloister. The number of scholars is limited to 250,
and presentations are in the gift of the members of the court
of “ Merchant Tailors” in rotation. After the annualexa mi-
nation, some of the scholars are invariably sent to the uni¬
versity ; this school being endowed with 35 fellowships, 6
civil law, and 2 unrestricted exhibitions in St John’s Col¬
lege, Oxford, 6 exhibitions to any college in Cambridge,
and 4 exhibitions to either university. These 53 pieces of
university preferment, besides smaller exhibitions, are in¬
variably given to pupils educated at this school.
Gresham College, in Basinghall Street, rebuilt 1843, was
founded by Sir Thomas Gresham in 1581, for lectures on
divinity, civil law, &c., to be read gratis, at noon in Latin,
and at 1 o’clock in English, during the term. The lectures
on music and geometry are now delivered in the evening at
7 o’clock. This institution is not practically very useful.
The Charter House (corrupted from Chartreux) is situ¬
ate in a square of the same name near Smithfield. Ori¬
ginally a house for Carthusian monks, founded by Sir Wal¬
ter Manny, temp. Edward HI., it shared the fate of other
religious houses, temp. Henry VIII. After passing through
several hands, it was at length bought in 1611 by Thomas
Sutton, who converted his purchase into a school and an
hospital for decayed gentlemen. The governers are 18 in
number; the queen, her consort, and eldest son, gracing
the list. At present (1857) this charity supports 44 scholars,
and 80 decayed gentlemen. The Charter House has long
held a high character as a classical school; and besides the
boys on the foundation, there are numerous scholars receiv¬
ing instruction here. Of those educated on the founda¬
tion, many receive exhibitions at either university ; and the
hospital, in its patronage of nine livings, gives the prefer¬
ence to those educated within its walls. Dr Barrow, Ad¬
dison, Steele, Blackstone, John Wesley, and various other
distinguished men, were Carthusians.
There are seven public parks in the metropolis, viz., Public
Hyde Park, St James’s, the Green, Regent’s, and Victoria
Parks on the Middlesex side, and Battersea and Kenning-
ton Parks on the Surrey side of the Thames. The oldest,
largest, and most beautiful, are those in the west end of
London.
668 LON
London. Hyde Park is entered from Piccadilly by a series of tri-
umphal gates, and from Oxford Street by a marble arch,
removed thither from Buckingham Palace. This park, of
about 400 acres, is well wooded, judiciously intersected by
walks and carriage roads, and ornamented by a piece of
water called the Serpentine. During the season the long
ride called Rotten Row is thronged in the afternoon by
equestrians of both sexes. On the south side of the park,
opposite Rutland and Prince’s gates, stood the Crystal Pa¬
lace of 1851. Adjoining this park, are Kensington Gar¬
dens, attached to Kensington Palace.
The Green Park, next to Hyde Park, is entered from
Piccadilly by a triumphal arch, bearing an equestrian statue
of the Duke of Wellington. The inner road that skirts
this park is called Constitution Hill, and leads to Bucking¬
ham Palace, &c. This park is small, but very pretty, and
the available space was extended in 1856 by the removal
of the reservoir of the Chelsea water-works. St James’s
Park, first inclosed by Henry VIII. when he built the palace
of that name, formed in olden times the pleasure grounds of
Whitehall Palace, and was the favourite lounge of Charles
II. At present (1857) operations are going on for reducing
the depth of the pond in the centre, and for throwing a
bridge across it to facilitate the transit of foot passengers
from Westminster to Pall Mall. St James’s Park is laid
out with great taste, and contains some very fine trees.
Regent’s Park is nearly circular, and consists of 450 acres
laid out in walks and shrubberies, varied by water, and in¬
tersected and skirted by carriage roads. It is nearly sur¬
rounded by houses of the larger class, built in uniform
terraces, and producing a good effect. In this park are the
Zoological and Botanical Gardens, and the Colosseum stands
on its eastern margin. The establishment of the Zoological
Society, consisting of the gardens and a large and increas¬
ing menagerie, occupies ground in the north-eastern portion
of the park, and was founded in 1826. These gardens form
an instructive and agreeable promenade, and were visited
by 344,184 persons in 1856. The gardens of the Botanical
Society, in the centre of the park, are also attractive, and
are frequently used for flower shows, promenades, See. The
Colosseum, erected in 1828 by Burton, is a sixteen-faced
polygon, surmounted by a dome 120 feet in diameter, and
presents in front a Doric portico of six columns. It has
been used for panoramas, &c.; but the attractions of the
place have long been on the wane.
Victoria Park, the eastern lung of London, consists of 290
acres, lying between Hackney Common and Duckett’s Canal.
It was formed under Act 14th and 15th Viet., c. 46., for the
benefit of the crowded districts in its vicinity.
Kennington Park, formerly Kennington Common, be¬
longs to the duchy of Lancaster, and was inclosed and laid
out as a public park for pedestrians in 1852. It contains
about 20 acres, and though yet in its infancy, forms a great
boon to the inhabitants of Kennington, Vauxhall, &c.
Battersea Park, on the Surrey bank of the river, opposite
Chelsea Hospital, Cheyne Walk, &c., is still incomplete;
but as the new suspension-bridge leading to it will be
opened this year (1857), it is presumed that the park will
soon be finished. 320 acres of land were purchased for
this park, but only 200 acres come within the park fence,
the rest being allotted to houses, roads, &c. The grounds
have been laid out, and are open to visitors; and an espla¬
nade along the whole of its river front has been formed.
Palaces. There is no palace in London of which, as an architec¬
tural work, the inhabitants have any reason to be proud.
Bucking- Buckingham Palace, however, from its cost and magni-
am pa ace. tude, and as the only town residence of the sovereign, com¬
mands attention. It stands on the site of Buckingham
House, built by John Sheffield, Duke of Buckingham, on
t at of old Arlington House. This property was purchased
by George III., and settled on his consort; and here all
D O N.
their children were born except George IV. In the London,
reign of the latter monarch, a new palace was commenced
by Mr Nash, but was not finished till near the end of
the following reign, and was never occupied by William
IV. The body of the palace now forms a parallelogram,
containing an inner court; a fourth side, or grand front,
looking towards the Horse Guards, having been added
during the present reign. A still later addition of ball¬
room, Sec., has been made on the south side; and, when the
Pimlico improvements have been completed, the palace wrill
stand within its own grounds. The internal arrangements
of the palace on the ground floor strike the visitor as sin¬
gularly mean and unworthy of royalty; the corridors espe¬
cially being dark, narrow, and low-roofed. The rooms on
the first floor, including the throne-room, drawing-room,
&c., are well proportioned. The picture gallery, though
small, contains very choice specimens of the Dutch and
Flemish schools. The grounds behind the palace are pret¬
tily laid out, and the west side of the building, which fronts
them, is much admired. The cost of this palace, before
the late improvements were commenced, amounted to nearly
L.700,000.
St James’s Palace in Pall Mall, which, among diplomatists, gt James’
gives its title to the English court, is a long, straggling, palace,
and dingy building, and its appearance is still what Pen¬
nant styled it, “ uncreditable.” It was built by Henry VIII.
on the site of an hospital for lepers, founded previous to the
Conquest, and it has been extended and altered frequently
since his time. His daughter Mary died in this palace; and
here Charles I. slept for the last time. Charles II. and the
old Pretender were both born in it; and here the two first
Georges kept their mistresses. The state apartments, which
look towards the park of the same name, are spacious, and
used exclusively for levees and drawing-rooms. The corri¬
dors and ante-rooms, however, are rather confined. Some
portions of this palace are allotted to the members of the
Cambridge branch of the royal family.
Kensington Palace stands in the parish of St Margaret’s, Kensin?-
Westminster, westward of Hyde Park, and between the ton palace.
Kensington and Bayswater roads. It was originally built
by Sir Heneage Finch, afterwards Lord Chancellor Notting¬
ham ; and his son sold it to William III. He and his queen,
Queen Anne and her consort, and George II., were all
partial to this place, and all died here. Queen Victo¬
ria was born, and her uncle, the late Duke of Sussex,
lived and died in this palace. It is large and irregular,
built at various periods, and of red brick. The principal
entrance is on the west side; but the interior presents no¬
thing of interest. Some of the rooms have been allotted
as residences to dependants of the court; and a portion of
the grounds to the west of the palace, formerly used as a
kitchen garden, was, in 1841, subdivided and leased for
building purposes, and is now nearly covered with large
mansions.
The gardens to the east of the palace are open to pedes¬
trians, and are the favourite resort of the inhabitants of
western London. These grounds are extensive, and pre¬
sent a variety of surface in wood and water that renders
them particularly charming. In summer a regimental band
plays here twice a-week, and on such occasions Kensington
Gardens are the gayest and most frequented promenades in
the metropolis.
The new Palace of Westminster (of which Sir Charles
Barry is architect) occupies the site, on the banks of the
Thames, of the old Houses of Parliament, burnt down in
October 1834. The new houses were commenced in
April 1840, and are (1857) not yet finished. The palace,
not having antiquity on its side, and having proved costly
beyond all expectation, is perhaps more severely criticised
than it otherwise would have been. But it has some de¬
fects which are too obvious to escape notice. The radi-
LONDON.
London, cal one is its want of elevation, and this is exaggerated
by the length (900 feet) of the building, and the con¬
trast formed by the gigantic height of the Great or Vic¬
toria Tower at the southern end, which is upwards of 300
feet.
On the river front, the only one completed, the rich¬
ness of tracery and endless variety of minute and laboured
ornament is astonishing to a close observer. Built of a
Yorkshire stone, this front rests on a foundation of granite,
and has a long terrace nearly on a level with high water.
This, in consequence of an invasion of the Thames, is now
protected and inclosed by a dwarf wall. The royal en¬
trance to the palace is under the Victoria Tower, through
an archway 65 feet high.
Westmin- The most interesting entrance, through old Westmin¬
ster hall, ster Hall, does not properly belong to the new palace, but,
from its proximity, has been easily appropriated as the
main approach to both branches of the legislature. The
majestic proportions of this fine structure are very impos¬
ing, and the historical associations connected with it give it
additional interest. Here Sir William Wallace, Sir Thomas
More, Wentworth Earl of Strafford, Charles I., and the
rebel lords of 1745, were tried and condemned to death ; and
here Warren Hastings and Lord Melville passed through
the ordeal of impeachment. This glorious relic of antiquity
dates from the time of William Rufus. Walking to the
upper end, and ascending the stair to the left, the visitor
finds himself surrounded by statues of men eminent in the
legislature of former days, such as Clarendon, Hampden,
Falkland, Selden, Walpole, Chatham, Mansfield, and Fox.
These are for the most part good, and all appropriate.
This vestibule leads into the central or St Stephen’s Hall,
surmounted by a lantern tower. The hall is well pro¬
portioned, and decorated in unison with the rest of the
building. Three other corridors centre in it; that to the
right leading to the House of Lords, and the opposite one
to the House of Commons; the third being the way to
committee-rooms, offices, &c. On entering the House of
Lords, the richness and profusion of the gilding and paint¬
ing are apt to dazzle the eye; but perhaps this may be re¬
medied when the whole is mellowed by lapse of time. The
throne is especially gorgeous. The House of Commons is
much plainer than that appropriated to the Lords.
The square clock tower, at the north end of the palace, is
upwards of 300 feet high, and is all but completed. It has
lately been furnished with an enormous bell, 16 tons weight,
called “ Big Ben,” in honour of Sir Benjamin Hall, chief
commissioner of works.
Lambeth Lambeth Palace, the London residence of the Arch¬
palace. bishop of Canterbury, is situate on the Surrey bank of the
Thames, almost opposite the Houses of Parliament. The
property came to this see so far back as 1197, in conse¬
quence of an exchange with the see of Rochester. About
1250 great additions were made to the palace by Arch¬
bishop Boniface (of Savoy). Again, prior to 1443, Bishop
Chicheley greatly improved it, and founded the Lollards’
Tower, so called from its use as a prison for the early re¬
formers of that name. Rings, to which they were chained,
are still attached to the walls of a room at the top of this
tower.
The palace was farther extended and improved by Arch¬
bishops Cranmer, Pole, Parker, and Laud; and Archbishops
Bancroft and Abbot left all their books and MSS. to the
incumbents of the see.
During the civil wars in the time of Charles I., Lam¬
beth suffered severely, and the library was saved solely by
the dexterous management of John Selden. The palace be¬
ing in a ruinous state when Dr Juxon was appointed to
this see after the Restoration, he did much to restore it, and
added the noble apartment now used as a library. He
and Archbishops Sheldon, Tenison, Seeker, and Cornwallis,
669
made valuable additions to the collection of books, which London,
now number from 20,000 to 25,000 volumes, with from
1200 to 1300 MSS; (See Libraries.) During the in¬
cumbency of the late archbishop (Howley), important and
costly additions, designed by Mr Blore, and completed in
1833, were made to the palace. The old banqueting-hall,
with a fine oak roof, and the chapel, are both worthy of re¬
mark ; and the palace is oak pannelled nearly throughout.
Gardens of 12 acres are attached, but they are unplea¬
santly situated, and surrounded by houses of an inferior
order. The site of the palace, too, is low, and must, from
its proximity to the river, be occasionally damp and dis¬
agreeable.
Having already noticed those establishments in London,
including the Custom House, which are chiefly subservient
to the commercial intercourse between the metropolis and
foreign countries, we proceed to mention the other public
offices, &c., of most importance.
The offices of the first lord of the Treasury, the chancellor
of the Exchequer, and of the secretaries of state for Foreign
and Colonial affairs, are all in Downing Street, but their
outward appearance would not challenge remark except
of a depreciatory kind. The Privy Council Office, Board
of Trade, Treasury, and Home Office, looking towards
Whitehall, present on the contrary, a uniform and hand¬
some front, erected a few years ago by Sir Charles Barry.
Proceeding towards Charing Cross, the Horse Guards is the
next building of note, and includes the offices of the
Commander-in-chief, adjutant-general, quarter-master-ge¬
neral, &c. Behind it, in St James’s Park, is the parade-
ground for the guards. Then comes the Paymaster-ge¬
neral’s office, not at all remarkable in an architectural point
of view, and next to it the chief branch of the Admiralty,
forming the head-quarters of the board and secretaries.
The building has a lofty portico over the main entrance,
with two wings projected to a screen fronting the street
and inclosing a quadrangular court. The chief depart¬
ments of the War Office occupy the house in Pall Mall
formerly appropriated to the old ordnance department and
other premises since acquired on either side.
Somerset House was erected for the most part in 1775-
1782, by Sir William Chambers, on the site of a palace com¬
menced by the Protector Somerset, and used as a royal
residence by Queen Elizabeth and Charles 11. It is one
of the noblest features of London, contrasting most favour¬
ably in elevation and architectural and general effect with
many other public buildings of the capital. It occupies a
space upwards of 800 feet wide, and 300 deep, and forms
three quadrangles, the central one being on a very large scale.
The river front is a spacious terrace, to whicl a west wing,
in perfect harmony with the main body, has just ^<een added.
The east end, a part of King’s College, being of brick, and
otherwise unlike the rest of this grand structure, slightly
mars its effect as a whole. The front towards the Strand,
and that just completed in Wellington Street, are of much
smaller extent, but well proportioned. Somerset House is
almost exclusively devoted to public offices, such as the
Inland Revenue Department (employing in the metropolis
alone in 1857 a staff of 900 officers), the larger branches
of the Admiralty, the Audit Office, Office of the Regis¬
trar-General, &c.
The Post-Office, in St Martin’s-le-Grand, is a gigantic
establishment, and one whose arrangements must ne¬
cessarily attract the most general attention throughout the
empire. Considering the enormous extent of the national
correspondence, the business of this department is con¬
ducted with wonderful correctness and celerity. The
London establishment at present (1857) consists of about
590 clerks, and 2060 sorters and letter-carriers. There
are also in the metropolis about 300 district and pillar
post-offices.
670
LONDON.
London.
Statement showing the number of Letters conveyed through
the Post- Office from one district of London to another
in each year from 1850 to 1855 :—
Years. Letters.
1850  38,887,844
1851  40,585,952
1852  40,403,207
Years. Letters.
1853  42,816,314
1854  46,191,569
1855  45,844,963
The gross post-office revenue of the kingdom in 1855
amounted to L.2,716,420, and the net revenue to L.905,150.
Various plans for concentrating the majority of the great
offices in Whitehall have been lately under consideration,
and parliament has taken one step towards approving such a
scheme by voting a sum for erecting a new foreign office.
East India The East India House, in Leadenhall Street, was
House. erected in 1726, but has been greatly enlarged. Its prin¬
cipal front, towards Leadenhall Street, built within the last
thirty years, is 200 feet in length, having in the centre a
portico of six Ionic fluted pillars, supporting a frieze with
allegorical figures. It contains some fine apartments, espe¬
cially the great court-room. The library is rich in books,
and especially in MSS., illustrative of the history and anti¬
quities of India. The old museum is filled with Indian
curiosities of every kind ; and this year (1857) another mu¬
seum has been constructed, exclusively for exhibiting the
varied products of the British Empire in the East.
East India The East India Company was formed in 1599, and
Company, chartered by Elizabeth in 1600. Its commercial character
ceased in 1835 ; and it is now merely a political body, go¬
verning British India under the superintendence of the Board
of Control. The Board of Directors of the India Com¬
pany consists partly of nominees of the crown; but is in
great part made up of representatives elected by the pro¬
prietors of India stock. The revenues of India, managed
by the Company, amounted, in 1854-5, to L.27,312,235,
and its expenditure to L.29,019,599.
London'*' ^le r^ower London, so full of interest to all readers
of English history, was commenced by William the Con¬
queror in 1078 ; and the Great, or White Tower, and the
curious Norman chapel within it, still extant, were finished
by his son, William Rufus, in 1098. Since that period nine
lesser towers have been added. For many centuries this
fortress was used as a palace and a state prison, and con¬
tained the chief mint of the kingdom ; but it is no longer
used for any of these purposes. The only portions to which
the public are admitted, are,—the armouries; the jewel-
house, containing the regalia and coronation plate; the
Beauchamp tower, in which Lady Jane Grey was confined;
and St Peter’s church. The collection of armour is good,
and the most remarkable specimens are pointed out and
described to visitors by attendant warders dressed in the
costume of the yeomen of Henry VIII.’s guard.
There are also within the precincts of the Tower a por¬
tion of the records of the kingdom in charge of the Master
of the Rolls ; the military store branch of the War Office ;
and a barrack built on the site of the grand store-house
destroyed by fire in 1841, and usually occupied by a batta¬
lion of the Foot Guards. V ery pretty gardens have taken the
place of the old moat, drained as a nuisance in 1843. The
well-known Traitors’ Gate is situate about midway in the
l ower wall which faces the Thames ; and near it is the
Bloody lower, which, according to history and tradition,
has deservedly earned its name. The spot on Tower Hill
famous for executions, is opposite the western angle or
bastion of the Tower.
The chief officers attached to this ancient fortress (now
a fortress only in name) are the constable, lieutenant, and
c eputy-lieutenant. The Duke of Wellington held the first-
mentioned office for many years previous to his death, and
a statue to his memory stands near the White Tower.
St Paul’s. The cathedral church of St Paul’s, inferior in size, but in
some points superior in design to St Peter’s at Rome, stands
on Ludgate Hill, the site of old St Paul’s, as well as of London,
previous churches. Old’St Paul’s, built, it is supposed, in
603, temp. Ethelbert, and afterwards extended and restored
at various times, suffered frequently by fire, before its final
destruction, with the greater part of the city, in 1666.
1 he first stone of the present cathedral was laid by Sir
Christopher Wren, in 1675, and it was completed by him,
after his own design, in 1710. It is cruciform, classic in
style, and in effect singularly grand: the centre of the
cross being covered by a dome of faultless proportions.
It has frequently been remarked, that the whole of this
edifice was reared under one architect, by one master mason,
and during the incumbency of one Bishop (Dr Compton)
of London, while the erection of St Peter’s, by twelve suc¬
cessive architects, occupied 145 years. Undoubtedly St
Paul’s is similar in many respects to St Peter’s, but it is
not at all a servile copy; and though in miniature, when
compared with the Roman temple, it forms a noble monu¬
ment to the genius of its architect. The height of St Paul’s,
from the pavement of the churchyard to the top of the
cross, is 370 feet; its length, from E. to W., 510; and width,
from the entrance of the north to that of the south tran¬
sept, 250 feet. The circuit of the cathedral is 2292 feet,
the ground it covers upwards of 2 acres, and the whole is
inclosed by a dwarf wall and railing. The west end, 180
feet wide, is ornamented by twelve Corinthian, supporting
eight composite columns; and the outer portion, of the
whole is decorated by pilasters of these two orders. The
north and south entrances are uniform and semicircular, and
this is the shape of the eastern end. The whole is built of
Portland stone, now much discoloured by time and London
smoke; but this acquired tint, dark and varied as it is,
seems to accord with the solemn dignity and grandeur of
the church.
The interior of the cathedral is worthy of the exterior,
and presents its most imposing aspect to a visitor enter¬
ing from the west, and so approaching the choir. When
the centre of the transept is reached for the first time, and
he stands under the dome, feelings of wonder and delight
cannot be restrained. The height and span of the dome
convey at a glance the idea that this must be the sublime
in architecture.
The simple grandeur of the interior is, perhaps, some¬
what marred by the presence of monuments in a style
of art scarcely worthy of such a place. The most im¬
portant of them are those to Dr Johnson, and Howard
the philanthropist; Lords Nelson and Howe; Sir Ralph
Abercromby, Lords Rodney, Collingwood, Cornwallis, and
Heathfield; Generals Moore and Picton, &c. The most
appropriate monument is that over the entrance to the
choir. It is a marble slab in honour of Wren himself,
bearing an inscription ending with the words,—“ Si monu-
mentum requiris circumspice”
The choir in which the service is daily performed con¬
tains a great deal of carved wood by Gibbons, and is fur¬
nished with an organ of powerful and fine tone.
In the crypt are the tombs of Nelson and Wellington.
By an inside staircase the visitor may reach a circular
gallery within the dome, called, from an effect in acoustics
produced by its shape, the “ Whispering Gallery.” The
paintings by Sir James Thornhill, in the interior of the
dome, illustrative of the life of St Paul, and cleaned and
restored in 1856, may here be seen to advantage.
From hence the passage is short to the Stone Gal¬
lery, on the outside of the dome; and by a more difficult
ascent, the Golden Gallery is gained. From this point, in
clear weather, the view of the surrounding city and its en¬
virons is most comprehensive and striking. Above this
gallery are the ball and cross, the former 6 feet in diameter,
and capable of containing eight persons. St Paul’s is the
cathedral church of the see of London,—the most important
LONDON.
671
London, bishopric in the empire, the incumbent ranking next after and Mary, &c., have had no monuments erected to them,
archbishops, and enjoying an income of L.10,000 a-year. In the other private chapels are many antique monuments
The revenues of the diocese, which includes the whole of and brasses.
Middlesex and parts of Surrey, Essex, and Kent, are esti- In the south transept, in and near Poets’ Corner, are
mated at upwards of L.30,000 a-year. The affairs of the monuments to the majority of our most illustrious poets, from
cathedral are managed by a dean and chapter, consisting the time of Chaucer to that of Campbell; and here, as well
of four canons residentiary, four prebendaries, and other as in both aisles of the nave and choir, and in the north
officers. transept, the profusion of monuments almost bewilders the
Westmin- Westminster Abbey, the scene of so many important eye. The names of naval and military heroes, statesmen,
ster abbey, events, and so full of historic associations, claims even historians, philosophers, divines, lawyers, painters, sculp-
more minute attention than the sister cathedral. The ac- tors, musicians, actors, &c., attract one at every turn. The
counts of its origin are nearly as vague and uncertain as cloisters on the south side of the Abbey are in good preser-
those of old St Paul’s. According to tradition, it origi- vation, and filled with monuments.
nally stood on an island in the river, formed, it is supposed, Service is performed daily, and on Sundays the Abbey
by a branch of the Thames which inclosed parts of Pimlico is much frequented for public worship, though the sermons
and Westminster. At any rate, there is good reason for can rarely be heard by above one-third of those present,
believing that the Abbey existed before the end of the eighth The governing body of this collegiate church consists of a
century. It was rebuilt by King Edgar, and extended and dean and chapter of eight prebendaries, &c. The pro-
enriched by Edward the Confessor. The larger portion of perty belonging to the Abbey being chiefly in the metropo-
Westminster Abbey, as it now stands, was built by Henry lis, is very valuable, and considerable sums are spent, and
111., and completed in 1245. Like most cathedrals, it is in usually with good taste, in renovating and decorating this
the form of a cross, though somewhat irregular, from the ad- national temple.
dition of chapels and cloisters at various times. The length Of the minor churches, the most remarkable, bearing
of the Abbey, exclusive of Henry VII.’s chapel, is 383 feet; date prior to the fire of London, are,—St Saviour’s, South-
the extreme breadth at the transept, 203 feet; the height wark, the Temple Church, the Savoy and Whitehall
of the nave being 102, and that of the towers 225 feet. Chapels, and St Margaret’s, Westminster.
Henry VII.’s chapel, at the eastern extremity, is a gorgeous St Saviour’s, Southwark, formerly a priory, and one of
specimen of the Gothic architecture of his time. It was London’s oldest churches, is a most interesting fabric. It
commenced in 1502, built by him as a burial-place for has three aisles running E. and W., and a cross aisle; and
the royal family, and cost L.14,000. The Abbey subse- the columns supporting the roof are remarkably graceful,
quently suffered from neglect, especially after the suppres- The Lady Chapel, restored in 1832, and at the east end of
sion of religious houses, and during the civil wars of the the church, is much admired. Gower the poet, Fletcher
seventeenth century. Soon after the Revolution, the whole the dramatist, and Massinger, are all buried here—the first
was thoroughly repaired, and the western towers were added having a good monument in the porch,
by Wren. Sir Christopher, however, could not shake off The Temple Church, situate in the Inner Temple, is
his innate love for classic ornament, with which, to the horror quite a gem of its kind, having been restored in 1842, at a
of the critics, he has liberally invested the Gothic towers. cost of L.70,000, defrayed by the two societies of the Inner
The Abbey is much hidden by St Margaret’s Church; but and Middle Temple. The entrance, by a very fine Norman
on approaching Victoria Street from Parliament Street, the arch, leads into the circular portion of the church, which
buttresses and pinnacles, and whole expanse of this majes- dates from 1185, and is modelled from the Holy Sepulchre
tic pile, gradually open to view. The entrance to the north at Jerusalem. This part is peculiarly interesting from its
transept is much and deservedly admired, and convinces form, its age, and the effigies of cross-legged and recum-
us that the wisdom of our ancestors in matters of architec- bent knights, that lie grouped on the floor. The inner
ture is not surpassed at the present day. portion of the church, built about 1240, is early English in
The interior is well seen on entering from this side, and style, rectangular in form, and the dark marble pillars which
still better from the western door. The stone screen se- support the roof, are especially beautiful. Selden and Gold-
parating the choir from the nave is modern, and designed smith were buried here.
by Mr Blore. Beyond the high altar and further east, are Savoy Church, or St Mary-le-Savoy, near the Strand, is
nine chapels, the chief being those ofEdvVard the Confessor perpendicular in style, with a highly decorated and painted
and Henry VII. The first contains the shrine of that roof, and has many quaint monuments. It was built in the
monarch, with, inter alia, the tombs of Henry III., and his beginning of the sixteenth century, and was originally the
son Edward I. Here, too, are preserved the sword oi Edward chapel of an hospital for 100 poor men, founded on the
1., part of his shield, and the Scotch coronation stone, brought site of old Savoy Palace by Henry VIL, and dedicated to
by him from Scone in 1296. The chapel of Henry VIL, St John the Baptist.
beyond that of Edward the Confessor, forms the eastern Whitehall Chapel, opposite the Horse Guards, was the
extremity of the cross. It suffered by fire in 1803, but celebrated banqueting house, and is now the only remain-
underwent a thorough repair between 1810 and 1822 at a ing fragment of Whitehall Palace. This great work of
cost of L.42,000. Chapters of the Order of the Bath were Inigo Jones is 110 feet long, of hewn stone, adorned by an
formerly held in this chapel; and on entering, the stalls and upper and lower range of pillars and pilasters of the Doric
banners of the knights attract immediate attention. The and composite orders. The interior is almost engrossed by
next object in prominence is the highly decorated altar- one apartment of an oblong form, upwards of 40 feet high,
tomb of the founder, bearing effigies of himself and with a ceiling painted by Rubens. It is now used as one of
wife. The. flat stone ceiling, elaborately ornamented, is the chapels royal. Through one of the windows of this build¬
worthy particular notice. In and around this chapel are ing Charles I. was led to the scaffold on 30th January 1649.
other monuments of interest, such as those to Mary of St Margaret’s, Westminster, chiefly observable as im-
England; Mary Queen of Scots ; Queen Elizabeth ; George peding the view of Westminster Abbey, is also remark-
Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, assassinated by Felton; able as the resort for public worship of the House of
Monk, Duke of Albemarle; and of modern date, one Commons on solemn occasions. It is of the time of Ed-
to the Due de Montpensier, brother to the late Louis ward I., but has been repaired and renovated at various
Philippe, ex-King of the French. Many royal personages periods, and contains tablets to the memory of Caxton the
lying in the vaults beneath, such as Charles II., William printer and Sir Walter Raleigh.
London.
London.
Inns of
court.
The churches worthy of notice, of a date later than 1666,
are chiefly works of Sir Christopher Wren and his disciples,
and belong to the Established Church. St Stephen’s,
Walbrook, considered by critics as the best of Wren’s
small churches; Bow Church, Cheapside; St Bride’s, Fleet
Street; St Stephen’s, Holborn Hill; St Clement Danes,
and St James’s, Piccadilly, are all by the same hand. St
Martin’s-in-the-Fields and St Mary-le-Strand, by Gibbs,
and St George’s, Hanover Square, by James ; and, of a later
date, St Pancras New Church, by Mr Inwood ; Marylebone
New Church, by Hardwicke ; St Luke’s, Chelsea; and Miss
Coutts’ Chapel, in Westminster, are all worthy of attention.
Of the 640 churches and chapels belonging to Dissenters,
though they form the vast majority in the metropolis, few
deserve remark on account of architectural beauty. The
most striking exceptions, perhaps, are the cathedral-like
building in Gordon Square, belonging to a sect calling itself
the Apostolic Church, and the Roman Catholic cathedral, in
St George’s Fields, built by the late Mr Pugin, in the de¬
corated style, though one side of the latter is nearly hidden
by houses in the neighbourhood.
Perhaps, of all the existing institutions in London con¬
nected with the law, the inns of court are the most inter¬
esting, partly from their antiquity and peculiar constitution
and objects, and partly from their wealth and influence.
The four great inns, or societies having the power to call
students to the bar, are,—the Inner Temple, Middle Temple,
Lincoln’s Inn, and Gray’s Inn. When these “ voluntary so¬
cieties,” or aggregations of lawyers, originated, has not been
exactly ascertained; but though not incorporated, they have
“ for ages submitted to government analogous to that of
other seminaries of learning.” (Lord Mansfield, quoted in
Spilsbury’s Lincoln's Inn.) These societies consist of
three grades,—viz., benchers, barristers, and students. The
oldest of these inns is the Temple, deriving its name from
the religious and military order of the Knights-Templars,
who founded it in 1185, and possessed it till the extinc¬
tion of the order in 1311. In the reign of Edward III.
the students of common law leased this property, and at
length acquired it by gift from James I., who ordered that
none should be admitted “ into the society of any inn,
that is not a gentleman by descent.” The societies of the
Inner and Middle Temple form two distinct bodies, having
separate revenues and regulations; the Temple church,
already described, being alone held in common. The
whole of the very large property attached to the Temple,
extending from Fleet Street to the Thames, except the
gardens on the bank of the river, is covered with buildings,
and these are divided into suites of apartments for lawyers,
or others who choose to resort hither.
Lincoln’s Inn lies chiefly between Chancery Lane and
Lincoln’s Inn Fields, and acquired its name from the inn
or residence built here by Henry de Lacy, Earl of Lin¬
coln, who died in 1312. This and part of the property of
the bishops of Chichester, acquired in the time of Henry
YIL, constitute the present Lincoln’s Inn. The Gothic
chapel was built by Inigo Jones ; but he, like Wren, seems
to have succeeded best in classic architecture. The hall of
the society a magnificent structure, 120 feet long, in the
Tudor style, was completed by Hardwicke in 1845. The
library attached to the hall contains a large and very valu¬
able collection of books and MSS. Among the eminent
men who once studied at Lincoln’s Inn may be mentioned
Sir Ihomas More, Oliver Cromwell, Sir Matthew Hale,
Lord Mansfield, Pitt, Perceval, and Canning.
Gray s Inn, the last of the four chief inns, is entered
from Ilolborn, and stretches along Gray’s Inn Lane. It
was the property of the Lords Gray of Wilton in 1505,
when it w^as sold, and afterwards vested in the prior of
Sheen, who granted a lease of it to the students of law,
renewed by Henry VIII. after the Reformation. The
hall and chapel are not remarkable, but the gardens are London,
spacious and well kept. Lords Burleigh and Bacon were v ^
of “ Graie’s Inn.” In 1850 the members of the four inns
of court numbered upwards of 4000. Attached to the
four great inns are nine smaller ones,—viz., Clifford’s, Cle¬
ment’s, Lyon’s, New, Strand, Furnival’s, Thavies’, Staple’s,
and Barnard’s Inns.
The chief courts of law are held partly in Lincoln’s Inn, Courts of
and partly in a building attached to the west side of West- law, &c.
minster Hall, already alluded to as the grand vestibule to
the Houses of Parliament. In the latter, several doors
on the right lead to the Courts of Queen’s Bench, Com¬
mon Pleas, and Exchequer, of the Chancellor, Master of the
Rolls, Lords Justices of Appeal, and Vice-Chancellors. But
it is proposed, in completing the Houses of Parliament, to
sweep away this building as inconvenient, and as an un¬
suitable architectural adjunct to Westminster Hall. The
new site for the courts has not yet been definitively settled.
In vacation, the Chancellor sits in the Old Hall, Lincoln’s
Inn, and the Master of the Rolls in Rolls’ Court, Chancery
Lane. The civil law courts,—viz., the Ecclesiastical and
Admiralty,—are held in Doctors’ Commons. The chief
ecclesiastical courts are,—the Prerogative Court and the
Court of Arches; and under the superintendence of the
former is the registry of wills for the province of Canter¬
bury. At present (1857) there are bills before Parliament
to alter and limit the jurisdiction of these courts. The
Court of Admiralty decides all cases as to capture of ships,
disputes between masters and sailors in merchant ships, &c.
The inferior courts are those of Bankruptcy in Basing-
hall Street, the Insolvent Debtors’ Court in Portugal
Street, the Duchy Court of Lancaster in Lancaster Place,
the courts of the lord mayor, and of the sheriffs, &c. There
are also attached to the metropolis ten of the new county
courts for the decision of claims under L.50 ; and the com¬
mittee of county court judges, established in 1856, act as
a court of appeal.
The principal, or Central Criminal Court, is that held at
the Old Bailey, its jurisdiction being a circle of ten miles
round St Paul’s. Nominally the lord mayor presides in
this court, but tbe prisoners are for the most part tried by
the judges of the Courts of Queen’s Bench, Exchequer, and
Common Pleas, and a few by the recorder or common
serjeant of the city. Inferior offences are tried before the
assistant-judge at the Middlesex Sessions House. The
lord mayor sits at the Mansion House, and one of the
aldermen at Guildhall, to judge in smaller matters, and
there are besides eleven other metropolitan police courts
beyond the limits of the city. The magistrates of these
thirteen courts have the power to punish by fine and im¬
prisonment for disorderly conduct, and for minor offences,
to inquire regarding crimes of the highest nature, and to
send prisoners for trial to the Central Criminal Court.
The College of Physicians in Pall Mall and Trafalgar Colleges of
Square was founded in 1518, and the present is the third physicians
building occupied by them since their institution. It was and sar*
built by Smirke, opened in 1825, and contains some in-Se0D8,
teresting portraits of eminent physicians, such as Harvey,
Sir Thomas Browne, Garth, and Sir Hans Sloane, with
busts of Drs Mead, Sydenham, Baillie, &c. The college
consists of fellows and licentiates; and to the examina¬
tions conducted here we have already adverted.
The College of Surgeons in Lincoln’s Inn Fields was
erected by Sir Charles Barry in 1835, and contains the
celebrated Hunterian Museum, purchased by the govern¬
ment, and entrusted to the college. Admission is obtained
by an order from a fellow. This college originated in the
Company of Barber Surgeons, chartered in 1461.
Chelsea Hospital, for maimed and superannuated soldiers, Chelsea
is supported by government, and is similar in its origin hospital,
and objects to the twin establishment at Greenwich for
LONDON.
673
London, sailors. Chelsea College, partially built in the time of James
I., by Dr Sutcliffe, dean of Exeter, was intended for a
polemical school of divinity, but this having proved a
failure, the property fell to the crown. It was granted by
Charles II. in 1667 to the Royal Society, but reconveyed to
the crown in 1682 for L.1300. An hospital, or infirmary,
for old or wounded soldiers was commenced by Wren in
that year, and completed in 1690 at a cost of L.150,000.
It is of brick, with stone quoins, having a front of 790 feet,
and walks and gardens upwards of 40 acres in extent. The
main building forms three sides of a quadrangle, in the centre
of which stands a bronze statue of Charles II. The prin¬
cipal portion of the front is devoted to the chapel, hall, &c.,
and the two remaining sides are occupied by pensioners
(538 in 1856), who are well clothed, lodged, and fed. The
out-pensioners, a far larger body, numbering 59,987 in
1856, are scattered all over the kingdom. Near the hos¬
pital is the Royal Military Asylum, opened in 1803 for the
maintenance and education of the orphan children of sol¬
diers. It consists of a normal school for training regi¬
mental schoolmasters, and of model and infant schools ; and
the boys, of whom there are at present 479, are trained to
military exercises and trades, and are dressed in uniform.
Benevolent Among the most important of the benevolent institutions
institu- are those for the cure or alleviation of disease or external
tions. injury, such as hospitals, infirmaries, dispensaries, &c. Of
these there are no less than 177 enumerated in ihe London
Post-Office Directory for 1857.
St Bartholomew’s Hospital in West Smithfield was ori¬
ginally founded in 1102 by Rahere, prior of St Bartholomew,
and refounded in 1547 by Henry VIII. It was rebuilt in
1720 by voluntary subscription, and is well supported.
The establishment makes up nearly 600 beds, and the
average number of outdoor and indoor patients annually
relieved is upwards of 70,000.
St Thomas’s Hospital in High Street, Southwark, was
founded by the prior of Bermondsey in 1213, and refounded
by Edward VI. Rebuilt by voluntary subscription in 1693,
and extended in 1752, it was again partially rebuilt in 1836.
It consists of eighteen wards, possesses about 480 beds, has
a revenue of L.25,000 per annum, and, on the average, an¬
nually affords assistance to upwards of 45,000 in and out
patients.
Guy’s Hospital, a near neighbour of St Thomas’s Hospi¬
tal, owes its existence to Thomas Guy, a bookseller, who
built it and left at his death, in 1724, L.219,499 for its
support. Again in 1829, Mr Thomas Hunt bequeathed
to this institution L.200,000. Its ample resources are
turned to good account. Here are 544 beds, which are
filled every Wednesday morning by applicants whose cases
appear the most urgent. There is a separate lying-in
charity supported by this hospital, where 1755 cases of con¬
finement were attended in 1856.
To this class belong also,—Westminster Hospital, Broad
Sanctuary; St George’s Hospital, Hyde Park Corner; Lon¬
don Hospital, Whitechapel Road ; Charing Cross Hospital,
West Strand; Middlesex Hospital, Charles Street, Regent
Street; Royal Free Hospital, Greville Street, Hatton Gar¬
den ; Metropolitan Free Hospital, Devonshire Square, City;
King’s College Hospital, Portugal Street, Lincoln’s Inn;
University College Hospital, Gower Street; St Mary’s Hos¬
pital, Cambridge Place, Edgeware Road ; and the Seamen’s
Hospital, on board the “ Dreadnought,” off Greenwich. To
the great majority of these institutions are attached medical
schools, where lectures, delivered by those eminent in the
profession, and illustrated by practice, are available for an
almost unlimited number of students.
There are, again, establishments devoted to the cure
or relief of particular diseases, such as the hospitals for
consumption in Brompton, the City Road, and Victoria
Park; for small-pox, in Upper Holloway, &c.; for diseases
VOL. XIII.
of the eye, in Finsbury, Chandos Street, Charing Cross, London,
and Burlington Gardens; besides hospitals for the treat- s,»v^
ment of cancer, the Lock Hospital, &c.
The lying-in hospitals, too, are very numerous; and there
are eleven asylums, &c., for the relief of the blind, and deaf
and dumb. The Foundling Hospital, founded by Captain
Coram, and incorporated 1739, though not now a charity
for foundlings, maintains and educates 500 poor children.
Of the lunatic asylums, besides those in the suburbs, the
chief is,—
Bethlehem or Bedlam Hospital, which originated in the
priory of St Mary of Bethlehem, founded for lunatidS in
1247. Removed from its original site to Bethlehem, with¬
out Bishopsgate, it was given by Henry VIII. to the city
in 1545; and, after being again moved to a new site in
Moorfields about 1675, it finally was planted in its present
position in St George’s Fields in 1814. The front of the
hospital is magnificent, extending to 697 feet,—the centre
being surmounted by a dome and supported by six Ionic
columns. The interior is well arranged, warmed, and ven¬
tilated ; and having been gradually extended down to the
present day, it is now capable of receiving about 500
patients.
St Luke’s Hospital, a similar institution, more especially
devoted to incurables, is situate in Old Street, having been
brought hither in 1752 from Windmill Hill, where it was
first instituted in 1732.
The numerous institutions for rearing and educating poor
children are alluded to elsewhere. Of the infinite number
of miscellaneous charities may be mentioned,—the Royal
Literary Fund for the relief ot poor authors and their fami¬
lies. The fund consists of L.30,000 funded property, and
L.200 a-year derived from land, besides subscriptions.
The Royal Humane Society, for rewarding those who as¬
sist in the preservation of drowning persons, and for resus¬
citating the latter ; the Society of Friends of Foreigners in
Distress ; the Society for the Relief of Persons Imprisoned
for Small Debts, by which 263 poor prisoners were dis¬
charged in 1855; the Magdalen and Guardian Asylums
for prostitutes; the Society for the Suppression of Vice;
and the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.
Since the introduction of printing, London has always Literature,
been the chief resort of the literary men of this country,
as well as the head-quarters of the bookselling trade. Now,
more than ever, it is the centre of English literary circles,
the periodicals, exclusive of newspapers, being almost en¬
tirely confined to the capital. Its newspapers, too, excel
in ability, information, and circulation, any others in the
world. We subjoin a statement showing the number of
periodical publications produced in London in January
1857:—
Number, Price per Copy.
Daily newspapers  16 Id. to 4d.
Newspapers issued thrice per week  6 Id. to 5d.
Ditto issued twice a-week  4 3d. to Is. 4d.
Ditto once a-week  86 Id. to Is.
Ditto at more distant intervals  24 3d. to Is. 6d.
Total newspapers and stamped
publications  136
Weekly magazines, and weekly issues
of serial works  46 0£d. to Is.
Monthly magazines, &c. do  335 OJd. to 10s.
Quarterly reviews, &c. do  57 Id. to 7s. 6d.
Transactions of various societies  26 2s. 6d. to 40s.
Total.
464
Besides these there are numerous works published once
or twice per annum, and of these the most worthy of re¬
mark is Kelly s London Post- Office Directory, an enormous
octavo, issued regularly in November and March.
Many books have been published regarding London, but
few of them are remarkable. Stow’s Survey of London^
4 Q
674 LON
London, first published in 1598, and since improved by Strype, &c.,
(in 2 vols. folio, 1754), is the most famous. The works of
Maitland and of Pennant are also good. In the Hand¬
book to London, of 1850, Mr Peter Cunningham has
amassed a very large amount of information of the most
entertaining kind regarding the antiquities of London ; and
Mr Henry Mayhevv, in his work on London Labour and
London Poor, has collected a wonderful amount of curious
matter and statistics on his branch of the subject. But a
good and comprehensive work on London, applicable to
past and present times, is much wanted, and would, if well
executed, form a valuable addition to English literature.
British The British Museum, in Great Russell Street, Blooms-
museum, fiury} has been established for upwards of a century; old
Montague House, in which it was first deposited, having
been purchased by government from Lord Halifax in 1753.
The present building, erected 1823-47, from designs of Sir
R. Smirke, stands on the site of the former one. The nucleus
of this noble national museum was formed by the collections
of Sir Robert Cotton and Sir Hans Sloane; the former ac¬
quired in 1700, and the latter purchased by government for
L.20,000 in 1753. The Museum has since been enriched
by the following, among other acquisitions:—the Harleian
MSS., purchased in 1755; the Royal Library, presented in
1757, by George II.; the Lansdowne, Hargrave, and Bur¬
ney MSS., purchased between 1806 and 1818; the noble
Library of George III., presented by George IV. soon after
his accession, and that of the Right Hon. Thomas Grenville,
devised by will, and transferred to the Museum in 1846.
The collection of antiquities is magnificent, consisting
of,—1. The Egyptian antiquities, including the trophies of
the Egyptian expedition of 1801, presents from various
noblemen and gentlemen, and purchases, especially from
the collections of Lord Belmore, Mr Henry Salt, and Signor
Anastasi. 2. The Elgin marbles, containing the best speci¬
mens of Grecian art, purchased for L.35,000. 3. The
Phigaleian frieze. 4. The Towneley, Greek, and Roman
marbles. 5. Sir William Hamilton’s Greek and Etruscan
vases. 6. Richard Payne Knight’s fine collection of coins
and medals, with the bequest of Rev. C. M. Cracherode,
and the donations of Lady Banks and Mr W. Marsden.
The last great additions, and perhaps the most interest¬
ing, are the Nimroud marbles, collected from the ruins of
Nineveh and Babylon by Mr A. H. Layard.
The collections of natural history are also extensive, espe¬
cially in mammals, birds, and insects; while the mineral
department contains the choice cabinet of Fulke Greville,
with numerous additions, and a very fine assemblage of
organic remains.
The governing body consists of official trustees, or per¬
sonages high in the government, church, law, &c.; family
trustees,—two of the Cotton family, two of the Harley, two
of the Sloane, and one each of the Towneley, Elgin, and
Knight families; and fourteen elected trustees, all eminent
men.
From 7th May to 1st September, the Museum is open to
the public from ten till six o’clock on Mondays, Wednesdays,
and Fridays; closing at four o’clock from 1st November to
28th February; and at five o’clock during the rest of the
year. Access to the reading-room (now, 1857, on an en¬
larged scale) attached to the library may be obtained by
written application to the librarian, who issues tickets of ad¬
mission available for six months. (See Libraries.)
The number of visitors to the Museum in 1855, was
334,089 (in 1850, 2,527,216) ; the number of visitors to
the reading-room being, in 1855, 53,567.
t enn/fnnua*. exPenditure of the Museum trustees is about
L.60,000, which is chiefly defrayed by the public.
I he Geological Museum in Jermyn Street, a branch of
t e Government Department of Science and Art, is also
open to the public. It contains specimens of British mien-
D O N.
rals, raw and manufactured; and lectures are delivered here London,
on mining, metallurgy, &c. ^ ,r
Though not open for general inspection, access may easily
be obtained to Sir John Soane’s Museum in Lincoln’s Inn
Fields, and that of the United Service Institution in White¬
hall Yard, and they both merit a careful examination.
Exclusive of the government institutions for the promo- Literary
tion of science and art, there are many voluntary associa- and scien-
tions having the same object. Of these, the first in rank tific insti-
and antiquity is— tutions.
The Royal Society, Somerset House, incorporated in
1663, and well known from its Philosophical Transac¬
tions, published since 1665. The Society of Antiquaries,
founded 1707, has also apartments in Somerset House. Its
researches have been given to the public in Archceologia,
first published in 1770. The Society of Arts, John Street
Adelphi, established in 1754 for the encouragement of
arts, manufactures, and commerce, was incorporated in 1846;
and with a kindred object arose the Great Exhibition of
1851 and its Crystal Palace.
There are also, among many more, the following, bearing
names indicating their character and objects:—The Medi¬
cal Society, established 1773. Linnaean Society, founded
1785, and incorporated 1802. Horticultural Society, esta¬
blished 1804, and incorporated 1808. Medical and Chi-
rurgical Society, established 1805. Geological Society,
established 1807, incorporated 1826. Astronomical So¬
ciety, established 1820, incorporated 1831. Asiatic Society,
for research into eastern literature, founded in 1823. So¬
ciety of Literature, founded in 1821, and incorporated
1825. Zoological Society, founded in 1825, and incorpo¬
rated 1829; has an extensive collection of animals in Re¬
gent’s Park. Geographical Society, incorporated 1830. Sta¬
tistical Society, founded in 1834. Royal Botanical Society,
incorporated 1839, and possessing 18 acres of garden in
Regent’s Park. Institute of British Architects, established
1834, and incorporated 1837. Institution of Civil En¬
gineers, established 1818, incorporated 1828. Ethnologi¬
cal Society, Newman Street, Oxford Street; Numismatic
Society, Gate Street, Lincoln’s Inn; the Archaeological Insti¬
tute and Archaeological Association, both branches of the So¬
ciety of Antiquaries, and established in 1843. Most of these
societies publish journals or transactions at stated periods ;
and they generally hold meetings weekly or every alternate
week during six months of the year, from November to June.
There are also numerous institutions which partake, to
some extent, the character of clubs, where newspapers and
periodical publications are furnished to subscribers, and lec¬
tures are delivered by eminent men on various subjects.
The oldest and most important of these is—
The Royal Institution in Albemarle Street, founded in
1799. Here Sir Humphry Davy and Sidney Smith de¬
livered lectures, and Dr Faraday still maintains its reputa¬
tion. It has a tolerable library and the current periodical
literature of the day for the use of members. The London
Institution in Finsbury Circus, the Russell Institution in
Great Coram Street, the Marylebone, the Westminster,
and the Pimlico Institutions, and a host of others, are all of
the same class.
Again, the mechanics’ institutes are after the same
model, though on a smaller scale, and of these there are
several in the metropolis. The circulating libraries are also
very numerous; but perhaps the most important is the
London Library in St James’s Square, which now contains
78,000 volumes, collected within the last sixteen years.
The Library of Sion College, London Wall, founded
1623, and that in Red Cross Street, established by Dr
William’s, who died 1716, are open to all respectable per¬
sons, and contain together about 60,000 volumes.
The National Gallery, which contains the chief portion of Picture
the national collection of paintings, constitutes the north side galleries.
LON
London.
Art insti¬
tutions.
Clubs.
of Trafalgar Square, and occupies one of the best sites in the
metropolis. The foundation of the collection was made in
1824 by the purchase of Mr Angerstein’s collection, but it
has chiefly been increased by donations. The Gallery was
erected in 1834-38, has a frontage of460 feet, and contains, in
all, ten rooms for pictures; this accommodation being shared
equally by the trustees of the Gallery and by the Royal
Academy. It contains many specimens of the Italian and
Flemish, and a few of the Spanish schools; of which last the
Holy Family, by Murillo, is a remarkably fine picture.
There are, too, some good Claudes and Poussins in the gal¬
lery. In consequence of the late gifts to the public of the
collections formed by Mr Vernon and Mr Sheepshanks, and
of his own works bequeathed by Mr J. W. M. Turner, the
moiety of the Gallery is now quite insufficient for the whole.
On this account a portion, chiefly of the English school,
has been temporarily removed to Marlborough House; and
a royal commission is now (1857) sitting to fix upon a site
for a new Gallery. The rooms in Trafalgar Square and
Marlborough House are open to the public from Monday
to Thursday inclusive, and to students on Tuesdays and
Saturdays. A royal commission has this year (1857) been
appointed for the formation of a portrait gallery in honour
of distinguished men.
The chief private collections are those of Her Majesty, the
Duke of Sutherland, the Marquis of Westminster, Marquis of
Hertford, Earl of Ellesmere, Lord Ward, Sir Robert Peel,
Mr Hope, Mr Thomas Baring, Mr Holford, &c.
The Royal Academy, chartered in 1768, is established
under the same roof as the National Gallery. Here lec¬
tures on the fine arts, which now form part of the litera¬
ture of the country, have been delivered by Sir Joshua Rey¬
nolds and other eminent presidents of the Academy. A
good collection of paintings and casts, and copies from
famous statues, are kept in the Academy for the use of
students; and works of living artists in painting and sculp¬
ture are annually exhibited here. The sale of tickets yields
the Academy a revenue of L.5000 or L.6000 a-year.
The British Institution, founded in 1805, is composed of
amateurs, who, for the culture of public taste, lend and bor¬
row good pictures, and exhibit them annually in their gal¬
lery, in Pall Mall.
The Society of Painters in Water Colours, established in
1804, has an annual exhibition of productions in this
branch of art at 5 Pall Mall East.
The Society of British Artists in Suffolk Street, Pall
Mall, is comprised of a section of artists who disapprove of
the Royal Academy, or whose works have been rejected there.
The Art Union of London consists of a varying body of
subscribers, to some of whom valuable works of art are dis¬
tributed by lottery, and who all receive annually an en¬
graving from the work of some British artist.
Of the societies for the cultivation of music,—
The Royal Academy of Music in Tenterden Street, Ha¬
nover Square, was founded in 1822. It affords tuition, vocal
and instrumental, to indoor and outdoor students, on the
payment of certain fees. There are, besides, the Sacred
Harmonic at Exeter Hall, the Philharmonic, and several
other similar societies.
London is especially remarkable for its clubs. The chief
of these are the following :—
In Pall Mall :—
Army and Navy.
Athenaeum.
Carlton.
Guards’.
Oxford & Cambridge.
Reform.
Travellers’.
United Service.
United University.
In St James’s Stjreet :—
Arthur’s.
Boodle’s.
Brooks’s.
Conservative.
White’s.
With the Junior United Service, in Charles Street, St James’s;
the Union, in Trafalgar Square; Oriental, in Hanover Square ; and
the City Club, in Old Broad Street.
D O N. 675
Of all the clubs, White’s is the oldest and most exclusive, London,
dating its foundation about 1698, and reminding us of the
White’s chocolate-house of the Taller, and of the days of
Addison and Steele. It has not, however, the architectural
pretensions of the club-houses in Pall Mall, some of which
are copies after celebrated Italian palaces. Thus the Army
and Navy Club is a pretty close imitation of the Palazzo
Cornaro on the Grand Canal at Venice. These establish¬
ments are furnished in a very sumptuous manner, and
afford a very luxurious style of cuisine. The number of
members is usually limited, but varies in the different clubs
from 300 to 2000. The members are elected by ballot;
their entrance-fee varying from 9 to 30 guineas, and an¬
nual subscription from 5 to 12. All the clubs are pro¬
vided with the newspapers and publications of the day,
and some of them have extensive and valuable libraries.
A few of these establishments, such as Brooks’s, the Carlton,
Conservative, and Reform, are of a political nature ; others
are exclusively professional, such as the two United Ser¬
vice, and the Army and Navy Clubs; and some are of a
miscellaneous character.
The largest monuments in London are “ The Monu- Monuments
ment,”the York and Nelson Columns, and the Welling-sta'
ton Arch. The first, a fluted Doric column 202 feet high, tues‘
on Fish Street Hill, was constructed in 1671-8, from a de¬
sign by Wren, to commemorate the great fire of 1666.
The offensive inscription on its base, attributing the fire to
the Roman Catholics, was removed in 1830.
The column to the late Duke of York, raised in 1833,
is at the top of the steps leading from Waterloo Place
into St James’s Park. It is plain Doric, 124 feet high,
built of granite, and surmounted by a statue, 14 feet high,
of his royal highness.
The Nelson column is fluted Corinthian, 176 feet high,
having on the top a statue of the naval hero by Baily,
and on the base sculptured reliefs illustrative of his death
and the great events of his life.
The Wellington Arch, at the top of Constitution Hill,
was erected from designs by Decimus Burton in 1828,
and appropriated in 1846 to the support of an equestrian
statue, by Matthew Wyatt, of the late Duke of Wellington.
The equestrian statues are those of Charles I., by Le
Soeur, at Charing Cross; William III., by Bacon, in St
James’s Square; of William, Duke of Cumberland, in Ca¬
vendish Square; of George III., by Wyatt, in Pall Mall
East; George IV., in Trafalgar Square; and the Duke of
Wellington, by Chantrey, in front of the Royal Exchange.
The others of note are of Elizabeth, James L, Charles L,
and Charles II., on Temple Bar; of James II., by Gib¬
bons, in Whitehall Gardens; of Queen Anne, by Bird, in
front of St Paul’s; of William IV., in King William Street,
City; of Her present Majesty, in the court of the Royal
Exchange; of Pitt and Fox, in Hanover and Bloomsbury
Squares; of the Duke of Wellington, in the Tower; of Sir
Robert Peel, in Cheapside; of General Sir Charles Napier,
in Trafalgar Square, &c.
London, in proportion to its extent and wealth, has fewer Theatres,
theatres than any other European capital. The largest
and most fashionable is Her Majesty’s Theatre, or the Italian
Opera House, in the Haymarket. Burned down in 1789,
it was rebuilt in 1790, and enlarged by Nash in 1818. It
is now capable of containing 2500 persons ; the boxes and
stalls being private property, or let for the season, and the
pit and gallery open, on payment, to the general public.
The entertmnments consist of operas and ballets; the singers,
dancers, an« musicians being almost exclusively foreigners;
but though this house is liberally patronized, especially by
the higher classes, far beyond the national theatres, it
usually proves ruinous to any one bold enough to under¬
take its management.
Drury Lane Theatre, in Brydges Street, the only patent
676
LONDON.
London, establishment since the destruction by fire of Covent
Garden Theatre in 1856, nominally enjoys a kind of mono¬
poly of the legitimate drama. The present building is
the fourth of a series erected here since 1663, two of which
were burned in 1672 and 1809. That now in existence,
built in 1811, and improved in 1820, has, it is said, sitting
room for an audience of 3500. The regular drama having
fallen into neglect of late, partly from the dearth of his¬
trionic talent, and partly from the strong tendency of fashion
towards musical entertainments, this house is now very often
devoted to operas and dancing.
The Haymarket Theatre, first started in 1720, and
rebuilt in 1821, and the Princess’s Theatre in Oxford
Street, are both small, but well managed and success- London,
ful.
Besides these there are about seventeen minor theatres,
not demanding particular notice here.
During the summer season the gardens at Vauxhall and
at Cremorne, and the Surrey Gardens, are usually open in
the evenings. Displays of fire-works, horsemanship, bal¬
loon ascents, music and dancing, form the chief attractions
to those places.
The bridges spanning the Thames in its passage through Bridges.
London are 9 in number, 8 of these being adapted for
carriages. The following table will show the cost and
dimensions of these various bridges:—
Table showing the Material, Cost, fyc., of the Bridges over the Thames, in London and its vicinity {compiled from
Mi CullocKs Geographical Dictionary, and Parliamentary Paper (193) of Sept. 1856.
Names.
London Bridge.
Southwark  
Blackfriars 
Waterloo 
Westminster....
Vauxhall  
Hungerford Suspension
Chelsea Suspension 
Battersea 
Date
of comple¬
tion.
1831
1819
1770
1817
1751
1814
1845
1857
1770
Material.
Granite
Iron arches, stone piers
Stone
Granite
Portland stone
Iron arches, stone piers
{Brick & stone piers,)
timber platform J
Iron piers & roadway
Wood
Cost,
including
Approaches.
L.
2,000,000
800,000
260,000
1,150,000
389,500
Unknown.
113,000
88,000
Not known.
Cost,
exclusive of
Approaches.
L.
542,150
384,000
157,840
579,915
300,000
98,760
Number
of
Arches
6
3
9
9
15
9
Nil-
Length.
Feet.
904
800
995
1380
1160
840
1536
922
Breadth.
Feet.
53
42
42
42
43
36
13
45
Span of
Central
Arch.
Feet.
150
240
100
120
76
78
N.B.—The cost of New Westminster Bridge is estimated at L.235,000.
None of the existing bridges have any interesting associ¬
ations connected with them, except London Bridge, and
that only in right of its predecessor, so well known as Old
London Bridge. In 1209 the latter (the first stone
bridge) was built, and by dint of occasional repairs, it ex¬
isted for upwards of six centuries. But the obstruction to
the tides offered by its peculiar formation, proved so serious
an evil, that it was at length necessarily doomed, and one
of London’s quaintest features disappeared in 1834. New
London Bridge, begun in 1824, and completed in 1831, is
placed about 200 feet farther up than the old one. It is
built of granite, and was designed by the late John Rennie.
Proceeding up the river, the second is Southwark Bridge,
leading from Queen Street, City, to Southwark. It was
begun by Mr Rennie in 1814, completed in 1819, and is
composed chiefly of cast-iron. It was constructed at the
expense of a joint-stock company, by whom the tolls are
levied.
Blackfriars Bridge, the next in position, commenced in
1760, was finished in 1770. It stands midway between
Waterloo and ■ Southwark bridges, and has unfortunately,
within the last few years, shown symptoms of decrepitude.
Waterloo Bridge, the most admired of all, comes next,
and was commenced in 1811, and finished in 1817. The
arches, nine in number, are elliptical, and each 120 feet wide,
so that its symmetry is perfect and its roadway a dead level.
It was built by the late Mr Rennie for a joint-stock com¬
pany, and is undoubtedly his greatest work. Canova de¬
clared it to be the finest feature of London. But though
most ornamental to the city, it is, in consequence of its toll,
but little frequented.
Hungerford Suspension-Bridge, opened in 1845, is the
only one exclusively for foot passengers; but the proprietors,
who levy tolls, contemplate widening the bridgg for a car¬
riage-way. It springs on the Middlesex side Dxun Hun-
gerford market, and rests on the Surrey side, near the ter¬
minus of the South-Western Railway.
Westminster, the oldest of the metropolitan bridges,
was begun in 1739, and completed in 1751. The road¬
way has been materially lowered within the last twelve years;
and the lofty stone balustrade which obstructed the view
has been removed, and an unsightly wooden boarding sub¬
stituted. From the very low situation of the New Houses
of Parliament, they are to some extent hidden by this
bridge, and it is therefore proposed to build another more
in harmony with them.
Vauxhall Bridge, next in order, was commenced in 1813,
and finished in 1816, by a joint-stock company still in
receipt of the tolls. It affords ready communication with
Surrey to Belgravia and other new districts lately created
by Mr Cubitt and the Marquis of Westminster.
Chelsea Suspension-Bridge, commenced in 1851, is all
but finished, and will be opened this year (1857). It con¬
nects Chelsea with the new park at Battersea, and, taken in
conjunction with it and the embankment of the Thames
from Vauxhall Bridge to Cheyne Walk, forms a gigantic
undertaking.
Battersea Bridge, a wooden structure, connects Chelsea
with Battersea, and is the last of the bridges within the me¬
tropolitan boundaries. It belongs to a body of about thir¬
teen proprietors, who levy tolls, and derive about L.500 per
annum each as net revenue.
The tunnel under the Thames, one of the wonders of Thames
London, is situate about 2 miles below London Bridge, tunnel,
starting from the Middlesex side of the river in High Street,
Wapping, and leading into Rotherhithe, on the Surrey side.
This great achievement was effected by the late Sir Isam-
bert Brunei, the distinguished inventor of block machi¬
nery, &c. It was undertaken for a joint-stock company,
incorporated in 1824; and the expense was originally
estimated at L. 160,000. The tunnel was commenced in
1825, and, after repeated accidents from invasions of the
river, it was, with the assistance of government grants,
completed in 1840. It is of brick, and its form is cylin¬
drical ; a tube nearly 1200 feet long being cut by a longi¬
tudinal division into two equal parts or roadways, 15 feet
high by 12 broad. It is entered at either end by long de¬
scending stairs; and this difficulty of approach, and other
circumstances, have hitherto rendered this great triumph
of science and perseverance of comparatively little service to
LONDON.
677
London, the public. It is used to some small extent by passengers,
but chiefly visited as a curiosity.
Corpora. Though the government of by far the greater part of the
tion of metropolis is intrusted to the secretary of state for the
London. home department, and administered under him by the com¬
missioners of police ; yet that portion known as The City,
is under the exclusive superintendence of the Corporation
of London, a body wielding considerable power, and pos¬
sessed of extensive property.
The origin of this body has been shortly alluded to in the
commencement of this article. It consists of the lord
mayor, the court of aldermen, 25 in number, exclusive of
his lordship, and 206 members forming the court of com¬
mon council. The lord mayor is chosen annually from
among the aldermen, but is capable of re-election. The
right of nominating two aldermen worthy of election to the
dignity, is restricted to those freemen of the city who have
been admitted into the livery of their respective guilds or
companies. The court of aldermen then decide which of
the two is to be promoted. The number of livery-men
in 1856-7 was 6611. (See Livery.) The other essential
qualification for the mayoralty is previous service as sheriff.
The aldermen hold office for life. They are elected one for
each of the 26 divisions or wards of the city, and all resi¬
dent freemen are entitled to vote in the election for their
ward, whether they are livery-men or not. Each alderman
appoints one deputy, and in some cases two, for his ward.
The members of common council are chosen annually
by the rate-payers of the various wards, but members are
for the most part re-elected. As shown in the following
table, the several wards differ very materially in extent,
and so does the number of their representatives in common
council:—
Account shotting the Number of Common Councilmen re
turned by each of the 26 Wards of the City of London.
Common
Wards Councilmen.
Aldersgate  8
Aldgate   8
Bassishaw   4
Billingsgate   8
Bishopsgate  .....14
Bread Street   8
Bridge "Within   8
Bridge Without  Nil
Broad Street   8
Candlewick  6
Castle Baynard   8
Cheap   8
Coleman Street   8
Cordwainers   6
Cornhill   6
Forward ... 108
Common
Wards, Councilmen
Forward... 108
Cripplegate Within
and Without   16
Dowgate  6
Farringdon Within... 14
... Without.. 16
Langbourn  8
Lime Street   4
Portsoken   8
Queenhithe   6
Tower   8
Vintry  6
Walbrook  6
206
Aldermen  26
Total  232
The ward of Bridge Without is a sinecure reserved for
the senior alderman, as there have been no inhabitants
in it since the demolition of' Old London Bridge. The civic
deliberative assembly meeting in Guildhall consists of 232
members, of which his lordship is ex-officio president.
The law officers of the corporation are the recorder and
common serjeant, both barristers, who have seats in this
assembly, but no vote. The sheriffs are chosen annually
on Midsummer-Day by the livery, and are executive officers
for the county of Middlesex as well as the city of London.
The chamberlain is chosen annually by the livery, but
the office is virtually one for life. He has the care of the
city revenues. Besides, there are the city remembrancer,
solicitor, town-clerk, comptroller, and many inferior
officers, most of whom are chosen by the court of com¬
mon council.
The dignity and power of the lord mayor is great. He
is the representative of royalty in the civil government of
the city, chief commissioner of its lieutenancy, conservator London,
of the River Thames, and on the demise of a sovereign he
becomes pro tern, a member of the privy council. To
maintain the fame of the city for hospitality, an allowance
of L.8000 per annum is made to his lordship, with the use
of the Mansion House, furniture, carriages, &c. To gene¬
rous mayors this sum is insufficient, while the parsimonious
profit by the undertaking. But municipal honours are not
now, as in the olden time, the pride and ambition of the first
merchants and bankers of the city, and from various causes
all city men of the highest standing studiously avoid any
distinction of this kind.
The 9th of November, when the lord mayor enters into
office is kept as a partial holiday in the city. He then pro¬
ceeds in state to Westminster Hall, where he is duly sworn,
and in the evening he gives a banquet in Guildhall to the
great officers of state, judges, foreign ambassadors, city
functionaries, &c.
The report of the commissioners appointed to inquire Revenue,
into the state of the Corporation of London, presented to
Parliament in 1854, gives an account of the revenue and
expenditure of the city for 1852, from which it appears
that the former amounted to L.551,97l, 5s. 4d., and the
latter to L.403,983, Is. 2d., leaving a surplus of L.l 47,988;
but of this L.127,710 was payable to the government office
of works, for metropolitan improvements beyond the limits
of the city. The report alluded to recommends some radi¬
cal changes in the constitution of the corporation, and con¬
siderable abridgment of its privileges. Already bills, adopt¬
ing in great measure the suggestions of the commissioners,
have been brought into Parliament, and will most likely
ere long pass into law.
Neither the Mansion House nor the Guildhall is remark¬
able for architectural beauty, though both of them are large
buildings. The former was erected in 1740, and the latter
in 1789, on the site of a previous Hall built in 1411.
The following are three of the chief items of the city
revenue in the year 1855:—
Duties on coals brought to the metropolis  L.135,154
Police rates  56,505
Sewer rates  75,764
Intimately connected with the corporation are the various
guilds or companies composed of livery-men, and whose
functions in civic elections have been already noticed. Of
these companies there are upwards of 80, of which 39 have
halls, the rest meeting in Guildhall or in taverns.
In Stow’s time there were but 63, and of these there
were 12,—
The Mercers,
... Grocers,
... Drapers,
... Fishmongers,
... Goldsmiths,
... Skinners,
—called by him “honourable companies, out of which
the lord maier is to be chosen yearely, because those of
inferiour ranke are not capable of such dignitie.” This
restriction no longer exists, but the twelve companies
still maintain a certain pre-eminence, and are called the
“ great companies.” Some of these are possessed of large
property; the goldsmiths, mercers, grocers, fishmongers,
merchant tailors, &c., having noble halls where they
dispense the most princely hospitality. The goldsmiths
(the richest of all) existed ai early as 1180, but were not
chartered till 1327, and were long the chief bankers of
London. At present all articles of gold and silver must
be assayed and marked by this company. Their new hall,
on the site of the former one in Foster Lane, is classic in
style, and of noble proportions, but hidden by neighbour¬
ing houses. The others of most mark are Fishmongers’
Hall at the corner of London Bridge; Mercers’ Hall in
The Merchant Tailors,
... Haberdashers,
... Salters,
... Ironmongers,
... Vintners, and
... Clothworkers.
678
LONDON.
London. Cheapside ; Grocers’ Hall in Bank Buildings ; Merchant
^ Tailors’ Hall m Threadneedle Street, &c., &c.
Tolice. The police force, in its present form, was established
in 1829. There are in all thirteen police courts in the
metropolis, of which eleven are under the superinten¬
dence of the Home Secretary, and two under that of the
city corporation ; justice being dispensed in the former by
stipendiary magistrates, and in the latter by the mayor and
aldermen. London is indebted for its present efficient police
force, as for many other advantages, to Sir Robert Peel.
There are in all upwards of 128 city and metropolitan police
stations. The following table will show the distribution of
the police force between the city and other parts of Lon¬
don :—
Debtors’
prisons.
Return shoiving the Strength of the Police Force employed
in the Metropolis in 1856, distinguishing those employed
by the Commissioners of Police, and those employed by
the Corporation of the City of London :—
Police.
Force acting under
Commissioners of
Police, consisting of
18 divisions (A to V
and Thames) 
Force under the Cor
poration of the City
of London....
:)
Total
Number
of Men.
5817
589
Average
Number on
Day Duty.
2272
340
Average
Number on
Night Duty.
3545
249
Total.
6406
2612
3794
The prisons for debtors in the metropolis are three in
number,—the Queen’s Prison and Horsemonger Lane
Gaol in Southwark, and Whitecross Street Prison in the
City. The Queen’s Prison contains 220 rooms, but from
changes in the law it is now comparatively little used. For¬
merly, debtors imprisoned here were allowed to purchase
the right to live within the rules or liberties of the prison,
which extended for a considerable distance around its walls.
This system was abolished by 5th and 6th Viet., c. 22.
^ ; The numbers of prisoners for debt in two of the metro¬
politan prisons during the year ended 25th March 1856
were:—
Prisons. Prisoners.
Queen’s Prison      400
WMtecross Street Prison   2358
Total  2758
Criminal of prisons for criminals there are twelve within the bounds
prisons. 0f ^ metr0p0iis> The first and most noted is Newgate
Prison in the Old Bailey, the common gaol for London and
Middlesex. The old gaol was burned by a mob in 1780,
but a new one having been partially built at that period, it
was soon completed. The number of prisoners varies from
300 to 950, though there is not proper accommodation for
above 480. In front of this prison sentences of death are
carried into effect for capital crimes committed in London
and Middlesex.
Under the management of the directors of government
convict prisons are the four following:—
Millbank Prison, to accommodate 1100 males and 180 females.
Pentonville ... ... 560 males.
Erixton ... ... 650 females.
Fulham Refuge  180 females.
Besides these there are—
The House of Correction at Holloway, a new establishment, cal¬
culated to hold  420
Cold Bath Fields Prison, near Gray’s Inn Lane 1398
The House of Correction ia TothiU Fields, Westminster .... - 900
House of Detention at Clerkenwell    331 London.
Criminal side of Horsemonger Lane Gaol   364 v |
Surrey County Gaol, Wandsworth Common    708
Borough Compter, in Mill Street.
The following is an account of the number of persons
imprisoned in each of the principal prisons during the year
ended 25th March 1856:—
Table showing the Number of Prisoners confined in the
various Metropolitan Gaols and Houses of Detention
for Criminals, and the Mortality therein, in the Year
ended 25th March 1856.
Gaols, &c.
Numbers
confined.
Deaths.
of'
Newgate Prison .
Holloway House
Correction  j
Cold Bath Fields Prison
Westminster House of)
Correction  ]
Clerkenwell do   
Millbank Prison 
Pentonville Prison 
*'Horsemonger Lane Gaol
2,072
2,242
8,113
7,980
11,418
2,093
1,032
3,511
1
2
28
11
1 (suicide)
11
6
1
Total.
38,461
61
* This prison includes debtors.
The tendency within the last twenty years has been to
suppress prisons in the crowded parts of the metropolis;
and in this way London has got rid of the Fleet, Marshalsea,
and Giltspur Street Prisons; and a fourth—the Bridewell—
has fallen into disuse.
There are 71 main sewers, and about 1000 miles of sewers Sewerage,
in the metropolis, and the same extent of house or minor
drains. In 1854 there were 347 miles of pipe sewers alone,
draining about 27,000 houses. But large as this amount of
sewerage appears to be, it is still far from being adequate to
secure the comfort of the inhabitants, and cesspools and
such like nuisances still exist to a considerable extent. The
sewers of “ The City” are managed by the City Commis¬
sioners of Sewers; while the superintendence of the sewers
and the gradual extension of a proper system of drainage to
every other part of the metropolis has been entrusted to the
New Metropolitan Board of Works established in 1855. It
is seriously proposed to divert the whole drainage of London
from the Thames, to carry it off in a monster sewer, and to
throw it into the sea.
Owing to the overcrowded and offensive state of many Cemeteries,
of the metropolitan churchyards, the necessity for other
receptacles for the dead has long been apparent. The
consternation produced in London by the late visitations of
cholera gave rise to the Metropolis Burials Act and the
appointment of inspectors of burial-grounds. All such as
are, from time to time, considered dangerous or unwhole¬
some are now, by order in council, closed against funerals.
The number of cemeteries in the suburbs of London has
constantly increased of late years. Many of these ceme¬
teries are prettily situated, such as those at Highgate
and Norwood; and most of them are laid out with great *
taste. The others of most importance are,—the Brompton
Cemetery (the property of government) ; Kensall Green, on
the Harrow Road, formed in 1832, and the property of a
joint-stock company; and Abney Park, Stoke Newington, and
Nunhead cemeteries. The London Necropolis Company
have also a cemetery at Woking, whither funerals are
conveyed by railway. It is doubtful, however, whether
private companies can safely be trusted with the manage¬
ment of these concerns, as their pecuniary interests are so
much at variance with the promotion of public health. It
would therefore be sound policy on the part of the govern-
LONDON.
679
London, ment to take these establishments into its own manage-
' ment, and suppress all private speculations of the kind.
Insurance It is calculated that, on the average, the annual number
againstfire. of destructive fires in this city amounts to 665 ; and hence
the system of insurance against fire is very general. There
are in London alone forty-nine offices for effecting this
Fire- species of insurance; and the chief insurance companies
engines. maintain a fire-engine establishment at twenty-two different
stations throughout the metropolis. As already mentioned,
too, there are fire-plugs in every street for the supply of
water for the engines, and fire-escapes for saving life are
kept ready at convenient spots throughout the metropolis.
The troops usually kept in London consist of two of the
three regiments of Life-Guards and Horse-Guards, and 5
battalions of Foot-Guards, numbering in all 4860; and
there is barrack accommodation for 132 officers and 4845
men. The principal barracks for the Foot-Guards are the
Wellington Barracks in Bird Cage Walk, the barracks in
the Tower, at Charing-Cross, Portman Street Portman
Square, and St John’s Wood; the chief cavalry barracks
being situated in Knightsbridge, Hyde Park, and Albany
Street, Regent’s Park. A volunteer corps, called the Royal
Artillery Company, and composed of citizens, is well main¬
tained, and their training-ground lies near the City Road.
As may be seen from the table annexed, the metropolis
returns 16 members to parliament; Marylebone, Finsbury,
Tower Hamlets, and Lambeth, having acquired their right
under the Reform Act. The inhabitants of certain districts
of London, such as Chelsea, Kensington, Brompton, Net¬
ting Hill, See., which are not included in any of the me¬
tropolitan cities or boroughs, form part of the constituency
of the county of Middlesex. It has been more than once
proposed to constitute Chelsea, Kensington, &c., a parlia¬
mentary borough, with the right of returning two members ;
and from their growing importance, it is likely that this
proposition will ultimately be carried out.
Account of the number of Representatives allotted to each
of the Parliamentary Cities and Boroughs in the Metro¬
polis, and the Number of Electors Registered in each in
1857.
Internal
and ex¬
ternal
communi¬
cation.
Railways.
Cities and Boroughs.
London (City of)........
Westminster (City of)..
Marylebone (Borough)
Finsbury,* do 
Tower Hamlets, do 
Southwark, do 
Lambeth,* do 
Total.
Members.
16
Registered
Electors.
19,115
13,182
20,851
20,025
27,980
10,170
18,131
129,454
* The numbers of electors for Finsbury and Lambeth are applicable to 1852.
Greenwich, which is now an outpost of London, also re¬
turns two members.
Looking at the map of London, the River Thames at¬
tracts the eye as forming one great means of metropolitan
internal communication ; and the steamers which ply from
the east to the west end every five minutes during the day,
materially relieve the crowded streets from what would
otherwise be an intolerable pressure.
The shipping of London, one of its greatest means of
communication, has already been noticed.
The great railways having termini in London are,—the
North-Western, Great Western, South-Western, South-
Eastern, Eastern Counties, and Great Northern, and these London,
afford means of reaching all parts of the empire with won-
derful speed and comfort, and at moderate fares. There
are also smaller lines more exclusively for the convenience
of Londoners, such as those to Greenwich, Blackwall,
Hampton Court, Windsor, &c. Street com-
Thereare at present (1857) in London 4312 hackney cabs, mun cation
and 1019 omnibuses, for the conveyance of persons from any
part of the metropolis to another. The cabs, though not
what they should be, and still inferior in comfort and clean¬
liness to those of other large cities, have been much im¬
proved since placed under the more immediate surveillance
of the police. They convey two persons, with a moderate
allowance of luggage, at the rate of 6d. per mile, within a
radius of 4 miles from Charing Cross; while by omnibuses
one may travel half-a-dozen miles for 6d., or even less.
The extent to which the latter are patronized may be esti¬
mated from the weekly traffic receipts of the General Om¬
nibus Company (the chief proprietors of these vehicles),
which amounted, in the week ended 7th March 1857, to
L.10,818, 15s.
The great street thoroughfares are about eight in num¬
ber, one half running from E. to W., parallel to, or follow¬
ing to some extent the sinuosities of the river, and the rest
tending from N. to S., and cutting the others nearly at
right angles. Of the former, the most important are,—ls£,
That running from the Tower through Eastcheap, Cannon
Street, Fleet Street, and Strand, and either by Drury Lane
and Long Acre to Piccadilly and Kensington, or by White¬
hall and Victoria Street to Pimlico; and 2d, That leading
from Mile-end through Whitechapel, Cheapside, Newgate
Street, Holborn, and Oxford Street, to Bayswater. Of
those running from N. to S. may be distinguished,—1^,
That from Kingsland Road through Shoreditch and Bishops-
gate Street, by London Bridge and High Street, Borough,
to the Bricklayers’ Arms ; and 2d, That from Kentish Town
Road by High Street, Camden Town, the Hampstead Road,
and Tottenham Court Road or Gower Street, through Bow
Street, and by Waterloo Bridge and Waterloo Road to the
Elephant and Castle.
The Regent, and Grand Junction Canals, besides serv- Canals,
ing as the means of internal navigation to the Irish
Channel, are most useful (as are also, on a smaller scale,
the Surrey, Grosvenor, and Kensington Canals) in convey¬
ing coals and such heavy goods into the heart and outskirts
of the metropolis. The facility of postal communication
is elsewhere noticed.
The Electric Telegraph Company have twenty stations Telegraphs
in different parts of London; and at charges varying from
Is. 6d. to 5s. and upwards, convey messages to almost all
the civilized parts of the old hemisphere, and measures are
in progress for completing communication of this kind with
America.
The fate of London has often given rise to prophetic Condusionl
speculations; and an eminent historian of the present day
has shadowed forth its ruin at a somewhat distant period.
But though it has increased enormously within the last cen¬
tury, its increased facility of communication, and advance
in science, have been in a greater ratio. We may therefore
safely quote the words of David Hume as applicable to the
London of the present day. Speaking of its enormous and
increasing size, he says,1—“ Some men are apprehensive of
the consequence. For my own part, I cannot help think¬
ing, that though the head is undoubtedly too large for the
body, yet that great city is so happily situated, that its ex¬
cessive bulk causes less inconvenience than even a smaller
capital to a greater kingdom.” (h. g. r.)
1 Essay on Public Credit.
680
LON
London
London¬
derry.
London, a town of Canada West, capital of Middle¬
sex county, is situate on the left bank of the Thames, an
affluent of Lake St Clair, 115 miles S.W. of Toronto. It
stands in the centre of the peninsula which divides Lakes
Huron and Erie ; and is connected by railway with Detroit,
Toronto, Montreal, and Quebec. The town was laid out
in 1826, and since then it has risen rapidly into importance.
In 1844 and 1845 it suffered severely from fires, which con¬
sumed at different times the Episcopal church and many
of the houses. These, however, were rebuilt; the former
in greater elegance, the latter on a more commodious
and substantial plan. In 1855 London contained several
fine buildings, such as the city hall, erected at a cost of
L.15,000; a market-house, and 12 churches, belonging to
the Episcopalian, Roman Catholic, Wesleyan, and other
denominations. Its schools also fully supply the wants of
the community, and are well attended. Iron-casting is
carried on with considerable success, while coal is compara¬
tively plentiful. The chief trade of the town, however, is
in the grain of the county, which is reputed one of the most
fertile in Upper Canada. Pop. (1852) 7000, (1855) about
13,000.
London, New, a seaport-town of the United States of
N. America, New London county, Connecticut, on the W.
bank of the Thames estuary, 3 miles from the sea, and 120
miles E.N.E. of New York by railway; N. Lat. (of light¬
house) 41. 18. 57., W. Long. 72. 5. 4. It is situate on an
acclivity which rises from the waterside, and attains a con¬
siderable elevation at the back of the town. The streets
are not so regularly laid out here as in most American
towns, owing to the inequality of the ground, which rests
on a granite formation. Much, however, has been done of
late to level the surface. The chief public edifices are,—
the custom-house, a handsome granite building near the
river, the court-house, and numerous churches belonging
to the various denominations, besides public and private
schools. The harbour of New London is one of the best
in the Union, being 3 miles in length, with 5 fathoms of
water, and is seldom obstructed with ice during w inter. It
is protected from the ocean by Fisher’s Island. The great
trade of the port is connected with the whale fishery, which
is carried on yearly in a number of vessels, having an aggre¬
gate burden of 16,000 tons. In 1849, 1949 barrels of
sperm oil arrived here, besides 38,030 barrels of common
whale oil, and 2688 cwts. of whalebone. The coasting
trade and cod fishery are carried on here with much vigour
and success; while ship-building and machine-making are
also on the increase. The town was settled in 1644, and
a large part of it was burned by the British under Benedict
Arnold, in September 1781. Pop. (1840) 5519, (1850)
8991, (1853) about 10,000.
LONDONDERRY, a maritime county in the province
of Ulster, in Ireland, bounded on the N. by the Atlantic,
on the E. by the county of Antrim, on the S. by that of
Tyrone, and on the W. by Donegal and Lough Foyle. Its
greatest length is from the point of Magilligan, at the en¬
trance of Lough Foyle, to Cookstown, a distance of 52
miles ; its greatest breadth, from the western point of the
liberties of Londonderry to Vow Ferry, on the Bann, is 44
miles. It extends over a surface of 810 square miles, or
518,595 acres, of which 318,282 are arable, 180,709 un¬
cultivated, 7718 in plantations, 1559 in towns, and 10,327
under water. The uncultivated pasture land of this county
is chiefly situate in elevations exceeding 800 feet above
the sea. Of the entire quantity, it is probable that about
50,000 acres may be improved for cultivation, 60,000 may
be drained for pasture, and 71,000 may be considered as
unimprovable, consisting of the tops of the highest ridges
of mountains, and the sands of Magilligan.
According to Ptolemy, the tribe of the Robogdii were lo¬
cated here. Afterwards it was the territory of the O’Cahans,
LON
who were feudatories of the great O’Neil family. After London-
the confiscation of O’Neil’s princely estate, in consequence derry.
of his abrupt flight into Spain at the commencement of the
reign of James L, this county was offered to the city of
London on certain conditions. The city accepted the
grant of the towns of Derry and Coleraine, and the whole
country betwixt them, which is above 20 miles in length,
bounded by the sea on the N., the river Bann on the E.,
and the river Derry, or Lough Foyle, on the W. The com¬
mon council appointed a special company for the manage¬
ment of the affairs of the plantation, afterwards well known
under the name of the Irish Society, and retaining in its
possession the houses of Londonderry and Coleraine, the
lands attached thereto, and the woods, ferries, and fisheries.
The remainder of the grant was in 1613 divided into twelve
lots, and balloted for by the great London companies, viz.,
the drapers, salters, vintners, mercers, ironmongers, merchant
tailors, clothworkers, haberdashers, fishmongers, grocers,
goldsmiths, and skinners. The county is now divided into
the baronies of Coleraine, Kenaught, Loughinsholin, and
Tirkeeran, together with the liberties of Londonderry and
Coleraine, which have separate jurisdictions. These greater
divisions are subdivided into forty-three parishes, chiefly in
the diocese of Derry.
The diocese of Derry is much larger, both as to number
of parishes and extent of surface, than the county, compre¬
hending, besides the parishes within the civil boundary, ten
in Donegal, eleven in Tyrone, and part of a parish in An¬
trim. By a curious anomaly, the ecclesiastical jurisdiction
of the parishes in the liberties of Coleraine belongs to the
Bishop of Down and Connor. The seat of the see is in the
city of Derry, where is the cathedral, a building in inferior
Gothic style, erected in 1633. The chapter consists of a
dean, an archdeacon, and three prebendaries.
The neighbourhood of the great Western Ocean, and
the height of the mountain ranges, may account for the fall
of a considerable quantity of rain ; yet Mr Sampson in his
survey of the county states the mean annual depth of rain
as only 31 inches, and in the ordnance survey of the parish
of Templemore it is stated at 34’2 inches.
The surface of the county presents an appearance of
valleys separated from each other by ridges of rugged but
not very elevated mountains, and expanding as they ap¬
proach the coast into alluvial plains. The most elevated
of the mountains are,—Sawel, 2236 feet high; White
Mountain, 1996 feet; Slieve Gallen, 1730 feet; Cairntogher,
1521 feet; Donald’s Hill, 1318 feet; Benyevenagh, 1262
feet; and Legavannon, 1269 feet.
The principal river is the Roe, which, receiving as it
flows in a northerly direction the tributary streams of the
Owenbeg, Owenmore, Gelvan, Castle, and Curley, dis¬
charges itself into Lough Foyle, below Newtown-Limavady.
The mud deposited near its mouth forms shifting banks,
which pi’event it from being a useful port for small craft.
The Faughan rises in the S., and discharges itself into
Lough Foyle, nearly opposite Culmore Fort. The Moyola
takes a south-eastern course, and falls into Lough Neagh.
A small portion only of the Foyle belongs to the county. It
is navigable for vessels of large burden as far as the city of
Londonderry, and thence to Lifford in Donegal for lighters
of 20 tons. The Upper Bann, from Lough Neagh, forms
the eastern boundary until it approaches Coleraine, where
it separates the barony from the liberties of the town. The
navigation of this river is impeded by shoals, which form a
dangerous bar.
The valleys formed by these rivers, and their subordi¬
nate branches, are called slacks. The most beautiful is
that of Fin-Glen. On the western side of the ridge of
Benyevenagh there is a shaking quag, named the Gray
Lough, which spreads over many acres. Cattle can pass
freely through it in summer, yet at every step the soil yields
LONDONDERRY.
London, to the pressure, communicating an undulating motion all
deny, around. The surface is broken in every direction by pits
full of water of unknown depth, and all invariably rec¬
tangular parallelograms, very much resembling tan-pits.
The only lake is Lough Finn, situated in the confines of
Tyrone; it is of very inconsiderable dimensions. Lough
Neagh touches the county over about 6 miles of its south¬
eastern boundary. The small port ofBallyronan, in the N. W.
angle of the lough, affords accommodation for sloops of 60
tons to load and unload. I he inlet of Lough Foyle forms
the principal part of the vrestern boundary. Having a nar¬
row entrance, but with 10 fathoms of water, between Cul-
more Fort and Magilligan Point, it expands itself at high
water into a gulf of 15 miles in length and 7 in breadth,
with a channel 14 fathoms deep at low water, but very
narrow, and therefore of difficult navigation.
1 he soil in the northern part, along the sea-coast, is a
stiff and x-eddish clay, interspersed with knolls of basalt, and
resting on a substratum of white limestone, which occasion¬
ally appears on the surface. Near the mouth of the Roe is
an extensive tract of a marly nature, formed of layers of
clay and shells, alternating to a depth of several feet. Fossil
shells are frequently found in the ditches. The lands lying
between the loamy soil in the low grounds and the higher
wastes are either of a blue clay with fragments of quartz,
slate, and a shallow covering of peat moss, or a shingle of
slate interspersed with red ochreous sand, or with gravel and
loam. Above the lime is the region of the trap, and the soil
is generally without clay, being merely composed of the softer
parts of this ochreous sand, producing little but potatoes and
straw. Yet its summits are admirable as sheep walks ; for,
if the immediate substratum be of the fossil known by the
name of zeolite trap, the soil is fertile and the herbage
sweet, presenting an elegant carpeting of shamrock, daisy,
butter-cup, and plantain, which is eagerly browsed on by
sheep.
The valley of the Roe divides the county into two dis¬
tricts, totally different in respect to their geological cha¬
racter. On the W. lies the territory of clay slate, on the
E. that of basalt. The prevalent species of slate is a kind
of flag-rock or micaceous clay slate, next to which in quantity
is a laminated flag, the dip of which is generally N.W.
The great mountain of Sawel is composed of several varie¬
ties of this rock, surmounted towards the summit by amor¬
phous whinstone, interspersed with veins of quartz. Slieve
Gallen is also a mass of trap, resting upon granite, which
emerges from beneath in various places. Limestone may
be found everywhere, from the sea to Benbradagh. The
most remarkable cavern on the coast is in the white lime¬
stone ; it is very appropriately called the Robber’s Cave,
having at one time been the asylum of formidable banditti.
A species of blue limestone has been used for various archi¬
tectural purposes. Sandstone is universally found below
the basalt, and is occasionally intermingled with slate. A
species of it, of a bright tawny colour, is raised in large
quantities near Dungiven. Many of the principal buildings
are constructed of it. Iron is found in great abundance,
as bog ore. To the abundance of this metal in the peat
moss is to be attributed the red colour of the ashes,
which are so heavy as to keep in heaps even in a breeze
of wind. Copper and lead, in small veins, have ‘ been
discovered. Boate states that pure gold had been found
in a rivulet which discharges itself into Lough Neagh ;
but the fact has not been substantiated by subsequent dis¬
coveries, further than that some specimens of quartz have
been observed to contain thin laminae of that metal. Quartz
and hornstone are common in all parts. The latter sometimes
exhibits marine impressions, the quartz never. In all the
mountains composed of slate with pyrites the streamlets show
strong indications of iron,—to such a degree, indeed, that in
some places the water is not fit for drinking.
VOL. XIII.
681
The treatment of arable ground differs little from tha London-
generally practised throughout the province. The prin- derry.
cipal crops are oats and potatoes; the implements, the ^
Scotch and Irish ploughs ; the manures, sea-weed, and com¬
posts of which it forms a part, near the coast, and lime and
turf-mould in the interior. The shell banks of Lough Foyle
also furnish valuable manure. When the tide is out these
banks form extensive flats, which are firm enough to be
walked on without inconvenience, and are resorted to by
numerous boats for loads of shells, which are all of recent
species, and the supply is apparently inexhaustible. “ They
are particularly useful in bringing bad lands into cultiva¬
tion, and in ameliorating stiff wet clays, deficient in calca¬
reous matter, being applied at the rate of from thirty to
sixty barrels per acre. They are preferred to lime as
warming and brittling the land.” In Magilligan the mossy
sands are alternately ploughed and laid up in meadow.
The fqrms in this county are generally small ; out of
17,000 holdings exceeding one acre in extent, about
13,500 are of less than 30 acres, 2100 between 30 and 50
acres, and 1100 between 50 and 100 acres. The extent
of land under each description of crop in 1855 and 1856
was:—
1855. 1856.
Acres. Acres.
Wheat      3,201 5,424
Oats 91,990 87,017
Barley, Bere, Rye, Beans and Pease... 2,084 2,368
Potatoes  31,983 35,464
Turnips  11,451 10,301
Other Green Crops  1,454 1,545
Flax 11,795 13,959
Meadow and Clover 20,379 22,310
Total 174,337 178,388
The florin grass springs up luxuriantly here. Amongst
the more uncommon species of grasses may be mentioned
the Parnassia palustris, commonly called crottel,—in Irish
croutuil.
The total quantity of live stock in the county in 1855
and 1856 was :—
1855. 1856.
No. No.
Horses  20,331 21,254
Cattle 102,185 101,556
Sheep  29,888 32,129
Pigs  22,828 23,679
There are no great herds of goats in the mountains,
but a few are found in many of the habitations of the
cottiers. Magilligan contains a very large rabbit-warren,
extending over 1500 acres. The poultry are numerous,
and flocks of geese are fed in summer on the vetches and
tares which abound in the bottoms, in autumn on the
stubble, and in winter on the potato-ridge. The county
was once remarkable for the quantity of honey it produced ;
latterly the produce has decreased.
The linen manufacture is the staple here, and contri¬
butes greatly to the comfortable support of the population.
The yarn and linen are generally of a coarser staple than
in the neighbouring county of Antrim. Sacking is made
of the tow-yarn. Potteries, in which the coarser kinds of
earthenware are manufactured, are carried on in some places.
There are several large distilleries and breweries, and some
salt-works. One of the most productive salmon fisheries
in Ireland is on the Bann, near Coleraine.
The most remarkable relic of ancient fortification is the
Giant’s Sconce, or Ring, a remarkable remnant of pagan
times, situate in the pass between Drumbo and Largantea.
It formed a circular space of about 600 feet in diameter,
on an isolated knoll of basalt, difficult of access on all sides
but the N.E., where art has supplied the deficiency by a
wall of massive masonry. The interior was hollowed, as if
for a receptacle for men and stores; whilst a covered way,
admitting only one person in a stooping posture to pass at
4 R
682
London¬
derry.
LONDONDERRY.
a time, surrounded the whole. Several cromlechs are still
in existence, some of them surrounded by a circle of up¬
right pillars, somewhat like Stonehenge. The most re¬
markable is that at Slacht Manus. Cairns are too nume¬
rous to admit of special notice. Danish forts are some¬
times exposed. Sepulchral pillars are numerous, and one
peculiarly remarkable stands near Dungiven. Artificial
caverns, evidently constructed for the concealment of men
and property, are frequently discovered. They are rudely
built of stone, without cement; and flags or long stones
form the roof. They consist of narrow galleries, some at
right angles with the main entrance, others parallel to it.
The entrance is usually concealed by a rock or grassy sod.
Castles of acknowledged Irish erection are few. That of
Carrickreagh is looked upon as amongst the most ancient.
Near Ballyraghran was another. Both are said to have
been residences of the family of the M‘Quillans. Pieces
of pit-coal, found in the cement of the walls, lead to the
opinion that the operations of miners were practised in those
remote ages. Some of the castellated mansions of the first
English settlers, with their Lawns, are still in a state of
preservation; as at Killolod, Dungiven, Salterstown, and
Muff.
The most ancient monastic building was the abbey of
Derry, founded by S. Columba in the sixth century, and on
the site of which the present cathedral stands. At Cole¬
raine were two monasteries, one of Dominicans, the other
of regular canons. At Camus, on the Bann, was a very
celebrated monastic structure, attributed to St Comgal.
The only remains of it at present existing are the fort, with
a pillar curiously carved. The remains of the abbey of
Dungivan are the most interesting in the county. It was
the burial-place of the O’Cahans several of whose tombs
have resisted the attacks of time. The principal monu¬
ment is that of one of the chieftains, named Cooey-na-
gal. There is a tower at the north-west side of the
building, and a sepulchral pillar placed on an artificial
mount. A smaller tumulus in the vicinity, when opened,
was found to contain an urn of earthenware with bones.
The urn was surrounded with white stones. Other tumuli,
when examined, exhibit similar results.
The number of pupils attending each description of
school during the week ending 15th April 1851 was:—
No. of
Schools.
.National 
Church Education 
London Corporations...
Diocesan 
Endowed   
Boarding 
Agricultural Boarding.
Private  
Parochial 
Free 
Industrial 
Military 
Mission 
Charitable Boarding....
Workhouse 
Gaol  
Total.
145
33
24
1
6
3
1
73
18
15
1
1
11
1
4
1
338
Scholars.
Male. Female. Total,
3657
652
645
74
188
43
61
1318
541
304
102
422
88
318
32
8445
3153
627
621
125
47
979
269
268
37
7
309
300
32
6774
6,810
1,279
1,266
74
313
90
61
2,297
810
572
37
109
731
88
618
64
15,219
Year. Authority.
1760 De Burgho 
1792 Beaufort 
1813   Parliamentary census.
  Ditto
1821.
1831.
1841.
1851.
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Population.
... 46,182
...125,000
...186,181
...193,869
..222,012
...222,174
...191,868
The great London companies have always afforded marked
encouragement to the education of the people, and no
consideration as to the religion of the children is allowed to
interfere with their bounty.
Ihe population has increased progressively from the
earliest period at which any probable estimate of its amount
was made until the last two decennial periods:—
London¬
derry.
The last of these estimates gives an average of 237 in¬
habitants to each square mile. The county is repre¬
sented in the imperial parliament by two members for the
county at large, and one for each of the boroughs of Lon¬
donderry and Coleraine.
Londonderry, the capital of the above county, stands on
the W. side of the River Foyle, near to its junction with the
lough, spreading itself over the summit and sides of a hill
which here projects into the river, and which was once
covered with oak trees, whence the place derived the name
of Derry Calgach, “ the eminence covered with oaks,” which
it still partially retains. “ The situation of Londonderry
is,” says Inglis, “ the finest of any town or city in Ireland.
Indeed, with the exception of Edinburgh, I do not know
any town in the United Kingdom so well situate as Lon¬
donderry.” Its monastery first drew inhabitants hither.
The town was entirely ecclesiastical, consisting almost ex¬
clusively of churches and the dwellings of the clergy and
their dependents. The English government, after having
been baffled in several attempts to plant a garrison here
during the war against the Earl of Tyrone, at length suc¬
ceeded, in 1600, in gaining possession of the place, and
securing it against any efforts of the Irish to dislodge them.
It was surrounded with a substantial wall, strengthened
with bastions, and had four main streets diverging at right
angles from a point on the summit of the hill, now called
the Diamond, to a gate at the other extremity of each.
The strength of these fortifications was tested in the sub¬
sequent wars of 1642 and 1688, in each of which the town
maintained a successful stand against its besiegers. After
a lapse of more than two centuries, the walls still retain, in
most parts, their original form and character. The exter¬
nal ditch, indeed, has disappeared. The gates have been
rebuilt in a more elegant style of architecture, and two
new ones have been added. One bastion has been re¬
moved to make way for a butter-market, and another has
been appropriated as the site of a pillar commemora¬
tive of the military services of the Rev. George Walker
during the memorable siege which lasted 105 days; it
commenced on the 18th of April 1689, and was raised
on the 1st of August following. The cathedral stands
within the walls, on the most elevated portion of the hill
of Derry. It consists of a nave, divided into a central
and lateral aisle, separated by pointed arches. There are
four Presbyterian, one Independent, and two Methodist
meeting-houses; there are also two Roman Catholic chapels
and a large Roman Catholic cathedral. The corporation
hall stands in the centre of the Diamond. It is surrounded
by a colonnade, with embattled parapet; and the same kind
of military ornament surrounds its roof. The other public
buildings are,—the court-house, the lunatic asylum, the
poor-house, the gaol, the custom-house, the linen-hall, the
public library and news-room, the barrack, and the maga¬
zine. The bridge is the peculiar boast of Derry. It is
built of wood, and extends in length 1068 feet by a breadth
of 40. A turning bridge, near the centre, admits a free
navigation to vessels going up the river. Walker’s Testi¬
monial is a pillar of the Roman Doric order—erected in
1828 by public subscription—surmounted by a statue of
that celebrated individual, represented as dressed in cano¬
nicals, and armed with the Bible and the sword. Its height
is 82 feet including its base; the statue is 9 feet high.
The municipal jurisdiction extends over a space of 3
miles in every direction from the centre of the city. The
LON
LON
683
Long government is vested in a mayor, six aldermen, and
Island eighteen councillors. The income of the corporation,
amounting to L.12,000 per annum, arises from tolls on the
Roger bridges, tolls on the market, rents of' land and shambles, and
° ' / tonnage and quayage.
The progress of commerce may be estimated from the
custom-house receipts at different periods:—
Years. 1.
1830  74,856
1849 104,991
1851 108,194
Years. L.
1853  123,225
1854    114,526
1855  120,561
The shipping of the port of Derry in 1760 consisted of
67 sail, of from 30 to 350 tons. At the conclusion of the
last century, the tonnage registered at the port was about
3000, which has since increased to upwards of 25,000 tons.
In 1855, 1224 vessels, of 214,990 tons, entered inwards ;
and 759 vessels, of 171,448 tons, cleared outwards.
The population of the city in 1841 was 15,196; and in
1851, 19,399. (h. s—r.)
LONG ISLAND, a long narrow island off the E. coast
of the United States of N. America, forming part of New
York state, and separated from the mainland at its western
extremity by two channels, called the Narrows and the
East River, the former l£ mile, the latter f of a mile in
width. It stretches from W.S.W. to E.N.E., between N.
Lat. 40. 33. and 41. 6., and W. Long. 71. 50. and 74. 4.,
being 115 miles long, by from 12 to 20 miles broad, and
containing an area of about 1448 square miles. A low range
of hills extends from one extremity of the island to the
other, exhibiting on the northern slope an irregular and
broken surface, while on the S. the ridge declines more
gently to the Atlantic. There are no large streams, and
the want of water-power is much felt in the island. The
soil is of a light sandy character, generally sterile on the
southern coast, but productive at the western extremity, in
King’s and Queen’s County. The coasts are much indented,
forming numerous large lagoons on the southern coast, and
an extensive inlet at the eastern extremity, which almost
severs the island in two. A railroad, one of the first con¬
structed in the state, and originally intended to accelerate
the traffic between New York and Boston, traverses it from
W. to E. Communication is kept up with the mainland by
means of steam ferries at Brooklyn, Fort Hamilton, &c.
The island is divided into the three counties of King’s,
Queen’s, and Suffolk. Pop. (1850) 212,637, (1854) about
260,000. (See New York.)
Long Island, or Yuna. See Bahamas.
Long, Loch, an arm of the sea on the W. coast of Scot¬
land, stretching first N. then N.E. from the Firth of Clyde,
and separating the counties of Argyll and Dumbarton. It
is 20 miles long by from 1 to 2 miles broad. From its
centre a branch loch stretches for 4^ miles northwards into
Argyllshire, called Loch Goil. The shores of both lochs
are mountainous and highly picturesque.
LONG, Roger, an astronomer, was born in Norfolk about
1680. He was educated at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge,
was created a master of arts in 1704, and a doctor of
divinity in 1728. He was chosen a fellow of the Royal
Society, and vice-chancellor of the university in 1729, and
master of Pembroke Hall in 1733. In 1749 he was elected
Lowndes professor of astronomy, and in 1751 was appointed
to the rectory of Bradwell, in Essex. He was also the
rector^of Cherryhinton, in Huntingdonshire. At his death
in 17<0, he bequeathed L.600 to his college. Long is best
known as the inventor of a curious contrivance, at Pem¬
broke Hall, for facilitating the study of astronomy. It is a
hollow sphere 18 feet in diameter, and capable of containing
thirty persons. The inner surface is covered by a map
of the heavenly bodies, and represents that portion of
the celestial sphere visible in Britain. The entire struc¬
ture is moved by machinery. Long’s chief work is a
Treatise on Astronomy, Cambridge, 1742-64, 1784, 2 vols.
4to. He also wrote a Commencement Sermon, 1728; a
pamphlet entitled The Rights of Churches and Colleges
Defended, 1731, 8vo ; an Answer to Dr Gaily's Pamphlet
on Greek Accents, 1755 ; and a Life of Mahomet, prefixed
to Oakley’s History of the Saracens.
Long, St John, was born at Newcastle in Limerick,
in 1798. From his father, a person of versatile ingenuity,
he inherited a disposition to try his hand at whatever voca¬
tion came in his way. At the age of 25, after studying
painting in Dublin, he set out for London as an artist. His
merit not meeting with due appreciation, he resolved to
turn his hand to medicine. In 1826 he acquired great
celebrity by his specific for consumption and other diseases
generally regarded as incurable. After some time, he was
tried for the death of a young lady, a patient, and found
guilty of manslaughter. So great was his influence that
no less than sixty-three persons of rank appeared in his
favour. After realising a large fortune, he fell a victim to
the disease which he professed to cure at the age of 36.
LONGFORD, an inland county in the north-western
extremity of the province of Leinster, in Ireland, bounded
on the N. by the counties of Leitrim and Cavan, on the
E. and S. by Westmeath, and on the W. by Roscom¬
mon, from which it is separated by the Shannon. Except¬
ing Carlow and Dublin, it is the smallest county in Ire¬
land, comprising an area of 420 square miles, or 269,409
acres, of which 191,823 are arable, 58,937 uncultivated,
4610 in plantation, 364 in towns, and 13,675 are under
water. The uncultivated land consists either of heathy
pasture, or of flow-bog. The latter may amount to about
30,000 acres, of which about 18,000 acres are susceptible
of improvement for cultivation, by a system of perfect
draining, followed by a coating of from three to four inches
of clay and gravel, which occur abundantly near the
edges of most of the bogs. The whole might be consi¬
dered capable of cultivation; but owing to the expense of
conveying gravel from the edge, even by the assistance
of railways, the surface cannot be coated with clay at a
remunerative price at a greater distance than half a statute
mile from the bog edge; but the entire extent might be
advantageously drained, by which means, in a few years,
coarse pasture would be produced. Including the moun¬
tain pasture and a portion of the bogs, this county contains
18,000 acres which may be reclaimed for cultivation, so as
to produce corn and green crops ; 38,000 acres may be im¬
proved for pasture; and 3000 acres are incapable of im¬
provement.
The county, according to Whitaker, was peopled by the
tribe of the Scoti, who spread themselves over most of the
inland regions. Afterwards, under the name of the An-
naly, it became the principality of the O’Ferrals. In the
reign of Elizabeth, it was made shire-ground, being one of
the seven counties into which Connaught was then divided ;
but it was afterwards transferred to Leinster, of which it
still continues to form a part. It is divided into the six
baronies of Ardagh, Granard, Longford, Moydow, Rathcline,
and Shrule, which are subdivided into twenty-six parishes,
all in the diocese of Ardagh, except one, which is in that of
Meath.
The diocese of Ardagh, which was founded in the fifth
century, was in 1658 united with that of Kilmore, from
which it was subsequently separated, and, after being for
some time held alone, was united with the archdiocese of
Tuam ; but according to the recent ecclesiastical arrange¬
ments, it is united with the sees of Kilmore and Elphin.
No traces of the cathedral are now in existence.
By much the greater part of the surface of the county is
level, but in its northern angle it rises into bleak and rugged
hills of no great elevation ; and some hills also protrude in
various parts of the plain country. The general surface,
Long,
St John.
Longford.
684
LON
LON
Longford.
however, is of considerable elevation, the summit-level of
the Royal Canal, which is within the county, being 290 feet
above the level of the sea. The only rivers of any size
are—the Camlin, which rises near Granard, and flows
by the town of Longford into the Shannon near Tarmon-
barry ; and the Inny, which has its source in Lough Shillin,
on the borders of Cavan, passes by the southern border of
the county, through a fertile and well-peopled district, and
discharges itself, after a winding course, into Lough Ree,
being navigable from Ballymahon. There are several
lakes within the county, but none of them of great ex¬
tent. The most remarkable are Lough Gawnagh in the
north, Derrylough, Lough Drum, and Lough Bannow.
The fine expanse of Lough Ree, on the western side of the
county, may be considered as partly belonging to it. It has
in it the islets of Innisbofin, Innisclothran, and Innismac-
saint. Lough Derrymacar is merely an arm of this lake.
The quantity of bog in the county is considerable. Some of
the bogs contain deep places, which are known by the name
of swallow-holes, and throw up large quantities of water.
In 1809, part of the bog near Johnstown burst away from
the main body, and moved to a considerable distance, cross¬
ing in its passage the river Camlin, the channel of which
it choked up, and caused all the adjoining lands to be
flooded.
The northern boundary of the great limestone field of
Ireland passes through this county. The line of division
is marked by the Camlin as far as Longford town, and
thence proceeds by Johnstown to Lough Shillin. To the
north of this line the formation is of clay slate and grey-
wacke. Isolated hills of sandstone show themselves at
Slievegoldry and at Ballymahon, on both sides of the Inny.
Indications of iron are abundant in the northern parts.
Near Lough Gawnagh very rich iron ore has been observed.
Marble of fine colour, and susceptible of a high polish,
has been raised from quarries near Ledwithstown.
A great portion of the northern part of the county is of
a rough, untractable quality, affording little encourage¬
ment for agricultural speculations; but all the more level
districts, not covered with bog, are of good quality, the soil
being mostly rich, and of easy culture.
The extent of land in the county under each descrip¬
tion of crops in 1855 and 1856, was :—
1855.
Acres.
Wheat  2,253
Oats  38,841
Barley, Bere, Rye, Beans, and Pease... 328
Potatoes   16,258
Turnips   2,730
Other Green Crops  936
Flax  262
Meadow and Clover 20,156
Total  81,744
1856.
Acres.
2,847
36,893
497
17,262
2,800
1,224
388
21,036
83,047
The manufactures are confined to those necessary to sup¬
ply the limited wants of an agricultural population. The
principal are linen, frieze, linsey-woolsey, for the garments
of men and women, and leather for shoes and harness.
The only vestige of remote antiquity worthy of special
notice is a tumulus at one end of the town of Granard, said
to have been a Danish rath, and called the Moat of Gran¬
ard. It is 593 feet above the level of the sea, and com¬
mands a view of six or seven surrounding counties. Though
several ruins of monastic buildings may still be traced, few
memorials of their history have been preserved. The island
of Inchimore in Lough Gawnagh, and those of Innisbofin,
Innisclothran, and Innismacsaint, in Lough Reagh, were
eac . at some remote period the site of a religious house,
now in utter ruin. The castle of Longford, once the man¬
sion o the O Ferrals, was taken at the commencement of
tie wai of 1641, and the garrison slaughtered after their
sui render upon terms. RathcUne, placed in a highly
romantic position near Lanesborough, was dismantled by Longford
Cromwell, and burned in the wars between William and
James. 1 he castles of Ballymahon, Barnacor, and Castlecor, Longinus,
were built to command passes over the Inny. Of these,
the last named has suffered not only from the ravages of
time, but from excavations made to discover concealed
money, imagined to have been buried in its interior. The
seats of the gentry are numerous. Carrickglass on the
Camlin, the seat of Chief Justice Lefroy, is a fine resi¬
dence; as is also Castle Forbes, the seat of the Earl of
Granard; and Edgeworthstown will long be noted in the
annals of British literature as the residence of the Edge-
worth family. Phis county is also celebrated for having
given birth to Oliver Goldsmith, who was born at Pallas, a
village near Ballymahon.
The statements of the population at various periods, with
the authorities on which they rest, are as follow:—
1760 De Burgho  25,142
1792 Beaufort  5o'lOO
1813 Parliamentary return  95,917
1821  Ditto  107,570
1831  Ditto  112,558
1841  Ditto  115,491
1851  Ditto   82,350
The proportion of Protestants to Catholics is as one to
eight, and the number of Protestant dissenters is inconsi¬
derable. The number of schools and pupils attending them
during the week ended 12th April 1851, was :—
Schools.
National  
Church Education
Endowed  
Boarding  
Private  
Parochial 
Free 
Military 
Mission 
Workhouse  
Gaol 
Total
No. of
Schools.
43
13
1
1
52
3
4
1
1
4
1
124
No. of Pupils.
Males. Females. Total
1389
298
27
30
788
58
92
22
8
751
22
3485
1160
284
3
554
75
101
20
9
792
4
3002
2549
582
30
30
1342
133
193
42
17
1543
26
6487
The county of Longford returns two members to parlia¬
ment. (h. s—k.)
Longford, the county town, is situate on the River
Camlin, in the midst of an extensive plain of mixed pasture,
tillage, swamp, and bog land, interrupted only towards the
S. by the hill of Fenighfadd, which rises to a height of 200
feet. It contains a Protestant church and a Roman Catho¬
lic chapel, a gaol, a court-house, a market-house, a union
workhouse, and barracks for cavalry and infantry. It has
a tolerable share of inland trade, which has been much en¬
larged by the extension of the line of the Royal Canal
through it. Here are also extensive stores, corn mills, tan-
yards, &c. Its population amounted in 1851 to 4614 souls.
LONGINUS, Dionysius Cassius, a celebrated Greek
critic, was born about a.d. 213. His name, originally Dio¬
nysius, was changed for some unknown reason; and, be¬
sides the full title given above, he was also called Dionysius
Longinus, or Cassius Longinus. According to some, he
was born at Palmyra; others think that his intimate know¬
ledge of Syriac, and the fact that his uncle was a native of
Emesa, in Syria, indicate that he also was born in that city.
From the circumstance, however, that Longinus, in his boy¬
hood, seems to have been under the care and tuition of his
uncle Fronto, the famous teacher of rhetoric at Athens, it
is most probable that he was an Athenian by birth. On
Fronto’s death he became his heir; and, from one of his
fragmentary works preserved by Porphyry, we learn that,
in his earlier years, he travelled much, and thus formed an
LON
LON 685
Longitude, intimacy with Ammonius Saccas, Origen, Plotinus, Ame-
lius, and other philosophers. Under the instructions of the
first two were imbibed his admiration for Plato, which a
subsequent familiarity with the works of that philosopher
confirmed; and his sympathy with the spirit of the Pla¬
tonic philosophy, which he everywhere exhibits in the few
of his comments on Plato’s Dialogues that are extant. On
completing his education, Longinus fixed his residence at
Athens, and devoted the chief part of his time to the in¬
struction of young men in philosophy, criticism, rhetoric,
and grammar. His most distinguished pupil was Malchus,
whose Syriac name Longinus has changed into the Greek
synonym, Porphyry. After sojourning for a considerable
period at Athens, where he composed most of his works,
Longinus travelled into the East; and on being invited by
Queen Zenobia of Palmyra to become her instructor in
Greek literature, settled in that city. On the demise of her
husband soon afterwards, the queen, assuming the reins of
government, appointed Longinus one of her counsellors.
In this new capacity he persuaded her to shake off the
Roman yoke, and dictated, it is said, a defiant letter to the
Emperor Aurelian. This zeal was ungratefully employed
by Zenobia as a shield to ward off the punishment of her
revolt; for, when Palmyra was captured by the Romans,
a.d. 273, Longinus was delivered up and condemned to
death by order of the emperor. He met his doom with
firmness.
So high did Longinus stand in the estimation of his con¬
temporaries, that Porphyry styled him “ the critic and the
phrase “Kara Aoyylvov Kplveiv” meant “ to judge correctly.”
Not less noted was his erudition, so that Eunapius called him
“ a living library and walking museum.” Of his numerous
works, both philosophical and critical, the only one extant
is his dissertation Ilepi vif/ovs (On the Sublime), a treatise
not more remarkable for the sagacity with which its canons
of criticism are framed than for the judicious taste with
which the passages adduced in support of these canons are
selected from the best authors. The diction of the work,
moreover, is a striking example of that forcible and elevated
style which he endeavours to teach. Of the philosophical
character of Longinus, almost the only note we have is that
from Plotinus, who says, that “ he was a philologer, but no
philosopher.” This taunt, however, loses the greater part
of its value when we consider that its author probably set
up, as his ideal of philosophy, the trifling and whimsical
speculations of his own age. Though a pagan, Longinus
was acquainted with the sacred Scriptures. In his famous
treatise he quotes, as a specimen of the sublime, the passage
from Genesis,—“ And God said, let there be light, and there
was light.” And in one of his extant fragments he ranks
Paul of Tarsus, as he styles the apostle, with Demosthenes
and the celebrated orators of Greece. Emanations, too, from
the spirit of Christianity can be detected in his writings.
The best editions of the treatise On the Sublime are
those of Pearce, London, 1724, 4to; 1773, 8vo; and of
Morus, Leipsic, 1769-73, 8vo. The same work, together
with all the surviving fragments of his other works, was
published by Toup, with notes by Ruhnken, Oxford, 1778,
1789, and 1806, 8vo; by Weiske, Leipsic, 1809, 8vo ;
and by Egger, Paris, 1837, 16mo. Longinus has been
translated into French by Boileau; into German by
Schlosser, Leipsic, 1781 ; and into English by Smith,
1739, 1800.
LONGITUDE. By the term geographical longitude,
is meant an arc which measures the inclinations of two ter¬
restrial meridional planes, one of which passes through a
known place, as a place of reference, the other through
any place whatever. It is sometimes also defined as the
distance E. or W. along the equator, of any place from a
certain meridian. I he selection of a station from which
the longitudes of all other places are to be reckoned is en¬
tirely arbitrary ; British astronomers and geographers have Longitude,
chosen the meridian of the Royal Observatory of Green-
wich as their first meridian. The French and other con¬
tinental nations refer the longitudes of all places to the
meridian of their principal observatory.
The longitude of a place may be expressed in hours,
minutes, and seconds of time, or in degrees, minutes, and
seconds of space; if it be given in either, it may be trans¬
lated into the other. The reason of this is, that the earth
revolves on its axis from W. to E. in twenty-four mean
solar hours, thereby causing the first meridian to describe
during that time a space equal to 360°, and, therefore, in
one hour 15°. Hence, if the plane of the first meridian
pass at the present moment through the sun, then the
meridian of a place 15° xvest of the former will pass through
the sun exactly one hour after; if the place be 15° east of
the first meridian, the plane of the former will pass through
the sun one hour before the latter. The sun always passes
the meridian of any place when highest in the heavens,
i.e. at mid-day, or twelve o’clock mean solar time. Where¬
fore, places lying to the E. of the first meridian will have
every hour earlier, but places lying to the W. of that me¬
ridian will have every hour later than it; so that if, while
the meridian of one place is passing through the sun,
the time be known before the meridian of another place
pass through the sun, then the longitude of that place from
the former is determined, the time being turned into space,
at the rate of 15° to the hour. Hence, therefore, places
will have E. or W. longitude, according as they lie E. or W.
of Greenwich Observatory, the longitude of the meridian
of which is zero.
The problem of the longitude may be reduced to this,—
Given the hour by calculation at the place of observation,
to find the hour at Greenwich Observatory corresponding
to the same time; the difference of times gives the longi¬
tude of the place from Greenwich. The solution of this
problem was attempted in very early times, dating even
from the time of the ancient Egyptians, but the results ob¬
tained were very inaccurate. These results were deduced
from tables of celestial phenomena calculated for a certain
meridian, and then the times were compared with the
times at which the same phenomena appeared at a different
place; actual admeasurement was also employed. But it
was not till after the invention of w'atches that the problem
was rendered solvable. Harrison, in the eighteenth cen¬
tury, was the first who gave a true solution by a watch ; but
the first accurate resolution of the problem may be said to
date from the discovery by Galileo of Jupiter’s satellites,
and his tables of their motions. The result of the pro¬
blem at this period, as well as now, was, as Wolfius has
expressed it, that means might be found whereby the art of
navigation might be brought to its utmost pitch of perfection.
If the advantages of determining the longitude to a com¬
mercial and maritime people be considered, it will not ap¬
pear surprising that princes and others should have held out
high rewards for a true solution of the problem. Philip III.,
king of Spain, saw its value, and in 1598 offered a reward
of 1000 crowns to the person who would solve it. The
States of Holland imitated his example by a prize of 10,000
florins. In the year 1714, the British government offered
a premium of L.20,000 for any method whereby the longi¬
tude might be determined at sea to within 30 miles;
L. 15,000, if the proposed method would give it to v/ithin
40 geographical miles ; L.10,000, if it would determine the
longitude to within 60 miles. It was also enacted, that a
reward of L.5000 would be given to the inventor of any
time-keeper which should enable a ship, during a voyage of
six months, to keep her longitude to within 60 miles ;
L.7500 if within 40 miles; and L.10,000 if within 30
miles. If the method were by improved astronomical
tables, the reward was to be L.5000, the tables being com-
CO -So
LONGITUDE.
tude. pared with previous observations. France also, in 1716,
under the regency of the Duke of Orleans, offered a prize
of 100,000 livres. In consequence of these rewards, many
and various methods were proposed, the best of which, at
least as respects frequency of observation and shortness of
calculation, is the method of Lunar Distances.
Jean Werner of Nuremberg appears to be the first who
proposed, in his Ptolemy's Geography, 1514, a method of
finding the longitude by the distance between the moon and
a star. The lunar method was also recommended by
Oronce Fine of Briancon, in his book De Inve?iienda Lon-
gitudine; by Gemma Frisius, in his treatise, Structura
Radii Astronomici et Geometrici, 1545 ; by Kepler in his
Rudolphine Tables; and by Christian Longomontanus in
his Astronomia Danica, 1622. Gemma Frisius is, more¬
over, said to have attempted the longitude by a watch some
time after 1530. Carpenter, in his Geography, 1635, says
that the lunar method is to be ascribed to Pierre Appian,
a German, born in 1495. John Baptiste Morin, in 1634,
attempted to improve the lunar method, and received, in
1645, a pension of 2000 livres; but his improvements wove
useless, as Pascal declared, owing to the imperfect nature
of the existing tables.
The tables of celestial observations previous to Flam¬
steed’s time were imperfect and erroneous: those generally
used were Tycho Brahe’s or Kepler’s, and to show that they
were of little value in determining the longitude, although
invaluable in other respects, it may be stated that Flam¬
steed’s observed differed from Tycho’s computed places
by 5', 6', or more ; and the tabulated distances of the latter
differed from the observed distances of the former by 15'
or 20', which would cause an error in the longitude of
about 15°, or 300 leagues. Tycho’s lunar theory, and the
tables grounded on it, were in error 12' and more. The
uncertainty, then, of these tables being known, as well as
the paucity of astronomical observations generally, a French¬
man, named Le Sieur de St Pierre, contrived, in 1674, to
get his pretensions to the discovery of the longitude brought
under the notice of Charles II. of Britain and the court.
Commissioners were appointed, and St Pierre’s data ne¬
cessary to work the problem were as follow:—(1.) The
heights of two stars, and on which side of the meridian
they were; (2.) The heights of the two limbs of the
moon; (3.) The height of the pole; all to be given in degrees
and minutes; and (4.) The year and day of observation.
Flamsteed being in London at the time, wras appointed,
not only to act as a commissioner, but also to supply the
necessary data. St Pierre, having received the data which
he required, refused to work the problem, because he al¬
leged the observations given him were feigned. Flamsteed
on this wrote to the commissioners, assuring them that the
observations were genuine, and at the same time stated,
that the longitude could not be solved by the conditions
proposed; but if the tables of celestial observations, espe¬
cially those of the moon, could be rendered more accurate,
then the longitude might be determined by them. On the
letter being shown to Charles, his majesty was startled at
the assertion of the computed places not agreeing with the
observed, and said with some vehemence, he must have
them observed, examined, and corrected anew for the use
of his seamen. It was this simple incident which led to the
formation of the Royal Observatory of Greenwich, the
foundation of which was laid by Flamsteed on the 10th of
August 1675 ; and it was in that building that Flamsteed
about ed for forty-four years, under the most trying circum-
stances, to correct existing tables, and to commence the
British Catalogue, one of the noblest monuments of British
perseverance. So valuable were Flamsteed’s observations to
JN ewton, that they enabled him to form his lunar theory, which
is now of such consequence in determining the longitude,
uom the improvements made in watches by Huygens,
Hooke, and others, previous to the year 1714, it was thought Longitude,
that the longitude would be solved by this machine. Hence,
after 1714, the best artists applied themselves to the con¬
struction and improvement of watches. Henry Sully, an
Englishman, but resident at Paris, tried in 1726 to deter¬
mine the longitude by a marine watch, but without success.
Julian Leroy, one of his pupils, w’ould appear to lay claim
to priority of invention ; but it has never been disputed that
the honour of solving the difficult problem of the longi¬
tude by means of a watch belongs wholly to Harrison. This
ingenious workman began, at a very early period, to make
experiments on pendulums made of different metals, in order
to counteract the effects of heat and cold. In the year
1736 Harrison was brought into notice by a pendulum
clock which he had made in 1726, and which, for ten suc¬
cessive years, kept remarkably exact. This clock was tried
in a voyage to Lisbon during August 1736, when it cor¬
rected an error in the ship’s reckoning of 1° 30'. At the
special request of the commissioners of longitude, who
advanced him money, he continued his experiments on
watches from 1737 till 1761, when he produced three
watches, or time-keepers,—the third the most accurate, and
about 4 inches in diameter. This watch, or chronometer,
was tried in a voyage to Jamaica as to its practicability in
determining the longitude. The trial was eminently suc¬
cessful ; the difference of time as shown by the chrono¬
meter indicating Greenwich or rather Portsmouth local
time, and the local time of the place, being 4 seconds of
time, which is equivalent to 1 nautical mile in the parallel
of Jamaica. On the arrival of the vessel at Portsmouth, it
was found that the error of the chronometer was only 1
min. 53’5 sec., or 28‘375 for the entire voyage, which, in
the parallel of Portsmouth, would be equivalent to 18 nau¬
tical miles. Since this error was within the limit prescribed
by the act, Harrison claimed the full reward of L.20,000 ;
but the commissioners, considering the matter in all its
detail, came to the conclusion that the watch was not yet
sufficiently tried. In order, however, to testify their appre¬
ciation of the invention, they gave Flarrison a grant of
L.5000, and requested him to improve the watch still fur¬
ther against a second voyage. This voyage was under¬
taken, in 1764, to Barbadoes; and that no misunderstanding
might ensue, Maskelyne and Green were also sent out to
make the necessary astronomical observations at that place.
The difference of longitude, as shown by the chronometer
and that by astronomical observation, was 43 seconds of
time, which is equivalent to 10' 45" of space, or longitude.
In consequence of the success attending this and the former
trial, the Flouse of Commons ordered one-half of the re¬
ward promised by the act of 1714, or L.10,000, to be paid
to Mr Harrison, the inventor of the longitude clock ; the
other half to be paid him when watches, constructed on
principles stated by him, should determine by trial the
longitude of any place to within 30 nautical miles. Another
condition annexed to the payment of the other L.10,000
was, that the inventor should give on oath a full explana¬
tion of the principles on which the watch was constructed.
This was done most willingly, and Harrison delivered over
all his watches to government. The first watch made on
Harrison’s principles was that by Mr Kendall; it was found
to exceed the regularity of the best of its models. This
instrument was committed to the care of Mr Wales, in his
voyage round the world with Captain Cooke, during the
years 1772, 1773, &c., and such was its success, that in
1774 an appeal was made to the House of Commons to
order the remaining sum to be paid to Mr Harrison, which
was accordingly done. Harrison realized by his invention
alone upwards of L.24,000.
Several other parties received rewards for their improve¬
ments in chronometers. Arnold and Son received L.3000,
and Mudge L.500.
LONG
Longitude. Since Harrison’s time, remarkable improvements have
been made in time-keepers, or chronometers as they are
now termed; no one sustaining a good character that gains
or loses more than a single second in one day.
But while watches were thus gradually being perfected,
the tables of celestial motions were also attended to.
Halley, on succeeding Flamsteed as astronomer-royal, con¬
tinued improving what the latter had begun, so that for
1730, and consequently for the future, the Caroline Tables
were presumed to give the true place of the moon, within
the compass of 2 of her motion. But however perfect such
tables may be made, they will be useless without a proper
instrument with which to take angles accurately at sea.
Dr Halley proposed to overcome this obstacle, by using on
shipboard a telescope of 5 or 6 feet; but the error in such
a case would nearly equal 2°, or under the equator the
longitude would be in excess or defect about 40 leagues.
But in 1761, Mr Hadley communicated to the Royal So¬
ciety the nature of the sextant which he had then invented.
The sextant is an instrument for taking angles at sea with
surprising accuracy; its principle depends on the law of the
reflection of light. This instrument was tried in several
voyages with wonderful success; but its results were most
accurate when used with Professor Mayer’s Tables of the
Moon, computed for the meridian of Paris. These tables
first appeared in the Memoirs of Gottingen for 1742, and a
manuscript copy was sent in 1755 by Mayer to the Board
of Longitude, setting forth, at the same time, his claim for
some one of the rewards which he might be thought to
merit. These tables were placed in the hands of Dr Bradley,
astronomer-royal, who compared several hundred com¬
puted longitudes of the moon with his own observed longi¬
tudes, and never found a greater difference than T*5. Dr
Bradley showed the commissioners the value of these tables.
Mayer died in 1762; but having in the interval greatly
improved his tables, his widow sent them in 1763 to the
Board of Longitude. These are the tables which, in con¬
sideration of their value in finding the longitude at sea,
were, by act of parliament, honoured with a reward of
L.5000, which was paid, in 1765, to Mayer’s widow. Dr
Maskelyne, astronomer-royal, was at the same time re¬
quested to improve and correct them as far as possible, so
that they might be compiled, and form the basis of a British
Nautical Ephemeris or Almanac ; and to print the same, in
order to make the lunar tables of general utility. The first
of the series of the Nautical Almanac and Astronomical
Ephemeris was published in 1766, under the superintend¬
ence of Dr Maskelyne. It was published yearly by the Com¬
missioners of the Board of Longitude. The Nautical
Almanac has been greatly improved, corrected, and ex¬
tended, under the able superintendence of Mr Airy, the
present astronomer-royal; it is now published four or five
years previous to the observations being made at Green¬
wich Observatory ; hence in long voyages the set of tables
may be taken out.
In consideration of Mayer having availed himself of
Euler’s lunar theory, the latter received from government
L.300.
The several methods for finding the longitude are the
following:—
To find the Longitude by a Chronometer.—Suppose that
a chronometer is warranted to measure equal portions of
time uniformly, and always indicates Greenwich local time ;
it is evident that, were this instrument carried to any sta¬
tion on the surface of the earth where also the local time
is known, the local times of Greenwich and that place can
be compared with each other. If the chronometer be car¬
ried to any station on the meridian of Greenwich, the
chronometer and local time of the place will always coin¬
cide ; but if it be carried to any station W. or E. of the
meridian of Greenwich, then the time as shown by the
TUBE. 687
chronometer will be in excess in the former case, but in Longitude,
the latter in defect of the local time of the place; the dif-
ference of local times gives the longitude of the place from
Greenwich. The time may be converted into distance, at
the rate of 15° to 1 hour. Chronometers can never be
made perfect; they require, therefore, to be daily com¬
pared with the heavenly bodies, in order to ascertain if
their motion has been uniform.
Such is the method of finding the longitude by means of
a chronometer; but to show the care and trouble involved
in the delicate operation of finding the difference of local
times between any two places, it will suffice to state briefly
the attempt of Mr Airy, astronomer-royal, to determine the
longitude of Valentia on the W. coast of Ireland. Mr
Airy considered it necessary to take into account the facility
of land conveyance by railways, and of sea conveyance by
steamboats. -With respect to the former, the route by
Bristol and Cork had the preference ; but he found those
advantages best combined by adopting the route by
Liverpool and Kingston. It was at first proposed that the
chronometers should be transmitted from Greenwich to
Valentia without interruption, save for the purpose of
winding them up and comparing them with a clock at
Kingston. But Mr Sheepshanks, who acted in concert
with Mr Airy, thought that, for the sake of accuracy, the
arc of parallel from Greenwich to Valentia should be di¬
vided into two parts—that from Greenwich to Kingston,
and that from Kingston to Valentia—which was the plan
adopted. Thirty chronometers were employed, to be com¬
pared with the transit clocks which were set up at each
station. The following were the courses of these chronome¬
ters :—The chronometers left Greenwich for the first time
on the morning of 27th June, and reached Kingston for
the last time on the morning of 27th July, having made nine
journeys from Greenwich to Kingston, and eigbt from the
latter to the former place. The chronometers then left
Kingston for Liverpool on the evening of 27th July, and
were returned to the former place the last time on the
morning of 4th Aug., having made four journeys each way.
They then left Kingston for Valentia on the evening of
5th August, and returned to Kingston the last time on the
morning of 14th September, having made ten journeys each
way. After a short delay, and transmission to Liverpool,
the chronometers left that place for Greenwich on the
morning of 21st September, and arrived finally at the latter
place on the evening of 28th Sept., having made four jour¬
neys from Liverpool to Greenwich, and three from Green¬
wich to Liverpool. It was by this transmission of chrono¬
meters from Greenwich to Valentia, that the comparison of
the clocks at these two places was made. At each station,
moreover, the transits of stars across the meridian were
compared with the right ascensions of the Nautical Al¬
manac list, using the mean places of the Greenwich Cata¬
logue of 1439 stars. By this means, and with the requisite
calculations, the inclination of the planes was obtained.
The results on the whole are, in time,—
Longitude of Liverpool W. from Greenwich  12m 0»-05
Longitude of Kingston W. from Greenwich  24m 31s-20
Longitude of Yalentia W. from Greenwich   41m 23s 23
The whole of the operations, including everything relating
to the longitude of Liverpool, Kingston, and Valentia, oc¬
cupied nearly from the end of June to the end of Septem¬
ber 1844.
Mr Airy considered it proper, after all his labour with
the transmission of chronometers, to compare the deduced
results with that found by geodetic calculation. For this
purpose, he made a survey-triangulation, which extended
in an easterly and westerly direction from Greenwich to
Valentia. From this survey the distance in yards was
known between these two places, measuring along an arc
of parallel. Knowing, therefore, this distance, as also the
LONGITUDE.
688
Longitude, inclination of the two meridional planes, the whole parallel
^ » y ^ passing through Greenwich was computed.
The inferences which Mr Airy deduces from the chro-
nometrical and geodetic results are :—That the verticals at
Liverpool and Greenwich are less inclined to each other,
or that the earth’s surface in England is flatter than accords
with geodetic calculation ; that the inclination of the verti¬
cals at Liverpool and Kingston is, sensibly, precisely the
same as that given by geodetic calculation ; and that the
inclination of the verticals at Kingston and Feagh Main
is greater than that given by geodetic calculation, or that
the earth’s surface in Ireland is more curved than the ele¬
ments of geodetic calculation imply : but that upon the
whole arc the difference of the chronometrical and geodetic
results is very small; and, lastly, in latitude 51° 40' the com¬
plement of the logarithm of the number of feet in 1" for
an arc perpendicular to the meridian is 7’9928932, or the
length of 1" in an arc perpendicular to the meridian in lati¬
tude 51° 40' is 101*6499 feet. (See Transactions of the
Royal Astronomical Society of London, 1847.)
To find the Longitude by Lunar Eclipses.—Since an
eclipse of the moon is visible to one-hali of the earth at the
same time, this would seem to be an excellent method of
finding the longitude. The different steps of the process
are,—to compute the time at which an eclipse is to happen
at the place of observation, and to compare this time with
an accurate chronometer showing Greenwich time; or in
the absence of this, the Greenwich time of the happen¬
ing of the phenomenon must be looked for in the Nautical
Almanac; or it may be computed by the observer from
the lunar tables. But this method of determining the
longitude is rarely used, owing to the difficulty of ascertain¬
ing the exact time of contact of the penumbra of the
earth’s shadow with the moon’s limb at the beginning or
ending of the eclipse. Sometimes, indeed, two observers
of an eclipse at the same place may differ more than 2
minutes in noting the time of contact; and hence the error
from this cause alone would be about 4 minutes of time,
which would be equivalent to nearly 1° of longitude. It was
proposed in the Philosophical Transactions of 1786 to
diminish this source of error, by observing the contact of
the earth’s shadow with some remarkable spot on the
moon’s face. But although this method were more accu¬
rate, the unfrequency of lunar eclipses at sea renders the
method of little use.
To find the Longitude by the Eclipses of Jupiter's Sa¬
tellites.—Ever since the discovery by Galileo of Jupiter’s
satellites the observation of their eclipses by their primary
has been used as a method of finding the longitude. Tables
of these eclipses were constructed by Galileo; and it was
the disagreement of these tables with actual observation
that led Rcemer to the discovery of the gradual propagation
of light. (See Light.) The first astronomical solution of
the great problem of the longitude really dates from the dis¬
covery of these secondaries, for the tables of their eclipses
were framed on scientific principles. The three interior
satellites of Jupiter pass through his shadow, and are
eclipsed at every revolution ; the fourth, or outer one, at
times escapes eclipse, grazes the umbra, or is partially
eclipsed. The computed times at which the eclipses are
to happen at Greenwich Observatory are noted in the
Nautical Almanac, published three or four years in ad¬
vance ; so that if these tables are in the hands of any one
distant from Greenwich, he has but to observe the eclipse,
and calculate the time at which it occurs, to find the differ¬
ence of the local times between Greenwich and the place
of observation, and thus ascertain the longitude. The times
of immersion and emersion are noted with much greater
accuracy than the contact of the moon’s limb with the earth’s
shadow.
But before these eclipses can be observed with ac¬
curacy, a telescope of considerable power must be used; Longitude,
and as it is extremely difficult to direct a telescope properly /
on shipboard, the method is practically useless at sea. But
again, particular care is required in observing; for two
observers at the same place, with telescopes of different
magnifying powers and apertures, seldom agree within a
second or two of each other; hence the mean of the re¬
sults of immersion and emersion should be taken. But
another source of error is, that no two or more observers
will agree as to the instant of the total immersion, or of
the complete emersion of the satellite; hence the only
case in which this method is practically useful in deter¬
mining terrestrial longitudes is that in which the instant
of immersion and emersion are observed with the same
telescope, and by the same observer, since in this manner
he will find the precise instant of the satellite’s opposition
to the sun.
To find the Longitude by Signals.—If the difference of
longitude between two places be small, it may be easily
found by means of the bursting of a rocket, the oxy-hy-
drogen lime-ball light, or the explosion of gunpowder fired
from the one place at a preconcerted time, and observed
at the other place ; the local times of these places being ac¬
curately ascertained, the longitude is known. These arti¬
ficial signals, when fired from an elevated spot of country,
may be seen, when the atmosphere is in a proper state, at
distances varying from 30 to above 100 miles. An ob¬
server, therefore, distant from the spot at which the rocket
or other signal is exposed, has only to observe the time
when he sees it, and afterwards compare this time with
the time when the rocket was set up, the difference of
times giving the longitude of the one place from the other;
if at one of the places the Greenwich time corresponding to
that of the event is known, the longitudes of the places
from that meridian are also known. It is here supposed
that the gradual propagation of light leads to no appreciable
error in the small distance between the two places.
If the distance between the two places be considerable,
and if a rocket sent up at the one place cannot be seen at
the other place the longitude of which is required, then
a series of signals must be made and noted by obser¬
vers, placed at stations intermediate to the two extreme
places.
Thus, let A and E be the two places, the longitude be¬
tween which is required ; B, C, and D, observers at inter¬
mediate stations; w, x, y, z, signal places, and let these
places be arranged in the following manner :—
A w H x C y T) z E.
Before the signals are sent up at the previously arranged
hours from w, x, y, z, the local times of the places along
the whole line AE are supposed to be accurately known.
Let then a signal be sent up at iv, and noted at A and B,
the difference of times of observation, as noted by the
chronometers at those two places, will give the longitude
AB. Let, again, another signal be sent up at x, and the
time of appearance noted at B and C, then the difference
of times, as shown by the chronometers, gives the longitude
between B and C ; and therefore between A and C.
Similar results will be found when signals are sent up from
the stations y and 2, to be observed at C and D, D and
E; and in this manner, the whole longitude AE between
the extreme stations can be found. The longitude found
on this principle, and the mode of deducing the most ad¬
vantageous results from a combination of all the observa¬
tions, is fully stated by Sir John Herschel in the Philoso¬
phical Transactions, 1826, on the Difference of Longitudes
of Greenwich and Paris.
Natural signals might be adopted in place of artificial
ones, especially if they occur in sufficient number. Thus,
Halley is said to have first suggested the idea of employing
LONGITUDE.
689
Longitude, shooting stars, or meteoric stones, for determining the differ-
v'—ences of longitude by simultaneous observation. Dr Mas-
kelyne, in 1783, drew the attention of astronomers to these
phenomena, and distinctly pointed out their application to
this subject. The idea was revived in 1802 by Benzen-
berg; but so long as these shooting stars were regarded as
casual and irregular phenomena, it was not to be expected
that they could be ot much service in geodetic measurements.
Since, however, these meteors are known to be regular in
their appearance, especially on the 9th and 10th of August,
and on November 12th and 13th; and since they are visi¬
ble over extensive regions of the earth’s surface, they may
be advantageously applied, by previous concert and agree¬
ment between distant observers to watch and note them.
Mr Cooper has thus employed the meteors of the 10th
and 12th of August 1847 to determine the difference of
longitudes of Markree and Mount Eagle, in Ireland. Those
of the same epoch have also been used in Germany for
ascertaining the longitudes of several stations, and with
very satisfactory results.
To determine the Longitude by Moon-culminating Stars.
—This method consists in finding the increase of the moon’s
right ascension in the intervals between the passage of the
moon over the meridian of Greenwich and over that place
whose longitude is required. It is necessary to find the right
ascension of the moon’s bright limb, and of a star selected
on, or as near as possible to, the moon’s parallel of declina¬
tion, and not differing much from her in right ascension at
the two meridians ; then, the moon’s increase of right ascen¬
sion being known, the difference of longitude is determined.
Let T, for example, be the time when the moon’s en¬
lightened limb transits the meridian of any place distant
from Greenwich; t the time of passage of a star over the
meridian of the same place ; let also n be the error of
the clock in the course of the day ; then 24 + rc will be the
interval of time elapsing between two successive transits of
the same star, and 24 + m :T -* = 360°: the difference of right
ascension of the moon’s bright limb and the star at the in¬
stant of the limb being on the meridian ; and if to this the
right ascension of the star be added, the right ascension,
= «', of the moon’s bright limb when on the meridian is
determined. Now the proper stars to be observed for this
purpose, as well as the right ascension of the moon’s bright
limb when on the meridian of Greenwich, are given for
every day of the year in the Nautical Almanac, from which
the daily increment of right ascension may be determined.
Let a be the right ascension of the moon’s bright limb
when on the meridian of Greenwich, e the increment of
right ascension in the time between two successive tran¬
sits over the same meridian; then, whilst the moon, by her
relative motion, separates from the meridian of Greenwich
by an angle of 360°, its real motion in right ascension is
e ; and whilst it separates by an angle equal to the difference
of longitude, the motion in right ascension is a —d \ and,
therefore, supposing the change in right ascension uniform,
the required longitude = —-— .360°. Where greater accu-
curacy is required, the difference of longitude correspond¬
ing to the increase of right ascension a — a, must be deter¬
mined by interpolation. This method is considered one of
the best which can be adopted for determining the longitude
of distant places, when the observer, furnished with a transit
instrument, can obtain a landing. {Hymeds Astron. 1840.)
7 o find the Longitude by the passages of the Moon over
the Meridian. If the sun, moon, and a star be supposed to
be on the meridian of Greenwich at the present moment,
then in the next instant the three bodies will be separated
from each other, the star will be found most advanced
to the W., the moon least advanced from the meridian,
while the sun will occupy an intermediate situation. The
meridian itself also leaves these bodies, but will approach
vol. xin.
them with different degrees of velocity, and reach each of Longitude,
them after certain intervals of time. It will pass the star after
the lapse of a sidereal day, or after having described 360° ;
it will pass the sun at the end of a solar day, or after hav¬
ing described 360° 59’ ; and it will pass the moon after
a time = the sum of 24 hours and the moon’s retardation
for that time, or after having described an angle = the sum
of 360° and the moon’s right ascension in 24 hours. This
always takes place in the interval between two successive
transits of the moon over the same meridian. So also a
spectator on a different meridian will notice similar effects,
but less in degree, and less proportional to the distance of
his from the first meridian. The sun’s right ascension
will be increased (or the separation of the sun from the star),
but less than 59 ; the moon’s right ascension (or the sepa¬
ration of the moon from the star) will also be increased to
the spectator, but less than its increase between two succes¬
sive transits; consequently there will be an excess of in¬
crease of the moon’s right ascension above that of the sun’s,
but less than the excess that takes place between two suc¬
cessive transits of the moon over the meridian of Green¬
wich. Wherefore, since the spectator at the second meri¬
dian may compute the respective increments of right ascen¬
sion of moon and sun that take place between two suc¬
cessive passages of the moon over the meridian of Green¬
wich; then, since he is also able to compute, by actual obser¬
vation, the right ascensions of sun and moon at the times of
their passage over his own meridian, he has determined the
longitude. The spectator may choose the sun and a star,
the moon and a star, or the moon and sun ; the two former
are preferable. (Woodhouse’s Astron., 1821.)
To determine the Longitude by means of Eclipses of the
Sun, or by Occultations of Stars by the Moon.—One of the
most exact methods, and at the same time the simplest,
for finding the longitude, is by means of solar eclipses and
occultations. If the commencement and ending of an
eclipse of the sun, or the immersion and emersion respec¬
tively of a star from the enlightened and dark limb of the
moon or of a planet, be observed, it is only necessary to
deduce the true time of conjunction for Greenwich and
also for another place of observation; the difference of the
times gives the difference of meridians, and therefore also of
longitudes. Kepler employed this method, and it is one
of the simplest. (Kepler, Astron. pars opt.) The only incon¬
venience of this method is the large amount of calculation
required.
To find the Longitude by Lunar Distances ; that is, by the
distance of the Moon from a Star or the Sun.—This method
supposes that the face of the heavens is a dial-plate, the
stars marks apparently irregularly distributed upon it, and
the moon the hand moveable among them and round the
earth as a variable centre. Three things require particu¬
lar notice about this clock ;—1. The intervals of space
separating the principal and secondary marks from one
another and from the moving hand—the moon. 2. The
exact amount of the eccentricity of the earth, the centre of
motion of the hand. 3. The proper motion of both moon
and earth at any part of their respective paths. When
these data are properly known, the time as shown by this
clock may be read. The time as pointed out on this dial-
plate is generally read at Greenwich Observatory, and
tabulated in Xhe Nautical Almanac, four or five years before¬
hand, for every three hours. But this clock is supposed to
be accurately seen by a spectator at the centre of the earth,
and consequently, since observers are on the surface, the
moving hand being rather near, and the marks immensely
distant from the earth, it is evident that this moveable hand
will be displaced, or undergo a parallax with respect to
the stars, which must be allowed for, ere the true place is
known which she occupies in space, as seen from the cen¬
tre of the earth. A reduction must also be made to the
4s
6i)0 LON
Longitude, centre of" the earth. 1 he necessary steps for computing
/ the longitude by this method are,—(1.) Find by a sextant
the distance between a star and one ot the moon s limbs ,
or, between the limbs of the sun and moon ; add or sub¬
tract in the former case, the semi-diameter of the moon,
and in the latter, the sum of the semi-diameters of sun
and moon, which gives the distance of the moon’s centre
from the star, or that between the centres of sun and
moon. (2.) When two observers are making the observa¬
tions, one should take the above distance, while at the same
instant the other takes the altitude above the horizon of the
moon and star, or of the moon and sun. In the case of
one observer, he must take the altitudes immediately before
and after the distance has been found, and allow for the
changes of altitude which may have taken place in the
intervals between their observations and that of the dis¬
tance. (3.) The true altitudes are derived from the appa¬
rent and observed, by correcting the latter for refraction
and parallax ; the apparent altitude being the observed alti¬
tude corrected for the dip of the horizon and instrumental
errors. (4.) The observed is also an apparent distance, and
must, like the altitude, be corrected for parallax and refrac¬
tion in order to find the true distance. (5.) Since the true
distance is found, the hour, minute, &c., of Greenwich time
corresponding to it will also be found by the tables of the
Nautical Almanac. (6.) The local time of the place of ob¬
servation is now to be computed from the true and cor¬
rected altitude of a star or the sun, the sun’s or star’s
N. polar distance, and the latitude. (7.) The difference be¬
tween this local time and Greenwich time gives the longitude.
To find the Longitude by the Electric Telegraph.—This
beautiful and ingenious application of electricity for record¬
ing astronomical observations is the latest method of find¬
ing the longitude, and was proposed by Mr Bond of the
Cambridge Observatory, United States. Mr Airy, of the
Greenwich Observatory, has also carried it into effect with
great improvements. During the summer of 1847 ex¬
periments were made on the electric telegraph connecting
New York, Philadelphia, and Washington, for the purpose
of determining the differences of longitude between these
three cities. A competent observer was stationed at each
observatory. A continuous wire connected the three
cities, so that telegraphic signals might be exchanged be¬
tween any two of them at pleasure. In some of the first
experiments, signals were exchanged between Philadelphia
and Washington, but it was found impossible to transmit
signals from Jersey City to Washington, the power of the
battery being inadequate to that distance. This, however,
was remedied on the 29th of July, when twenty clock signals
were given at Jersey City, and recorded both at Philadelphia
and Washington ; twenty signals were given at Philadelphia
and recorded at Jersey City and Washington ; and twenty
signals were given at Washington and recorded at Jersey
City and Philadelphia. Thus the comparison of the three
clocks was decisively made in a remarkably short period of
time. The success of these experiments amply repaid the
first unsuccessful efforts. The difference of longitude be¬
tween Jersey City and Philadelphia is 40m 3s; and between
Jersey City and Washington, 12m 33; omitting in each case
the small fractional part of a second, which was ultimately
allowed for. The distance between New York and Wash¬
ington is 225 miles, and the time required to make a com¬
munication pass betwixt these two places was a fraction of
a second which cannot be measured.
Soon after a system of telegraphic wires was erected
on the principal English lines of railway, Mr Airy had them
put in communication with Greenwich Observatory, his
object being to give Greenwich time on a given day to the
United Kingdom. It was at first proposed that a ball should
be dropped from the upper part of Greenwich Observatory,
so as to touch a spring communicating with all the tele-
L 0 N
graphic wires in the kingdom, and then, by the striking of Longo-
a bell, give instantaneously true Greenwich time to Liver- bardi
pool, Manchester, and all the northern towns. But this ^ II
method was found impracticable, owing to the non-com- . ° J
pletion of all the lines with Greenwich. On the 1st of “r v
December 1847, true Greenwich time was communicated
directly from the observatory to the several stations of the
London and North-Western and Midland lines in connec¬
tion with it; but to all other stations of these lines special
messengers were sent with chronometers indicating true
Greenwich time. Hence, since Greenwich time is used
over the whole of the United Kingdom, if the local time
of any place be known, its longitude from Greenwich is
also determined.
Since submarine cables connect Greenwich with Brus¬
sels and Paris, and these again with the principal cities of
Europe, Mr Airy was very lately enabled to correct the
latitudes and longitudes of their observatories. Hence,
also, when the submarine cables which are to connect India,
Australia, and America, with Greenwich, shall have been
completed, the true longitudes of the principal cities of the
world will easily be determined.
LONGOBARDI. See Lombards.
LONGOBUCO, a town of Naples, province of Cala-
bria-Citra, situate in a valley 21 miles N.E. of Ccsenza.
The inhabitants are chiefly employed in the neighbouring
argentiferous lead mines, and in the burning of charcoal.
Pop. 8000.
LONGOMONTANUS, Christian, a Danish astrono¬
mer, the son of a poor ploughman, was born in 1562. His
original surname, Severin, was changed into Longomon-
tanus, an epithet derived from the Latinized name of his
native village Langoberg. Compelled from a very early
age to earn his bread by field labour, he received little or
no school education. However, by the aid of the minister
of the place, he instructed himself, and at the same time
fostered so keen a desire for learning, that at the age of
fifleen he stole away from his family, and entered the
College of Wiborg. Here he remained for eleven years,
and though forced at the same time to gain a scanty sup¬
port by toil, progressed rapidly in his studies, especially in
mathematics. He then removed to Copenhagen, and there
becoming known, through his high attainments, to the pro¬
fessors of the university, he was recommended by them
as assistant to Tycho Brahe. With this celebrated astro¬
nomer he continued for eight years engaged in astronomi¬
cal calculations and observations, and living successively at
the island of Hoene and at the castle of Benach, near
Prague. From this latter place, Longomontanus set out
in 1601, and after travelling by a circuitous route, arrived
at Wiborg in 1603. There he was immediately appointed
superintendent of the gymnasium. In 1605 he became
professor of mathematics in the university of Copenhagen.
Longomontanus died in 1647.
His principal works are, Astronomia Danica, 1622, 4to ;
Systematis Mathematici, Part I.; Cyclometria e Lunulis
reciproce demonstrata ; Geometric Qucesita XIII. de Cy¬
clometria rationali et vera ; Rotundi in Plano seu Circuli
Absoluta Mensura; and Inventio Quadratures Circuli. In
this last treatise an attempt was made to square the circle,
which was proved by Dr John Pell to be unsuccessful.
Yet, at the end of an animated dispute with this mathema¬
tician, Longomontanus remained unconvinced of his error.
LONGTOWN, a market-town of England, Cumber-
landshire, on the left bank of the Esk, 9 miles N. by W.
of Carlisle, and 3 miles from the Scottish border. Its
streets are regularly laid out and clean. The inhabitants
are mostly employed in hand-loom weaving and agricul¬
ture. Weekly markets on Monday and Thursday ; the
former for butter and bacon, the latter for grain. Pop.
(1851) 2142.
L 0 N
Longus LONGUS, a Greek sophist, the author of the pastoral ro¬
ll mance entitled IIot/xevtKa ra Kara Ad<£vu/ (cat XXorjv, and com-
^1 stands0 mon'y ca"e^ ^ie Loves of Daphnis and Chloe, lived in the
s an^s.^ fourt]l or century. Regarding his life nothing is known.
His work is admired for its natural elegance and simplicity,
but occasionally betrays a want of purity both in taste and
in morals. It was first printed by Columbanius at Florence
in 1598, 4to. The best editions are those of Boden, Leip¬
zig, 1777, 8vo; \illoison, Paris, 1778; Schaefer’s, Leipzig,
1803, 8vo; Passow, Leipzig, 1811, 12mo; and Seiler,
Leipzig, 1843, 8vo. Courier’s edition, published in 1810,
contains a passage which he found in the manuscript in the
Laurentian library at Florence, and which fills up a gap
apparent in all the other manuscripts. Longus was trans¬
lated into English by Thornley, London, 1657, 8vo ; and
by Le Grice, London, 1804, 12mo.
LONGWY, a fortified border town of France, depart¬
ment of Moselle, near the Chiers, a tributary of the Meuse,
33 miles N.N.W. of Mentz, and about a mile distant from
the Belgian frontier. It is divided into an upper and lower
town. The former is situate on an elevation once occupied
by a strong castle, which was destroyed, and replaced in the
time of Louis XIV. by a town fortified by Vauban. The
latter, which contains most of the manufactories, lies under¬
neath the southern escarpment of the upper town. The
chief public buildings, including the town-hall, the principal
churches, and an hospital, belong to the upper town ; while
the manufactures of calico, Delft ware, and porcelain, are
carried on in the lower town. Longwy has sustained many
sieges. In 1792 it was taken by the Prussians under the
Duke of Brunswick, and again in 1815 by the allies
under the Prince of Hesse Homburg, after a gallant resist¬
ance. Pop. 3374.
LONS-LE-SAULNIER, the capital of the department
of Jura in France, and a town of considerable importance,
is situate on the Solvan, not far from its source, in an
agreeable valley surrounded by the mountains of the Jura,
whose lower slopes are clad with vineyards. It is clean
and well built, possesses tribunals of first instance and
of commerce, a library, and a college ; it has a handsome
church and museum of antiquities, and is ornamented by
beautiful fountains. At one end of the town is a brine
spring or well, 60 feet deep, supplying the saltworks, Salins
(whence the ancient name Ledo Salinarius and the mo¬
dern Saulnier). These saltworks are situate at Mont-
morot, about a mile from the town, whither the brine is
conducted by a wooden canal, with immense evaporating
houses for strengthening the brine before it is boiled, in
order to spare fuel. The tanworks of the place are impor¬
tant, and there is a tolerable trade in salt, iron, building
timber, wine, cheese, &c. Pop. 9410.
LOO-CHOO ISLANDS, a group consisting of about
36 islands in the North Pacific Ocean, between Japan and
Formosa. They lie between N. Lat. 24. and 28. 40. and
E. Long. 127. and 129. They are small and insignificant,
with the exception of Great Loo-Choo, which extends about
60 miles in an N.E. direction, and has an average breadth
of about 10 or 12 miles. This island is entirely encircled
by coral reefs, which, however, do not appear above water.
Along its centre runs a chain of hills, covered for the most
part by forests of pine, and broken at intervals by abrupt
crags that bear seeming traces of volcanic action. Their
slopes in many parts are covered with terraced gardens and
fields of grain, and are watered by streams led in artificial
channels. The valleys are well watered, fruitful, and covered
with a luxuriant vegetation. The villages are almost com¬
pletely hidden among groves of bananas, bamboos, banyans,
and pines. Rows ot trees overarch the roads, line the
streets of the chief towns, and lorm a screen in front of the
houses. I here are large rich fields of rice, intermingled
with crops ot sugar-cane, wheat, millet, sweet potatoes,
LOO
plums, oranges, cotton, and tobacco. The principal surface-
rock is argillaceous, and is intersected at intervals by pecu¬
liar ridges of limestone. The disintegration of the former
rock forms the chief ingredient of the rich adhesive soil
which is most prevalent in the island. Situate within the
range of the trade-winds, Loo-Choo has in general a mild
climate. The domestic animals are,—geese, ducks, fowls,
pigs, goats, a small species of black ox, and a nimble and
hardy breed of horses. Wild boars abound in the exten¬
sive forests. A striking trait in the zoology of the island
is the scarcity of birds in the woods.
The dress, customs, but especially the language, of the Loo-
Chooans, indicate a Japanese origin. Suspicious of strangers,
they are, nevertheless, gentle and hospitable. They are dimi¬
nutive in stature, and in complexion resemble the Chinese.
They have dark eyes and black hair, plaited into a knot on
the crown of the head ; and the character of the hair-pin
determines the sex as well as the rank of the weaver. The
women wear single and the men double hair-pins. Among
the higher classes, these articles are made of gold or silver;
among the lower, of brass, lead, or pewter. The highest
grade of society includes the spies and officers of the
government, and also the mechanics and small merchants.
Immediately below them are the literary class, who pass the
most of their time in smoking tobacco and drinking tea,
and are supported by the subordinate rank of field-labourers.
The meanest order are the public slaves, possessing no per¬
sonal freedom and no civil rights. Subjected from mere
infancy to perpetual toil, closely watched by spies, and pre¬
vented from all intercourse with strangers, the lower classes
are spiritless, uncomplaining drudges, subsisting upon two-
tenths of the produce they reap from the soil. In the
same slavish labour the women also are engaged. The
Loo-Chooans of one village seldom intermarry with those
of another. Their dead are treated with great respect; and
their capacious tombs, built of white limestone, appear at a
distance like cottages chequering the hill-sides. The huts
are generally placed in the middle of wrell-cultivated gar¬
dens. Their floors, covered with thick mats, are used both
for sitting and sleeping. A great part of the industrial
population are engaged in weaving the grass-cloth that forms
tbe ordinary garment, and in turning wooden implements
and covering them with lacquer. There are also manufac¬
tured tobacco, sugar, and small quantities of salt. Saki, a
strong intoxicating liquor, is distilled from rice. All the
processes of agriculture, and especially that of irrigation,
are carried on with great success. The entire trade of the
island is with Japan, and consists chiefiy of sugar, saki, and
grass-cloth. Napakiang, situate in the S. part of the
island, is the chief port. The government of Loo-Choo
seems to consist of an oligarchy of literati subject to Japan.
Learning is limited to a knowledge of the Chinese character
and the Confucian classics, and the principal means of dis¬
seminating it is home education. A few regular schools,
howrever, are scattered over the island, and at Napakiang
there is an advanced seminary. The Loo-Chooans have no
native literature. Their religion is a hybrid between Con¬
fucianism and Buddhism. Concerning the history of the
island nothing certain is known, but tradition reports that
it wras once subject to three distinct sovereigns.
LOODIANA, in Hindustan, a town of Sirhind, is so
called from having been founded by the Lodi tribe of
Afghans. The population, consisting chiefly of Mohamme¬
dans, has been estimated at about 20,000 souls. Here
Shah Zeman Dooranee took refuge after he had been
deposed, deprived of sight, and exiled from Cabul; and his
brother, Shah Shooja, also here found an asylum until his
departure, in 1838, to attempt the recovery of the sove¬
reignty of Afghanistan. The district, of which this town is
the chief place, lapsed to the British on the failure of
heirs to the late ruler in 1836. It has an area of 725 square
691
Loodiana.
692 LOO
Looe miles, and a population of about 120,000. The town of
Loodiana is situate in Lat. 30. oo., Long. 7o. o4.
Lord. LOOE, East and West, two villages of England, S.E.
' coast 0f Cornwall, on the Looe estuary, connected with
each other by a stone bridge, 15 miles W. of Plymouth.
They are of considerable antiquity, and at one time were of
importance as seaports, having sent twenty ships to the siege
of Calais in the time of Edward III. The east town was a
borough, returning two members to parliament from the
reign of Elizabeth, and the other returned the same num¬
ber from the time of Edward VI., till both were dis¬
franchised by the Reform Bill. The present villages are
made up of irregular lanes, of antique houses, overlooked
by beautifully-wooded hills, which almost surround them on
every side. The inhabitants are principally engaged in
pilchard fishing, and in the shipment of copper and granite
brought by canal from Liskeard. Pop. (1851), East Looe,
970; West Looe, 746; total, 1716.
LOONGHEE, a town of the Burman empire, situate
on the E. side of the Irrawaddy, Lat. 19.39., Long. 94.59.
LOPEZ de Vega. See Vega.
LORARII, amongst the Romans, officers whose business
it was, with whips and scourges, to compel the gladiators
to engage. The lorarii also punished slaves who disobeyed
their masters.
LORCA (the ancient Eliocrocd), a towm of Spain, pro¬
vince of Murcia, and about 40 miles S.W. of the town of
that name. This town is situate on the southern skirt of
the Sierra-del-Cano, on the summit of which is a fortress
still in a state of defence. It is divided into an upper and
lower town by the River Guadalentin, only since 1847
crossed by a bridge. Formerly communication was cut off
during the annual floods. The upper and more ancient
part of the town consists of wretched and narrow streets ;
the lower is more spacious and extensive. The principal
buildings are,—the collegiate church of St Patrick, a beauti¬
ful structure of the sixteenth century ; the former college
of the Immaculate Conception, since 1837 incorporated
with the university of Granada ; the episcopal palace of the
diocese of Carthagena; and the churches of Santiago and
Santa Maria. On account of the long droughts, the scanty
waters of the Guadalentin are collected above the town in
two reservoirs for the purpose of irrigation. In the spring of
1802 one of them burst and caused great damage. The
environs of the town are woody and picturesque, and there
are several fine parks and promenades. The manufactures
are chiefly soda, soap, saltpetre, linen, silk, oil, and paper.
The trade is of no great importance, consisting in articles
of local production—barley and wheat in good years, soda,
and some other articles. There is an annual fair from the
8th to the 23d September, chiefly for the sale of cattle, and
especially of mules, which are employed in the husbandry
of the district. The Sierras contain minerals, which are
worked to a considerable extent; some years ago great
hopes were excited, and much capital embarked, in the lead
mines, terminating in considerable losses. The town is
remarkable in history as having been the key of Murcia
during the Moorish wars ; being situate on the frontiers of
Granada, it was often taken and retaken. During the
French occupation in 1810, the inhabitants suffered greatly
from military violence, having taken up a position of decided
hostility towards the invader. The painters Juan de Toledo,
Pedro Camacho, and Baltasar Martinez were natives of
Lorca. Pop. 40,469.
LORCHA, the name of a coasting vessel used in the
Chinese seas. One of those vessels sailing under British
colours was, in 1856, boarded by the Cantonese, had her flag
pulled down, and her crew forcibly carried off. Governor
Yeh refused either reparation or apology, and this led to
the conflict between Britain and China during the same year.
LORD, a title of honour given to those who are noble
L 0 E
either by birth or by creation. The title is also by Lords
courtesy given to all the sons of dukes and marquises, and II
to the eldest sons of earls; and it is likewise a title of. °re °'
honour bestowed on those who are honourable by their ^
employment, as Lord Advocate, Lord Chamberlain, Lord
Chancellor, and the like. The word is Saxon, but abbre¬
viated from two syllables into one. “ The etymology of
the word,” says Coates, “ is well worth observing; for it
was composed of hlaf, a loaf of bread, and /or^, to give or
afford ; so that Hlaford, now Lord, implies a giver of
bread, because in those ages such great men kept extraor¬
dinary houses, and fed all the poor.”
LORDS, House op. See Parliament.
LORETO, a city in the province of Macerata-e-Cama-
rino, in the Papal States, standing on a hill 3 miles from the
Adriatic, on the E. coast of Italy. Though but a small
city, consisting of little more than one long and narrow
street, yet it has obtained a wide celebrity as a religious
sanctuary. The Santa Casa, or Holy House, sacred to
the Madonna, and said to be her birthplace, the scene of
the Annunciation and Incarnation, as well as the place
where the holy family found shelter after their return from
Egypt, was, as the story goes, transported from Nazareth
by the hands of angels to the coast of Dalmatia in 1291,
and was afterwards, in 1294, conveyed in the night, in the
same miraculous manner, to a laurel grove near Loreto.
From this laurel grove, or from Lauretta, the person to
whom it belonged, the place received its present name.
To afford accommodation to the pilgrims which flocked
thither, the foundations of the present town were soon
laid. One side of the piazza, in which the sanctuary is
situate, is occupied by the convent of the Jesuits, the
other by the splendid palace of the governor, built after
the design of Bramante. In the middle is the statue of
Pope Sixtus V., who, in 1586, fortified the place against
the attacks of the Turkish pirates, for whom the treasures
of the sanctuary had considerable attractions. This piece
of art is the work of Calcagni of Recanati. On the third
side of the square stands the church called the Chiesa
della Santa Casa. Over the grand entrance is a full-
length bronze statue of the Virgin and Child, by Giro¬
lamo Lombardo. The chief external ornaments are three
superb bronze doors, divided into compartments, with bas-
reliefs illustrating events in the history of the Old and
New Testaments. These exquisite performances are the
work of the sons and pupils of the celebrated Girolamo Lom¬
bardo of Siena, and were finished during the pontificate of
Paul V. The campanile, designed by Vauvitelli, exhibit¬
ing a combination of the four orders, is of great height, and
is surmounted by an octagonal pyramid, with a bell weighing
22,000 pounds. The great attraction of the church, how¬
ever, is the Santa Casa, a small brick building of the
rudest kind, 13£ English feet high, 27J in length, and 12^
in breadth. It has a door on the north side, and a window
on the west. Over the fireplace is a statue of the Virgin, of
Lebanon cedar, black with age, said to be sculptured by
St Luke. The statue is resplendent with jewels, and the
value of the relics and treasures must be very great. All
sorts of offerings, from all classes of worshippers, are to be
met with—from the richest jewels to a cannon-ball of the
warlike Julius II., or a wedding-dress of the king of Saxony.
The marble casing which incloses the Santa Casa is one
of the most remarkable monuments of the finest age of art.
The design was by Bramante, and the sculptures by San¬
sovino, Girolamo Lombardo, Bandinelli, Giovanni da Bo¬
logna, Guilielmo della Porta, Sangallo, &c. It has four
fronts of white marble, and the sculptures are in relief.
These wonderful works were for the most part begun, if
not finished, by Sansovino. Vasari pronounces his repre¬
sentation of the Annunciation, on the western ffont, an
opera divina. The next object of attraction is the bap-
LOU
Lorica tistery, a splendid work in bronze, ornamented with bas¬
il. reliefs relating to baptism. The chapels of the various
Lorraine.^ naves are SUperbly ornamented with reliefs, arabesques,
fresco paintings, and mosaics from the paintings of the
great masters. Besides its church, Loreto contains little
that is worthy of notice. It has a population of 9700.
LORICA, a cuirass, or coat of mail, worn by the Roman
soldiers, was made of various materials. One formed by
numerous folds of linen was used rather in hunting than in
warfare. The ordinary kind consisted of a skin or a piece
of strong linen, covered with small plates of iron which re¬
sembled, both in their shape and in their manner of over¬
lapping each other, the scales of a serpent or a fish. Some¬
times cuirasses or hauberks, composed entirely of iron rings
linked together, were worn by the Roman hastati. A less
flexible but more impervious defence was the cuirass made
of hard leather or of metal, and consisting of two parts (the
one covering the breast and abdomen, and the other the
back), united by hinges and leathern thongs.
LORIENT, one of the five great naval ports of France,
and the principal town in the arrondissement of the same
name in the department of Morbihan, is situate on the
northern shore of the Bay of Biscay, where the rivers Scarf
and Blavet, after mingling their waters, fall into the Bay of
St Louis. It is a large and flourishing town, strongly for¬
tified, tolerably well built, but not very clean, standing in
an angle between two creeks, one of which forms the naval
the other the mercantile port. The port, which is large
, and commodious, is walled off from the town, thereby ex¬
cluding all view of the water from the inhabitants. It is
the seat of a maritime prefecture, of a civil tribunal, of a
tribunal of commerce, of a college, and of a school of naval
artillery. The dockyard is the first in France for the build¬
ing and equipment of ships of war ; there is accommodation
on its slips for the simultaneous construction of thirty ships
of war. It has an arsenal, a park of artillery, engineering
works, masting-sheds and forges, &c. There is a good
trade in sardines, marine stores, iron, wax, honey, &c. The
town is quite modern. Founded by the French India Com¬
pany in the reign of Louis XIV., in 1664, it was not till
the time of the Duke of Orleans that the company took
full advantage of the accommodation of Lorient. The
greater portion of the town was then built, and the port
fortified. In 1745 it contained thirty-five frigates, besides
a very great number of ships, averaging from 900 to 1200
tons burden. In the comparatively short space of thirty
years Lorient had risen to the first rank of towns. On the
dissolution of the company in 1770, it was made one of the
stations for the French navy. Its population and shipping
declined during the unsettled period of the Revolution, but
since the peace of 1815 it has been more than restored to
its former activity. Pop. 25,700.
LORN, a division of Argyllshire. See Argyllshire.
LORRAINE is the corrupted form of Lotharingia,
Lothair-regne, Lotharii-regnum, or kingdom of Lothairc.
The son and successor of Charlemagne, Louis the Pious,
divided the empire between his three sons, Lothaire, Pepin,
and Louis. Subsequent to this division, he had, by a second
marriage, a son named Charles. Louis the Pious wished
to make a new distribution of his dominions, which should
include this Charles. The wish led to an insurrection on
the part of the three elder brothers, and to the temporary
deposition of Louis the Pious. The mother of Charles was
desirous of securing the empire for her son, but failing in
this, she united with Lothaire, to the exclusion of his
younger brother, Louis. Pepin was at this time dead. The
old and imbecile emperor being restored to the throne,
agreed to make Lothaire and Charles his sole heirs. On
the death of the emperor, however, Lothaire found himself
opposed by his brothers Louis and Charles, and the result
of the bloody battle at Fontenay, in which 100,000 lives
LOR 693
are said to have been sacrificed for three unworthy princes, Lorraine,
compelled Lothaire to agree to the terms imposed on him
by his brothers. According to these terms, Lothaire was
to retain the imperial title, but he was to possess only Italy
and a territory which reached from the Mediterranean to
the Netherlands, and which was partially bounded by the
Rhine, the Rhone, the Meuse, and the Scheldt. Louis re¬
ceived Germany, and Charles willingly accepted France
for his portion. The treaty of Verdun, which established
these terms, was concluded in 843. The territory out of
Italy, which was assigned by that treaty to the Emperor
Lothaire, is said to have taken from him the name of
Lotharingia. This, however, is an error. The district
above described was a portion of the empire, and was sub¬
sequently split into the kingdoms of Austrasia and Bur¬
gundy. Among the political arrangements which followed
the confusion supervening on the demise of Lothaire, the
most important was that subdivision of territory between
his heirs, by which his son Lothaire II. was invested with
sovereign power over the districts between the Meuse and
the Rhine (excepting certain cities on the banks of the
latter river), the Scheldt and the Meuse, and some con¬
tiguous “ counties.” This district was the true Lotharingia,
of which King Lothaire, son of the Emperor Lothaire, was
the first sovereign. A glance at the map will show that
this territory was so situate that, if its monarch gave offence,
it could be easily invaded on the sides of either Italy, Ger¬
many, or France. On the other hand, Lorraine could give
its support to either of its neighbours against the others.
One consequence of this position was that the country was
for centuries a brand of discord between the German em¬
pire and the kingdom of France.
Early in the tenth century, on the death of Louis II.,
the last German emperor of the blood of Charlemagne,
Lorraine was recovered by the French king, Charles the
Simple. Under that monarch we meet with the first Due
beneficiaire of Lorraine. This was no other than that
Reynier (Reginald or Raguiner) whose system and policy
have been so pleasantly transmitted to us in the exquisite
satire, Reineke Fuchs. Reynier’s son, Gislebert, succeeded
to the ducal stewardship. Sanguinary contests ensued
between Germany and France; and finally, a division of
the prize being agreed upon, that portion known as Upper
Lorraine became a fief of the empire in the year 960, to
be governed by dukes receiving their nomination from the
kaiser. This species of administration lasted eighty years,
when the Emperor Henry III. founded a line of hereditary
dukes in the person of Albert of Alsace. This line, which
commenced in 1044, flourished during seven centuries, at
the end of which time Lorraine was finally annexed to the
French crown, and Francis, the twenty-sixth duke from
the Alsatian (whose genealogy partial heralds have traced
from Hector, and more modest builders of races from Da-
gobert) exchanged the duchy of Lorraine for that of Tus¬
cany, took the hand of Maria Theresa, and gave to the
imperial house of Austria the name of Hapsburg-Lorraine.
A more famous line of dukes never challenged admira¬
tion. Occasionally we find one weary of his glory. Thus,
after Albert, Gerard, Thierry I., and Matthew I., had suc¬
cessively enjoyed their ducal state, we meet with the astute
Simeon II., who, after twenty-two years of renown and
responsibility, laid down his ducal cap, and ended his days
in a monastery. His coronet was joyously worn by his
nephew Ferry, or Frederick L, whose successor, Thibaut
the Handsome, wore it more joyously still, but less happily,
ending a gay life by poison, mixed for him by the hand of
a favourite and ungrateful mistress. His brother and suc¬
cessor, the terrible Matthew II., is remembered for the
summary manner in which he suppressed all desire to com¬
mit acts of injustice on the part of local governors by
skinning one offender alive. Ferry II., in 1298, received
694 LOUR
Lorraine, an accession of sovereign power in the imperial sanction to
coin Jus own money. The second Thibaut reduced the
authority of the aspiring Lorraine nobles as vigorously as
Richelieu subsequently crushed that of the proud aristo¬
cracy of France. The third Ferry, surnamed the Wrestler,
gave asylum in his duchy to the fugitive Templars, flying
from the vengeance of other sovereigns. He is otherwise
remembered as being the first of the Lorraine dukes who
was a decided partizan of France. It was the ambition of
all these dukes to obtain the title of king. Raoul, who fol¬
lowed Ferry the Wrestler, acquired the lordship of Guise,
in Picardy, by his marriage with Mary of Blois; but this
alliance with France was founded more on policy than
affection. This “paragon of Lorraine dukes” was not un¬
known to our forefathers, for he was among the bravest of
our foes counted among the dead on the well-stricken field
of Cressy. Still better known to the English was his suc¬
cessor John, godson of John, King of France. John left
his dukedom a prey to the luxurious nobles and to the pea¬
santry, who massacred those nobles because of their licen¬
tious cruelty, and Duke John joined his fortunes with those
of his royal godfather. Like him, the duke became our
prisoner at Poictiers, hunted in our English woods, so¬
journed in our English castles, was now at large, anon under
strict restraint, and was not released, even by the peace of
Bretigny, under a less modest ransom than 30,000 livres.
Then ensued the period of disputed successions, the his¬
tory of a portion of which is familiar to English readers who
have perused the Anne of Geierstein of Sir Walter Scott.
Charles, the son of our prisoner John, died without male
heirs. His daughter, Isabella, was married to Rene d’Anjou,
“ Duke of Bar, King of Naples, Sicily, and Jerusalem,” by
whom the ducal coronet of Lorraine was claimed. Rene is
famous for his lack of good fortune, his empty titles, and his
love of poetry and minstrelsy. He was unable either to sus¬
tain the claim of his wife to the sovereignty of Lorraine, or
to help his daughter, Margaret of Anjou, Queen of England,
in her attempt to recover the crown of her husband, Henry
VI. Rene and Isabella left the disputed coronet of Lor¬
raine to be worn by their son John II., who was wiser
than his father, and still more unfortunate. John’s son,
Duke Nicholas, was an exquisite dancer, but a very indif¬
ferent duke. Flis death left the seat of authority to be
occupied by Rene II., but it was claimed by Charles, Duke
of Burgundy, for the Count of Vermandois. The contest
which arose is one of the principal features in Scott’s
romance, already named, and it ended unsuccessfully for
the Burgundian by his defeat at Nancy, and his death in
the marsh near the city. When his body was discovered
there, the gentle Rene took the frozen hand, and exclaimed,
“ God have your soul, cousin, although you have caused
me many a pain and sorrow !” Rene II. refused to confis¬
cate the property of any of the adherents of Charles in
Lorraine ; and of all the rich spoil of the Burgundian camp,
he retained only a crystal vase, out of which he drank, after
the funeral of Charles, “ to the oblivion of vengeance.”
When Rene died, in 1508, his wife Philippa took the veil
in the convent at Pont tl Mougeon. At the solemn cere¬
mony, her youngest son, twelve years of age, placed in
her hand the symbolic wax-light, and burst into tears as he
turned from his mother, who for the next fifty years humbly
signed herself “ Sister Philippa, poor earth-worm.” Of the
good duke, Rene II., it is unnecessary to say more here
than that from him sprang another line of dukes, of which
we shall briefly speak at the close of this article, namely, the
dukes of Guise.
Duke Antony, the eldest son of Rene II., has received
the equivocal praise of Brantome, for many fine qualities
and reputable virtues. He was French by education and
inclination. His ducal coronet passed to the brows of
three successive dukes, Francis, Charles, and Henry, before
A I N E.
a lineal succession was interrupted by the lack of male Lorraine,
heirs at the decease of the last-named ducal sovereign,
Henry was succeeded in 1614 by his nephew and son-in-law,
the great Duke Charles, the most famous and most unfortu¬
nate of his house. He was renowned for his gallantry in the
field and in lady’s bower, and he prided himself on this double
reputation. In the Thirty Years’ War, he took the side of
Germany against France, a partnership which for a time
costhim his dukedom. His reconciliation with Francedidnot
induce him to consider the designs of the government
of that country with less dread or suspicion. He evinced
his antagonism by entering the Spanish service, and in
that service he carried on war against the French crown,
after the peace of Westphalia in 1648 had caused a cessa¬
tion of hostilities between France and her other adversaries.
But Charles found his worst foes amongst his latest friends,
and his freedom of speech was exercised at the cost of his
personal liberty. For some audacious criticism, the Spa¬
niards put him under arrest in Brussels, transferred him to
close captivity in Antwerp and Toledo, but released him in
1659, when Louis XIV. concluded the peace of the Pyrenees.
The French monarch procured the enlargement of the
duke on terms which made of the latter a very obsequious
servant. His obsequiousness, however, went farther than the
stipulations required of him ; and when his nephew and
heir, Charles Leopold, declined to enter into a marriage-
proposed to him by the duke, the latter forwarded a de¬
spatch to Louis XIV., which the French monarch received
as he was enjoying the gay delights of the fair at St Ger¬
main, in 1661. When Louis had read the missive, he joy¬
ously remarked that he had obtained a more precious prize
than could be found in the fair. The despatch from Lor¬
raine contained an offer to make over the duchy to France
after the death of Charles, on condition that the princes of
the House of Lorraine should be reckoned among the princes
of the blood-royal of France. When Charles Leopold heard
of the offer, he fled to the emperor for protection. His
uncle became the slave of Louis, and when Charles at¬
tempted to free himself from the galling yoke in 1670, he
was driven out of his duchy by French troops. He died
a soldier in the imperial service in 1675. There were diffi¬
culties in the way of the annexation ofLorraine to France
which neither Louis nor the able Colbert could surmount.
It is a singular circumstance, too, that during the early
period of the sway of Duke Charles he was a proud as-
sertor of his independence of France. He repaired to Ver¬
sailles, indeed, to do homage for the dukedom of Bar,
which was on French territory, but when the ceremony
was concluded, he remarked that he hoped no one would
construe the act as an acknowledgment of vassalage. The
chancellor of King Louis expressed, in his turn, a hope
that no chicanery was intended ; at which the haughty duke
looked at the legal gentleman, and asked if, by chance, he
mistook him for a lawyer!
Charles Leopold only nominally reigned from 1675 to
1690. He might have returned to Lorraine, but he re¬
fused to accept the terms allowed him by the peace of
Nimeguen. He made his name famous by his deeds
in the wars of that period ; and the recovery of the duke¬
dom which was denied to him, was realized in the person
of his son, Leopold Joseph, by the terms of the peace of
Ryswick, in 1697, after Lorraine had been more than a
quarter of a century in the possession of the French. The
experience of his predecessors rendered Leopold Joseph
wise. He loved peace rather than war ; was respected
equally by Germany and France, and while he cultivated
the friendship of the former, he cemented his alliance with
the latter by marrying Elizabeth Charlotte, daughter of
Philip, Duke of Orleans. He died in 1729.
It seems paradoxical to assert that the glory of this am¬
bitious house was consummated by the downfall of the
LOUR
Lorraine, duchy. Such, however, is the remarkable fact. The son
' of Leopold Joseph was Francis Stephen, the last duke. He
was popular, gentle, very much of a German by education,
a moderate traveller, and was the lion of the London
season, at the gay parties of 1731. Of the wars and poli¬
tical struggles of this period we cannot speak farther than as
they influenced Lorraine. The possession of the duchy
became necessary for the security of the French frontier.
Cardinal Fleury finally effected the desired end. Francis
married Maria Theresa, exchanged Lorraine for Tuscany,
and, with his bride, ascended the imperial throne of Ger¬
many. The great hope of the House of Lorraine was thus
accomplished. Maria Theresa and Francis could alike trace
their descent from Gerard of Alsace, the nephew of the
first duke of the hereditary line ; and on grasping the sceptre
of the kaisers they might have quoted, as fulfilled, the de¬
vice of their race, Spes adhuc restat avorum. They were,
as before noticed, the first of the line of Hapsburg-Lor-
raine.
The old duchy did not immediately revert to the French
crown. Among the unsceptred monarchs of the time there
was Stanislaus Leczinsky, who had been carried to the
throne of Poland by Charles XII., and who was driven
from it by Charles’s enemies. Louis XV. married the
daughter of Stanislaus, and gave the duchy, with all its
privileges, to her father, in life-interest. The new Duke
of Lorraine passed the most pleasant of lives under the pro¬
tectorate of the worst of kings. He kept a brilliant court;
governed with remarkable wisdom ; was alternately religi¬
ous and licentious; made of Nancy a city of parks and
palaces; drank joyously the Tokay wine sent to him by
Francis ; cooked little dishes of his own invention, for which
he is still gratefully remembered; dabbled in literature;
wrote maxims for daily conduct, which embrace the wide
distances between duty towards God and watchfulness
against damp shoes; and, after a reign or residence of
twenty-eight years, from 1738 to 1766, was burned to
death by the ignition of his dressing-gown as he was stoop¬
ing to light his pipe at his own fire.
After his decease Lorraine became a province of France;
but the annexation was not carried into effect without
various riots, in which the Lorraine women were especially
conspicuous. As a province, it disappeared in the French
Revolution, when provincial governments, with all their
heavy oppressions, ceased. The ancient province was
broken up into departments, and that part of the old
kingdom of Lothaire is now divided into the departments
of the Meurthe, the Meuse, and the Moselle.
The story of Lorraine would be very imperfect without
some notice of the branch of Guise. Towards the end of
the fifteenth century, Rene II. sent his fifth and youthful
son Claude into France, to push his fortune. The boy grew
up to manhood; served Francis I. w’ith his sword; carried
the double cross of Lorraine triumphantly over many a field,
and acquired such power, that although Francis had made
him Duke of Guise, the king warned his successor against
the ambition of such men as the duke and his brother, the
famous Cardinal John. It was the daughter of this duke,
Mary, who married James V. of Scotland, and became the
mother of Mary Stuart.
If these two Guises were the terror of all Protestants, still
more so were Francis, the second duke, and his able but
unscrupulous brother, Cardinal Charles. Side by side they
governed France ; revived her glory; impoverished the peo¬
ple, and enriched themselves. They overcame all political
opponents; lived with a splendour which was unknown at
court, and sealed their reputation—the first, by capturing
Calais from the English; the second, by his sanguinary
persecution of the Reformers. The reputation of the duke
during the reigns of Henry II. and Francis II. was only
equalled by that of his brother; and the kingdom was
A I N E. 695
never so much at the mercy of individuals as when it w^as Lorraine,
brilliantly misruled by Duke Francis of Guise and Cardinal
Charles of Lorraine. The duke was shot by Poltrot at
the siege of Orleans; the cardinal survived to the reign of
Henry III. Meanwhile, there succeeded to the dukedom
Henry of the Star (Le Balafre), who was perhaps the
most redoubtable antagonist that the Reformers ever had,
as he w7as the most formidable subject ever possessed by
helpless sovereign. To him and to Cardinal Charles may
be traced the authorship of the plan carried out in that
never-to-be-forgotton day of massacre—the day of St Bar¬
tholomew. When Charles IX. had passed away, the great
struggle for power commenced between the new king,
Henry III., and the Guises. It Mas a struggle for very
existence, and in it the Guisards had the sympathy of the
people, always excepting the Huguenots. The history of
the horrors of the struggle comprises the darkest pages in
the history of France. It M as not closed when Henry III.
got his namesake of Guise into his pouter at Blois in 1588,
and there had him cowardly assassinated in the very bed¬
chamber of the king. The bloody struggle was only
brought to an end when the sister of the murdered duke,
Ann of Montpensier, put a knife into the hand of the
Dominican, Clement, and he, inspired by her beauty and
her promises, went and plunged the weapon into the bosom
of the last of the Valois kings of France.
From this time the fortunes of Guise suffered retrogres¬
sion. The fourth duke, Charles, escaped from his captivity
at Tours, and joined the league against that over-lauded
monarch, “ Henri Quatre.” The triumph of this Bourbon
king reduced the duke to comparative retirement. Cardi¬
nal Richelieu drove him into exile in the reign of Louis
XIIL, and this worthless duke Mas succeeded by his son,
the more worthless Henry, who surrendered the dignity
of a cardinal to assume the honours and responsibility of
a dukedom. It was this libertine who, in 1647, headed
the expedition by which, for a time, he succeeded Masa-
niello on the throne of Naples. After a life of great vicis¬
situdes, he died, in 1664, a sort of “ gold-stick-in-waiting”
at the French court. Being childless, he Mas succeeded
by his nephew, Louis Joseph, a youth who died of small¬
pox in 1671, and who bequeathed the once proud title of
Guise to his infant son, Francis Joseph, who, in his turn,
died of the same disease, the seventh and last of the Dukes
of Guise, in the year 1675.
With the prestige of this house its pretensions did not
expire. The French memoirs continually reveal to us the
petty court quarrels and the silly struggles for precedency at
state balls, carried on at court by ladies and gentlemen who
could trace their descent from some younger branch (and
there were many of them) of the House of Lorraine. The
last of the race connected M’ith the line of Guise was that
Prince of Lambesc, colonel of cavalry, who, in one of the
street riots in Paris, which, in 1789, were preludes to the
Revolution, struck a rioter with the flat of his sabre, and
for this assault upon the people was driven out of France,
three centuries after his great ancestor, Claude, had entered
it from Lorraine. The last of the Guises found a refuge
at Vienna, where the heir of the elder branch of Lorraine
held the imperial sceptre. The present Emperor of Austria
is the representative of this ancient race ; and he, as if un-
M’illing to give up all connection with the old ducal pro¬
vince which has been so long annexed to France, still
reigns supreme over a few square yards in Nancy, the
old capital of the province. Those few yards are com¬
prised within the walls of the church wherein are ranged
the cenotaphs of all the dukes of Lorraine, and near u'hich
lies the body of one of whom Nancy is as proud as of her
dukes—Callot, the great French engraver. The ecclesias¬
tical staff of this edifice is in the pay of the Emperor of
Austria, as representative of the ancient ducal family. The
696
LOS
LOT
Lossini edifice is said to be Austrian property; and while no repairs
II are made therein but at Austrian cost, so no appointments
k0*- are concluded but under Austrian approval. Such is the
—'v'--'' last shadow of the symbol of authority over the once power¬
ful dukedom of Lorraine. Of the race which once held
sway therein, the younger branch, that of Guise, has become
extinct; but the heir of the elder line occupies an imperial
throne at Vienna, where he upholds a policy that would
have been despised by Lothaire. (j. D—N.)
LOSSINI. See Osero.
LOSTWITHIEL, a market-town of England, county
of Cornwall, on the River Fowey, 5 miles S.S.E. from Bod¬
min. Its streets are narrow and roughly paved; and
its houses are generally built of stone, and roofed with
slate. The principal building is the parish church, a struc¬
ture of the fourteenth century, surmounted by a spire, and
containing a curiously ornamented old font. During the
civil war, having been used as a barrack by the parlia¬
mentary troops, it was injured by an explosion of gun¬
powder. Near the church is the site of the ancient palace
of the earls of Cornwall, now occupied by the stannary
prison. There are also three dissenting chapels. Many of
the population are employed in tanning, lime-burning, and
the woollen manufacture. A considerable trade is carried
on in lime, coals, iron, and timber. About a mile from the
town are the fine ruins of Ilestormel Castle, another palace
of the earls of Cornwall. Lostwithiel once returned two
members to Parliament, but was disfranchised by the Re¬
form Act. Pop. of parish (1851) 1053.
LOT, a department of France, formed from Quercy, part
of the old province of Guyenne, is bounded on the N. by
the department of Correze, on the E. by those of Cantal
and Aveyron, on the S. by that of Tarn-et-Garonne, and
on the W. by those of Lot-et-Garonne and Dordogne. It
is situate between N. Lat. 44. 13. and 45.5., and E. Long. 1.
and 2. 10. It is 65 miles long by 35 broad, and has an area of
2168 square miles. The department is drained by two navi¬
gable rivers ; the Lot in the S., from which the department
takes its name, and the Dordogne in the N. The watershed
of these two rivers is formed by a branch of the mountains
of Auvergne. The Lot flows into the Garonne, and receives
the Selle on its right bank near St Cirq. The Dordogne
receives the Cere on its left. The principal minerals are coal
and iron. The mountainous districts yield marble, granite,
limestone, alabaster, millstones, and lithographic stones, and
the valleys fuller’s earth. The chief places of mineral wealth
are—Miers, La Garde, and Gramat. Industrial manufac¬
tures have made little progress. There are some iron¬
works, potteries, and tile-kilns, and manufactories of coarse
woollen stuffs, brandy, and paper. There is a small trade in
those articles, besides wine, corn (which is pretty abundant),
hides, salt, and groceries. The department is almost en¬
tirely agricultural. Wheat, maize, barley, and oats, are
raised in the valleys and plains ; and in the stronger soils,
hemp and tobacco. The best wines are those of Cahors
and Grand-Constant. The white mulberry is grown for pro¬
duction of silk, and truffles and plums are plentiful. Horses,
mules, asses, cows, sheep, swine, and goats are numerous
and of tolerable quality. The rivers abound in fish, of
which the most noted are the eel and the carp. The de¬
partment of Lot has three tribunals of first instance under
the court of appeal of Agen, a tribunal of commerce at Ca¬
hors, a lyceum, two colleges, and a normal school.
The principal town of the department is Cahors, with a
pop. of 13,350. Lot has three arrondissements, subdivided
as follows:—
Oahors .
Figeac .
Gourdon
Total
Cantons. Communes. Pop. in 1851.
. 12 127 118,515
. 8 112 94,345
. 9 73 83,364
. 29 312 296,224
LOT-ET-GARONNE, a department of France, formed Lot-et-.
chiefly of the old province of Guyenne, besides small por- Garonne
tions of Condomois and of Lomagne, is bounded on the N.
by the departments of Gironde and Dordogne, on the E. v |
by those of Lot and Tarn-et-Garonne, on the S. by that of
Gers, and on the W. by those of Landes and Gironde; be¬
tween N. Lat. 44. and 44. 45., and W. Long. 0. 10. and E.
Long. 1.3. It is 63 miles long and 55 broad, and contains
an area of 2067 square miles. It receives its name from the
rivers Lot and Garonne, which traverse it in a westerly di¬
rection, and unite near the town of Aiguillon. The Ga¬
ronne receives as tributaries the Raise and the Dropt; the
former joining it opposite Aiguillon, the latter below La-
Reole. Another principal river is the Gers. Those rivers
are, for the most part, navigable, or are rendered so by
means of canals. Steamers ply between Bordeaux and
Agen, and a railway has been projected from Bordeaux to
Cette. The chief mineral productions are iron, gypsum,
building-stone, and marl. The department possesses, as
industrial establishments, a manufactory of tobacco at Ton-
neins, and one of beautiful sail-cloth at Agen. The remain¬
ing articles of manufacture are flour, linen, cotton, pottery,
iron, glass, lime, paper, ropes, and leather. There is a
considerable trade in those articles, as well as in agricul¬
tural produce, which is rich and abundant. The valleys of
the Lot and Garonne are remarkably fertile and beautiful.
The low grounds yield wheat, maiz, rye, hemp, and to¬
bacco ; the upper slopes ar^ covered with vines, figs, and
plums. The N. of the department is rather barren. The
climate is very healthy. A considerable number of horses,
mules, asses, cattle, sheep, pigs, and goats are reared.
Geese and game are also abundant. Lot and Garonne forms
the diocese of the Archbishop of Agen, and has five consis-
torial churches of the Calvinistic persuasion. It has a court
of appeal at Agen, four tribunals of first instance, three
tribunals of commerce, and five colleges.
The principal town is Agen, with a pop. of 14,987 ; and
the department is divided into four arrondissements, sub¬
divided as follows:—
Cantona. Communes. Pop. in 1851.
Agen    9 72 84,092
Marmande  9 96 101,044
Nerac  7 62 60,818
Villeneuve-d’Agen   10 82 95,391
Total
35
312
341,345
LOTHIAN, a name given to three counties of Scotland,
—Haddingtonshire, Edinburghshire, and Linlithgowshire ;
otherwise called East, Mid, and West Lothians. (See the
articles on these different shires.)
LOTTERIES, in their highest application, are institu¬
tions for raising the revenue of a country by granting to
those who voluntarily contribute the chance of obtaining
a reversion of part of the money collected. This reversion
is determined by lot. The practice may be traced back to
the Romans, who were accustomed, at least in the days of
the empire, to enliven their festivals with the distribution
of tickets uniform in appearance, but entitling the holders
to receive articles of various value. Instead of granting
largesses to the leaders of the Plebs, the Emperor Au¬
gustus frequently distributed his gifts on the same prin¬
ciple ; and Heliogobalus has the merit of devising in sport
a plan, frequently resorted to in fraud to avoid the penalties
against lotteries in England, of making prizes really worth¬
less take the place of blanks. In the middle ages the same
practice prevailed at the banquets of feudal princes, who
distributed their presents economically, and without the fear
of jealousy, by granting lottery tickets indiscriminately to
their friends. The practice soon descended to the mer¬
chants; and in Italy, in the sixteenth century, this became
a favourite mode of disposing of their wares. In 1530 the
“ Lotto” of Florence was established for the necessities cf
LOT
Lotti. the state, and the example was quickly followed throughout
Europe* The fiist lotteries with numbered tickets were
instituted at Genoa. Mercantile lotteries were established
in Fiance under Francis I. in 1539, and a tax levied on
each ticket; but these were supplanted in 1660 by lotteries
of money, under the direct control of the king. 'The first
lottery established in England was drawn in 1569. It con¬
sisted of40,000 lots, which were sold at 10s. each. The prizes
weie pieces of plate ; and the profits were devoted to the re¬
pair of certain harbours in the kingdom. The printed plan
of this scheme is still in possession of the Antiquarian Society
London. In 1612 a lottery was granted in behalf of the
Virginia Company; and in 1680 the same privilege was
accorded to a contractor who undertook to supply London
with water. From this time forward the spirit of gambling
increased so rapidly, and grew so strong, that in the reign
of Queen Anne, private lotteries had to be suppressed as
public nuisances. Ihe first parliamentary lottery was insti¬
tuted in 1709; and from this period till 1824, the passing of
a lottery bill was in the programme of every session. Up till
about the close of the eighteenth century, the prizes were
generally paid in the form of terminable, and sometimes of
perpetual, annuities. Loans were also raised by granting a
bonusof lottery tickets to all who subscribed a certain amount.
This gambling in annuities, however, despite the restrictions
of an act passed in 1793, soon led to an appalling amount of
vice and misery ; and in 1808 a committee of the House of
Commons urged the suppression of this ruinous mode of fill¬
ing the national exchequer. In October 1826 the last pub¬
lic lottery was drawn in Britain. In France state lotteries
have been abolished, but they still exist in most of the con¬
tinental states ; and although demonstrably a source of loss to
those who embark in them, they are upheld as a very ready
mode of procuring money from the poor, the miserly, and the
adventurous. The Hamburg lottery affords the most fa¬
vourable representation of the system, as in it all the money
raised by the sale of tickets is redistributed in the drawing
of the lots, with the exception of 10 per cent, deducted in
expenses and otherwise. In the United States lotteries
were established by congress in J 776, but, with the excep¬
tion of the southern states, heavy penalties are now imposed
on persons attempting to establish them. Private lotteries
are now illegal at common law in Great Britain and Ireland;
and penalties are also incurred by the advertisers of foreign
lotteries. Some years ago, it became common in Scotland
to dispose of merchandise by means of lotteries ; but this is
specially condemned in the statute 42d Geo. III., c. 119.
An evasion of the law has been attempted by affixing a
prize to every ticket, so as to make the transaction resemble
a legal sale; but this has been punished as a fraud, even
where it could be proved that the prize equalled in value
the price of the ticket. This decision rested upon the plea
that in such a transaction there was no definite sale of a
specific article.
In 1844 art-unions began to be established in Britain;
and as the principle on which they are founded involves that
of the lottery, their operations, which are in reality illegal,
were immediately suspended by order of government. In
the following year, however, an act was passed to indemnify
those who had embarked in them for the losses which they
had incurred by the arrest of their proceedings; and since
that time, they have been tolerated under the eye of the
law without any express statute being framed for their
exemption.
LOTI I, Antonio, one of the great founders of the Ve¬
netian school of musical composition, was born at Venice
a °iU^ a^C d'cd there in 1740. He studied music
uJ? c,er,r 10vanni Legrenzi, and in 1693 became first organist
of St Marks, a position which he held till he was appointed
chapel-master of that cathedral in 1736. In 1718 he was
called to Dresden, m order to compose an opera for the
VOL. XIII.
LOU 697
Elector of Saxony. He returned to Venice the same year, Lotoa
and then devoted himself to the study of music for the church.
According to his continental critics, the style of his music ko^on.
is clear and expressive, and he possessed peculiar skill in
writing parts for voices smoothly and melodiously—a rare
and difficult branch of musical composition. In his madri¬
gals and church music, he was considered superior to all
other composers of his time. Most of his church music was
deposited in the library of St Mark, and little of it pub¬
lished. He composed nineteen operas for the theatre. In
1 /05 he published at Venice a collection of his vocal duets
and trios, and madrigals for four and five voices. One
of these madrigals—“ In una siepe ombrosa”—Bononcini
(Handel s opponent in London) had the folly and impudence
to publish as his own. 'Ihis imposture was detected and
exposed in 1732 and Bononcini having thus lost all credit,
besides having become intolerably insolent and overbearing,
quitted England for the continent in the following year.
Latrobe, in the second volume of his Selections, gives a
“ Q™ To^V’and, in the third volume, a “Gloria in excelsis,”
by Lotti. (g. f. g.)
LOTUS, a very famous plant amongst the ancients, but
the name is applied to several different species. Fee sig¬
nalizes eleven. The most celebrated is that from which
the Lotophagi (or lotus-eaters) were designated. It grew
in the Syrtic region of Africa, and is described by Polybius
as a thorny shrub, with berries about the size of an olive,
which were at first white, but afterwards acquired a red
tinge. The taste of these resembled that of dates, and was
supposed to have the property, when eaten, of causing
strangers to forget their native country. Hence the pro¬
verb of “ tasting the lotus,” as applied to those who travel
far and neglect their own land. Modern travellers and
botanists identify the plant now referred to as the Zizyphus
lotus, found in Tunis and other parts of Africa. Park de¬
scribes the berry as very sweet and affording a liquor, as was
the case with the ancient lotus. When the fruit was ground
into meal, baked into cakes, and dried in the sun, he found
it to be delicious to the taste. It is the opinion of Munby,
however, that the true lotus tree of the ancients is the Nitra-
ria tridentala, found in the desert of Soussa, near Tunis,
producing a succulent fruit having stimulating qualities.
I he lotus of the Egyptians is the Nelumbium speciosum
of botanists (or sacred water-bean), supposed to have been
the Pythagorean bean, from which he charged his followers
to abstain. The blue species, often found sculptured on
the walls of Egyptian temples, is, in all probability, the
Nymphaa ccerulea. Both the seed and the root of the
former were used for food by the inhabitants. The plant
appears frequently in the hieroglyphic representations of
the rites of Isis and Osiris, to whom it was sacred, and was
regarded as an emblem of the creation of the world from
water. It was considered symbolical of the Nile, as the
Indian lotus was of the Ganges.
LOUDON, John Claudius, a famous writer on horti¬
culture, was the son of a farmer in the neighbourhood of
Edinburgh, and was born at Cambuslang, in Lanarkshire,
in 1783. After attending a public school in Edinburgh, he
was apprenticed, at the age of fourteen, to a nurseryman
and landscape gardener in that city. Meantime he had be¬
come intimate with the theory of horticulture, as well by
diligent private study, as by attending the classes of botany,
chemistry, and agriculture, in the university. In 1803 he
repaired to London, and through the high testimonials which
he bore, soon obtained abundance of employment. Bent
upon improving the inferior system of agriculture in Eng¬
land, Loudon in 1806 rented, conjointly with his father, a
farm in Middlesex, and in the ensuing year published a
pamphlet, entitled An Immediate and Effectual Mode of
liaising the Rental of the Landed Property in England.
I he success attending his new vocation induced him to
4 T
698 LOU
Loudun take a lease of the larger farm of Tew Park, in Oxfordshire.
I! There he also established an agricultural college. After
Loughrea. amassing by his enterprise a fortune of L.15,000, he set
out} in 1813, on a tour, and having travelled in Sweden,
Russia, Poland, and Austria, returned to England in 1814.
The knowledge of foreign horticulture he thus obtained
was still further enlarged by a visit to France and Italy in
1819, and formed an important part of his Encyclopedia
of Gardening, published in 1822, with numerous woodcuts.
A second edition of this great work appeared in 1824.
Less successful, his elaborate treatise Arboretum et Fruti-
cetum Britannicum, 1838, was sold slowly, and involved its
author in a debt of L. 10,000 to the printer, the stationer, and
the wood-engraver. While toiling assiduously at this work,
Loudon was also editing four monthly periodicals—an
amount of activity extraordinary in a man whose right arm
had been amputated in consequence of disease, and whose
constitution had been seriously impaired by rheumatic
fever. Enfeebled still more by this labour and its attendant
anxiety, he yet continued his studies as unweariedly as ever,
and immediately before his death in 1843, was engaged in
a work entitled Self-Instruction for Young Gardeners. In
addition to the works already mentioned, Loudon wrote—
Observations on the Formation and Management of Useful
and Ornamental Plantations, 8vo, Edinburgh, 1804; A
Short Treatise on some Improvements lately made on Hot¬
houses, 8vo, Edinburgh, 1805 ; A Treatise on Forming,
Managing, and Improving Country Residences, and on
the Choice of Situations, 2 vols. 4to, London, 1806; En¬
cyclopaedia of Trees and Shrubs ; Encyclopedia of Agri¬
culture, 1825 ; and Encyclopedia of Cottage, Farm, and
Villa Architecture, 1832. He also edited Encyclopedia
of Plants, 1829.
LOUDUN, a town of France, capital of a cognominal
arrondissement in the department of Vienne, situate on an
elevation between the Dive, Creuse, and Martiel, 32 miles
N.N.W. of Poitiers. Its streets are well laid out, and a
beautiful promenade now occupies the site of an old for¬
tress, destroyed in the beginning of the seventeenth cen¬
tury by order of Cardinal Richelieu. Some cloth, linens,
and common lace are manufactured here ; and a brisk trade
in oil, white wine, and walnuts is carried on. This town
was one of the first in France to embrace the reformed re¬
ligion, and soon became a stronghold of the Protestant
party. In 1634 it was the scene of the disgraceful execu¬
tion of Grandiere, curate of Loudun, who was burnt at the
stake by command of Richelieu. Pop. (1851) 4457.
LOUGHBOROUGH, a market-town of England, in
Leicestershire, and a station on the Midland Counties’ Rail¬
way, about 9 miles N.N.W. from Leicester. It is lighted
with gas, and consists of five principal streets, meeting near
the centre of the town, and lined with houses mostly built
of brick. The chief buildings are,—the old parish church;
the new church of Emmanuel; and Burton’s school—a well-
endowed institution, possessing two exhibitions at Jesus
College, Cambridge. There are also other schools, several
dissenting meeting-houses, a literary and philosophical so¬
ciety, a theatre, barracks, and a Roman Catholic convent.
The principal articles of manufacture are, woollen and
cotton hosiery, laces, and shoes. The trade of the town is
much facilitated by the Loughborough canal that connects
it with the River Soar. Market-day, Thursday. Pop.
(1851) 10,900.
LOUGHREA, a market-town of Ireland, county of
Galway, on the N. side of Loughrea Lake, about 20 miles
E.S.E. from Galway. With the exception of the houses
that skirt the Dublin and Galway road, the town is ill-built,
and consists of narrow and irregular streets. It has a parish
church, recently rebuilt, three Roman Catholic chapels, a
nunnery, and a Carmelite friary, founded in 1300 by
llichaT,d de Burgh, Earl of Ulster. There are also bar-
L O U
racks, a union workhouse, and a bridewell. The inhabi- Louhans
tants are chiefly occupied in tanning, brewing, and the 'll' '
linen manufacture. Market-day, Thursday. Part of the . Louis-
old wall that fortified the town still remains. Pop. (1851)
5238.
LOUHANS, a town of France, capital of a cognominal
arrondissement in the department of Saone-et-Loire, on the
left bank of the Seille, which is here navigable. The town
is composed of antique and grotesque-looking houses, and
its streets are irregular and dirty. From its position, how¬
ever, between the Saone valley and Switzerland, it has
gained a certain commercial importance. It has a number
of flour-mills, and an extensive trade in cattle, horses, and
grain. Pop. (1851) 3785.
LOUIS, the name of many kings of France. Louis I.,
surnamed “ Le Debonnaire,” was born in 778, succeeded
his father Charlemagne in 814, as King of France and
Emperor of the West, and died in 840. Louis II., sur¬
named “ The Stammerer,” was born in 846, succeeded his
father, Charles the Bald, in 877, and died in 879. Louis
VI. , called “ Le Gros,” the son and successor of Philip I.,
was born in 1078, ascended the throne in 1108, and died
in 1137. Louis VIE, son of the preceding, was born in
1120, succeeded his father in 1137, and died in 1180.
Louis IX., canonized as St Louis, was born in 1215, suc¬
ceeded his father, Louis VIII., in 1226, and died of a pesti¬
lence in 1270. Louis XI., the son and successor of Charles
VII. , was born in 1423, ascended the throne in 1461, and
died in 1483. Louis XII., the son of Charles, Duke of
Orleans, was born in 1462, succeeded Charles VIII. in
1498, and died in 1515. Louis XIII., surnamed The
Just,” was born in 1601, succeeded his father, Henry IV.,
in 1610, and died in 1643. Louis XIV., the son of the
preceding, was born in 1638, ascended the throne in 1643,
and died in 1715. Louis XV., the great-grandson and
successor of Louis XIV., was born in 1710, was declared
king in 1715, was crowned in 1722, and died in 1774.
Louis XVI., the son of Louis the Dauphin, was born in
1754, succeeded Louis XV. in 1774, and was beheaded in
1793. Louis XVIII., the brother of the preceding, was
born in 1755, assumed the title of King of France and
Navarre in 1795, ascended the throne in 1814, and died in
1824. Louis Philippe, the son of the Duke of Orleans,
was born in 1773, was elevated to the throne in 1830, abdi¬
cated the crown in 1848, and died in 1850. (See France.)
LOUIS, St, a city and river port in the state of Mis¬
souri, U.S. of North America, is situate on the right bank
of the Mississippi, about 20 miles below the junction of the
Missouri, and 1194 miles above New Orleans. N. Lat.
38. 37. 28., W. Long. 90. 15. 16. Next to New Orleans,
this is the principal port on the Mississippi; and among the
western cities it is second only to Cincinnati in population
and wealth. The Upper Mississippi, Ohio, Missouri, and
their numerous tributaries, furnish it with upwards of 8000
miles of connected water communication, and open up to it
countries rich beyond description in mineral, vegetable, and
animal products. The mineral resources of its immediate
vicinity are very great, comprising iron, coal, lead, and pro¬
bably copper. The town extends for nearly 7 miles along
the curve of the Mississippi, and about 3 miles backward;
but the dense portion of it is only about 2-|- miles in length
by 1 j in breadth. It stands on two plateaux of limestone
formation, the one 20, the other 60 feet above the highest
flood of the river. The ascent to the first plateau is rather
abrupt; the second rises more gradually, and spreads out
into an extensive plain, affording fine views of the city and
river. The town is well and regularly laid out; the streets,
with few exceptions, being wide, and intersecting each other
at right angles. Front Street, Main Street, and Second
Street run parallel to each other and to the river, and are
the seat of the principal wholesale business. Fourth Street
LOU
‘'Louis, is the fashionable promenade, and contains the finest retail
shops. The houses are well built and handsome, chiefly of
brick, though limestone is sometimes used. The new
court-house, a magnificent building, resembling in style the
Capitol at Washington, is constructed of limestone, and
occupies an entire square. The fronts are adorned with
porticos, and in the interior is a rotunda lighted from the
dome. Among the finest of the other buildings are,—the
Roman Catholic cathedral, a number of the other churches,
the market-house, arsenal, and several of the hotels and
private residences. There are at present about 60 places
of worship in St Louis, of which 12 are Roman Catholic,
12 Methodist, 8 Presbyterian, 5 Episcopalian, 2 Jewish
synagogues.
The educational and literary institutions are numerous
and efficient. The university of St Louis, organized in
1832, and under the direction of the Roman Catholics, is
a well-ordered and flourishing institution, having, in 1855,
20 instructors, 175 students, and 15,400 volumes in library.
The medical college connected with it is also in a very
flourishing condition. The medical department of the
Missouri college is also located here. The Mercantile
Library Association, organized in 1846 and incorporated
in 1851, has recently erected, at a cost of about L.20,000, a
magnificent building, four storeys in height, having a library
and reading-room, lecture-room, grand hall, &c. The bene¬
volent institutions comprise several hospitals, asylums, &c.
The city hospital, long distinguished for its excellent accom¬
modation, has recently been found inadequate to the wants
of a rapidly increasing population, and the erection of new
buildings is in agitation. The marine hospital, sisters’
hospital, the home for the friendless, designed for aged
indigent females, and the house of refuge, are all valuable
institutions. Of the Roman Catholic and Protestant orphan
asylums, the former is under the direction of Sisters of
Charity, the latter of Protestant ladies.
The city is supplied with water from the river, raised by
means of steam engines into a reservoir 250 feet square by
15 feet deep, and capable of containing 5,000,000 gallons,
and thence distributed over the city by about 36 miles of
pipes. It is in contemplation to construct another reser¬
voir, 540 feet in length, 250 in breadth, and 25 in depth,
and capable of containing 52,000,000 gallons. Gas-works
have recently been erected here, and about 33 miles of
street pipes are now laid down.
The manufactures of St Louis, although still in their
infancy, are of great importance, and rapidly increasing.
The flour-mills are here more extensive than in any other
city in the west. The product of the various mills for 1852
amounted to 393,184 barrels, and their daily capacity is
estimated at 3000 barrels. Sugar refining is actively carried
on ; Belcher’s sugar refinery being one of the largest in the
Union. The vast mineral resources of the district are beino-
taken advantage of, and the iron manufactures of St Louis
already exceed those of any other city on the Mississippi,
if not in the west. Chemicals, oils, and tobacco are among
the more important of its other manufactures. It is, how¬
ever, as a commercial city that St Louis is most important.
The shipping owned in the district at 30th June 1852
amounted, according to the custom-house returns, to an
aggregate of 37,861 tons, enrolled and licensed, of which
32,646 were steamers. The aggregate number of arrivals
of steamers during 1852 was 3184.
St Louis was founded in 1764, but up to 1820 it con¬
tained only 4598 inhabitants, and in 1830 only 6694. In
1840 it had reached 16,469, and in 1850, 77,854, of whom
75,204 were free and 2650 slaves; 23.774 were natives of
Germany, 11,257 of Ireland, 2933 of England, and 2450 of
other foreign countries. An official return of the popula¬
tion of St Louis in 1855 gives the number of inhabitants in
t ie city proper as 9 / ,642, of whom 94,686 were free.
L' O U 699
The entire population of the city and suburbs is estimated Lojiis
at nearly 120,000. ||
Loras, St., a small island belonging to France, on the Louisiana.
W. coast of Africa, Senegambia, at the mouth of the Se-
negal River, N. Lat. 16. 5., W. Long. 16.32. It is low and
sandy, about 2 miles long by half a mile in breadth, and
nearly 5 miles from the debouchment of the Senegal.
Situate on the island is a town and seaport of the same
name, where the governor resides; it can only be reached
by vessels of light burthen. Pop. of island, 15,000, of whom
800 are whites.
LOUISIANA, one of the United States of North Ame¬
rica, is bounded on the E. by the state of Mississippi, W. by
that of Texas, N. by that of Arkansas, and on the S. by the
Gulf of Mexico. It extends from W. Long. 88. 50. to 94.
20., and its extreme southern point is in N. Lat.28.56., whilst
its northern limit is in N. Lat. 33. The average length is
about 240 miles, and the mean breadth rather more than
200 miles; the area being 46,431 square miles. The sur¬
face of Louisiana is low, and generally level, with some
hilly ranges of slight elevation in the western part. The
southern part of this state, from Lake Borgne to Sabine
River, and from the Gulf of Mexico to Baton Rouge and
Red River, is an alluvial tract of country, extending about
240 miles in length, by from 70 to 140 in breadth. It is
intersected by numerous rivers, bays, creeks, and lake^
which divide the country into a great number of island'
I hree-fourths of the state are destitute of any elevati'
which deserves the name of a hill. The pine woods ge’"
rally have a surface of a very particular character, rrS
into fine swells, with table surfaces on the summit111 ^
valleys from 30 to 40 feet deep. They do not preset ^ie
aspect of a connected range, and are scattered of. ^ie
country like the waves of an agitated sea. A rangf^
commences by gentle undulations in Opelousas,^8 gra¬
dually, and diverges towards the river Sabine ,t*le
vicinity of Natchitoches it preserves a distance jj^ujediate
between the Sabine and Red Rivers, and incr'8es in e^e”
vation to the western part of the state. A rond hue of
hills, not far from Alexandria, commences * die N. side
of Red River, and separating between theva.ters t^at
river and Dugdemona, unites with another^111111 eleva¬
tions which bound the alluvial plains o’^1® ^ ashita as
bluffs, gradually diverging from that /er as they pass
beyond the western limits of the state. 4 here are likewise
some considerable hills beyond the Mr1881!1?1’ and in some
other parts the country is high; bu generally speaking,
Louisiana is one immense plain, db^d into pine-woods,
prairies, swamps, and hickory and ak lands. I he pine-
woods have almost invariably a O01' sed* The greater
proportion of the prairies is seccd-rate land, and some of
them are even sterile. A few, fuvever, in Opelousas and
those of Attakapas, possess g<at fertility. They are in
general more level than tho? ot' the upper country. A
very considerable extent of’hem has a cold clayey soil,
with a hard crust near tlif surface. In other places the
soil is of inky blackness, ad in the hot and dry season it
cracks into fissures of soi^ inches in width. A consider¬
able belt of these prair^, near the gulf, is low, marshy,
and in rainy weather ijrmdated. I he bottoms are gene¬
rally rich. Those of ne Mississippi and Red Rivers are
particularly so, and tL vegetation there is remarkable for
its size and luxuriar>e- The cotton on fresh lands of the
richest quality reaves the size of a considerable shrub.
The basin of Ref River possesses extraordinary fertility,
and the lower coirses of this stream are noted for the pro¬
duction of cotun- The soil is said to derive its fertility
from a portion of salt which is intimately mixed with it,
and from its peculiar friability; and the darkish red colour
which it besrs, is to be traced to the presence of the red
oxide of iron. All the branches of Red River, and they
700
LOUISIANA.
Louisiana. are very numerous, partake of the character of the main
stream. The richest tract, however, in the state is a narrow
belt of land lying along the Mississippi on both sides, and
extending from 150 miles above to 40 miles below New
Orleans. It is from 1 to 2 miles in width, and lies below
the level of the river when flooded, being defended by a
dyke about 6 or 8 feet in height. West of the Mississippi
there are some tracts of soil very fertile, and here the sugar¬
cane thrives well. A considerable portion of Attakapas is
of great fertility, as are smaller portions of Opelousas, which
is, however, best adapted for a grazing country. The lands
on the Washita River are black, like those on the Missis¬
sippi ; and the alluvions on the lower courses of this stream
furnish an admirable soil for cotton and other productions.
A very great proportion of the surface of this state is
covered with prairies. The first that occur W. of the Mis¬
sissippi are those which are included under the general
name of Attakapas; a term implying “ man-eater” in the
language of the savages who formerly inhabited it, and who
are said to have been cannibals. It is an immense plain
of grass, stretching from the Atchafalaya on the N. to the
gulf on the S., and is of great fertility. To the W. of this
prairie occurs that of Opelousas, still larger than the former,
and computed to contain nearly 8000 square miles. It is
divided by various natural boundaries into a number of
prairies, distinguished by separate names. The soil, though
occasionally very fertile, is less so than that of Attakapas;
mt this deficiency is compensated by the greater salubrity
" the climate, which is reckoned the healthiest in the state,
icre are here very considerable cotton plantations, and
ste of indigo. Some of the others are of great extent,
anithey all possess nearly the same characteristics. They
enerally so level as to appear to the eye a perfect
plain tjiere occasionally occur swells and declivities,
such i are sufficient to carry the water from them. The
margin.jiicf, borders on the gulf is commonly a wet marsh,
covered.jflj a luxuriant growth of tall reedy grass called
cane-gra. jn var;ous parts of these prairies there are
islands or mjer iancfs. Wherever a bayou or stream crosses
t e prairie, fs marked with a fringe of timber; and here
the soil is i*arjab]y ,-ici^ as Well as at the points of the
prcurie; but tvar(js tjie jfiver Sabine it is less so.
, leat anc* ve do not flourish here in general, but oats
and barley succ.^ weu. an(j maiz grows luxuriantly on
e a uvions am^gfj fan(js> Ti,e sweet potato {Convol-
vu us batatas) in e san(jy so;i attains the greatest perfec-
lon. 1 hey are oh;fferent varieties, and occasionally of a
very arge size, but q are extremely nutritive, and raised
with ease in great ab,dance> The Irish potato is not s0
easi y raised, and is oiv cultivated for eating during the
ear y part of summer. qqie pumpkin and melon tribe
ouns in this climate, aq a]f the northern fruits come to
per ection, with the exceqon 0f app]eSj which generally
decay before ripening. Drerent kinds of figs
grow in the
greatest abundance, and theree WOuld appear to attain its
arges size in this quarter. \|ong the whole shore of the
L'ff ’ a n1 in- sPme ot;1'ei' P ac®sfhe orange tree, sweet and
1 0iUUS Cn’ anAt le ^’u*t ^f the finest quality. The
cultivated vine flourishes abundaify . and wild grapes, such
o-ran'6 sumiT^r’ 'vmter> fi>x, muoadine> and pine-wood
wild^nr^6 lu Uf rn’ ^ere h immense number of
rPoln d CUItiyatei fl°TennS shrubs)which flourish in this
region , and the abundance of mulbe,v trees ^oids out a
prospect that the culture of silk will e? i c c
thp f T , ,. SUK Wlil long form one of
the branches of trade in this state. T.e timber trees on
the bottoms are willow, cotton-wood i V
a^WP]v\an^ ^ck^ye; on riclTuplandl^^cucumber
Speht7; t?Fr?
AS yet a0ncultuie is only m its infancy, the pf.ncipal ob¬
ject being not to produce a great variety of crops, but to ob- Louisiana,
tain the greatest amount of the staple productions. Sugar
and rice are the staples of the state in general S. of 30°,
and cotton N. of that parallel; the latter, however, is ex¬
tensively cultivated in every part of the state. Sugar-cane
is an abundant article of growth in Louisiana. It requires
the richest soil, the mould of which should at least be a
foot deep. There are three or four varieties or species, as
the African, the Otaheitan, the West Indian, and the riband
cane. Ihe Otaheitan grows luxuriantly, and ripens con¬
siderably earlier than the West Indian; but it is said to
contain only two-thirds of the saccharine matter of the
other. Ihe riband-cane is a new and beautiful species,
which possesses the advantage of not requiring so long a
season for ripening. Throughout the state the planters are
turning their attention to the cultivation of the sugar-cane;
and in 1850 this state produced nine-tenths of the entire
quantity raised in the Union. The rice is remarkably white,
and yields abundantly. There is a great extent of land fa¬
vourable for the production of the upland rice; and no
limit can be assigned to the amount which might be raised.
The cotton cultivated here is an annual plant, growing in
the rich lands more than six feet in height, and the larger
stalks of the size of a man’s arm, throwing out a number of
branches, on which form large and beautiful whitish-yellow
blossoms. It is planted from March till the middle of May,
in drill row's, six feet apart. The kinds of cotton cultivated
are—Louisiana, green seed or Tennessee, and recently
Mexican cotton. The green seed is not of so fine a quality,
but it is less subject to the destructive malady called the
rot. The Mexican is finer, and yields more abundantly.
Sea Island cotton grows well upon grounds that have been
exhausted by the continued cultivation of the other kinds.
All the species exhaust the soil; but the seeds, which ac¬
cumulate in prodigious quantities around the gins, furnish
an admirable manure, which supplies the deficiency of nu¬
triment. Indigo was formerly a prime object of attention
amongst the planters, but the cultivation of it has been
abandoned. The finest tobacco is raised, but it is not so
profitable as sugar and cotton, although that which is cul¬
tivated in the vicinity of Natchitoches is said to equal the
tobacco of Cuba. Louisiana in 1854 produced 346,635
hogsheads of sugar.
In 1699 a colony of Frenchmen was founded on the
shores of Louisiana by M. D’Iberville. In 1712 the King
of France granted to M. Crozart a charter, which included
the whole of the territory of Louisiana ; but after five years
the charter was surrendered into the hands of the king.
To the company founded in Paris by the notorious John
Law was granted the great territory of Louisiana, as it had
been surrendered by Crozart. By the failure of this com¬
pany, Louisiana again reverted to the crown, by which it
was held for some time ; but in 1762 it was ceded to Spain,
to prevent its falling into the hands of the English. In
1800 Bonaparte succeeded in inducing Spain to retransfer
Louisiana to France ; and in 1803 it was sold to the United
States for 60,000,000 francs = L.2,500,000. In 1812 it
was admitted as a member of the Union.
According to the present constitution, every white male per¬
son, twenty-one years of age and upwards, who shall have re¬
sided in the state twelve months, and in the parish for six
months next preceding the election, has the right of voting.
The legislature consists of a senate of 32 members, elected
for four years, one half going out every second year; and a
house of* representatives of not less than 70, nor more than
100, elected for two years. The governor is elected for
four years. The legislature meets annually, and the ses¬
sion lasts not more than 60 days.
The constitution provides that “ free public schools shall
be established throughout the state; the proceeds of lands
granted for the purpose, and of lands escheated to the state,
LOU
XiOuiflville shall be held as a permanent fund, on which six per cent.
II interest shall be paid by the state for the support of these
Lourdes, schools.” The number of schools in operation on an ave-
rage eight months in the year, in 38 parishes, was 687;
average attendance about 36,000, and number of teachers
about 1000. According to the census of 1850, Louisiana
had 306 churches, with accommodation for 109,615 per¬
sons. Of these, 125. were Methodist churches, accommo¬
dating 33,180; 77 Baptist, 16,660; 55 Roman Catholic,
37,780; 18 Presbyterian, 9150; 14 Episcopalian, 5210;
6 Union, 1350; 3 Christian, 1500; 3 Free, 675 ; 1 Ger¬
man Reformed, 500; 1 Jewish, 600 ; 1 Universalist, 1000 ;
and 2 minor sects, 1650. The number of libraries was 10,
with 26,800 vols.; and of these, 5, with 9800 vols., were
public; 2, with 12,000 vnls., schnnl; and 3, with 5000 vols.,
college libraries. In 1810 Louisiana contained 76,556 in¬
habitants; in 1820, 153,407; in 1830, 215,739; in 1840,
352,411 ; and in 1850, 517,763;—-of whom 141,244 Were
male, and 114,248 female whites; 7479 free coloured
males, and 9983 free coloured females ; and 125,874 male,
and 118,935 female slaves.
LOUISVILLE, a city and river port of the United
States of North America, capital of Jefferson county, Ken¬
tucky, on the left bank of the Ohio, opposite the falls. N.
Lat. 38. 3., W. Long. 85. 30. This town, the most po¬
pulous in the state, and one of the chief ports on the Ohio,
is regularly laid out on a plain about 70 feet above the
river. Several of the streets are two miles in length, run¬
ning parallel with each other, and often ornamented with
rows of trees. The chief public buildings are the town-
hall, the court-house, the two colleges for law and medicine,
St Paul’s Episcopal church, and the blind asylum. Besides
these there is an historical institute, and a mercantile library
association possessing 5000 volumes. Louisville owes its
present importance to the falls which occur here, and to
the canal constructed to obviate this stoppage of the navi¬
gation. It is 2£ miles long, cut through limestone, and
falls 22 feet by means of lockage. The depth, however,
which is only 16 feet, has been found insufficient for the
heavy river steamers; and consequently a ship-railway
has been projected, by which the largest vessels may be
brought round the falls on the Indiana' side of the river.
Vast quantities of provisions are brought into Louisville
both by river and railway, but especially by the former.
In 1855 the value of articles (including provisions and hard
goods) imported into the town amounted to L.7,566,945 ;
the chief articles being pork and bacon, beef, sugar, flour,
feathers, hemp, bagging, and shingles. Most of these
likewise form articles of export. The steamship building
has much increased here, and now constitutes an important
trade. In the year ending November 1855 there were
41 steamers launched from this port. In the year ending
31st December 1855, 93 steamers, of 28,705 aggregate ton¬
nage, were registered. The manufactures of the place
have also increased in number and extent. Bagging, flour,
rope, wool, cotton, and tobacco manufacturing now employ
a large number of the inhabitants, and copiously supply the
export trade. Louisville was laid out in 1773, but it was
not established as a town till 1780, when it received its
name from the Virginian legislature, in commemoration of
the alliance concluded between Louis XVI. of France and
the Western Republic. Pop. (1840) 21,210, (1850)
43,196, and (1853) 51,726.
LOURDES, a town of South France, department of
Hautes Pyrenees, on the right bank of the Gave-de-Pau, 24
miles S.E. of Pau. It is built on a steep elevation, which
rises to the height of 511 feet, and is crowned by a fortress
formerly possessed by the counts of Bigorre. The streets
are as well laid out as the irregular nature of the ground
will admit. Manufactures of handkerchiefs and flax are
carried on, as well as a general trade in agricultural pro-
LOU 701
duce. Some remains of Roman fortifications are found Louth,
here, and in the vicinity are several curious grottos. While
in the possession of the English in the fourteenth century,
it formed the centre point of their military operations, but
was evacuated by them shortly after the treaty of Bre-
tigny in 1360. Pop. (1851) 4500.
LOUTH, a maritime county in the province of Lein¬
ster, in Ireland, bounded on the N. by the county of Down
and the Bay of Carlingford, on the E. by the Irish Sea, on
the S. by the county of Meath, and on the W. by the
counties of Meath and Monaghan. It is the smallest
county of Ireland, comprising an area of only 315 square
miles, or 201,434 acres; of which 178,972 are arable,
15,603 uncultivated, 5318 in plantations, 728 in towns,
and 813 covered by water. Of the 15,000 acres of uncul¬
tivated or coarse pasture land of unproductive nature, it is
estimated that 3000 may be drained and tilled; 5000 may
be d iiuiidl fur JictsiuiC; ciiixl YOOO £Hjica uF the: dcvat©cl
ground near the summit of the mountains must be con¬
sidered incapable of improvement.
In the time of Ptolemy it formed part of the maritime
district inhabited by the Voluntii. Afterwards it was
known by the name of Argiall, Orgiall, or Uriell, which
also comprehended the greater part of the counties of
Meath, Monaghan, and Armagh. Its leading families of
Irish extraction were the O’Carrols and the M'Scanlans.
It was conquered by the English under De Courcy in his
progress northwards to Ulster, and formed one of the
twelve counties into which King John divided that part of
Ireland which acknowledged his authority, and was granted
to De Courcy, and subsequently to De Lacy, as earls of
Ulster. By De Lacy it was divided and subgranted among
the families of De Verdon, Peppard, Taafe, Bellew, Ger-
non, See. It is now divided into the six baronies—Ardee,
Drogheda, Upper and Lower Dundalk, Ferrard, and
Louth, which are subdivided into sixty-one parishes, all in
the archdiocese of Armagh, and two parts of parishes in
the diocese of Clogher.
The southern part of the county is fertile and agreeably
diversified by gentle undulations of surface. Proceeding
northwards, it becomes more hilly, until, at its most north¬
ern extremity, it rises into the bold and picturesque moun¬
tains of Ravensdale and Carlingford, which in some places
attain an elevation of nearly 2000 feet. The rivers are
the Dee, the Clyde, the Fane, and the Castletown. None
of them are navigable, being useful solely for irrigation and
other purposes of rural economy. The Boyne, which
forms part of the southern boundary of the county, is navi¬
gable for large vessels as far as Drogheda. The county
has a considerable line of sea-coast, consisting chiefly of a
sandy strand, except where it is broken by the projection
of Clogher Head, a bold promontory, which, although only
180 feet in height, forms a striking feature from the ad¬
joining flat sandy beach. The Bay of Dundalk extends
beyond this point for seven miles at its mouth, indenting
the coast for an equal distance inland. The Carlingford
Mountains, bounding the northern extremity of the
county, separate it from the bay of that name, which forms
the line of demarcation both between the counties of
Louth and Down and the provinces of Leinster and Ulster.
This bay is deep and narrow, extending in length upwards of
nine miles, with an average breadth of a mile and a half. * It
is navigable to Warrenpoint, near the town of Newry, and its
shores on both sides are much admired for their bold and
picturesque scenery. Immense beds of oysters, in high
estimation amongst gastronomists for peculiar delicacy of
flavour, occupy different localities in this bay.
The soil in the southern lowlands is well adapted for til¬
lage, being composed of a rich vegetable mould resting on
marl or on limestone, sometimes with a substratum of slate.
The quality of the soil diminishes in agricultural value as
702 LOU
L O U
Louth.
the land rises towards the N., and the summits of the
mountainous district produce only heath and scanty herbage.
The mountains are composed chiefly of granite. On
their borders hornblende and primitive greenstone are
found in abundance, after which are exterior ranges of
transition rock. The lower lands rest on a clay-slate for¬
mation. The line of separation between the granite and
the clay-slate extends from Carlingford Bay, over the sum¬
mit of the Ravensdale Mountains, into the county of
Armagh. Flcetz limestone appears in the neighbourhood
of Drogheda and Ardee. A lead mine was worked for a
short period at Salterstown, near the sea-coast.
The returns of the population, taken at different periods,
present the following results:—
1760 De Burgho  67,512
1792 Beaufort  57,750
1821 Parliamentary return 101,011
1831    Hiita. _  107,421
1841 Ditto 111,979
1851 Ditto  90,812
The county, though the smallest in Ireland, sent no
fewer than twelve representatives to the Irish parliament.
Two were returned for the county, two for the town of
Drogheda, and two for each of the boroughs of Dundalk,
Ardee, Carlingford, and Dunleer. The Act of Union re¬
duced this number to four,—two for the county, one for
Drogheda, and one for Dundalk; and this arrangement
still continues.
The number of schools and of pupils attending them
during the week ended 12th April 1851, was,—
Schools.
No. of
Schools.
No. of Pupils.
Males. Females. Total
National 
Church Education
Endowed 
Boarding 
Private 
Parochial 
Free 
Industrial 
Mission 
Military 
Workhouse 
Gaol 
48
14
6
3
32
8
7
1
1
1
3
1
125
2069
258
311
11
433
108
127
2
15
289
62
3685
1940
209
161
95
286
118
140
7
3
20
378
26
3383
4009
467
472
106
719
226
267
7
5
35
667
88
7068
The lands capable of cultivation are mostly kept in til¬
lage. Potatoes, wheat, oats, and barley, raised according
to the succession here stated, form the principal crops. In
the northern districts oats are chiefly raised.
The total extent of land under each description of crop
in 1855 and 1856 was:—
Wheat 
Oats  
Barley, here, rye, beans, and pease.
Potatoes 
Turnips 
Other green crops 
Flax 
Meadow and clover 
Total 
1855. 1856.
Acres. Acres.
9,674 14,951
38,530 34,228
22,028 20,195
12,010 14,639
9,235 9,027
2,548 2,615
190 219
17,286 18,131
111,501 114,005
Sheep are most abundant in the hilly districts.
The quantity of live stock in the county in 1855 and
1856 was:—
1855.
IIorses  12,133
Cattle  39 207
|^eeP  3l’712
FlSs  14,232
Many parts of the county are well planted,
grows in the lower grounds to a great size.
1856.
12,328
31,481
40,140
12,017
The ash tree
The coasts
furnish a constant supply of fish; and the flat shores abound Louth
with sea-fowl, especially barnacle, which, however, is not so [J
highly esteemed for flavour as that of Wexford or Derry, bouvain.
I he manufacture of coarse linens is carried on to a con-
siderable extent.
Few counties can boast of so many remains of antiquity.
There are two round towers,—one at Monasterboice, 110
feet in height, and in a state of excellent preservation, the
other at Dromiskin, much decayed. At the former of these
places there are also the remains of two small churches and
of three finely sculptured crosses, one of them 18 feet
high. Near the banks of a stream called the River of Bal-
richan, is a large artificial cave, accidentally discovered by
the sinking in of a horse whilst ploughing. It consists of
several narrow passages, the sides and "top of which are
formed of flag-stones. Some bones of large and small ani¬
mals were found in it. About 2 miles from Dundalk are
the ruins of a very ancient structure, which has some re-
semblance to the hull of an ancient galley, d here are no
traces of doors, windows, or loop-holes. The building has
given rise to much antiquarian discussion. At Ballyma-
scanlan is a cromlech called the Giant’s Load, consisting
of a rock 12 feet long and 6 broad, elevated on three
upright stones. Near it is Castle Rath, surrounded by
moats and lesser raths, and with a remarkable tumulus in
its vicinity. The great mound of Castleguard, near Ardee,
is 90 feet in height and 600 feet in circumference at its
base. Its summit terminates in an area 140 feet round.
It is well planted, and surrounded by a deep trench. At
Faughart are the remains of an ancient intrenchment.
The decisive battle which terminated in the defeat and
death of Edward Bruce, by Sir John Bermingham, after¬
wards Earl of Louth, was fought near this place. The re¬
mains of castles are numerous. That of Carlingford, built
by King John, occupies a commanding position on a rock
projecting into the bay. Castletown stands within sight of
the town of Dundalk. Terfeckan Castle, once the residence
of the learned Archbishop Usher, is now in ruins. The
county is equally remarkable for the number of its ancient
monastic edifices. Mellifont, a Cistercian abbey, 5 miles W.
of Drogheda, presents some remains equally remarkable for
their beauty and singularity of architecture. Others are to
be traced at Carlingford, Faughart, and Monasterboice.
The principal towns of the county are Dundalk, Ardee, and
Drogheda. (h.s-r.)
Louth, a municipal borough of England, Lincolnshire,
and a station on the Great Northern Railway, is situate on
the River Ludd, 25 miles E.N.E. from Lincoln. The
houses are mostly built of brick and roofed with slate, and
the streets are clean, well paved, and lighted with gas.
Louth has a guild-hall, a sessions-house, a house of correc¬
tion, an assembly-room, several churches and chapels, alms¬
houses, a dispensary, and a small theatre. The principal
building is the church of St James, an edifice of the later
English style, surmounted by an octagonal spire of 288 feet,
and possessing an east window remarkable for its beautiful
tracery. There is a richly endowed grammar school,
founded by Edward VI., from whom the borough also re¬
ceived its charter. Louth is famous for its ale; and has
manufactories ofcarpets, blankets, soap, and paper. By means
of a canal, fed by the Ludd, and communicating with the
Humber, it carries on a considerable traffic in corn and
coals. Since the Reform Act, the borough has been
divided into two wards, and governed by a mayor, six
aldermen, and eighteen councillors. Markets are held on
Wednesday and Saturday. In the vicinity are the ruins of
a Cistercian abbey, founded in 1139 by Alexander, Bishop
of Lincoln. Pop. (1851) 10,467.
LOUVAIN, an ancient town of Belgium, province of
South Brabant, on the River Dyle, a tributary of the
Scheldt, 15 miles E. by N. of Brussels. It consists of re-
LOU
Louviers. gUlar but ill-built streets, and is encompassed by an earthen
rampart 90 feet high, which in some parts has been
converted into boulevards. On the outside is a dry ditch
- v , of considerable depth ; while here and there ruined bastions,
said to have been erected by the Spaniards, stand at inter¬
vals on the wall. The town, though once a place of com¬
mercial importance, has been for many years decaying, and
now presents a deserted appearance. It has, however,
many public buildings of considerable interest. The town-
hall, founded in 1448, and recently repaired, is a building
of great beauty, embellished as it is with the finest chisel-
lings, and ornamented with many sculptures. In its neigh¬
bourhood stands the cathedral, founded in 1040; and, in
consequence of two destructive fires, re-erected in 1358.
The sacristy of this church exhibits elaborate carving, and
rises in a hexagonal form to the height of 30 feet. The
wooden pulpit is likewise a fine specimen of carving, repre¬
senting the conversion of St Paul. Many famous paintings
of the old Flemish school also ornament the building. The
other most notable edifices are,—the guild-hall, founded in
1317, the university, the picture-gallery, and the church of
St Gertrude. The university was a distinguished school
of Roman Catholic theology in the sixteenth century, and
possessed large endowments. It was, however, suppressed
by the French republic; but at the end of the French war
it was re-opened by William of Holland. Its library con¬
tains 105,000 volumes. The only manufacture of import¬
ance carried on here is that of beer, which is accounted the
best in Belgium, and of which there are about 200,000
casks made yearly. Some woollens, hosiery, hats, soap, and
candles, are also manufactured here.
Louvain is a place of considerable antiquity, and by
some is thought to have been founded by Julius Caesar.
The ruin of the old castle situate at the outskirts of the
town is known by the inhabitants under the name of the
Chateau de Cesar, although it was not erected till 900 years
after the death of Julius Caesar. It was the residence at
different times of Edward III. of England and Charles V.
of Spain. In the fourteenth century Louvain was the chief
town of Brabant, was very populous, and the principal seat
of the woollen manufacture in Flanders. In 1382 a large
number of the weavers were banished from the town 'in
consequence of a disturbance. These mostly emigrated to
England, where they recommenced the wool manufacture,
which, under their care, soon became more important than
it had ever been at Louvain. From this period the town
gradually decayed. It was taken for the first time in
1792 by General Kleber, who commanded the forces of
the French republic. Pop. (1850) 30,065.
LOUVIERS, one of the three principal cloth-manufac¬
turing towns of France, and the capital of the arrondisse-
ment of the same name in the department of Eure, is
advantageously situate on the River Eure, 17 miles S.S.E.
of Rouen. It has 30 manufactories for cloth, and 19
spinning mills of woollen yarn, which employ about 12,000
persons in and around the town. The cloth manu¬
factured at Louviers is remarkable for its fine quality;
yet the town is being gradually outstripped by Elbceuf.
Louviers is an old town, of which the newer part, on the
right bank of the Eure, is well built; but the older part on
the left is constructed of wood, and traversed by narrow
dirty lanes, where the working classes are huddled together
in ignorance, demoralization, and wretchedness.” The prin¬
cipal building in the town is the church of Notre Dame,
erected in 1496. The chief factories are for the most part
well built, and the machinery of admirable construction
and anangement. Its manufacture of fine cloths dates as
far back as 1680; but in 1789 it produced only from 3000
to 4000 pieces annually, while at the present day it sends
forth as much as from 30,000 to 40,000 pieces. There are
also dyeworks, bleachfields, tanneries, and sugar refineries
LOW 703
in the town. Louviers suffered severely from the early Lovelace
wars between France and England. Taken by Henry V. II
of England in 1418, and retaken by the French in 1450, ^ LoweU.^
it sustained a protracted siege during the following year
from the Duke of Bedford, who, after taking it, razed it to
the ground. It was rebuilt ten years afterwards. Louviers
has a civil and commercial tribunal, and a council of
prud’hommes, and (in 1851) a pop. of 10,380.
LOVELACE, Richard, a poet, the son of Sir William
Lovelace, of Lovelace Place, in Kent, was born in 1618.
After receiving his education first at Charter House, and
afterwards at Gloucester Hall, Oxford, he was presented
at court, and was there much admired for his amiable dis¬
position and handsome person. A zealous royalist, he
became a colonel in the army of Charles I., and soon after
the close of the civil war was the bearer of a petition from
the county of Kent to the Long Parliament for the resti¬
tution of the king and the settlement of the government.
For this bold deed he was imprisoned, but was soon libe¬
rated on a heavy bail. Having entered the French service
in 1646 as commander of a regiment which he had raised,
he was wounded at the battle of Dunkirk. On his return to
England in 1648, he was again thrown into prison, and
continued there til! the king’s death in 1649. In the same
year was published his volume of Odes, Sonnets, and Songs,
under the title of Lucasta, the fictitious name of a lady who
had reciprocated his attachment, but in consequence of a
false report of his death at Dunkirk, had been married to
another. Thrown into a state of melancholy by this latter
circumstance, and penniless through his vast expenditure
in the royalist cause, he passed his latter years in wretched¬
ness. Wood relates that he died of consumption in 1658
in a miserable alley near Shoe Lane. Lovelace also wrote
Ihe Scholar, a comedy, and The Soldier, a tragedy. In
1659 appeared his Posthume Poems; and these, along with
his Lucasta, were reprinted in 1817 and 1818, 12mo. A
few of his lyrics, including his well-known lines, To Althea
from Prison, are free from the crude conceits and disjointed
versification of the majority of his poems. Pervaded by the
quaint and deformed imagery peculiar to that age, they are
yet raised to the rank of true lyrical poetry by their sweet¬
ness of rhythm, simplicity of thought, and tender and
elevated feeling.
LOWELL, an important manufacturing town of the
United States of North America, one of the capitals of
Middlesex county, Massachusetts, on the right bank of the
Merrimack River, at its junction with the Concord, 25 miles
N.N.W. of Boston. Although the site of the town has
considerable inequality of surface, its streets are regularly
laid out, and intersect each other at right angles. The
private residences are spacious, and many of them ele¬
gant buildings. Amongst the public edifices, the chief are,
—the court-house, the mechanics’ hall, a sick hospital for
operatives, and a market-house. The literary institutions
ol the town are very efficient, and have been of consider¬
able service to the community. The mechanic association,
incorporated in 1825, has a valuable library of about 6000
volumes, and a scientific apparatus; while the city school
library contains 9500 volumes, and is open to all on a
small yearly payment. The great advantage which Lowell
enjoys for a manufacturing town is derived from a descent
of 30 feet made by the Merrimack, and known as the
Pawtucket Falls, which, by means of canals and locks,
provides abundance of water-power. Besides these there
is a capacious reservoir, placed on an elevation eastward
of the city, which furnishes an immense supply of water
at all times in case of fire. The principal goods manufac¬
tured here are cotton, wool, and iron, dhe first is made
into cotton cloth and calico; the second into carpets,
cloth, and coarse stuffs; and iron into machinery and wire
fences. Besides these, however, bleaching is carried on
704 LOW
Lower extensively, as well as the preparation of dyes, glue, and
II other essentials of the cotton and wool manufactures. In
Lowestoft. january ]g55 there were 12 manufacturing companies
in Lowell, owning 52 mills, and working 371,838 spindles,
and 11,407 looms. The aggregate quantities produced
every week were 2,230,000 yards of cotton cloth, 30,000
yards of woollen cloth, 25,000 yards of carpeting, and 50
rugs. In the same year, L.2,900,000 of capital was in¬
vested in the whole manufactures of the place ; while the
number of hands employed amounted to 8723 females, and
4542 males. Every attention is paid by the mill-owners
to the health and morality of their operatives. One of the
best proofs of the general good conduct of the mill-workers
here is shown in the large amounts deposited by them in
the savings-bank ; and also in the interest they take in the
literary and scientific associations connected with the fac¬
tories. About a third of the inhabitants are of Irish ex¬
traction. The site of Lowell was first inspected in 1821
by several gentlemen, for the purpose of erecting a calico
printing mill in New England. The building was imme¬
diately commenced, and in 1823 its machinery was set in
motion. In 1826 it was established as a town, and named
after Francis Lowell, an enterprising manufacturer of Bos¬
ton. In 1836 it was raised to the rank of a city. Pop.
(1840) 20,796, (1850) 33,385, (1854) about 38,000.
LOWER, Richard, an eminent English physician in
the seventeenth century, was born in Cornwall, and edu¬
cated at Westminster School and Oxford. He afterwards
studied medicine, and practised under Dr Thomas Willis,
whom he instructed in some parts of anatomy, especially
when the latter was writing his Cerebri Anatome. In
1674, Lower, along with Dr Willis, discovered the medi¬
cinal waters at Ashop, in Northamptonshire, which, upon
their recommendation, became very much frequented. In
1666 he follow’ed Dr Willis to London, practised physic
under him, and became a fellow of the Royal Society and
also of the College of Physicians. In 1669 he published
his Tractatus de Corde ; and after the death of Dr Willis
in 1675, he was esteemed the most eminent physician in
London. Lower died in 1691.
LOWESTOFT, a market-town on the E. coast of Suf¬
folk, 114 miles N.E. from London by road, and 149 by
railway. The town, which is a place of great antiquity,
stands on the top of a cliff facing the sea, from which it
presents a remarkably picturesque appearance. It consists
of a principal street, nearly a mile in length, with several
smaller ones leading off from it. The parish church, about
half a mile west of the town, is large and handsome, and
contains several interesting monuments of antiquity. Pot¬
ter, the distinguished Greek scholar, is buried in the
churchyard. There is also a chapel of ease in the place,
and chapels for Wesleyans, Independents, and Baptists.
There is a free school and a national school in the place ;
besides a town-hall, a theatre, a lunatic asylum, and two
lighthouses—one on the upper cliff, and another on the
beach at the south end of the town. The roadsteads are
sheltered by the Gorton and Newcome Sands. Lowes¬
toft has recently risen into considerable repute as a bathing
place, from the peculiar adaptation of its sands for that pur¬
pose. Sir Samuel M. Peto purchased the harbour in
1844, and originated measures for the deepening of Lake
Lothing. and for the general improvement of the port and
town. The same gentleman further laid the town under
considerable obligations to him by the construction of a
branch railway from Reedham to Lowestoft. The princi¬
pal manufactures are those of rope and twine; and a great
number of the inhabitants are engaged in the fisheries and
mi fish-Cur.inS ^01 ^le markets of London and Norwich.
I he shipping returns, given on the 31st December 1855,
show the number and tonnage of the sailing vessels regis¬
tered at Lowestoft as follows:—101 sailing vessels, with a
LOW
tonnage of 4353; and 7 steam-vessels, with a tonnage of Lowic*
1297. Lowestoft communicates with Denmark by steam II
during the season. Pop. (1851) 6580. Lowth.
LOWICZ, a walled town of Poland, about 45 miles
W.S.W. of Warsaw, on the Bzura, one of the feeders of
the Vistula. It has an old castle, cavalry barracks, three
churches, several monasteries, a Piarist college and gymna¬
sium, a normal school, and an hospital. There are some
manufactories of refined wax in the place ; and it carries on
a considerable trade in horses and cattle. The principal
branches of industry, however, are linen-weavingand tanning.
It was formerly the capital of a principality. Pop. 7100.
LOWTH, Dr Robert, Bishop of London, the son of
Dr William Lowth, was born at Buriton, in Hampshire, on
28th November 1710. From Winchester school he passed,
in 1730, to New College, Oxford; and in 1737 became
master of arts. He remained at the university, devoting
himself to the cultivation of his fine talents, long concealed
by the veil of his native modesty, but now slowly becom¬
ing visible to the world. Elected professor of poetry in
1741, he was re-elected in 1743, and in this capacity he
delivered his lectures De Sacra Poesi Hebrceorum. Bishop
Hoadley collated him in 1744 to the rectory of Ovington,
in Hampshire; and nine years afterwards to the rectory of
East Woodhay, in the same county. He had also appointed
him, in 1750, Archdeacon of Winchester. In 1754 Lowth
received the diploma of D.D. from the University of Ox¬
ford. He had travelled in 1749 with Lord George and
Lord Frederick Cavendish, and had thus been introduced
to their kinsman, the Duke of Devonshire. Accordingly,
when this nobleman repaired to Ireland, in 1755, as lord-
lieutenant, Lowth accompanied him as his first chaplain.
Immediately after this he was presented to the see of Lime¬
rick, an appointment which he exchanged with Dr Leslie
for the prebend of Durham and rectory of Sedgefield. In
1765 he was elected a fellow of' the Royal Society; and in
the subsequent year was appointed successively to the see
of St David’s and to that of Oxford. He became Bishop
of London in 1777; and in 1783 declined the primacy of¬
fered to him by George III. After enduring with great
patience and fortitude a severe and protracted attack
of the stone, he died at Fulham on 3d November 1787.
Bishop Lovvth’s first great publication was his Prcelec-
tiones de Sacra Poesi Hebrceorum, Oxford, 1753,4to; 1763,
8vo; republished, with valuable notes by J. D. Michaelis,
1770, 8vo, and translated into English by Dr Gregory,
1787. These prelections, discussing a fresh and interest¬
ing subject, and written in remarkably pure Latin, were
favourably received by the learned, both at home and
abroad. His Life of William of Wykeham, published in
1758, shows with what skill and patience he could arrange
a chaos of facts gathered from “ records, registers, manu¬
scripts, and other sources.” In 1778 appeared his greatest
work, A Translation of Isaiah, accompanied by a disserta¬
tion, and notes critical, philological, and explanatory. It is
marked by the most critical knowledge of the character,
and a full appreciation of the spirit, of eastern poetry. The
13th edition of this work appeared in London in 1842. Lowth
also engaged with Warburton in a war of pamphlets, touch¬
ing the book of Job, and for bitterness of spirit did not fall
one whit behind that merciless controversialist. An Eng¬
lish Grammar which he published in 1762, was in great
repute in his own time, but has long since fallen into ne¬
glect. A similar popularity in the case of his poetical pieces
was followed by a similar fate. Several of his sermons were
published at different times, and have recently been re¬
printed, along with other remains, by P. Flail, London.—In
the high offices which he latterly held, Bishop Lowth con¬
sulted the best interests of the church by endeavouring to
supply her vacant preferments with the most meritorious
in the profession.
LOW
Lowth Lowth, Dr William, a learned divine, the son of an
II apothecary, was born in London in 1661. He received
Lozere. ^jg ru(jimentary education at a school in his native city;
-“’v-*'' and having entered St John’s College, Oxford, in 1675,
became master of arts in 1683, and bachelor in divinity
in 1688. Seeing his great worth and learning, Dr Mew,
Bishop of Winchester, made him his chaplain, and con¬
ferred upon him, in 1696, a prebend in his own cathedral;
and in 1699 the rectory of Buriton, in Hampshire. Lowth
now devoted his whole time to the duties of his profes¬
sion. In his thorough study of theology, he ranged
over the entire field of Latin and Greek literature, both
ecclesiastical and profane, collecting many valuable notes,
critical and philological. Some of these he afterwards
contributed to Potter’s edition of Clemens Alexandrinus,
to Hudson’s Josephus, to Reading’s Ecclesiastical Histo¬
rians, and to the Bibliotheca Biblia. His advice, also,
was largely used by Chandler, Bishop of Durham, while he
was engaged in writing his Defence of Christianity, and
his Vindication of the Defence. More admirable, how¬
ever, than even his great erudition, was Lowth’s private
character. His piety, ever active and benevolent, was the
living embodiment of the earnest, instruction he delivered
from the pulpit. He died in 1732. One of his sons was
Dr Robert Lowth, the subject of the preceding article.
Dr Lowth’s principal works are:—A Vindication of the
Divine Authority and Inspiration of the Old and New
Testaments, Oxford, 1692, 12mo, London, 1699; Direc¬
tions for the Profitable Reading of the Holy Scriptures,
London, 12mo, i708, 1726; and Commentaries on the
Prophets, 1765.
LOXA, a town of Spain. See Loja.
Loxa, or Loja, a town of South America, in the re¬
public of Ecuador, and department of Assuay, capital of
the province of the same name, is situate in a valley of
the Andes Mountains, 6768 feet above the level of the sea,
in S. Lat. 4., and W. Long. 79. 24. It has an extensive
trade in cinchona bark, obtained in the mountain forests to
the E. of the town, and is considered to be of the finest
quality. Pop. 10,000.
LOYOLA, Ignatius. See Jesuitism.
LOZERE, a department of France, formed from Gevau-
dan, a part of the old province of Languedoc, is bounded
on the N. by the departments of Cantal and Haute-Loire,
E. by those of Ardeche and Gard, S. by that of Gard, and on
the W. by that of Aveyron. It is situate between N. Lat.
44. 7. and 44. 56., and E. Long. 3. and 4.; and is 65 miles
long and 44 broad, with an area of 1995 square miles. This
department takes its name from one of the summits of the
Cevennes, which traverse it in the N. and E. The Mar-
geride and Aubrac summits in the N. and W. belong also
to this extensive range of mountains, which, with their
traces of extinct volcanoes, precipitous cliffs, beautiful cas¬
cades, and stalactite caverns, present some of the most
picturesque and delightful scenery. These mountains
slope toward the Rhone, the Loire, and the Garonne, and
form part of the basins of those rivers. The principal
feeders of the Rhone are the Ceze (in which gold has been
found), the Gard with its tributaries, and the Chassezac,
which joins the Ardeche before reaching the Rhone; of
the Loire, the Allier, with its tributaries the Chaperoux
and the Ance; of the Garonne, the Lot, with its tributary
the 1 ruyere, and the I am, with its tributaries the Tarnon
and the Jonte. None of these rivers are navigable in this
department. The chief minerals are iron, copper, and
lead, found mainly in Bagnols and Choldette. Industrial
manufactuies are almost entirely confined to woollen and
silken stuffs. I he department is agricultural, but is one
of the poorest and most thinly peopled of all France. The
soil of the Montagne district in the N. is chiefly of a basal¬
tic and granitic nature, and produces only hay and rye;
VOL. XIII.
L U B 705
that of the Gausses district, in the centre, is calcareous, Liibeck.
and is the most fertile in the department, yielding wheat,
barley, oats, hay, and fruits; that of the Cevennes district,
in the S. and S.E., is of a schistose nature, and grows chest¬
nuts, potatoes, and mulberries. The wine is scarce and of
a bad quality. Some attention is given to the rearing of
the silk-worm and of sheep. The climate is generally
severe, and the temperature variable ; the winters are long
and cold, and a great quantity of rain falls throughout the
year. The towns are small and badly built, and the roads
are but few and generally in a wretched condition. There
are 5 Calvinistic churches in the department, 8 churches
belonging to the national religion, and 17 schools. There
are 3 tribunals of first instance, having the court of appeal
at Nimes, 1 college, 1 normal school, 1 superior communal
school, 591 elementary schools, of which 216are communal.
Lozere belongs to the tenth military division of France, that
of Montpellier. Its chief town is Mende, with a pop. of 6944.
There are three arrondissements in this department, sub¬
divided as follows:—
Cantons. Communes. Pop. in 1851.
Mende  7 63 49.361
Marvejols  10 78 53'918
Florae  7 62 41,426
24 193 144,705
LUBECK, one of the free cities of Northern Germany,
and the capital of a small territory, is situate on a gentle
ridge between the rivers Trave and Wakenitz, 10 miles from
the mouth of the former at Travemiinde, and 36 miles N.E.
of Hamburg. Liibeck is the capital of the four free or Han¬
seatic towns, and the seat of their supreme court of appeal.
The court consists of six members, one of whom is chosen
by each of the free towns ; Frankfort and Bremen nominate
the fifth; while the sixth is named alternately once by
Liibeck and twice by Hamburg. The president is chosen
annually by the senates of the four towns.
4 he present city of Liibeck was founded in 1143 by
Adolphus II., Count of Holstein and Schaumburg, by whom
it was ceded in 1158 to Henry Duke of Saxony, surnamed
the Lion. In 1226 it was made a free imperial city by
hvederic II. At this time it was an important commercial
city, and was rapidly increasing. In 1241 it entered into
treaty with Hamburg, and thus laid the foundation of the
Hanseatic League, of which it became the head about 1260.
For four centuries Ltibeck continued in a flourishing con¬
dition, and is said to have at one time contained 200,000
persons. After the dissolution of the league, which took
place in 1632, it gradually fell into decay, and has never
again attained its former importance. After the battle of
Jena in 1806, the Prussian general, Blucher, with the re¬
mains of his army, took refuge in Liibcck, which was then
stormed by the French, and sacked and pillaged for three
days. In 1810 it was annexed to the French empire, and so
remained till after the battle of Leipzig in 1813, when it was
restored to its political independence, and subsequently
joined the German Confederation as a free city. It has
one vote in the full council; but in the select council it has
only one in conjunction with the other free towns. Liibeck
is one of the most picturesque old towns in Germany. Its
streets are generally straight and regular, and its public
buildings, which are mostly of brick, have undergone little
change since the fifteenth century. Many of the houses are
in the old-fashioned style, with their quaint gables towards
the street; and not a few of them are remarkable for the
richness of their architecture. The old ramparts of the
town have been laid out in public walks. The finest build¬
ing in Liibeck is the Marienkirche, founded in 1304. It is
in the pointed Gothic style, constructed almost entirely of
brick, and surmounted by two towers with spires rising to
the heightof430 feet. It has three naves; thereof of thecen-
tre one rising to the unusual height of 134 feet. It contains
4 u
706 L U B
Lubieniet- numerous monuments and paintings,—the latter by Holbein,
ski Vandyck, Overbeck, &c. The “ Dance of Death,” dated
II .. 1463, is remarkable as representing the costumes of the
^Lubnu. ^ perio^ 'pj1js church possesses a very fine organ, and has
also a curious old astronomical clock, constructed in 1405.
The Domkirche, or cathedral, built between 1170 and 1341,
is almost entirely of brick, and has two towers surmounted
by spires 300 feet high. It contains numerous monuments
to bishops and others connected with Liibeck. The screen
of the choir is a masterpiece of wood-carving of the early
German school. In one of the side chapels is a painting by
Memling representing the Passion of our Saviour in twenty-
three distinct groups. The town-house, on the market-place,
is a curious old Gothic brick building, completed in 1517.
Here in ancient times deputies from the 85 cities in Ger¬
many composing the Hanseatic League, held their sittings.
The educational and charitable institutions are numerous ;
besides which there are an exchange, mint, arsenal, public
library with 37,000 volumes, and a theatre.
Liibeck is still a place of considerable commercial im¬
portance. It trades largely with Hamburg by means of the
Trave and a canal, and also with Russia, Denmark, Sweden,
and Finland. A branch line connects it with the Ham¬
burg and Berlin Railway. Regular steam communication
is kept up with Copenhagen, Stockholm, and St Petersburg.
Vessels drawing not more than 9 feet of water can come
up to the town, but larger vessels load and unload by means
of lighters at Travemiinde,between which and Liibeck small
steamers are constantly plying. The chief exports are,—
corn, cattle, wool, iron, and timber; imports,—wines, silks,
cottons, hardware, colonial products, and dye-stuffs. In
1855, 972 vessels, carrying 55,266 lasts, entered ; and 958
vessels, carrying 54,246 lasts, left the port.
The manufactures are numerous, but not large or impor¬
tant. Among the chief are woollen, linen, cotton, and silk
goods; tobacco, soap, paper, playing-cards, musical instru¬
ments, hats ; and iron, copper, and brass wares.
The territory subject to Liibeck consists of a district of
about 80 square miles immediately adjacent to the city, of
several small detached portions surrounded by Holstein;
and of a portion of the Vierlande district; amounting in all
to 127 square miles. The total population in 1851 amounted
to 54,166 persons, of whom 26,096 were in the town.
LUBIENIETSKI, Stanislaus, one of the chiefs of the
Socinians in Poland, was born at Cracow in 1623. Becom¬
ing minister of a church at Lublin, he advocated the opi¬
nions of his sect so boldly that he provoked the enmity of
the Jesuits, and was forced to flee to Hamburg. There, it
is said, he was destroyed by poison in 1675’. Lubienietski
wrote Historia Reformation is Polonicce, Freistadt, 1685.
His chief work is his Theatrum Cometicum, Amsterdam,
1667; in which, after giving a minute account of all the
comets previous to 1665, he endeavours to prove from their
history, that if they portend anything whatever, they fore¬
tell both evil and good, and not evil alone, as the common
opinion runs.
LUBLIN, a city of Poland, the capital of the province
of Lublin, is situate on the left bank of the Bistritza, 95
miles S.E. from Warsaw. Formerly fortified, the town is
still surrounded by walls and ditches. It consists of houses
built for the most part of wood and irregularly grouped, and
is divided into two parts, the upper and the lower. The
chief buildings are an old citadel, the cathedral of St Mi¬
chael, the Sobieski Palace, a Piarisr college, and several
churches. There are also monasteries, a synagogue, and
several educational and charitable institutions. Lublin is
one of the chief seats in Poland of the coarse woollen and
cotton manufacture; and trades in corn, cloth, and Hungarian
wine. It is the see of a bishop, and has a court of appeal.
Its three great annual fairs, each lasting a month, are fre¬
quented by Turks and Armenians. Pop. about 15,000.
LUBNtJ, an old town of Russia, in the government of
L U C
Poltava, the capital of a circle of the same name, is situate
on the Sula, about 80 miles W.N.W. from Poltava. Be¬
sides some churches and a veterinary institution, it has a
small botanic garden. Lubnii was formerly so strongly for¬
tified as to withstand a long siege from Charles XII. of Swe¬
den. Pop. about 6000.
LUC, John Andre de, a natural philosopher of great
merit and celebrity, born at Geneva on the 8th of February
1727, was the son of James Francis de Luc, descended from
a family which had emigrated from Lucca and settled at
Geneva in the fifteenth century.
His father was the author of some very respectable pub¬
lications in refutation of Mandeville and other sceptical
writers; and he had the means of giving his son an excel¬
lent education, although he found it convenient to establish
him in a commercial engagement, which principally occu¬
pied the first forty-six years of his life, without any other
interruption than that which was occasioned by some jour¬
neys of business into the neighbouring countries, and a few
scientific excursions among the Alps. During these, how¬
ever, he collected by degrees, in conjunction with his
brother William Antony, a splendid museum of mineralogy
and of natural history in general; which was afterwards
increased by his nephew, Andre De Luc. He at the
same time took his share of the public business of the state,
as one of the Council of Two Hundred; and he is still
remembered with respect by his fellow-citizens, though he
revisited them but once, and that for a few days only, after
his emigration, which was the consequence of some unex¬
pected misfortunes in commerce. These he bore with for¬
titude, and rather rejoiced than lamented at the change
in his pursuits, when he removed to England in 177-3. He
was made a fellow of the Royal Society in the same year,
and was appointed reader to the queen ; a situation which
he continued to hold for forty-four years, and which afforded
him both leisure and a competent income. In the latter
part of his life he obtained leave to perform several tours in
Switzerland, France, Holland, and Germany. In this last-
mentioned country he passed six years, from 1798 to 1804;
and after his return he undertook a geological tour through
England. When he was at Gottingen, in the beginning of
his German tour, he received the compliment of being ap¬
pointed honorary professor of geology in that university;
but he never entered upon the active duties of a professor¬
ship. He was also a correspondent of the Academy of
Sciences at Paris, and a member of several other scientific
associations.
His favourite studies were geology and meteorology.
The situation of his native country had naturally led him
to contemplate the peculiarities of the earth’s structure,
and the properties of the atmosphere, as particularly dis¬
played in mountainous countries, and as subservient to the
measurement of heights. He inherited from his father a
sincere veneration for the doctrines of Christianity, and a
disposition to defend the Mosaic account of the creation
against the prevailing incredulity of the age. His royal
patroness was most anxious to encourage and promote his
labours in this field; and he is universally allowed to have
had great success in removing the specious objections which
had been advanced by his antagonists against the compara¬
tively recent formation of the present continents. The
testimony of Cuvier is sufficient to establish his character
in this capacity, and to place him, at the same time, in the
first rank of modern geologists. His original experiments
relating to meteorology are, however, not less valuable to
the natural philosopher; and he discovered many facts of
considerable importance relating to heat and moisture.
He noticed the disappearance of heat in the thawing of ice,
about the same time that Black founded on it his ingenious
hypothesis of latent heat. He ascertained that water was
more dense about 40° of Fahrenheit than at the tempera¬
ture of freezing, expanding equally on each side of the
LUC
Luc. maximum; and he was the original author of the opinion
J since re-advanced by Mr Dalton, that the quantity of aque¬
ous vapour contained in any space is independent of the
presence or density of the air, or of any other elastic fluid;
though it appears difficult to reconcile this opinion with
some of the experiments of our author’s great rival, Saus-
sure, a philosopher who, as he very candidly allows, made,
in many respects, more rapid progress in hygrometry than
himself De Luc’s comparative experiments on his own
hygrometer and on Saussure’s, show only that both are
imperfect; but it may be inferred from them, that a mean
between both would in general approach much nearer to
the natural scale than either taken separately. It appears
also probable that Saussure’s is rather less injured by time
than De Luc’s, which has been found to indicate a greater
degree of mean moisture every year than the last.
De Luc was a man of warm feelings, and of gentle and
obliging manners, fulfilling on all occasions the various
duties of a husband, a father, a master, and a friend ; at the
same time that his literary and scientific merits, and his
unremitting attention to the service of the queen, insured
her respect and her kindness. He saw her daily for many
years, and in his last illness, which was long and painful,
she showed him repeated marks of benevolent regard. He
died at Windsor on the 7th of November 1817, leaving a
variety of works, which will long be remembered in the
scientific world.
1. Recherches sur les modifications de 1’Atmosphere, 2 vols.
4to, Geneva, 1772; 4 vols. 8vo, Par. 1784. This contains many
accurate and ingenious experiments upon moisture, evaporation,
and the indications of hygrometers and thermometers, applied to
the barometer employed in the measurement of the height of
mountains.
2. Relation de differens Voyages dans les Alpes de Paucigny,
12mo, Maestricht, 1771. This relation was written principally
by Dentand, who accompanied the two De Lucs in these expeditions.
3. Account of a new Hygrometer, Phil. Trans., 1773, p. 404. Like
a mercurial thermometer, with an ivory bulb, which expanded by
moisture, and caused the mercury to descend.
4. Rules for measuring Heights by the Barometer, Phil. Trans.,
1771, p. 158. The first correct rules that had been made public.
5. Barometrical observations on the depth of the mines in the
Harz, Phil. Trans., 1777, p. 401. Examples of the application of
the rules.
6. An Essay on Pyrometry and Areometry, Phil. Trans., 1778,
p. 419. A paper containing many valuable remarks on physical
measures in general.
7. Lettres physiques et morales sur PHistoire de la Terre, 6 vols.
8vo, Hague, 1778. Dedicated to the Queen ; relating particularly
to the appearance of mountains, and to the antiquity of the human
race; explaining the six days of the Mosaic creation as so many
periods preceding the epoch of the actual state of the globe; and
attributing the deluge to the filling up of cavities supposed to have
been left void in the interior of the earth. The whole work is
intermixed with interesting observations on men and manners.
8. A second paper concerning some Barometrical Measurements
in the Mines of the Harz, Phil. Trans., 1779, p. 485.
9. Lettres sur quelques parties de la Suisse, 8vo, 1781. Also
addressed to the Queen.
10. Nouvelles idees sur la Meteorologie, 2 vols. in 3, 8vo, Lond.
1787. A very valuable collection of observations and experiments,
including some original remarks on electricity.
11. Several papers on Hygrometry, on Vapour, and Rain, on
Meteorology in general, on Expansion, and on Refraction, in Ro-
sier’s Journal de Physique, xxx. xxxii. xxxvi. xxxvii. xliii.
12. Some letters on the Physical History of the Earth, in the
Monthly Review, enlarged, especially June 1790, and vol. ii. ap¬
pendix.
13. On Hygrometry, Phil. Trans., 1791, pp. 1, 389. In one of these
very important papers the whalebone hygrometer is described.
14. On Evaporation, Phil. Trans., 1792, p. 400. Amongst the
fundamental principles laid down in this paper, the independence
of vapour and air is asserted.
15. Lettres sur 1’Histoire physique de la Terre, 8vo, Par. 1798.
Addressed to Professor Blumenbach, and published by Mr Emery,
a clergyman at Paris. The substance had already appeared in
the Journal de Physique, for 1790, 1791, and 1798. We find in this
volume an essay written for a prize at Haarlem in 1791, but with¬
out success, on the existence of a General Principle of Morality. It
LUC
contains an interesting account of some conversations of the author
with Voltaire and Rousseau.
16. Lettres sur 1’Education religieuse de 1’Enfance, 8vo, Berlin,
1799.
17. Bacon tel qu’il est, 8vo, Berlin, 1800. Showing the bad faith
of the French translator, who had omitted many passages favour¬
able to revealed religion.
18. Precis de la Philosophic de Bacon, 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1802.
Giving an interesting view of the progress of natural science.
19. Lettres sur le Christianisme, Berlin and Hanover, 1801,1803.
A correspondence with Mr Teller.
20. Introduction a la Physique terrestre par les Fluides expan-
sibles, 8vo, Par. 1803.
21. Traite elementaire sur le Fluide Galvanique, 8vo, Paris, 1804.
22. A paper on Lavas, Journal des Mines, cxv., Nicholson, xx.
23. 24. Several articles in the Brit. Critic and in the Monthly Mag.
25. Traite elementaire de Geologic, 8vo, Paris, 1809; also in
English, by Delafite, the same year. This volume is less strictly
introductory to geology than the Lettres sur la Terre. It is prin¬
cipally intended as a refutation of the Vulcanian system of Hut¬
ton and Playfair, who deduced the changes of the earth’s structure
from the operation of fire, and attributed a higher antiquity to
the present state of the continents than is required in the Neptu¬
nian system adopted by De Luc after Dolomieu.
26. He sent to the Royal Society, in 1809, a long paper on se¬
parating the chemical from the electrical effects of the pile, with a
description of the electric column and aerial electroscope, in which
he advanced opinions so little in unison with the latest discoveries
of the day, especially with those of the president of the society,
that the council probably thought it would be either encouraging
error or leading to controversy to admit them into the Transac¬
tions. He had, indeed, on other occasions shown somewhat too
much scepticism in the rejection of new facts; and he had never
been convinced even of Mr Cavendish’s all-important discovery of
the composition of water. The paper was afterwards published
in Nicholson’s Journal (xxvi.), and the dry column described in
it was constructed by various experimental philosophers. It exhi¬
bited a continual vibrating motion, which was made more sensible
by the sound of a little bell, struck by the pendulum at each alter¬
nation ; and the vibration was more or less rapid according to the
state of the atmospherical electricity, and according to other cir¬
cumstances affecting the column : but the motion ceased at last after
a continuance of several months, or perhaps years. There are also
papers in volumes xxi. xxii. xxvii. xxviii. xxxii. xxxiii. and xxxv.,
mostly on electricity and galvanism, together with one on hygro-
l°gy, a letter to Bode on comets, and a fanciful theory of the origin
of the heat derived from compression. Some of them are dated from
Ashfield, near Honiton, in Devonshire.
27. In the Philosophical Magazine, volumes xxxv. xlii. xliii. and
xlv., there are also some papers on electricity and geology, espe¬
cially on that of St Michael’s Mount, of Vesuvius, and of Northum¬
berland ; and a note on the sympathetic vibrations of the pen¬
dulums of two clocks placed near each other.
28. Geological Travels in the north of Europe, 8vo, Lond. 1810.
29. Geological Travels in England, 2 vols. 8vo, Lond. 1811.
30. Geological Travels in Switzerland and Germany, 2 vols. 8vo,
Lond. 1813.
31. An Abridgement of Geology, published in 1817, when he was
in his ninetieth year, is mentioned as one of his best works; but
it seems to have been only a republication or a translation of some
former treatise, perhaps the TraiU Elementaire.
{Philosophical Magazine, November 1817; Monod and
Weiss, in the Biographic Universelle, tomexxv. 8vo, Paris,
1820.) (t. y.)
LUCANIA, a district of Southern Italy, extending from
the Tyrrhenian Sea on the W. to the Gulf of Tarentum on
the E., was bounded on the S. by the Bruttians, on the
N. by Apulia and Samnium, and on the N.W. by Cam¬
pania. It derived its name Irom the Sucanians, a Samnite
tribe, who in the third century before Christ, advancing gra¬
dually southward, waged an aggressive war with the (Eno-
trians and the Chones, the original inhabitants of the dis¬
trict, until, after the lapse of less than a century, they had ad¬
vanced their conquest to the southern extremity of the penin¬
sula. The Bruttians, however, soon revolting, drove them
back within the limits of the district which they afterwards
occupied. Lucania w^as comprised in the third region of
Augustus. One of the wildest parts of Italy, it sent forth
from its extensive mountain forests wild swine for the mar¬
kets, and numerous bears for the amphitheatres of Rome.
Its chief rivers, the Silarus (Sele), the Aciris (Agri), the
707
Lucania.
708 LUC
Lucanus. Casuentiis (Basiento), and the Bradanus (Bradano), all
rise in the Apennines. The first flows westward into the
Tyrrhenian Sea, the rest flow eastward into the Gulf of
Tarentum. Of the towns, those along the coasts were
nearly all of Greek origin, and maintained their independ¬
ence long after the Lucanians had subdued the rest of the
district. Studding the E. shore were Metapontum, Heraclea,
Siris, and Thurii. On the W. coast stood Lam Bland a (Ma-
ratea), Buxentum (Policastro), Velia or Elea, and Pcestum
or Posidonia (Pesto). The principal inland towns were
Potentia (Potenza), Atina, Volceium or Volcentum (Buc-
cino), Grumentum, Nerulum, Muranum (Morano), and
Forum Pompilii (La Polla). The Lucanians became allies
of the Romans during the Samnite wars. Yet they joined
Pyrrhus when he invaded Italy b.c. 281, and after the battle
of Cannae they revolted to Hannibal. Their defection on
both occasions was severely punished. The Lucanians, in
the time of Sulla, were raised to the rank of Roman citizens,
and after that period gradually sank into obscurity.
LUCANUS, Marcus Anjleus, was born at Corduba
(Cordova), in Spain, in a.d. 38. His father was L. Annaeus
Mella, a brother of the philosopher Seneca, and a man of
equestrian rank, who held the lucrative office of procura¬
tor for the public revenues. The information which we pos¬
sess regarding the youth of Lucan is by no means trust¬
worthy. The ordinary account of this period of his life
is drawn from an old Vita Lucani, and sets forth that, con¬
veyed to Rome at the age of eight years, he was care¬
fully educated by the most distinguished philosophers and
rhetoricians of the time, under whose instructions he made
surprising progress, and gave early proof of being possessed
of extraordinary talents ; that, having attracted the atten¬
tion of the Emperor Nero, he was raised to the senate and
honoured by a quaestorship while yet a youth ; but having
afterwards defeated Nero in a poetical contest, was per¬
emptorily commanded by that monarch to refrain from
writing poetry in future. As a whole, this narrative is not
reliable; yet it is not destitute of authentic elements. The
facts seem to be, that roused to jealousy by the extraor¬
dinary precocity of the young Spaniard, and by the admiring
laudations which his genius called forth, Nero prohibited
him from reciting in public. Burning for revenge, the pas¬
sionate poet joined the celebrated conspiracy of Piso, in
which many of the best citizens of Rome were embarked ;
but having been betrayed, Lucan was induced, through a
promise of pardon, to become informer and denounce his
associates. He began by naming his innocent mother
Atilia as one of his accomplices, and afterwards revealed the
rest. (Tacit. Ann. xv. 49, &c.) But this traitorous conduct
on the part of Lucan did not stand him in good stead. As
soon as the leading conspirators were despatched, Nero
gave orders that his successful rival should be put to death,
and the only favour granted the informer was the liberty of
choosing the mode of his death. Summoning all his firm¬
ness, and displaying a wild courage equal to the occasion,
the unfortunate youth opened his veins in a warm bath,
and as his ebbing strength forsook him, began to repeat
aloud his own description (P/iarsalia, iii. 637) of the death-
scene of a young warrior who had perished of his w ounds.
With those lines on his lips, and at the premature age of
twenty-seven (a.d. 65), the poet Lucan expired. He left
a wife, Polla Argentaria, to mourn his death, who must
have been one of the most remarkable women of her time.
It is to her that Statius addresses the birthday ode in
honour of Lucan, in which he informs us that the earliest
production of the deceased poet wras a poem on the death
of Hector, and the recovery of his body by Priam; the
second, on the descent of Orpheus to the infernal regions;
the third, on the burning of Rome; the fourth, an address
to his wife Polla; and the last, his only extant work, the
Pharsulia. I he latter production is a heroic poem in ten
LUC
books, containing a detailed chronological account of the Lucca,
progress of the contest between Caesar and Pompey from
the passage of the Rubicon to the middle of the Alexan¬
drian war. At this point the tenth book stops abruptly ;
the remaining portion either having been lost or never
completed. There is abundant reason for believing that
what we now possess of the poem was composed at com¬
paratively distant intervals. The earlier books of the work
are characterized by moderation and liberality, with an
offensive admixture of flattery to Nero; while as he advances,
the spirit of freedom takes fire in him, and he daringly hurls
the fiercest invectives at the head of tyranny, which found
itself at that time incarnated in the person of the Emperor
Nero. Whether this striking alteration of spirit and manner
was awakened by the wanton and progressive cruelty of his
imperial patron, or whether it arose from the memory of per¬
sonal wrong and disgrace, it is impossible to determine.
The poetical merits of Lucan have in all ages been
fiercely contested; some considering him equal to Virgil,
whilst others have placed him in the lowest rank of poets.
Both estimates are alike absurd; the one undiscerningly
exaggerative of his merits, the other foolishly depreciatory
of his powers. As we might be led to expect from these
opposing extremes of criticism, Lucan, when impartially
studied, reveals singular excellences and as singular defects.
He has all the positive elements of a great poet in him,—
deep intellectual insight, exalted imagination, burning en¬
thusiasm, noble feeling, fiery energy, and impressive dic¬
tion ; but he wastes his strength by misdirecting it; his
power is so exuberant that it overmasters him ; he cannot
confine it to the path of effective and harmonious activity;
it runs wild and irregular, and often ends in extravagance
and folly. Time and study would doubtless have done much
to emancipate his powers from the crude and depraved taste
under which they laboured ; but this was denied him.
The best editions of Lucan are those of Oudendorp(l728),
Burmann (1740), Bentley (1760), Weber (1821-31), and
Weise (1835). The most useful for all practical purposes
is the edition of Weber.
The most notable of the numerous translations of the
Pharsalia are—in English, by Thomas May (1627;, who
published (1630) a continuation of the poem to the death
of Julius Caesar; by Rowe (1718); and by Riley (1853).
Those in French are by Brebeuf (1655), and Marmontel
(1766); in German, by Seckendorff’(1695), by von Borck
(1749). and by Haus(1792); in Italian, by Bocella (1804).
LUCCA, Duchy of. See Tuscany.
Lucca (anc. Luca), a city of Northern Italy, capital of the
above duchy, on the left bank of the Serchio, 12 miles from
the sea, and 44 miles W. by N. of Florence by railway. It
stands on a rich and fruitful plain, is encompassed by a
rampart laid out in boulev<irds, and consists of clean and
spacious, but crooked streets. The town is well supplied
with water, brought by an aqueduct from the hills to the
S. of the town. This great structure, begun in 1815 and
completed in 1832, under the superintendence of Nottolini,
measures 2 miles in length, and is supported on 459 arches.
The appearance of Lucca, when seen from a distance, is
striking, from the number of its towers and spires. Among
its numerous ecclesiastical edifices, the principal are,—St
Martin’s Cathedral, and the churches of Saints Fredianus,
Michael, and Romanus. The cathedral was founded in
1060 by Bishop Badagio, afterwards Pope Alexander II.,
and has frequently received repairs and additions. It ex¬
hibits a mixture of the Lombard and Gothic styles, and is
profusely decorated with every manner of carving, fresco,
and sculpture, from the hands of the most famous Italian
artists. The church of St Fredianus was erected in the
seventh century by King Pertaric of Lombardy, in honour
of an Irishman of royal birth named Fredianus, who had
left his native country to visit the city of St Peter, and
LUC
Luce Bay who was rewarded for his zeal by receiving the episcopal
II see of Lucca. St Michael’s church, founded in 764, and
Lucena. ^ dedicated to the archangel, is built of white marble from
* the neighbouring quarries, and contains a colossal statue of
that personage, besides many excellent carvings and paint¬
ings. The church of Romanus, belonging to the eighth
century, possesses a celebrated picture of the Madonna by
Bartolomeo, and others of less note. The Archbishop of
Lucca has many ancient privileges, which have been be¬
stowed on the see at different times by kings and popes.
They are now, however, of little value. The palace
of the duchy is situate here, and, though unfinished, is an
extensive edifice, with a grand marble staircase, and con¬
tains a library of 40,000 volumes. One of the most inter¬
esting buildings is the poor-house, once the town-hall,
built of red brick. It was erected in 1413, and served both
for a stronghold and a palace. The most complete of the
Roman remains here is the Piazza del Mercata, a ruined
amphitheatre of two storeys of arches, and estimated to have
held 10,700 spectators. It is now used for the town markets.
The manufactures of the town are unimportant, chiefly com¬
prising silk, wool, and paper. Silk, however, was at one
time extensively manufactured here, and in the vicinity it
was produced for the first time in Italy.
The ancient Luca was a town belonging to the district
of Etruria, although not possessed by Etruscans; and
afterwards was included in Liguria. At the end of the
third century b.c., however, it fell into the hands of the
Romans, and, according to Velleius, received a Latin colony
in 177 B.c. In 49 b.c. it was raised to the rank of a muni¬
cipal town, and was frequently honoured at that time by the
presence of the chief generals and senators of Rome, who
formed the plans of their campaigns and political plots
here. It did not, however, occupy a conspicuous position
till after the fall of the Roman empire. The Goths found
it strongly fortified, and a place of some importance. But
it was not till the Lombard dynasty had declined that it rose
to its greatest height. The twelfth century saw it a free
town, governed by its own consuls, until dissensions among
the aristocracy again reduced it to the state of a possession
held by the most powerful of the nobles. After it had been,
however, in the hands of the lords of Pisa for several years,
a charter was obtained by the inhabitants from Charles IV.
for the sum of 300,000 florins, by which it regained its free¬
dom in 1370. But this freedom was gradually infringed,
until the government became a regular despotism"; the whole
power being in the hands of a few noble families. This
state of affairs was rudely changed, however, in 1799, when
the French under Serrurier entered the town and seized all
the most valuable arms, besides exacting a large sum from
the people. Bonaparte, in dividing his empire, bestowed
Lucca on his sister Elisa. It is now under the Grand Duke
of Tuscany. Pop. 24,894. The famous baths of Lucca
are 15 miles N.N.E. of the town.
LUCE BAY, an inlet of the Irish Sea, on the S. coast
of Scotland, Wigtonshire, so called from the small River
Luce which it receives at its head. It divides the county
by a broad and deep indentation into two peninsulas, the one
terminating in the Mull of Galloway on the W., and the
other in Burrow Head on the E. of the bay. It is 19 miles
broad at the entrance, 16^ miles long, and about 7 miles
broad at the head. Owing to the shifting sands of the bay,
it is considered dangerous to navigation.
LUCENA, a town of Spain, province of Cordova, in a
beautiful plain near the small River Cascajar, 36 miles S.S.E.
from Cordova. I he town is composed of 3000 houses,
mostly well built and commodious; the streets being also
broad and well paved. Ihe Plaza del Coso contains a fine
public park planted with trees. The parish church was
begun in 1498 on the ruins of a mosque, and finished in
1544. It is built of freestone, and measures about 135- feet
LUC 709
in length by 71 in breadth. On the high altar is a very Lucera.
fine copper bas-relief of the Passion. The town likewise v—
contains 3 hospitals, 3 public schools, and 10 convents, of
which the most remarkable, in an architectural point of
view, are those of St Augustin and of the Bare-footed Car¬
melite Nuns. The town enjoys a very salubrious climate,
and is well supplied with water, there being 15 public
fountains in and near it, besides private wells to almost
every house. About 3^ miles E. of the town are the
mineral waters of the Horcajo, containing a large propor¬
tion of sulphur, and resorted to in cutaneous diseases. The
surrounding country is fertile and well watered, producing
oil, wine, and cereals, and affording excellent pasturage for
horses, cattle, and hogs. The principal branches of indus¬
try are the hardware and pottery manufactures. Tfieir lamps
are especially celebrated, being made of bronze, copper,
&c., variously alloyed, and very beautifully worked; they
not otdy supply Spain and Portugal, but are exported to the
contiguous districts of France, to Algiers, and the Havan-
nah. The earthenware manufacture consists chiefly of the
large jars with which they supply all Andalusia, and which
are used for the storing of oil, wine, and brandy. Some
hard white soap is also made. The commerce is con¬
fined to the exportation of cereals, oil, vinegar, brandy,
lamps, and the above-mentioned jars. There is a yearly
fair on the 8th, 9th, and 10th of May, in which all sorts of
hardware utensils in tin and copper, earthenware, crystal,
and cattle, are exposed for sale.
There are numerous Roman and Gothic remains in
Lucena. It was taken from the Moors early in the four¬
teenth century, and it was in the attempt to recapture it
in 1488 that King Boabdil was taken prisoner. Lucena
has given birth to various celebrated men, of whom may be
mentioned Alvarez de Solomayor, Baraona Solo, author of
Las Lagrimas de Angelica, and Folch de Cardona, author
of a work on military geometry. Pop. 16,652.
LUCERA (the ancient Luceria), a town of Naples,
province of Capitanata, on an eminence 12 miles W.N.W.
of Foggia. It is surrounded by old walls having five gates,
and the houses are generally good, though the streets are
narrow, ill paved, and dirty. The cathedral, formerly a Sara¬
cenic mosque, has thirteen beautiful pillars of verd antique,
supposed to have originally belonged to a temple of Apollo.
The Bishop’s palace is considered the finest edifice in Apulia.
The Tribunale is an extensive pile of buildings, including
not only the courts of justice for the province, the register
office, &c., but also the residences of the president and
judges, and the public prisons. Lucera has also a royal
college and a fine private museum. About a quarter of a
mile from the city, and on the edge of the same eminence,
stands the castle of Lucera, a ruined fortress, erected by
Frederick II. Three annual fairs are held here; and an
active trade is carried on in cattle and cheese. Lucera is
said to have been founded by Diomed, and was the capital
of Daunia under the Greeks. In the war between Rome
and Samnium it had apparently, with the other Apulians,
joined the former, and was taken by the Samnites in b.c.
321. The following year it was besieged by the Romans,
and after an obstinate resistance, fell into their hands. In
B.c. 314 it revolted to the Samnites, but was speedily re¬
covered by the Romans, who put the most of the inhabi¬
tants to the sword, and sent thither a body of 2500 colonists
to supply their place. It was destroyed in the wars of the
seventh century, and lay in ruins till 1239, when the Em¬
peror Frederick II. established here a colony of Silician
Saracens, and granted them great privileges. In 1269,
however, Charles of Anjou expelled from the Neapolitan
dominions such Moors as refused to embrace Christianity,
and converted the mosque of Lucera into a church. Nume¬
rous antiquities of various periods have been discovered in
and about Lucera. Pop. about 12,000.
710 LUC
Lucerne. LUCERNE, or Luzern, a central canton of Switzer-
v—~/ land, having the canton of Aargau on the N., those of
Aargau, Zug, and Schwytz on the E., those of Bern and
Unterwalden on the S., and that of Bern on the W. It is
situate between N. Lat. 46. 47. and 47. 17., and between
E. Long. 7. 50. and 8. 29. Its greatest length is 33 miles,
its greatest breadth 27 miles, and it has an area of 586
square miles. Generally plain in the N. and irregular in
the centre, it is very much broken by ranges of the Ber¬
nese Alps in the S., none of which rise, however, above
the snow line. Of those ranges the highest is Mount
Pilate, reaching in the Tomlishorn, its loftiest peak, an ele¬
vation of 7122 feet above sea-level. The only valley of an
extensive kind is Entlebuch, 27 miles in length, and in¬
closed by mountains covered with deep forests, or green
pasture land. The Reuss and Little Emmen drain the S.
and E. of the canton, and the Wigger, Sur, and Vinonflow
all in a northerly direction and join the Aar, an affluent of
the Rhine. Bounded partly on the E. by the Lake of
Lucerne, and bordering on the lakes of Zug and Schwytz,
this canton comprises within itself the small lakes of Sem-
pach, Baldegg, and Mauen. Limestone and sandstone
abound in the mountains, and gold has been found in several
of the streams. Coal exists to a limited extent in several
places, but is not worked. The climate is generally mild,
except in the high lands, where snow often lies till June.
The soil, though occasionally sandy, is generally fertile,
and agriculture is well understood. The cereals raised are
in general sufficient for the consumption. The vine is cul¬
tivated in the more favoured spots, and chestnuts, figs,
and almonds attain maturity on the banks of the Lake of
Lucerne. The pastures are very extensive, and of excel¬
lent quality, particularly those of the hill-sides which flank
the valley of Entlebuch. There is a considerable transit
trade ; but manufactures, of which the chief are linen weav¬
ing and spinning, have made but little progress. The po¬
pulation of the canton in 1850 was 132,843, almost entirely
adherents of the Roman Catholic Church, which is the
established religion of Lucerne. Of the entire population,
1563 were Calvinists. The government is in the hands
of the Great Council, consisting of 100 members, 80 of
whom are chosen by the people, and the remaining 20 by
the council itself. The Little Council, consisting of 15
members, with its president, or avoyer, or schultheiss, are
elected by the Great Council for three years, and exercise
the executive. The canton is divided into 5 bailiwicks,
and 74 communes. Lucerne is one of the three directing
cantons, and occupies the third rank as a member of the
Swiss confederation. It contributes annually L.1494, and
furnishes a contingent of troops of 3717.
Lucerne, the chief town of the above canton, lies at
the N.W. extremity of the Lake of Lucerne, at the point
where the River Reuss, which divides the city, issues forth
from the lake. It is exceedingly picturesque, and is walled
in towards the land, and surrounded by a series of watch-
towers, erected in 1385. Its chief peculiarity, however, is
its covered bridges which span the Reuss, and are inge¬
niously ornamented with curious pictures. The lowest, or
Mill Bridge, is hung with paintings, now nearly obliterated,
of the “ Dance of Death the upper, or Kapellbriicke, has
77 pictures suspended from its timbers, illustrative, on the
one side, of the pious acts of the patron saints of the place,
and, on the other, of memorable incidents in Swiss history.
The longest bridge, the Hofbriicke, was removed in 1852,
and the only uncovered one is Reussbriicke, which is pass¬
able for carriages. The town is clean and well built, and
is situate amid exquisitely beautiful scenery, on the margin
of the finest of the Swiss lakes, between the magnificent
heights ot Pilate and Righi. Its principal public buildings
ar,e a cathedral, an Ursuline convent, a town-hall, an arsenal
with ancient armour and trophies taken at Sempach, &c., a
LUC
large town hospital, a poor-house, an orphan asylum, a jail, Lucerne
and a theatre. It has a lyeeum with 14 professors, to which H
an excellent public school is attached. The educational St Lucia,
establishments of Lucerne are highly spoken of for their
efficiency. The most interesting monument connected with
the place is that in a garden outside the city walls, erected
to the Swiss guards, who fell at Paris in 1792, while de¬
fending the 1 uileries. It was designed by Thorwaldsen,
and executed by Ahorn of Constance. “ It represents a
lion of colossal size, wounded to death, with a spear sticking
in his side, yet endeavouring in his last gasp to protect from
injury a shield bearing the fleur-de-lis of the Bourbons,
which he holds in his paws. The figure, hewn out of the
living sandstone rock, is 28 feet long and 18 high; and
whether as a tribute to fallen valour, or as a work of art of
admirable design and no mean execution, it merits the
highest praise” (Murray’s Hand-book). Lucerne is not a
place of any considerable manufactures ; the chief are ca¬
binet-work, and silk and cotton fabrics. It has some transit
trade, however, and it finds a market for its principal fabrics
in Italy. There is a railway nearly open to Aarberg on
the road to Basle. Pop. 10,068, of whom 300 are Pro¬
testants.
Lucerne, Lake of, in the centre of Switzerland, called
in German Vierwaldstattersee, or “ The Lake of the Four
Forest Cantons,” from its being inclosed by the cantons of
Schwytz, Uri, Unterwalden, and Lucerne, is considered to
be the grandest in Europe in [joint of scenery. It is the
largest lake in Switzerland, and its surface is about 1400
feet above sea-level. It inclines to a cruciform shape, but
is very irregular. Its extreme length is 24£ miles, and its
average breadth 3 miles; in depth it varies from 300 to 900
feet. All varieties of scenery are to be met with on its
shores, from soft beauty to stern grandeur and sublimity.
In the latter respect, the farther end of it, called the Bay
of Uri, is unsurpassed. Many of the scenes in Schiller’s
Wilhelm Tell are localized around this lake. The violent
storms to which it is exposed render its navigation dan¬
gerous. Steamers ply several times a day during summei
between Lucerne and Fliielen, and other parts on the shores
of the lake.
LUCIA, St., one of the British West India Islands,
Windward group, lying about 30 miles S. of Martinique, in
N. Lat. 13. 50., W. Long. 60. 58. It is 32 miles in length
from N. to S., by 12 in extreme breadth, and has an area
of about 235 square miles, or 150,000 acres. It is longi¬
tudinally divided by a chain of mountains generally from
1200 to 1800, and in some cases to 2000 feet high, densely
clothed with the finest timber. These are of volcanic
formation, and assume the most fantastic forms, abounding
in deep chasms and pointed eminences. From either side
of this chain branches of lesser altitude go off towards the
coast, forming plains and valleys of various sizes. At its
southern extremity are two mountains of volcanic origin,
called the Sugar Loaves, which rise nearly perpendicularly
from the sea in the form of parallel cones to the height of
about 2700 feet. They are covered with evergreen foliage,
and mark the entrance into the deep and beautiful bay of
Soufriere. The valleys throughout the island, as well as
the plains upon the coast, are fertile, being well watered
by numerous streams, and are under good cultivation. The
island is divided into two territories,—Basseterre, the low or
leeward portion, which is well cultivated and the most
populous, though the prevalence of stagnant waters and
morasses renders the climate very unhealthy; and Capis-
terre, the high or windward territory, which is also very
unhealthy, but is becoming less so as the wood on the high
lands is being cleared away. The climate is very moist, as
the trees on the mountains attract the clouds, and hence
render the island subject to frequent and heavy rains for
nine or ten months in the year. The quantity of rain that
LUC
St Lucian, fell in 1851 amounted to 94 inches, and in that year the
thermometer ranged from 71° to 83° Fahr.
The extent of land under each description of crop in
1854 and the three preceding years was,—
LUC
711
1851. 1852.
Acres. Acres.
Canes 3,015 3,563
Coffee  155 137
Cocoa   134 109
Provisions   1,013 1,136
1853.
Acres.
3,489
130
89
2,423
1854.
Acres.
3,290
97
87
1,154
The quantities of various articles produced in each of the
above years were,—
1852. 1853. 1854.
7,130,560 6,782,700 7,414,100
25,938 6,051 10,250
40,358 21,600 17,480
66,929 58,348 77,751
206,695 214,712 208,625
The quantities and value of articles exported in 1854
were,—
1851.
Sugar lbs. 6,691,800
Coffee  „ 18,620
Cocoa  „ 15,143
Rum gallons 45,058
Molasses „ 159,540
Articles.
Cocoa ...
Goods, Brit.
manufact
Logwood...
Molasses.,
Rice 
Rum 
Sugar, Mus¬
covado....
Other articles
Quantities.
lbs. 148,983
packages 361
tons 1,093
galls. 116,490
cwt. 40
. 14,364
cwt. 59,242
Value.
L.1,491
1,417
2,368
2,934
30
1,428
41,468
4,700
Total value L.55,836 L.4 6,004 L.6,668 L.3,164
To
United
Kingdom.
L.67
35
1,057
1,655
1,428
41,462
300
To
British
Colonies.
L.1,424
1,230
1,279
30
6
2,699
To
Foreign
States.
L.151
1,311
2,702
The total value of imports in 1854 (principally articles
of British manufacture, flour, dried fish, butter, live stock,
lumber, salted meat, olive-oil, wine, rice, and tobacco), was
L.96,309; being L.41,996 from United Kingdom, L.27,880
from British colonies, and L.26,433 from foreign states.
The net amount of the general revenue in 1854 was
L. 14,098 ; being custom duties on imports, L.6482, on ton¬
nage, L.744, assessed and other taxes, L.6872. The net
expenditure for that year was L.l3,565. The total popu¬
lation in 1854 was 24,123, of whom 430 were male and
517 female whites, 11,081 male and 12,095 female persons
of colour. The births, deaths, and marriages were respec¬
tively 1069, 2494, and 906. The great number of deaths
in that year was principally caused by the cholera; the
average of the four previous years being only about 430.
This plague had also great influence on the number of
marriages, which in that year was more than quadruple the
usual annual average. The chief town of the island is
Castries, which contains about 3000 persons.
St Lucia was first colonized by English settlers in 1639,
but these were soon after driven off by the Caribs. About
1650 the French effected a settlement, and from that time
to 1803, when it was finally captured by the English, it
belonged alternately to France and England. The govern¬
ment is administered by the commanding officer of the
troops, a lieutenant-governor, and an executive council,
consisting of the colonial secretary, the attorney-general,
and the second military officer. There is also a legislative
council, composed of five official and five non-official mem¬
bers, in which the colonial secretary and attorney-general
have seats and votes, and of which the commanding officer
is president. 1 he laws of St Lucia, except in so far as
*lave been altered by orders of council, are the laws
of trance, antecedent to the Code Napoleon.
LUCIAN, St, a learned presbyter of Antioch, said to
have been born at Samosata, the birthplace of the cele¬
brated satiiist of the same name, about the middle of the
second century after Christ. Among the old ecclesiastical
writers we find him assigned a distinguished place for his
learning and piety. Eusebius (Ifist. Eccles., viii. 13) Lacianists
speaks admiringly of his “ unblemished characterand Jl
Jerome {De Viris Illustr., cap. Ixxvii.) bears a similar vLucianus~j
testimony. The latter writer refers to him as “ laborious
in the study of the Scriptures so much so, that not only
was his revised edition of the Septuagint used by the
churches from Constantinople to Antioch, but this cor¬
rected version of the Old Testament was known by the
name of Lucian. Jerome also speaks of him as the author
of several epistles and theological tracts; and we find in
Socrates (Hist. Eccles., lib. ii., c. 10) an extant confession
of faith drawn up by Lucian’s hand. He died a martyr in
the reign of Diocletian, a.d. 311, and was buried at Hele-
nopolis, in Bithynia.
There is not a little obscurity, and a great deal of con¬
sequent dispute, respecting the views held by Lucian on
the doctrine of the 1 rinity. Some have maintained that
the absence of any allusion to his opinions on this point by
Jerome and Athanasius, and the respect in which he. was
held by the Trinitarian fathers, afford a sufficient refutation
of the charge of heterodoxy brought against the martyr of
Antioch. Others, again, on the strength of the testimony
of Epiphanius and Philostorgius, who allege that Arianism
and Lucianism were all but synonymous, are inclined to
hold that the presbyter was a heretic. There are those,
again, who maintain a middle course, and favour the opinion
that Lucian’s views were not quite orthodox, inasmuch as
Alexander (in Theodoret, Hist. Eccles., lib. i., c. 4)
says that three successive bishops of the Catholic Church
excluded him for advocating the doctrines of Paul of Samo¬
sata. It is, however, generally believed that he returned
to the bosom of the church before his death.
A great deal of confusion respecting the opinions of this
eminent scholar and truly pious man has obviously arisen
by confounding him with another Lucian, a follower of
Marcion, and the author of numerous forgeries, such as
the History of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary ; the Pro-
tevangehon, or Gospel of James ; the Gospel of Nicode-
mus, See. I his individual is termed by Epiphanius, Lucian
the Elder {Har., xliii., c. 1.) Some call him Lucan, others
Lucius and Leucius, &c. That the creed of the latter
Lucian was heretical there is no doubt; but how far he has
been confounded with his namesake of better reputation
it is impossible to determine.
LUCIANISTS, or Lucanists, a religious sect (or sects)
who derived their name from either of the Lucians just
alluded to; or, what is most probable, from both. It is
not unlikely that the first who bore the name were the
disciples of Lucian the Elder, the Marcionite; and that
afterwards it was applied to those who adhered to the tenets
of the presbyter of Antioch, which were in all probability
slightly tinctured with Arianism.
LUCIANUS, a celebrated Greek writer, was born of
poor parents at Samosata, the capital of the Syrian province
of Commagene. The materials for his biography are very
scanty, and are derived chiefly from hints in his own works.
He is generally supposed to have lived during the reigns
of the Antonines and Commodus; and Reitz, after a
minute and able investigation, determines the date of his
birth to be about a.d. 120. A talent which he showed in
early boyhood for moulding little waxen figures seemed
to indicate an adaptation for the trade of a sculptor; and
accordingly, at the age of fourteen, he was apprenticed to
his maternal uncle, a statuary of some note. Happening
however, in his first lesson, to break a marble tablet which
he was polishing, he received a severe beating from his
uncle. This affront he resented by running away, and per¬
sistently refusing to return. He then contrived by some
means to devote himself to the study of rhetoric and litera¬
ture. About the same time, also, he seems to have applied
himself to law; for shortly after this period, according to
712 LUC
Lucian. Suidas, he settled down at Antioch as an advocate. Want
'v—of success, however, forced him to become a rhetorician ;
and making a professional tour, as was customary for those
of that calling, he entered Greece, and fixed his abode at
Athens. There he remained until his crude knowledge
of the Greek language had ripened into a perfect intimacy
with the graces of the Attic dialect. There, also, he
formed a friendship with the philosopher Demonax, whom
he has eulogized so highly. He then passed into Italy, and
after staying for some time in Rome, travelled into Gaul,
In this latter country he appears to have resided from ten
to fifteen years, rapidly acquiring both wealth and fame.
About his fortieth year he left Gaul, but whether he re¬
turned through Macedonia to his native city, according to
Massieu, or fixed his abode at Athens, according to Wie-
land, is uncertain. It is agreed, however, that after this
period he abandoned the rhetorical profession ; and devot¬
ing himself to the task of an author, composed the greater
part of his works. From his writings we infer that he also
travelled much; and while sojourning in Greece, a.d. 16o,
witnessed the self-sacrifice of the enthusiast Peregrinus
at the Olympic games. In his later years he was ap¬
pointed a procurator in Egypt, probably by the Emperor
Commodus. He died at an advanced age. That he was
torn to pieces by dogs (as Suidas relates) there is no suffi¬
cient ground for believing.
Lucian is most noted as a satirist, and in this capacity
he possesses a keen insight into human foibles, great powers
of derision, a graceful diction, and a playful and fertile
fancy. His great deficiency lies in mistaking both the pro¬
vince and the purpose of satire. Instead of lacerating only
the vile and the meretricious, his lash falls indiscriminately
upon virtue and vice, upon truth and falsehood. Instead of
probing the wound to heal it, he tortures it merely to see
his victim writhe. Thus he attacks Christianity and natu¬
ral religion—not with the view of substituting other sys¬
tems in their place, but simply to hold them up to deri¬
sion. If his sneers ever put vice and folly to the blush,
the result arose more from accident than from the design
of the writer. Accordingly Lucian’s satire, instead of that
moral tone so often effectual in elevating this species of
writing into the atmosphere of poetry, not unfrequently
shows a coarseness both in taste and sentiment.
The Dialogues of Lucian are at once the best and most
bulky part of his works. Of these, the most notable per¬
haps are the Dialogues of the Dead, which, traversing
the entire circle of human weakness and error, expose the
hollowness of fame, wealth, and beauty, the absurd tenets
of the vulgar, and the endless jargon of the sages. In his
Sale of the Lives, the auction of the different philosophers
affords him a good opportunity for facetiously describing
the market value of the several philosophical systems. The
same strain of ridicule is pursued in his Symposium, in
which the various sages who had been invited to a wedding
banquet, begin a contest with grave w'ords, but end it
with hard blows, and amid general uproar. A more legi¬
timate satire is Jupiter Convicted, in which the king of the
gods is proved before his own face to be utterly powerless,
and the mere puppet of destiny. This attack upon the
popular mythology Lucian followed up by aiming, in his
Jupiter Tragtedus, at the very existence of the gods. In
one of his best pieces,—The Dream of Micyllus or the
Cock,—a cobbler, Micyllus, discovers Pythagoras under the
semblance of a cock, and on plucking two feathers from
the tail of the philosopher, becomes invisible, and is thus
enabled to pass through the mansions of the rich, and
view their vice and miseries. Timon, or the Misanthrope,
is written in his best manner,
Lucian’s romancical writings include Lucius, or the Ass,
and The 1 rue History, The former is supposed by Pho-
tius to be founded on a tale by Lucius of Patree. The
LUC
latter was intended as a caricature of all extravagant nar- Lucifer
ratives, including the tales of Ctesias and lambulus, and |l _
the Odyssey of Homer; and may be considered as the IjUclIlUf'>
prototype of Swift’s Gulliver. Among Lucian’s miscella-
neous works, the ablest is that entitled Hoiv to write His¬
tory. The best edition of Lucian is that of Hemsterhuis
and Reitz, 3 vols. 4to, Amsterdam, 1743, supplemented by
another volume entitled L,exicon Lucianeum, by K. K.
Reitz, Utrecht, 1746. There are other editions by the
Bipont Society, 10 vols. 8vo, 1789-93; by Lehman, Leip-
sic, 9 vols. 8vo, 1821-31; and by Dindorf, 8vo, Paris, 1840.
Lucian has been translated into German by Wieland, 6
vols., Leipsic, 1788-9 ; into French by De Ballu, 6 vols.
8vo, Paris, 1788 ; and into English by Dr Franklin, 2
vols. 4to, London, 1780, and 4 vols. 8vo, London, 1781-82.
LUCIFER, Bishop of Cagliari, and founder of the Luci-
ferians, first appears in history as a zealous antagonist of
Arianism. In 3d4 he was deputed by Liberius, Bishop of
Rome, to advocate the cause of Athanasius at the council
of Milan, an office which he discharged with such persis¬
tent boldness, that he and his fellow-legate, Eusebius of
Vercelli, were banished by the Arian emperor, Constantine.
After his place of exile had been changed several times
without producing any corresponding alleviation of his suf¬
ferings, he settled down at Eleutheropolis, in Syria, and
there wrote his chief work, Ad Constantium Augustumpro
Sancto Athanasio, Lihri II. The unbridled invective and
outrageous vehemence of this book were not more remark¬
able than the boldness of Lucifer in avowing the authorship,
when afterwards interrogated by the emperor. Soon after
this Lucifer seems to have been removed to Egypt. On
his release from exile at the death of Constantins, the coun¬
cil of Alexandria commissioned him, along with Eusebius,
to heal the division in the church of Antioch that had arisen
from the supposed Arianism of Meletius, bishop of that see.
Instead, however, of fulfilling his duty, he widened the
schism by attempting to place Paulinus in the bishopric,
and thus laid himself open to a reproof from Eusebius and
his other long-tried friends. Chafing under the rebuke of
all sections of the church, and displeased with the decree of
the Alexandrian council for readmitting into ecclesiastical
communion those bishops who had temporized with the
Arians, Lucifer withdrew, in 363, to his native island of
Sardinia, and there founded the small sect known by
his name. He died about A.D. 370. Besides the book
mentioned above, his other works are—Epistola ad Euse-
hium; De non Conve7iiendo cum Hcereticis ; De Eegibus
Apostolicis ; De non Parcendo in Deum delinquentibus ;
Moriendumpro Filio Dei; Epistola ad Elorentium Magis-
trum Officiorum ; and Epistola ad Catholicos, The last is
not extant. Deficient in method and argument, and per¬
vaded by an acrimonious and intolerant spirit, these works
merit preservation solely in virtue of the many scriptural
quotations which they contain. They were first collected
and published by John du Tibet, Bishop of Meaux, Paris,
8vo, 1568, and afterwards reprinted in the Magna Biblio¬
theca Patrum, 1618, and in the Bibliotheca Patrum of
Galland, folio, Venice, 1770. The best edition is that of
the Brothers Coleti, folio, Venice, 1778.
The Lucferians (who did not long outlive their founder)
disowned all who had ever been tainted with Arianism and
all who countenanced those who had been reclaimed from
that creed. They renounced, accordingly, all the Christian
world beyond their own confined pale. Augustine supposes
that they also held that the soul, like the carnal nature, was
transmitted from parent to child,
LUCILIUS, Caius, a Roman knight, who is generally
considered the inventor of satirical composition,—at least of
that new form adopted by Horace, Persius, and Juvenal.
Of his personal history we can collect only a few facts. He
was born 148 B.c. at Suessa (Sessa), a city of the Aurunci,
LUC
Lucken-
walde
in Latium (Juv. i. 20). He attended Scipio Africanus in
the war against Numantia, b.c. 134, at an age when he
Lucke. C.ould scarcel.y be expected to serve in arms, and at that
j time he acquired the friendship of the younger Scinio and
of Laelius (Veil. Pat. ii. 9). Lucilius died at Naples in 103
B.c. His works consist of thirty satires, epodes, hymns, a
comedy entitfrd Numularius, and a Life of Scipio the Elder.
Of his Satires, upwards of800 fragments remain, the longest
of which, however, amounts only to thirteen verses. Yet even
in these stray remnants we can detect traces of that pungent
wit and merciless rebuke which are mentioned by Juvenal
(i. 165) as causing the victims of Lucilius to tremble. His
blows were openly aimed at vice and folly in whatever rank or
under whatever dignity they appeared. More marked, how¬
ever, by strength than by purity and finish, his poetry is
compared by Horace to a river bringing down particles of
gold and mud mingled together; a criticism which is pro¬
bably just, in spite of the protest made against it by Quin¬
tilian in his Institutions. Of the thirty satires of Lucilius,
the fiist twenty and the thirtieth seem to have been written
in hexameters, and to have been the first specimens of that
measure among the Romans. In the rest, the iambus and
trochaeus appear to have been used. The fragments of Lu¬
cilius have been published by Dousa, with learned notes,
Leyden, 1597, Amsterdam, 1661; and reprinted by Volpi,
Padua, 1/35. I hey are included in Maittaire’s Corpus
Poetarum Latinorum, London, 1713, and are appended to
the Persius of Achaintre, 8vo, Paris, 1811.
LUCKENWALDE, a town of Prussia, in the province
of Brandenburg, situate on the River Nuthe, on the Berlin
and Anhalt Railway, 31 miles S. of the former city. It has
woollen and linen factories, and manufactures scythes, lea¬
ther, paper, and spirits. It has a court of justice, and a
parish and burgh school. Pop. 7500.
LUCKE, Gottfried Christian Friedrich, one of the
most learned theologians of Germany, was born at Egeln,
in the duchy of Magdeburg, 23d August 1792. He
received his early education at the gymnasium of his native
city, and after the Easter of 1810 studied theology for
two years at Halle, under Knapp and Gesenius. From
Halle he lemoved to Gottingen, where he continued his
studies under Planck ; and here he became first known from
his prize essay on the church of the apostolic age (De Ec-
clesia Apostolica, Gott. 1813). The publication of this
little work procured him at once the office of repetent in
the theological faculty. It also drew him into close literary
friendship with Bunsen, Ernest Schulze, Brandis, Lachmann,
and others, who were students and aspirants for literary dis¬
tinction about the same time. Lucke was soon afterwards
drawn by the personal influence of Schleiermacher to Ber¬
lin, where he passed as licentiate of theology. In 1817 he
published at Gottingen his Grundriss der Neutestament-
lichen Hermeneutik, a. youthful but brilliant attempt to mark
out the limits of his favourite study, that which he de-
lighted to designate as Christian philology. In the spring
of 1818 he was appointed extraordinary professor of theo¬
logy at Bonn ; and in the following autumn he received
promotion to an ordinary professorship. Here he devoted
himself with the greatest enthusiasm to the study of exe¬
gesis and of church history. Besides contributing to the
Ineologische Zeitschrift and the Christliche Zeitschrift of
Bonn, he about this time began his Commentary on the
Writings of John (4 vols., Bonn, 1820-32); and to the
same period belongs his Trilogie with Nitzsch and Sack,
and lus celebrated letter to Delbruck (Bonn, 1827) on the
relation of Scripture to the rule of faith. In 1827 Lucke
succeeded Staudlin as professor of systematic theology at
Gottingen, where he continued to reside till his death in
"/• ° j contributed valuable papers to the
Studien und Kritiken. To him especially we owe many
biographical notices of the great men with whom he had
vol. xm.
LUC
713
been closely associated in study, and whose names form Lucknow,
landmarks in the progress of theological literature. The
best known of these biographical sketches are those of
I lanck (1835), of Schleiermacher (1834), and of De Wette
(1850). towards the close of his life, he contributed to
tbe Deutsche Zeitschrift Jiir Christliche Wissenschaft und
Chnstliches Lehen; and during the conflict with Strauss,
he wrote anonymously a little tract entitled Strauss und die
Ziiricher Kirche (1839).
It is undoubtedly as a commentator that Lucke deserves
chiefly to be remembered. In common with the whole
school of Schleiermacher, to which he belonged, he gave a
marked preference in study to the writings of the apostle
John, and these he has illustrated with a freshness and
vigour at that time unequalled in the whole library of
comment. Beyond all his compeers he is the artist of
exposition; and in the interest with which he handles dull
details of criticism to bring out the hidden beauties of
Scripture, he is inferior only to Bengel and Stier. He is
however, too often led astray by his preferences for the
fourth Gospel, and his labours have lost much of their inte¬
rest since the attack of Strauss has given a wider ran^e to
modern German criticism, and has shown the dangerV a
false preference in a matter so vital to the interests of
Christendom. In an honest recoil from dogmatism, which
he hated instinctively and combated fiercely, Lucke has
often unfortunately stopped short in the scrutiny of notori¬
ous difficulties, and left them unsolved, when another step
in the analysis would have sufficed to clear away every
trace of doubt. The greatest blot on his pages is his ascrip¬
tion of the Apocalypse to an unknown author, whom he
supposed to have flourished in the reign of Nero; but his
greatest merit remains, of having been one of the foremost
and the most powerful to break up the dominion of ration¬
alistic criticism, and to clear the way for a philology more
thoroughly Christian even than his own.
LUCKNOW, a city of Hindustan, and the capital of
the province of Oude, situate on the S. bank of the River
Goomty, which is navigable for boats of a common size at
all seasons of the year, and falls into the Ganges between
Benares and Gazypoor. At the north-western extremity
of the city is a bridge, a very noble Gothic edifice of stone ;
another to the S.E. is formed of boats. A complete iron
bridge was, in 1816, sent out from England in sections,
but the death of the ruling prince having stayed the pro¬
gress of the undertaking, it long remained suspended in
consequence of the reluctance of the new sovereign to com¬
plete a project commenced by a predecessor. At length,
after the lapse of about thirty years, the bridge was erected,5
and now forms a conspicuous ornament of the city. The
streets where the lower classes reside consist of mean houses
built of clay, “ with the filthiest lanes between them,” says
Bishop Heber, “ that I ever went through, and so narrow
that we were obliged to reduce our front, and even a single
elephant did not pass very easily.” “ A swarm of beggars,”
he continues, in the lively description which he gfves of
the aspect of the town and its population, “ occupied every
angle, and the steps of every door, and all, or nearly all, the
remaining population were, to my surprise, as much loaded
with arms as the inhabitants of the country,—a circum¬
stance which told ill for the police of the town, but added
considerably to its picturesque effect. Grave men in palan¬
quins, counting their beads, and looking like moullahs, had
all two or three sword or buckler lacqueys attending on
them. People of more consequence, on their elephants
had each a retinue of shield, spear, and gun, little inferior
to that by which we were surrounded ; and even the loung¬
ing people of the lower ranks in the streets and shop-
doors, had their shields over their shoulders, and their
swords carried in one hand.” Lucknow is a very ancient
city. It was the residence of the early governors or nabobs
4 x
714
Luckput
liunder
LUC
of Oude, but was abandoned by Shujab and Dowleh after
the battle of Buxar; on his death in 1774, however, his
successor returned to it, and the bankers and men of pro¬
perty having accompanied the court, Lucknow became one
of the largest and richest towns in Hindustan. At the
present time the city is represented as displaying a varied,
lively, and even brilliant prospect, when viewed from a
position elevated above the general height of the buildings.
In advancing into the town from the outskirts above de¬
scribed, the buildings begin to improve, though the streets
continue to be equally narrow. Some of the streets are,
however, more spacious ; and one in particular is mentioned
as being both wide and handsome. It is called Chinka
Bazar, or Chinese Market, and has at each end a handsome
gateway. Heber describes it as wider than the High Street
at Oxford, but having some distant resemblance to it in the
colour of its buildings and Gothic style of the greater part
of them. The bishop adds that Lucknow appeared to have
more resemblance to some of the smaller European capi¬
tals, such as Dresden, than any other town which he had
seen in India. There are several palaces in Lucknow be¬
longing to the late king, but none of them are very strik¬
ing buildings. There is one close to the British residency,
which is merely a cluster of mean houses, with some mor¬
sels of showy architecture intermingled like the offices of a
college. There are many stately khans, and some hand¬
some mosques and pagodas, scattered in different corners
of the most wretched alleys. The most striking buildings
in Lucknow are the tombs of Nawab Saadut Ali and other
princes of the dynasty, and the imambarah. The latter
building consists of two courts, rising with a steep ascent one
above another. It contains, besides a splendid mosque, a
college for instruction in Mussulman law; apartments for
the religious establishment maintained here; and a noble
gallery, in the midst of which, under a brilliant tabernacle
of silver, cut glass, and precious stones, lie buried the re¬
mains of its founder, Asuph ad Dowlah. The whole is in a
very noble style of eastern Gothic, and is distinguished by
richness and variety, as well as by the just proportions and
general good taste of its principal features. Amongst the
curiosities in the neighbourhood is Constantia, the resi¬
dence of the late General Martin, who, from being a com¬
mon soldier, rose to a high rank in the company’s army.
His house is a large and whimsical building, and the grounds
are laid out in the worst possible taste, displaying in the
outline and arrangements the eccentric genius of the con¬
triver. His body is deposited in a sarcophagus in one of
the lower apartments. A large share of his vast wealth was
devoted to charitable purposes ; and a college called after
the founder “ La Martiniere,” preserves his memory in the
city where his fortune was accumulated and his eccen¬
tricities indulged. The population of Lucknow is esti¬
mated at 300,000; and Bishop Heber is of opinion that it
is sufficiently crowded to contain that number. 1 he city is
650 miles travelling distance from Calcutta, from Delhi 280,
from Agra 202, and from Benares 189 miles. E. Long.
81., N. Lat. 26. 51. The long-continued misgovernment
of the territory, of which this place is the capital, compelled
the British government at length to assume the administra¬
tion of public affairs. The king refusing to accede to the
proposed conditions, was deposed, and a liberal allowance
assigned for his maintenance. (See Oude.) (e. t.)
LUCKPUT BUNDER, a town of Hindustan, province
of Cutch, situate about 30 miles up the Koree River or
Salt Creek, which communicates with the Great Western
Runn, and is only navigable for small vessels. It is de¬
fended by a fort, which is situate on the brow of a hill. It
is not estimated to contain more than 2000 inhabitants,
500 of whom are Sepoys; and it is at present a place of
little trade. Lat. 23. 50., Long. 68. 48.
LUCON (ancient Lucio), a town of France in the de¬
L U C
Lucretia
partment of Vendee, situate on the edge of a marshy plain,
at the extremity of a canal of the same name, 10 miles in II
length, which traverses the marshes of Fraissy and St Mi- ^ucre 1US-
chel-en-l’Herm, and joins the sea at the little Bay of V'^'J
Aiguillon. It is large, with dirty tortuous streets, and
very unhealthy. It has a good trade in grain and cattle.
The only building worthy of note is its cathedral, of Gothic
architecture. It possesses a communal college, and is the
seat of a bishop. It was to this see the celebrated Cardi¬
nal Richelieu was elevated at the age of twenty-two. The
Republicans sustained a defeat under the walls of Lupon in
1793; and the insurgent Vendeans besieged the place
some months afterwards, but without success.
LUCRETIA, the famous Roman matron, wife of Col-
latinus, and the cause of the revolution in Rome by which
the constitution of the state was changed from a monarchy
to a republic. This lady being ravished by Sextus, the
eldest son of Tarquin, King of Rome, stabbed herself, in
the year 509 b.c. The bloody poniard, with her dead
body exposed to the senate, was the signal of Roman
liberty; the expulsion of theTarquins, and the abolition of
the regal dignity, were instantly resolved on, and carried
into execution.
LUCRETIUS, a celebrated Roman poet and philoso¬
pher. Of the life of Titus Lucretius Carus (as his full
name is written) very little is known. As he styles the
Latin language his mother tongue, we infer that he was a
Roman, or at least an Italian. According to the Eusebian
chronicle (almost the sole authority on the subject), he
was born in 95 B.c., and died by his own hand in 52 b.c.;
and his poem De Rerum Natura, which had been written
during the intervals of a frenzy caused by a love-potion,
was afterwards edited by Cicero. The account of his mad¬
ness is rendered doubtful by the internal evidence of his
work. In no poem do we see more distinct traces of the
various human faculties acting harmoniously under the sove¬
reignty of reason. There is no distinct evidence of Cicero’s
having edited the poem of Lucretius. The story about his
suicide is much more probable. His opinions touching the
mortality of the soul, his fearless Roman spirit, and his stern
decision of character, might possibly enough urge him to
adopt this mode of ridding himself of any dire calamity.
His poem De Rerum Natura consists of six books, and is
dedicated to his friend, C. Memmius Gemellus, who was
praetor in 58 b.c. Lucretius evidently received the first
obscure hints of his system from Empedocles; but raised
it into symmetry and consistence by aid of the atomic
philosophy of Epicurus. Starting from the axiom that
nothing can he produced from nothing, and holding that
the laws of nature, and not the gods, are the creative prin¬
ciples of the universe, he attempts to prove that all things
are formed by the combinations of indivisible and eternal
atoms. After describing the different spontaneous motions
by which these primary particles come to be combined
into sensible qualities, Lucretius passes on in the third
book to trace the soul of man to the same origin. From
this conclusion, he advances easily to the doctrine that the
soul is material, and must therefore perish when life, the
band that unites it with the body, is snapt asunder. In
the fourth book he expounds his theory of the senses, of
sleep, and of dreams. The fifth book is occupied with dis¬
quisitions on the origin of the world, on the movements of
the stars, on the laws that regulate the seasons, and the
interchange of day and night, and on the gradual develop¬
ment of civilization. In the sixth book he endeavours to
account for physical phenomena, such as thunder, rain
earthquakes, volcanoes, and pestilences. The abruptness
of the conclusion, a feature not seen in the rest of the
work, renders it very probable that Lucretius left his poem
unfinished.
As the body of the system is Epicurean, so also is the
LUC
Lucullus. spirit which animates it. A philosophy that recognises
natural laws as the source of creation, is of necessity per¬
vaded by a deep reverence for nature. Standing, therefore
in the same relations to Lucretius as the muse and the
gods did to Homer and the other ancient poets, nature is
invoked at the very commencement of the poem, and the
manifold manifestations of her power furnish the themes
of the poet s noblest strains. Her ever-varying moods, too
mysterious to require poetical idealizing, are depicted with
minute faithfulness, and are lingered over with devotion.
The poet beholds her sunshine, beauty, and beneficence,
with gladness; her tempests, famines, earthquakes, and
pestilences, with sublime wonder. Mankind, as the noblest
part of nature, attract the special interest of Lucretius.
rl heir joys and sorrows are the themes of some of the most
exquisite episodes in his poem; and the professed object
of his philosophy is to release them from superstitious fears.
Accordingly, he tells them that there is no after-time of re¬
tribution ; and that the gods, whose anger they fear, dwell
too far above this sphere, and are too listlessly happy, to
regard the sins and exact the services of the human race.
He recommends, as the aim of life, that quiet of the soul
which is attained by the suppression of all fears and vicious
passions. This lesson is enforced by the very shortness of
the time in which the end must be gained.
In Lucretius we see the harmonious working of the two
great powers of imagination and reason—the former de¬
scrying conclusions while yet at a distance, and the latter
searching for a path by which they may safely be reached.
Often misled by the careless induction peculiar to anti-
quity, his reasonings are nevertheless founded on a
minute and extensive observation. The most striking
feature, however, in the entire poem, is the vigour with
which the closest arguments and the subtlest abstractions
find poetical expression in a language formerly rude and
undeveloped. Scarcely less wonderful is the full melody
of his hexameters. The fervid genius of Lucretius acted
with a refining vehemence upon the rugged ore of his
native tongue, purged it of its dross, and fused it into the
golden speech of poetry. Many of his epithets are terse
and felicitous, and his images possess that suggestive
power which it is the sole prerogative of poetic genius to
originate. He possesses, also, the happy art of relieving
the sterner and darker pictures of his poem by sweet
glimpses of sea-shore and rural solitude.
1 he best editions of Lucretius are those of Lambinus
Pans, 1564-70; Creech, Oxford, 1695; Wakefield, Lon¬
don, 1796-97; Eichstadt, Leipsic, 1801; and Forbiger,
Leipsic, 1828. The latest English translation is that of
the Rev. John Selby Watson, published along with a me¬
trical version by Mason Good, London, 1852. See “ Lu¬
cretius and the Poetic Characteristics of his Age,” by W.
Y. Sellar, in Oxford Essays, London, 1855.
LUCULLUS, Lucius Licinius, the conqueror of Mi-
thridates, was born probably about 109 b.c. At an early
age he distinguished himself so much in the social war,
that Sulla gave him the command of a fleet during the first
war with Mithridates, and appointed him quaestor of Asia.
After discharging this office with great prudence, he re-
tmned to Rome in 80 b.c., to fill the curule aedileship, and
in the following year he was appointed praetor. No sooner
i -i •n elected consul in 74 b.c., than the second
Mithndatic war broke out, and Lucullus hastened into
Asia to attack the enemy. His first exploit was the re-
leving o ns colleague, Cotta, who, after suffering defeat
both by land and sea, had been shut up in Chalcedon. At-
tacking the enemy successively at Rhyndacus, the /Esepus,
and the Gramcus, Lucullus in a short time annihilated the
land forces of Mithridates. He mustered a fleet with equal
celerity and routed the squadron of the king near the
island of Lemnos. Mithridates had, meanwhile^ retreated
L U D
715
Ludlow.
into his native kingdom, and thither Lucullus now marched. Lucullus
After baffling the pursuit of the Romans for some time, the
king was forced, in 72 b.c., to flee to his son-in-law, Tigranes,
Prince of Armenia. To this country accordingly, the war
vyas transferred in 69 b.c., and the defeat of the Armenian
forces before the walls of their capital, Tigranocerta, was
followed soon after by the fall and pillaging of that city.
In 68 b.c., Mithridates and Tigranes had consolidated
their shattered armies, and met Lucullus at the River Ar-
sanias, but were again defeated and forced to flee ignomi-
niously. Other successes would have followed, had not a
spii it of disaffection in the minds of the soldiers, that was
due partly to the reserved disposition of Lucullus, and
partly to the machinations of his enemies at Rome, now
broken out into open mutiny. After struggling with it in¬
effectually, and seeing Mithridates recover Pontus and
Cappadocia, Lucullus, in 66 b.c., was superseded in the
command by his old rival Pompey. On returning to
Rome, his well-earned triumph was delayed for three years,
through the intrigues of his enemies. He then passed into
pi ivate life to enjoy the immense wealth he had amassed
in the East, and he soon became as noted for his luxurious
indolence as he had been for his military activity. He
laid out extensive gardens in the suburbs’ of Rome, and
built two magnificent villas, the one near Neapolis, and
the other at Tusculum. A student and a lover of the fine
arts from his earliest years, he now passed much of his time
in collecting an extensive library, in decorating his man¬
sions with costly paintings and statues, and in conversing
w’ith the learned men whom he loved to gather round him.
Cicero was his intimate friend, and in the Academics
praises his learning very highly. Shortly before his death,
which happened at some time previous to 56 b.c., Lucullus
is said to have fallen into a state of dotage. He was the
first to introduce cherries into Europe.
Lucullus, Marcus Licinius, a younger brother of the
preceding, was also called M. Terentius Varro Lucullus,
on account of his adoption by M. Tertentius Varro. Under
Sulla he held the office of quaestor, and afterwards of a lieu¬
tenant. In 77 b.c. he was appointed praetor, and succeed¬
ing his brother as consul in 73 b.c., obtained Macedonia
for a province, and there waged a successful war with the
Lessi, the Dardanians, and the Greek cities on the Euxine.
His exploits were rewarded by a triumph in 71 b.c. In
67 b.c. he was one of the legates appointed to settle the
affairs of Pontus, and appears in history as one of the
leaders of the aristocratic party in 65 b.c. He died at
some period before 49 b.c. M. Lucullus is characterized
by Cicero as one of the “ lights and ornaments of the
republic.”
LUDEHAUNAH. See Loodiana.
LUDLOW, Edmund, son of Sir Henry Ludlow, was
born at Maiden-Bradley, in Wilts, in 1620, and educated at
Trinity College, Oxford. His father being opposed to the
king s interest, Mr Ludlow joined the same party, and was
present at the battle of Edgehill, 1642, as a volunteer,
under the Earl of Essex. Upon the death of his father’
he was chosen knight of the shire for Wilts, and obtained
the command of a regiment of horse for the defence of that
county. He was one of the judges of Charles I., and
after his death was sent by the parliament into Ireland,
1650, in quality of lieutenant-general of the horse ; an em¬
ployment which he discharged with diligence and success
until the death of the lord-deputy, Ireton, when he acted
for some time as general, though without that title. Crom¬
well, who knew him to be sincerely in the interest of the
commonwealth, had nevertheless not sufficient confidence
in Ludlow to warrant him in elevating him formally to the
generalship. When Cromwell assumed the protectorate,
Ludlow gave m his “solid” protest against that step, and
he even refused, on leaving Ireland, to yield the Protector
716 L U D
Ludlow an unqualified submission. He sought retirement in Essex
II until Oliver’s death, when he used his efforts to restore the
Ludolphus. commonwealth ; but Charles II. being recalled, he thought
'v-~/ proper to conceal himself, and escaped into Switzerland,
where he settled in 1660, in the neighbourhood of the town
of Vevay, where more than one English refugee have found
a home and a grave. After the Revolution he came over
to England, 1689; but having appeared publicly in London,
it gave great offence, and an address was presented by Sir
Edward Seymour to King William III., praying for a pro¬
clamation in order to apprehend Colonel Ludlow, attainted
for the murder of King Charles I. Upon this he returned
to Switzerland, where he died in 1693, aged seventy-three
years. Over the doorway of his house he placed the in¬
scription, Omne solum forti patria. His grave is still shown
at Vevay. His Memoirs were written during his retire¬
ment in Switzerland, and published at Vevay, in two
volumes, in 1698, which were followed by a third volume
during the next year.
LUDLOW, a parliamentary and municipal borough
and market-town of England, Shropshire, on the left bank
of the Teme at its junction with the Corve, 36 miles W.
by S. of Birmingham. It stands on a gentle acclivity, and
is overlooked by an old castle, situate on a wooded eminence.
The streets are spacious, the houses well built, and the
town is well supplied with water. It contains a parish
church, a cruciform edifice in the perpendicular style,
erected in the beginning of the fourteenth century; chapels
belonging to the various religious denominations; and seve¬
ral schools, one of which, the Free Grammar School, was
founded by Edward VI. Besides these, there are a mecha¬
nics’ institute, and a natural history society with a good
museum. On a bold rock overhanging the river is the old
and now ruined fortress of Ludlow, erected in the twelfth
century by the lords of Montgomery, for the defence of
the English border against the Welsh inroads. It was
afterwards frequently honoured by the residence of royalty.
The Duke of York held it for some time during the wars
of the Roses, until he was forced to give it up in 1459 by
the advance of the king’s forces against him. Henry Vll.
made it his residence, and his son held court within its
walls. In later times, Prince Charles, afterward Charles I.,
visited it; and in 1634 Milton’s Cornus was-performed for
the first time in its hall.
Ludlow is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen, and 12
councillors, and returns 2 members to parliament. Markets
on Monday, Wednesday, and Saturday. Pop. (1851),
parliamentary borough, 5376; municipal borough, 4691.
LUDOLPHUS, Job {or Leutholf), a learned writer,
was born at Erfurt, in Thuringia, on the 15th June 1624,
and received a university education at Leyden, where he
devoted his study chiefly to law and oriental languages.
He held successively the position of tutor to the sons of
the Swedish ambassador at Paris, and to the children of the
Duke of Saxe-Gotha at the court of that prince. By the
aid of a native of Abyssinia, whom he met at Rome in
1649, while on a literary commission, he mastered the Ethi-
opic language,—an achievement never before accomplished
by any European,—and published in 1661, at London, a dic¬
tionary and grammar of that tongue, which he afterwards
brought out in a more improved form at Frankfort in 1698
and 1702. His knowledge of languages was exceedingly ex¬
tensive ; and he spared no labour by travel, study, and con¬
verse with learned men, to make himself what he ultimately
became—one of the most distinguished orientalists of his
age. He died at Frankfort-on-Main, on the 8th April
1704.
In addition to those already alluded to, the most impor¬
tant of Ludolph’s works are:—Grammatica Lingua Am-
haricce, quce vernacula est Habessinorum; adjectum est
Lexicon Amharico-Lat., 2 vols. folio, Franc. l'698 ; His-
L U G
toria Ethiopica, sive descriptio regni Habessinorum, folio, Ludwigs.
Franc. 1681 ; Ad suam Historiam Ethiopicam Commen-
tarius, 1691 ; llclatio Nova de hodierno Habessince statu LUgdunum
ex India nuper allata, 1693; Appendix continens Disser- y | _ /
tationem de Locustis, 1694; A New History of Ethiopia,
&c. (an English edition of his Historia Ethiopian), folio,
London, 1684.
LUDWIGSBURG, a town of Wiirtemberg, circle of
Neckar, about a mile W. of the river of that name,
and 8 miles N. of Stuttgart. Ludwigsburg has the charac¬
ter of being one of the handsomest and best laid out towns
in Germany. The streets are mostly long, wide, and re¬
gular, and are generally lined with rows of trees. This
town dates only from the beginning of the last cen¬
tury, at which time the reigning duke, Eberhard Lud¬
wig, had a hunting-seat here. A palace was soon after
erected, and from 1727 to 1733 Ludwigsburg was the chief
residence of the court. The palace, which is now deserted,
is one of the largest in Germany. It has a gallery of old
German, Dutch, and Flemish pictures, of no great value.
The palace gardens, once famous over Germany, are now
falling into disorder from neglect. Ludwigsburg has a
military college, lyceum, arsenal, orphan asylum, theatre,
&c.; also a cannon foundry, and manufactures of woollen
cloth, linen, calico, jewellery, leather, and earthenware. In
the neighbourhood are the two royal chateaux of Monrepos
and La Favorite. Pop. about 8000.
LUDWIGSLUST, a market-town of North Germany,
grand duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, on the Hamburg
and Berlin Railway, 20 miles S. of Schwerin. The princi¬
pal building is the summer palace of the grand duke, having
a gallery of about 200 pictures, some of them good speci¬
mens of the Dutch school, and a collection of Slavonic
antiquities found chiefly in the duchy. Attached to the
palace are a spacious park and garden. The Russian
chapel contains the tomb of the Archduchess Helena,
Grand Duchess of Russia, who died in 1803. Pop. 5500.
LUGANO, a thriving town of Switzerland, canton of
Tessin, on the northern shore of Lugano Lake, 16 miles S.
by W. of Bellinzona. It is beautifully situate on the mar¬
gin of the lake, and is surrounded by a most luxurious coun¬
try, but the town itself is not well built, and the streets are
dirty. The chief public buildings are,—a college, a small
theatre, an hospital, founded in the twelfth century, and
several schools and churches. Of the latter, the principal
are those of San Lorenzo, situate on an eminence, and
Santa Maria degli Angioli, founded in 1499, and containing
some excellent paintings. Silk grown in the canton is ma¬
nufactured here extensively, besides tobacco, paper, leather,
and copper; and a brisk transport trade is carried on with
Italy by means of the lake. Lugano is also the seat of a
considerable printing and publishing trade. Pop. 4500.
Lugano, Lake of {Lacus Ceresius), a long, narrow sheet
of water, lying between Lakes Como and Maggiore, and
situate mostly within the Swiss canton of Tessin. It is of
a very irregular form, the N.E. portion of it projecting into
Lombardy, while from its other extremity a long narrow
arm extends northward, forming the boundary between
Switzerland and Lombardy. The length of the lake from
N.E. to S.W. is about 16 miles, and its average breadth
does not exceed 2 miles. It receives numerous tributaries,
and discharges its surplus waters by means of the Tresa
into Lake Maggiore. The scenery is very striking, the
lake being almost surrounded by lofty mountains, overhang¬
ing woods, and bold, abrupt precipices. In sjome parts, how¬
ever, its banks slope gently to the water’s edge, and are
covered with villages, gardens, vineyards, &c. Abundance
of excellent fish is caught here.
LUGDUNUM (modern Lyons), a Roman settlement of
Gallia, the capital of the Segusiani, situate at the confluence
of the Rhodanus {Rhone) and the Arar {Saone), is said to
LUG
Lugdunum have been colonized, in 43 b.c., by refugees from Vienna
II {Vienne). Its position at the junction of several Roman
t Lug0‘ roads soon rendered it the seat of a thriving commerce, so
that in the time of Strabo it Mas one of the most populous
towns in Gaul. It was burnt in the time of Seneca, but
was soon afterwards rebuilt by Nero. In 197 a.i>. it was
burnt again by the soldiers of Septimius Severus. Lugdu¬
num contained the famous Ara Augusti, erected in 12 b.c.
or 10 B.c., by the sixty Gallic States in honour of Augus¬
tus. In the reign ol Marcus Aurelius this town was the
scene of a fierce persecution of the Christians.
Lugdunum Batavorum, in Ancient Geography, a tow n
of the Batavi, in Gallia Belgica; now Leyden, in Holland.
LUGO, a town of Italy, Papal States, delegation of Fer¬
rara, and 32 miles S.S.E. of the town of that name. It is
situate in a plain about midway between the Senio and San-
terno rivers, and is supposed to occupy the site of Lucus
Diana. It carries on an important trade, and has a large
annual fair, which lasts from the 1st to the 19th of Septem¬
ber. Lugo was sacked and nearly destroyed by the French
in 1796. Pop. 9500.
Lugo, a province of Spain, one of the four into which
the ancient kingdom of Galicia has been divided, is situate
on the coast of the Atlantic, between N. Lat. 42. 22. and
43. 47.; W. Long. 6. 52. and 8. 4.; bounded E. by the
provinces of Oviedo and Leon, W. by those of Pontevedra
and Coruna, S. by the province of Orense, and N. by the
sea. It has a coast of about 40 miles in length from Ri-
badeo to Cape Bares, extremely rugged, and inaccessible
to all but fishing boats. Such ports as there are—Ribadeo,
Rilo, Foz, San Ciprian—are of small capacity and depth,
and obstructed by bars; while the mountains close behind
are barren and almost impassable. The province is gene¬
rally mountainous, especially in the N. and E. The highest
summit, that called Rico de Pena Rubia, has an elevation
of 6088 feet above sea-level. Inclosed are a great number
of fertile valleys; in that of Miranda, on the left bank of the
Eo, are cultivated not only the cereals, but also fruit and
wine. The valleys of the Oro and Vivera, that called the
Riberas del Sor, and that of Monforte, are also very pro¬
ductive. The partido of Lugo, the capital, comprehends
the delicious valleys of the River Mino and its affluents.
The River Mino is the most considerable in the province.
It has its rise in the Sierra de Meira, passes the town of
Lugo after receiving various smaller streams, and joins the
Sil at Los Peares. Sufficient advantage, however, is not
taken of the abundant supply of water, and agriculture is
in rather a backward state. This is also partly owing to
the paucity and badness of the roads, which in this pro¬
vince, as throughout Galicia, are deplorably defective. The
productions of the soil are rye, maiz, wheat, legumes of
various kinds, flax, hemp, and some silk. There is abundance
of wood both for building purposes and for fuel. The cul¬
tivation of hemp has been almost entirely destroyed by the
absurd restrictions of the government. In Caurel and Incio
are mines of iron, which is manufactured chiefly in Lugo
and Mondonedo ; antimony is found in Castroverde and Cer¬
vantes ; and argentiferous lead in Riotorto. Among the
mineral products of the province may also be reckoned the
gold vvashed down by the streams. There are quarries of
granite, marble, various kinds of slate and building stone.
Linen and woollen cloths are manufactured to some extent.
The export traffic of Ribadeo, Vivero, Santiago, Foz, and
San Ciprian, is considerable ; but the inland trade, from the
causes already mentioned, is insignificant, and carried on
chiefly by the maragatos. Education is in a deplorable
state. T. here is a university, so called, at Santiago ; but there
are very few primary schools, and those are of no great
excellence. In the partido of Ribadeo there can scarcely
be said to be any educational provision whatever. Lugo
contains eleven partidos, of which the total population
L U K 717
amounted in 1845 to 323,158. The inhabitants of this Lugo
sequestered region have preserved to a striking degree the II
manners and customs of ancient Galicia. They are a v “ t
laborious, loyal, and obedient people; much addicted to ^ v-®-
litigation, however, and somewhat given to less excusable
methods of revenge. The climate of the province is va¬
rious, on account of the extreme unevenness of its surface;
in general it is mild, however, and especially on the coast.
Lugo, the capital of the above province, is situate in N.
Lat. 43. 5., W. Long. 7. 57., on a small hill near the River
Mino, about 2118 feet above the level of the sea, 50 miles
S.E. from Coruna, and 294 N.W. from Madrid, on the
highway between these two cities. Lugo was at one time
a city of great importance. Its name is supposed to be
connected with its ancient destination as the site of a
grove temple. It was the headquarters of the Roman oc¬
cupation of the region, and was known as Lucense, or Lucus
Augusti. They surrounded the city with a lofty and mas¬
sive wall, most of which is still standing, and constitutes
one of the most remarkable Roman monuments in Spain.
It is supported at intervals by strong semicircular towers,
which numbered eighty-five previous to the repairs in 1809.
It serves at present as a promenade, commanding an ex¬
tensive and delightful prospect. Lugo suffered greatly in the
fifth century during the Moorish wars, and more recently
in the war of independence, lying so much in the way of
the combatants. The town consists of about 700 houses;
it is not compactly built, a good deal of space being taken
up with gardens and orchards. The principal public places
are,—the Plaza Mayor, a spacious square with porticos on
one side ; the Plaza de Santo Domingo; the Plaza del Hos¬
pital, where reviews are held ; and the Campo de San Roque,
a place of much resort, where fairs and markets are held.
The most remarkable of the public buildings is the cathe¬
dral, situate south of the city, the primitive construction
of which dates from the twelfth century, though it has
been restored and repaired at various periods, and is still,
in some parts, unfinished. The bell-tower and peal of
bells, and the carving of the choir, by the famous Galician
artist of the sixteenth century, Alonzo Moure, are remark¬
able. The episcopal palace, the civil hospital, the prison,
and the barrack, are the remaining buildings of note. The
educational institutions are,—a normal school in the ex-con¬
vent of the Dominicans, and a recently established college
(Institute de Segunda Ensenanza), which also contains a
school of design, museum of natural history, and botanic
garden. Attached to this institution is a library of about
7000 volumes, formed of the episcopal library and the
books of the suppressed convents. About a mile south of
the town, on the left bank of the Mino, are the famous
baths of Lugo,—a thermal spring, of sulphurous ingre¬
dients, over which in 1847 was erected by the government
an excellent and capacious bathing-house. The remains
of Roman baths are found here, and the massive wall which
they built to defend their erection from the inundations of
the Mino still exists almost entire. These baths are re¬
sorted to on account of their beneficial influence in paraly¬
tic and syphilitic disorders. Pop. (1847) 7269.
LUKE, St, the Evangelist. His Greek name Aor/cas is
a contraction of Aoukcwos, Lucanus, and indicates that Luke
was descended from heathen ancestors, and that he was
either a slave or a freedraan. Respecting the place and
time of his birth w e have no certain information. Accord¬
ing to ecclesiastical tradition, the author of the Gospel
is the same Luke who is mentioned in Paul’s epistles
(Philem. 24; 2 Tim. iv. 11; Coloss. iv. 14), and who is
called, in the last-mentioned passage, “ the physician.”
This tradition is confirmed by the Acts of the Apostles, ac¬
cording to which the author of that work accompanied the
apostle Paul in his journeys (Acts xvi. 10, sq.; xx. 5-13);
(Acts xxi. 1-17; xxvii. 28). The profession of a physician
718 L U K
Luke, harmonizes also with the condition of afreedman, indicated
v—v——' by the form of the name.
To those who excuse their disbelief of the miracles re¬
corded in the Gospels by the assertion that their authors
were ill-informed Jews, greedy of the marvellous, it must
appear of some importance to meet in Luke a well-informed
Greek, skilled even in the medical sciences. The higher
degree of his education is further proved by the classical
style in which the procemium to his Gospel, and the latter
portion of the Acts, are written ; and also by the explicit
and learned details which he gives in the Acts on various
antiquarian, historical, and geographical subjects. The clas¬
sical, connected, periodic, and sustained style of the intro¬
duction to the Gospel of St Luke differs so strikingly from
the Hellenistic Greek of the history itself, that we clearly
perceive that he made use of written documents. He did
not, however, transcribe verbatim from them, nor did he
merely write down verbal traditions; for we find the same
characteristic phraseology which belongs to St Luke’s in¬
dividual style both in the Gospel and in the Acts.
It appears to be doubtful whether Luke had the Gospel
of Matthew before his eyes, since in the history of the birth
of Jesus he seems to have made use of documents refer¬
ring to the family of Mary, while the accounts given by
Matthew refer more to the family of Joseph. This is also
confirmed by the aphoristic mode in which he reports the
Sermon on the Mount. The Gospel of St Luke contains
exceedingly valuable accounts, not extant in the books
of the other evangelists; for instance, those concerning the
childhood of Jesus, the admirable parables in chapters xv.
and xvi., the narration respecting the disciples at Emmaus,
the section from chap. ix. 51 to xix. 27, which contains par¬
ticulars mostly wanting in the other evangelists.
The statement of Luke at the beginning of his Gospel
must dispose us favourably with regard to its historical cre¬
dibility. He states that he had accurately investigated the
truth of the accounts communicated, and that, following
the example of the ttgAAoi, he had made use of the state¬
ments of eye-witnesses. Luke had frequent opportunity
of meeting these eye-witnesses when he travelled with
Paul. He himself reports, in Acts xxi. 18, that he met
James. He gives also, with greater accuracy than the
other evangelists, some chronological notices, such as those
at the beginning of chapters ii. and iii., and in Acts v. 37.
As to the statements of the ancients concerning the date or
time when the Gospel of St Luke was written, we find in
Irenaeus (Adv. Hcer. iii. 1), that Mark and Luke wrote after
Matthew. According to Eusebius {Hist. Eccles. vi. 28),
Origen stated that Luke wrote after Matthew and Mark ;
but Clemens Alexandrinus, according to the same writer
{Hist. Eccles. vi. 14), asserted, on the authority of “ the
tradition of the earlier elders,” that the Gospels containing
the genealogies were written before the others. Eusebius
{Hist. Eccles. iii. 24), in reference to the Gospel of John,
says :—“John properly passed over in silence the genealogy
according to the flesh of our Saviour, which was detailed
by Matthew and Luke.” De Wette, in his Introduction to
the New Testament, endeavours to infer from the definite¬
ness with which the destruction of Jerusalem is predicted,
&c., that this Gospel was written some time after the de¬
struction of the city had taken place. On this we merely
observe that a petitio principii runs through the whole
train of the argument, since it sets out with assuming the
impossibility of detailed predictions. From the circum¬
stance that the book of Acts leaves St Paul a captive,
without relating the result of his captivity, most critics
have, with considerable probability, inferred that Luke ac¬
companied St Paul to Rome, that he employed his leisure
while there in composing the Acts, and that he left off
writing before the fate of Paul was decided. Now, since
the Gospel of St Luke was written before the Acts, it
L U L
seems to follow that it was written a considerable time Lulli.
before the destruction of Jerusalem. The most ancient
testimonies in behalf of Luke’s Gospel are those of Mar-
cion, at the beginning of the second century, and of
Irenaeus, in the latter half of that century. A good sepa¬
rate commentary on the Gospel of Luke is still a desidera¬
tum. Kuinoel’s Commentarius in Evangelium Lucce. (1843)
is not quite satisfactory ; nor Bornemann’s Scholia in Lu-
cam (1830); much less Baumgarten-Crusius (1845).
Besides the Gospel which bears his name, Luke wrote the
Acts of the Apostles. In those portions of the Acts in
which Luke speaks as the companion of Paul, and con¬
sequently as an eye-witness, his Greek style is more clas¬
sical than in the rest of the work. This circumstance
supports the opinion that Luke followed some written
documents in the earlier part of the Acts, as well as in the
Gospel. Compare Riehm, De fontibus Act. Apost. Traj.,
1825; and Kling, Studien und Kritiken, 1837, Heft 2.
That the accounts of Luke are authentic may be per¬
ceived more especially from a close examination of the in¬
serted discourses and letters. The characteristic marks of
authenticity in the oration of the Roman lawyer Tertullus,
in ch. xxiv., and in the official letters in ch. xxiii. 26, sq.;
xv. 23, sq.; can scarcely be overlooked. The address of
Paul to the elders of the Ephesian church is characteris¬
tically Pauline, and even so full of definite allusions and
of similarity to the Epistle to the Ephesians, that it fur¬
nishes a confirmation of the authenticity of that letter which
has sometimes been questioned. Respecting these allu¬
sions, see an essay of Tholuck in the Studien und Kritiken,
1839, p. 306, sq. As for the testimonies in behalf of the
authenticity of the Acts, they are the same as for Luke’s
Gospel. Clemens Alexandrinus, Irenseus, and Tertullian,
expressly mention the Acts, and Eusebius reckons them
among the Homologoumena. The most complete com¬
mentaries on the Acts are those of Kuinoel and Baumgar-
ten ; but equally valuable are Neander’s Planting and
Training, Schaffs Apostolic History, and Wieseler’s Chro¬
nologic der Apostolischen Zeitalter.
LULLI (or Lully), Giovanni Battista, a musician of
celebrity, was born at Florence in 1633. According to the
letters of naturalization granted to him in France by Louis
XIV., in December 1661, Lulli was the son of a Florentine
gentleman, and not of a peasant, as has been so often as¬
serted. In these letters, and in other public documents,
his name is spelled Lully, and also in his own signature;
but it seems probable that the final letter of his Italian sur¬
name became changed in France. He was about twelve .
years old, and had learned to play on the guitar, when the (
Chevalier de Guise, then travelling in Italy, happened to .'
see him, and being struck by the lively intelligence of >'
the boy, offered to take him to France, promising to pro- \
vide for him. Lulli’s father being poor, gladly accepted f
the offer. Mademoiselle de Montpensier, a niece of Louis ,:
XIV., had expressed to the chevalier a wish to obtain a
pretty Italian boy as a page. Lulli, however, was not ;
pretty, but very dark and coarse-featured; so that w hen ;
the chevalier presented him to her, the poor boy found ’
no favour in her eyes, but was immediately placed in her
kitchen as an under-scullion. He employed his leisure
hours in learning the violin, and his extraordinary musical
capacity having been remarked, he was made one of made-
moiselle’s musicians, and soon distinguished himself by his
violin playing, as well as by the airs that he composed.
But happening to compose an air for some very coarse sa¬
tirical verses written against his patroness, she was so highly
offended that she dismissed him from her music band.
Soon afterwards he contrived to obtain admission into the
violin band of the king, who, having heard him play in
1652, was so much pleased as to appoint him inspector-
general of the royal violin band, and also to institute for
L U L
Lully, him a new band of violins called the little band, to distin-
guish it from the great band of twenty-four violins. Lulli
wrote a great many pieces for his violin band, and was at
that time considered the best violinist in France. Before
the French opera was established, the king gave annually
grand spectacles called ballets, made up of dances, recita¬
tions, &c. Lulli now commenced the study of musical
composition, and wrote the airs for those ballets in which
the king danced. Forming an intimacy with Moliere,
Lulli composed music for several of that great dramatist’s
pieces; and from that time continued to compose and
direct all the music of Moliere’s theatre. For several years
he acted and danced in the court ballets ; and at the re¬
quest of Moliere performed with great applause some parts
in the latter’s comedies. Lulli became so great a favourite
at court that Louis would listen to no other music but
his. In the space of twenty years, Lulli, besides receiving
numerous presents, obtained nine valuable privileges ; and,
in 1672, a patent for establishing at Paris a royal academy
of music, known afterwards as “ The Opera.” This was
the beginning of Lulli’s splendid career of fame and fortune.
He turned all his powers to the direction and improvement
of this new establishment, and composed for it the music of
nineteen operas, which remained in vogue for many years.
After his death the new opera fell into debt and ruin.
Lulli led a gay and voluptuous life among the grandees of
his time at the French court. It appears that his death was
caused by an injury to one of his feet. Having composed
a Te Deum on the recovery of Louis from sickness, Lulli
conducted its performance on 8th January 1687, and,
while beating the time, accidentally struck his foot with the
point of his cane. An abscess ensued, which a bad habit
of body rendered fatal. He died at Paris on the 22d
March 1687. Some of his biographers represent his con¬
duct and character as in all respects odious. Basely
servile to his superiors, brutally insolent to his inferiors,
meanly jealous of all other musicians of merit, and unscru¬
pulous in compassing their ruin ; a false friend and a tyran¬
nical master; selfish and avaricious in all his dealings ; such
is the portrait given to us of a spoiled parvenu Italian at
the court of Louis XIV. But in judging of Lulli’s career,
circumstances of place and time ought to be considered.
The blind favouritism of Louis, and the bad example of his
courtiers, offered no good school of moral training to the
poor Italian boy. Lulli married in 1662 Mademoiselle Lam¬
bert, who bore him three sons and three daughters. He had a
large income from various sources: and after his death the
inventory of his effects proved his wealth. His silver plate
was valued at 16,707 livres ; hisjewels, &c., 13,000 livres ;
his ready money, 250,000 livres ; his moveables at the opera,
11,000 iivres ; and the house itself, 80,000 livres. Besides
these, the rents of several houses, 4600 livres a year ; and
on 3d April 1687, his widow sold his place of royal secre¬
tary for 71,000 livres : a wonderful contrast to the condi¬
tion of Lulli when he was under-scullion in the kitchen of
Mademoiselle de Montpensier! Although there was no¬
thing peculiarly original in the style and form of Lulli’s
music, he possessed a feeling for dramatic expression which
caused his operas to survive so long in France after his
death. The last performance of one of his operas was in
1778 ; and in the same year three of Gluck’s operas, with
some of Piccini’s and Paesiello’s, were performed. These
new and original works, in a style so different from Lulli’s,
produced a great effect on the Parisians; and thencefor¬
ward Lulli’s operas were no more heard. Nineteen of
Lulli’s operas were published in score; and his portrait is
prefixed to his opera of Acis et Galatee. (g. f. g.)
LULLY, Raymond, surnamed the “Enlightened Doc¬
tor,” a philosopher and theologian of eccentric character
and singular enthusiasm, was born at Palma, in the island
of Majorca, about 1235. In early life he espoused the pro-
L U N 719
fession of arms under James I. of Arragon, at whose gay Lunawara.
court he is said to have led a somewhat irregular life. His
mind took a serious turn about the age of 30, when he re¬
tired to a desert, and, amid solitude and asceticism, gave
himself up for nine years to the study of theology, to pre¬
pare himself for the duties of a missionary. Directed, as
he alleged, by a vision from Christ to convert the Moham¬
medans, he learned Arabic from a slave ; and it was on be¬
coming acquainted with the philosophy of Averroes that
he probably conceived his scheme of dialectics, by which he
hoped at once to revolutionize science and the world. His
Ars Lullia was now published (1276), at the express com¬
mand of a fiery seraph which appeared to him ; and having
prevailed upon his former patron of Arragon to establish a
convent at Palma for the education of missionaries to the
infidels, he went to Rome ten years afterwards to solicit
the aid of Pope Honorius IV. in carrying out a crusade
against the worshippers of Islam. The death of his holi¬
ness compelled Lully to look for aid elsewhere, and he ac¬
cordingly visited Paris and Genoa, but without success.
Having crossed to Africa, he engaged in a discussion with a
Mohammedan, which almost cost him his life. He left the
country for a time; but soon made his appearance again,
when he was nearly stoned to death, and afterwards cast into
prison. Liberated on the intervention of some Genoese
merchants, he returned to Europe, and busied himself in
preaching in behalf of a crusade for the recovery of the
Holy Land. His success was not equal to his zeal; and
the fiery and unquenchable enthusiasm of Lully urged him
to make a third single-handed attack upon the unbelievers
of Africa, when he died a martyr to his devotion for their
conversion, at Bougiah, in Algeria, in 1315, at the mature
age of 80 years.
The Ars Magna (“ Great Art”), as the admiring fol¬
lowers of Lully termed it, consisted in a determination, d
priori, of all the forms and of all the possible combinations
of thought; a complete arsenal of universal argumentation ;
a reducing of science to a number of general signs ; the
solution, in short, of all questions, human and divine, by a
simple piece of mechanism resembling a calculating ma¬
chine ! His most celebrated follower was the unfortunate
Giordano Bruno. Frivolous in many respects as his inven¬
tion was, it nevertheless was a protest against the idle
methods of the schools, which led him to be regarded as
a reformer in philosophy. The end Lully had in view
was the union—the complete assimilation—of philosophy
and theology; and his powers neither as a philosopher nor
as a theologian were able to free him from the inextricable
confusion into which his method led him. He united the
chivalrous ardour of the crusader to the pedantry of the
schoolman ; the mystical exaltation of one inspired to the
strict and methodical habits of the logician. His personal
character claims our admiration for the unconquerable reso¬
lution and devoted zeal with which he strove to disseminate
what he believed to be the truth. The most complete edi¬
tion of Lully’s works is that of Bucholius and Salzinger, 10
vols. folio, Mayence, 1721.
LUNAWARA, a town of Hindustan, in the province
of Gujerat, and district of the Rewa Caunta, situate near
the confluence of the Panum with the Myhee River. It
is the capital of a native principality of the same name.
Here, in 1803, a treaty was concluded with the rajah by
the British government, which freed him from the tribute
he had before paid to Scindia. Sir George Barlow, in 1806,
severed the connection, whereupon the territory again be¬
came subject to Scindia, who revived his demand of tribute.
In 1819 the right of supremacy over Lunawara was ceded
by Scindia to the British government; the latter guarantee¬
ing the payment of the tribute on condition that Scindia
should forthwith withdraw from the state, and refrain from
further interference in its affairs. The town is situate in
720 L U N
Lund ]y. Lat. 23. 8., E. Long. 73. 37. It is 65 miles E.N.E.
II from Ahmedabad.
Lunel. LUND, a town of South Sweden, situate in an exten-
sive plain in the laen of Malmb, 8 miles from the Sound,
and 24 miles E. from Copenhagen. The town is of high
antiquity, and in pagan times is said to have had a popula¬
tion of 80,000. It is now chiefly remarkable for its univer¬
sity, founded by Christian I. of Denmark in 1479. It has
faculties of philosophy, law, medicine, and theology, and is
attended by about 600 students. The library contains up¬
wards of 70,000 vols. and about 2000 MSS. There are also
collections of natural history, coins, antiquities, &c. Puffen-
dorff was professor of the law of nature and nations here ;
and Linnaeus was for some time a pupil. The present build¬
ing was erected in 1666. The cathedral is a large irregu¬
lar structure, said to have been founded about the eleventh
or twelfth century, but since then has been frequently al¬
tered. Lund, at present the seat of a bishop, was in the
middle ages the seat of an archbishop, who was considered
the primate of the north. On a hill about half a mile from
the town, the Scandinavian monarchs were elected sove¬
reigns of Scania. The chief manufactures of the town are
woollen cloth, leather, and tobacco. Pop. about 5000.
LUNDY ISLAND, a small precipitous island lying off
the N. coast of Devonshire, in the Bristol Channel, opposite
Bideford Bay, and about 9 miles N.W. of Hartland Head.
It is 2£ miles in length from N. to S., by 1^ in width, and
contains an area of 920 acres. It consists almost entirely
of granite, which rises in lofty cliffs from the sea, affording
only one narrow landing-place on the S.E. side, near Rat
Island. Here, however, there is a safe anchorage in from
5 to 12 fathoms of water. The land is laid out in pastur¬
age, and swarms with rabbits ; while the rocks are inhabited
by vast numbers of sea-fowl, especially puffins. This island
was originally held by a pirate, named Morisco, in the be¬
ginning of the thirteenth century, who expected a fortress on
it, which was afterwards garrisoned by Lord Say for Charles I.
A lighthouse, with an intermittent and fixed light, stands
on the southern exti'emity, near the ruins of St Anne’s
chapel. Pop. (1851) 34, chiefly employed in shooting rab¬
bits and sea-fowl for the skins and feathers.
LtlNEBURG, a town of Hanover, capital of a province
of the same name, on the left bank of the Ilmenau, and on
the Hamburg and Hanover Railway, 82 miles N.N.E. of the
latter. It is surrounded by old walls, having six gates, and
is a dull, ill-built town, the streets being narrow and dark, and
the houses old-fashioned. The principal public buildings
are,—the royal palace, the town-hall, St Michael’s church,
underneath which are the burial vaults of the old dukes of
Liineburg, St John’s church, the exchange, and the cavalry
barracks. The academy for the education of young noble¬
men occupies the old convent of St Michael, and has a
museum, and a library of about 15,000 volumes. The River
Ilmenau, which falls into the Elbe about 10 miles below the
town, is here navigable, and by means of it Liineburg car¬
ries on a considerable trade in the products of the surround¬
ing country. Lime-burning and the making of salt con¬
stitute the chief branches of industry, the materials for which
are abundant in the neighbourhood. Pop. 12,400. The
province of Liineburg is an immense sandy plain, chiefly
covered with heath, moor, and forest, mostly of fir. Along
the banks of the rivers, particularly the Aller and Elbe,
occur some fertile land. Flax is cultivated; but the quan¬
tity of corn pi'oduced is not sufficient for the wants of the
people. The breeding of cattle is much attended to, and
sheep are very numerous. Many of the inhabitants derive
a great portion of their subsistence from the keeping of bees.
P°P- 0 852) 338,764, almost all Lutherans.
LUNEL, a town ofSouth France, department of Herault,
near the right bank of the Vidoui’le, and on the canal which
terminates in theMauguio lagoon, 16 miles S.W. of Nimes
L U P
by railway. It stands on a level plain, which is subject Lunette
to inundations in the spi’ing, and is very unhealthy in |]
the heat of summer. The only objects of interest are
beautiful fountain, a barrack, and a small botanic garden.
In the vicinity a famous kind of sweet wine is made ; while,
by means of the canal, a brisk trade is carried on in brandy,
raisins, grain, and wool. Lunel was formerly strongly for¬
tified, and was several times besieged in the Huguenot
wax-s. Its defences were afterwards razed by order of Car¬
dinal Richelieu. Pop. (1850) 6392.
LUNETTE, in Fortification, a work with two faces and
two flanks. It is frequently employed as a form of outwork,
designed for the defence of avenues, farm-houses, bridges,
the curtains of field-works, &c. (See Fortification.)
LUN&VILLE, a town of France, capital of an arron-
dissement in the department of Meurthe, on the right bank
of the Meurthe, at its junction with the Vezouze, 20 miles
E. by S. of Nancy by railway ; N. Lat. 48. 35., E. Long.
6. 29. It is regularly laid out, the sti’eets being generally
sti-aight and the houses well built. A palace was built here
by the Duke of Lorraine in the beginning of the eighteenth
century. It is now a cavalry barrack, with accommodation
for 6000 horses, and its gardens have been converted into
public promenades. Attached to this barrack, which is the
largest of its kind in Fi-ance, is a riding-school, with an exten¬
sive exercising ground. The chief of the other public build¬
ings are,—the parish church, hospitals, college, synagogue,
and theatre. The inhabitants manufacture embroidery,
delf ware, gloves, and hosiery; and carry on a trade in grain,
hops, wine, hemp, and wood, by means of the Paris and
Strasbourg Railroad which passes the town. Luneville,
though once a towm of some importance, has of late decayed
considei'ably. During the wars between the dukes of Bur¬
gundy and Lorraine it was strongly fortified, and sustained
numerous sieges. A French army, however, in 1638 en¬
tered the town and levelled the fortifications. In the be¬
ginning of the eighteenth century it was the residence of
Duke Leopold of Lorraine, and afterwards of Stanislaus,
ex-King of Poland, both of whom did much to improve the
appeax-ance of the town. Pop. (1851) 12,476.
LUPERCALIA, an ancient Roman festival in honour
of Lupercus, the god of" fertility, seems, from its rude and
uncouth ceremonies, to have been introduced by shepherds
at a very early date. On the 15th of February, the day of
the festival, the Luperci, or priests of Lupercus, assembled
at the Lupercal, the spot where the she-wolf is supposed to
have suckled Romulus and Remus. There they sacrificed
goats and young dogs—animals supposed to be acceptable
to the god of fertility, on account of the strength of their
sexual appetite. Two youths of noble birth were then led
forward ; their brows were first stroked by a sword dipped
in the blood of the victims, and afterwards washed with
wool saturated in milk. The young men meanwhile laughed
as often as they were touched. After feasting plentifully,
the Luperci cut into shreds the skins of the goats that had
been sacrificed. With some of these pieces they covered
part of their body, leaving the rest naked, in imitation of
Lupercus. With others shaped into thongs, they ran wildly
through the streets, lashing every one they met. To these
lashes women often submitted voluntarily, since they be¬
lieved them a preventive against barrenness and severe
pangs in child-bearing. That the ceremonies of the Luper-
calia were originally intended to symbolize the purification
of the people, is evident from the fact that Lupercus w7as
styled, Februus; his festival day, dies februata; the month
in which that day occurred, februarius; and the goat-skin
used, februum. In course of time, however, the festival
came to be regarded simply as a relic of antiquity, and as
such continued to be observed as late as the reign of Anas-
tasius. It seems to have been also celebrated in other
towns of Italy and in Gaul.
L U Tt
L U T 721
Lurgan The Luperci were originally chosen from the patricians,
II and are supposed to have been instituted by Romulus and
Lustration. Remus# These princes divided the order or college into
~ two classes; and after the names of their own respective
followers, styled them Quinctiliani, or Quinctilii, and Fabi-
ani, or Fabii. A third class, called Julii, was added by Julius
Caesar; and to these, and possibly to the other divisions
also, he assigned certain revenues, which were afterwards
discontinued. The office of the Luperci was not a life
appointment, but how long it continued is unknown.
LURGAN, a market-town of Reland, county of Armagh,
on the Belfast and Armagh high road, 21 miles W.S.W. of
the former, and 2 miles from the southern shore of Lough
Neagh. It stands on a gentle eminence, and commands an
extensive view of the neighbouring country and lake. The
town chiefly consists of a wide, well-built street, and con¬
tains a handsome parish church, with chapels belonging to
the Roman Catholics, Presbyterians, and others. There
are also several schools, a court-house, bridewell, linen-hall,
and market-house. The manufactures comprise linens,
especially damasks and diapers, tobacco, beer, and whisky.
Lurgan was founded in 1619 by the Brownlow family; but
in 1641 it was burned to the ground, and although after¬
wards rebuilt, was again destroyed by the army of James
II. It was, however, laid out anew, and soon became a
thriving manufacturing town. Market-day, Thursday.
Pop. (1841) 4677, (1851) 4211.
LUSATIA (German Lausitz), was anciently a margra-
viate of Germany, lying between Brandenburg, Silesia,
Bohemia, and Saxony, and having an area of about 4200
square miles. It was instituted in 931, but after various
changes was annexed to Bohemia in 1370. In 1635 it was
ceded by Ferdinand II. to the electorate of Saxony. By-
decision of the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, Saxony was
obliged to cede the whole of Lower, and also a portion of
Upper Lusatia to Prussia. The remainder of Upper Lusatia
now forms the Saxon province of Bautzen.
LUSITANIA, a district of ancient Hispania. Con¬
sidered in its original meaning as the country of the Lusi-
tani, it is said by Strabo to have been bounded on the S.
by the Tagus, and on the W. and N. by the sea. In the
course of time, however, the growing importance of the
Callaici on the N. narrowed its extent, and fixed the River
Durius {Douro) as its northern boundary. Again, in con¬
sequence of the multitude of Lusitanians that were driven
southward during their protracted struggle with the Romans,
the name Lusitania was gradually extended to those dis¬
tricts S. of the Tagus. Accordingly, when fixed by Augus¬
tus as one of the three provinces of Hispania, Lusitania was
comprised between the Anas (Guadiand) on the E., the
sea on the S. and W., and the Durius on the N. The
chief river within the district is the Tagus, which flows
westward into the Atlantic Ocean. The following are the
principal towns on the rivers:—On the Anas, Metellinum
{Medellin), Emerita Augusta {Merida), the Roman capital
Pax Augusta {Badajos), and Myrtilis {Mertola); on the
Tagus, Libora {Talavera de la Reina), Norba Caesarea
{Alcantara), Scalabis {Santarem), and Olisipo {Lisbon),
the ancient capital previous to the time of the Romans;
and on the Munda {Mondego), Conimbriga {Coimbra).
The other towns are,—Salmantica {Salamanca), Sancia
1 ranscudana {Ciudad Rodrigo), Ebora {Evora), and Pax
Julia {Beja). The Lusitanians, especially those that in¬
habited the mountains, were much addicted to plunder.
Ol all the Iberians, they were the bravest, and offered most
resistance to the Romans.
LUSTRA I ION, in Antiquity, sacrifices or ceremonies
by which the ancients purified their cities, fields, armies, or
people, defiled by any crime or impurity. Some of these
lustrations were public, and others private. There were
several ways of performing lustration, viz., by fire, by sul-
vol. xm
phur, by water, and by air; the last being done by fanning
and agitating the air round the thing to be purified. Some
of these lustrations were necessary, and could not be dis¬
pensed with, as lustrations of houses in time of a plague,
or upon the death of any person; others, again, were per¬
formed from choice, and at pleasure. The most of the
Roman lustrations were not intended to atone for crime,
but to secure the blessings of the gods. The public lus¬
trations at Rome were celebrated every fifth year, in which
they led a victim thrice round the place to be purified, and
in the meantime burned a great quantity of perfumes.
The country lustrations were celebrated when sowing was
finished, and before the peasants began to reap the corn ;
in those of the armies, called armilustria, some chosen
soldiers, crowned with laurel, led the victims—a cow, a
sheep, and a bull—thrice round the army ranged in battle-
array in the field of Mars, to which deity the victims were
subsequently sacrificed, after pouring out many impreca¬
tions upon the enemies of the Romans. The lustrations
of the flocks were designed to preserve the flock from dis¬
ease, contagion, &c., and were performed in this manner:—
The shepherd sprinkled them with pure water, thrice sur¬
rounded his sheepfold with a composition of savin, laurel,
and brimstone set on fire, and afterwards sacrificed to
the goddess Pales an offering of boiled milk, wine, a cake,
and millet. As for private houses, they were lustrated
with water, a fumigation of laurel, juniper, olive tree, savin,
and the like; and the victim was commonly a pig. Lustra¬
tions made for particular persons were commonly called
expiations, and the victims piacula. There were also for
infants a kind of lustration by which they were purified,—
girls on the third, and boys on the ninth day after their
birth ; a ceremony which was performed with pure water
and spittle. They cast into the river, or at least out of the
city, the animals or other things which had served for a
lustration or sacrifice of atonement; and thought themselves
threatened with some great misfortune when by chance
they trod upon them. Part of these ceremonies were
abolished by the Emperor Constantine and his successors;
the rest subsisted till the Gothic kings became masters of
Rome, when they expired. (See Hartung, Die Religion
der Rdmer.)
LUSTRUM, was a lustration or purification of the Ro¬
man people, by one of the censors in the Campus Martius,
after the census, which was taken every five years, had been
completed. This custom was first instituted by King Ser-
vius Tullius b.c. 566, and was afterwards kept up with
great regularity at the periods just specified. In the earliest
period of the Roman republic the census was taken, and
the lustrum solemnized, not by the censors, as was after¬
wards the custom, but by the consuls. We gather from
Livy (iii. 22, xxiv. 43), that the census sometimes took
place without the lustrum being performed, owing probably
to some great calamity which had happened to the republic.
For the determination of the time when the lustrum took
place, see Niebuhr, Hist, of Rome, L, p. 277.
LUTE, a substance used for making vessels or apparatus
air-tight, by closing the apertures of their joints, or for coat¬
ing, so as to enable them to bear a higher temperature, or
for repairing a fracture. Clay is the basis of many lutes;
whence the term from lutum, clay. Among the principal
lutes are Stourbridge clay, in fine powder, made into a paste
with water; Windsor loam, a natural mixture of clay and
sand ; Willis's lute, a thin paste made of a solution of borax
in boiling water, with slaked lime. Mixtures of borax and
clay also form useful lutes. What is called fat lute, is a
mixture of pipe-clay with drying linseed-oil. Caustic lime,
furnishes, by admixture with other bodies, a variety of lutes.
A mixture of lime and white of egg, or glue, forms a power¬
ful cement. Iron cement (described under Gas-Light) is
useful for making joints tight, as is also white-lead, ground
4 Y
* 722 L U T
L U T
Lute
II
Luther.
up with oil and spread on strips of cloth. Among the other
substances used as lutes, may be mentioned moistened blad¬
der, paste and paper, paper prepared with a mixture of wax
and turpentine, linseed-meal, and caoutchouc. The last-
named substance is in extensive, use for making chemical
joints or elastic connectors, getting rid of that rigidity which
in a complicated arrangement of apparatus is so liable to
lead to accident. (c. T.)
Lute, a stringed instrument of music, long since super¬
seded by the harp and the guitar, but for centuries very
fashionable in Europe. The music for the lute was written
in tablature. Any person who wishes to become acquainted
with the nature of the lute and its mysteries of stringing,
tuning, notation, and playing, may consult Thomas Mace’s
Musick’s Monument, published at London in 1676. Most
of the MS. lute music in tablature is so carelessly and incor¬
rectly written, as to offer serious difficulties to any person
who would translate it into modern notation. The writer
of this article may refer to the facsimile extracts which he
made from Gordon of Straloch’s Lute Book, and from Dr
Leyden’s Lyra- Viol Book, and presented to the Library of
the Faculty of Advocates, Edinburgh, in 1847. (G. F. G.)
Luther.
LUTHER
Luther’s life is both the epos and the tragedy of his age.
It is an epos because its first part presents a hero and a
prophet, who conquers apparently insuperable difficulties,
and opens a new world to the human mind, without any
power but that of divine truth and deep conviction, or any
authority but that inherent in sincerity and undaunted, un¬
selfish courage. But Luther’s life is also a tragedy: it is
the tragedy of Germany as well as of the hero, her son, who
in vain tried to rescue his country from unholy oppression,
and to regenerate her from within, as a nation, by means
of the gospel; and who died in unshaken faith in Christ and
in his kingdom, although he lived to see his beloved father-
land going to destruction, not through, but in spite of, the
Reformation.
Both parts of Luther’s life are of the highest interest.
In the epic part of it we see the most arduous work of the
time,—the work for 200 years tried in vain by councils
and by prophets and martyrs, with and without emperors,
kings, and princes,—undertaken by a poor monk alone, who
carried it out under the ban both of the pope and the empire.
In the second, we see him surrounded by friends and dis¬
ciples, always the spiritual head of his nation, and the
revered adviser of princes and preacher of the people;
living in the same poverty as before, and leaving his de¬
scendants as unprovided for as Aristides left his daughter.
So lived and died the greatest hero of Christendom since the
apostles ; the restorer of that form of Christianity which now
sustains Europe, and (with all its defects) regenerating and
purifying the whole human race; the founder of the modern
German language and literature; the first speaker and de¬
bater of his country ; and, at the same time, the first writer
in prose and verse of his age.
And in what state had he found his native country ? The
once free and powerful aggregate of nations, which had over¬
thrown the western empire, conquered Gaul, and transfused
healthier blood into the Romanized Celtic population of
Britain, had gradually been broken up into nearly 400
(with the barons of the empire, 1200) sovereignties, under
a powerless imperial government represented by emperors
bent upon the destruction of nationality, and by an oligar¬
chic diet with seven electoral princes at its head, three of
whom, as ecclesiastics, were creatures of the pope, while
the remaining four, imitating the emperor, were occupied
rather with the selfish interests of their princely Houses
than with those of their country. When, in 1486, Maxi¬
milian was to be elected king of the Romans, and when
he became emperor (in 1493), Archbishop Berthold, elec¬
tor ot Mayence, a great and patriotic man, had prepared,
with some other German princes, a plan for a sort of
national executive, the members of which were not to be
installed, as heretofore, by the emperor alone, but appointed
by the Diet and the electors, in order to form a federal
senate to co-operate with the emperor. But the Aus¬
trian piince, son-in-law of Charles of Burgundy, and heir
to his kingly estates, was liberal in promises unfulfilled,
having lived not only to maintain but to strengthen the im¬
perial autocracy. His great comfort on his death-bed was
the reflection that his whole life had been devoted to the
aggrandizement of his own House of Austria. The smaller
German lords and knights of the empire made a last attempt
to maintain their independence, and to restore the ancient
liberties of the German nation; but acting in a lawless man¬
ner and without any political wisdom, they were crushed by
the united power of the emperor and the electors. The
more eminent and powerful portion of the mass of the
nation was represented by the wealthy towns, which had
purchased from the emperors the privileges of free imperial
cities; and which, with the Hanseatic towns, would have
formed, united with the estate of the knights, the most
complete constituent parts of a House of Commons, by the
side of the princes, dukes, and counts of the empire as House
of Peers. The formation of such an effective federal empire
must have been in the mind of those enlightened men, who,
at the election of Maximilian, perceived that a constitution
was necessary to prevent Germany from becoming a mere
domain of the emperors. A truly representative govern¬
ment, federal and unitary, monarchical and aristocratical
and popular, would have followed, as a matter of course,
from such a beginning as that proposed. But since the
failure of that plan nothing effectual had been accom¬
plished; isolation and separation became more complete;
the peace of the land was enforced at last, although imper¬
fectly ; and the imperial tribunal established by Maximilian
acted with insufficient authority, and, as was believed, not
with equal justice. The greatest iniquity was the condition
of the peasantry. The freeholders had in many parts of
Germany been, if not absorbed, at least considerably dimi¬
nished by the feudal system; but the great grievances were
the illegal abuses which had grown out of that system
and the always increasing exactions of the lords of the
manor, who, particularly in Southern Germany, had re¬
duced the peasants to real serfs,—men who had to render
unlimited services and scarcely could support life. There
had been insurrections of peasants particularly along the
Upper Rhine in 1491 and again in 1503; but being with¬
out leaders, they were each time crushed after a bloody
struggle, and the ultimate result was a still greater amount
of hardship. The chains of the sufferers were riveted. In
short, Germany was suffering from all the same evils as
France and England without having gained that unity and
strength of government which in those countries had resulted
from similar struggles. On the other hand, however, the age
was one of general progress. The invention of printing had
given wings to the human mind; philology had opened the
sources of historical knowledge as well as of philosophy
and poetry; astrology began to give way to astronomy,
and the idea of the universe emerged out of Jewish and
other fables. As to Germany in particular, the cradle
of the art of printing, Augsburg and other great cities
were, with the Hanseatic towns, centres of European com¬
merce, and partook of the resources opened by the dis¬
covery of America. The religious mind, too, had been
LUTHER. 723
L*ther. awakened since the days of Wycliffe and of Huss. Believ- and this again arises in great measure from the want of due Luther,
ing Christendom, and, above all, believing Germany, had observation of the critical points in the development of the
hoped for a leal reform of the church, the abuses of which Reformation and of the history of Europe, and of Germany
were doubly felt in consequence of the shameful immorality in particular.
of the popes, and the ever-increasing exactions of the court We shall divide the following condensed but complete
of Rome, ihe issue of immense efforts on the part of survey into three periods. The first will be the period of
emperors, princes, and people, was, that the council of Con- preparation, extending to Luther’s first publication of
stance delivered Huss to the flames, and both the councils theses against the indulgences, 31st October 1517; the
of Constance and Basle ended in a more decided supre- second will comprise the next eight years of preaching the
macy of the Roman pontiffs. Certainly the religious mind gospel and gospel doctrine in its three fundamental parts ;
of Germany was not a little damped by these disappoint- the third is that of political and theological struggles, from
ments ; but the thirst after a reform was not quenched by 1525 to his death in 1546preparation, progressive action,
the evident unwillingness of Rome to reform itself. The and then struggle within and without. Luther’s "rand
wise and good men of the time, however, could not dis- character and true piety shine in both periods of his pub-
cover any means to achieve what was generally desired lie career; but the culminating point of his active and
and demanded. The faith in human, and gradually also creative agency is in the first. It is, according to our view
in divine justice upon earth, had long disappeared in un- the year 1523 which forms the critical epoch. In 1524 the
fortunate Italy, as the writings of the age prove ; but foundation of the practical realization of the principles of the
now it threatened to vanish even in the minds of the Ger- Reformation was laid with triumphant success. The year
mans, in whom that faith may be called eminently their 1525 began hopefully, but it ended with the preparation for
innate individual and national religion. The Bible had been a struggle, of which Luther felt at once that he never should
repeatedly printed in the vernacular tongue, but it was, see the end. Before the close of 1525 he gave up the cause
and continued to be, a book closed with seven seals. There of Germany, not in consequence of any fault committed by
was a general feeling that the gospel ought to be made the himself, but because he saw that his party was not prepared
foundation of purified religion and doctrine ; but where was for the struggle with the empire, and was still less resigned
the man to resuscitate its letter and spirit, and to find the to leave the matter to God, who, as Luther firmly believed
way from Christ to the soul through the darkness and the to his death, would never allow his work to perish till the
fictions, the usages and the abuses, of the intervening cen- end of the world. But was not the end of the world
tunest The voice of the Friends of God with Tauler coming now?
at their head had been choked in blood, like that of the
Waldenses; and then, supposing such an evangelical basis r d m ^ „
to have been found, was the existing state of injustice and IR^L . ERIpD/Ae Years of Preparation ; or, the first
wrong to continue? Were the emperors to continue to thirty-four Years of Luther’s Zjfc—(1483-1517):
sacrifice the empire to their dynastic interests,—the princes Martin Luther was born at Eisleben, in the county of
and the nobles to their covetousness and licentiousness? Mansfeld, in Thuringia, on the 10th November 1483, on
Yes ; would not the overthrow of the ecclesiastical power the eve of St Martin’s Day, in the same year as Raphael
lead to universal conflagration, and rebellion and destruction, nine years after Michael Angelo, and ten after Copernicus.’
and thus Christendom be thrown back into a worse bar- His father was a miner, descended from a family of poor
bansm than that out of which they were anxious to emerge ? but free peasants, and possessed forges in Mansfeld, the
In shoit, the work (so it seemed) could not be undertaken small profits of which enabled him to send his son to the
but in despair or in enthusiastic faith. In the former case Latin school of the place. There Martin distinguished
it must succumb necessarily; but even if begun with the himself so much, that his father (by that time become a
faith of Wycliffe and of Huss, would not the attempt in member of the municipal council) intended him for the
any case lead to a long-continued struggle, the end of which study of the law. In the meantime, Martin had often to go
none of those who began it could live to witness ? Who about as one of the poor choristers, singing and begging at
should enter on so tremendous a course ? the doors of charitable people at Magdeburg and at Eise-
ouch uas the work to be done, and such were the ge- nach, to the colleges of which towns he was successively
neral and peculiai difficulties and the state of things in sent. His remarkable appearance and serious demeanour
Germany, when Luther undertook it. Luther devoted a his fine tenor voice and musical talent, procured him the
life of almost supernatural energy and suffering to secure attention and afterwards the support and maternal care of a
its basis; and although at his death he left it surrounded pious matron, wife of Cotta, burgomaster of Eisenach, into
by the gieatest dangeis, and one hundred years of bloody whose house he was taken. Already, in his eighteenth
struggle were succeeded by another hundred years of agony year, he surpassed all his fellow-students in knowTedge of
and of exhaustion, still the Reformation survived, and proved the Latin classics, and in power of composition and of
essentially the renovating element of mankind instead of eloquence. His mind took more and more a deeply reli-
being (as its enemies prophesied) the promoter of revolu- gious turn ; but it was not till he had been for two
tlr n‘u f-Ksubsists t0 this hour as the only durable preserver years studying at Eisenach that he discovered an entire
of all liberties religious or political; and the nations and Bible, having until then only known the ecclesiastical ex¬
states which have embraced the Reformation are those tracts from the sacred volume, and the history of Hannah
only which have escaped the revolutions which for seventy and Samuel. He now determined to study Greek and
years have agitated those of the Roman faith. Hebrew, the two original languages of the Bible. A dan-
I he life of him who was the beginner of this great and gerous illness brought him within the near prospect of
holy work, and who broke down the double tyranny of death; but he recovered, and prosecuted his study of
POP6.anc* emperor arrayed against him, must therefore be philosophy and law, and tried hard to gain inward peace
considered from a higher point of view than that of indivi- by a pious life and the greatest strictness in all external
dual biography, or sectarian panegyric, or national vanity observances. His natural cheerfulness disappeared; and
and prejudices. Ihe article upon Luther will have to be after experiencing the shock of the death of one of his
treated from the central point of the universal history of friends by assassination in the summer of 1505, and soon
mankind Ibis must be also therule for fixing the epochs after that, being startled by a thunderbolt striking the
°t Luthers life. One of the reasons why this life is not earth by his side, he determined to give up the world and
yet fully appreciated is, that it isaiot sufficiently understood; retire into the convent of the Augustinians at Erfurt 
724 L U T
Luther, much against the wishes and advice of his father, who,
indeed, most strongly remonstrated. Luther soon expe¬
rienced the uselessness of monastic life and discipline, and
suffered from the coarseness of his brethren, who felt his
exercises of study and meditation to be a reproach upon
their own habits of gossipping and mendicancy. It was at
this period that he began to study the Old Testament in
Hebrew, yet continuing to fulfil scrupulously the rules of
his order. “ I tormented myself to death,” he said at a
later period, “ to make my peace with God, but I was in
darkness and found it not.” The vicar-general of the
order, Johann Von Staupitz, who had passed through the
same discipline with the same result, comforted him by
those remarkable words, which remained for ever engraven
in Luther’s heart:—“ There is no true repentance but that
which begins with the love of righteousness and of God.
Love him then who has loved thee first!” In the struggles
which followed Luther’s real beginning of a new life, and
in the perplexities into which Augustin’s doctrine of elec¬
tion threw him, the book which, after the Bible, exercised
the greatest and most beneficial influence upon his mind
was that practical concentration of the sermons and other
works of Tauler—the enlightened Dominican preacher and
Christian philosopher of the middle of the fourteenth cen¬
tury—the Theologia Germanica, written by an anonymous
author towards the latter part of that century, of which we
shall have to speak hereafter.
When Luther regained his mental health, he took courage
to be ordained priest in May 1507. Next year the Elector
of Saxony nominated him professor of philosophy at the
university of Wittemberg ; and in 1509 he began to give,
as bachelor in divinity, biblical lectures. These lectures
were the awakening cause of new life in the university,
and soon a great number of students from all parts of
Germany gathered round Luther. Even professors came to
attend his lectures and hear his preaching. The year 1511
brought an apparent interruption, but in fact only a new de¬
velopment of Luther’s character and knowledge of the world.
He was sent by his order to Rome on account of some dis¬
crepancies of opinion as to its government. His first impres¬
sion of the city was that of profound admiration, soon mixed
with a melancholy recollection of Scipio’s Homeric excla¬
mation on the ruins of Carthage. The tone of flippant im¬
piety at the court and among the higher clergy of Rome,
under Julius II., shocked the devout German monk. He
then discovered the real state of the world in the centre of
the western church ; and often in after life he used to say—
“ I would not take 100,000 florins not to have seen Rome.”
Always anxious to learn, he took during his stay Hebrew
lessons from a celebrated rabbi, Elias Levita; but the grand
effect upon him was, that now for the first time he under¬
stood Christ and St Paul—“ The just shall live by faith”—
that mighty saying with which he had begun at Wittemberg
his interpretation of the Bible, now sounded on his ears in
the midst of Rome. He saw that external works are nothing;
that the pious spirit in which any work is done or any duty
fulfilled,—an humble handicraft or the preaching of sermons,
—is the only thing of value in the eye of God. On his
return to the university, the favour of Staupitz and the
generosity of the elector procured him a present of fifty
florins (ducats) to defray the expenses of his promotion to
the degree of Doctor of Divinity at the end of 1512. The
solemn oath he had to pronounce on that occasion (to most
only a formulary without deep meaning) “ to devote his
whole life to study, and faithfully to expound and defend
the holy Scripture,” was to him the seal of his mission.
He began his biblical teaching by attacking scholasticism,
which at that time was called Aristotelianism. He showed
that the Bible was a deeper philosophy: that, teaching
the nothingness and wickedness of man as long as he is
a selfish creature, it refutes and condemns all philosophical
H E R.
tenets which consider man separately from his relation to Luther.
Deity. All his contemporaries praised as unparalleled the
clearness of his Christian doctrine, the impressive eloquence
of his preaching, and the mildness and sanctity of his charac¬
ter. Erasmus himself exclaimed—“ There is not an honest
divine who does not side with Luther.” Christ’s self-
devoted life and death—Christ crucified, was the centre of
his doctrine ; God’s eternal love to mankind, and the sure
triumph of faith, were his texts. Already, in 1516, philoso¬
phical tenets deduced from these spiritual principles were
publicly defended at academical disputations, over which he
presided. Luther himself preached at Dresden and other
places the doctrine of justifying and vivifying faith; and
then accepted, for a short time, the place of vicar-general
of his order in that year. Even in the convents, spiritual,
moral Christianity made its way in spite of forms and ob¬
servances. When the plague came to Wittemberg, he re¬
mained when all others fled—“ It is my post, and I have
to finish my commentary upon the Epistle to the Galatians.
Should brother Martin fail, yet the world will not fail.”
Thus came the year of the Reformation, 1517. With
more boldness than ever, the new pope Leo had sent, in
1516, agents through the world to sell indulgences, and the
man chosen for Saxony, Tetzel the Dominican, and his band
were among the most zealous preachers of this iniquity.
“ I would not exchange,” said he in one of his harangues,
“ my privilege (as vender of the papal letters of absolution)
against those which St Peter has in heaven; for I have
saved more souls by my indulgences than the apostle by
his sermons. Whatever crime one may have committed”—
naming an outrage upon the person of the Virgin Mary
—“ let him pay well and he will receive pardon. Likewise
the sins which you may be disposed to commit in future,
may be atoned for beforehand.” But he soon found that a
spirit had been awakened among the serious minds of Ger¬
many to which such blasphemies were revolting. Luther
preached and spoke out against this horrible abuse, which
he said he could not believe to be sanctioned by the pope.
As a great exhibition of relics, together with indulgences,
was to take place on the day of All Saints in the church
of Wittemberg, Luther appeared on the eve, 31st October,
in the midst of the pilgrims who had flocked to the festival,
and posted up at the church door the ninety-five theses
against indulgences and the superstitions connected with
them, in firm although guarded language. The Reforma¬
tion began, like that of St John the Baptist, by the preach¬
ing of inward penitence, in opposition to penance and to
absolution purchaseable by gold; but Luther’s preaching
had the advantage that it was based upon man’s redemption
by Christ. Penitence was preached, as originating in the
consciousness of man’s unworthiness, God’s 'mercy, and the
redemption through Christ as placed before us in the gospel.
The entire doctrine of these immortal Theses is summed
up in the two last (94, 95), which run thus:—“ The Chris¬
tians are to be exhorted to make every effort to follow
Christ their head through the cross, through death and hell;
for it is much better they should through much tribulation
enter into the kingdom of heaven, than acquire a carnal
security by the consolations of a false peace ” A great deed
had been done that evening; a door had been opened for
mankind into a course whose end is even now far from
being reached. Those words—not the result of design and
premeditation, but of the irresistible impulse of an honest
mind brought face to face with the horrible reality of blas¬
phemy—soon echoed through the whole world. Luther’s
public life had opened; the Reformation had begun.
Second Period :—The First Part of the Public Life of
Luther, or the time of Progressive Action.
The pilgrims had come to Wittemberg to buy indul-
LUTHER
Luther, gences, and returned with the theses of Luther in their
\ ^  > hands, and the impression of his powerful evangelical teach-
1 Preaches *n ^ie*r hearts< Luther was urged on in his great work
inGermany not by his friends, who were timid and terrified, but by the
1517-1524. violence and frenzy of Tetzel and his adherents, and soon
afterwards by the despotic acts of the Pope Leo X., who,
having at first despised the affair as a monk’s quarrel, thought
he could crush it by arbitrary acts. The national mind in
Germany had taken up the matter with a moral earnest¬
ness which made an impression not only upon the princes,
but even upon bishops and monks. Compelled to examine
the ancient history of the church, Luther soon discovered
the whole tissue of fraud and imposture by which the
canon law of the popes—the decretals—had been, from the
ninth century downwards, foisted, advisedly and purposely,
upon the Christian world. There is not one essential
point in the ancient ecclesiastical history bearing upon the
question of the invocation of saints, of clerical priesthood,
and of episcopal and metropolitan pretensions, which his
genius did not discern in its proper light. It is a remark¬
able fact, and must needs be considered by the philosopher of
history as a proof of the spirit of God having guided Luther,
that what he saw and said, at the earliest stage of historical
criticism, respecting ecclesiastical forgeries and impostures,
has all proved true. Soon after Luther, the Centuriatores
Magdeburgici, the fathers of criticism as to ecclesiastical his¬
tory, took the matter up. Of course, the Romanists denied
their assertions for 200 years, and wherever they dare,
they still come back to the old fables and falsehoods. But
the learned discussion has been given up, step by step, re¬
luctantly, and with a very bad grace. Whatever Luther
denounced as fraud or abuse from its contradiction to the
canonical worship, may be said to have been since openly
or tacitly admitted to be such. But what produced the
greatest effect at the time were his short popular treatises
exegetical and practical. Among these are particularly re¬
markable his Interpretation of the Magnificat or the Can¬
ticle of the Virgin Mary, his deep and earnest Exposi¬
tion of the Ten Commandments, and his Exposition of the
Lords Prayer, which latter soon found its way into Italy,
although without Luther’s name, and which has never yet
been surpassed, either in genuine Christian thought or in
style. Having resolved to preach in person throughout
Germany, Luther appeared in the spring of 1518 in Heidel¬
berg, where a general meeting of his Order was held. The
count palatine, to whom Luther had been introduced by
the elector of Saxony, received him very courteously. In
order to rouse the spirit of the professors, he held a public
disputation on certain theses, called by him paradoxes, by
which he intended to make apparent the contrast of the
external view of religion taught by the schoolmen, and the
spiritual and energetic view of gospel truth based upon
justifying faith. It was here that Bucer, then a Domini¬
can monk, but soon a zealous Reformer and controversialist,
and the man who, after Calvin, had among foreigners the
greatest influence upon the English Reformation, heard
the voice of the gospel in his own heart, and resolved to
confess and preach it at the university.
“ It is not the pope (said Luther in one of his disputations)
who governs the church militant of Christ, but Christ him¬
self; for it is written that ‘ Christ must reign till he has
put all his enemies under his feet.’ He evidently has not
done so yet. Christ’s reign, in this our world, is the reign
of faith; we do not see our Head, but we have Him.”
On his return to Wittemberg in May 1518, Luther wrote
and published an able and moderate exposition of the
theses, and sent it to some German bishops. He then pro¬
claimed the absolute necessity of a thorough reformation of
the church, which could only be effected, with the aid of
God, by an earnest co-operation of the whole of Christen¬
dom. But already Rome meditated his excommunication,
uttering threats which he discussed with great courage Luther,
and equanimity, saying, “ God alone can reconcile with
himself the fallen soul: He alone can dissolve the union
of the soul with himself: blessed the man who dies under
an unjust excommunication.” In requesting his superior
to send his very humble letter to Pope Leo, in which he
declared his readiness to defend his cause, Luther added,—
“ Mark, I do not wish to entangle you in my own perilous
affair, the consequences of which I am ready to bear alone.
My cause is Christ’s and God’s.” In the meantime, Luther
was cited repeatedly to appear before the pope’s tribunal
at Rome. Leo, indeed, graciously promised to pay the ex¬
penses of his journey, which certainly would have been no
large outlay, as none would have been required for his
return. But Luther constantly declined summonses and
invitations, and proposed instead one or other of the German
universities as judge. This proposal was, of course, not
acceptable to Rome, and therefore he was summoned before
the pope’s legate in Germany.
The pope’s legate was Cardinal Cajetanus. Luther was 2. At Augs-
summoned to appear before him at Augsburg, and all burg before
princes and cities were threatened with the interdict, if the legate,
they did not deliver Luther into the hands of the pope’s
tribunal. It was in these critical circumstances that Luther
formed his acquaintance with Melancthon, who soon became
his most faithful friend, and remained his zealous adherent
for life. When Melancthon and all his other friends advised
Luther not to go to Augsburg to be given up to the machi¬
nations of the legate, he replied,—“ They have already torn
my honour and my reputation, let them have my body, if
it is the will of God; but my soul they shall not take.”
He undertook the journey, as a good monk, on foot; only
provided with letters of recommendation from the elector,
and accompanied by two friends, but without a safe conduct.
He arrived at Augsburg on the evening of the 7th October
1518, almost exhausted by the hardships of the journey.
The cardinal and his assistants employed in vain alternately
threats and blandishments ; scholastic arguments fell power¬
less, as he answered them by the Bible, and demanded to
be refuted by the Word of God, to which he showed the
decretals to be opposed, and therefore, according even to the
declaration of the canonists, of no value. For these reasons
he constantly refused to retract, as he was required to do,
his two propositions,—the one that the treasure of indul¬
gences is not composed of the merits of Christ; the other,
that he who receives the sacrament must have faith in the
grace offered to him. Luther left Augsburg after having His return,
addressed a firm but respectful letter to the legate ; and his
friends, who were sure that his life was not safe a moment
longer, escorted him before daybreak out of the town on
horseback. On his return to Wittemberg, he found the
elector in great anxiety of mind, in consequence of an im¬
perious missive of the cardinal legate. Luther wrote to the
prince a dignified letter, saying,—“ I would, in your place,
answer the cardinal as he deserves for insulting an honest
man without proving him to be wrong; but I do not wish
to be an encumbrance to your highness; I am ready to
leave your states, but I will not go to Rome.” The elec¬
tor refused to deliver him up to the legate, or to send him
out of the states. Luther would have gone to France if
deprived of his asylum in Saxony. The elector, however,
having desired him to leave Wittemberg, and Luther being
on the point of obeying his orders, the prince, touched by his
humility and firmness, allowed him to remain and to prepare
himself for a new conference. At the end of 1518, the
papal bull concerning indulgences appeared, confirming the
old doctrine, without any reference to the late dispute.
Luther had already appealed from the pope to a general
council.
The years 1519, 1520, 1521, were the time of a fierce
but triumphant struggle with the hitherto irresistible power
726 L U T
Luther, of Rome, soon openly supported by the empire. The two
first of these years passed in public conferences and dispu-
3. At Wit- tations at Leipzig and elsewhere, with Eck and other Ro-
temberg, manist doctors, in which Luther was seconded by the elo-
1519-1520, qUence of the ardent and acute Carlstadt, as well as by the
he is ex- iearnjng and argumentative powers of Melancthon. People
catedTnd anc^ Princes t00^ more an(^ raore Part in the dispute, and
burns the the controversy widened from day to day. Luther openly
pope’s bull, declared that Huss was right on a great many points,
and had been unjustly condemned. Wittemberg became
crowded with students and inquirers, who flocked there from
all sides. Luther not only continued his lectures, but wrote
during this period his most important expositions and com¬
mentaries on the New Testament,—beginning with the
Epistle to the Galatians (Sept. 1519), which he used to call
his own epistle. During the second year (1520) the first
great political crisis occurred, on occasion of the death of
Maximilian, and ended fatally, in consequence of the total
want of patriotic and political wisdom among the German
princes. The elector of Saxony was offered by one of the
most eminent and influential of his colleagues, the archbishop
of Treves, to be chosen emperor ; but had not the courage
to accept a dignity which he supposed to require for its
support a more powerful house than his own. Of all the
political acts which may be designated, with Dante, ugran
vil rifiato, this was the greatest and most to be regretted,
supposing the elector to have been wise and courageous
enough to give the knights and cities their proper share in
the government, and patriotic enough to make the common
good his own.
The German writers have called the Elector Frederic
“ the Wise,” particularly also with regard to this question.
But long before Ranke pointed out the political elements
then existing for an effective improvement of the miserable
German constitution, Justus Moser of Osnabruck had pro¬
phetically uttered the real truth,—“ if the emperor at that
time had destroyed the feudal system, this deed would have
been, according to the spirit in which it was done, the
grandest or the blackest in the history of the world.” Moser
means that if the emperor had embraced the Reformed faith,
and placed himself at the head of the lower nobility and
the cities, united in one body as the lower house of a Ger¬
man parliament, this act would have saved Germany. But
we ought to go further, and say, to expect such a revolution
from a Spanish king was simply absurd. Frederic alone
could, and probably would, have been led into that course,
just because he had nothing to rely upon except the German
nation, then more numerous and powerful than it ever has
been since. The so-called capitulations of the empire, which
were accepted by Charles, contained not the slightest guar¬
antee against religious encroachments on the side of Rome.
Persecutions aimed at the life of Luther began very early.
Being one day accosted by a stranger, who concealed a pistol
in his sleeve, and asked him, “ Why do you walk thus
alone?” the intrepid hero answered, “ Because I am on the
side of God, who is my strength and my shield.” The un¬
known person turned pale and slunk away. The pope’s
emissaries in Germany openly demanded the death of
Luther. Flattery and threats were used alternately to that
end. Luther said, “ I do not wish for a cardinal’s hat:
let them allow the way of salvation to be open to Christians,
and I shall be satisfied. All their threats do not frighten
me, and all their promises do not seduce me.” When
Francis of Sickingen, the most powerful and spirited of the
knights of the empire, and the brave and enlightened Ulrich
von Hiitten and others, offered aid, and said, “ force of arms
was required to drive out the devil,” Luther answered in
those immortal words: “ By the Word the world has been
conquered; by the Word the church has been saved; by
the Word too, she will be restored: I do not despise your
offers, but I will not lean upon any one but Christ.”
H E R.
Luther’s writings of this period are the finest productions Luther,
of his pen. His book On Good Works is the best exposi-
tion of the doctrine of justification by faith. Melancthon
says, in reference to this treatise,— “No writer ever came
nearer St Paul than Luther has done.” In the same year
(1520) he published that grand address to the nobles of the
German nation, On the Reformation of Christendom, which
may be considered as the finest specimen of the political
and patriotic wisdom of a Christian. There he shows the
reality and supreme dignity of the universal priesthood of
Christians, and at the same time demands athorou<Th reform
of the social system of Germany and Italy, beginning with
the abrogation of the usurped power of the pope, while he
calls for a national system of education as the foundation of
a better order of things. This address, published on the
26th June 1520, electrified the nation. It was this appeal
which first moved the patriotic and sainted spirit of Ulrich
Zwingle, the Swiss Reformer, who tried in vain to dissuade
Rome from endeavouring to crush Luther by a bull of ex-
communication. It was too late. The great step had been
decided upon.
Luther meanwhile continued his course of preaching and
lecturing at Wittemberg, where nearly 2000 students were
assembled. He published at this time his Treatise on the
Mass, in which he applied to the sacraments the pervading
doctrine of faith, proving from Scripture that every sacra¬
ment is dead without faith in God’s word and promises.
But his most striking work of this period is that o» the
Babylonian Captivity of the Church (October 1520), in
which he boldly took the offensive against Rome, attacking
papacy in its principles. It is remarkable that in this treatise
he speaks of the baptism of infants, who necessarily are in¬
capable of faith, as of an apparent contradiction, which,
however, might be defended. Man is to have faith in the
baptismal vow (to be ratified later, after the necessary in¬
struction), and therefore he must not allow himself to be
bound by any other vow, and must consider the work of
his vocation, whatever it be, as equally sacred with that
of priest or monk. Till the Christian church is or¬
ganized upon that principle, the Christian people live
in Babylonian captivity. In order to please some of
his friends, and show to the world that he was not in¬
tractable, he addressed a letter to Leo X., and inclosed
a treatise, On the Liberty of the Christian. He pities
the pope for having been thrown like Daniel into the
midst of wolves, and predicts that the Roman court {Curia
Romano) will fall because she hates reform, and that the
world will be obliged, sooner or later, to apply to her the
words of the prophet—“ We would have healed Babylon,
but she is not healed: forsake her, and let us go every one
unto his own country” (Jerem. li. 9). “ O most holy father,
(he adds) do not listen to those flattering syrens around you!”
The treatise itself is a sublime and succinct exposition
of the two truths, that by faith the soul acquires all that
Christ has, and becomes free through Him; but then it
begins to serve His brethren voluntarily from thankfulness
to God. The pope’s bull arrived in due time ; but found He is ex-
the German nation deaf to its curses, and armed against communi-
its arguments. It was called Dr Eck’s bull; and Luther cated.
raised, on the 4th November, his voice of thunder against
it in a short treatise Against the Bull of Antichrist; and,
on the 17th of the same month, he drew up, before a notary
and five witnesses, a solemn protest, in which he appealed
to a general council. After this manifesto, he invited the Burns the
university, on the 10th of December 1520, to see the anti-pope’s hull
Christian bull burnt before the church door, and said,—
“ Now the serious work begins ; I have begun it ip. the name
qf God—it will be brought to an end by his might.” But
where w.as the power to resist the pope, if the emperor sup¬
ported the pope’s cause? And, indeed, fye had promised this
support to the pontifical minister soon after his coronation
LUTHER.
Luther, at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 22d October. He declared,
however, at the same time, that he must act with every
possible regard towards the elector; and this prince had
courage enough to propose, as the only just measure, to
grant to Luther a safe conduct, and place him before
learned, pious, and impartial judges. Erasmus, whom he
invited, in order to learn his opinion, said,—“ There was no
doubt that the more virtuous and attached to the gospel any
man was, the more he was found to incline towards Luther,
who had been condemned only by two universities, and by
them had not been confuted.”
4. At the The emperor agreed at last to the proposal of the elec-
diet of tor Frederic, and convened a diet at Worms for 6th
Worms, January 1521, where the two questions of religion and of a
Pn ' reform in the constitution of the empire were to be treated.
Luther, though in a suffering state of health, resolved imme¬
diately to appear when summoned. “ If the emperor calls,
it is God’s call,—I must go: if I am too weak to go
in good health, I shall have myself carried thither sick.
They will not have my blood, after which they thirst, un¬
less it is God’s will. Two things I cannot do,—shrink
from the call nor retract my opinions.” The nuncio and
his party, on their side, moved heaven and earth to procure
Luther’s condemnation, and threatened the Germans with
extermination, saying,—“ We shall excite the one to fight
against the other, that all may perish in their own blood,”—
a threat which the papists have carried out to the best of
their power during 200 years. The emperor permitted
the nuncio to appear officially in the diet, and to try to
convince the princes of the empire there assembled. Ale-
ander tried in vain to communicate to the assembly his
theological hatred, or to obtain that Luther should be
condemned as one judged by the pope, his books burnt and
his adherents persecuted. The impression produced by his
powerful harangue was only transitory: even princes who
hated Luther personally, would not allow his person and
writings and the general cause of reform to be confounded,
and all crushed together. The abuses and exactions of
Rome were too crying. A committee, appointed by the
diet, presented a list of 101 grievances of the German
nation against Rome. This startled the emperor, who,
instead of ordering Luther’s books to be burned, issued
only a provisional order that they should be delivered to
the magistrates. When Luther heard of the measures
preparing against him, he composed one of his most admir¬
able treatises,— The Exposition of the Magnificat, or the
Canticle of the Virgin Mary. He soon learnt what he was
expected to retract. “ If that is meant, I remain where I
am: if the emperor will call me to have me put to death, I
shall go.” The emperor summoned him, indeed, on the 6th
March 1521, to appear before him, and granted him at last
a safe conduct, on which all his friends insisted. Luther,
in spite of all warnings, set out with the imperial herald on
the 2d April. Everywhere on the road he saw the imperial
edict against his book posted up, but witnessed also the
hearty sympathies of the nation. At Erfurt the herald gave
way to the universal request, and, against his instructions,
consented to Luther’s preaching a sermon,—none the less
remarkable for not containing a single word about himself.
On the 16th Luther entered the imperial city amidst an
immense concourse of people. On his approach to Worms,
the elector’s chancellor entreated him, in the name of his
master, not to enter a town where his death was decided.
The answer which Luther returned was simply this:—
“ 1 ell your master, that if there were as many devils at
Worms as tiles on its roofs, I would enter.” When sur¬
rounded by his friends on the morning of the 17th, on which
day he was to appear before the august assembly, he said,—•
“ Christ is to me what the head of the gorgon was to
Perseus: I must hold it up against the devil’s attack.”
When the hour approached, he fell upon his knees, and
uttered in great agony a prayer such as can only be pro¬
nounced by a man filled with the spirit of Him who prayed
at Gethsemane. Friends took down his words; and the
authentic document has been published by the great his¬
torian of the Reformation. He rose from prayer and fol¬
lowed the herald. Before the throne he was asked two
questions,—Whether he acknowledged the works before
him to have been written by himself? and whether he
would retract what he had said in them ? Luther requested
to be told the titles of the books, and then, addressing the
emperor, acknowledged them as his; as to the second, he
asked for time to reflect, as he might otherwise confound
his own opinions with the declarations of the Word of God,
and either say too much, or deny Christ and say too little,
incurring thus the penalty which Christ had denounced,—
“Whosoever shall deny me before men, him will I also
deny before my Father which is in heaven.” The emperor,
struck by this very measured answer, which some mistook
for hesitation, after a short consultation, granted a day’s
delay for the answer, which was to be by word of mouth.
Luther’s resolution was taken : he only desired to convince
his friends, as well as his enemies, that he did not act with
precipitation at so decisive a moment. The next day he
employed in prayer and meditation, making a solemn vow
upon the volume of Scripture to remain faithful to the gos¬
pel, should he have to seal his confession with his blood.
Luther’s address to the emperor has been preserved, and is
a masterpiece of eloquence as well as of courage. Confin¬
ing his answer to the first point, he said, that “ nobody
could expect him to retract indiscriminately all he had
written in those books, since even his enemies admitted that
they contained much that was good and conformable to
Scripture. But I have besides,” he continued, “ laid open
the almost incredible corruptions of popery, and given
utterance to complaints almost universal. By retracting
what I have said on this score, should I not fortify rank
tyranny, and open a still wider door to enormous im¬
pieties ? Nor can I recal what, in my controversial writ¬
ings, I may have expressed with too great harshness against
the supporters of popery, my opponents, lest I should
give them encouragement to oppress Christian people still
more. I can only say with Christ,—‘ If I have spoken evil,
bear witness of the evil’ (John xviii. 23). I thank God
I see how that the gospel is in our days, as it was before,
the occasion of doubt and discord. This is the doctrine of
the Word of God,—‘ I am not come to send peace but a
sword’ (Matt. x. 34). May this new reign not begin, and
still less continue, under pernicious auspices. The Pha¬
raohs of Egypt, the kings of Babylon and of Israel, never
worked more effectually for their own ruin than when they
thought to strengthen their power. I speak thus boldly,
not because I think that such great princes want my
advice, but because I will fulfil my duty towards Germany,
as she has a right to expect from her children.” The
emperor, probably in order to confound the poor monk,
w ho having been kept standing so long in the midst of such
an assembly, and in a suffocating heat, was almost exhausted
in body, ordered him to repeat the discourse in Latin.
His friends told him he might excuse himself, but he
rallied boldly, and pronounced his speech in Latin with
the same composure and energy as at first; and the
reiterated question, Whether he would retract? Luther
replied,—“ I cannot submit my faith either to the pope or
to councils, for it is clear that they have often erred and
contradicted themselves. I will retract nothing, unless
convicted by the very passages of the Word of God which
I have quoted.” And then, looking up to the august as¬
sembly before him, he concluded, saying,—Here I take
my stand: I cannot do otherwise: so help me God.
Amen! The courage of Luther made a deep impression
even upon the emperor, who exclaimed,—“ Forsooth, the
Lu
L U T II E R.
728
Luther, monk speaks with intrepidity, and with a confident spirit.”
The chancellor of the empire said,—“ The emperor and
the state will see what steps to take against an obstinate
heretic.” All his friends trembled at this undisguised de¬
claration. Luther repeated, “ So help me God! I can
retract nothing.” Upon this he was dismissed, then re¬
called, and again asked whether he would retract a part of
what he had written. “ I have no other answer to make,”
was his reply. The Italians and Spaniards were amazed.
Luther was told the diet would come to a decision the next
day. When returning to his inn, he quieted the anxious
multitude with a few w'ords, who, seeing the Spaniards and
Italians of the emperor’s household follow him with impre¬
cations and threats, exclaimed loudly, in the apprehension
that he was about to be conducted to prison.
The elector and other princes now saw it was their duty
to protect such a man, and sent their ministers to assure
him of their support. The next day the emperor declared,
“ he could not allow that a single monk should disturb the
peace of the church, and he was resolved to let him de¬
part, under condition of creating no trouble; but to pro¬
ceed against his adherents as against heretics who are under
excommunication, and interdict them by all means in his
power; and he demanded of the estates of the empire to
conduct themselves as faithful Christians.” This address,
the suggestion of the Italian and Spanish party, created
great commotion. The most violent members of that
party demanded of the emperor that Luther should be
burnt, and his ashes thrown into the Rhine; and it is now
proved that, towards the end of his life, Charles reproached
himself bitterly for not having thus sacrificed his word for
the good of the church. But the great majority of the
German party, even Luther’s personal enemies, rejected
such a proposition with horror, as unworthy of the good
faith of Germans. Some said openly they had a child, mis¬
led by foreigners, for an emperor. The emperor decided
at last that three days should be given to Luther to re¬
consider what he had said. The theologians began to try
their skill upon him. “ Give up the Bible as the last ap¬
peal ; you allow all heresies have come from the Bible.”
Luther reproached them for their unbelief, and added:
“ The pope is not judge in the things that belong to the
Word of God ; every Christian man must see and under¬
stand himself how he is to live and to die.” Two more
days were granted, without producing any other result than
Luther’s declaration,—“ I am ready to renounce the safe
conduct, to deliver my life and body into the hands of the
emperor ; but the Word of God, never! I am also ready to
accept a council, but one which shall judge only after the
Scripture.” “ What remedy can you then name?” asked
the venerable archbishop of Treves. “ Only that indi¬
cated by Gamaliel,” replied Luther; “ if this counsel or
this work be of men, it will come to nought; but if it be of
God, ye cannot overthrow it, lest haply ye be found even
to fight against God” (Acts v. 38, 39).
5. At the Frederic the Wise knew well that Luther’s life was no
AVartburg, longer safe anywhere at this moment. Charles pronounced
March an edict of condemnation, couched in the severest terms.
Luther was placed under the ban of the empire. After
c ‘ twenty-one days his safe conduct would expire, and all
persons be forbidden to feed or to give him shelter, and
enjoined to deliver him to the emperor or to place him in
safe keeping till the imperial orders should arrive; all his
adherents were to be seized, and their goods confiscated;
his books burnt; and the authors of all other books and
prints obnoxious to the pope and the church were to be
taken and punished. Whoever should violate this edict
should incur the ban of the empire.
This Draconian edict had been passed by the majority;
the friends of Luther, foreseeing the issue, had left Worms
previously. Such was the condign punishment that befell
the Germans for having chosen as their emperor the most Luther,
powerful foreign prince of Europe, brought up among the
most bigoted of nations. Under these circumstances,
Frederic did what he could. In the forest of Thuringia,
not far from Eisenach, Luther (who was not in the secret)
was stopped by armed knights, set upon a horse, and con¬
ducted to the fortified castle above Eisenach—the Wart-
burg. Here the dress of a knight was ready for him. He
was desired to consider himself as a prisoner, and to let his
beard grow. None of his friends, even at Wittemberg,
knew what had become of him. He had disappeared ; the
majority believed he had been kidnapped by his powerful
enemies. Such was the indignation of the people at this
supposed treachery, that the princes opposed to the Refor¬
mation, and even the pope’s agents, began to be alarmed,
and took pains to convince the people that Luther had not
met with ill usage.
Luther remained ten months at the Wartburg; and it
was here that he began his greatest work, the translation
of the Bible from the original Hebrew and Greek text.
Although suffering much in health from the confinement,
which he modified latterly by excursions in the woods around
the castle, he soon began also to compose new works, and
obtained the necessary books through Melancthon, to whom
he in time made known that he was safe.
It is a most astonishing fact, highly characteristic both
of Luther and of the German nation, that, though for
nearly four years, the true doctrine of the gospel had been
preached through Germany, and the Romish rites and
ceremonies exhibited as abuses, that yet not one single
word or portion of these ceremonies had been changed.
Luther consciously believed, what may be called the latent
conviction of his countrymen, that inward truth will neces¬
sarily correct outward errors, and mould for itself fitting
forms of expression. “ The Spirit of God,” he often said,
“ must first have regenerated minds, imbued with true
gospel doctrine; then the new forms will result naturally
from that Spirit.” But it was clearly an unnatural and
highly dangerous state of things, that the outward acts of
worship should be utterly at variance with the belief of the
worshippers ; and Luther saw that if he would not take the
matter in hand, others were certain to do so; the people
themselves might proceed to precipitate acts. Luther felt
this, and so strongly, that he broke silence; and in Sep¬
tember published a declaration against monkish vows,
in the form of theses, addressed to the bishops and dea¬
cons of Wittemberg. The audacious attempt of the Car¬
dinal-Archbishop of Mayence, Albert of Brandenburg, to
renew at Halle the sale of indulgences, called forth Lu¬
ther’s philippic (1st November) Against the new Idol of
Halle.
This attack frightened even the court of the elector of
Saxony, who was at that time rather of opinion that Luther
could do nothing better than to cause himself to be for¬
gotten. “ I cannot allow him to attack my brother elector,
and to disturb the public peace.” Luther’s greatness of
soul had elevated the minds of the princes for the moment;
they had saved his life, but they wished now to live in peace,
such as they had before. Luther was indignant. “ Do they
think I suffered a defeat at Worms ? It was a brilliant vic¬
tory : so many against me, and not one to gainsay the truth.”
To Spalatin, the chaplain and adviser of the elector, he thus
writes: “ How, the elector will not allow me to write ! and I,
for my part, will not allow him to disallow my writing. I
will rather destroy you, and the prince, and every creature!
Having resisted the pope, should 1 not resist his agents?”
At the request of Melancthon, he laid aside the treatise he
had prepared, but wrote to the cardinal archbishop :—“ The
God who raised such a fire out of the spark kindled by
the words of a poor mendicant monk lives still; doubt it
not. He will resist a cardinal of Mayence, even though
L U T
Lather, supported by four emperors; for above all He lives to
lay low the high cedar, and humble the proud Pharaohs.
Put down the idol within a fortnight, or I shall attack you
publicly.”
The cardinal was frightened by the sternness of the man
of God, and had the meanness to play the hypocrite. He
thanked Luther by letter for his “ Christian and brotherly
reproof,” promising, “ with the help of God, to live hence¬
forth as a pious bishop and Christian prince.” Luther, how¬
ever, could not credit the sincerity of this declaration:—
“ This man, scarcely capable to rule over a small parish, will
stand in the way of salvation as long as he does not throw
off the mask of a cardinal and the pomp of a bishop.”
The fact was, the cardinal elector wanted money. He
had had to pay 26,000 ducats to Rome for his pallium, and
the half of that sum he had charged upon the venders of
indulgences in his ecclesiastical province; he himself having
to spend all his princely income on his court.
6. Appears During these nearly ten months of seclusion, Luther’s
ber^Map1"health suffcre<^ greatly, and subjected him to visions and
1522’. ^ hallucinations, in which he believed he saw the devil in
form. His absence from his congregation, his students,
and his friends and books at Wittemberg, weighed heavily
upon him. Still, he held out patiently till events occurred
which called upon the Reformer no longer to absent him¬
self. He reappeared, without previous notice, among his
friends at Wittemberg, whom he found in great commo¬
tion. Thirteen monks of Luther’s own convent had left
it on the ground of religious conviction, with the appro¬
bation of Melancthon, who also countenanced the general
demand for the abrogation of the mass. “ What we are
to celebrate,” said he, “ in the communion, is a sign of the
grace given us through Christ, but differing from symbols
invented by man by its inward power of rendering the heart
certain of the will of God.” This is the simplest and truest
form of Luther’s own view of the Lord’s Supper, when he
looked on it not scholastically. There is a reality in Christ’s
sacrifice for us; indeed, it is the reality of our destiny that
we remember it, as He has bidden His disciples to do: it has
therefore naturally an inward force, not an imaginary effect,
like looking on a cross and similar outward forms. What
calamities would the world have been spared if this view, in
its profound simplicity and depth, had not been dressed up in
formularies partaking of that very scholasticism which the
Reformation was to abolish! The prior of the convent dis¬
continued from that time low masses. It was high time,
indeed, that this central point of Christian worship should
be taken in hand by the Reformers; for at Zwickau, in
Saxony, an enthusiast, named Stork, arose, who pretended
to have a commission from the archangel Gabriel to reform
and govern the church and the world, and who was sup¬
ported in this by a fanatic named Thomas Munzer. When
they appeared at Wittemberg announcing their visions, even
Melancthon was startled, and especially hesitated as to the
question of paedo-baptism. Carlstadt, Luther’s disciple and
friend, advocated the most revolutionary changes. He
broke down the images, preached against learning and
study, and exhorted his hearers to go home and gain their
bread by digging the ground. Luther did not hesitate a
moment to condemn the whole movement as a delusion
for men who gloried in their own wisdom, which could only
cause a triumph to the enemies of reform. At an interview
which he had with Munzer and Horst, they said they could
prove to him that they had the Spirit; for they would tell him
what now passed in his mind. Luther challenged them to
the pi oof. ‘ You think in your own heart that we are ri<dit.”
Luther exclaimed,—“ Get thee behind me, Satan,” and dis¬
missed them. “ They were quite right,” he said to his friends
afterwards ; that thought crossed my mind as to some of
their assertions. A spirit evidently was in them, but what
could it be but the evil one ?” Here we see the difference
VOL. XIII.
HER. 729
between Luther and Melancthon. Luther was not startled Luther,
from his solid judgment as Melancthon had been by this
movement; and Melancthon, in after years, was a more
violent antagonist of anabaptism than Luther.
It was on the 3d of March 1522 that Luther left for
ever his asylum, and plunged into the midst of struggles very
different in their character from those which he had hitherto
so victoriously overcome. Before arriving at Wittemberg,
he wrote a remarkable letter to the elector:—“ You wish to
know what to do in the present troublesome circumstances.
Do nothing. As for myself, let the command of the em¬
peror be executed in town and country. Do not resist if
they come to seize and kill me; only let the doors remain
open for the preaching of the Word of God.” One of the
editors of Luther’s works observes on the margin,—“ This
is a marvellous writing of the third and last Elijah.” The
elector was touched by Luther’s magnanimity. “ I will take
up his defence at the diet; only let him explain his reasons
for having returned to Wittemberg, and say he did so with¬
out my orders.” Luther complied, adding,—“ I can bear
your highness’ disfavour. I have done my duty towards
those whom God has intrusted to me.” And, indeed, he
made it his first duty to preach almost daily the gospel of
peace to his flock. “No violence!” he exclaimed, “ against
the superstitious or unbelieving. Let him who believes
draw near, and let him who does not believe stand
aloof. Nobody is to be constrained; liberty is essential
to faith and all that belongs to it.... You have acted in
faith, he said, “ but do not forget charity, and the wis¬
dom which mothers show in the care of their children. Let
the reform of the mass be undertaken with earnest prayer.
The power of the word is irresistible : the idols of Athens fell
not by force, but before the mighty words of the apostle.”
This evangelical meekness of the man who had braved pope
and emperor, and knew not fear, acted with divine power
upon all minds. I he agitation and sedition disappeared.
I he pretended prophets dispersed, or were silenced in public
debate.
On the 21st September 1522 the translation of the New
Testament appeared in 2 volumes folio, which sold at
about a ducat and a half. The translation of the Old Tes¬
tament was commenced in the same year. Thousands of
copies were read with indescribable delight by the people;
who had now access to the words of Him whom Luther had
preached to them as the author of our salvation, in their
mother tongue, in a purity and clearness unknown before,
and never surpassed since. By choosing the Franconian
dialect in use in the imperial chancery, Luther made
himself intelligible both to those whose vernacular dialect
was High German or Low German. Luther translated faith¬
fully but vernacularly, with a native grace which up to this
day makes his Bible the standard of the German lan¬
guage. It is Luther’s genius applied to the Bible which
has preserved the only unity which is, in our days, re¬
maining to the German nation,—that of language, literature,
and thought. There is no similar instance in the known
history of the world of a single man achieving such a work.
His prophetic mind foresaw that the Scripture would per¬
vade the living languages and tongues all over the
earth—a process going on still with more activity than
ever.
Meanwhile the vanity and presumption of Henry VIII.
induced him to publish a book against Luther, in which he
heaped upon Luther every opprobrious epithet; even called
in question his honesty and sincerity, and declared him
worthy to be burned. His Defence of the Seven Sacra¬
ments merely recapitulates the old scholastic tradition with¬
out the slightest understanding of the Bible or of the
evangelical doctrine. Henry’s ambassador declared to the
pope, in presenting the book, that the king was now ready
to use the sword against Luther’s adherents, after having
4 z
730
LUTHER.
Luther, refuted the errors of Luther himself. Luther, after having
read the book, declared, contrary to the desire of the elector
and of his other friends, that he must answer it. “ Look,”
he writes, “ what w eapons are used against me: fire and
the fury of those stupid Thomists. Let them burn me:
alive I shall be the enemy of popery; burnt I shall be its
ruin. Everywhere they will find me in their way, like
a bear or a lion.” In the answer itself he pays the king
in his own coin. After having taken the crown from his
head and beaten him like any other controversial writer, he
exclaims,—“ I cry gospel, gospel! Christ, Christ! and they
cease not to answer,—Usages, usages! ordinances, ordi¬
nances ! fathers, fathers! The apostle St Paul annihi¬
lates with a thunderstorm from heaven all these fooleries
of Henry.” The king wrote to the elector and the dukes
of Saxony, exhorting them to extirpate this heresy, as being
the revival of that of WyclifFe. Their answer referred
Henry to the future council. The cause of the Reformation
suffered nothing from Henry’s attacks and the invectives
of his courtiers. The movement against the sacerdotal and
monkish vows extended through the whole of Germany—
affecting equally priests and laymen. Zealous preachers
of the gospel rose from all ranks. Noble and pious w omen
came forward to declare their faith. Luther’s activity was
unparalleled. In 1522 he published 130 treatises, and 83
in the following year.
The whole national literature of Germany became Pro¬
testant ; and it is certainly a remarkable fact, that, in spite
of the Reformation having since lost almost one-half of Ger¬
many, its literature, as well as its historical learning and phi¬
lology, still remains Protestant. All the free cities, which
were the cradle of the fine arts as well as of the wealth of
the country, declared in favour of the Reformation. In
Saxony there was, as Luther had proposed and demanded,
perfect liberty of conscience: the Romish bishops had their
preachers as well as the Reformers.
Luther’s heart expanded in the consciousness of the Re¬
formers’ success such as he had never hoped to see. But he
shrunk from the idea that this work should be regarded as
his, and that he should have the honour of it. “ My true
disciples,” he said, “ do not believe in Luther, but in Jesus
Christ; I myself care nothing about Luther. What is it
to me whether he be a saint or a miscreant ? It is not
him I preach, but Christ. If the devil can, let him have
Christ; but if Christ remains ours, we also shall subsist.”
When Leo X. died in this year (1522), Adrian, the Fle¬
mish tutor of Charles V., his successor, a single-minded pro¬
fessor, could not (as Jarus tells us) at first conceive how
people could find a difficulty in the matter of indulgences,
which he had explained so well in his lectures, till a cardinal
remarked to him, that the unbelieving people had no faith in
indulgences whatsoever, and that some of those who believed
in Christ, thought that exactly for that reason they did not
want them. “ The church must reform,” said he, “ but step
by step.” “ Yes,” said Luther, “ putting some centuries
between every step.” Nobody wanted his reforms less than
the Romans ; and Adrian exclaimed at last,—“ How unfor¬
tunate is the position of the popes, who are not even free
to do good.”
T. Luther November 1522 the diet assembled at Nuremberg
and the dieton account of an impending war with the Turks. While
at Nurem- the nuncio and the bishops demanded Luther’s death, the
1522* ^°V* c^urc^es ^le imperial free city resounded with the doc¬
trine of the gospel; monks being amongst the most zealous
preachers. What a change from the state of things at
Worms in April 1521! The municipal council of the free
city declared that if those preachers were to be seized by
force, they would instantly set them free by force. The
legate was obliged to abandon his plan of arresting them in
t e P°pe s name, as the diet declared itself incompetent to do
so. Adrian s sincere avowal of the horrible abuses of Rome
confirmed the people in the belief that’Luther and the gos- Luther,
pel were right, and made his threatening brief addressed to ^ . -mij
the elector, whom he declared worthy of death and eternal
damnation, appear as ridiculous as it was arrogant. Luther
and all his friends, whose advice the elector asked at this cri¬
tical moment, declared that he ought not to fight for the gos¬
pel, seeing that the people, without whose consent he could
not declare war, would not in the spirit of faith declare for
such a measure. But other princes were frightened, because
they had no faith whatever, except in superior strength and
power of pope and emperor. “ Let them take care,” said
Luther, “if they persecute the gospel, there will be a rebel¬
lion and civil war, and the princes will be in danger of losing
their dominions. They wish to destroy me, but I wish to save
them. Christ lives and reigns ; and I shall live and reign
with Him.” Indeed, a bloody persecution began in many
parts of Germany and in the Netherlands. Four Augus-
tinian monks of Antwerp were the first martyrs ; they were
burnt on the 1st July 1523. Their blood called forth a
rich harvest of new witnesses in Brussels and elsewhere.
When the successor of Adrian VI., Clement VII. (Ju¬
lius de Medici), sent in 1524 the celebrated legate Cam-
peggi to Nuremberg, he intended, according to usage, on
passing through Augsburg, to give the people the papal bene¬
diction ; but finding that the ceremony called forth public
derision, the legate entered Nuremberg as much incog¬
nito as Luther had entered Worms two years before. The
German princes asked what had become of the 101
grievances of the German nation, to which Rome never
had deigned to return an answer. Campeggi declared the
document to have been considered at Rome merely as a
private pamphlet; on which the diet, in great indignation,
insisted upon the necessity of an universal council, and pro¬
ceeded to annul the edict of Worms; declaring, however,
in their communication to the pope, that “ it should be con¬
formed to as much as possible ; ” which, with respect to
many princes and cities, meant not at all. Finally, it was
resolved that a diet, to be held at Spires in November, was
to decide on religious differences. Many states which had
hitherto kept aloof,—the landgrave of Brandenburg (not the
elector, a strong papist) at the head,—declared immediately
for the reform, and against the seven sacraments, the abuses
of the mass, the worship of saints and supremacy of the pope.
“ That is a good move,” said Luther. “ Frederic must lose
his electoral hat,” cried the Roman agent, “ and France and
England must interfere.” A catholic league was formed, by Cath(>i
Bavarian and other bishops, at Ratisbon under Campeggi’s lie league,
direction and presidency. But the princes were still afraid
of the universally spreading national movement. Charles
threw his power into the balance, and declared that not
the German natioh, but the emperor alone, had a right to
demand a council, and the pope alone had the right to grant
it. His designated successor, his brother Ferdinand, began
the bloody work of persecution in the hereditary states of
Austria immediately after the congress of the league at
Ratisbon. At Passau in Bavaria, and at Buda in Flun-
gary, the faggots were lighted. The dukes of Bavaria
followed the same impulse.
Meanwhile, began at Wittemberg the unhappy dispute
about the mode in which the consecration affected the ele¬
ments in the celebration of the communion enjoined by
Christ. Luther as yet had not taken up that doctrinal
scholastic opinion, which afterwards produced the fatal
schism. In opposing Carlstadt’s view, he combated not so
much the later Swiss exposition as Carlstadt’s false inter¬
pretation of the words, “This is my body,” which was,
that Christ, in pronouncing them, had pointed to his own
body, which soon would die. He admitted soon afterwards,
in reference to that exposition, in 1520, that he was very
near thinking the Swiss interpretation the reasonable view of
the case, but that he had rejected the notion as a “ tempta-
LUTHER.
731
Luther, tion,” the words of the text seeming to him not to allow of
that interpretation.
8. Luther But in the same manner as this dispute was a prelude
the practi- to the fatal sacramental disputes with Zwingle and Calvin,
cal refer- Luther’s defeat in the attempt to detach the congre-
mer- gation of a small town (Orlamunde, near Jena) from Carl-
stadt, who introduced iconoclastic and violent proceed¬
ings, proved an index of the critical state of public feeling.
Luther felt the urgent necessity of applying the principles
of the gospel to Christian worship and to the constitutions
of the church. But, on the first point, he wished changes
to be introduced gradually, and rather as a purification of
the existing forms, than by an abrogation. While as to
the second, he felt that it was not his immediate vocation,
and he thought he must leave the work to the princes, and
content himself with preaching to them the leading evan¬
gelical principles. This, of course, was not the view of
the real friends of the Reformation, nor was it consistent
with Luther’s usual profound sagacity, but must be regarded
as a remnant of the effect produced by his monkish scholas¬
tic education brought into accordance with Christianity.
His more practical, and perhaps impatient friends wanted to
see the pagan condition of the world, with its social relations,
changed into a Christian state of things, as an earnest and
pledge of the reality of the gospel preaching. Still, for some
time longer, Luther and the popular feeling marched peace¬
ably together, and he remained the national as well as the
theological leader. It was at this time that he directed a
powerful address to the municipal councils of the German
towns, in order to exhort them to establish everywhere
Christian schools, as well elementary as learned. “ Oh,
my dear Germans (he exclaims), the divine word is now in
abundance offered to you: God knocks at your door; open
it to him ! Forget not the poor youth. Look how the an¬
cient Jewish, Greek, and Roman world lost the Word of
God, and perished. The strength of a town does not con¬
sist in its towers and buildings, but in counting a great num¬
ber of learned, serious, honest, well-educated citizens. Do
not fancy Hebrew and Greek to be unnecessary. These
languages are the sheath which cover the sword of the
Spirit. The ignorance of the original Scriptures was an
impediment to the progress of the Waldenses, whose doc¬
trine is perfectly pure. How could I have combated and
Jires im- overthrown pope and sophists, even having the true faith,
id1*6? if 1 Iiatl n0t Possessed tlie languages? You must found
1 *CMlon* libraries for learned books,—not only the fathers, but also
the pagan writers; the fine arts, law, history, medicine,
must be represented in such collections.” These expres¬
sions prove that from the very beginning and in the very
person of Luther, the Reformation was connected with
scholarship—with philology in its most extended sense, and
equally with the highest aspirations of the fine arts.
Here we must conclude this first glorious period of
Luther’s life, which, taken altogether, has no parallel since
the days of the apostle Paul. But the problem to be
solved was not to be solved by Luther and by Germany :
the progressive, vital element of reformation passed
from Germany to Switzerland, and through Switzerland
to France, Holland, England, and Scotland. Before he
descended into the grave and Germany into thraldom,
Luther saved (as much as was in him) his country and
the world, by maintaining the fundamental principles of
the Reformation against Melancthon’s pusillanimity: but
three Protestant princes and the free cities were the
leaders ; the confession was the work of Melancthon, but
the deed of the laity of the nation. The German Reforma¬
tion was made by a scholastically trained monk, seconded
by professors; the Swiss Reformation was the work of a
free citizen, an honest Christian, trained by the classics of
antiquity, and nursed in true, hard-won, civil liberty. That
was the providential saving ot the world. Luther’s work was
continued, preserved, advanced by the work of the Swiss and Luther.
French Reformers. The monk and the Semitic element
began; the citizens and the Japhetic element finished. If
the one destroyed Judaism, the other converted paganism,
then most powerful, both as idolatry and as irreligious
learning. But as long as Luther lived he did not lose
his supremacy, and he deserved to keep it. His mind was
universal, and therefore catholic in the proper sense of the
word.
Third Period ;—Luther’s Life from 1525 to 1546 ; or the
Period of Stagnation.
The first year after Luther’s return to Wittemberg was
a glorious period : the true halcyon days of the Reform and
of Luther’s personal history. In the second period of his
life, the epic was changed into tragedy; for the Anabaptist
tumult arose, and the war of the peasants broke out in the
Black Forest in July 1524.
The Anabaptist movement of Thomas Munzer was the 1. War of
movement of Carlstadt mixed up with wild enthusiasm, the pea-
ignorance, rebellion, and imposture. Luther’s doctrinal op- sants.
position to it was constant and consistent; but it would have
been more effectual if Luther had not involved himself as a
schoolman in an indissoluble difficulty. He was safe in de¬
fending paedo-baptism; but that could be done without
ascribing to it the power of individual regeneration: an
opinion from which the greatest part of Christendom has
most decisively declared its dissent all over the globe. He
was equally justified in maintaining the word of the gospel:
“ Whoever believes, and is baptized, shall be saved;” but he
ought not to have forgotten that this is a juxtaposition of
two things, of which the one can only be of value as a con¬
sequence of the first. This brings the question back to a
solemn profession and vow before the Christian congrega¬
tion of him who, having been instructed in Christ’s saving
faith, finds himself ready and compelled to make that solemn
promise, which St Peter calls (1st Peter iii., 21),—“ the
promise (or vow) of a good conscience.” Munzer and all
the other so-called apostles of the Spirit attacked Luther as
a mere worldly man who had sold himself to the princes.
They abolished chaunting and all ceremonies, and committed
acts of violence against churches and convents. Luther said
to Munzer,—“ The spirit who moves thee must be an evil
one, for it brings forth nothing but pillage of convents and
churches; the greatest robbers on the earth could do no
more.” While combating them by preaching and writing,
he advised, however, the elector to let them preach freely.
“ The Word of God itself must come forward and contend
with them. If their spirit is the true one, Munzer will fear
our constraint; if ours is the true one, he will not fear
their violence. Let the spirits meet with all might, and
fight each other. Perhaps some will be seduced; well, there
is no battle without wounds; but he that fights faithfully
will be crowned. But if they have recourse to the sword,
then defend your own subjects, and order the Anabaptists
to leave the country.”
It was indeed a wonderful faith that produced such tolera¬
tion in these times, and it had a wonderful result;—the
elector’s states remained undisturbed. Munzer fled into
Switzerland.
It was otherwise with the war of the peasants. We
have already observed that the Reformation did not
originate the rebellion of the peasants, but found it pre¬
pared. The first coalitions of the peasants against the
intolerable rapacity and cruelty of the feudal aristocracy
had begun before the close of the fifteenth century; then
they broke out along the Upper Rhine, in Alsace, and the
palatinate, in 1503; consequently 18 years before the be¬
ginning of Luther’s Reformation. No doubt Luther’s
preaching, in the spirit of the gospel, against all the re¬
volting injustice and oppression of the conscience of Chris-
732
LUTHER.
Luther.
Luther’s
address to
the lords.
tian men, had kept back that movement for a time; but
Munzer carried the spirit of rebellion and fanaticism among
the peasants and part of the citizens of the countries of
the Upper Rhine. The fact was, that all the oppressed
inclined towards Luther, and the oppressors, most of
whom were the sovereigns, bishops, and abbots, towards
the pope. The struggle which now began was there¬
fore between the reforming and the papist party, and
it was easily to be foreseen that Luther would soon be
dragged into it. Indeed, the revolutionary movement was
already, in January 1525, extending from the Black Forest
to Thuringia and Saxony, the very heart of Luther’s sphere
of action. The peasants had proclaimed twelve articles,
of half biblical half political character. In the introduction
to these articles they protest against the imputation of want¬
ing anything but the gospel applied to the social body.
They declare their desire to uphold its injunctions—peace,
patience, and union. There is no doubt that many of them
were sincere in their professions. At all events, neither
the gospel nor its true preachers and followers were the re¬
volutionists, but the wild, selfish, passionate enthusiasts
among them and their leaders. Like the Puritans in the
following century, the peasants say they raise their voice
to God who saved the people of Israel; and they believe
that God can save them as well from their powerful oppres¬
sors as he did the Israelites from the hand of Pharaoh.
As to what they demanded in their twelve articles, all
impartial historians declare that on the whole their demands
were just; and all of them are now the law of Germany. As
to the influence of the Reformat ion, the very words of Scrip¬
ture brought forward this time by the peasants, prove clearly
that Luther’s preaching of the gospel and of truth had not
acted upon the movement as an incentive but as a cor¬
rective. It was Luther himself who now, in the critical
moment, brought the Word of God to speak out against the
insurrection, as being in itself an act of unchristian self-de¬
fence, although he acknowledged their case to be very
hard, and their cause, on the whole, a just one. Luther’s
position was grand; he spoke as the arbiter between lord
and peasant; in the name of Christ exhorting both parties
to peace, and as a good citizen and patriot giving them ad¬
vice equally practical and Christian. lie first speaks thus
in substance to the lords:—“ I might now make common
cause with the peasants against you, who impute this insurrec¬
tion to the gospel and to my teaching ; whereas I have never
ceased to enjoin obedience to authority, even to one so
tyrannical and intolerable as yours. But I will not envenom
the wound; therefore, my lords, whether friendly or hostile
to me, do not despise either the advice of a poor man, or
this sedition ; not that you ought to fear the insurgents, but
fear God the Lord, who is incensed against you. He may
punish you and turn every stone into a peasant, and then
neither your cuirasses nor your strength would save you.
Put then bounds to your exactions—pause in your hard
tyranny—consider them as intoxicated—and treat them
with kindness, that God may not kindle a fire throughout
Germany, which none will be able to extinguish. What
you may perhaps lose will be made good to you a hundred¬
fold by peace. Some of the twelve articles of the peasants
are so equitable that they dishonour you before God and the
world; they cover the princes with shame, as the 109th
Psalm says. I should have yet graver things to tell you
respecting the government of Germany, and I have ad¬
dressed you in this cause in my book to the German nobility.
But you have considered my words as wind, and therefore
all these demands come now upon you. You must not
refuse their demand as to choosing pastors who preach
to them the gospel; the government has only to see that
insurrection and rebellion be not preached; but there must be
perfect liberty to preach the true gospel as well as the false.
The remaining articles, which regard the social state of
the peasant, are equally just Government is not established Luther,
for its own interest, nor to make the people subservient to
caprice and evil passions, but for the interest of the people.
Your exactions are intolerable; you take away from the
peasant the fruit of his labour, in order to spend his money
upon your finery and luxury. So much for you.”
“ Now, as regards you, my dear friends, the peasants. Luther’s
You want the free preaching of the gospel to be secured to address to
you. God will assist your just cause if you follow up your the Re¬
work with conscience and justice. In that case you are sant8,
sure to triumph in the end. Those of you who may
fall in the struggle will be saved. But if you act otherwise
you are lost, soul and body, even if you have success, and
defeat the princes and lords. Do not believe the false pro¬
phets who have come among you, even if they invoke the
holy name of the gospel. They will call me a hypocrite,
but I do not mind that. I wish to save the pious and
honest men among you. I fear God and none else.
Do you fear Him also, and use not His name in vain,
that He may not punish you. Does not the Word of God
say : ‘ He who takes up the sword, shall perish by the sword:’
and ‘ Let every soul be subject to the higher powers.’ You
must not take justice into your own hands; that is also the
prescription of the natural law. Do you not see that you
put yourself in the wrong by rebellion ? The government
takes away part of what is yours, but you take away all in
destroying principle. Fix your eye on Christ at Gethse-
mane rebuking St Peter for using the sword although in the
defence of his master; and on Christ on the cross praying
for his persecutors. And has not his kingdom triumphed ?
Why have pope and emperor not been able to put me
down? Why has the gospel spread the more the greater the
effort they made to hinder and destroy it ? Because I have
never had recourse to force, but preached obedience even
towards those who persecuted me, depending exclusively
on God. But whatever you do, do not try to cover your
enterprise by the cloak of the gospel and the name of Christ.
If war there must be, it will be a war of pagans, for Chris¬
tians use other weapons: their general suffered the cross,
and their triumph is humility: that is their chivalry. Pray,
my dear friends, stop and consider before you proceed fur¬
ther. Your quotations from the Bible do not prove your
case.”
After having thus spoken out boldy and fearlessly to
each party, Luther concludes with a touching expostulation
to both. The substance of his address is in these words :—
“ You see you are both in the wrong, and are drawing
the divine punishments upon you and upon your common
country, Germany. My advice would be that arbitrators
should be chosen, some from the nobility, and some from
the towns. You both have to give up something: let the
matter be settled equitably by human law.”
This certainly was the voice of the true prophet of the
age, if ever there was any. It was not heard. The lords
showed little disposition towards concessions, and what they
did offer came too late, when the bloody struggle had
already begun. The peasants, excited by Munzer, ex¬
ceeded, on their side, all bounds, and Luther felt himself
obliged, when the stream of rebellion and destruction rolled
on to Thuringia and Saxony, to speak out most strongly
against them. The princes leagued together (for the em¬
pire, of course, did nothing, Charles having full employment
in Spain), and the peasants were routed everywhere. Fifty
thousand of their party were slain or butchered by whole¬
sale executions. Among this number there were many of
the quietest and most moderate people made victims in the
general slaughter, because they were known or suspected
to be friends of the Reformation and of Luther, which, in¬
deed all the citizens and peasants of Germany were at that
time.
None felt more deeply this misery, and what it involved
LUTHER.
733
Lather.
2. General
dismay :
Luther’s
struggles,
1525.
| ffis mar-
I riage.
ill its effects on the cause of the gospel in Germany; and he
never recovered the shock. He thus unburdens his soul
at the close of this fatal year, which crushed for centuries
the rights and hopes of the peasants and labourers, and
weakened the towns and cities, the seats of all that was best
in the national life:—“The spirit of these tyrants is powerless
—cowardly—estranged from every honest thought. They
deserve to be the slaves of the people. But by the grace
of Christ I am sufficiently revenged by the contempt I have
for them, and for Satan their god. And in the next year
he said, “ I fear Germany is lost; it cannot be otherwise,
for they will employ nothing but the sword.”
In all this Luther stands higher than ever, but as a suf¬
ferer. He sees the work in Germany is lost for this time.
He submits, and is supported by his faith. So he is con¬
soled when he sees how Ferdinand of Austria and the Duke
of Bavaria imprison and slaughter Christians on account of
the gospel, and that not only the pope and the emperor are
leagued together against the Reformation, but also the king
of France, besides the king of England. All the powers of
the world are against him: Germany is doomed to perish, but
the word and the work of God cannot perish. Even the
sad results of a general visitation of the churches which he
undertook throughout the states of the elector did not shake
his faith. He sees how ignorant and savage all these wars
and revolts have rendered even the Protestant congrega¬
tions ; but he says the spirit of God will not forsake them.
The elector Frederic, Luther’s timid but honest supporter,
had descended into the tomb on the 5th May 1525, con¬
fessing on his deathbed his firm belief in Christ as his only
saviour. His successor, John, known by the well-deserved
name, John the Constant, followed in his footsteps, and was
a firm friend to Luther.
But the Romish league also gained friends in the north of
Germany. Duke George of Saxony had, in July of this
year, concluded at Dessau an alliance against the Reforma¬
tion with Albert of Brandenburg, archbishop of Mainz and
Magdeburg, and with the dukes of Brunswick, and proved
himself in earnest by causing two citizens of Leipzig to be
beheaded for having the writings of Luther in their houses.
At the same time, Charles declared from Spain his intention
to hold a diet at Augsburg, evidently in order to crush the
Reformation by means of the Catholic league acting in the
name of the empire. His victory at Pavia made him more
than ever the master of Germany. Finally, the remains of
the party of Munzer declared they would take the life of
Luther as a traitor.
It was under such auspices that Luther decided at last to
take a wife, as he had long advised his friends among the
priests and monks to do. They had often reminded him of his
profession, and of the duty of himself setting an example to
prove his sincerity. His father himself urged him continually
to marry. All around him was now in a stationary, if not a re¬
trograde state. The university of Wittemberg had suffered
much during the late troubles, and it was generally believed
that the new elector did not mean to support it. Luther’s
warm and loving heart opened the more readily to the con¬
templation of matrimonial union with Catherina von Bora, a
lady 24 years of age, of a noble Saxon family, in 1523, who
had left her convent, together with eight other sisters, in
order to worship Christ without the oppression of endless ce¬
remonies, which gave neither light to the mind nor peace to
the soul. Since that time they had lived together in utter re¬
tirement, forming a free Christian community. Pious citizens
at Torgau were their protectors, and by them they were pre¬
sented to Luther in the convent of the Augustinians. Soon
followed, as we have seen, the great regenerative movement
of the Christian worship ; and Luther appeared, on the 9th
October 1524, before the congregation in the simple habit of
a secular priest. Luther soon remained alone in the convent;
all the monks had left it. At the end of the year he sent
the key to the elector, who, however, desired him to con- Luther,
tinue to inhabit it. In the meantime, Luther had observed
and witnessed the Christian faith and life of Catherina von
Bora, and on the 11th of June he married her, in the pre¬
sence of Lucas Cranach, the celebrated painter, and of
another friend, as witnesses. Catherina von Bora had no
dowry, and Luther lived on his appointment as professor;
he would never take money for any of his books, but only
some copies for presents. His marriage was a happy one,
and was blessed with six children. Luther was a tender
husband and the most loving of fathers.
The princes who were friendly to the Reformation gra- 3, pr
dually gained more courage; the Elector John of Saxony es- of pn
tablished the principle in his states that all rites should be cal lt(
abrogated which were contrary to the Scriptures, and that matl0u-
the masses for the dead be abolished at once. The young
Landgrave Philippe of Hesse gained over the son of the
furious Duke George to the cause of the Reformation.
Albert, Duke of Prussia, had established it at Konigsberg, as
hereditary duke, abolishing the vows of the Order, whose
master he had been, saying:—“ There is only one Order, and
that is Christendom.” At the request of the pope, Charles
placed Albert under interdict as an apostate monk. The Alliance to
evangelical princes found in all these circumstances a still support the
stronger motive to act at Augsburg as allies in the cause Reforma-
of the evangelical party ; and when the diet opened in De- tl0D, 1526-
cember 1525, they spoke out boldly:—“ It is violence which
brought on the war of the peasants. If you will by violence
tear the truth of God out of the hearts of those who believe,
you will draw greater dangers and evils upon you.” The
Romanist party was startled. “ The cause of the holy faith”
was adjourned to the next diet at Spires. The landgrave
and the elector made a formal alliance in February 1526, at
Torgau.
Luther being consulted as to his opinion, felt helpless.
“ You have no faith ; you put not your trust in God ; leave
all to Him.” The landgrave, the real head of the evangeli¬
cal alliance, perceived that Luther’s advice was not practical
—that Luther forsook the duty of self-defence and the ob¬
ligation to do one’s duty according to the dictates of reason,
in religious matters as well as in other political questions.
But the alliance found no new friends. Germany showed
all her misery by the meanness of her princes and the absence
of any great national body to oppose the league formed by the
pope, the emperor, and the Romanists, throughout Europe.
The archbishop of Treves preferred a pension from Charles
to the defence of the national cause. The evangelically-dis¬
posed palatine desired to avoid getting into trouble on that
account. The imperial city of Frankfort, thus surrounded by
open enemies and timid friends, declined to accede to the
alliance. There was more national feeling and courage in
the Anglo-Saxon north of Germany. The princes of Bruns¬
wick, Luxemburg, Mecklenburg, Anhalt, and Mansfeld,
assembled at Magdeburg, and made a solemn and heroic
declaration of their resolution to pledge their estates, lives,
states, and subjects, for the maintenance of the holy Word
of God, relying on Almighty God, as whose instru¬
ments they would act.” The town of Magdeburg (which
then had about three times as many inhabitants as now) and
Duke Albert of Prussia adhered to the alliance. The league
doubled its efforts. Charles, strong and rendered safe by
the peace of Madrid concluded with Francis, sent word from
Seville in March 1526, through the Romish Duke Henry
of Brunswick, that he would soon come himself to crush the
heresy. Luther saw the dangers crowding around him : his
advice was,—“ We are threatened with war; let us force
our enemies to keep the peace, conquered by the Spirit of
God, before whose throne we must now combat with the
arms of prayer; that is the first work to be done.”
Towards the end of 1525, Luther had resolved to answer a
book which had been written against him in the previous au-
734 L U T
Luther, tumn by Erasmus, under the catching title “ On Free Will?
Erasmus was in his heart rather a sceptic : he would in his
4. Erasmus earlier days have professed openly the cause of the gospel,
against and defended it with his superior erudition and knowledge,
Luther. believed in its success ; but neither the Swiss nor the
German Reformation gave him that certainty, and thus, at
last, he gave way to King Henry and others, who urged him
to attack Luther. No controversy has been less generally
understood than this ; but it may also be said that it might
have been carried on not only with less malice by Erasmus,
but also with more speculative skill by Luther. The
antagonism is essentially the same as that of Augustine and
Pelagius, or that between the Jansenists and Jesuits: a
better speculative method and a deeper philosophy of the
mind have since shown how the scholastic method never
could solve that most important as well as most difficult
problem. We have no hesitation in saying that the result
of dialectic metaphysics is no other than that Luther was
perfectly right and Erasmus totally wrong, in this dispute;
but it was hopeless from the beginning. Erasmus defined
free will as the faculty of man to decide for himself, be it for
good or evil. Consequently, to deny his thesis in this sense
would have been to deny the moral responsibility of man.
But Luther’s ideas respecting moral free will were as disso¬
nant from this terminology as St Paul’s reasoning on faith,
from the use of that word in the sense in which St James em¬
ploys or rather attacks it. In regard to Luther’s terms and
fundamental ideas, we have touched upon them in speaking
of the influence of Tauler and of the Theologia Germanica
upon his mind, when he was disturbed by what appeared to
him the dreadful consequences of the doctrine of grace
and election. That theology of the German school of the
fourteenth century rested upon a simpler, because deeper
basis than that of Augustine, and, more lately, of Calvin and.
Pascal. There is in man, as a creature, the power of self-
will ; this is not only evil as such, but the root of all evil,
and sin. The power of deciding whether or not to commit
an action is therefore nothing but the power of measuring
and contrasting selfish principles, neither of which being
good, can produce good actions. There is no power against
this selfishness of the creature but the divine principle. This,
the old German school maintained, is equally an inherent
element in man,—not as a creature, but as God’s image,—
and the instrument of the infinite, divine Spirit, which is
essentially goodness, and love of what is good and true as
such, apart from any reference to ourselves. To follow
up this view successfully, it is evidently necessary not to
establish an absolute separation between the divine prin¬
ciple in itself (in God, the infinite) and in man ; and this
was not clearly understood by Augustine (whose influence
upon Luther was paramount, in consequence of his earliest
impressions), and still less skilfully used by Luther. The
absurdities to which, as each of the combatants proved of
his opponent, the consistent following up of an antago¬
nistic principle conducts, are shown by Kant to be the
necessary organic consequence of our reasoning with finite
notions upon the infinite ; his antinomies of free will and
necessity are those of Erasmus and Luther, divested of theo¬
logical and dogmatic terms. But the same philosophy (and
Kant himself, in his Moral Philosophy, and his Philosophy
of Religion), shows that Christianity and the analysis of con¬
science and moral consciousness of ourselves teach equally
what Luther maintained against Erasmus. The rationalism
of Erasmus and of the Jesuits is condemned by this philo-
sophy ; and whatever may be thought of the philosophical
demonstration (which we think capable of great simplifica¬
tion), St John and St Paul are certainly irreconcilable with it.
“ Erasmus ignores God,” said Luther, “ and that word is
Luther’s more powerful than any scholastic argument.” Erasmus
reply. felt himself crushed by Luther’s strong hits, against which
his eloquence availed him nothing. “ The victory must re-
H E R.
main,” Luther said, “ with stammering truth, not with lying Luther,
eloquence and he concluded thus : “ Who ever possessed
so much science and eloquence, and such art in speaking
and in writing ? I have nothing of all this ; but I glory
in one thing—I am a Christian. May God raise you in
the knowledge of the gospel infinitely above me, so that you
may surpass me as much in this respect as you do already in
all others.” Erasmus henceforth lost all measure and phi¬
losophical equanimity, never having sought truth for its own
sake.
The diet of Spires, which was to put an end to 5. The first
Luther’s Reformation, opened on June 25, 1526. Fer- die.t at
dinand indeed republished, on the 3d of August, the de- sPires’
cree of Seville, enjoining strict execution of the edict of
Worms; but, in the meantime, Clement the VII. having Luther’*
quarrelled with Charles, and Ferdinand being called to doings
Hungary in order to maintain against Soliman and other from 1526
competitors the crowns of Hungary and Bohemia, left to himto 1529-
by King Louis after the battle of Mohacz, Charles com¬
missioned the famous Captain Frundsberg (the same who
had good-naturedly accosted Luther at Worms, and who
was devoted to the evangelical cause) to enlist an army in
Germany against the pope, and thousands hastened to join
his ranks in consequence. And thus the Reformation was
saved this time, and a proposition presented by the cities
was accepted, “ that until a council met, every governor
should, within his own states, act according to his con¬
science.” Within a year, if not a universal, at least a na¬
tional council was to meet. In consequence, the Refor¬
mation had time to consolidate itself from 1526 to 1529.
The man of Germany at that time among the princes
was the Landgrave Philip of Hesse, and he was enlight¬
ened by a citizen. James Sturm, the deputy of Stras-
burg at the diet of Spire, had convinced him that the basis
of the true evangelical church was the acknowledgment
of the self-government of the church by synods com¬
posed of representatives of the whole Christian people.
Thus the first Protestant constitution—that agreed upon in
Hesse—was essentially that which has proved since to be the
most universal and the most powerful. For that constitu¬
tion is neither Lutheran nor Anglican, but synodal Christi¬
anity, which has converted and is now converting and con¬
quering the world. The constitution acknowledged the epis¬
copal element, but not episcopal rule,—sovereignty being
invested in the people of God. We admit (say the articles)
no word but that of our sovereign pastor. Bishops and
deacons are to be elected by the Christian people;
bishops are to be consecrated by the imposition of hands
of three bishops; and deacons may be instituted by im¬
position of the hands of the elders. The general synod
is to be held annually, consisting of the pastor of each parish
and of pious men elected from the midst of each church, or
rather congregation, or from single churches. Three men
are to be elected yearly to exercise the right of visitation.
This was soon found to be an inconvenient form ; six super¬
intendents (episcopi) for life were substituted. This board
of superintendents became afterwards an oligarchy, and at
last a mere instrument of the state—the consequence of the
disruption of Germany and the paralysis of all national insti¬
tutions. Luther had professed already, in 1523 and in 1524,
principles entirely identical with those established in 1826 in
Hesse. But there his action ceased ; he left to the princes
what they had no mind to carry out; and what could a people
do cut up into 400 sovereignties ? Never, however, did
Luther acknowledge Cesaropapism or Erastianism, as a prin¬
ciple and as a right. He considered the rights of the Chris¬
tian people as a sacred trust, provisionally deposited in the
hands of their representatives. “ Where (he asked) are the
people to form the synods ? I cannot find them.” This
was a political calamity or mistake, but it was not a treason
to the rights of the Christian people. Still more did Luther
LUTHER.
Luther, abhor the rapacity of the nobility and of the courtiers to evangelical princes, who had passed, as was the constitutional
possess themselves of the spoils of the church. It was custom, into an adjoining apartment in order to deliberate.
Melancthon s infhience which facilitated the despotic system, l he princes then drew up their declaration, and caused it
and hampered the thorough reform of the forms of wor- to be read to the diet, which had remained sitting when Fer-
ship. Luther withdrew fiom a sphere which was not his. dinand rose with the imperial commissioners.
He composed, in 1529, the small and great Catechisms, of The celebrated Protest of the 15th April 1529, is one
which the former has maintained its place as a guide of of the finest and noblest documents of Christian history,
popular doctrine up to this day; but when measures of displaying an apostolic faith in Christ and Scripture, and a
persecution were proposed, he raised his voice against them, dignified adherence to national law as far as constitutional
He wrote, in lo28, False Teachers are not to he put to liberties are concerned. The protesting princes and cities
Death ; it suffices to Remove them. While Luther preached claim as their right, as Germans, what they consider a
this doctrine, the most bloody persecution went on in sacred duty as Christians,—freely to preach the Word of God
the estates of the elector of Brandenburg (where the and the message of salvation, that all who will hear it may
electress professed courageously the principles of the gos- join the community of the believers. This great act was,
pel), in Bavaria, and, above all, in the hereditary states of besides, an earnest of true evangelical union; for it was
Austria. In February 1528 the impetuous landgrave was on well known that most of the cities inclined more towards
the point of committing a rash act, in consequence of a forged Zwingle’s than towards Luther’s view of the sacrament,
document which had been shown to him, purporting to be And this union was not a negative but a positive one ; it
a secret convention to assassinate Luther and Melancthon, was founded on the faith, energetically and sincerely pro-
and crush the evangelical princes. Philip infected the fessed by CEcolampadius, as the organ of the Swiss Reformed
elector with his apprehensions, and violent measures of per- churches, that, “ with the visible symbols invisible grace is
secution were to be resorted to, when Luther and Melanc- given and received.”
thon both gave, as their solemn advice, this verdict,—“ The If one considers this great act impartially, it is impos-
attackmust not come from our side, and the guilt of blood- sible not to see that neither Luther nor Melancthon were
shedding must not come upon us. Let the emperor know of the real leaders of the time. Already in 1526, Luther had
this odious conspiracy.” The elector, however, assembled so little real comprehension of what ought to be done, or
his troops; but the forgery was soon discovered when the was now doing in Germany, to preserve the gospel from
document was communicated to the Romanist princes, destruction, that he wrote to a friend on the very same day
The attitude taken by the Protestant princes had, how- that the decree of that first diet at Spires was published
ever, the effect of making the archbishop of Mainz re- “ The diet is going on in the German way,—they drink and
nounce, in 1528, the spiritual jurisdiction he had hitherto they gamble ; for the rest, nothing is done there.” He shows
exercised over Saxony and Hesse. But among the public no sympathy for the first attempt made in Hesse at self-
at large, all believed in the existence of a secret plot against government of the church; still less did he see the im-
the evangelical party. portance of the great act now achieved at Spires by the
6. The se- Under these auspices was opened the celebrated diet of combined courage and Christian common sense of some
eond diet Spires in 1529. The emperor, who, in the meantime, few princes, and all cities which could act freely. It was
of Spires, ^aci taken Rome, and annihilated the ambitious plans evident that Charles was how, after the peace of Cambray,
of Clement VIL, now took again to his natural part, perfect master of Germany; so far, at least, as to make it
German credulity and good nature had served his turn, impossible that Germany should become a Protestant nation,
Now that he felt himself master of the field, he spoke as a and that the protesting princes and cities had seen the neces-
Spanish despot; the elector and landgrave were forbid- sity of strengthening that alliance of which they had just laid
den to celebrate divine worship in their hotels, as they had the foundation. Luther dissuaded the elector from sending
done in 1527, after the use of a church had been denied deputies to the meeting agreed upon to be held at Schmal-
them. The imperial commissioners desired to return to the kalden. “ In silence and rest will be your strength,” was his
edict of Worms of 1521. The solemn act of toleration vote. The elector sent deputies in order to hinder that any-
voted by the diet of 1527 was abrogated by an arbitrary thing should be decided. Luther was proud of this success,
act of the emperor alone, contrary to the constitution of “ Christ the Lord will deliver us without the landgrave, and
the empire. Luther, the proscribed, was not present; but even against the landgrave,” was his saying. This apparent
Melancthon, who had accompanied the princes, reported to blindness and perversion of mind in Luther at this time
him what passed. The majority of the diet passed at last, admits a twofold explanation. The first is Luther’s loyal
on 7th April, a resolution, that where the edict of Worms and sound policy. He abhorred rebellion, and shuddered
could not be executed without fear of revolution, no from a civil war, even if it should be unavoidable as self-
further reform would be allowed. This evidently was defence. He besides saw clearly that the princes, divided
nothing but the intended forerunner of the restoration among themselves as they were, could do nothing against
of Popery. the emperor without the best part of the nation, represented
Theprotes- It was against this iniquitous decree that the elector, by the cities; and that here, too, there was want of mutual
Protntlle land°rave’ the margrave of Brandenburg, the prince trust and good-will, and above all of unity. But this key
ism.68 aD ' ,and the chancellor of Luneburg, together with opens only the outer door to Luther’s mind. To under-
the dignitaries of the towns, laid down that solemn protesta- stand him, when he seems proof against reason, and reasoning
tion from which originates the name of “Protestants.” “ The even his own, it is necessary to consider his unshaken faith”
diet has overstepped its authority,” they said; “ our ac- and that he partook of the quietism of his German master,*
quired right is, that the decree of 1526, unanimously adopted, Tauler, and the Theologia Germanica. “ Suffer God to do his
do remain in force until a council can be convened. Up to work in you and about you,” was the motto of that school,
this time the decree has maintained the peace since, and we But the scholastic training also had its influence as to his
protest against its abrogation.” Of thirty-five free cities, view of the Zwinglian Reformation, and it centred in
fourteen stood out firmly, when Ferdinand threatened them Luther’s sacramentalism. This point requires a more ample
with the loss of their privileges. Strasburg, which was at the consideration.
head of the protesting cities, was placed by this most arbi- It must be confessed that there was a theological scruple
trary act under the interdict. To the princes Ferdinand de- at the bottom of Luther’s opposition to a vigorous Pro-
clared there remained nothing for them but to submit; and testant alliance and national attitude, which was sure not to
he closed the diet without awaiting the resolutions of the bring on war, but to prevent it by making the execution of
735
Luther.
736
Luther.
7. The key
to Luther’s
contro¬
versy with
the Zwin-
glians as to
the sacra¬
ments.
LUTHER.
the aggressive plans of the pope and emperors impossible.
This betrays itself, first, in an uneasiness about Zwingle’s
rising influence in Germany; and, second as a doctrinal
idiosyncrasy respecting the sacrament of the communion.
Philip of Hesse instantly saw through this, and said,—“ I
see they are against the alliance on account of the Zwin-
glians ; well, let us see whether we cannot make these theo¬
logical differences disappear.” It is well known that all the
efforts made to effect a union between the Zwinglian and
Lutheran parties, from the conference at Marburg, in 1529,
to the end of Luther’s life, were fruitless; and it is impossible
not to admit that the fault was Luther’s, and that he be¬
came aware of that only on his deathbed. As we are
thus arrived at the deepest tragedy of Luther’s life and
of the history of Protestantism, and as we must endeavour,
within the narrow limits of an article, to establish historical
truth on these important points, as far as it is indispensable
for a true and philosophical view of Luther’s life, we
think it unnecessary to prove that there were no mean pas¬
sions at work in Luther’s mind; but we will say shortly that
it was the great tragedy of the Christian mind during more
than one thousand years to which Luther paid now his
tribute.
When Luther was raised above himself by the great
problem before him, in that glorious period of action, from
1518 to 1524, he considered the sacraments altogether as a
part of the services of the church, and a secondary point,
in comparison with the right view of faith, or the inward
Christianity which implies necessarily an unselfish, believ¬
ing, and thankful mind. Having come to the conviction
that there was no inherent virtue in the elements abstract¬
edly from the communion, it was indifferent to him how the
spirituality of the action and the real presence, even the tran-
substantiation, might be reconciled with that faith. But
when he felt himself called upon at a later period to form
a theory respecting the doctrine of the sacrament, he could
never get free from the action of those two theological
schools, the mystical German and the Latin scholastic, in
the point where they combined. Thus, to his end Luther
firmly believed that the act of the priest pronouncing the
words, “ This is my body,” produced a change in the ele¬
ments, making them the body and blood of Christ, which he
interpreted, however, as meaning the whole creature of Christ.
Now, nothing was ever more historically erroneous. It has
been shown elsewhere by the writer of this article, through
an uninterrupted chain of documentary evidence of the
very liturgies, from the second to the sixth century, that
the recital of the words of the institution was nothing but
the historical introduction to a prayer of blessing for the
communicants. This prayer invoked the Spirit of God to
descend upon the assembled worshipping congregation. The
first step which unconsciously led to misunderstandings, was,
that the blessing of God was also called down upon the
elements in order to make the food prepared for the
faithful the body and blood of Christ. The consecration,
in other words, was not the recital of the words of insti¬
tution, but a prayer, down to the time of Basilius, extem¬
porized, or at least freely spoken, and always ending with
the Lord’s prayer. It is a tragical complication that the
question as to what the elements became,—a question un¬
known and even unintelligible during the first five centuries,
—should have entangled the mighty evangelical mind of the
Reformer, whose appointed work was the destruction of the
Romish system of delusion founded upon a total perversion
of the fundamental Christian notions respecting sacrifice,
priest, and atonement. It was this fatal ignorance of the ob¬
lation oi the sound and organic, as well as the morbid Chris¬
tian worship development, which blinded Luther to such a
degree as not only to put a simply absurd interpretation upon
the words of the institution, but to base the question of Chris¬
tian communion between evangelical Christians upon the
same, instead of allowing it to be freely discussed as a Luther,
scholastic question. When staking all upon what he called
a literal interpretation of the words, “ This is my body,” he
ought to have acknowledged, at least, that others might as
well take objection, if not to the absurdity of such a mean¬
ing, at least to the liberty which Luther claimed for himself
at the same time, of making the body stand for the whole
life contained in it, not to speak of the objection founded
upon the words of institution as we find them in Luke and
St Paul.
After these general observations, our historical relation
of what remains to be told of Luther’s life may be very
short.
The first event was the conference of Marburg. The 8,^on^e'
undaunted spirit of the landgrave, and the heroic self- |
devoted spirit of Zwingle, who accepted the invitation at ther and i
the evident risk of his life, brought about that celebrated Zwingle at
meeting on the first five days of October 1527. The frank Marburg,
and liberal declarations and concessions of the Swiss Re- O04,152^ I
formers soon cleared away all shadows of difference and
dissent, except that about the sacrament. In the half
public disputation of the 2d of October, Zwingie embarrassed
Luther by observing, that if the body of Christ was in the
bread and wine, in any other than a spiritual sense, he must
be present in a given place, by the very nature of matter,
and not above matter, in heaven. Luther parried that
stroke by saying,—“ I do not mind its contradicting nature,
provided it do not contradict the faith.” Still less could he
disentangle himself from the words of Christ in the 6th
chapter of St John, which Zwingle declared he could not
discard, as it was a text and a clear one. Not more satis¬
factory was Luther’s appeal to the fathers. The discus¬
sions of the four following days, however, resulted in recog¬
nising the point of difference, but reducing its expression
to the mildest form, and placing it in the background, as
compared with the full statement of the points on which
both parties were united. Tears of joy filled all eyes;
and Zwingle, with CEcolampadius and Bucer, returned
satisfied, although the promised alliance between Ger¬
many and Switzerland was not concluded owing to Luther’s
reluctance. Zwingle had triumphed; his views became
naturalized in Germany, where hitherto they were little
known, and the dreadful words of Luther,—“ Submit your¬
selves ; believe as we do, or you cannot be acknowledged
as Christians,” were forgotten. But no sooner had Luther
returned to Wittemberg than he modified the articles in
an exclusive sense, which necessarily shocked and alienated
the Reformed party.
The issue of the conference at Marburg was a sad 9- The diet
prelude to the great and decisive diet to be held at Augs- Augs¬
burg in 1530,—the diet immortalized by the first con-
fession of evangelical Christendom. All the appearances i,urg c°n.
were changed ; the elector, who, as well as the landgrave, fession
went there in great pomp, was received by the emperor in of Faith,
the most flattering manner. All was to be peace and 1530.
concord in Germany. Behind the scenes we see the
emperor quieting his brother Ferdinand, the head of
the Romish and fanatical party, who protested against such
encouragement to heresy. He writes to him:—“ I shall
go on negotiating without concluding anything; fear no¬
thing if I even should conclude; there will never be pre¬
texts wanting to you to chastise the rebels, and you will
find people enough too happy to offer you their power as a
means of vengeance.”
Charles was an Austrian tyrant and a Spanish bigot, and
a great politician of the Italian school, which has procured
him, even from historians of our time, the name of a great
man. The only reason why he did not now follow the advice
of the cardinal legate and the Spaniards, and of his own
brother Ferdinand, was simply that he thought the good
Germans would do the work of destruction themselves, and
L U T
Luther, that in the mean time he would have in them a check upon
—the pope. But in his own mind he was ready to sacrifice
to the bigoted party all the constitutional rights of the diet,
as he had sacrificed that wonderful republic of Florence to
the Medici family at the request of the holy father, who
(said Charles) could not demand anything wrong: of course,
least of all in a case which regarded his own house !
The diet of Augsburg is the bright point in the life of the
Elector John the Constant, as the conference of Marburg
is in that of the landgrave. When the emperor’s ministers,
who preceded him at Augsburg, announced to the elector
the emperor’s intentions, in order to intimidate him, he
said,—“ If the emperor intends to stop the preaching
of the gospel, I shall immediately betake myself to my
home.” Luther had been left at Coburg, the nearest safe
place for the proscribed, and was consulted daily. He
told the elector he had no right to say so; “ the emperor
was his master, and Augsburg was an imperial town.”
Grand and heroic, although erroneous, advice of the man
whose life must have been the first sacrifice of a policy
which the elector meant to resist! The lawyers, however,
were here also in fault; their Byzantine notions of im¬
perial rights made them timid in the application of the
principles of the German constitution. The Protestant
princes had a clear constitutional right to resist the em¬
peror, standing upon the resolutions and the edict of Worms,
and the solemn declaration of Spires. Melancthon himself
thought they might maintain the right of preaching the
gospel, only abstaining from any controversial point. But
undoubtedly those were right who advised the elector to
remain. As to the chief practical point, Chancellor Bruck
confirmed the elector in his resolution not to allow the
preaching of the gospel to be interdicted to him and his
friends. As to alliances and leagues, the elector said,—“ I
have formed no secret alliances; but I will show those I have
entered into if the others will show theirs.” In the mean¬
time, Melancthon had by the middle of April prepared the
articles of the confession with their defence, the so-called apo¬
logy. Luther sat all the time in his solitary castle. “ It is my
Sinai,” he said, “where I lift up my hands to pray, as Moses
did during the battle.” He worked at the Psalms and the
prophets (he translated here Jeremiah and Ezekiel), and de¬
dicated his hours of recreation to a popular edition of what
was called Alsop’s Fables, as Socrates did in his prison.
“ I am making a Zion out of this Sinai, and build there three
tents, viz., one for the psalms, one for the prophets, one for
iEsop;” a truly German saying, which the historian of
the Reformation ought not to have censured. How could
Luther endure his solitude in that tremendous crisis which,
as far as the affairs of Germany were concerned, he saw in
darker colours than anybody, unless he had some recrea¬
tion of this kind. But besides, his object was to place his
iEsop (which contains many compositions of his own) in
the hands of the people, instead of a common popular book
of the time, of the same title, of the lowest and most im¬
moral description. It was also in this solitude that he wrote
that admirable letter to his son Hans, with the description of
the garden of wonders. While here he received the news
of his father’s death, which affected him deeply, so that his
health began to give way, and his hallucinations, or waking
dreams, recommenced. The news of the league between
Charles V., Irancis I., the Pope, and Venice, roused at
times the political spirit which was in him. “ I do not be¬
lieve a word, he said, “ as to the reality of such a league.
Monsieur par ma foy ! (Francis) cannot forget the battle
of Pavia; Monsieur in nomine domini (Clement VIII.) is,
first, a Welsh (Italian), which is bad enough; secondly, a
Florentine, which is worse; thirdly, a bastard, a child of
the devil; and, fourthly, he will never forget the indignity
of the plundering of Rome. The Venetians, finally, are
Venetians, and they have reasons enough to hate the
TOL. XIII.
H E K.
posterity of Maximilian. Poor Charles, he is like a sheep
among wolves; God will save him!” There is the sound
politician and the loyal German, hoping against hope, and
trusting his prince’s promises as long as he breathes! He
wrote letters full of comfort to the elector, and at the same
time addressed one of his most powerful writings to the
clergy assembled in the diet at Augsburg, in which he
shows them the absurdity of their system, and the unchris¬
tian spirit of their claims. The address concludes with the
prophetic verse,—
“ Pestis erara vivus; moriens ero mors tua Papa !”
[“ 0 Pope, thy plague I was in life; in death I shall be thy de¬
struction.”]
On the 4th of June Gattinara, the chancellor of Charles,
died—an Italian, who most earnestly wished a real reform
of the church ; and the advocates of persecution got the
upper hand. On the side of the Protestants, the Swiss
party began to suspect Melancthon, and complained of the
use of Latin chants and surplices in Saxony; while, on
his side, Melancthon detested what he called the sedi¬
tious principles and worldly reasoning of the Swiss. Soon
afterwards, we see him ready to give up some of the essen¬
tial points to the emperor, who, on his approach to Augs¬
burg, said “ What do the electors want ? I shall do what
I like.” Well had he learned in Spain the lessons of tyranny
which Cardinal Ximenes knew so well to apply under Philip
II. But he prayed four hours every day, so that the people
said (as he scarcely ever spoke),—“ He talks more with God
than with men.” When in the conference with the Pro¬
testant princes, he demanded of them to cease from their
present mode of worship, they declared that their conscience
did not allow them to do so, and the margrave of Bran¬
denburg, bowing down towards Charles, and putting his
hands upon his neck, cried out,—“ Rather than allow°my¬
self to be deprived of the Word of the Lord, and rather
than deny my God, I will have my head cut off at your
majesty’s feet.” This startled the Spaniard. “ Dear prince,’5
he exclaimed, “ not the head, not the head !” Imprison¬
ment will do, he thought all the while, and those incautious
words betray that thought. This was all his Sacred Caesa¬
rean Majesty deigned to utter during the diet. Great was
his wrath when the princes declared indignantly that they
would not consent to follow the procession of the host at the
festivals of Corpus Domini. Why not worship a wafer
which the priest has made God ? And why not show this
respect to the emperor and cardinal ? asked Ferdinand.
“We can and we will worship none but God,” they unani¬
mously declared. Their worship went on, and the vast
church of the Franciscans was always crowded; an eloquent
Zwinglian preached powerful sermons from the book of
Joshua about the people of Israel in the face of Canaan.
Charles was furious; an insidious compromise was pro¬
posed; the emperor would name preachers who should
simply read the epistles and gospel of the day, and the
ordinary prayer of confession before the mass. The pusil¬
lanimity of Melancthon, and the legal opinions of some
of the lawyers of the Protestant princes as to the em¬
peror’s power in an imperial town, overcame the repug¬
nance of the elector. All the Protestant preachers left
the place in dismay. The whole town was in conster¬
nation. “Our Lord God,” exclaimed the elector, “has
received order to hold his tongue at the diet!” Luther
all the while had been quiet, waiting in patience. But
this was too much for him. “ This is the first step,” he
said, “ to the demand that we give up our faith. We have
to fight against the gates of hell.” “Keep up your cou¬
rage,” he wrote to Melancthon, “ for you are the ambassa¬
dors of a great King.” The elector and his theologians
thought it justifiable that, in virtue of his office as grand
matshal of the empire, he should bear before the emperor
the sword of state, when the latter attended the mass of the
5 a
737
Luther.
738 L U T
Luther. Holy Ghost at the opening of the diet, on which occasion
an Italian archbishop preached a most fanatical and insult¬
ing sermon against the Germans, as being worse enemies of
God than the Turks. In the imperial opening speech,
Charles spoke of the lamentable dissensions which en¬
croached upon the imperial majesty, and must produce
sedition and murder. The Protestants were required to
present their confession. The elector signed it first; four
other princes and two cities after him, without any obser¬
vation ; the landgrave of Hesse, however, did not sign it
without saying he did not agree as to the doctrine of the
communion. The article says,—“ That the body and blood
of Christ are verily present, and are administered in the
Lord’s Supper to those who partake of it [and we disapprove
those who teach otherwise].” The words in brackets were
left out in later editions made during Luther’s lifetime. On
this occasion the princes took really the lead, and the whole
was done as a great national, not as a sacerdotal work, in
spite of poor Melancthon’s scruples. This good man was in¬
deed entirely out of his sphere, and lost his time, and com¬
mitted the cause of Protestantism, by trying to bring about
a compromise where there was no possibility of an honest
understanding. In the mean time, Luther was left in com¬
plete and cruel ignorance of all that was going on; and
when at last the letters of Melancthon arrived, they were
full of fears and sad misgivings. During all this anxious
time, Luther sought and found his comfort in constant prayer
and occupation with the Word of God. “ Where is Christ’s
church, if it is not with us ? Faith alone is required. I will
rather fall with Christ than stand with Caesar.” Luther re¬
primanded Melancthon sharply for his pusillanimity, and
some of his letters to him are addressed—“ To Master
Philip Kleinmuth” (pusillanimous).
After many tergiversations, the Protestants obtained their
just demand; the confession, drawn up by Melancthon and
approved by Luther, was read in public sitting on the 25th
June 1530. A great day, worthy of the most glorious days
of the apostolic times. Luther was not present; he was
dead as a public man. But he Hived in God, and for his
faith and country. Nothing could damp his spirits. “ I also
have my diet,” he said; “ and what lively discussions!”
—referring playfully to the rooks which swarmed round his
tower.
The emperor ordered the confession to be read in Latin.
“ No,” said the elector; “we are Germans, and on German
ground. I hope, therefore, your majesty will allow us to
speak German.” The emperor gave way, recollecting for
the nonce he was in Germany, and that the Germans had
a language of their own, and the strange fancy of using it
even in theological affairs. When the chancellor of the
elector had read the first part of that grand confession, which
expounds the principles of the Reformation, and, in particular,
the doctrine of justification by faith,—“ that faith which is
not the mere knowledge of a historical fact, but that which
believes not only the history, but also the effect of that his¬
tory upon the mind,”—there was an indescribable effect
visibly produced upon the assembly. The opponents felt
that there was a reality before them which they had never
imagined; and others said, such a profession of faith by such
princes was a more effectual preaching than that which had
been stopped. “ Christ,” exclaimed Jonas (Melancthon’s
companion), “ is in the diet, and he does not keep silence:
the Word of God is indeed not to be bound.” And forth
these words have gone through a world wider than that to
which the apostles preached. After a pause, the second
part, the articles about the abuses of the church of Rome,
was read and heard with profound silence by the mitred pre¬
lates of that church who were there assembled. As to the
emperor, he slept during the whole of the reading, or
seemed to sleep, like a tiger ready to espy the most con¬
venient moment for leaping upon his prey. In the mean-
H E R.
time, he calculated, undoubtedly, what political capital he Luther,
could make of the Protestants against the pope. ^
Luther addressed a letter to the cardinal elector of
Mainz, demanding nothing but one article, but insisting
upon that unconditionally—the liberty of preaching the gos¬
pel. “Neither emperor,” he says, “nor pope has the right
of forcing any one to believe.” With Melancthon and
the other friends he insisted upon their leaving Augsburg
immediately. “ Home—home—home ! ” he exclaimed.
“ Might it please God that I should be immolated at this
council, as John Huss was at Constance 1” All the sayings
of Luther during this crisis are sublime and of a truly pro¬
phetic character. He foresaw that now every effort would
be made at Augsburg to destroy the principles of the Re¬
formation by a treacherous compromise and a false peace.
“ The diet,” he said, “ is a regular dramatic piece: first, there
is the prologue, then the exposition, then the action,—now
comes the catastrophe; but I think it will not be a tragic,
but a comic end.” And, indeed, so it turned out to be,
tragical as it was. The first triumphant effect of the confes¬
sion soon passed away; the new converts, particularly among
the prelates, withdrew; the fanatical party doubled its efforts,
and Charles gave way to it, and aided its ends by all diplo¬
matic artifices. Melancthon was caught. He entered into
conferences in the vain hope they would lead to concord;
he declared himself ready to maintain and obey the supreme
authority of the pope, if he would, by an act of clemency,
connive at, if not approve, some points which they could
not change. During the treacherous conferences which now
began, the emperor tried to intimidate the elector by threat¬
ening not to grant him the investiture, which the elector
claimed, however, as his hereditary right as brother of his
predecessor; and to frighten all the Protestant princes and
the Protestant imperial city of Augsburg with measures of
violence, by calling in the imperial troops, and keeping the
gates closed. The landgrave escaped. This act caused
dismay among the ranks of the Catholics, for a war could
not be risked at this moment. The Romanists changed
their tactics; they conceded, or rather feigned to con¬
cede ; for, meanwhile, the pope had declared solemnly that
he would not give up those very points. The Protestants
acknowledged the jurisdiction of the bishops and the su¬
premacy of the pope. A cry of indignation rose among
the princes, and, above all, among the brave citizens of
Augsburg. “ Rather die with Jesus Christ,” they de¬
clared, “ than conquer without Him the favour of the whole
world.”
At this critical moment Luther’s indignation rose to a holy
wrath, like that of the prophets of old. “ I understand,” said
he to Melancthon, “ that you have begun a marvellous work,
namely, to make Luther and the pope agree together; but
the pope will say that he will not, and Luther begs to be
excused. Should you, however, after all, succeed in your
affair, I will follow ,your example, and make an agreement
between Christ and Belial. Take care that you give not
up the justification by faith; that is the heel of the seed of
the woman to crush the serpent’s head. Take care not to
acknowledge the jurisdiction of the bishops; they will soon
take all. In short, all your negotiations have no chance of
success unless the pope will renounce papacy. Now, mind,
if you mean to shut up that glorious eagle, the gospel, in a
sack, as sure as Christ lives, Luther will coirte to deliver
that eagle with might.”
But Melancthon was changed: Luther’s voice had lost its
power over him. The extreme Protestant views main¬
tained in a declaration which Zwingle had delivered to the
emperor, disposed him to cling still more to Rome. All
seemed for the moment lost; but Luther’s faith had dis¬
cerned the way in which God meant to save the Protestant
cause, and had said,—“ Christ lives; he who has vanquished
the violence of our enemies, can also give us the power of
L U T II E R.
Euther
9. Last 15
years of
Luther’s
life, and his
death—
1530-1546.
breaking through their artifices” rIhe Romanists fortu-
^ nately insisted upon four points,—celibacy, confession, the
denial of the cup to the laity, and the retaining of private
masses. This was too much: the conference separated. The
Romanists now conceded the cup and the marriage of the
priests; but they would not give up the private masses, nor
the obligation of confession and penance for the remission
of sin, and required an acknowledgment of the meritorious
character of good works. Melancthon stood firm, on which
the emperor and Clement played out their last card: an
accumenical council should be convened ; but, in the mean¬
time, the Protestants should conform to the doctrine and
rites of the Catholic church. Charles accompanied this
communication with the most insulting threats against the
Protestant princes, who declined to negotiate, and declared
their resolution to abide by the status quo of Worms until
the council should assemble. The emperor indeed went so
far as to forbid the princes to quit Augsburg, but the elector
was firm as a rock: his son left the town on the 12th of
September. Melancthon had regained his courage and sa¬
gacity. When Luther heard what was taking place, he raised
his voice from Coburg—“ Depart, depart! even if it must
be, with the curse of pope and emperor upon you. You
have confessed Jesus Christ, you have offered peace, you
have obeyed the emperor, you have supported insults of
every kind, you have withstood blasphemies: now I will
encourage you,—as one of the faithful members of Jesus
Christ. He is making ready our enemies as victims for the
sacrifice ; he will presently consume their pride and deliver
his people. Yes, he will bring us safely out of Babylon and
her burning walls.” When the emperor saw that the elector
was resolved on departing, he communicated to the five
princes and the six towns (four more having joined since
Nuremberg and Reutlingen), a proposal, for a recess, or
definitive decree of the diet,—that six months’ should elapse
to give time for an arrangement; and meantime, Protes¬
tants and Catholics should unite in a common attack upon
the Anabaptists and those who denied the holy sacrament,
the Zwinglians ; but the Protestants alike withstood threats
and flatteries ; and the elector took his leave, as he had an¬
nounced, on the 23d of September.
I he author of this article cannot agree with the saying
of the eloquent historian of the Reformation, that if the
glorification of man was the purpose and end of God’s
ways, and not God’s glory alone, one must wish Luther
had died at the Wartburg. We have seen that it was he
who, in 1524, pacified Wittemberg and Saxony by his re¬
appearance, and achieved wonders as a practical reformer;
and, in 1525, attempted, as pacificator of Germany, what
nobody but himself could and would have done. But whose
was the never-shaken mind? Who among the German
theologians and Reformers was the organ of God and of the
German nation during the greater part of the momentous
diet of Augsburg ? Who else but the man in the solitary
tower at Coburg ! From this time forth, however, he had
nothing left to do but to look the tragedy in the face, as a
believer in God and His kingdom on earth, praying and
preaching, and finally to die the death of a faithful and
hopeful Christian saint. All the rest is patient, suffering1,
martyrdom. &
Some of the most powerful Romanist princes, the arch¬
bishop of Mayence at their head, assured the elector, on
his departure, that they would never join the emperor in
adopting any violent measures against him, although the
rot er of the archbishop Joachim, elector of Brandenburg,
had presumed to promise in their name that they would.
Lven herdmand said some civil words. But why ? Simply
because (as Charles could not refrain from saying in his
wrath) the emperor was more than ever resolved to resort
to arms. Nothing but armaments will have any effect,”
he said. Indeed, he announced this as his resolution im-
739
mediately to the pope, and requested him to summon all
Christian princes to assist him. The Catholic league was
signed on the 13th of October. The anti-reformatory move¬
ment was begun in the town of Augsburg itself. The
answer to this was the declaration of sixteen imperial towns,
instead of six, that they would not grant any subsidies against
the I urks so long as the affairs of Germany remained unset¬
tled. 1 he Zwinglian and Lutheran towns shook hands; and
this was the expression of the real feeling of the whole Ger¬
man nation, only priests, pastors, and theologians excepted.
The Protestant dignitaries declared that they rejected the
imperial closing declaration, as the emperor had no right to
command in matters of faith. Luther was the organ of the
universal feeling of the German people, when he ex¬
claimed, “ Our enemies do not fill me with fear. I, on the
contrary, shall put them down in the strength of the Lord.
My life shall be their executioner; my death their hell.”
Indeed, his work was accomplished—for all countries and
for all ages. The rest of his life was one long pang, al¬
though he did not live to see the most dreadful calamity,—
the breaking out of the civil war of religion which began
immediately after his death. He wrote an address to die
German nation, warning them not to yield to Rome and not
to trust any negotiations; “ for,” said he, “ they know no ar¬
gument but force. Be not deceived by their words about
obedience to the church. The church is a poor erring
sinne}(' without Christ; not the church, but Christ is the
faith.” The cause of the Reformation made progress; the
Protestant alliance, begun by the convention of Schmal-
kalden, gained new members; Denmark acceded, and Joa¬
chim H. became as staunch a defender of the faith of his
mother as Joachim I. had been its violent enemy. As
Luther had prophesied, the negotiations with the popish
party in 1541, renewed at Ratisbon, led to no result. The
emperoi, at the diet of Spires in lo44, dared no longer re¬
fuse to the Protestants the equal right which they claimed.
The Romish council opened at Trent in 1544, and its first
proceeding was to read the pope’s anathema against the
Protestants.
It is in this latter period (from 1539 to 1543) that a secret
letter of advice, drawn up by Melancthon, was given by Lu¬
ther and his friends to the landgrave Philip in answer to his
pressing request (sanctioned by the landgravine, who suf-
feied from an incurable inward disorder) to deliver him from
the sin of fornication, by allowing him to marry a lady of the
landgravine’s court. After the masterly discussion of this
subject by Archdeacon Hare in his Vindication of Luther,
republished (1555) from the notes to his Mission of the
Comforter, it is not necessary, least of all to English
readers, to enter into details in order to prove the re¬
port of Bossuet to be a tissue of falsehoods and malignity.
We limit, therefore, ourselves to stating the decisive facts.
First, I he error committed in this secret advice by the Re¬
formers was a perfectly sincere one; it arose from an indis¬
tinct view of the applicability of the patriarchal ordinances
and of the Mosaic law, which admits a second wife legally, as
indeed Moses himself seems to have had two wives at the
same time. Now, as the Reformers could not show an ex¬
press abrogation of those ordinances and of this law, they
were led into this sad mistake. Secondly, There was in their
advice no worldly regard whatever, as to any benefits and
advantages, which might accrue to themselves, or to the
cause of the Reformation. I hey knew that the landgrave
had his whole heart in the cause of the Reformation, and
had often risked his life and states for it. Thirdly, When
in 1540, Philip divulged the secret, contrary to his promise,
they spoke out and confessed their mistake, and Melanc¬
thon was brought by his grief to the verge of the grave.
Fourthly, When, in the course of the controversy, Bucer
published, in lo41, his pamphlet in defence of polygamy
(under the name of LIulderic Neobulus), Luther pro
Luther.
740 L U T
Luther, nounced his judgment upon the book and on the subject
il in the following solemn words :—“ He who desires my judg-
Lutherans. rnent Up0n this book, let him hear. Thus says Dr Martin
Luther on the book of Neobulus: He who follows this
rogue and book, and thereupon takes more than one wife,
and means that this should be a matter of right, may the
devil bless his bath in the bottom of hell. This, God be
praised, I well know how to maintain. . . Much less shall
they establish the law, that a man may separate himself
from his wife rightfully, when she has not already separated
herself by open adultery, which this rogue would also like
to teach.” We possess also the sketch of his intended full
reply to Bucer’s book ; and there we find the following sen¬
tence :—“ We have already shown in a number of books,
that the law of Moses does not concern us, and that we are
not to look to the examples in the history of the saints,
much less of the kings, to their faith, and to God’s command¬
ments.”
The dark side of this latter portion of Luther’s life is his
controversy with the Reformed. He seemed now and then
inclined to yield to their entreaties for a union, as is
shown by his letter of 1531 to Bucer of Strasburg ; and he
declared his sincere wish for a union to the landgrave in
1534. He does not think the work ought to be precipitated,
but he prays to live to see it take place. The concord of
Wittemberg, begun by Bucer in 1536, which left it just
possible to the Reformed not to see their view of the sacra¬
ment excluded, has his cordial sympathy. Finally, on the
17th February 1537, he writes to the burgomaster of Basel,
James Meyer, in terms which excited among the Swiss the
hope he would give up his exclusive views. But when
(Eeolampadius published the writings of Zwingle, after this
great and holy man had died a patriot’s death in the battle
of Cappel, Luther became so incensed, that he wrote, in
L U T
1544, two years before his death, the most violent of all his Luther,
sacramentary treatises,—A Short Confession respecting the H
Lord’s Supper. Lutherans.
However, his last word, on his deathbed, was one of
peace. He is credibly reported to have said to Melancthon
in the course of a dying conversation,—“ Dear Philip, I
confess to have gone too far in the affair of the sacrament.”
I he year 1546 began with unmistakeable indications
that Charles was now ready to strike a decisive blow.
Luther had been suffering much during the last few years,
and he felt his end to be near at hand. In the month of
January 1546, he undertook a journey to Eisleben in very
inclement weather, in order to restore peace in the family of
the counts of Mansfeld ; he caught a violent cold; preached
four times; and took all the time an active part in the work
of conciliation. On the 17th of February he felt that his
release was at hand ; and at Eisleben, where he was born,
he died, in faith and prayer, on the following day. Nothing
can be more edifying than the scene presented by the last
days of Luther, of which we have the most authentic and de¬
tailed accounts. When dying, he collected his last strength
and offered up the following prayer:—“ Heavenly Father,
eternal, merciful God, thou hast revealed to me thy dear
Son, our Lord Jesus Christ: Him I have taught—Him I
have confessed—Him I love as my Saviour and Redeemer,
whom the wicked persecute, dishonour, and reprove. Take
my poor soul up to thee!” Then two of his friends put to
him the solemn question,—“ Reverend Father, do you die
in Christ and in the doctrine you have constantly preach¬
ed ?” He answered by an audible and joyful “ Yesand
repeating the verse, “ Father, into thy hands I com¬
mend my spirit,” he expired peaceably, without a strug¬
gle, on the 18th of February 1546, at four o’clock in the -
afternoon. (c. c. J. b.)
LUTHERANS, that body of Christians whose system
of religious doctrine originated with Luther. They are
more nearly allied to the Romanists in point of doctrine
than are any of the churches of the Reformation. Luther
maintained the doctrine of consubstantiation, or the real
simultaneous coexistence of the body and blood with the
bread and wine in the Lord’s Supper. As to the use of
ceremonies and forms, there is considerable license permit¬
ted among the Lutherans. They accordingly, differ much
in the number and nature of their public rites. The gene¬
ral form of government in the Lutheran church is interme¬
diate between the Episcopal and Presbyterian systems.
From a misapplication of the doctrine that Christians are
accountable to God alone for their religious sentiments,
there is a considerable degree of liberty given to their
teachers in relation to the symbolical books. These are
the three ancient Creeds, the Augsburg Confession, the
Articles of Smalcald, the larger and smaller Catechisms of
Luther, and the Form of Concord. The fullest edition is
that of Hase, by Francke, entitled Lihri Symbolici Ecc.
Luther., cum Appendice Quinquepartita, Leipsic, 1847.
The Lutheran church prevails in Germany, Denmark, Nor¬
way, and Sweden. Their existence as a distinct body
among the adherents of the Reformed cause dates strictly
from the publication of the Formula Concordice in 1580.
4 his act divided the church of Germany into Lutherans
and Calvinists, and each of the two branches began trom
that time forward to have a separate history. Various efforts
were made to heal this division, but in vain, until in 1817,
when a somewhat mechanical unjpn was effected on the
basis of a declaration promulgated by a synod convened by
royal authority at Berlin. Since that time the two confes¬
sions have been held within the pale of the same church,
and not unfrequently been preached by collegiate ministers
within the same walls; and in the perplexity of such virtual
disunion, many of the most gifted minds in Germany have
addressed themselves to the task of finding some higher
exposition of truth which shall include and combine the
two phases of Reformed doctrine. This has led to a keen
discussion in regard to the nature of the differentiating ele¬
ment in the two systems ; and the simple enumeration of the
formulas which Lutherans themselves have given, will tend
to show the disturbing force which one anomalous doctrine
has exe'fPised *in breaking up the common faith of the two
great Reformers.
One scheme of difference points to the original dispute.
As the first quarrel arose in regard to a passage of Scrip¬
ture (and Lutheranism has developed itself in a long series
of diverging exegetical systems), the disturbing force is
traced to a fundamental difference in regard to the relation
of reason to Scripture. The Reformed church is charged
with exalting reason above the mysteries of revelation, which
the Lutheran church receives in their simple and naked
antagonism to the apprehensive powers of the human intel¬
lect. In this view the controversy between the Lutheran
and Reformed systems is the same in kind, although not in
intensity, as that which is waged between the Reformed
party and the Church of Rome.
A second scheme points to a difference in original pur¬
pose. The Lutheran Reformation aimed at counteracting
a Jewish element in Catholicism, and in this one-sided pur¬
pose unconsciously received a Gnosticizing tone ; while the
Calvinistic scheme, in combating a purely heathen element
in the papacy, unconsciously fell, at least in its ethical creed,
into a Judaizing cast of thought. Another formula defines
the Lutheran church as the church of theologians, giving
prominence to an objective theology, and the Calvinists as
the church of collective believers, giving undue prominence
to a subjective anthropology. In antagonism to this is
another scheme, which defines Lutheranism as an anthro-
Luton
II
Luxem¬
burg.
L U T
pology with only a dwarfed theology, and Calvinism as a
theology with a very defective doctrine of man. Calvinism
severs God from the fallen creature; Lutheranism regards
, the creature as existing in God. Calvinism views salvation
as a work of God, planned and executed utterly apart from
man; Lutheranism, in asserting the resistibility of grace,
recognises an element of human will in the redemption of
each individual. Calvinism sees in the means of grace an
efficacy imposed by God, and powerful only through faith ;
Lutheranism accords to them an innate power appreciable
universally to man.
A brisker formula than any of the preceding defines
Lutheranism as rooted in the absolute blessedness of intel¬
ligence to be developed, and Calvinism as founded on the
absolute meritoriousness of fact to be appreciated. Another
theory detects a fundamental difference in the doctrine of
man’s relation to God. The Lutheran sees the Creator
immanent in the creature; the Calvinist recognises merely
a relation of dependence. This leads to a different esti¬
mate of the world’s history: Lutheran theology mingles in
its doctrine of sin the conception of eternal love; the Re¬
formed theology excludes everything but righteous law:
Lutheran divines dwell on the traces of God’s love in man’s
history ; the Reformed systems dwell peculiarly on the un¬
folding of God’s attributes.
It seems easier to apprehend that the difference lay in
the relation of the two parties to tradition: Calvinism was
systematized from Scripture alone; Lutheran theology ac¬
corded to tradition a regulative power. Calvinism was a
return to the primitive sources of revelation ; the Lutheran
church was only a new phase of Latin Christianity. (Con¬
sult Go^aWEigenthumUchkeit der Luth. u. Reform. Kirche,
1837; Ullmann’s Zur Charak. der Ref. Kirche in the Stud,
und Krit. for 1843 ; and Schneckenburger, Vergleichende
Darstellung des Luth. und Ref. Lehrhegriffs, 1855.)
LUTON, a market-town of England, Bedfordshire, on
the right bank of the Lea, 31 miles N.N.W. of London.
It consists of three long irregular streets diverging from
the market-place. The chief public edifice is the church,
a fine old building of the Gothic and later English styles,
containing a hexagonal font, and a number of interesting
monuments. There are also a town-hall, a market-house,
a literary and mechanics’ institute, besides several chapels
and schools. The inhabitants are principally employed in
straw-hat making, brewing, and trading in agricultural pro¬
duce. Market-day, Monday. Pop. (1851) 10,648.
LUTTERWORTH, a market-town of England, Lei¬
cestershire, on the Swift, an affluent of the Avon, 13 miles
S. of Leicester. In the parish church, said to be erected
about the beginning of the twelfth century, Wickliffe de¬
livered his celebrated discourses. Market-day, Thursday.
Pop. (1851) 2446.
LtlTZEN, a small town of Prussian Saxony, between
Leipsic and Weissenfels, 11 miles W.S.W. of the former.
It is celebrated as the scene of two important battles—one
on the 6th November, 1632, between the Swedes under
Gustavus Adolphus, and the Austrians under Wallenstein,
when the former, though victorious, lost their gallant gene¬
ral ; the other on the 2d May 1813, when the Prussian
and Russian allied army was defeated by the French under
Bonaparte. Pop. 1961.
LUXEMBURG, or Luxembourg, a province of Bel¬
gium, in the basins of the Meuse and Moselle, formerly
part of the grand duchy of Luxembourg, bounded on the
N. by Liege, S. by France, E. by the duchy of Luxem¬
burg, and W. by Namur. Its length from N. to S. is
about 67 miles, and its breadth E. to W. 37 miles; area,
1705 square miles. It is traversed from S.W. to N.E. by a
branch ot the Ardennes, whose highest summits do not
exceed 2000 feet. Its surface is extremely rugged, covered
with wood and extensive morasses. The soil is nowhere
LUX
very fertile, being thin and gravelly. About one-third of
the unwooded surface is devoted to pasture—sheep, horned
cattle, pigs, and horses being reared for export in great
numbers. The latter especially are of a hardy and spirited
race, and are bought for the light cavalry in France. There
are considerable mines of iron, and lead and copper are
also found; with marble, slate, freestone, marl, and gyp¬
sum. Besides iron, there are manufactures of cloth, tulle,
earthenware, leather, nails, and potash. Of the soil, the
principal productions are,—wheat, potatoes, tobacco, wine,
and fruit. The most important article of commerce is the
bark of the oak, which is employed in the great tanneries of
Stavelot and Malmedy, and in England ; and the oakwood
itself, which is exported to Liege and the Netherlands by
way of the Meuse. The province is divided, for adminis¬
trative purposes, into five arrondissements—Arlon, Bas-
togne, La Marche, Neufchateau, and Virton. Arlon, the
capital, is a place of some size and importance ; but on the
the whole, the province is thinly populated. In 1855 it
amounted to 196,074. It sends two senators and five re¬
presentatives to the Belgian legislature.
Luxemburg, Grand Duchy of one of the states of the
German Confederation, and part of the kingdom of the
Netherlands, is bounded N. and E. by Rhenish Prussia,
S. by France, and W. by Belgium. Its length from N. to
S. is about 48 miles, and its breadth from E. to W. 34 ; area,
986 square miles. Its surface is elevated, being part of
the plateau of the Ardennes, and largely covered with wood
and heath. The River Moselle, which bounds it on the
S.E., drains the greater part of it; and the Sure and its
tributaries Our and Alzette, and the Meuse and its affluents
Ourthe and Lesse, the remainder—the Sure itself falling
into the Moselle. It is divided into three districts—that
of Luxemburg, Grevenmacher, and Diekirk, containing
eleven cantons; and, in 1855, a population of 189,480.
The bulk of the population is employed in agriculture,
which is rather in a backward state, the nature of the soil
being adverse; and there is a considerable amount of pas¬
toral country. Wine is grown to some extent, but it is of
inferior quality. The chief agricultural products are corn,
vegetables, hemp, flax, and hops. Iron is found in the
eastern districts, and about 9000 tons are annually manufac¬
tured, wood being employed as fuel. The quarries of lime
and slate are pretty extensive. Lead was also worked at
one time, but is now exhausted or abandoned. The popu¬
lation of the whole of Luxemburg, including the Belgian
province, with few exceptions, speak German, though French
is understood. In religion they are, almost without excep¬
tion, Roman Catholics. There was till lately a great want
of schools and colleges, but a movement has taken place in
this respect.
Luxemburg was originally governed by counts, who were
at the same time sovereigns of Brandenburg. In 1354 it was
erected into a duchy by Charles IV.; and in 1443 fell to
Philip of Burgundy by marriage, and through Philip to the
House of Spain, with whom it continued entire till, at the
peace of the Pyrenees in 1659, part of it was ceded to
France, and took the name of French Luxemburg. This
latter portion is now comprised in the department of the
Moselle. In the first revolution France again appropriated
the whole ; but in 1814 it was given to Holland in com¬
pensation for the German principalities of Nassau, Dillen-
bujpgj Siegen, Hadamar, and Dietz ; and was organized by
tire KiNfeof the Netherlands as a foreign province, with a
constituwdn and administration of its own. It was again
dismembered in 1831, in consequence of disputes following
on the Belgian revolution of 1830; and the portion W. of
a line drawn from the French to the Prussian territory, a
little to the E. of Arlon and Bastogne, given to Belgium.
Luxemburg (German, Liitzelburg), capital of the old
grand duchy, and now of the Dutch province, is situate
741
Luxem¬
burg.
742 LUX
Luxem- in N. Lat. 49. 37., and E. Long. 6. 9.; 100 miles S.E. of
burg Brussels, 66 S.S.E. of Liege, and 115 W.S.W. of Frank-
II fort-on-the-Main. As a fortress it belongs, by the treaty
juzon. Vienna, to the German Confederation, and is garrisoned
with 6000 Prussian troops. Naturally strong, and carefully
strengthened by its successive possessors, it is now, accord¬
ing to Carnot, the strongest place in Europe except Gib¬
raltar, and the on\y point d’appui from which France can
be attacked from the side of the Moselle. It consists of an
upper and a lower town; the former being the citadel, and
standing 200 feet higher than the latter, with which it com¬
municates by flights of steps and zig-zag streets cut in the
solid rock. The lower town occupies a deep valley, watered
by the Peterburn and Alzette, crossed with fortifications,
and divided into two quarters, viz., Grindel and Pf'affenthal,
by the projecting rock called Le Bouc. This is the most
remarkable part of the works ; it is hollowed from top to
bottom, commands the whole valley up and down, and its
casemates, cut in the solid rock, are capable of holding
4000 men. The walls have been greatly strengthened
under the direction of the German diet, and a new fort
built outside the gate to Treves. The most remarkable
buildings are the ancient cathedral, partly used as a bar¬
rack, and the governor’s house. The town possesses also
four churches, three chapels, an athenaeum, seminary for
priests, a normal and several elementary schools, and a re¬
cently erected market-place. There are two convents, the
Dominican and Franciscan, in a very ruinous condition.
The chief manufactures are of wax and leather (common
and chamois) ; there are also breweries and distilleries. The
commerce consists of gold and silver goods, paper, iron,
wine, porcelain, and some othef articles. Luxemburg is an
episcopal see. Pop. about 12,000.
LUXEMBURG, Francois Henri de Montmorency,
Duke of, and marshal of France, a renowned general in the
service of Louis XIV., was born in 1628. He was with the
Prince of Conde at the battle of Rocroi in 1643; and in 1688
he distinguished himself at the conquest of Franche Compte.
In 1672 he commanded in chief the French army in Hol¬
land, when he defeated the enemy near Woerden and
Bodegrave ; and the retreat which he effected in 1673 was
universally admired. He became marshal of France in 1675,
gained the battle of Fleurs in 1690, that of Steenkirk in
1692, and that of Nerwinde in 1693. He died at Versailles
in 1695.
LUXEUIL, a town and watering-place of France, de¬
partment Haute-Saone, near the rivers Lanterne and
Breuchin, 16 miles N.E. of Vesoul. It is situate at the
extremity of a fertile plain, and is well laid out in substan¬
tially built streets, many of which are ornamented with
fountains. The edifices of chief interest are,—the ecclesi¬
astical college, formerly a Benedictine abbey, founded in
the fourteenth century; the old town-hall, erected about
the same time ; and a mansion, once occupied by Cardinal
Jouffroy. Besides these there is a large bath-house in the
centre of a beautiful park, plentifully supplied with ther¬
mal spring water. The town has manufactures of ironmon-
gery, straw hats, and brandy; and carries on a brisk trade
in agricultural produce. It was celebrated for the efficacy
of its waters in the time of the Romans, who erected baths
here, of which the remains are still extant. In the sixth
century an abbey was founded by St Colomban, which after¬
wards became one of the most famous in France. Pop. 4100.
LUXOR, or El Uksur, near Thebes. (See Egypt.)
• or LuqoN, the largest of the Philippine Islands,
Ye /i o ^astern Archipelago, lies between N. Lat. 12.10. and
18.43., E. Long. 119. 45. and 124. 10. In form it is very
irregular, resembling in some measure a bent arm, and the
coast is deeply indented with gulfs and bays. It consists
o two peninsulas, the northern called Luzonia, embrac¬
ing foui-fifths of the whole; and the southern, or Ca¬
li U Z
marines,running nearly at right angles with the other. These Luzon,
peninsulas are joined by the Isthmus of Tayabas, about 50
miles long, and varying in breadth from 10 to 20 miles.
Fhe length of the entire island is about 550 miles, and
its breadth varies from 30 to 135 miles, excluding the
isthmus; ^ its area has been estimated at 52,328 square
miles. The most remarkable bays on the western coast
are those of Lingayen, Manilla, Balayen, and Batangas;
on the eastern, those of Difun, Lamon, St Miguel, La-
gonoy, and Albay. Like the other islands of the same
group, it is of igneous formation, its basis chiefly granite;
and like them it is traversed in its whole length from
N. to S. by a range of mountains, the Caraballos, inclin¬
ing chiefly to the eastern coast, to which they impart a bold
and precipitous character ; and branching in the northern
peninsula towards the eastern and western extremities,
Engano and Bojeador. The branch which terminates in
the promontory of Engano is the highest in the island,
and is called the Gran Cordillera, or Sierra Madre. The
loftiest summit, however, in this range, called Banajao or
Mujayjay, N. Lat. 14. 2., E. Long. 121. 14., is only 6214
feet above the sea, not more than half the height of the
mountains of Sumatra and Java. These mountains are
all of volcanic formation ; and in the peninsula of Ca-
marines some are still active volcanoes. From that of
Mayon, in the province of Albay, N. Lat. 13. 14., E. Long.
123. 34., eruptions took place in 1766 and 1814,—the town
of Albay being entirely destroyed by the latter; and from
the volcano in Lake Taal, about 1667 feet high, an erup¬
tion took place in 1754, which destroyed the town of Taal.
These eruptions were accompanied by extensive earth¬
quakes. The volcano of Balusan, in the S., serves as a
kind of beacon, and is on that account well known to
mariners. Lofty and extensive plains and valleys are in¬
closed by these ranges, the largest being those of Cagayan,
Abra, and Agno in Luzonia. The island has numerous
rivers and streams, the largest of which is the Cagayan,
passing through the plain of that name, and known also
as the Tajo (Tagus) and the Apari, navigable to a consider¬
able distance for small vessels, and falling into the sea, after
a course of about 200 miles, in the northern region at the
town of Apari. Passing through the same plain, and falling
into the sea farther W., is the Abulug. Into the Bay of
Manilla fall the united waters of the Chico and the Grande,
the former issuing from the Lake of Camaren. The united
stream passes through the fertile province of Pampanga, and
has a course of about 23 leagues. Two considerable rivers
derive their names from the plains of Agno and Abra ; the
former rises in the Central Caraballos and falls into the Gulf
of Lingayen; the latter rises in the Western Caraballos,
Lat. 16. 47., and falls into the sea by three branches near the
headland of Namagpacan. It is navigable for small vessels.
The most extensive lake in the Philippines is the La¬
guna de Bay, so called from the town of Bay at its S. ex¬
tremity. It has an area of about 350 square miles, and an
average depth of about 15 fathoms. Into this lake flow fifteen
different rivers, and its surplus waters are carried off by the
River Pasig, which falls into the Bay of Manilla near the city
of that name, after a course of about 21 miles. This lake
contains several islands, the largest of them, Talim, being 3
leagues in length by 1 in breadth. Its waters are everywhere
potable, and it has valuable fisheries. The Pasig is navi¬
gable for vessels of 500 tons, and though not one of the
largest, is the most important river of Luzon. After the
Lago de Bay is the deep Lake Taal already mentioned, be¬
tween Lat. 13.52.and 14.6., and which has a circumference of
15 leagues; then Lake Cagayan in the province of Cagayan,
about 12 leagues in circumference; lastly, Lake Camaren,
Lat. 15.40., about 6 miles long and 5 broad in the dry season.
There are also temporary lakes, called by the natives Pinag,
caused by the rains, and which either entirely disappear or
L U Z
Luzon, are much reduced in the dry season. The Pi nag of Candava,
' in the province of Bulacan, 8 leagues broad sometimes during
the rains, affords in the dry season rich and extensive pastures.
On the western side of the island the fall of rain is very
great, the rainy season lasting from the middle of June to
the middle of September; on the eastern, the rainy season
sets in wdth the N.E. monsoon, which prevails from Novem¬
ber to March; this difference is owing to the chain of the
Caraballos. The N.W. monsoon prevails from April to
October, the summer or dry season. The annual fall ot
rain a,t Manilla ranges between 84 and 114 inches. It
sometimes rains without intermission for a fortnight. Dur¬
ing this season the rivers overflow their banks; lakes are
formed; and, owing to the paucity of stone bridges and the
frequent loss of the wooden ones, whose places are supplied
with cane-rafts, inland communication is rendered extremely
difficult. The heat at Manilla at no time exceeds that of
a Madrid summer, as those allege who have experienced
both. The range of temperature in the former city is from
19° to 29° Reaumur.
The forests, with which the island is extensively covered,
afford excellent timber for house and ship building; the
dongon and molave are considered by the Spaniards supe¬
rior to the teak. The rice crops afford not only the prin¬
cipal food of the population, but a surplus for the Chinese
market; maiz and wheat have been introduced bv the
Spaniards. The yam (ubi) and the batata are the farina¬
ceous roots cultivated. The banana, mango, pine-apple,
orange, and musk melon, are abundant; the mango is said
to be of peculiar excellence. The sugar-cane is grown ;
oil is procured from the sesame and cocoa-nut; and spirits
from the buri and the nipa palm. Indigo, coffee, and cocoa
are of^comparatively recent introduction. Cotton and
the pina, and abaca banana, afford materials for textile
fabrics; the fibres of the latter, mixed with Chinese silk,
form the cloth for which the island is famous. Tobacco is
grown to some extent. The husbandry of Luzon, and the
system of irrigation, notwithstanding the abundance of
water, is by no means so perfect as in Java and some other
islands of the Archipelago ; but such is the productiveness
of the soil that it ranks next to Java in point of fertility and
population. Land is very valuable in Luzon, ranging from
L.22 to L.I25 per English acre—about ten times the usual
value of land in tropical Asia; irrigated land being highest
in price. The greatest portion of the cultivated land is
divided among small proprietors; the larger holdings are
farmed on the metairie system, half the produce being paid
to the proprietor. The crown holds the uncultivated lands,
and receives from pious foundations and the European set¬
tlers a nominal tithe, or quit-rent. Besides the lands under
wood and cultivation, there are extensive plains, furnishing
pasture for herds of horses, oxen, and buffaloes, none of
which are indigenous, but nevertheless exist wild to an ex¬
tent unknown in the rest of the Archipelago. Of the other
wild animals the most remarkable are the mountain cat
(Gato de Montes), the only animal of the feline tribe;
the hog, the only pachyderm in the island; and the
civet cat. The adjutant crane, the swallow which furnishes
the edible nest, great numbers of the pigeon and parrot
kind, and the common fowl in a wild state, are found. Ser¬
pents, alligators, and tortoises abound. The rivers, lakes,
and surrounding ocean swarm with excellent fish, furnish¬
ing employment to a great part, and, with rice, the chief food
of the whole of the population. Of fresh-water fish, the
sabalo, taken in Lake Taal, whither it ascends from the
sea tor the purpose of spawning, and the dalag, are most
esteemed. Lhe tripang, a sea fish taken in the shallow bays,
is cured, and forms an important item of export to China.
I he usua tropical insects infest the island; mosquitoes and
ants are the special plagues; but the hurricanes to which it
is exposed are an excellent protection against the locust.
L Y C
Besides the civilized and savage Malayan races (the former
inhabiting and cultivating the valleys, the latter subsisting
by the chase among the mountains), the island contains
tribes of Aetas, a race better known by the Spanish name
Negritos, applied to them from their resemblance to the
negro, without being so tall or so black. The Aetas, who
are found only in the five larger Philippines, exist in the
rudest possible manner, and are in a state of incessant hosti¬
lity with the other islanders. The number of those in Luzon
at all under control amounts to about 8300. The popula¬
tion of Luzon, which is very unequally distributed, was in
1850 computed at 2,534,613, having nearly tripled itself
in the course of half a century.
-The most considerable branch of industry is the weaving
of cotton and the other fabrics already mentioned, for home
use and exportation. This manufacture is most largely
carried on in the provinces of Ilocas, Camarines, and Tondo.
Some of the pina cloth made is extremely delicate and
beautiful; and it is rendered more valuable by the exqui¬
site embroidery of the native women. Their matting from
the buri palm, and cordage from the coarser abaca, are
much esteemed. The art of dyeing cloth is extremely im¬
perfect; that of printing it quite unknown. The women are
remarkably skilful in gold filagree work. Salt is made from
sea water by boiling and by exposure to the sun, and from
some plants by burning them. This manufacture is carried
on in the province of Pangasinan, which also provides the
neighbouring provinces with oil and sugar.
The coasting and inland trade of Luzon are attended
with difficulties,—the former from the equinoctial hurri¬
canes, and the monsoons themselves rendering only one
voyage practicable to the native traders in six months; the
latter from the rains and the condition in which they leave
the roads. Manilla is the central point; but there is a good
deal of trade between the various provinces,—in rice from
the more productive, in cotton from Ilocas, indigo from
Bulacan and Laguna, pina and abaca fabrics from Camarines.
Timber and canes are floated down the rivers in rafts.
The foreign trade of the Philippines is confined by law to
Manilla,—the staple exports being rice, sugar, tobacco,
coffee, indigo, hides, ebony, tortoise-shell, tripang, abaca
hemp and cloth, hats, and gold dust. Wine is imported
from Spain; cotton and woollen fabrics, iron and copper,
from Great Britain; and silk from China. (See Manilla.)
For the China trade Luzon has peculiar facilities, the num¬
ber of voyages not being restricted by the monsoons.
The name of the island is probably derived from that of
the western promontory of the Bay of Manilla, and that
from its supposed resemblance to the mortar (lozong) used
by the natives in husking rice. The Philippines were dis
covered by Magellan in 1521 ; but it was not till fifty years
after that Legaspi landed in Manilla Bay, where he found
a thriving Mohammedan town. He found no great difficulty-
in subjugating the island. The people were little advanced in
civilization, the use of fire-arms being almost unknown ; and
they were divided among themselves. Except some piratical
expeditions from China and Japan, and some abortive at¬
tempts on the part of the Portuguese and Dutch, the Span¬
iards were left in undisputed possession of the island till the
invasion by British troops from Madras in 1762. The ar¬
mament consisted of thirteen men of war and a force of
2300 men. Manilla was stormed and sacked, but restored
by the treaty of Paris after ten months’ occupation. (See
Philippines.)
LYBIA, or Libya, a name anciently given to all that
part of Africa lying between the borders of Egypt and the
River Triton, and comprehending CyrenaicapMarmarica,
and the Regio Syrtica. (See Africa.)
LYCiEUM. (See Athens.)
LYCAON, a king of Arcadia, son of Pelasgus V. and
Melibaea, or Cyllene. Some make him son of Hermes (Sch.
744 L Y C
Lycaonia ad Theocr. i. 124). It has been supposed by some that
II. there are two distinct kings of the same name, but there
v Lycia- seems no sufficient reason for such a supposition. He was
the father of many sons; some say fifty, and others only
twenty-two. According to the traditions of the Arcadians,
he was the first who instituted the worship of Zeus as the
Supreme Being, founding Lycosura upon the top of Mount
Lycseus (Paus. viii. 2, § 1). He is said to have offered human
victims on the altar of Zeus ; and from this the poets embel¬
lished the story in the manner that Ovid tells it (Ovid,
Met., i. 198). Rumours of the impiety of Lycaon and his
sons reached Jupiter, and he came down to examine their
truth. They placed before him part of the body of a child
dressed for dinner, when Lycaon and all his sons, with the
exception of Nyctimus, were killed by Zeus with a flash
of lightning, or, as others say, were changed into wolves
(Tzetz. ad Lycoph. 481; Eratosth., Catast. 8). Some say
that the flood of Deucalion was the immediate consequence
of the crimes of the sons of Lycaon (Apollodor. iii. 8, § 1).
LYCAONIA, a district of Asia Minor, was differently
bounded at different times. Xenophon mentions it as ex¬
tending westward from Cappadocia to the city of Iconium,
which vvas afterwards situated near its centre. Under the
sway of the Romans it suffered frequent dismemberments,
and often changed its limits. According to Strabo, how¬
ever, it was skirted on the N. by Galatia, on the E. by
Cappadocia, on the S. by Mount Taurus, and on the W.
by Pisidia and Phrygia. From the same author we learn
that Lycaonia abounded in sheep and wild asses, and pro¬
duced large quantities of salt. The chief towns were Ico¬
nium, Lystra, Derbe, Laodicea, Combusta, and Laranda.
Daring and lawless, the Lycaonians were much addicted
to war and rapine, and are first mentioned in history as re¬
sisting Cyrus the younger when passing through their coun¬
try on his famous expedition. They set at defiance the
power of the Persians; and though subdued successively
by Alexander the Great, the Seleucidae, Antiochus, Eu-
menes of Pergamus, and the Romans, they still preserved
their nationality. In the Acts of the Apostles they are
represented as having a language of their own.
LYCIA, a country of Asia Minor, was bounded on the
W. by Caria, on the N. by Phrygia and Pisidia, and on the
E. and S. by the Mediterranean Sea. From the account
given by Herodotus, we may infer that the country was
originally called Milyas, and was inhabited by two tribes,
the Solymi and Tremilse; or Termilae, that a band of ad¬
venturers under Lycus, son of Pandion, drove the former
tribe back to the northern mountains, and subdued the
latter ; and that, while the northern parts of the country still
retained the ancient name of Milyas, the remaining parts
were called Lycia, after the name of their conqueror. The
northern part of Lycia is rendered rugged by offsets from
Mount Taurus. The two principal rivers, the Limyrus in
the E., and the Xanthus in the W., both flow southward
into the Mediterranean. Pliny represents the country as
fruitful, and noted for its firs, cedars, and plane trees. It
appears to have been governed in the time of Homer by
kings, but afterwards by a congress of deputies from the
different free cities. By this congress, the chief magistrate,
called Lyciarch, the judges, and other officials, were chosen,
and the general affairs of the country administered. In the
time of Strabo the free cities amounted to twenty-three.
Of these, the principal were Xanthus, Patara, Olympus,
Myra, Pinara, and Tlos. All these had three votes each
in the decisions of the assembly. Of the remaining towns,
some had two votes each, others only one. So productive
of peace and good order was this constitution, that it was
left in full operation by the Romans after they had subdued
the country. Finally, however, it became disordered and
incompetent, and was abolished by the Emperor Claudius.
According to Herodotus, the Lycians had derived their
L Y C
customs partly from the Cretans, and partly from the Lycomedea
Carians ; but differed from these nations as well as from all 11
others in assuming the name of their mothers and not of Lycon-
their fathers.
Recent discoveries have ascertained that the Lycians
had an alphabet compounded of the Greek and some other
character. Although possessing a language of their own,
they seem also to have been intimate with that of the Greek,
a circumstance that might be partly the result and partly
the cause of their want of a national literature. The re¬
mains of their temples and richly ornamented tombs show,
that in architecture and sculpture they were not far behind
the Greeks.
At a very early period the Lycians seem to have waged
a protracted warfare with the Solymi, the aborigines of the
country; and to this struggle the legends of the Lycian
hero Bellerophon, as related by Homer, bears reference.
In the Iliad the Lycians are enumerated among the allies
of the Trojans; and their two champions, Glaucus and
Sarpedon, act a prominent part in the war. Strongly
banded together by their excellent government, the towns
of Lycia successfully repulsed the arms of Croesus. Yet
they were forced by Cyrus to submit to the yoke of the
Persians, and are mentioned by Herodotus as contributing
their contingent of fifty ships to the fleet of Xerxes. They
succumbed after a slight resistance to the power of Alex¬
ander the Great; and after the dismemberment of the
Macedonian empire, came successively under the sway of
the Ptolemies, the Seleucidse, and the Romans. Adopting
the cause of Octavianus and Antony, they were subdued
and severely taxed by Brutus. After the government of
Lycia had been abolished by the Emperor Claudius, that
country became part of the pi-efecture of Pamphylia. How¬
ever, in the reign of Theodosius II., it was constituted a
separate province. (See A Journal ivritten during an Ex¬
cursion in Asia Minor, London, 1839; and An Account
of Discoveries in Lycia, being a Journal kept during a
Second Excursion in Asia Minor, London, 1841, both by
Sir C. Fellows.)
LY COMEDES, king of the island Scyros, in the Aegean
Sea, father of Deidameia, by whom Achilles had Pyrrhus
or Neoptolemus. He was secretly entrusted with the care
of young Achilles, whom his mother Thetis had disguised
in female attire, to prevent him proceeding to the Trojan
war, where she knew he must unavoidably perish (Apollodor.
iii. 13, § 8; Sch. ad II., xix. 332). He treacherously slew
Theseus to gain the favour of Menestheus, or dreading the
influence of the strangers upon his own subjects (Pausan.
i. 17, §6). . ,
LYCON, a philosopher of the school of Aristotle, was a
native of Laodicea, in Phrygia. He was born B.c. 300,
and died at the age of seventy-four, b.c. 226. Upon the
death of Strato, Lycon became the head of the Aristotelian
sect (b.c. 270), and taught the school at Athens which had
been conducted successively by Aristotle, 1 heophrastus,
and Strato, whom he succeeded. We are informed by
Diogenes Laertius, in his life of this philosopher, that he
was particularly successful in directing the studies of youth ;
and that he regarded corporal punishment as not only use¬
less, but positively injurious, holding that youth ought to
be directed by feelings of honour and shame, as a horse is
by the spur and reins. FI is eloquence was full of mild
persuasion, and so melodious, that his contemporaries pre¬
fixed the letter G to his name, making it Glycon, which
signifies sweetness. He was much esteemed by Attains
and Eumenes L, kings of Pergamus ; and Antiochus, King
of Syria, did everything in his power to prevail on him to
remain at his court. He conducted the school with great
ability during upwards of forty-two years, and was suc¬
ceeded by Aristo Ceus (Plut. Mor., p. 605, b). The last
will of Lycon is given by Diogenes, and exhibits a strong
L Y C
Lycophron. proof of the kindness and goodness of his nature. It appears
from Cicero (Tusc. Disp. iii. 32), that he wrote on the
boundaries of good and evil. A work of his on the nature
of animals is quoted by Apuleius.
LYCOPHRON, a Greek poet, was a native of Chalcis,
a city in the island of Euboea, and the son of Socles; but
of his private history we are almost entirely ignorant. It
is supposed that Lycophron began to be distinguished in
the beginning of the reign of Philadelphus, B.c. 280, and
continued to rise in reputation till b.c. 250, during the first
years of the first Punic War, a period of thirty years. If
we be correctly informed respecting the mode in which he
acquired the friendship and favour of Ptolemy Philadel¬
phus, who then held his court at Alexandria, it is not
much to the credit of Lycophron. It is said that he owed
it to the flattering compliments he contrived to convey to
the prince through ingenious anagrams. Thus, from ITro-
A.€/xcuos, he made diro /xcXtros {of honey) ; in Arsinoe, the
name of the queen, he found tov "Hpas {violet of Juno).
Lycophron is included amongst those seven poets who from
their number were called the Pleiad. They were all con¬
temporary, and all graced the court of Philadelphus. Their
names were Homerus, Sositheus, Lycophron, Alexander
(^Etolus), Philiseus, Sosiphanes, or Dionysides, and Alan-
tides. Lycophron was the author of sixty-four, or, accord¬
ing to others, of forty-six, tragedies (Tzetzes ad Lyc., p.
270). Suidas gives the names of nineteen of them. They
have all, however, disappeared, and the only fragment of
them that has been preserved is a verse of four lines, quoted
by Stobaeus from his tragedy entitled Pelopidce. The
idea is beautiful, and is expressed with great simplicity.
“ The unhappy call upon death to relieve them while he is at
a distance; but when the last moments of life approach, we
are anxious to live. Man is never tired of life.” Lyco¬
phron is also said to have been the author of satires. One
of these, directed against Menedemus, in which he ridiculed
the frugal table of this founder of the Eretrian school, has
been particularly mentioned {Athen. x., p. 420; xi., p. 55).
He also wrote some books on comedy; but the work which
has been preserved, and for which he is best known, is en¬
titled Alexandra, ox Cassandra, from the daughter of Priam,
who had two appellations, like her brother Paris. The poem
consists of 1474 lines. Cassandra had acquired by a trick
the power of prophecy from Apollo; but having refused to
fulfil her engagement, the god prevented any credit being
attached to her words, and caused her to be regarded as
mad. She is shut up in a tower by Priam, that she may
not alarm the city, and from the summit of the tower she
observes the vessel depart which bore Paris to the shores
of Greece. This spectacle excites her prophetic powers,
and a servant who overhears her words repeats them to
Priam. She commences by deploring the fate which she
foresees must inevitably overtake her native city, and then
proceeds to foretell the various calamities which will arise
out of the Trojan War. She first recounts those which will
befall Helen, her parents, brothers, and sisters; and then
notices the fates of the different Grecian leaders, such as
Ajax, Diomede, Menelaus, Agamemnon, and Idomeneus.
This causes her to refer to the numerous wars which had
been carried on at various times between the inhabitants of
Europe and Asia. She begins with the rape of lo and
Europa, and, giving an historical sketch of the Argonauts,
the Amazons, the Trojans, Midas, and Xerxes, she brings
down her history to the time of Alexander the Great.
Besides, there are many episodes scattered throughout the
work, such as the Labours of Hercules, the Deluge of Deu¬
calion, the Wanderings of Alneas, and the colony planted
in Latium. This work of Lycophron is one of the most
obscure which antiquity has handed down to us, and it
appears that the author exerted all his ingenuity to render
it so. He has succeeded principally by the employment
VOL. XIII.
LYC 745
of unusual modes of syntax, of rare and obsolete words, of Lycurgus.
expressions far removed from the common dialect, of con-
fused metaphors, and of periods so involved that the reader
loses himself in a labyrinth of words. Of the many com¬
mentaries on the Alexandra, the only one extant is that
by Tzetzes. The best edition is that of Potter (Oxford,
1697, 1702), in which the text is accompanied by the scholia
of Tzetzes, the remarks of Canter and Meursius, and a
valuable index. Reichard (Leips., 1788), rejecting the com¬
mentaries of Tzetzes, Meursius, and Potter, published the
simple text and notes of Canter, adding a continued para¬
phrase like that which is found in the editions of the classics
ad usum Delphini. The scholia have been published
separately by Muller (3 vols. Leips., 1811). The best edi¬
tion, with the smaller scholia, a paraphrase, Latin transla¬
tion, and commentary, is that of L. Baclimann (Leips., 1830).
LYCURGUS, a celebrated lawgiver of Sparta, who es¬
tablished a constitution for his country which has ever been
regarded as one of the most curious specimens of legislation
that has been attempted to be imposed upon mankind;
yet we have no certain information respecting Lycurgus,
and even his very existence has been denied. It has been
supposed by some that there were several of the same
name, and, as in the case of Hercules, that the proceedings
of all of them were ascribed to one individual. Believing
in the existence of an individual of this name, we shall
proceed to narrate those facts in his history respecting
which writers are most fully agreed. He seems to have
flourished about 884 b.c., if we follow the chronology of
Eratosthenes, who placed him 108 years before the first
Olympiad (Eratosth. ap. Clem. Alex. Strom, i., p. 336, ed.
Colon.) He was the son of Eunomus, King of Sparta, and
was of the race of the Heraclidae. On the death of his father,
Polydectes his brother succeeded, and reigned nine years,
and on his death the general voice of the people called Ly¬
curgus to the throne. As soon as it appeared that his
brother’s widow was pregnant, he declared that the kingdom
must belong to her issue, provided it were male, and that he
should consider himself only as regent till the result was
known. The queen made a private offer to him that she
would destroy the child if he would consent to marry her.
Lycurgus, concealing the horror he felt for her wickedness,
and wishing to prevent the execution of her intention, allowed
her to imagine that he approved of her scheme. He pre¬
vailed on her to send the child to him as soon as it was
born that he might see it destroyed, but, instead of acting
as the queen had expected, he presented it to the people
as their new-born king. Thus the reign of Lycurgus
lasted only eight months. Though Lycurgus was much
beloved by his fellow-citizens, still there were many who
envied him, and more particularly the friends and relations
of the queen-mother. He began to feel his position so
uncomfortable, that he determined to leave his country till
his nephew Charilaus should be of age. During his volun¬
tary exile he visited the island of Crete, ivhere he examined
the forms of government established by Minos; he travelled
through Asia Minor and Egypt, observing everywhere the
peculiar laws of the country, and conversing with the most
illustrious personages. It was during one of those journeys
through the Ionian cities that he met with Homer’s poems,
and being charmed with the sound morality which per¬
vaded them, no less than with the beauty of the poetry, he is
said to have collected them into one volume, and to have
transmitted the work to Sparta. After an absence of
eighteen years, his countrymen prevailed on Lycurgus to
return home, where he found the city a prey to anarchy,
the authority of the magistrates disregarded, and everything
tending to a dissolution of all the bonds of society. He
had been so charmed with the form of government he had
found established in Crete, that he resolved to introduce
it into Sparta; but he did not succeed without much opposi-
5 b
746 L Y C
Lycurgus tion, and exciting many popular tumults. It seems diffi-
II cult to imagine how he contrived to obtain their consent, as
Lydgate. tjie jawg miist; ilave been particularly burdensome to those
who had been hitherto accustomed to a different form of
life. He violated all the rights of private, property, and
seizing upon the land, divided it into equal portions among
the inhabitants. He at the same time stopped the cur¬
rency of gold and silver, and allowed nothing but iron
moneys. The inhabitants were obliged to eat at a public
table, and he took care that their food should be of the most
frugal kind. The children were educated together with¬
out regard to rank, and the chief object of their education
was to make them obedient to command, to endure labour,
to fight, and to conquer. After he had instituted these laws,
he made the people swear to observe them till he should
return, and left his country for ever. (For an account of
the legislation of Lycurgus, see Sparta.)
Lycurgus, one of the most celebrated orators of
Greece, was born at Athens about the year b.c. 400, and
died about b.c. 323. He was son of Lycophron, and grand¬
son of Lycurgus, one or other of whom was put to death
by the Thirty Tyrants, B.C. 404 (Phot. Cod. cclxviii., p.
1483). In his early years he studied philosophy under Plato,
and the political constitution of his country under Isocrates.
At what period he entered upon public life is nowhere re¬
corded, but we find him, B.c. 343, appointed, along with
Demosthenes, one of the ambassadors to counteract the
proceedings of Philip in different parts of Greece (De-
mosth. Philipp, iii., p. 129). So much confidence had h;s
fellow-citizens in his integrity, that he continued to preside
over the collection of the public revenue for twelve or
fifteen years. After the defeat of the Greeks at the battle
of Chmronea, B.c. 338, he brought Lysicles, the general of
the Athenians on that occasion, to trial before the people,
and procured his condemnation (Diodor. Sicul. xvi. 88).
He restored the credit of comic exhibitions at the Lenaean
festival, and enacted honours for the three great tragic poets
(Vitce Decern Or., p. 841). Lycurgus was one of the orators
demanded by Alexander after the destruction of Thebes,
B.c. 335 ; but the Athenians refused to give him up (Plut.
Demosth. c. 23 ; Arrian, Exp. i. 10). It would appear that
Lycurgus died about the time of the exile of Demosthenes,
B.c. 323, the year before that orator’s death (Vitce Decern
Or., p. 842). There were fifteen orations of Lycurgus extant
in the time of Plutarch and Photius, but only one has been
preserved (against Leocrates), which was delivered B.c. 330.
It is published by Hauptmann (Leips., 1751), by Schulze
(Bruns., 1789), by Osann (Jena, 1821), and, along with
other fragments, by Bekker (Magdeb., 1821). The best
editions are those of Baiter and Sauppe (Turici, 8vo, 1834),
and E. Maetzner (Berlin, 8vo, 1836).
LYDGATE, John, an English poet, one of the imme¬
diate successors of Chaucer, assumed as his surname the
name of his native place in Suffolk. The date of his birth
is unknown; but it has been ascertained that he entered
the Benedictine Abbey of Bury St Edmunds, and was
ordained a subdeacon in 1389, a deacon in 1393, and a
priest in 1397. He had begun to write before the death
of Chaucer in 1400; and, according to Warton, seems to
have reached the acme of his fame in 1430. After a short
attendance at the university of Oxford, he had travelled
into France and Italy, and had acquired an intimacy with
the language and literature of those countries. With his
taste thus improved, he opened a school for the instruction
of the sons of the nobility in the arts of composition, both
prose and metrical. He died at some period before 1461.
Fo his excellence as a poet, and his proficiency in polite
learning, Lydgate added a knowledge of geometry, astro¬
nomy, and theology. His genius was as many-sided as his
erudition. With equal facility he delineates the London
Lichpenny and the Lyffe of our Lady, the religious aus-
L Y D
terity of St Austin and the heroic deeds of Guy of Warwick. Lydia.
“ If a disguising was intended,” says Warton, “by the Com-
pany of Goldsmiths, a mask before his majesty at Eltham,
a May-game for the sheriffs and aldermen of London, a
mumming before the lord mayor, a procession of pageants
from the creation for the festival of Corpus Christi, or a
carol for the coronation, Lydgate was consulted and gave
the poetry.” This ease in composition, however, was often
purchased by a lameness in prosody, and a want of preci¬
sion both in thought and expression. He has not the
original invention and the vivid representation of his master
Chaucer, whom he was so anxious to rival. Yet in many
of his descriptions of scenery we find a melody of rhythm,
and a sweetness of fancy, which entitle him to the name of
an improver of English versification.
A complete catalogue of Lydgate’s voluminous works
is given in Ritson’s Bibliographia Poetica. His prin¬
cipal poems are three. The Fall of Princes, printed by
Pynson in 1494, is a paraphrase of a French translation of
Boccacio’s De Casibus Virorum. The princes are intro¬
duced dramatically to narrate their own mishaps ; and, ac¬
cordingly, the poem was not inaptly styled in the first
edition, The Tragedies gathered by John Bochas of all
such Princes as fell from theyr estates since the Creadon of
Adam, See. His Storie of Thebes, first printed by Thinne
in 1561, at the end of Chaucer’s works, is an additional
Canterbury tale, in which the classical story of the sons of
GEdipus is told with all the circumstances and machinery
of romance. In a similar manner is the Trojan War treated
in his Troye-Bohe, printed in 1513 by command of Henry
VIII. Tliis poem is professedly a translation or paraphrase
of the Historia Trojana of Guido de Colonna. The Minor
Poems of Dan John Lydgate, edited by Halliwell, were
published by the Percy Society, 1840.
LYDIA, in Ancient Geography, a celebrated kingdom
of Asia Minor. The ancient writers inform us that Lydia
was first called Mceouia, or Meonia, from Meon, King of
Phrygia and Lydia; and that it was known under no other
denomination until the reign of Atys, when it began to be
called Lydia, from his son Lydus. Though Lydia and
Maeonia are by most authors indifferently used for one and
the same country, yet they are sometimes distinguished;
that part including Mount Tmolus, and watered by the
Pactolus, being properly called Mceonia; and the other,
situate upon the coast, Lydia. This distinction is ob¬
served by Homer, Callimachus, Dionysius, and other an¬
cient writers. In after ages, when the lonians, who had
planted a colony on the coast of the TEgean Sea, began to
gain influence, that part was called Ionia, and the name of
Lydia given to the ancient Mseonia. Lydia, according
to Pliny, Ptolemy, and other ancient geographers, was
bounded by Mysia Major on the N., by Caria on the
S., by Phrygia Major on the E., and by Ionia on the
W., and was situate between the 37th and 39th degrees
of N. latitude. But what the ancients style the king¬
dom of Lydia was not confined within these narrow bound¬
aries ; it extended from Halys to the JEgean Sea. Pliny’s
description includes TEolia, situate between the Hermus
and the Caicus.
Some of the ancients conceive the Lydians to have’ been
a mixed colony of Phrygians, Mysians, and Carians; but
others, finding some conformity in religion and religious
ceremonies between the Egyptians and Tuscans, who were
a Lydian colony, conclude, without further evidence, that
they were originally Egyptians. All we know for certain
is, that the Lydians were a very ancient nation; and this
is manifest from their fables; for Atys, Tantalus, Pelops,
Niobe, and Arachne, are all said to have been the children
of Lydus. Zanthus, in his Lydiaca, quoted by Stephanus,
informs us, that the ancient city of Ascalon, one of the
five satrapies of the Philistines, mentioned in the books of
LYDIA.
Lydia. Joshua and the Judges, was built by one Ascalus, a Lydian,
whom Achiamus, King of Lydia, had appointed to com¬
mand a body of troops which he sent into Syria, we know
not on what occasion. The Heraclidae, or Kings of Lydia
descended from Hercules, began to reign before the Trojan
War, and had been preceded by a long line of sovereigns
sprung from Atys, and hence styled a strong proof
of the antiquity of that kingdom.
The Lydians began very early to be governed by kings,
whose authority seems to have been despotic, and the
crown hereditary. We read of three distinct races of kings
reigning over Lydia,—the Atyadae, the Heraclidae, and_the
Mermnadae. The Atyadce were so called from Atys the
son of Cotys, and grandson of Manes, the first Lydian king.
But the history of this family is obscure and fabulous. The
Atyadae were succeeded by the Heraclidce, or the descen¬
dants of Hercules. This hero having, by the direction
of the oracle, been sold as a slave to Omphale, Queen of
Lydia, in order to expiate the murder of Iphitus, had by
one of her slaves, during his captivity, a son named Cleo-
laus, whose grandson Argon was the first of the Heraclidae
who ascended the throne of Lydia. This race is said to
have reigned 505 years, the son succeeding the father for
twenty-two generations. They began to reign about the
time of the Trojan War. The last of the family was the
unhappy Candaules, who lost both his life and kingdom by
his imprudence. Of this event an account is given by
Herodotus. Candaules had a wife whom he passionately
loved, and believed to be the most beautiful of her sex.
He extolled her charms to Gyges, his favourite, whom he
used to intrust with his most important affairs; and'to con¬
vince him the more of her beauty, resolved to show her to
him quite undressed. Enraged at this wanton affront, she
told Gyges that he must either by his death atone for the
criminal action he had been guilty of, or put to death Can¬
daules, the contriver of it, and receive both her and the
kingdom of Lydia as his reward. Gyges chose the latter
alternative, and having stabbed the king whilst he was
asleep, married the queen, and took possession of the king¬
dom, in which he was confirmed by the response of the
oracle of Delphi. Candaules is said to have purchased, for
its weight in gold, a picture painted by Bularchas, repre¬
senting a battle of the Magnates; a circumstance which
shows how early the art of painting had begun to be appre¬
ciated in that country, Candaules having been contem¬
porary with Romulus.
Gyges having thus possessed himself of the kingdom of
Lydia, sent many rich and valuable presents to the oracle
of Delphos, amongst which were six cups of gold, weigh¬
ing thirty talents, and greatly esteemed for the workman¬
ship. He made war upon Miletus and Smyrna, took the
city of Colophon, and subdued the whole country of Troas.
In his reign, and by his permission, the city of Abydus was
built by the Milesians. Plutarch and other writers give a
different account of his accession to the crown of Lydia,
and inform us, without making any mention of the queen,
that Gyges rebelled against Candaules, and slew him in an
engagement. In Gyges commenced the third race called
Mermnada, who were also, properly speaking, Heraclidae,
being descended from a son of Hercules by Omphale.
Gyges reigned thirty-eight years, and was succeeded on
the throne by his son Ardyes, who possessed himself of
Priene,and of Sardis the metropolis of Lydia, and after reign¬
ing forty-nine years, was succeeded by his son Sadyattes,
who reigned twelve years, during most part of which he
carried on war with the Milesians.
After him came his son Alyattes, who, for the space of
five years, continued the war which his father had begun
against the Milesians, ravaging their country, and about
harvest-time yearly carrying away all their corn ; when
having on one occasion set fire to the corn in the fields,
the flames were carried by a violent wind, which happened
at that time to blow, to the temple of Minerva at Assesus,
and burned it down to the ground. Not long afterwards,
Alyattes falling sick, sent to consult the oracle at Delphos;
but the god refused to return any answer until the king
should rebuild the temple of Minerva at Assesus. Alyattes,
thus warned, despatched ambassadors to Miletus, enjoining
them to conclude a truce with the Milesians until the temple
should be rebuilt. On the arrival of. the ambassadors,
Thrasybulus, then King of Miletus, having commanded all
the corn which was at that time in the city to be brought
into the market-place, ordered the citizens to banquet in
public, and to revel as if the city were plentifully stored
with all manner of provisions. This stratagem Thrasybulus
practised that the ambassadors, seeing such quantities of
corn, and the people everywhere diverting themselves,
might acquaint their master with his affluence, and thus
divert him from pursuing the war. As Thrasybulus had
intended, so it happened. Alyattes, who believed the Mi¬
lesians greatly distressed for provisions, receiving a different
account from his ambassadors, changed the truce into a
lasting peace, and ever afterwards lived in amity and friend¬
ship with Thrasybulus and the Milesians.
After a reign of fifty-seven years, he was succeeded by
his son Croesus, whose uninterrupted prosperity, in the first
years of his reign, far eclipsed the glory of his predecessors.
He was the first who made war on the Ephesians, whose
city he besieged and took, notwithstanding their conse¬
crating it to Diana, and their fastening the walls by a
rope to her temple, which was seven stadia from the city.
After the reduction of Ephesus, he, under various pretences,
attacked the lonians and ^Eolians, obliging them, and all
the other Greek states of Asia, to pay him an annual tri¬
bute. Having met with such extraordinary success by land,
the Lydian prince determined to render his power equally
conspicuous by sea. For this purpose he had serious
thoughts of equipping a fleet, with which he purposed to
invade and conquer the Grecian islands directly opposite to
his dominions. But this design, which, considering the
slow progress of maritime power amongst the nations most
diligent in attaining it, would probably have failed of suc¬
cess, was prevented by the advice of a philosophical tra¬
veller, conveyed in such a lively turn of wit as easilv changed
the resolution of the king. Bias of Priene, in Ionia (some
say Pittacus of Mitylene, in the Isle of Lesbos), whilst he
travelled, after the Grecian custom, from curiosity and a
love of knowledge, was presented to Croesus at the Lydian
court; and being asked by that prince what news he brought
from Greece, answered with a republican freedom, that the
islanders had collected powerful squadrons of cavalry with
an intention of invading Lydia. “ May the gods grant,”
said Croesus, “ that the Greeks, who are unacquainted with
horsemanship, should attack the disciplined valour of the
Lydian cavalry; there would speedily be an end to the
contest.” “ In the same manner,” replied Bias, “ as if the
Lydians, who are totally unexperienced in naval affairs,
should invade the Grecians by sea.” Struck by the acute¬
ness of this unexpected observation, Croesus desisted from
his intended expedition against the islands; and, instead
of employing new means for extending his conquests, de¬
termined peaceably to enjoy the laurels he had won, and
to display the grandeur he had attained. But his happiness
was soon afterwards allayed by the death of his favourite
son Atys, who was unfortunately killed in the chase of a
wild boar. This loss rendered him disconsolate for two
years, and reduced him to a state of inaction till the con¬
quests of Cyrus and the growing power of the Persians
roused up his martial spirit, and diverted his mind to other
thoughts.
Croesus apprehending that the success which had attended
Cyrus in all his undertakings might at last prove dangerous
747
748
LYDIA.
Lydia, to himself, resolved, if possible, to put a stop to his progress.
In adopting this resolution, which might probably be at¬
tended with the most important consequences, he was de¬
sirous to learn the will of heaven concerning the issue of
the war. The principal oracles which he consulted were
those of Branchis in Ionia, of Ammon in Libya, and of
Delphi in Greece. But, amongst these respected shrines,
the oracle of Delphi maintained its ascendant, as the most
faithful interpreter of fate. Croesus was fully persuaded of
its veracity; and, generally desirous to compensate the
priests of Apollo for the trouble which he had already given,
and still meant to give, he sacrificed three thousand oxen
to the god, and adorned his shrine with gifts equally valuable
for the workmanship and for the materials, viz., precious
vessels of silver, ewers of iron beautifully inlaid and ena¬
melled, various ornaments of pure gold, particularly a
golden lion weighing ten talents, and a female figure three
cubits, or nearly five feet in height. In return for these mag¬
nificent presents, the oracle, in equivocal and ambiguous
language, flattered Croesus with obtaining an easy victory
over his enemies, and with enjoying a long life and a pros¬
perous reign. The god at the same time enjoined him to
contract an alliance with the most powerful of the Grecian
states.
Elevated with these favourable predictions of Apollo,
Croesus prepared to yield a ready obedience to the only
condition required on his part for the accomplishment of
his aspiring design. Not deeming himself sufficiently ac¬
quainted with the affairs of Greece to know what parti¬
cular republic was meant by the oracle, he made especial
inquiry of those who were best informed concerning the
state of Europe, and discovered, that amongst all the mem¬
bers of the Grecian confederacy, the Athenians and Lace¬
daemonians were justly entitled to the pre-eminence. But
in order to learn which of these communities deserved the
epithet of “ most powerful,” it was necessary to send am¬
bassadors into Greece. The Lydians despatched on this
important commission soon discovered that the Athenians,
having been long harassed by internal dissensions, were
actually governed by the tyrant. Pisistratus. The Spartans,
on the other hand, though anciently the worst regulated of
all the Grecian communities, had enjoyed domestic peace
and foreign prosperity ever since they had adopted the wise
institutions of Lycurgus. To the Lydian ambassadors,
therefore, the Spartan republic appeared to be pointed out
by the oracle as the community whose alliance they were
enjoined to solicit. Having accordingly repaired to Sparta,
they were introduced not only to the kings and senate, but,
as the importance of the negotiation required, to the general
assembly of the Lacedaemonians, to whom they, in few
words, declared the object of their commission. The Lace¬
daemonians, pleased with the alliance of a warlike king, and
still more with the fame of their valour, readily accepted
the proposal. To the strict connection of an offensive and
defensive league they joined the more respected ties of
sacred hospitality. A few years before this transaction they
had sent to Sardis to purchase gold for making a statue of
Apollo, and on that occasion Croesus had gratuitously sup¬
plied their wants. Remembering this generosity, they gave
the Lydian ambassadors at their departure, as a present
for their master, a vessel of brass containing three hundred
anaphoras (above twelve hogsheads), and beautifully carved
on the outside with various forms of animals.
Croesus, having thus happily accomplished the design
recommended by the oracle, was eager to set out upon his
intended expedition. He had formerly entered into alli¬
ances with Amasis, King of Egypt, and Labynetus, King of
Babylon; and he had now obtained the friendship of the
most warlike nation of Europe. The newly-raised power
of Cyrus and the Persians seemed incapable of resisting
such a formidable confederacy. Elevated with these flat¬
tering ideas of his own invincible greatness, Croesus waited Lydia,
not to attack the Persian dominions until he had collected
the strength of his allies. The sanguine impetuosity of his
temper, unexperienced in adversity, unfortunately preci¬
pitated him into measures no less daring than ruinous.
Attended only by the arms of Lydia and a numerous band
of mercenaries, whom his immense wealth enabled him at
any time to call into his service, he marched towards the
River Halys, and having with much difficulty crossed that
deep and broad stream, entered the province of Cappado¬
cia, which formed the western frontier of the Median do¬
minions. That unfortunate country soon experienced all
the calamities of invasion. The Pterian plain, the most
beautiful and fertile district of Cappadocia, was laid waste ;
the ports of the Euxine, as well as several inland cities,
were plundered, and the inoffensive inhabitants were either
put to the sword, or dragged into captivity. Encouraged
by the unresisting softness of the natives of those parts,
Croesus was eager to push forwards; and if Cyrus did noi
previously meet him in the field, he had determined to pro¬
ceed in triumph to the mountains of Persia. Against this
dangerous resolution he was in vain exhorted by a prudent
Lydian named Sandanis, whom he dismissed with con¬
tempt, and prepared to prosecute his fatal enterprise.
Meanwhile, the approach of Cyrus, who was not of a
temper to permit his dominions to be ravished with impu¬
nity, afforded the Lydian king an opportunity of bringing
the war to a more speedy issue than by his intended expe¬
dition into Persia. The army of Cyrus gradually aug¬
mented as he advanced. He marched from the shores of
the Caspian to those of the Euxine Sea before the army
of Croesus had provided the necessaries for their advance.
That prince, when apprised of the neighbourhood of the
Persians, encamped on the Pterian plain ; Cyrus likewise
took up a position at no great distance ; frequent skir¬
mishes occurred between the light troops; and at length a
general engagement was fought with equal fury and per¬
severance, and only terminated by the darkness of night.
The loss on both sides prevented a renewal of the battle;
but the numbers as well as the courage of the Persians
much exceeded the expectation of Croesus; and as they
discovered no intention of harassing his retreat, he deter¬
mined to fall back towards Sardis.
But this design was defeated by the watchful vigilance
of Cyrus. That experienced leader allowed the enemy
to retire without molestation, carefully informing himself
of every movement they made, and of every measure they
seemed determined to pursue. Patiently watching the op¬
portunity of a just revenge, he waited until Croesus had re¬
entered his capital, and disbanded the foreign mercenaries,
who composed the most numerous division of his army.
Cyrus then put his Persians in motion ; and such was his
celerity, that he brought the first intelligence of his own
arrival in the plain of Sardis. Croesus, whose firmness
might well have been shaken by the imminence of this
unforeseen danger, was not wanting on the present occasion
to the duties which he owed to his fame and the lustre of
the Lydian throne. Though his mercenaries were dis¬
banded, his own subjects, who served him from attachment,
who had been long accustomed to victory, and who were
animated with a high sense of national honour, burned with
a desire to check the daring insolence of the invaders.
Croesus indulged and encouraged this generous ardour.
The Lydians in that age fought on horseback, armed with
long spears ; the strength of the Persians consisted in their
infantry. The latter were so little accustomed to the use
of horses, that camels were almost the only animals which
they employed as beasts of burden. This circumstance
suggested to a Mede, by name Harpagus, a stratagem,
which, being communicated to Cyrus, was immediately
adopted with the approbation of that prince. Harpagus
L Y D
L Y N 749
Lydius
Lapis
having observed that horses had a strong aversion to the
shape and smell of camels, advised that the Persian army
should be drawn up with the camels in front, mounted with
armed men. As the troops on both sides approached to
join battle, the Lydian cavalry, terrified at the unusual
appearance of the camels, mounted with men in arms,
were thrown into disorder, and the horses, turning their
heads, endeavoured to escape from the field; but the Ly¬
dians, abandoning their horses, prepared with uncommon
bravery to attack the enemy on foot. They were soon
obliged to take refuge, however, within the fortified strength
of Sardis, where they imagined themselves secure. The
walls of that city bade defiance to the rude art of attack, as
then practised by the most warlike nations. If the Persian
army should invest it, the Lydians were provided with pro¬
visions for several years; and there was reason to expect
that in a few months, nay, even weeks, they would receive
such assistance from Egypt, Babylonia, and Greece, to
which countries they had already sent ambassadors, as
would oblige the Persians to raise the siege.
The Lydian ministers despatched into Greece met with
great sympathy from the Spartans. They immediately re¬
solved, therefore, to send speedy and effectual relief to
Croesus; and for this purpose they assembled their troops,
made ready their vessels, and prepared everything neces¬
sary for the expedition. The valour of the Spartans might
perhaps have upheld the sinking empire of Lydia ; but be¬
fore their armament set sail, Croesus was no longer a sove¬
reign. Notwithstanding the strength of Sardis, that city
had been taken by storm on the twentieth day of the siege ;
the walls having been scaled in a quarter which, appearing
altogether inaccessible, was too carelessly guarded. This
was effected by the enterprise of Hyreades, a Mede, who
accidentally observed a sentinel descend part of the rock in
order to recover his helmet. Hyreades was a native of the
mountainous province of Mardia, and, being accustomed to
clamber over the dangerous precipices of his native country,
resolved to try his activity in passing the rock upon which
he had discovered the Lydian. The design was more easily
accomplished than he had reason to expect; emulation and
success encouraged the bravest of the Persians to follow his
example; these were supported by great numbers of their
countrymen ; the garrison of Sardis was surprised, the cita¬
del stormed, and the rich capital of Lower Asia subjected
to the vengeful rapacity of an indignant conqueror. Thus
ended the ancient kingdom of Lydia, which continued sub¬
ject to the Persians until they in their turn were conquered
by the Macedonians.
LYDIUS LAPIS, in the natural history of the ancients,
the name of the stone used by way of touchstone for the
trial of gold and silver, and called by some Heraclius lapis.
It was a species of silicious slate.
LYE, Edward, an English clergyman, born at Totness
in 1704, and educated at the university of Oxford, distin¬
guished for his extensive acquaintance with the Teutonic
languages. He appeared before the public for the first
time in 1743, in the character of editor of the valuable
MSS. of Francis Junius, entitled Etymologicum Anglica-
num, which had lain so long unedited in the Bodleian
Library. He afterwards, at the request of Berzelius, Bishop
of Upsal, published a translation of Ulphilas’ version of the
Evangelists. He wrote an extensive dictionary of the
Anglo-Saxon and Gothic languages, which appeared after
his death in 1772, 2 vols. folio. He held the living of
Yardley-Hastings, in Northampton, till his death in 1 767.
LYME-REGIS, a parliamentary and municipal borough
and seaport-town of England, Dorsetshire, at the mouth of
the Lyme, which here enters the English Channel, 22 miles
\\ . of Dorchester. It is beautifully situate in a hollow be¬
tween two hills, and consists of irregularly built streets.
The daces of chief interest are,—St Michael’s church, re¬
built in the fifteenth century, in the later English and de- Lymington
corated styles ; and the high-water pier, or “ cobb,” a semi- II
circular structure of great strength, affording safe accom-
modation for vessels. The trade of the town, though less ^ ,
important than formerly, is still carried on with activity. —■ v ■ra
In December 1855 there were registered here 22 ves¬
sels, of the aggregate burden of 1670 tons. There entered
during the same year 182 vessels, of 8897 tons; and cleared
121 vessels, of 5017 tons. Of the former, 99 vessels, of
5953 tons, were in the coasting, and 77, of 2702 tons, in
the colonial trade. The manufactures are unimportant; the
inhabitants being chiefly employed in trading in agricultu¬
ral produce, and in stone-cutting. The town was formerly
a place of considerable importance. It contributed four
ships to Edward III.’s navy at the siege of Calais. In the
reigns of Henry IV. and V. it was plundered and destroyed
by the French ; while, in later times, it was successfully de¬
fended against Prince Maurice in 1644, for two months,
by Colonel Ceeley and Blake, afterwards so famous as an
admiral. The borough is governed by a mayor, four aider-
men, and twelve councillors; and returns one member to par¬
liament. Market-days, Tuesday and Friday. Pop. (1851),
parliamentary borough, 3516; municipal borough, 2661.
LYMINGTON, a parliamentary and municipal borough
and seaport-town of England, Hampshire, at the mouth of
the Lymington, which here enters the Solent Channel op¬
posite the Isle of Wight, 17 miles S.W. of Southampton.
It is pleasantly situate near the sea, and consists chiefly of
a long well-built street. The parish church, erected in the
reign of Henry VI., and dedicated to St Thomas a Becket,
contains several handsome monuments. The harbour of
the port has depth of water for vessels of 300 tons, but the
trade is insignificant. Salt is the chief manufacture, which
is here made into Epsom as well as common salt. Of late
years many improvements have been effected in the town
and vicinity for the accommodation of the numerous
sea-bathers who reside here in the summer. It is a town
of considerable antiquity, is governed by a mayor, 4 aider-
men, and 12 councillors; and returns 2 members to parlia¬
ment. Market-day, Saturday. Pop. (1851), parliamentary
borough, 5282 ; municipal borough, 2651.
LYNCHBURG, a town of the United States of North
America, Campbell county, Virginia, on the right side of
the James River, 110 miles W. by S. of Richmond, N. Lat.
37. 36., W. Long. 79. 22. It stands on a gently rising
ground, surrounded by magnificent scenery, and is well
located for commercial purposes. By the great James River
and Kanawha Canal it has communication with Richmond
and the sea coast, and with the Ohio River in the westward;
while by rail it is connected with all the principal places in
the States. The chief trade is in tobacco and grain;
140,000 cwts. of the former being inspected here annually.
Water-power is plentifully supplied from the James River;
and manufactures of tobacco, brass, ironware, and cot¬
ton stuffs, are largely carried on. Lynchburg was founded
in 1786, and incorporated 1805. Pop. (1848) 7678, (1853)
about 10,000.
LYNCH LAW, an irregular and unconstitutional mode
of administering justice in some parts of the United States
of America, California, &c., and which is said to have been
so called from a farmer of Virginia named Lynch, who, on
one occasion, without waiting for public justice, chased a
thief, tied him to a tree, and there flogged him. Some de¬
fend this rude mode of summary justice on the ground of
the difficulty which is experienced in certain unsettled dis¬
tricts and states of society of enforcing regular and formal
law. But while this swift method of avenging public
wrong may sometimes have a salutary effect in curbing law¬
lessness, it must surely, when frequently adopted, contri¬
bute to demoralization rather than good order in a commu¬
nity. Marryat, in his Diary in America, instances fifty-
750 L Y N
L Y 0
Lynn. nine assassinations in a single year in a town of Virginia
with 300Q inhabitants. There have been frequent instances,
especially in the southern states of the Union, of violent
outbreaks of popular revenge, under the form of lynch law,
against the advocates, real or supposed, of the abolition of
slavery. (See Miss Martineau’s Society in America?)
LYNN, or Lynn-Regis, a seaport and parliamentary
and municipal borough of England, in the county of Nor¬
folk, is situate on the Ouse, about 40 miles W.N.W. from
Norwich. The town is well lighted and paved, has three
principal streets running parallel to the river, and is tra¬
versed by four small streams called “ fleets.” It has an
old guildhall, an exchange and custom-house, a borough
jail, a theatre, several schools, a young men’s institute,
hospitals, alms-houses, and a market-cross 70 feet in
height. The principal market-place is spacious, and in¬
closed by good houses. St Margaret’s church, a cruci¬
form structure, founded in 1.100 is partly of the early Eng¬
lish style, and is especially rich in monumental brasses.
The chapel of St Nicholas, built by Edward III., has a
fine timber roof and a rich south porch. There are also
the church of All Saints, St John’s church, and several
meeting-houses of Independents, Baptists, and Wesleyan
Methodists. Thoresby’s grammar-school, founded about
1500, has six exhibitions for Cambridge University. Ship¬
building, rope-making, shrimp and other fisheries, engage a
great part of the population. The harbour of Lynn is
capable of containing about 300 sail; but the long chan¬
nel which connects it with the sea is often obstructed by
shifting sands. Agricultural produce, and a fine white
sand used in the manufacture of glass, are exported. The
imports are chiefly wine from France, Spain, and Portugal;
and hemp, wood, and flax from the Baltic. The number
and tonnage of vessels registered at Lynn on 31st Decem¬
ber 1855 were as follows:—Sailing vessels of and under
50 tons, 56 ; tonnage, 1832 : above 50 tons, 110; tonnage,
16,253. Steam-vessels of and under 50 tons, 2 ; tonnage,
26: above 50 tons, 1 ; tonnage, 256. In the coasting
trade, during 1855, there entered the port 1260 sailing
vessels, of 109,898 tons; and 49 steam-vessels, of 5433
tons: and there cleared out 397 sailing vessels, of23,100
tons ; and 49 steam-vessels, of 5433 tons. In the colonial
trade, during the same year, there cleared out 1 British
vessel of 225 tons. For 1855 the reports concerning the
foreign trade were,—inwards, 61 British vessels, 7003 ton¬
nage ; 85 foreign vessels, 6084 tonnage;—outwards, 25
British vessels, 2250 tonnage ; 13 foreign vessels, 990 ton¬
nage. Lynn is supposed to have existed in the time of the
Romans. Formerly a fief of the bishops of Norwich, and
called, on that account, Lynn Episcopi, it was emancipated
by Henry VIII., and at the same time received its present
name. Remains of the old fosse and wall are still seen.
On the east side of the town stands Red Mount chapel, oc¬
tagonal without, but cruciform within. There is also the
beautiful hexagonal steeple of Greyfriars, 90 feet in height,
supported by groined arches, and serving as a landmark
to ships entering the harbour. Lynn is governed by 1
mayor, 6 aldermen, and 18 councillors. Ever since the
time of Edward I., it has returned 2 members to parlia¬
ment. Pop. (1851) 19,355.
Lynn, a seaport-town of the United States of North
America, Essex county, Massachusetts, on the N.E. shore
of Massachusetts Bay, near the mouth of Saugus River, 9
miles N.E. of Boston ; N. Lat. 42. 28., W. Long. 70. 56.
It is regularly laid out on a gentle eminence rising gra¬
dually from the shore, and is environed by beautifully
wooded heights. The streets are generally long, and many
of them are ornamented with rows of trees. The chief
public buildings are,—the town-house, the lyceum, and
many churches and schools. There is also a natural his¬
tory institution, with a library and museum. Lynn has be¬
come famous as the principal seat of the boot and shoe
manufacture in New England, which has increased here
very rapidly. During the year ending June 1855, there
were made in Lynn 3,274,893 pairs of boots, and 6,000,700
pairs of shoes; the manufacture employing 6476 females,
and 4545 males, or nearly three-fourths of the whole po¬
pulation. Lynn and its neighbourhood are much re¬
sorted to by sea-bathers and pleasure parties from Boston.
It was founded in 1629, and incorporated as a city in 1850.
Pop. (1845) 9367, (1855) 15,800.
LYON KING-AT-ARMS. This office is of great anti¬
quity and respect in Scotland ; and although the precise date
of its institution is unknown, yet it must have been as early
as the introduction of armorial figures as hereditary marks
of gentility and distinction into this country, which was in
the twelfth century. (For a history and description of the
Lord Lyon’s court, see the article Herald.) The regalia
of this officer are,—a crown of gold, with a crimson velvet
cap, a gold tassel, and an ermine lining; a velvet robe
reaching to his feet, with the arms of the kingdom em¬
broidered thereon, before and behind, in the proper tinc¬
tures ; a triple row of gold chains round his neck, with an
oval gold medal pendant thereto, on one side of which is
the royal bearing, and on the other St Andrew with his
cross enamelled in proper colours, and a baton of gold ena¬
melled green, powdered with the badges of the kingdom.
On solemn occasions the Lord Lyon wears the regalia
above described; at all other times he wears the oval gold
medal or badge on his breast, suspended by a broad green
ribbon.
LYON, George Francis, was born at Chichester, in
Sussex, in 1795. He was scarcely thirteen when he en¬
tered the navy, and in 1816 he joined Lord Exmouth’s
squadron for the bombardment of Algiers. At Malta, Lyon
was prevailed upon by the traveller Ritchie to accompany
him on an expedition to North Africa. Lyon reached the
port of Tripoli on the 25th November 1818, and spent the
greater part of the two following years in making explora¬
tions in Soudan, the course of the Niger, &c. Ritchie
died, and Lyon was compelled to return to England on the
29th July 1820, when he published an account of his ex¬
pedition. Next year Lyon got the command of the Hecla^
and in concert with Captain Parry of the Fury, set out on a
voyage of discovery to Hudson’s Bay. They returned in
1823; and an account of this expedition was published at
London in 1824. Lyon made an unsuccessful voyage next
with the Griper to Repulse Bay, of which he gave an ac¬
count in 1825. The rest of his life was spent chiefly in a
survey of the mines of Mexico. He died in 1832.
LYONNET, Peter, an ingenious naturalist, descended
from an ancient family of Lorraine, was born at Maest-
richt in 1707. At school he showed a singular aptitude
for languages, and in a short time became an adept in
Latin, Greek, Hebrew, French, Italian, Spanish, German,
and English. His father, a minister of the French church
at Heusden, had designed him for a clergyman, and ac¬
cordingly with that view Lyonnet entered the university
of Leyden. There, in addition to the prescribed subjects,
he studied anatomy, music, drawing, and sculpture. Aban¬
doning all intention of entering the church, he soon after¬
wards applied himself to law; and after he had graduated
at Utrecht, practised for some time at the Hague. He
then began to study deciphering, and in a short time was
appointed secretary of ciphers and translator of Latin and
French to the, states-general of the United Provinces. The
time not engrossed by these offices was employed by Lyon¬
net in amassing materials and executing plates for a de¬
scription which he intended to write of the insects found
in the vicinity of the Hague. Abandoning this project,
however, he contented himself with contributing some of
his materials to a French translation of Lesser’s work on
Lyon
King-at-
Arms
Lyonnet.
L Y O
Lyons, the Theology of Insects, published at the Hague in 1742.
-—v-—' This translation, along with Lyonnet’s remarks, was re¬
printed at Paris in 1745, by the celebrated Reaumur.
Meanwhile, in 1744, he had designed and engraved the
plates for Trembley’s work on the fresh-water polypus. He
was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society of London in
1748, and a member of the Society of Sciences at Haar¬
lem in 1753. In 1757 he was elected a member of the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Rome, through the influ¬
ence of the celebrated M. Le Cat, its perpetual secretary.
The publication in 1760 of his chief work, Traite Anato-
mique de la Chenille qui ronge le hois de Saule, spread his
reputation, and he was honoured with diplomas of mem¬
bership from the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin in
1760, from the Imperial Academy of Naturalists in 1761,
and from the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St Peters¬
burg in 1762. A description and plate of the instruments he
had used in dissecting the chenille were published by Lyon-
net in the Transactions of the Society of Sciences at Haarlem,
and afterwards in French at the beginning of his Traite
Anatomique. He had intended to pursue this track of
inquiry, and to examine the animal above named in its
various stages of development; but at the age of sixty an
accident impaired his eyesight, and thus defeated his che¬
rished plan. The last fifteen or twenty years of his life
were spent in adding to his valuable collection of horns
and shells a choice cabinet of more than 560 paintings.
Lyonnet died at the Hague in 1789.
LYONS (French Lyon, ancient Lugdunum), the capi¬
tal of the French department of Rhone, and, till recently,
ranking in point of population and commercial importance
as the second city of the empire; but the last census re¬
turns show that in the former of these respects it has been
exceeded by Marseilles. It is situate at the junction of
the Saone with the Rhone, and on the Paris and Marseilles
Railway, 316 miles from the former, and 218 from the latter
city; N. Lat. 45.45.45., E. Long. 4.49.33.; elevation above
the level of the sea, 963 feet. The rivers Rhone and Saone
being both navigable, it enjoys great facilities for trade ; but
it is as a manufacturing city that it is chiefly celebrated,
and in this respect it is justly entitled to the name of the
French Manchester. The staple articles of manufacture
are silk stuffs of all descriptions, and which for richness and
beauty are unequalled. In this manufucture about 100,000
of the population are either actively or indirectly concerned.
There are no exact statistics of the silk manufacture at
Lyons; but the following extract from a letter by the pre¬
sident of the chamber of commerce at Lyons, dated De¬
cember 19, 1853, is said to give very nearly the exact re¬
sults :—“ During the present year and the two preceding,
the manufacturers of silk at Lyons have employed about
60,000 machines {metiers), scattered over a district of about
40 miles. These machines have consumed about 2,500,000
kilogrammes of silk (5,500,000 lb.), valued at 160,000,000
francs (L.6,400,000) ; and the manufactured stuffs at
250,000,000 francs (L. 10,000,000). It is estimated that
the home consumption amounts to one-fourth or one-third
of that quantity. The balance is exported to all parts of the
civilized world ; but by far the largest foreign market is
found in the United States.” The silk manufacture in
Lyons is not carried on in large factories, but on the do¬
mestic system, in the dwellings of the master-weavers,
each of which has usually from two to six or eight looms,
which, with their fittings, are generally his own property.
Himself and as many of his family as can work are em¬
ployed on these looms, and frequently also one or more
compagnons, or journeymen. The number of master-
weavers in the city and suburbs is estimated to be about
9000. The silk merchants, of whom there are about
600 in Lyons, supply the silk and patterns to the owners
of looms, who are entrusted with the task of producing
L Y 0 751
the web in a finished state. The weaving population, Lyons,
though earning comparatively good wages, are an igno-
rant and degraded race, living in a disgracefully filthy
state, and showing little desire to improve their condi¬
tion. hew of the journeymen ever raise themselves to
be master-weavers. The silk manufacture was established
here by Italian refugees in the middle of the fifteenth
century. It was nearly ruined by the revocation of the
edict of Nantes, which dispersed most of its best work¬
men to Spitalfields, Amsterdam, Crefeld, and other places.
Lyons has numerous dye-works, printing establishments,
foundries, glass-works, potteries, tanyards, breweries, che¬
mical works, boat-building yards, &c., but these are all
insignificant compared with its chief branch of industry.
The commerce carried on by means of the rivers is very
considerable. 4 he town is built principally on the tongue
of land, or peninsula, between the Rhone and Saone, each
of which is crossed by eight or nine bridges communi¬
cating with extensive suburbs lying to the E. and W.
The old portion of Lyons consists chiefly of narrow, crooked,
and dirty streets, rendered dark and gloomy by the great
height of the houses on each side, which are generally
seven or eight storeys high. About three-fourths of a
century ago, the point of confluence of the two rivers
was removed about a mile farther S., and on the additional
territory thus acquired the suburb of Perrache was formed.
I his has been laid out on a regular plan, and now contains
many elegant streets and some very agreeable promenades.
The suburb of La Croix Rousse, to the N. of the town, and
that of Fourvieres, on the right bank of the Saone, are
chiefly inhabited by silk weavers. Those of Brotteaux and
Guillotiere are on the left bank of the Rhone. The best
view of the town and neighbourhood is obtained from the
summit of the steep hill of Fourvieres, on the right bank of
the Saone. The fortifications of Lyons consist of eighteen
detached forts, arranged in a circle of 12^ miles round the
town, crowning the heights of St Croix and Fourvieres,
and of Croix Rousse, above the suburb of that name, and
including in its circuit the suburbs of Brotteaux and Guil¬
lotiere. These fortifications are required more to quell in¬
surrections among the inhabitants than to withstand attacks
from without. In 1831, 1834, and 1837, formidable riots
took place, in which many lives were lost. Both banks of
the Saone and the left bank of the Rhone are lined with
quays, some of which are planted with trees, and afford very
agreeable promenades.
Of its numerous squares, the finest is the Place Belle-
cour, one of the largest in Europe, covering 15 acres,
and planted with lime trees. In the centre is a bronze
equestrian statue of Louis XIV. The Hotel de Ville and
the Museum, or Palais des Beaux Arts, form two sides
of the square called Place des Terreaux. The former
building, said to be the finest of its kind in France, was
erected between 1646 and 1655. Its front is nearly 160
feet in width, flanked with a square tower and dome at either
end, and in the centre is a clock tower, surmounted by a
cupola, which rises to the height of 157 feet. The depth
of the building is 383 yards. The Palais des Beaux Arts,
formerly the Benedictine convent of St Pierre, consists of
four large piles of building, inclosing a square court, and
containing museums of antiquities and natural history, a
picture gallery, schools of drawing and natural history, &c.
The public library is the best provincial collection in France,
containing about 80,000 printed volumes and a large collec¬
tion of MSS. The cathedral of St Jean, on the right bank
of the Safine, was begun in the seventh century, but not
completed till the reign of Louis XL It is a Gothic edifice,
and has four towers, two of which flank the west front, while
the other two, shorter but more massive, form the transepts.
Fhe church of Notre Dame stands on the summit of
the hill of Fourvieres, and is said to occupy the site of
752 L Y O
Lyons, the Forum Vetus, built by Trajan. Numerous Roman
' Gulf of remains have been discovered on the hill, the principal
II. being an amphitheatre and some fine arches of an aque-
poetry ductf The Hotel Dieu, on the quay, facing the Rhone,
. is one of the most ancient establishments of the kind
in France, having been founded by Childebert and his
queen in the beginning of the sixth century. The present
building was erected by Soufflot, and receives annually
about 12,000 patients.
Lyons is the seat of an archbishop; and has a court of
appeal, tribunals of primary instance and commerce, a coun¬
cil ofprud’hommes, a mint, a university college, having facul¬
ties of theology, science, and literature, a school of medi¬
cine and pharmacy, a lyceum, a school of arts {Institution
de la Martiniere) for the gratuitous instruction of sons of
artizans, a veterinary school, school of artillery, military
gymnasium, deaf-and-dumb institution, and a botanic garden.
In the revolution of 1793, the people of Lyons having
declared against the revolutionary party, the city was taken
by the conventional army after a siege of upwards of two
months, and almost reduced to ruins. It suffered severely
from the inundations of its two rivers in June 1856. Pop.
(1851) 156,169.
Lyons, Gulf of (the ancient Gallicus Sinus), an ex¬
tensive bay of the Mediterranean Sea, formed by the
southern coast of France, between the Pyrenean range on
the W., and a headland near Toulon on the E. It ex¬
tends 145 miles from one extremity to the other, and washes
the shores of the six departments of Pyrenees-Orientales,
Aude, Herault, Bouches-du-Rhone, and part of Var. The
principal rivers that enter it are,—the Rhone, the Aude,
and Tet; and the chief towns on its coast-line are,—Mar¬
seilles, Cette, and Port Vendres. Its shores in many parts
are broken by long lagoons and low islands.
LYRE (Gr. Xvpa), the generic name for an ancient mu¬
sical instrument, varying in form and in the number of its
strings, these being made to vibrate by twitching with the
fingers, or with a plectrum held in the right hand. It is
needless here to enter upon the fabled accounts of the origin
of the Greek lyre, and its improvements. As to the manner
of playing upon it, and bringing out its resources, ancient
writers are silent. That the ancient lyre, even with very
few strings, was capable of producing a great variety of
sounds differing in pitch, by skilful stopping of the strings,
seems certain ; and this view of the matter was published
at Parma, in 1798, by Vincenzo Requeno, in his Saggj
sul Ristabilimento dell’ arte armonica dd Greci e Romani
Cantori. His words are:—“ un insigne pregiudizio di
Burney e di quanti scrissero della Greca musica prima di lui
lo stimare di scarsi suoni le cetre, e le lire di poche corde.
I Greci tastarono le corde, benche i loro stromenti non
avessero il manico. Alcune lire de’ Grecici mostrano nelle
pitture dell’ Ercolano uno tavoletta quadra, per la quale
passavano quattro corde, e che, scorrendo per le medesime,
alzava o calava il tuono ; in altre lire s’ intrecciavano rette
le dita per mezzo delle quattro corde, e cost si tastavano.
Altri stromenti si tastavano in altre maniere, come a suo
luogo dimostreremo” (tomo lm0. pp. 337-8). The writer
of this article quoted the above passage in his paper, “ Me¬
moirs of Music,” published in the New Edinburgh Review,
April 1822. Since then two writers have claimed as a
discovery what is really due to Requeno, of whom they take
no notice. That lyres, or similar instruments, were known
to the ancient Egyptians and to the Hebrews, seems cer¬
tain ; and that large harps were known to the former is
proved beyond doubt by those paintings in the tombs at
fhebes, drawings of which were published in the great
French work, Description de VEgypte, &c. (g. f. g.)
LYRIC POETRY was such as the ancients sung to the
lyre or harp. It was originally employed in celebrating
the praises of gods and heroes, and its characteristic was
L Y S
sweetness. The author or inventor of it is, however, un- Lysias,
known. It was much cultivated by the Greeks; and Ho-
race was the first who attempted it in the Latin language.
Anacreon, Alcaeus, Stesichorus, Sappho, and Horace, were
the most celebrated lyric poets of antiquity. (See Poetry.)
LYSIAS, one of the most celebrated of the Greek ora¬
tors, was born at Athens 458 b.c., and died, at the age of
eighty, b.c. 378. He was the contemporary of some of the
greatest men that Athens ever produced—of Thucydides
and Xenophon, of Euripides and Sophocles. He was the
son of Cephalus, a Syracusan, and is himself sometimes
said to have been a native of this city ; but he was born at
Athens, whither his father was induced to emigrate by the
advice of his friend Pericles. Cephalus was distinguished
both for his great riches and for his virtues. It was at his
house that Plato placed the scene of the most celebrated
of his works, his Dialogues on the Republic. Cephalus no
doubt procured the best masters to forward the education
of his son; but Lysias left Athens at a very early age (b.c.
443), and proceeded to Thurium, in the south of Italy, to
which place the Athenians were sending a colony. He
was accompanied by the two celebrated historians Hero¬
dotus and Thucydides, and remained there for many years,
during which time he is said to have studied the art of
eloquence under two Syracusans, Tisias and Nisias. After
the unsuccessful expedition of the Athenians to Sicily (b.c.
413), it would appear that Thurium, with their other de¬
pendencies in Magna Graecia, refused to submit any longer
to Athenian supremacy. All those who remained well
affected towards the parent state were obliged to fly, and
Lysias on that occasion (b.c. 411) returned with his brother
Polemarchus to Athens. Here he employed himself in
commercial pursuits, and we are told that the two brothers
employed 120 slaves in the manufacture of shields. We
do not hear that he took any active part in the stormy po¬
litics of Athens, now approaching the conclusion of her war
with Sparta. Athens fell into the hands of Lysander, and
thirty tyrants were appointed to administer the affairs of the
city. The patriotism and riches of Polemarchus and of his
brother Lysias marked them out as fit objects for persecu¬
tion to the tyrants. Polemarchus was put to death, and
Lysias with great difficulty saved his life by flying to Me-
gara (b.c. 404). Here he engaged in the conspiracy to
restore the independence of his country, and is said to have
furnished three hundred men at his own expense to assist
Thrasybulus. The tyrants were expelled, and Lysias re¬
turned to Athens (b.c. 403), where he commenced his new
career as an orator. It does not appear that he was much
employed in the assemblies of the people, but that he con¬
fined himself principally to writing accusations or defences,
at the desire of such persons as had occasion to impeach
the conduct of others, or to defend their own. As a re¬
ward for his services, Thrasybulus proposed to the people
that he should be admitted to the freedom of the state;
but Archinus procured its rejection, because the proposal
had not been made first to the senate, as the law required.
Plutarch states that there were extant in his time no less
than 475 orations ascribed to Lysias, of which only 235
were genuine, according to Dionysius. We are likewise
told that he composed institutions of oratory, epistles, and
panegyrics ; but of all these writings only thirty-four ora¬
tions have come down to us, some of which are in an im¬
perfect state. The pleadings of Lysias contain a curious
detail of the domestic manners and internal economy of
the Greeks. Dionysius of Halicarnassus has written a
critique on the works and style of Lysias; and, according
to him, the orator was particularly distinguished for sim¬
plicity and precision, as well as for the fidelity with which
he depicted the manners of the age. Quintilian compares
him to a clear and pure rivulet rather than to a majestic
river; whilst Cicero considers him as the model of a perfect
L Y S
L Y S
753
Lysima
chus.
orator. The earliest edition of the orations of Lysias is
that of Aldus, 1513; but the best is that of Taylor, Gr. and
^ Lat., London, 1739; and of Reiske, Leipsic, 1772. The
latest edition is byFoertsch, Leips. 1829; who has also
published separately, Observationes Criticcb in Lysice Ora-
tiones, Leips. 1829. See also Franzius, Dissertatio inaug.
de Lysia oratore Attico-Greece scripta, Norimb. 1828.
There is an English translation of the Orations by Gillies,
London, 1778. Compare L. Hoelscher, De Lysice Oratoris
Vita et Dictione, Berlin, 8vo, 1837; Westermann, Gesch.
der Griech. Beredtsamkeit.
LYSIMACHUS, one of the generals of Alexander, was
son of Agathocles, one of the king’s body-guard, but of
noble descent. He appears to have been one of the
noblest characters that the age of Alexander, so fertile in
great men, produced. He was the pupil of the philosopher
Callisthenes, who attended Alexander in his expedition;
and when the king ordered Callisthenes to be put to death
by the most cruel tortures, Lysimachus enabled his friend to
escape by furnishing him with poison. It might have been
expected that Alexander would have admired such conduct,
but it was far otherwise. He ordered Lysimachus to be
exposed to the fury of a lion, and that he should suffer a
death somewhat resembling that which had been intended
for his friend. The bravery of Lysimachus saved him:
wrapping his cloak round his arm, he pushed it into the
throat of the lion, and laid it dead at his feet. Alexander
forgave him, and attached him more particularly to his
own person. This story, which is told by Justin (xv. 3),
Pliny (yiii. 16), and Seneca {De Ira, 3, 17, et De Clem.
1, 25), is called fabulous by Curtius (viii. 1, 22), and is said
to have originated from the circumstance of Lysimachus
having been attacked by a lion in the forests of Syria, and
having killed it without assistance. From this moment
Alexander treated Lysimachus as his friend, and was so
fond of him, that having accidentally wounded him on the
forehead as he was dismounting, he took off his diadem and
bound up his head with his own hands; presaging, as Justin
remarks, the royal rank to which he would afterwards at¬
tain. History is then silent respecting Lysimachus till the
death of Alexander (b.c. 323), when we find him receiv-
ing, as his share of the kingdom, Thrace, and the countries
placed along the coast of the Euxine (Justin, xiii. 4). But
Seuthes occupied Thrace with a powerful army, and it was
found necessary to conquer him before he could take pos¬
session of the kingdom. In this he was successful, and also
in repressing a rebellion which had broken out at. Callatia,
on the coast of the Black Sea (Diodor, xviii. 14 ; xix. 73).
No sooner did he feel secure of his dominions, however,
than he began to attack the Odrysae, Getae, and other na¬
tions around ; but he was defeated and taken prisoner, ac¬
cording to some historians, though, according to others,
this was only the fate of his son. His daughter was given
in marriage to the king of the country for releasing the
captive (Pausan. i. ix.). The ambition of Antigonus began
to alarm the other successors of Alexander, and a league
was entered into by Ptolemy, Cassander, and Lysimachus,
to reduce his power within due bounds. The war was car¬
ried on with various success for several years. Lysima¬
chus proceeded to Asia (b.c. 302) to attack Antigonus,
who was then at Antigonea in Syria, and in his passage
subdued Phrygia, Lydia, and other districts, taking posses¬
sion of many strong fortresses, where Antigonus had col¬
lected much treasure. He was joined by Seleucus, who
arrived from Babylon with a considerable body of troops,
and a decisive battle was fought (b.c. 301) at Ipsus, where
Antigonus was defeated and killed (Justin, xv. 4). In ad¬
dition to Thrace, Lysimachus obtained Bithynia, and some
countries along the Hellespont. Yet Demetrius, son of
Antigonus, did not lose courage, but made constant at¬
tempts to recover his dominions. A league was formed
VOL. XIII.
Lysons,
Daniel.
against him by Lysimachus and Pyrrhus King of Epirus, Lysippus
and he was driven from the greater part of Macedonia; but II
the two allies afterwards disagreed, and Pyrrhus having
been defeated, Lysimachus assumed the title of King of
Macedonia, b.c. 286. In his latter years he put to death
his son Agathocles, at the suggestion of his second wife,
who was afraid that she herself and her children would fall
into the hands of Agathocles on the death of Lysimachus.
Seleucus, taking advantage of the odium which this act
brought upon him, attacked Lysimachus, and having given
him battle, Lysimachus was killed, b.c. 281 (Pausan. i. x.;
Justin, xvii. 1, 2).
LYSIPPUS, a celebrated Greek statuary, of the city of
Sicyon, in the Peloponnesus, flourished about 324 b.c. He
was at first a worker in brass, but afterwards devoted him¬
self to statuary, studying nature, by the advice of Eupom-
pus, rather than following the manner of any master. He
excelled all those who had preceded him in the nicety of
individual parts, and more particularly in the beauty of the
hair. He lessened the size of the head, which had been
exaggerated by the ancient sculptors, and made the body
more slim so as to increase the appearance of the height.
He used to say, that former sculptors represented men as
they were, whilst he made them as they appeared to be.
His reputation was such that his name was included in the
famous edict published by Alexander, when he conferred
on Apelles the sole right of painting his form, on Lysippus
that of executing it in bronze, and on Pyrgoteles that of
engraving it on precious stones. He is said (Plin. xxxiv. 7)
to have produced 1500 works of art, any one of which was
sufficient to stamp him as a man of talent. Of these we
can only mention a few of the most celebrated. There was
one at Rome, the removal of which from the baths of
Agrippa to the palace of the emperor, by order of Tiberius,
had nearly caused a sedition. The populace clamoured
for its being replaced, and Tiberius did not deem it pru¬
dent to deny their request. It was a statue called Apoxyo-
menos, representing, as its name implies, a man scrap¬
ing himself in the bath with a strigilis, an instrument to
clean the body of the particles of sweat. He executed
many statues of Alexander, representing him at different
periods of his life; and he so managed that a slight bend
of the head, for which Alexander was remarkable, became
rather a beauty than a deformity. One of these statues
was so much admired by Nero, that he caused it to be
covered with gold, to the great grief of all true lovers of
the art of sculpture. He executed a very fine bronze
statue of Cupid with a bow, for the inhabitants of Thespis;
also equestrian statues of twenty-five Macedonians who fell
at the passage of the Granicus, and which Metellus caused
to be transported to Rome. It has been supposed, though
without any clear proof, that the celebrated horses of
Venice formed part of this group. There is a statute of
Hercules in the Palazzo Pitti at Florence, which bears his
name, and has in every respect a strong resemblance to the
Farnese Hercules, excepting the position of the legs {Mus.
Pio-Clem, hi., p. 66). This likewise has made it be sup¬
posed that the statue of the Palazzo Pitti is a copy of the
Hercules of Lysippus, and that the Farnese is an imita¬
tion, on which Glycon thought he might engrave his name,
on account of the change he had made in its position. Ly¬
sippus had as pupils his own sons, Dahippus, Bedas, and
Euthycrates (Plin. xxxiv. 8.) See Muller, Handbuch der
Archceologie der Kunst, Breslau, 1830.
LYSONS, Daniel, an eminent antiquarian and topogra¬
pher, was rector of Rodmartin, in Gloucester, a livin0, in
which he succeeded his father in 1833. He was educated
at Oxford, where he graduated in 1785. When a curate
at Putney, he, in 1790, commenced his first topographical
work, entitled The Environs of London ; being an Histori¬
cal Account of the Towns, Villages, and Hamlets within 12
5 c
754 L Y S
Lysons, miles of that Capital; interspersed with Biographical An-
Samuel ecdotes, 2 vols. 4to, 1810; a work which he supplemented
II about the same time by An Historical Account of those
Lytte on, paJ,-sfies Middlesex not included in the Environs of Lon-
v j don. In conjunction with his brother Samuel, he under-
Y took, in 1806, his great work, the Magna Britannica, being
a precise topographical account of the several counties of
Great Britain, 6 vols. 4to; an undertaking which he left
unfinished. He published a small work at Gloucester in
1824, containing A View of the Revenues of the Parochial
Clergy of this Kingdom from the earliest times, 8vo. Lysons
wrote, besides, some sermons, which are not much known.
As an accurate, laborious, and useful writer of topography,
he occupies a very high place. He presented, previous to
his death in 1834, 64 volumes of MS. collections for the
Magna Britannica to the British Museum.
Lysons, Samuel, the brother of the above, was born at
Rodmartin, in Gloucester, in 1763. Originally educated
for the bar, he ultimately relinquished that profession for
antiquarian pursuits. He was an active and influential
member of the Society of Antiquaries, and became, in
1803, keeper of the records in the Tower of London. In
1806 he joined his brother in the Magna Britannica; and
published, in 1797, Roman Remains discovered at Wood-
chester andMinchenhampton ; in 1801, his Figures of Mosaic
Pavements ; in 1802, his Remains of Roman Antiquities
at Bath; in 1804, Gloucester Antiquities. He wrote also
for the Archceologia. He died in 1819.
LYTTELTON, George, Lord, was born at Hagley, in
Worcestershire, in 1709. Descended from the great Judge
Littelton (see Littelton, Thomas), he was the eldest
son of Sir Thomas Lyttelton, who, during the interregnum
of 1688 and the succeeding reign, appears as one of the
ablest Whig debaters of the House of Commons. Mr Ma¬
caulay {History of England, vol. ii., p. 617) describes him
as “ versed in European politics, and gifted with a vehement
and piercing logic, which had often, when, after a long sit¬
ting, the candles had been lighted, roused the languishing
house, and decided the event of the debate.” He received
his education at Eton school, where he showed an early in¬
clination to poetry. He was removed from thence to the
university of Oxford, where he pursued his classical studies
with uncommon avidity, and sketched the plan of his Per¬
sian Letters. In the year 1728 he set out on the tour of
Europe ; and, upon his arrival at Paris, accidentally be¬
came acquainted with the Honourable Mr Poyntz, then
our minister at the court of Versailles, who employed him
in many political negotiations, which he executed with great
judgment and fidelity. In this early part of his life he
wrote a poetical epistle to Dr Ayscough, and another to Mr
Pope, both evincing singular taste and correctness.
After continuing a considerable time at Paris he visited
Lyons, Geneva, Turin, Milan, Venice, and Genoa, and
finally established himself at Rome, where he applied him¬
self closely to the study of the fine arts. He soon after¬
wards returned to his nat've country, and was elected repre¬
sentative for the borougn of Ockhampton, in Devonshire.
In the year 1737 he was appointed principal secretary to his
royal highness, Frederick Prince of Wales; and in the year
L Y T
1742 he married Lucy, the daughter of Mr Hugh Fortescue Lyttelton,
of Filleigh, in the county of Devon, an excellent lady, whom Thomas,
he had the misfortune to lose in 1746. In 1744 he was
appointed one of the lords commissioners of the Treasury;
and, during his continuance in that station, constantly
exerted his influence in rewarding merit and ability. He
was the friend and patron of Fielding, Thomson, Mallet,
Young, Hammond, West, Pope, and Voltaire. On the
death of Thomson, who left his affairs in a very embarrassed
condition, Mr Lyttelton took that poet’s sister under his
protection. He revised Thomson’s unfinished tragedy of
Coriolanus, and brought it out at the theatre royal, Covent
Garden, with an affecting prologue of his own composition.
His valuable observations on the conversion and apostle-
ship of St Paul were written in 1747, at the desire of Mr
Gilbert West, in consequence of Mr Lyttelton’s asserting,
that besides all the proofs of the Christian religion which
might be drawn from the prophecies of the Old Testament,
from the necessary connection it has with the whole system
of the Jewish religion, from the miracles of Christ, and
from the evidence given of his resurrection by all the other
apostles, he thought the conversion of St Paul alone, duly
considered, was of itself a demonstration sufficient to prove
that Christianity was a divine revelation. Dr Johnson cha¬
racterizes this treatise as one “ to which infidelity has never
been able to fabricate a specious answer.”
In 1754 he resigned his office of lord of the Treasury,
and was made cofferer to his majesty’s household, and sworn
a member of the Privy Council; previously to which, he
married a second time, Elizabeth, daughter of Field-Marshal
Sir Robert Rich, from whom he was separated, by mutual
consent, a few years after his marriage. After being ap¬
pointed chancellor and under-treasurer of the Court of
Exchequer, he was, by letters-patent dated the 19th of No¬
vember 1757 (31st Geo. II.), created a peer of Great Bri¬
tain, by the style and title of Lord Lyttelton, Baron of
Frankley, in the county of Worcester. His parliamentary
speeches showed sound judgment, ready eloquence, and in¬
flexible integrity. During the last ten years he lived chiefly
in retirement, devoting himself for the most part to litera¬
ture. His Dialogues of the Dead, in which the morality
of Fenelon and the spirit of Fontenelle are happily united,
appeared in 1760. His History of Henry II., a laborious
and respectable production, the fruit of twenty years’ labour,
was published in 1764-67. He died in 1773.
A complete collection of his works was published after
his decease by his nephew, Mr George Ayscough. (See
Memoirs and Correspondence of Lord Lyttelton, 1734-
1773, 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1845.)
Lyttelton, Thomas, Lord, son of the above, and his
successor in the peerage, was a young man of distinguished
ability, who wasted his strength and his life by profligacy.
A writer in the Quarterly Review, January 1852, endea¬
voured, with very considerable skill, and some degree of
plausibility, to prove Thomas Lord Lyttelton to be the
author of the Letters of Junius. There is a singular, and
some say well-authenticated story, which relates that he
was warned of his death three days previous to its occur¬
rence in 1779, when only thirty-five years of age.
755
M
^ "Jl/r is the thirteenth letter of the English alphabet, and
Mablv a stimulation of the liquid series, formed by
^ j the compression of the lips. It is called a semi-vowel, as
the compression of the lips necessary to its articulation is
accompanied with a humming sound through the nose, thus
distinguishing it from the sound of the letter B, which in
other respects so closely resembles it. M is uniform in
sound, and scarcely ever silent. It is liable to interchange
with the letters N, B, P, V, W, of which there are nume¬
rous examples in almost all languages. The letter M, or a
symbol closely resembling it, was employed by the Romans
as a numeral to denote a thousand, selected, as is generally
supposed, from its being the initial of the word mille. With
a dash over it (SI), it stands for a thousand times a thou¬
sand, or a million. For the use of M in ancient and mo¬
dern abbreviations, see under Abbreviations. In astro¬
nomical tables, M stands for meridian, meridional, or mid¬
day. In medical prescriptions, M stands for maniple, or
handful; for misce, or mix; for mixtura, a mixture; and
sometimes for mensurd, by measure. In law, M is the brand
of manslaughter, and is impressed on one who, after con¬
viction, is admitted to the benefit of clergy.
MAAT, John. (See Blankof.)
MABILLON, Jean, a learned writer of France, was
born at Perremonte, on the frontiers of Champagne, in the
year 1632. He was educated in the university of Rheims,
and afterwards entered into the abbey of the Benedictines
of St Remy. In the year 1663 he was appointed keeper
of the treasures and monuments of France at St Denis.
Next year he went to Paris, and proved serviceable to
Father d’Acheri, in compiling his Spicilegium. Soon after¬
wards the congregation of Saint-Maur charged him with
the edition of St Bernard, which he prepared with extraor¬
dinary diligence. In the year 1685 Louis XIV. sent him
into Germany, to search the archives and libraries of the
ancient abbeys for all that seemed calculated to illustrate
the history of the church in general, and that of France in
particular. Mabillon published an account of this journey
in his Iter Germanicum. In the year 1685 he undertook
a similar journey into Italy, and returned the year following
with a very noble collection, of which he gave an account
in his Museum Italicum. He also wrote an Iter Burgun-
dium, a work similar to those just mentioned. Next to
Mabillon’s Correspondence, one of his most interesting works
is his Reflexions sur les Prisons des Ordres Religieux, in
which he censures the cruelties of the monastic houses, and
discloses the horrors of the famous subterranean dungeons,
known as Vade in Pace, in which some were confined till
they died. Another event in Mabillon’s life worthy of
being recorded, was the bold stand he made, in his Traite
des Etudes Monastiques, in 1691, against the narrow bigotry
of the Abbe de Ranee, who had forbidden the monks all
scientific studies, and all reading, except the Breviary.
Mabillon died at Paris in 1707. He was one of the most
learned, liberal, and candid men of his age. His various
works were collected and published after his dead), under
the title of Ouvrages Posthumes de D. Jean Mabillon et
D. Thierri Ruinart, Benedictins de la Congregation de
St Maur, 3 vols. 4to, Paris, 1724.
MABLY, Gabriel Bonnot de, a French abbe, and
brother of Condillac, was born at Grenoble on 14th March
1709. After receiving his education from the Jesuits in
Lyons, he repaired to Paris, and, at the instance of his
kinsman, the Cardinal De Fencin, entered the theological
college of St Sulpice. No sooner, however, had he reached Mabuse
the lank of sub-deacon, than he threw aside the studies proper M ^
to his order, and devoted all his time to profane literature. v aCa°’
His first work, Parallele des Romains et des Francois par ^ s/
Rapport au Gouvernement (Paris, 1740), met with great
success, and led to his being appointed secretary to the
Cardinal De 1 encin, at that time minister. In the discharge
of his new office, Mably collected the greater part of that
political information which he afterwards embodied in his
Droit Public de VEurope fonde sur les Trades, published
in 1748, and reprinted with additions and improvements in
1754 and 1764. In 1743, after a series of secret negotia¬
tions, he concluded with the Prussian ambassador at Paris
a treaty against Austria; and in 1746 he drew up the in¬
structions for the French minister at the congress of Breda.
Soon afterwards a quarrel with the cardinal induced Mably
to retire into private life, and devote his time entirely to
study. He died at Paris in 1785. His principal works
axe,—Observations sur VHistoire de la Grece, and Obser¬
vations sur les Romains, 1751; Principes des Negotiations,
La Haye, 1757; Entretiens de Phocion sur le Rapport de
la Morale et de la Politique, 1763 ; Observations sur rilis-
toire de France, Geneve, 1765, reprinted, with notes by
Guizot; De la Legislation, ou Principes des Lois, Am¬
sterdam, 1776; De la Maniere Jeer ire VHistoire, 1782;
and Observations sur le Gouvernement et les Lois des Etats-
Ums d Amerique, 1784. His entire works were published
by Abbe Brizard, in 15 vols. 8vo, 1794. Mably was an
advocate for equality in rank and community in property.
Sparta, under the legislation of Lycurgus, was his model of
a government.
MABUSE, or Maubeuze, Jan de, an eminent painter,
was born in 1499 at Maubeuze, in Hainault, and was origi¬
nally called John Gossaert. After studying the great masters
in Italy, he visited in succession Utrecht and Middleburg.
His character was noted for the union of the lowest profligacy
with the greatest enthusiasm for his art; and at this latter
city he was imprisoned for some misdemeanour. He then
repaired to England, and was employed to paint the children
of Henry VIII. and several of the nobility. He is said to
have died in 1562. The most famous picture of Mabuse
is his altar-piece at Middleburg, representing the Descent
from the Cross.
MACADAM, John Loudon, the introducer of maca¬
damized road-making, was descended from an old and re¬
spectable family in Kirkcudbrightshire, and was born in
Ayrshire, Scotland, in 1756. His plan of road improvement
occurred to him when acting as trustee for a district of roads
in Ayrshire, and was first carried into practice on the Bristol
roads, of which he had been appointed surveyor-general
in 1815. He explained his system fully in two works,—
A. Practical Essay on the Scientific Repair and Preserva¬
tion of Public Roads, London, 1819; and Remarks on the
Present State of Road-mahing, London, 1820. In 1827
he was appointed general surveyor of roads; and for the
large sums which he expended while performing the duties
of this office, he was afterwards compensated by two grants
from government, amounting together to L.10,000. The
honour of knighthood, which he declined, was conferred
upon his son in 1834. Macadam died in 1836.
MACAO, a Portuguese settlement in China, on a small
peninsula projecting from the S.E. end of the island of
Hiangshan, or Macao, lying at the mouth of the Canton
River, 80 miles S.S.E. of Canton, and 40 miles W. of Hon<-
756 MAC
Macaronic Kong; N. Lat. 22. 12. 45., E.'Long. 113. 35. The penin*
II sula is 2£ miles in length, by less than a mile in breadth,
Macartney. an(j jg connected with the mainland by a low, narrow, and
sandy isthmus. A barrier wall, with a gate and guard¬
house, extends across the isthmus, to exclude foreigners
from the interior of the island. The town is built on the
declivities round the semicircular harbour; the shore being
lined by an embanked parade, behind which is a terrace of
handsome houses. Behind this terrace lies the rest of the
town, a curious intermixture of Chinese and European
edifices. The chief buildings are,—the senate-house, the
church and college of St Joseph, and the Portuguese go¬
vernor’s residence. The cave of Camoens, where that poet
is said to have written a portion of his Lusiad, is pictur¬
esquely situate on the summit of a small hill on the margin
of the inner harbour, and is much resorted to. The har¬
bour is on the west side of the town, between it and the
small island of Patera, but it has not sufficient depth of
water to admit large vessels, which accordingly anchor in
the roads on the other side of the peninsula, from 5 to 10
miles from the town. The Chinese regulations permit none
but Portuguese and Spanish vessels to trade at the port,
though vessels of other nations generally have little difficulty
in obtaining the connivance of the Chinese officials to trade,
and the Portuguese inhabitants are ready to lend their
names for a trifling consideration. The town and harbour
are protected by six forts. The Portuguese obtained this
settlement in 1586, in return for services rendered by them
against pirates that had infested the coast. It subsequently
became the centre of a very extensive trade with China,
Japan, the Philippines, and other eastern countries. It
has, however, long sunk into insignificance, and now carries
on very little trade. The Portuguese have a government
and senate, but a Chinese mandarin has in reality the
supreme power in the town. The Portuguese pay annual
tribute, or ground rent, for their settlement. Pop. about
13,000, of whom above a half are Chinese.
MACARONIC, a ludicrous species of metrical compo¬
sition, in which the words of a modern language are Latin¬
ized. The name is said to be derived from the Italian
maccheroni, a mixture of paste, butter, spice, and grated
cheese. The ostensible originator of this kind of verse
was Theophilo Folengo, or, as he called himself, Merlinus
Coccaius, a monk of Casino, in Italy, born in 1512. He
wrote a burlesque Latin poem, chequered with Italian,
Tuscan, and plebeian words, entitled Phantasies Maca-
roniccB ; and in the apologetica to that work, the author
describes this new species of poetry as follows:—“ Ars ista
poetica nuncupatur Ars Macaronica, a Macaronibus deri-
vata: qui Macarones sunt quoddam pulmentum, farina,
caseo, butyro compaginatum, grossum, rude, et rusticanum.
Ideo Macaronica nil nisi grossedinem, ruditatem, et Voca-
bulazzos debet in se continere.” Antonius de Arena of
Avignon wrote in this style of verse as early, some say, as
1519. At all events, it soon after became highly fashionable
in England, France, and Italy. John Skelton introduced it
into England in the reign of Henry VII., and Rabelais,
who so often refers to “ Merlin the Cook” (Coccaie), first
employed this style in French prose. Perhaps the best
known form of macaronics in this country is the Polemo-
Middinia, a Scottish burlesque in hexameters, by Drum¬
mond of Hawthornden. Some of the most successful ma
caronics of modern times have appeared in the pages of
Punch.
MACARTHY ISLAND. See Gambia.
MACARTNEY, George {Earl Macartney), was the
only son of a gentleman of Scottish descent, and was born
in 1737 at the family estate of Lissanoure, near Belfast, in
Ireland. After graduating at Trinity College, Dublin, he
repaired to London in 1759, and became a student of the
Inner Temple. In 1764 he was appointed envoy extra-
M A C
Ordinary to the Empress of Russia. He returned in 1 (, Macassar
and after sitting for some time in the British parliament as I
member for Cockermouth, he became chief secretary for Macaulay.
Ireland in 1769. On the expiry of this office in 1772 he
was created Knight of the Bath. Appointed governor of
Granada in 1775, Macartney was taken prisoner on the
surrender of that island to the French in 1779, but was soon
afterwards released. He became president of Madras in
1780, and would have been installed in the high office of
governor-general of India had not his impaired health forced
him to return to England in 1789. In 1792 he was ap¬
pointed ambassador extraordinary to the court of Pekin.
He was thus the first English envoy sent to China; and if
he did not succeed in attaining the results expected, the
fault was in nowise his. Immediately before his return in
1794, the title of baron, which had been conferred on him
in 1776, was changed into that of Earl Macartney. He
held the governorship of the Cape of Good Hope from
1796 until he was compelled by declining health to resign
it in 1798. After living for some time in retirement, Lord
Macartney died at Chiswick in 1806.
An account of his public life, with a selection from his
unpublished writings, was published by his private secre¬
tary Barrow, in 2 vols. 4to, London, 1807. Sir George
Staunton, who accompanied him to China as secretary,
wrote an account of his Chinese embassy in 2 vols. 4to,
London, 1797.
MACASSAR, or Mankassek, called also by the Dutch
Vlaardingen, a free seaport-town of the island of Celebes,
on its S.W. peninsula, and capital of a cognominal govern¬
ment, is situate at the mouth of a river; S. Lat. 5. 9., E.
Long. 119.36. It is regularly laid out in rectangular streets,
is surrounded by a wall, and environed by Malayan suburbs.
The harbour, which has excellent anchorage, is protected
by Fort Rotterdam. A considerable trade is carried on
with China and Australia in the various productions of the
country. The town was built by the Dutch on the site of a
Malayan village, and was declared a free port in 1846.
Pop. about 20,000. (See Celebes.) The Straits of Macas¬
sar separate the islands of Celebes and Borneo, and extend
about 300 miles from N. to S., with an average breadth of
126 miles, excepting at the northern extremity, where it
contracts to about 60 miles. It is of very dangerous navi¬
gation, abounding with shoals, rocks, and rocky islands.
MACAULAY, Catherine, author of a History of Eng¬
land, was the daughter of John Sawbridge, Esq. of Olantigh,
Kentshire, and was born there in 1733. In 1760 she was
married to Dr George Macaulay, a physician in London.
Her principal work, entitled The History of Englandfrom
the Accession of James 1. to that of the Brunswick Line,
began to be published in 1763, and was completed in eight
volumes. This treatise, which went no farther than the
Revolution, she supplemented, in 1778, by a series of
letters, which brought the History of England as far down
as the resignation of Walpole in 1742. Meantime the
husband of Mrs Macaulay had died; and in 17<8 she be¬
came the wife of a young clergyman of the name of Graham.
A favourer of republican opinions, she had carried on a
correspondence with General Washington, and in 1/85 she
paid him a visit in America. She died in 1791. Besides
her History, Mrs Macaulay wrote Remarks on Hobbes’
Rudiments of Government and Society, 8vo, 1767, repub¬
lished, with additions, 4to, London, 1769; Reply to Mr
Burke’s Pamphlet entitled “ Thoughts on the Causes of the
Present Discontent'' 8vo, London, 1770 ; A Modest Plea
for the Property of Copyright, 8vo, London, 1774 ; Address
to the People of England, Scotland, and Ireland, on the
present Important Crisis of Affairs, 8vo, Bath, 1775; Trea¬
tise on the Immutability of Moral Truth, 8vo, London,
1783,—republished, with additions, under the title, Letters
on Education, 4to, London, 1790 ; and Observations on the
MAC
Macbeth Reflections of E. Burke on the Revolution in France, 8vo,
I! 1790.
Maccabees. MACBETH, a Scotch nobleman in the eleventh cen-
'—V—^ tury, nearly allied to Duncan, King of Scotland, and the
hero of Shakspeare’s tragedy of. Macbeth. The most au¬
thentic account of Macbeth represents him as the vassal
of Thorfinn, a Norwegian prince, then master of the north
of Scotland. Being called upon in the Norseman’s ab¬
sence to defend his territory against King Duncan, who
attempted to regain it, Macbeth met the Scots king at
Elgin, a.d. 1040, defeated his army, slew himself, and seized
his crown. After various fruitless attempts to regain his
crown, Malcolm Kenmore, son of the late king, succeeded,
by the assistance of Siward, Earl of Northumberland, after
a battle in which Macbeth was slain, in gaining possession
of his father’s throne. (See Skene’s Highlanders of Scot¬
land, vol. i., p. 115.)
MACCABEES, Books of (Gr. MaKKa/Saioi), a name
usually supposed to have been cabalistically derived
from (fMakkabi), the initial letters of nlrP D/tO
nDDD“’P (“ who among the gods is like Jehovah ? ”), the
motto on the Jewish standard in the war with the Syrians.
The Books of Maccabees are the titles of certain Jewish
histories, containing principally the details of the heroic
exploits of the family of the Maccabees. (See Jews.)
There were in all four books (to which some add a fifth)
known to the ancients, of which three are still read in the
Eastern, and two in the Western, Church. Of these the
third is the first in order of time. We shall, however, to
avoid confusion, speak of them in the order in which they
are commonly enumerated.
The First Book of Maccabees (the second in order of
time), contains a lucid and authentic history of the under¬
takings of Antiochus Epiphanes against the Jews, from the
year b.c. 175 to the death of Simon Maccabaeus, b.c. 135.
This history is confessedly of great value. Although its
brevity, observes De Wette (see 1 Macc. i. 6; viii. 7; xii.),
renders it in some instances unsatisfactory, defective, and
uncritical, and occasionally extravagant, it is, upon the
whole, entitled to credit, chronologically accurate, and ad¬
vantageously distinguished above all other historical pro¬
ductions of this period {Einleitung in die Apokryfe Bucher,
§ 299). There is little question that this book was written
in Hebrew, although the original is now lost. The Greek
version abounds in Hebraisms and errors of translation.
Origen gives it a Hebrew title; and Jerome says that he had
seen the Hebrew original. Of the author nothing is known;
but he must have been a Palestinian Jew, who wrote some
considerable time after the death of Simon Maccabaeus,
and even of Hyrcanus, and made use of several written,
although chiefly of traditionary, sources of information. At
the same time, it is not impossible that the author was pre¬
sent at several of the events which he so graphically de¬
scribes. The Greek text of the Alexandrine version is the
original of all the others now extant. This text was that
made use of by Josephus.
The Second Book of Maccabees (the third in order of
time) is a work of very inferior character to the first. It is
an abridgment of a more ancient work, written by a Jew
named Jason, who lived at Gyrene, in Africa, comprising
the principal transactions of the Jews which occurred dur¬
ing the reigns of Seleucus IV., Antiochus Epiphanes, and
Antiochus Eupator. It partly goes over the same ground
with the first book, but commences ten or twelve years
earlier, and embraces in all a period of fifteen years. It
does not appear that the author of either saw the other’s
work. It is often self-contradictory, and differs with the first
book in the account of the death of Antiochus Epiphanes.
We are not aware when either Jason himself or his epi-
tomiser lived. S. G. Hasse supposes it to have been written
b.c. 150, by the author of the Book of Wisdom. Jerome
MAC 757
{Prolog. Galeat?) observes that the phraseology of this Maccaroni.
book evinces a Greek original. There have been two books
of Maccabees found among the Chinese Jews; but whether
they are the same with ours is doubtful.
The Third Book of Maccabees (the first in order of
time) is still read in the Greek church, and is contained in
the Alexandrian and Vatican MSS. (A. & B.). It contains
an account of the persecution of the Egyptian Jews by
Ptolemy Philopator, who is said to have proceeded to Jeru¬
salem after his victory at Raphia over Antiochus the Great,
B.c. 217, and after sacrificing in the temple, to have at¬
tempted to force his way into the Holy of Holies, when he
was prostrated and rendered motionless by an invisible
hand. Upon his return to Egypt, he revenged himself
by shutting up the Jews in the Hippodrome, and exposing
them to be crushed beneath the feet of elephants. This
book contains an account of their deliverance by divine
interposition. It is regarded by De Wette as a tasteless
fable; and Dr Milman {Hist, of the Jews) describes it as
a “ romantic story.” The author is unknown. Dr Affix
{Judgment of the Jewish Church) considers it to have been
written b.c. 200, and by the author of Ecclesiasticus. The
work is first found in Latin in the edition of Frobenius
(1538), It was translated into English by Walter Lynne
(1550); by Whiston{AuthenticDocuments, 1719and 1727);
by Crutwell {Bible, 1785); and again by Dr Cotton {Five
Books of Maccabees, 1832).
The Fourth Book of Maccabees, which is also found in
the Alexandrian and Vatican MSS., is generally supposed to
be the same with the Supremacy of Reason, attributed to
Josephus, with which it for the most part accords. It con¬
sists of an inflated amplification of the history of the martyr¬
dom of Eleazar and of the seven brothers, whose torments
and death, with that of their mother, form the subject of
2 Macc., ch. vi. vii. It is found in the Greek Bibles printed
at Basle in 1545, and at Francfort in 1597, where it is en¬
titled The Book of Josippos (Josephus) on the Maccabees.
It bears the same title in several other MSS. Calmet
{Pref. to the Fourth Book of Macc.) has pointed out several
contradictions between this and the second book, as well
as the books of Moses, together with some opinions derived
from the Stoics, such as the equality of crimes; which, he
supposes, together with its tedious descriptions, have con¬
signed it to the rank of an apocryphal book. The fourth
book was printed by Dr Grabe from the Alexandrian MS.
in the British Museum. There is a French translation by
Calmet {Commentary), and an English one by Dr Cotton
{Five Books of Maccabees, 1832).
What has been called the Fifth Book of Maccabees is
now extant only in the Arabic and Syriac languages. It
was first published, as the supposed Fourth Book, in the
Paris Polyglott, with a Latin version, of which Dr Cotton
has given a translation. It is impossible to ascertain the
author, who could scarcely have been Josephus, as he dis¬
agrees in many things with that historian. The work
consists of a history of Jewish affairs, commencing with the
attempt on the treasury at Jerusalem by Heliodorus, and
ending with the tragic fate of the last of the Asmonaean
princes, and with the inhuman execution by Herod of his
noble and virtuous wife Mariamne, and of his two sons.
This history thus fills up the chasm to the birth of Christ.
The first two books of Maccabees have been treated
with a high degree of respect in the Christian church.
Origen, professing to give a catalogue of the canonical
books, adds, “ besides, there are the Maccabees.” In his
preface to the Psalms he excludes the two books of
Maccabees from the books of holy Scripture. The first
councils which included them in the canonical Scriptures
were those of Hippo and Carthage, and they were not re¬
ceived with the other books till the Council of Trent.
MACCARONI, a kind of wheaten paste formed into
758 MAC
Maccles- long slender tubes, used in this country with cheese, and in
field. soups, &c. It is a favourite dish with all classes in Naples,
II and a great many live on it almost exclusively. The flour,
M‘Crie. a^;er |)ejng mixed with water, is kneaded by heavy wooden
blocks, and then, when sufficiently tough, is forced through
a number of holes so fashioned that it comes out in a tu¬
bular shape. The largest tubes are called maccaroni,
the smaller vermicelli, and the smallest fedelini. After
being properly boiled, it is taken out of the vessel, drained,
saturated with gravy, and sprinkled with grated cheese. The
poor, however, use it without condiment. The best mac¬
caroni is to be found at Naples.
MACCLESFIELD, a municipal and parliamentary
borough, and manufacturing town of England, county of
Chester, on the Bollin, 17 miles S. by E. from Manches¬
ter, and 167 from London by railway. It is pleasantly
situate on a declivity near the borders of Macclesfield
Forest, and consists of four principal streets which meet in
the market-place. The town is well supplied with water,
brought from springs in the neighbouring hills ; and baths
and wash-houses have lately been established. The town-
hall is a commodious and handsome Grecian building of
recent erection, having, besides the courts of justice,
offices, &c., a large assembly hall. The old church of St
Michael, founded by Eleanor, queen of Edward I., in 1278,
but since almost entirely rebuilt, is a large structure, partly
Gothic, and has a massive tower, formerly surmounted by a
lofty steeple. Several of the other churches are handsome
buildings. The Independents, Methodists, Baptists, Ro¬
man Catholics, and others, have places of worship here.
The free grammar school, founded in 1502 by Sir John
Percival, and refounded by Edward VI., has a revenue of
about L.1500. A commercial school has recently been
established on this foundation. There are also national,
infant, charity, and other schools. A school of design
was established here in 1851 ; and a subscription library,
founded in 1770, now contains upwards of 20,000 volumes.
The staple manufacture of Macclesfield is silk in all its va¬
rious branches. About seventy mills are employed in
throwing silk; besides which there are numerous esta¬
blishments in which broad silks, handkerchiefs, and similar
goods are made. The mills are mostly situate on the
Bollin. The cotton manufacture has recently been intro¬
duced, and is now in a very flourishing condition. There
are also several dye-works, foundries, and breweries in the
town. Coal, slate, and stone are found in the vicinity.
The Macclesfield Canal, which passes the town, unites
the Grand Trunk and the Peak Forest canals, and thus
affords water communication with most parts of England.
Macclesfield was first incorporated by charter in 1260, by
Prince Edward, son of Henry III. as Earl of Chester, but
it had no voice in parliament till the Reform Bill granted
it the privilege of returning two members. It is divided
into six wards, and is governed by a mayor, 12 aldermen,
and 36 councillors. Market-days, Tuesday and Saturday.
Pop. (1851) 39,048.
M‘CRIE, Thomas, D.D., author of the Life of Knox,
was born at Dunse, in North Britain, in the month of
November 1772. His parents belonged to the class of
Seceders known in Scotland as Antiburghers, and he was
educated with a view to the ministry in that persuasion.
After passing through the ordinary course of education
afforded in a country town, he came to Edinburgh, and en¬
rolled himself as a student in the university, in the winter
of 1788. During that and the two following sessions he
pursued the course of literary and philosophical study pre¬
scribed to students intending to devote themselves to the
MAC
ministry; and in 1791 he entered the theological class at M'Crie.
Whitburn, under the Rev. Archibald Bruce, the teacher
or professor of divinity to the Associate Antiburgher Synod.
As the attendance upon this course was only for a limited
period each year, it was usual for the students, whose
means were generally very scanty, to employ the intervals
in teaching. In this way Mr M£Crie, in the autumn of
1791, proceeded to Brechin, and opened a school in con¬
nection with the Associate Antiburgher congregation in
that town ; and he continued there, excepting the time an¬
nually required at Whitburn in the three following sessions
(1792 to 1794) for completing the regular course of theo¬
logical study.
In September 1795, Mr M‘Crie was licensed to preach
by the Associate presbytery of Kelso. In the beginning
of the next year he received a call from the Second Asso¬
ciate Congregation of Antiburghers in Edinburgh; and
some scruples having been obviated by an act ,of the As¬
sociate Synod, dated 3d May 1796, he was ordained to that
charge on the 23d of that month. In this pastoral rela¬
tionship he continued for upwards of ten years, evidently
with the sincere attachment of his people.
At this period Mr M'Crie, by diligent and assiduous
study, was acquiring that profound theological knowledge,
and that fund of literary and ecclesiastical information, for
which in after life he was so distinguished. The proceed¬
ings of the religious body with whom he was connected
may also have had some effect in directing his pursuits to¬
wards subjects connected with the history, constitution,
and polity of the Reformed church.
Mr M‘Crie was one of five ministers who protested
against what they considered to be a spirit of innovation on
the part of the Synod, while engaged in the revisal and
enlargement of the Judicial Act and Testimony, which had
hitherto served as the bond of ministerial and religious
communion, in order, as it was expressed, to adapt it
“ more to the circumstances of the present time.” The
result of their proceedings was a sentence of deposition
by the Associate Synod; and, in the case of Mr M‘Crie, a
litigation in the Court of Session. The task devolved
upon Mr M£Crie to publish an explanation of the contro¬
versy between the Synod and them; and this appeared
in 1807. Although of a controversial nature, respecting
differences which attracted no very great share of public
notice at the time, this Statement involves the discussion
of principles which have since been much more widely agi¬
tated by the Voluntary question ; and it has been appealed
to by the friends of the Established Church, as explaining
and enforcing the true grounds of connexion between the
church and state, and as an able and elaborate argument
of the obligation on civil rulers to make suitable provision
for the religious interests of the community.
In the comparatively obscure and humble situation in
which Mr M£Crie was now placed, he was enabled to devote
his leisure hours to his favourite literary pursuits. The
Life of John Knox, containing Illustrations of the History
of the Reformation in Scotland, appeared in the beginning
of 1812, in 1 vol. 8vo, pp. 580, and a new edition ap¬
peared in an enlarged and corrected form in 1813.1
The next subject in which Dr M£Crie engaged was a
Life of Andrew Melville, the able and intrepid assertor of
Presbytery; which might serve as a continuation to his
former work, by giving an account of ecclesiastical transac¬
tions in Scotland during the latter part of the sixteenth
and beginning of the seventeenth century. This work was
published in 1819, in 2 vols. 8vo.2
In 1817 Dr M‘Crie took occasion, in a review of the
1 The fifth edition, carefully revised by the author, and containing his last corrections, was published in 1831, 2 vols. 8vo.
2 The title is, The, Life, of Andrew Melville ; containing Illustrations of the Ecclesiastical and Literary History of Scotland during the latter
part of the Sixteenth and beginning of the Seventeenth Century. With an Appendix consisting of original papers. A second edition, revised,
was published in 1824, also in 2 vols. 8vo.
MAC
M'Crie. first series of the Tales of my Landlord, to offer an elabo-
—rate defence of the Covenanters. Sir Walter Scott, who
had not then stood forth as the acknowledged author of the
Waverley Novels, was persuaded by the editor of the
Quarterly Review to become the reviewer of his own
work, when he took the opportunity of vindicating his
statements in answer to the article in the magazine.
In February 1816, Dr M'Crie succeeded the Reverend
Archibald Bruce, Antiburgher minister at Whitburn, as
professor of divinity. On the union of the two seceding
bodies, under the designation of the “ Associate Synod of
Original Seceders,” Dr M‘Crie resigned the divinity chair
to the Rev. Dr Paxton, author of Illustrations of the Holy
Scriptures; and resuming his literary labours, he next
published, in 1821, Two Discourses on the Unity of the
Church. This was followed in 1825 by a volume entitled
Memoirs of Mr William Veitch and George Bryson, written
by themselves: with other Narratives Illustrative of the His¬
tory of Scotland, from the Restoration to the Revolution:
to which are added, Biographical Sketches and Notes, 8vo,
pp. 540.
The next subject of his investigation led to the publica¬
tion, in 1827, of a History of the Progress and Suppression
of the Reformation in Italy in the Sixteenth Century, in¬
cluding a Sketch of the Reformation in the Grisons. 8vo,
pp. 434. Also, in 1829, as a sequel to that work, a History
of the Progress and Suppression of the Reformation in
Spain in the Sixteenth Century. 8vo, pp. 424. These
volumes undoubtedly form a valuable accession to the history
of the Reformation throughout Europe, although the author
laboured under great disadvantages in having but limited
access to original sources of information, compared to what
was within his reach in matters of our own ecclesiastical
history. Both volumes, however, present masterly sketches
of the periods of which they treat, and no subsequent his¬
torian has arisen to give a more extended history of the
suppressed reformations on the continent.
Dr M‘Crie was induced to undertake a life of John
Calvin the Reformer, which had been looked for from
his hand, and which he himself had long contemplated;
and he had made some progress in writing the introduc¬
tory portion at the time when his earthly labours were
brought to a close in the summer of 1835.1 He was in¬
terred in the New Greyfriars burying-ground.
A detailed and interesting Life by his eldest son, the Rev.
Dr M'Crie, appeared in 1840. To his care we are also
indebted for the publication of a posthumous volume of
Sermons, 1836; a collection of his Miscellaneous Writings,
1841; sketches of Lectures on Esther; and a complete
edition of his works in crown 8vo.
In private life, Dr M‘Crie was dignified, kind, affable,
and free from everything like display or desire of no¬
toriety; being remarkable for his cordiality of manners,
cheerfulness of temper and conversation, and his unaffected
simplicity. As a preacher, his style of address was rather
unprepossessing, partly from want of action, and partly
from his slow, monotonous, and somewhat constrained
delivery, as if afraid to speak out in the natural tone
of his voice. But any deficiency of artificial eloquence
was amply compensated for by his profound and luminous
expositions of Scripture, expressed in clear and ener¬
getic language; and several of his printed discourses make
good his claim to stand in the first rank of Scottish preachers.
In his literary character, by which he will be known in after
times, it will be acknowledged that his mind was of no
ordinary cast. With extensive erudition, and habits of in¬
defatigable research, ‘he combined sound judgment, and a
singular acuteness and sagacity of intellect. His learning
MAC 7-59
was both profound and extensive, as he was not only skilled Maccul-
in what are called the learned languages, but was conver- loch,
sant with most of those of modern Europe. Still, with all II
his natural love of literary pursuits, he kept such employ- ac7.
ment in subservience to his duty as a diligent and faithful ^‘^rmi
minister of Christ. For nearly forty years he laboured with
the most affectionate solicitude for the spiritual interests of
his flock, and much of his time was devoted to them in his
week-day ministrations. It was chiefly a consideration of
the paramount importance of such a charge, we imagine,
that caused him to decline the prospect of a chair in the
University of Edinburgh. There is every reason also to
believe, that had his life been spared a few months longer,
the honorary office of Historiographer-Royal for Scotland
would have been conferred, unsolicited, upon him, as a
public testimony due to him. He has been styled by Hallam
the “ Hildebrand of the Reformation ;” but it must be con¬
fessed that his warm championship of Knox was the result
of profound conviction and untiring research. The philo¬
sophic wisdom and candour that pervade his writings are
rarely to be found in the productions of men subjected, as
he was early and for a long period, to neglect and poverty
for conscience sake.
MACCULLOCH, Dr John, a miscellaneous writer,
descended from an old Scottish family, was born at Guern¬
sey in 1773. While still a child, he removed with his
family to Cornwall, and after attending several schools, was
at last sent in 1787 to the grammar school of Lostwithiel.
In 1790 he began the study of medicine at Edinburgh;
and at the early age of eighteen received the diploma of
physician. Too young, however, for private practice, he
remained in Edinburgh for five years, and after filling
successively the offices of assistant-surgeon in the artillery,
and chemist to the Board of Ordnance, he settled in
1807 as a physician at Blackheath. This profession he
relinquished in 1811, and for several years afterwards he
was employed by government in making various surveys in
Scotland. Of these, the most important was his mineralo-
gical and geological survey of that country, begun in 1826
arid completed in 1832. He died at Penzance in 1835, from
the effects of a fall. At the period of his death Dr Maccul-
loch was lecturer on geology and chemistry in the military
establishment at Addiscombe. He had also been appointed,
in 1820, physician in ordinary to Leopold of Saxe-Coburg,
and was fellow of the Royal, Linnaean, and Geological Socie¬
ties. In addition to the knowledge of mathematics, geology,
mineralogy, medicine, chemistry, and theology, displayed
in his various works, he possessed an acquaintance with
physics, botany, zoology, astronomy, and the mechanical
arts. He was also skilled in music, drawing, and architec¬
ture. He published Remarks on the Art of Making Wine,
12mo, 1816; A Description of the Western Islands of
Scotland, in 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1819; A Geological
Classification of Rocks, 8vo, London, 1821 ; and The
Highlands and Western Islands of Scotland, containmg
Descriptions of the Scenery, Antiquities, Sec., in 4 vols.
8vo, London, 1824. In 1837 was published his posthu¬
mous work, entitled Proofs and Illustrations of the Attri¬
butes of God from the Facts and Laws of the Physical
Universe, being the Foundation of Natural and Revealed
Religion, in 3 vols. 8vo, London. He also contributed
several papers to the seventh edition of this Encyclopaedia,
to the Transactions of the Geological Society, to the Edin¬
burgh Review, and to other periodicals.
MACDIARMID, John, was born at Edinburgh in
1789, and educated at the university of that city, where he
afterwards commenced his career as a clerk in the Com¬
mercial Bank. Having a taste for literature, which he as-
* may be noticed, that Dr M'Crie, in May 1834, visited London to give his evidence before the Committee of the House of Commons
on Church Patronage. His evidence forms part of the voluminous Report on that question, pp. 355-374, and 383-393.
760' MAC
Macdonald siduously cultivated, he became editor of the Dumfries
II Courier in 1817, which he conducted with originality and
Macedo. tagte< He died November 12, 1852. In addition to his
contributions to the newspaper, he published The History
of Dumfries, A Guide to Moffat, A Life of Courper, A
Life of William Nicholson the Galloway Poet, Sketches
from Nature, The Scrap-Book, &c.
MACDONALD, Etienne-Jacques-Joseph-Alexan¬
dre, Duke of Tarentum, was descended from a Scottish
family, and was born in 1765 at Sancerre, in France. He
entered the French army in 1784, and having embraced
the principles of the Revolution, served in the army of the
north as brigadier-general; but in 1795 was promoted for
his bravery to the rank of general of division. In this ca¬
pacity he commanded at Diisseldorf and Cologne. After
serving in the army of the Rhine, he acted under Bona¬
parte in the army of Italy, and in 1798 became governor
of the Roman States. Forced, however, in 1799 to retreat
before SuwarofF and Melas, he was defeated by them at
Trebia, and with great difficulty effected a conjunction with
Moreau at Genoa. In the revolution of the 18th Bru-
maire, Macdonald ably seconded Bonaparte; and in 1800
was rewarded for his services with the command of an army
of reserve in Switzerland. There he displayed great mili¬
tary skill in his passage of the Splugen. On his return to
# Paris in 1802, he was appointed French plenipotentiary at
the court of Denmark, and at the expiry of this office, he
was decorated with the star of a Grand Officer of the Le¬
gion of Honour. For his bold defence of Moreau, Mac¬
donald forfeited the favour of Bonaparte. Yet in 1809, so
brilliant was his success in defeating the enemy’s centre at
Wagram, that Napoleon acknowledged his bravery in pre¬
sence of the army, and bestowed upon him the marshal’s
staff and the title of Duke of Tarentum. No less noted
was his military prowess in the famous invasion of Russia,
and in the battles of Lutzen, Bautzen, and Leipsic. Dur¬
ing the Hundred Days, Macdonald lived in retirement.
After the downfall of Napoleon he was appointed chan¬
cellor of the Legion of Honour, an office which he held till
1831. In 1825 he attended Charles X. to the coronation
at Rheims, and afterwards visited Great Britain and Ire¬
land. He died in 1840.
MACDUFF, a burgh of barony and seaport-town of
Scotland, county of Banff, on the right bank of the Deve-
ron, at its mouth, and connected w ith the town of Banff on
the opposite bank by a stone bridge of seven arches. It has
a town-hall, jail, an Established and a Free church, and an
excellent harbour, by means of which a considerable coast¬
ing trade is carried on. It is included in the parliamentary
burgh of Banff. Pop. (1851) 2527.
MACE, the external covering or arillode of the seed of
the nutmeg, of a scarlet colour, and fatty, shining appear¬
ance. (See Myristica moschata, in Botany.) It is strongly
aromatic and of a pungent acrid taste. It is packed in bales,
and imported from the Moluccas, where the best is to be
found. The import trade in mace for home consumption
for the three years ending with 31st December 1856, has
been as follows:—in 1854, 25,584 lb.; in 1855, 28,563
lb.; in 1856, 27,299 lb. The present (1857) duty on
mace is Is. per lb.
MACEDO, Jose Agostinho de, a Portuguese poet,
was born about 1770. He studied for the church, became
an Augustine monk, and in 1810 was chaplain to the Prince
Regent of Portugal, and one of the most popular preachers
in Lisbon. In 1811 he published Reflections on the Epi¬
sode of Adamastor in the Luciad, in which he convicted
Camoens of plagiarism from the Italian poets. He also wrote
an epic poem, O Oriente (The Orient), in celebration of
the discovery of India ; a didactic poem, entitled A Medi-
tacao (Meditation) ; a translation of Horace; and several
controversial pamphlets. Macedo died in 1831.
MAC
MACEDONIA, or Macedon, a celebrated kingdom of Macedonia,
antiquity, was bounded on the E. by the iEgean Sea, on
the S. by Thessaly and JEpirus, on the W. by the Ionian
Sea or Adriatic, on the N. at first by the river Strymon
and the Scardian Mountains, but afterwards by the River
Nessus or Nestus. In a direct line the whole country ex¬
tended only 150 miles ; but it was lengthened out to about
three times that extent by the windings of the coast, in
which almost every convenient situation was converted into
a Grecian seaport. The country was naturally divided by
the Thermaic and Strymonic gulfs, into the provinces of
Pieria, Chalcis, and Pangasus. The middle region, which
took its name from a city of Euboea, whence it had been
originally peopled, was very fertile and pleasant; and the
interior, being diversified by lakes, rivers, and arms of the
sea, was extremely convenient for inland navigation, whilst
the towns of Amphipolis, Potidaea, Acanthus, and many
others, afforded marts for the commerce of the republics of
Greece, as well as of Thrace and Macedonia. On one
side of this district were the mountains of Pangaeus, and
on the other the plains of Pieria. The Pangaean Moun¬
tains, which extended 90 miles towards the E. and the River
Nessus, though proper neither for corn nor pasture, pro¬
duced plenty of timber for ship-building; whilst the south¬
ern branches of the mountains contained rich veins of gold
and silver. Pieria extended 50 miles along the Thermaic
Gulf, as far as the confines of Thessaly and Mount Pindus.
In the most ancient times this country was called Mima- Different
thia, from ^Emathius, one of its princes. The name of names.
Macedonia is said to have been derived from Macedo, a
descendant of Deucalion ; though others suppose it to have
been only a corruption of Mygdonia, a district of the coun¬
try. In those remote ages of antiquity, Macedonia, like
most other countries of Europe, was divided into a great
number of petty principalities, of which scarcely even the
names are now known.
That section of the race which went under the name of
Macedonian, and which afterwards swallowed up all the rest
and became known as the Macedonians, had their origin at
iEgae or Edessa, corresponding with the site of the modern
Vodhena. And though, in after times, the royal residence
was removed to Pella, yet the original centre was always
retained as the burial-place of their kings, and the hearth
around which the national reverence and affection clung.
The origin of the Macedonian people and that of the
Macedonian monarchy are quite distinct. The former
have been regarded as of Illyrian, the latter of Hellenic
race. We learn from Polybius, the best authority which
we possess (xxviii., 8, 9), that the Macedonian language was
different from the Illyrian,—a circumstance which, in the
opinion of Mr Grote {History of Greece, vol. iv., p. 14),
is sufficient to cast serious doubt on the supposed Illyrian
descent of those races.
All the stories relative to the early history of the Mace¬
donian monarchy—and they were various—agree in tracing
the origin of the family to the Temenids of Argos. There
is an air of genuineness about the tradition of Herodotus
(viii., 137-138). According to this historian, Perdiccas,
a Temenid, with two brothers of the same race, being
driven from their native Argos into Macedonia, were com¬
pelled, from straitened circumstances, to serve as shepherds
to the petty King of Labaea. A prodigy happened to Per¬
diccas, which at once indicated his future success, and led
to his present dismissal by the Labaean. His escape being
secured by the rising of a river, which was afterwards held
sacred by the Macedonian kings, this hardy shepherd
established himself near the garden of Midas, on Mount
Bermius, and from him sprang the royal line of Edessa. It
was a common Greek opinion, moreover, during the reign
of Alexander, son of Amyntas, that the family of that prince
was of Hellenic extraction; so much so, that he found a place
MACEDONIA.
761
Macedonia, at the Olympic games, to which none but a genuine Greek
could lay claim.
To command was the prerogative of tne Greek mind,
and for a courageous Argeian to acquire ascendancy and
transmit authority over the Macedonian barbarians was
doubtless a task of comparatively little difficulty. From
the legend alluded to till the reign of Amyntas (520-500
b.c.) and his son Alexander (480 b.c.), we have nothing
but a long blank. Names or dates there are none; yet,
we can dimly infer the growing influence and importance of
the Temenids. They acquire Pieria, a place of great im¬
portance, lying between Mount Bermius and the sea.
Amyntas accordingly heired an extensive dominion on his
coming to the throne. During his reign he kept up a
friendly connexion with the Pisistratidae at Athens, a
relationship afterwards continued between his son Alexan¬
der and the Athenians. It was during the reign of Amyn¬
tas that Macedonia first became formally subject to the
Persian power. Darius intrusted his officer Megabazus with
the important task of ratifying the submission which
Amyntas had proposed, and the Persian warrior and diplo¬
matist fulfilled his mission so well, that after marrying the
sister of Amyntas, he returned to his master with a new
province added to his empire.
The Macedonians distinguished themselves in the time
of the Persian invasion of Greece by furnishing their
allies with 200,000 recruits; though some cities, particu¬
larly Potidaea, Olynthus, and Pallene, adhered to the Gre¬
cian interest. The last two were taken and razed, and the
inhabitants massacred by the Persians ; but Potidaea es¬
caped by reason of the sea breaking into the Persian camp,
where it did great damage. Alexander, however, after¬
wards thought proper to court the favour of the Greeks, by
giving them intelligence of the time when Mardonius de¬
signed to attack them. The remaining transactions of this
reign are entirely unknown, further than that the king en¬
larged his dominions as far as the river Nessus on the E.,
and the Axius on the W.
Alexander I. was succeeded by his son Perdiccas II.,
who is said to have inherited his father’s abilities, though
not his integrity. From the duplicity with which he
acted, both to the Greeks and the Persians, it does not
appear, indeed, that he had much to boast of as to the latter
quality. In the Peloponnesian war he espoused the cause
of the Spartans against the Athenians, from whom he was
in danger by reason of their numerous settlements on the
Macedonian coast, and their great power by sea. For some
time, however, he amused the Athenians with a show of
friendship ; but at last, under pretence of enabling Olyn¬
thus and some other cities to recover their liberties, he as¬
sisted in destroying the influence of the Athenians in those
places, hoping to establish that of the Macedonians in its
stead. But this design failed of success; the Olynthian
confederacy was broken up ; and the members of it became
subject to Sparta, until at last, by the misfortune of that
republic, they grew sufficiently powerful, not only to resist
the encroachments of the Macedonians, but to make con¬
siderable conquests in their country.
Perdiccas II. was succeeded about 416 B.c. by Arche-
laus I. He enlarged his dominions by the conquest of
Pydna and other places in Pieria, though his ambition
seems rather to have been to improve his dominions than
greatly to extend them. He facilitated communication be¬
tween the principal towns of Macedonia, by cutting straight
roads through the greater part of the country ; he built
walls and fortresses in such places as afforded favourable
situations; he encouraged agriculture and the arts, particu¬
larly those subservient to war; he formed magazines of
arms; he raised and disciplined a considerable body of
cavalry ; and, in a word, he added more to the solid grandeur
of Macedonia than had been done by all his predecessors
VOL. XIII.
Reign of
Perdiccas
II.
Archelaua
I.
put together (Thuc., ii. 100). Nor was he regardless of Macedonia.
the arts of peace. His palace was adorned by the works
of the Grecian painters. Euripides was long entertained
at his court; Socrates was earnestly solicited to live there;
men of merit and genius in the various walks of literature
and science were invited to reside in Macedonia, and treated
with distinguished regard by a monarch equally attentive
to advance his own glory and promote the happiness of his
subjects.
Phis great monarch died after a reign of six years, a space ^is*
by far too short to accomplish the magnificent projects he sens^ons-
had formed. After his death the kingdom fell under the
power of usurpers, or of weak and wicked monarchs. A
number of competitors constantly appeared for the throne ;
and these by turns called to their assistance the Thracians,
Illyrians, Thessalians, the Olynthian confederacy, Athens,
Sparta, and Thebes. Bardyllis, an active and daring chief,
who, from being the head of a gang of robbers, had become
sovereign of the Illyrians, entered Macedonia at the head of
a numerous army; deposed Amyntas II., father of Philip ;
and set up in his stead one Argasus, who consented to be¬
come tributary to the Illyrians. Another candidate for the
throne, named Pausanias, was supported by the Thracians;
but, by the assistance of the Thessalians and Olynthians,
Amyntas was at length enabled to resume the government.
After his restoration, however, the Olynthians refused to
deliver up several places of importance belonging to Mace¬
donia, which Amyntas had either intrusted to their care, or
which they had taken from his antagonist. Amyntas com¬
plained to Sparta, and that republic readily complied with
his wishes. Two thousand Spartans, under the command
of Eudamidas, were ordered into Macedonia, where they
performed essential service. The appearance of a Spartan
army at once encouraged the subjects and allies of the
Olynthians to revolt; and the city of Potidaea, a place of
great importance in the isthmus of Pallene, surrendered soon
after his arrival in the country. Elated with his success,
Eudamidas approached so near the city of Olynthus, that he
was unexpectedly attacked, defeated, and killed, in a sally
of the citizens. He was succeeded by Teleutias, brother
of Agesilaus, who had under his command a body of ten
thousand men, and was further assisted by Amyntas, king of
Macedonia, and Derdas his brother, the governor or sove¬
reign of the most westerly province of Macedonia, which
abounded in cavalry. By these formidable enemies the
Olynthians were discomfited in a series of battles, obliged
to shut themselves up in their city, and prevented from cul¬
tivating their territory; upon which Teleutias advanced
with his whole forces to invest the city itself. The Olyn¬
thians allowed them to come on, and the Lacedaemonians
imprudently advanced under the towers and battlements of
the city. The townsmen then mounted the walls, and dis¬
charged upon them a shower of darts, arrows, and other
missile weapons, whilst the flower of the Olynthian troops,
who had been purposely posted behind the gates, sallied
forth and attacked them with the greatest fury. Teleutias,
attempting to rally his men, was slain in the first onset; the
Spartans who attended him were defeated, and the whole
army dispersed with great slaughter, and obliged to shelter
themselves in the towns of Acanthus, Apollonia, Spartolus,
and Potidaea.
The Spartans, undismayed by this disaster, prosecuted Submission
the war with much spirit. The Olynthians held out for ^yn"
nine or ten months, but were at last obliged to submit on1 1
very humiliating conditions. They formally renounced all
claim to the dominion of Chalcis, and ceded the Macedonian
cities to their ancient governor; and in consequence of this,
Amyntas left the city of ASgae, or Edessa, where till now he
had held his royal residence, and fixed it at Pella, a city of
great strength and beauty, situate upon an eminence, which,
together with a plain of considerable extent, was defended
5 D
762 MACEDONIA.
Macedonia, by impassable morasses, and also by the rivers Axius and
Lydias. It was distant about 15 miles from the Aegean Sea,
with which it communicated by means of the above-men¬
tioned rivers. It was originally founded by the Greeks
who had conquered and peopled it; but, in consequence of
the misfortunes of Olynthus, it now became, and continued
ever after to be, the capital of Macedonia.
Pansanias; Amyntas being thus established in his dominions, con-
Ptolemy. tinued to enjoy tranquillity during the remaining part of his
life. The reign of his son Alexander was short, and dis¬
turbed by invasions of the Illyrians, from whom he was
obliged to purchase a peace. He left behind him two
brothers, Perdiccas and Philip, both very young, so that
Pausanias again found means to usurp the throne, being
supported not only by the Thracians, but by a considerable
number of Greek mercenaries, as well as a powerful party
in Macedonia itself. In this critical juncture, however,
Iphicrates the Athenian happening to be on an expedition
to Amphipolis, was so warmly addressed by Eurydice, the
widow of Amyntas, in behalf of her two sons, whom she
presented to him, that he interested himself in their behalf,
and got Perdiccas, the eldest, established on the throne.
During the minority of the young prince, however, his
brother Ptolemy, who was his guardian, openly aspired to
the throne; but he was deposed by the Theban general
Pelopidas, who reinstated Perdiccas in his dominions, and
in order to secure the dependence of Macedonia upon
Thebes, carried along with him thirty Macedonian youths
as hostages, amongst whom was Philip, the younger brother
of the king. Perdiccas, elated by the protection of such
powerful allies, now forgot Iphicrates and the Athenians,
and even disputed with them the right to the city of Am¬
phipolis, which had been decreed to them by the general
council of Greece, but which his opposition rendered it im¬
possible for them to recover. In a battle with the Illyrians,
the Macedonians were defeated with the loss of 4000 men,
and Perdiccas himself was taken prisoner, and soon after¬
wards died of his wounds.
State of the The kingdom was now left in the most deplorable state.
kingdom. Amyntas, the legitimate heir to the throne, was an infant;
the I hebans, in whom Perdiccas had placed so much con¬
fidence, were deprived of the sovereignty of Greece; the
Athenians, justly provoked at the ungrateful behaviour of
the late monarch, showed a hostile disposition ; the Illyrians
ravaged the western, and the Paeonians the northern quarter
of the kingdom ; the Thracians still supported the cause of
Pausanias, and proposed to send him into Macedonia at the
head of a numerous army; whilst Argaeus, the former rival of
Amyntas, renewed his pretensions to the throne, and by flat¬
tering the Athenians with thehopesof recovering Amphipolis,
easily induced them to support his claims, in consequence
of which they fitted out a fleet, having on board 3000 heavily
armed soldiers, which they sent to the coast of Macedonia.
Arrivjil of Philip, the late king’s brother, no sooner heard of his
Macedo-11 ^e^eat an(^ death, than he set out privately from Thebes,
nia. a.n^ on Ids arrival in Macedonia found matters in the situa¬
tion which we have just described. Fired with an insatiable
ambition, it is probable that from the very first moment he
had resolved to seize the kingdom for himself; yet it was
necessary at first to pretend that he assumed the throne
only to preserve it for his nephew. Philip, as has already
been mentioned, had been carried off as a hostage by Pelo¬
pidas, but for a long time past had remained in such obscu¬
rity that historians are not agreed as to his place of residence,
some placing him in Thebes, and others in Macedonia. It
is certain, however, that from the age of fifteen he had
been very much in the family of Epaminondas, from whose
lessons he could not but derive the greatest advantage.
It is also probable that he accompanied this celebrated
general in many of his expeditions; and it is certain that,
with an attendance suitable to his rank, he visited most of
the principal republics, and paid great attention to their Macedonia,
institutions, both civil and military. Having easy access to
whomsoever he pleased, he cultivated the friendship of the
first people in Greece. Even in Athens, where no good
will subsisted to Macedonia, the philosophers Plato, Iso¬
crates, and Aristotle, cultivated his acquaintance; and the
connection he formed with the principal leaders of that
republic in the early period of his life no doubt contributed
greatly to the accomplishment of the designs in which he
afterwards proved so successful.
Philip’s return to Macedonia instantly changed the face Affaire of
of affairs. The Macedonian army, though defeated, was the king-
not entirely destroyed; and the remainder of them secured do.m re~
themselves in the fortresses which had been built by Ar-
chelaus. There were also considerable garrisons in the
fortresses and walled towns scattered over the kingdom;
and the Illyrians, who had made war only for the sake of
plunder, soon returned home to enjoy the fruits of their
victory. His other enemies, the Thracians and Paeonians,
were much less formidable than the Illyrians, being still in
a very rude and uncivilized state, incapable of uniting under
one head in such a manner as to bring any formidable army
into the field. Whilst the Illyrians therefore gave up the
campaign through mere caprice and unsteadiness, Philip
himself applied to the Paeonians, and by fair promises and
flattery, prevailed upon them to desist. The King of
Thrace, by means of a sum of money, was easily induced to
abandon the cause of Pausanias; so that Philip, freed from
these barbarians, was now at liberty to oppose the Athe¬
nians, who supported Argaeus, and threatened a very for¬
midable invasion.
The appearance of the Athenian fleet before Methone, Philip f»-
and the presence of Argaeus at the head of a numerous army8UmeB
in Pieria, filled the whole country with consternation; and th.e sotve'
Philip, who was by no means deficient in the talents neces- ^ 5'
sary to recommend himself to the good graces of the people,
took the opportunity of getting Amyntas set aside and him¬
self declared king, for which proceeding indeed the danger
of the times afforded a very plausible pretext. In the
meantime, Argaeus advanced with his Athenian allies to¬
wards Edessa, or iEgae, but was defeated by Philip in a
general engagement, in which Argaeus himself, with the
flower of his army, was cut in pieces, and the rest taken
prisoners. This first instance of success contributed greatly
to raise the spirits of Philip’s party; and he himself took
care to improve it in the best manner possible. Having
made a great number of prisoners, both Macedonians and
Athenians, he determined, by his treatment of them, to
ingratiate himself with both parties. The former were
called into his presence, and, after a gentle reprimand,
admitted to swear allegiance to him, after which they were
distributed throughout the army. The Athenians were
entertained at his table, and dismissed without ransom, and
their baggage was restored to them. The prisoners were
just allowed time to return to their native city, and to
spread abroad the news of Philip’s generosity, when they
were followed by ambassadors from Macedonia with pro¬
posals for peace. As he knew that the loss of Amphipolis
had greatly irritated them, he now thought proper to re¬
nounce his jurisdiction over that city. It was accordingly
declared free and independent, and subject only to the
government of its own free and equitable laws. This
prudent conduct, together with his kind treatment of the
prisoners, so wrought upon the minds of the Athenians,
that they consented to the renewal of a treaty which had
formerly subsisted between them and his father Amyntas.
Thus he found means to remove all jealousy of his ambi¬
tion, and to induce them to engage in a ruinous war with
their allies, which occupied their attention until Philip had
an opportunity of getting; matters so well established that
it was impossible to overthrow him.
MACEDONIA.
763
The P;eo-
nians and
Illyrians.
Macedonia. The new king being thus at liberty to regulate his do-
mestic concerns, began to circumscribe the power of his
chiefs and nobles, who, especially in the more remote
provinces, paid very little regard to the authority of the
kings of Macedonia. To counteract the ambition of these
chiefs, Philip chose a body of the bravest Macedonian
youths, whom he entertained at his own table, and hon¬
oured with many testimonies of his friendship, giving them
the title of his “ companions,” and allowing them constantly
to attend him in war and hunting. Their intimacy with
the sovereign, which was considered as a sure indication of
their merit, obliged them to use superior diligence in all
the severe duties of military discipline; so that they thus
formed a useful seminary for future generals, by whom
both Philip and Alexander were afterwards greatly assisted
in their conquests.
Whilst the king thus took the best methods to render
himself secure at home and formidable abroad, the Paeo-
nians again began to make incursions into the kingdom. The
death of Agis, their king, however, who was a man of great
military skill, deprived them of almost all power of resist¬
ance when they were attacked. Philip, in consequence,
overran their country with little opposition, and reduced
them to the state of tributaries to Macedonia. No sooner
was this accomplished, than he undertook a winter’s cam¬
paign against the Illyrians, who had long been the natural
enemies of Macedonia. After an ineffectual negotiation,
he was met by their leader Bardyllis at the head of a con¬
siderable body of infantry, but with only 400 horse. They
made a gallant resistance for some time; but being unable
to contend with so skilful a general as Philip, they were
defeated with the loss of 7000 men, amongst whom was
Bardyllis, who fell at the age of ninety.
By this disaster the Illyrians were so much disheartened,
that they sent ambassadors to Philip, humbly begging for
peace upon any terms. The conqueror granted them the
same conditions which had been imposed upon the Paeo-
nians, viz., becoming tributary, and yielding up to him a con¬
siderable part of their country. This territory, hitherto un¬
connected with any foreign power, gradually sunk into such
absolute dependence upon Macedonia, that many ancient
geographers supposed it to be a province of that country.
Philip had no sooner reduced the Illyrians, than he began
to put in execution greater designs than any which he had
Designs
and pro
^ yet attempted. Sensible of the importance of A mphipolis
b c 357 as a mar*time station, he directed all his efforts towards the
reduction of that city. It had indeed been declared inde¬
pendent by Philip himself in the beginning of his reign;
but this was only to prevent a rupture with the Athenians,
who still asserted their right to it as an ancient colony,
though, by reason of the perfidy of Charidemus, a native
of Euboea, they had hitherto failed in their attempts to re¬
cover it. The Amphipolitans, however, having once en¬
joyed the sweets of liberty, prepared to maintain themselves
in their independence. In the meantime, the hostile
designs of Philip, which all his precaution had not been
able to conceal, alarmed the inhabitants to such a degree
that they thought proper to put themselves under the pro¬
tection of the Olynthians. By them they were readily re¬
ceived into the confederacy, and, trusting to the strength
of their new allies, behaved in such an insolent manner to
Philip, that he was not long in finding a specious pretext
for hostility; on which the Olynthians, greatly alarmed,
sent ambassadors to Athens, requesting their assistance
against such a powerful enemy. Philip, however, justly
alarmed at such a formidable conspiracy, sent agents to
Athens with such expedition that they arrived there before
anything could be concluded with the Olynthian deputies.
Having gained over the popular leaders and orators, he
deceived and flattered the magistrates and senate in such
an artful manner, that a negotiation was instantly set on
foot, by which Philip engaged to conquer Amphipolis for Macedonia,
the Athenians, upon condition that they surrendered to
him the strong fortress of Pydna, a place which he repre¬
sented as of much less importance to them; promising also
to confer upon them many other advantages, which, how¬
ever, he did not specify at that time. Thus the Athenians,
deceived by the perfidy of their own magistrates, elated
with the hopes of recovering Amphipolis, and outwitted by
the superior policy of Philip, rejected with disdain the
proffers of the Olynthians.
1 he ambassadors of Olynthus returned home highly dis¬
gusted with the reception they had met with, but had
scarcely time to communicate their news to their country¬
men, when the ambassadors of Philip arrived at Olynthus.
He pretended to condole with them on the affront they had
received at Athens, but also testified his surprise that they
should court the assistance of that distant and haughty re¬
public, when they could avail themselves of the powerful
kingdom of Macedonia, which wished for nothing more than
to enter into equal and lasting engagements with their
confederacy. As a proof of his moderation and sincerity,
he offered to put them in possession of Anthemus, an im¬
portant town in the neighbourhood, of which the Mace¬
donians had long claimed the jurisdiction ; making many
other fair promises, and, amongst the rest, that he would
reduce for them the cities of Pydna and Potida:a, which he
chose rather to see in dependence on Olynthus than Athens.
Thus he prevailed upon the Olynthians not only to abandon
Amphipolis, but to assist him with all their power in the
execution of his designs.
Philip now lost no time in executing his purposes against
Amphipolis, and pressed the city so closely that the people
were glad to apply to the Athenians for relief. Accord¬
ingly, they despatched two of their most eminent citizens,
Hierax and Stratocles, to represent the danger of an alli¬
ance between Philip and the Olynthians, and to profess
their sorrow for having so deeply offended the parent state.
This representation had such an effect, that though the
Athenians were then deeply engaged in the Social War,
they would probably have paid some attention to the Am¬
phipolitans, had not Philip taken care to send them a letter
with fresh assurances of friendship, acknowledging their
right to Amphipolis, and which he hoped shortly to put
into their hands in terms of his recent agreement. By these
specious pretences the Athenians were persuaded to pay as
little regard to the deputies of the Amphipolitans as they
had already done to those of the Olynthians; so that the
city, unable to defend itself alone against so powerful an
enemy, at last surrendered at discretion in the year 357
before Christ.
Finding that it was not his interest at this time to fall
out with the Olynthians, Philip cultivated the friendship of
that republic with great assiduity; and took the cities of
Pydna and Potidaea, which he readily yielded to the Olyn¬
thians, though they had given him but little assistance in
the reduction of these places. Potidaea had been garrisoned
by the Athenians, and them the artful king sent back without
ransom, lamenting the necessity of his affairs, which obliged
him, contrary to his inclination, to oppose their republic.
Though this was rather too gross, the Athenians were then
so much engaged with the Social War, that they had not
leisure to attend to the affairs of other nations. Philip
made the best use of his time, and next projected the con¬
quest of the gold mines of Thrace. These had formerly
been worked by colonies from Thasos and Athens; but
the colonists had long since been expelled by the barbarous
Thracians, who knew not how to make use of the treasure
they were in possession of. Philip took the trouble to
descend into the mines himself, in order to inspect the
works; and, having caused them to be repaired, planted a
Macedonian colony at Crenidae, bestowed upon it the name "
MACEDONIA.
764
Macedonia. 0f Philippi, and drew annually from the gold mines to the
valUe of nearly 1000 talents, or L.200,000 sterling, an im¬
mense sum in those days. The coins struck here were
likewise called Philippi.
The affairs' Philip having obtained this valuable acquisition, next
of Thessaly undertook to settle the affairs of Thessaly, where every-
settled. thing was in the greatest confusion. This country had
been formerly oppressed by Alexander, tyrant of Pherse,
after whose death three others appeared, viz., Tissiphornus,
Pitholaus, and Lycophron, the brothers-in-law of Alexander,
who had likewise murdered him. By the united efforts of
the Thessalians and Macedonians, however, these usurpers
were easily overthrown, and effectually prevented from
making any disturbances for the future; and the Thessa¬
lians, from a mistaken gratitude, surrendered to Philip all
the revenues arising from their fairs and towns of commerce,
as well as all the conveniences of their harbours and ship¬
ping ; a concession which Philip took care to secure in the
most effectual manner.
Combina- Having now not only established his sovereignty in the
tion most effectual manner, but rendered himself very powerful
and formidable to his neighbours, Philip determined to en-
b c 356. j°y sonie repose from his fatigues. Having formed an
alliance with Arybbas, King of Epirus, he, in the year 357
B.C., married Olympias, the sister of that prince; a match
thought the more eligible, as the kings of Epirus were sup¬
posed to be descended from Achilles. The nuptials were
solemnized with great pomp at Pella, and several months
were spent in shows and diversions, during which Philip
showed such an extreme proneness to vice of every kind,
as disgraced him in the eyes of his neighbours, and most
probably laid the foundation of his future domestic unhap¬
piness. So much was this behaviour of the Macedonian
monarch taken notice of by the neighbouring states, that
the Paeonians and Illyrians threw off the yoke, engaging in
their schemes the King of Thrace ; and, notwithstanding
the insane state of that prince, their designs were now car¬
ried on with more judgment than was usual with barba¬
rians. Philip, however, notwithstanding his dissipation, got
warning of his danger in sufficient time to prevent the
evil consequences which might have ensued had the con¬
federates had time to bring their schemes to a proper
bearing. Early in the spring of 356 he took the field
with the flower of the Macedonian troops. Having marched
in person against the Paeonians and Thracians, he de¬
spatched Parmenio, his best general, into Illyria. Both
enterprises proved successful; and whilst Philip returned
victorious from Thrace, he received an account of the vic¬
tory gained by Parmenio; a second messenger informed
him of a victory gained by his chariot at the Olympic games ;
and a third announced that Olympias had been delivered of
a son at Pella.
Alexander This was the celebrated Alexander, to whom the diviners
the Great, prophesied the highest prosperity and glory, as being born
b.c. 356. ;n such auspicious circumstances. A short time after the
birth of Alexander, Philip wrote a letter to the philosopher
Aristotle, whom he chose as preceptor to his son. The
letter was written with great brevity, containing only the
following words:—“Know that a son is born to us. We
thank the gods not so much for their gift, as for bestowing
it at a time when Aristotle lives. We assure ourselves that
you will form him a prince worthy of his father, and worthy
of Macedonia.”
Phocian Philip next set about the further enlargement of his
wai\ b.c. territories, which were already very considerable. He easily
3j7-346. perceived that the affairs of the Greeks were coming to a
crisis, and he determined to watch the issue of their mutual
dissensions. He found occasion of interference for the first
time with the affairs of Greece, at the outbreak of the Pho¬
cian or Sacred War. The true cause of the persecution of
the Phocians, it is believed, was the hatred with which that
people had inspired the Thebans by refusing them aid in Macedonia,
their recent contest with Sparta. Private individuals also
of the neighbouring communities advanced doubtful mo¬
tives of personal offence. Such were the passions which
moved the Thebans to a course of rash and cruel warfare,
which eventually wrought their own ruin, and led to the de¬
struction of Grecian freedom. Prompted by ambition and
avarice, they aspired to absolute control in the Amphictyonic
Council, and to undivided authority over the temple of
Delphi and its treasures, then in the rightful possession of
the Phocians. A quarrel was sought with this unoffending
people. They were charged by their rapacious neighbours
with having cultivated lands which had been devoted to the
god of Delphi. Ascendant in the council, the Thebans
easily found means of criminating the Phocians ; they ac¬
cordingly condemned that much-wronged people to pay a
fine, for the liquidation of which their entire country was
pronounced forfeit to the god. The Phocians boldly seized
upon Delphi, and appealed to arms (b.c. 357) ; and under
the encouragement of Athens and Sparta, they engaged in
a long and sanguinary war with Thebes and her allies. It
was during this contest that Philip first gained a footing in
Thessaly. This he effected by aiding certain of the Thes¬
salian nobles against the tyrants of Pherae, who had the
Phocians and Athenians for their allies. This movement
brought Philip into collision with the Athenians. When
that republic attempted, together with the people of Methone,
to thwart the influence of Philip on the coasts of Thrace,
he suddenly made a descent upon that place, and made it
his own after a determined siege, in which he lost an eye
by an arrow shot.
During all this time the Phocian war raged with the
greatest fury, and involved in it all the states of Greece.
Lycophron, one of the Thessalian tyrants whom Philip had
formerly deprived of his authority, had again found means
to re-establish himself; and his countrymen having taken
part with the Phocians, Lycophron called in Onomarchus,
the Phocian general, to protect him against the power of
Philip, by whom he was sensible that he would soon be at¬
tacked. The king accordingly marched into Thessaly with
a considerable army, and defeated Phyallus, the brother of
Onomarchus, whom the latter had sent into the country
with a detachment of 7000 men. After this he besieged
and took the city of Pegasae, driving the enemy towards
the frontiers of Phocis. Onomarchus then advanced with
the whole army; and Philip, though inferior in numbers,
did not decline the engagement. The Phocians at first gave
ground, on which the Macedonians pursued, in good order;
but coming near a precipice, on the top of which Onomar¬
chus had posted a detachment of soldiers, the latter rolled
down stones and fragments of the rock in such a manner as
did dreadful execution, and threw them into the utmost dis¬
order. Philip, however, rallied his troops with great pre¬
sence of mind, and prevented the Phocians from gaining
any further advantage ; saying, as he withdrew his troops,
that they did not retreat through fear, but only like rams,
in order to strike with the greater vigour. Nor was he long
before he made good his assertion ; for, having recruited his
army with the greatest expedition, he returned into Thes¬
saly at the head of 20,000 foot and 500 horse, and was there
met by Onomarchus. The Macedonians at this time were
superior in number to their enemies; and Philip, moreover,
took care to remind them that their quarrel was that of
heaven, and that their enemies had been guilty of sacrilege,
by profaning the temple of Delphi. That they might be
still more animated in the cause, he put crowns of laurel
on their heads. Thus fired with enthusiasm, and having
besides the advantage of numbers, the Phocians were alto¬
gether unable to withstand them. They threw away their
arms and fled towards the sea, where they expected to have
been relieved by Chares, who, with the Athenian fleet, was
MACEDONIA.
Macedonia, near to the shore; but in this they were disappointed, for
he made no attempt to save them. Upwards of 6000
perished in the field of battle or in the pursuit, and 3000
were taken prisoners. The body of Onomarchus being
found amongst the slain, was, by order of Philip, hung upon
a gibbet, as a mark of infamy, on account of his having pol¬
luted the temple ; and the bodies of the rest were thrown
into the sea, as being all partakers of the same crime.
The Olynthians now applied to Athens for aid against
the ambitious schemes of their former ally of Macedonia:
a call to which the Athenians, moved by the voice of De¬
mosthenes, gave a ready response, and sent successive rein¬
forcements to their relief. Philip ultimately defeated this
allied force, and subsequently captured Olynthus (b.c. 347).
The Athenians and Macedonians concluded a treaty of peace
the following year, from which the Phocian allies of Athens,
by the unprincipled dexterity of Philip, were excluded.
That brave and unfortunate people now found themselves
at the mercy of their more powerful enemies. The Thebans,
who had borne an unequal share in the conflict, now in their
hour of need solicited the willing aid of Philip. Passing
the unguarded defiles of Thermopylae, he made a swift
descent upon Greece proper, and from the misconduct and
treachery of the Phocian leaders, was entirely successful.
The Phocians were compelled to surrender at mercy, and
the Amphictyons, in solemn council, decreed that their
towns should be destroyed, their inhabitants disarmed and
heavily assessed, and that their Delphian privileges and
votes in the council should revert to the pious Macedonian.
Thus ended the Sacred War (b.c. 346).
Athens and Athens and Macedon were now gradually approaching a
Macedon. col]jsion; the former had for a lengthened period struggled
for the independence of Greece, while the latter aspired to
general supremacy in her government and councils. But
Athens had not only to maintain a contest with the Mace¬
donian,—she had discontented factions within her own bor¬
ders more dangerous to her safety than even her northern
foe. There was an aristocratic and a democratic party.
The voice of the former was for peace, that of the latter for
war. The peace party regarded resistance against such odds
as fatal. They looked on the democrats with contempt;
and with a painful assurance of the utterly degenerate
character of that faction, probably saw no cure for the
evils of intestine strife except a diversion against Persia,
headed by Philip of Macedon. The peace party was led
by the tried patriots Isocrates and Phocion; but there were
men of a very different stamp who found shelter among
them. The pay of Philip had wrought its way among the
base and the treacherous. Chief of these hirelings were
the orators vEschines and Demades. The democratic party,
on the other hand, eager for the license and plunder which
hang in the skirts of war, were guided by the base Chares
and the mercenary Charidemus. But this party was fortu¬
nate enough to have among its ranks a patriot of generous
enthusiasm and of noble independence, who, while he was
alarmed at the unscrupulous ambition of Philip, was yet
determined to offer a brave resistance to the formidable
front of the aspiring king. This was none other than the
celebrated Demosthenes. (See Demosthenes.)
After the Phocian war had been brought to a close,
Philip directed his efforts to the consolidation of his em¬
pire in the north of Greece. The towns of the Propontis
and the Thracian Chersonese he soon made his own. He
invested Perinthus and Byzantium; but the voice of De¬
mosthenes was now raised against him. Phocion, with an
armament of Athenians, bore down upon him and com¬
pelled him to raise the siege of those cities. But the tri¬
umph of the orator and the disappointment of the prince
were alike momentary. The one had to act upon a fickle
and divided multitude, the other upon splendidly disciplined
armies. The plans of the one were open to all, those of
765
the other were shrouded in the profoundest mystery till the Macedonia,
moment for action brought them to the light. In the fol- ^
lowing year, appointed by the obsequious Amphictyons to
chastise the people of Amphissa for cultivating certain de¬
voted lands, Philip, after reducing that city, seized Elateia
at the head of 32,000 veteran soldiers. Alarm and dismay
seized the Athenians, but the eloquence of Demosthenes,
by gaining over the Thebans and Corinthians, revived the
expiring courage of the republicans. Consummate general¬
ship and discipline, however, proved more than a match
for numerical superiority, and the fatal battle of Chaeroneia Battle of
(b.c. 338) saw the confederates defeated, and the liberties Chasroneia.
of ancient Greece extinguished for ever. Nothing attested B'c‘ 338'
more the efficiency of Philip’s improved 'phalanx than this
bloody victory. (For a full account of this military organi¬
zation, see Army ; also, Grote’s History of Greece, vol.
xii., c. 92.) After the battle, Philip immediately stopped
the slaughter; and (if we may credit the story) when, on
revisiting the field after a night’s carouse, he beheld the
Sacred Band of the Thebans lying in swathes where the
scythe of war had mowed them down, he burst into tears,
and exclaimed,—“ Perish they who imagine those to have
done or suffered wrong.” This burst of generous feeling
did not, however, extend to the Thebans who survived.
The hostile party in their city he treated with great harsh¬
ness and severity, while he conducted himself towards the
Athenians with the utmost clemency. (See Grote’s History
of Greece, vol. xi., c. 90.)
To all appearance the great object of Philip’s ambition
was now within his grasp. In consideration of the wrongs
which Persia had inflicted upon Greece, it was resolved in
the assembly that war should be declared on a national
scale against that power, with the King of Macedonia as
the commander of the expedition. But another was des¬
tined to enjoy the laurels which Philip had all but won.
While celebrating the nuptials of his daughter Cleopatra Death of
with the King of Epirus, a young Macedonian of his own Philip,
body-guard, named Pausanias, stabbed him to the heart. B■c•336-
As the assassin died on the spot, his motive for the deed
could not be ascertained; but it was generally supposed to
have arisen from personal revenge, on the king’s refusal to
redress a foul insult received from the uncle of the queen.
Some say he was secretly urged to commit the deed by
Olympias (now superseded by the new queen, Cleopatra),
and her son Alexander, who had quarrelled with his father
a short time previously. Thus fell this aspiring king at the
early age of forty-seven (b.c. 336), full of life and energy,
with a vista of glory opening up before him. Despite the
scantiness of our information respecting him, the great out¬
lines of his character and achievements can be easily traced.
He raised the Macedonian kingdom from a narrow terri¬
tory to a vast possession, reaching from the shores of the
Propontis to the Thermaic Gulf. He was possessed of fine
political and military talent, and fortune smiled on his en¬
deavours ; but the splendour of his name is dimmed by base
perjury and gross intemperance. Theopompus, his con¬
temporary and warm admirer, stigmatizes his conduct as
follows:—“ His Macedonian and Grecian body-guard, 800
in number, was a troop in which no decent man could live;
distinguished indeed for military bravery and aptitude, but
sated with plunder, and stained with such shameless treach¬
ery, sanguinary rapacity, and unbridled lust, as befitted only
Centaurs and Laestrygons.” There can be little doubt that
the hopeless degeneracy of Grecian spirit and national feel¬
ing acted as a foil to Philip’s brilliant talent for conquest.
No sooner did the news of Philip’s death reach Athens, joy of tte
than, as if all danger had been past, the inhabitants showed Athenians,
the most extravagant signs of joy. Demosthenes and his
party put on chaplets of flowers, and behaved as if they had
gained a great victory. Phocion reproved them for this
madness ) bidding them remember that “ the army wftjch
MACEDONIA.
766
Macedonia, had beaten them at Cheronaea was lessened but by one.”
This reproof, however, had very little effect. The people
heard with pleasure all the harsh things which the orators
could say of the young Alexander, King of Macedonia,
whom they represented as a giddy, wrong-headed boy, ready
to grasp all things in his imagination, and able to perform
nothing. The affairs of Macedonia indeed were in a very
distracted state on the accession of Alexander; for all the
neighbouring nations had the same notion of the young
king with the Athenians, and, being irritated by the usurp¬
ations of Philip, immediately revolted, and the states of
Greece entered into a confederacy against him. The Per¬
sians had been contriving how to transfer the war to Ma¬
cedonia ; but as soon as the news of Philip’s death reached
them, they behaved as if all danger had been terminated.
At the same time, Attalus, one of the Macedonian com¬
manders, aspired to the crown, and sought to draw off the
soldiers from their allegiance.
Alexander In the councils held upon this occasion, Alexander’s best
declared friends advised him rather to make use of.dissimulation
Greece1 °f l^an f°rce> ant^ to try to caj°le tl'ose whom they thought
b.™ 336. he could not subdue. These advices, however, were ill
suited to the temper of their monarch. He thought that
vigorous measures only were proper, and therefore imme¬
diately led his army into Thessaly. Here he harangued the
princes so effectually, that he thoroughly gained them over
to his interest, and was by them declared general of Greece;
upon which he returned to Macedonia, where he caused
Attalus to be seized and put to death.
In the spring of the next year (335 before Christ), Alex¬
ander resolved to subdue the Triballians and Illyrians, who
inhabited the countries now called Bulgaria and Sclavonia,
and had been very formidable enemies to the Macedonian
power. In this expedition he discovered, though then but
twenty years of age, a surprising degree of military know¬
ledge." Having advanced to the passes of Mount Haemus
(the Balkan), he learned that the barbarians had posted
themselves in the most advantageous manner. Upon the
tops of the cliffs, and at the head of every passage, they had
placed their carriages and waggons in such a manner as to
form a kind of parapet, with their shafts inwards, that when
the Macedonians should have half ascended the rock, they
might be able to push these heavy carriages down upon
them; and they reckoned the more upon this contrivance,
because of the close order of the phalanx, which, they
imagined, would be terribly exposed by the soldiers wanting
room to stir, and thereby to avoid the falling waggons.
But Alexander, having directed his heavy-armed troops to
march, gave orders that, where the way would permit, they
should open to the right and left, and suffer the carriages
to go through ; but that, in the narrow passes, they should
throw themselves on their faces with their shields behind
them, that the carts might run over them. This had the
desired effect, and the Macedonians reached the enemy’s
wrorks without the loss of a man. The dispute was then
quickly decided. The barbarians were driven from their
posts with great slaughter, and left behind them a con¬
siderable booty for the conquerors.
Thebes The next exploits of Alexander were against the Getm,
taken and the Tanlantii, and some other nations inhabiting the coun-
destroyed. try Up0n t]ie other side of the Danube. These he also
overcame; showing in all his actions the most perfect skill
in military affairs, joined with the greatest valour. In the
meantime, however all Greece was thrown into commotion
by a report which had been confidently spread abroad, that
the king was dead in Illyria. The Thebans, on this news,
seized Amyntas and Timolaus, two eminent officers in the
Macedonian garrison which held their citadel, dragged
them to the market-place, and put them to death without
either form of process or any crime being alleged against
them. Alexander, however, did not suffer the Thebans to
remain long in their mistake. He marched with such ex-Macedonia,
pedition, that in seven days he reached Pallene in Thessaly;
and in six days more he entered Bceotia, before the The¬
bans had any intelligence of his having passed the Straits
of Thermopylae. Even then they would not believe that
the king was alive, but insisted that the Macedonian army
was command by Antipater, or by one Alexander the son
of iEropus. The rest of the Greeks, however, were not
so hard of belief, and therefore sent no assistance to the
Thebans, who were thus obliged to bear the consequences
of their own folly and obstinacy. Their city was taken by
assault, and the inhabitants were for some hours massacred
without distinction of age or sex, after which the houses
w ere demolished, excepting that of Pindar, the lamous poet,
which was spared out of respect to the merit of its owner,
and because he had celebrated Alexander, King of Macedonia.
The lands, except those destined to religious uses, were shared
amongst the soldiers, and all the prisoners sold as slaves, by
which 440 talents were brought into the king’s treasury.
By this severity the rest of the Grecian states were so Prepara-
thoroughly humbled, that they thought no more of making forth#
any resistance, and Alexander had nothing further to hin- ^‘gv“ion of
der him from pursuing his favourite project of invading^
Asia. Very little preparation was necessary for the Macedo¬
nian monarch, who w ent as to an assured conquest, and reck¬
oned upon being supplied chiefly by the spoils of his enemies.
Historians are not agreed as to the number of his army.
Arrian says that there were thirty thousand foot and five
thousand horse. Plutarch tells us that according to a mo¬
derate computation, Alexander had thirty thousand foot and
five thousand horse; and that according to the largest es¬
timate, he had thirty-four thousand foot and four thousand
horse. As to his fund for the payment of the army, Aris-
tobulus says it was but seventy talents; and Onesicritus,
who was also present in this expedition, not only takes away
the seventy talents, but affirms that the king was two hun¬
dred in debt. As for provisions, there was just sufficient
for a month and no more; and to prevent disturbances,
Antipater was left in Macedonia with twelve thousand foot
and fifteen hundred horse.
The army having assembled at Amphipolis, Alexander ^lexantler
marched thence to the mouths of the River Strymon ; then
crossing Mount Pangaeus, he took the road to Abdera. tjon
Crossing the River Ebrus, he proceeded through the country
of Paetis, and in twenty days reached Sestos; thence he
marched to Eleusa, where he sacrificed on the tomb of Pro-
tesilaus, because he was the first amongst the Greeks who
at the siege of Troy set foot upon the Asiatic shore. He
did this that his landing might be more propitious than that
of the hero to whom he sacrificed, who was soon afterwards
slain. The greatest part of the army, under the command
of Parmenio, embarked at Sestos, on board of a hundred
and sixty galleys of three benches of oars, besides small
craft. Alexander himself sailed from Eleusa ; and when he
was in the middle of the Hellespont, offered a bull to Nep¬
tune and the Nereids, pouring forth at the same time a liba¬
tion from a golden cup. When he drew near to the shore,
he launched a javelin, which stuck in the earth; then, in
complete armour, he leaped upon the strand; and having
erected altars to Jupiter, Minerva, and Hercules, he pro¬
ceeded to Ilium. Here again he sacrificed to Minerva;
and taking down some arms which had hung in the temple
of that goddess since the time of the Trojan war, he conse¬
crated his own in their stead. He sacrificed also to the
ghost of Priam, to avert his wrath on account of the descent
which he himself claimed from Achilles.
In the meantime the Persians had assembled a great Battle of
army in Phrygia, amongst whom was one Memnon, a Rho- ^anlC,u,•
dian, the best officer in the service of Darius. Memnon
gave it as his opinion that they should burn and destroy all
the country round, that they might deprive the Greeks ot
MACEDONIA.
Macedonia, the means of subsisting, and then transport a part of their
army into Macedonia. But the Persians, depending on
their cavalry, rejected this salutary advice, and posted them¬
selves along the river Granicus, in order to await the arrival
of the Greeks. Alexander, as soon as he had performed
all the ceremonies which he judged necessary, marched
directly towards the enemy. In the engagement which
ensued on the banks of that river, the Persians were de¬
feated, and Alexander became master of all the neighbour¬
ing country, which he immediately began to take care of,
as if it had been part of his hereditary dominions. The
city of Sardis was immediately delivered up; and here
Alexander built a temple to Jupiter Olympius. After this,
he restored the Ephesians to their liberty, ordered the tri¬
bute which they formerly paid to the Persians to be applied
towards the rebuilding of the magnificent temple of Diana,
and having settled the affairs of the city, marched against
Miletus. This place was defended by Memnon with a con¬
siderable body of troops, who had fled thither after the battle
of Granicus, and therefore made a vigorous resistance. The
fortune of Alexander, however, prevailed; and the city was
soon reduced, though Memnon with part of the troops
escaped to Halicarnassus. After this, the king dismissed
his fleet,—a proceeding for which various causes have been
assigned, though it is probable that the chief reason was to
show his army that their only resource now lay in subvert¬
ing the Persian empire.
Subsequent Almost all the cities between Miletus and Halicarnassus
proceed- submitted as soon as they heard that the former was taken ;
ings* but Halicarnassus, where Memnon commanded with a very
numerous garrison, made an obstinate defence. Nothing,
however, was capable of resisting the Macedonian army.
Memnon was at last obliged to abandon the place; upon
which Alexander took and razed the city of Tralles in
Phrygia, received the submission of several princes tribu¬
tary to the Persians ; and having destroyed the Marmarians,
a people of Lycia, who had fallen upon the rear of his army,
put an end to the campaign ; after which he sent home all
the new-married men, which endeared him more to his sol¬
diers than almost any other action of his life.
As soon as the season would permit, Alexander quitted
the province of Phaselus; and having sent part of his
army through the mountainous country to Perga, by a short
but difficult road, took his route by a certain promontory,
where the way is altogether impassable except when the
north winds blow. At the time of the king’s march the
south wind had held for a long time; but of a sudden it
changed, and blew from the north so violently, that, as he
and his followers declared, they obtained a safe and easy
passage through divine assistance. He continued his march
towards Gordium, a city of Phrygia; the enemy having
abandoned the strong pass of Telmissus, through which it
was necessary for him to march. When he arrived at Gor¬
dium, and found himself under the necessity of staying there
some time till the several corps of his army could be re¬
united, he expressed a strong desire of seeing Gordius’s
chariot, and the famous knot in the harness, of which such
strange stories had been published to the world. The cord
in which this knot was tied was made of the inner rind of
the cornel tree; and no eye could perceive where it be¬
gan or ended. Alexander, when he could find no possible
way of untying, and yet was unwilling to leave it tied, lest
it should cause some fears in the breasts of his soldiers, is
said by some authors to have cut the cords with his sword,
saying, “ It matters not how it is undone.” A great tem¬
pest of thunder, lightning, and rain, happening the suc¬
ceeding night, it was held declarative of the true solution of
this knot, and that Alexander would become master of Asia.
The king having left Gordium, marched towards Cilicia,
where he was attended with his usual good fortune, the
Persians abandoning all the strong passes as he advanced.
767
As soon as he entered the province, he received advice that Macedonia.
Arsames, whom Darius had made governor of Tarsus, was v ^ >
about to abandon it, and that the inhabitants were very ap¬
prehensive that he intended to plunder them before he
withdrew. Io prevent this, the king marched incessantly,
and arrived just in time to save the city. But his saving it
had vvell nigh cost him his life; for, either through the ex- Alexan-
cessive fatigue of marching, as some say, or, according to der’s sick-
others, by his plunging when very hot into the River Cyd- ness and
nus, which, as it runs through thick shades, has its waters recovery-
excessively cold, he fell into such a distemper as threatened
immediate dissolution. Philip the Acarnanian alone pre¬
served self-command enough to examine the nature of the
king’s disease, the worst symptom of which was a continual
shivering, which he removed by means of a potion, and in
a short time the king recovered his usual health.
Soon after Alexander’s recovery, he received the agree- Battle of
able news that Ptolemy and Asander had defeated the Per- Issus>
sian generals, and made great conquests on the Hellespont; 333,
and a little after that he met the Persian army at Issus'
commanded by Darius himself. A bloody engao-ement
ensued, in which the Persians were defeated with great
slaughter (b.c. 333). The consequences of this victory
were very advantageous to the Macedonians. Amongst
the number of those places which, within a short space after
the battle of Issus, sent deputies to submit to the conqueror,
was the city of Tyre. The king, whose name was Azelmicus,
was absent in the Persian fleet; but his son was amongst the
deputies, and was very favourably received by Alexander.
The king probably intended to confer particular honours
upon the city of Tyre, for he acquainted the inhabitants that
he would come and sacrifice to the Tyrian Hercules, the
patron of their city, to whom they had erected a most mag¬
nificent temple. But these people, like most other trading
nations, were far too suspicious to think of admitting such
an enterprising prince with his troops within their walls.
Alexander then assembled a council of war, in which he
insisted strongly on the; disaffected state of Greece (for
most of the Grecian states had sent ambassadors to Darius,
to enter into a league with him against the Macedonians),
the power of the Persians by sea, and the folly of carrying
on the war in distant provinces, whilst Tyre was left unre¬
duced behind them ; he also remarked, that if once this city
was subdued, the sovereignty of the sea would be trans¬
ferred to them, because it would fix their possession of the
coasts; and as the Persian fleet was composed chiefly of
tributary squadrons, those tributaries would fight the battles,
not of their late, but of their present masters.
For these reasons the siege of Tyre was resolved on. Tyre taken
The town was not taken, however, without great difficulty, and de-
which provoked Alexander to such a degree that he str°yed'
treated the inhabitants with the greatest cruelty. After
the reduction of Tyre, Alexander, though the season was
already far advanced, resolved to make an expedition into
Syria; and in his way thither proposed to chastise the
Jews, who had highly offended him during the siege of
Tyre; for when he sent to them to demand provisions for
his soldiers, they answered, that they were the subjects of
Darius, and bound by oath not to supply his enemies.
The king, however, was pacified by their submission, and
not only pardoned them, but conferred many privileges
upon them.
From Jerusalem Alexander marched directly to Gaza, Egypt sub
the only place in that part of the world which still held out mits'
for Darius. The governor Batis defended the place with
great valour, and several times repulsed his enemies; but
at last it was taken by storm, and all the garrison slain to a
man ; and this secured to Alexander an entrance into
Egypt, which having before been very impatient of the
Persian yoke, admitted the Macedonians peaceably. Here
the king laid the foundations of the city of Alexandria,
■1
768 MACEDONIA.
Macedonia, which for many years afterwards continued to be the capi-
tal of the country. Whilst he remained here, he also
formed the singular design of visiting the temple of Jupiter
Ammon. As to the motives by which he was induced to
take this extraordinary journey, authors are not agreed;
but certain it is, that he hazarded himself and his troops
in the highest degree, there being two dangers in this
march, which, with the example before him of Cambyses,
who lost the greater part of his army in it, might have ter¬
rified anybody but Alexander. The first was the want of
water, which, in the sandy deserts surrounding the temple,
is nowhere to be found; the other, the uncertainty of the
road from the fluctuation of the sands, which, changing
their situation every moment, leave the traveller neither a
road to walk in, nor a mark to march by. These difficul¬
ties, however, Alexander overcame, though not without a
miraculous interposition, as is pretended by all his historians.
Battle of Alexander having consulted the oracle, and received a
Arbela. favourable answer, returned to pursue his conquests. Hav¬
ing settled the government of Egypt, he appointed the ge¬
neral rendezvous of his forces at Tyre. Here he met with
ambassadors from Athens, requesting him to pardon such
of their countrymen as he found serving the enemy. The
king being desirous to oblige such a famous state, granted
their request, and also sent a fleet to the coast of Greece,
to prevent the effects of some commotions which had lately
happened in Peloponnesus. He then directed his march
to Thapsacus; and having passed the Euphrates and
Tigris, met with Darius near Arbela (Erbil), where the
Persians were again overthrown with prodigious slaughter,
and by this victory Alexander became in effect master of
the Persian empire.
Babylon, After this important victory, Alexander marched directly
Susa, and Babylon, which was immediately delivered up, the in-
Persepohs habitants being greatly disaffected to the Persian interest,
reduced. After thjrty days> stay in this country, the king marched
to Susa, which had already surrendered to Philoxenus ; and
here he received the treasures of the Persian monarch,
amounting, according to the most generally received ac¬
count, to 50,000 talents. Having received also at this
time a supply of 6000 foot and 500 horse from Macedonia,
he set about reducing the nations of Media, amongst whom
Darius had retired. He first reduced the Uxians, and hav-
ving forced a passage to Persepolis, the capital of the em¬
pire, he, like a barbarian, destroyed the stately palace there,
a pile of building not to be equalled in any part of the
world, after having given up the city to be plundered by
his soldiers. In the palace he found 120,000 talents,
which he appropriated to his own use, and caused immedi¬
ately to be carried away upon mules and camels ; for he had
such an extreme aversion to the inhabitants of Persepolis,
that he determined to leave nothing valuable in that city.
Alexander During the time that Alexander remained at Persepolis,
pursues he received intelligence that Darius remained at Eebatana,
Darius, the capital of Media, upon which he pursued him with the
whoismur- greatest expedition, marching at the rate of nearly 40 miles
dered by a jn fifteen days he reached Eebatana, where he was
6ssus. informed that Darius had retired from thence five days
before, with an intent to pass into the remotest provinces
of his empire. At this place the Thessalian cavalry and
many of the allies, having terminated their service, were
dismissed with full pay. Some who preferred it were en¬
rolled as volunteers. The king bought the horses of the
Thessalians, who, with the rest of the Greeks, were con¬
ducted in safety to the Mediterranean.
On receiving fresh information concerning the state of
Darius’ affairs, the king again set out in pursuit of him,
advancing as far as Rhagae, a city one day’s journey from
the Caspian Gates. There he understood that Darius had
some time before passed those straits; and this infor¬
mation leaving him again without hopes, he halted for five
days. Oxidates, a Persian whom Darius had left prisoner Macedonia,
at Susa, was made governor of Media, whilst the king de-
parted on an expedition into Parthia. The Caspian Gates
he passed immediately without opposition, and he then gave
directions to his officers to collect a quantity of provisions
sufficient to serve his army on a long march through a
wasted country. But before his officers could accomplish
these commands, the king received intelligence that Darius
had been murdered by one of his own subjects, Bessus, the
governor of Bactria.
As soon as Alexander had collected his forces together, Hyrcania
and settled the government of Parthia, he entered Hyrea- reduced,
nia ; and having, according to his usual custom, committed
the greater part of his army to the care of Craterus, he, at
the head of a choice body of troops, passed through certain
craggy roads, and, before the arrival of Craterus, who took
an open and easy path, struck the whole provinces with
such terror, that all the principal places were immediately
put into his hands; and soon afterwards the province of
Aria also submitted, and the king continued Satibarzanes,
the governor, in his employment. The reduction of this
province completed the conquest of Persia; but the ambi¬
tion of Alexander to become master of every nation of
which he had the least intelligence, induced him to enter
the country of Mardi, merely because its rocks and barren¬
ness had hitherto prevented any one from conquering, or,
indeed, from attempting to conquer it. This conquest how¬
ever, he easily accomplished, and obliged the whole nation
to submit to his pleasure. But in the meantime disturb¬
ances began to arise in Alexander’s new empire, and amongst
his troops, which allhis activity could not thoroughly suppress.
He had scarcely left the province of Aria, when he received
intelligence that the traitor Bessus had caused himself to
be proclaimed king of Asia by the name of Artaxerxes ;
and that Satibarzanes had joined him, after having mas¬
sacred all the Macedonians who had been left in the pro¬
vince. Alexander appointed one Arsames governor in the
room of Satibarzanes, and marched thence with his army
against the Zarangae.
The immense treasure which the Macedonians had ac- The Mace-
quired in the conquest of Persia now began to affect their doniana
discipline. The king himself was of a most generous dis- give them-
position, and liberally bestowed his gifts on those around
him ; but they made a bad use of his bounty, and foolishly s°rP_ea'
indulged in those vices by which the former possessors of
that wealth had lost it. The king did all in his power to
discourage the lazy and inactive pride which now began to
show itself amongst his officers ; but neither his discourses
nor his example had any considerable effect. The form
of his civil government resembled that of the ancient Per¬
sian kings ; in military affairs, however, he strictly preserved
the Macedonian discipline; but then he made choice, out
of the provinces, of 30,000 boys, whom he caused to be
instructed in the Greek language, and directed to be
brought up in such a manner as that from time to time he
might with them recruit the phalanx. The Macedonians
observed with great concern these extraordinary measures,
which suited very ill with their gross understandings ; for,
after all the victories they had gained, they expected to be
absolute lords of Asia, and to possess not only the riches
of its inhabitants, but to rule the inhabitants themselves;
whereas they now found that Alexander meant no such
thing, but that, on the contrary, he conferred governments,
offices at court, and all other marks of confidence and
favour, indiscriminately both on Greeks and Persians.
From this time also the king seems to have given proofs
of a cruelty which he had never shown before. Philotas,
his most intimate friend, was seized, tortured, and put to
death, for a conspiracy of which it could never be proved
that he was guilty; and soon afterwards Parmenio, the
father of the former, and some others, were executed with-
Macedonia, out any crime at all, real or alleged. These things very
c^*s|:ur^)e^ the army. Some of them wrote home to
Macedonia respecting the king’s suspicions of his friends,
and. his disposition to hunt out enemies at the very extre¬
mities of the world. Alexander having intercepted some
of these letters, and procured the best information he could
concerning their authors, picked out these dissatisfied
people, and having disposed them into a corps, gave it the
title of the “ turbulent battalion,” hoping by this means to
prevent the spirit of disaffection from pervading the whole
army. As a further precaution against any future conspi¬
racy, Alexander thought fit to appoint Hephaestion and
Clytus generals of the auxiliary horse ; being apprehensive,
that if this authority w as lodged in the hands of a single
person, it might prompt him to dangerous undertakings,
and at the same time furnish him with the means of carry¬
ing them into execution. To keep his forces in action, he
suddenly marched into the country of the Euergetae, or
Benefactors, and found them full of the kind and hospitable
disposition for which that name had been bestowed on
their ancestors by the first Cyrus; he therefore treated
them with great respect, and at his departure added some
lands to their dominions, which lay contiguous, and which
for that reason they had requested of him.
Alexander spent the greater part of the autumn and
winter in the reduction of the region around Dragiana, the
modern Afghanistan, Seistan, and western Cabool. Any
resistance he met with was fitful and desultory; but his
soldiers suffered severely from cold and want of food.
Arrian remarks, after his own fashion,—t£ Alexander moved
forward not a whit the less; with difficulty, indeed, through
deep snow, and without provisions; but still he moved on.”
He founded a new city called Alexandria ad Caucasian
(Beghram ? See Masson’s Narrative of Journeys in Af-
ghanistan, &c., vol. hi., c. 7), at one of the southern passes
of the Hindoo-Koosh. Here he planted 7000 old Macedo¬
nian soldiers as colonists. By a fifteen days’march through
snow he crossed the vast mountain range of the Hindoo-
Koosh, and entered the region of Bactria.
Bessus, who had assumed the name of Artaxerxes, when
he was assured that Alexander was marching towards him,
immediately began to waste all the country between Pa-
ropamisus a,nd the River Oxus, which river he passed with
all his forces, and then burned all the vessels he had made
use of for transporting them, retiring to Nautaca, a city of
Sogdia, fully persuaded that, by the precautions he had
taken, Alexander would be compelled to give over his
pursuit. This conduct of his, however, disheartened his
troops, and gave the lie to all his pretensions; for he
had affected to censure Darius’ conduct, and had charged
him with cowardice, in not defending the River Euphrates
and Tigris, whereas he now quitted the banks of the most
defensible river perhaps in the whole world. As to his
hopes, though it cannot be said they were ill founded, yet
they proved absolutely vain; for Alexander, continuino-
his march, notwithstanding’ the hardships his soldiers sus-
tained, reduced all Bactria under his obedience, particu¬
larly the capital Bactria and the strong castle Aornus.
In the latter he placed a garrison under the command of
Archelaus, but the government of the province he com¬
mitted to Artabazus. He then continued his march to
the River Oxus, on the banks of which, when he arrived,
he found it three-quarters of a mile in breadth, its depth
more than proportional to its breadth, its bottom sandy, its
stream so rapid as to render it almost unnavigable, and
neither boat nor tree in its neighbourhood; so that the
ablest commanders in the Macedonian army were of opi-
nion that the army would be obliged to march back. The
king, however, having first sent away, under a proper es¬
cort, all his infirm and worn-out soldiers, that they might
be conducted safely to the seaports, and thence transported
MACEDONIA.
769
Bessus re¬
duced and
put to
death.
to Greece, devised a method of passing this river with- Macedonia,
out either boat or bridge, by causing the hides which
covered the soldiers’ tents and carriages to be stuffed with
straw, and then tied together, and thrown into the river.
Having crossed the Oxus, he marched directly towards the
camp of Bessus, where, when he arrived, he found it
abandoned; but at the same time received letters from
opitamenes and Dataphernes, who were the chief com¬
manders under Bessus, signifying, that if he would send a
smal party to receive Bessus, they would deliver him
into his hands; which they did accordingly, and the traitor
was immediately put to death, after cruel mutilation.
A supply of horses having now arrived, the Macedonian Alexander
favfrr^ were remounted. Alexander continued his march passes the
o i iaracanda, the capital of Sogdia, whence he advanced Indus-
to the River laxartes. Here he performed extraordinary
exploits against the Scythians, from whom, however, though
e oveicame them, his army suffered much; and the re¬
volted Sogdians, being headed by Spitamenes, gave him a
great deal of trouble. Here also he married Roxana, the
c aughtei of Oxyartes, a prince of the country whom he
had subdued. But during these expeditions, the kino-
greatly disgusted his army by the murder of his friend
Clytus in a drunken quarrel at a banquet, and by his extra¬
vagant vanity in claiming divine honours. At last he ar¬
rived at the River Indus, where Hephaestion and Perdiccas
had already provided a bridge of boats for the passage of
that river. He then ordered the vessels of which his bridge
had been composed to be taken to pieces, that they might
be brought to the Hydaspes { Jelum) where he was informed
that Poms with a great army lay encamped to dispute his
passage.
Alexander experienced no resistance till he met the Passes the
brave Indian prince, Poms, who, with a formidable force, Hydaspes,
stood on the further side of a river, prepared to dispute his pnd defeats
passage. The Macedonians, by a series of skilful ma- 1 °rUS‘
nceuvres, eluded the watchfulness of the Indians, crossed
the liver at a point above where the army lav, and com¬
pletely overthrew- Poms and his brave host. This gigantic
piince, who was mounted on an elephant, moved about
among his scattered troops with signal spirit and intrepi¬
dity, cheering on the dispirited, and reviving the expiring
courage of the wavering. He saw two of his sons fall by
his side, and had himself received a severe wound ; yet he
fought on almost single-handed with the fierce energy of
proud despair. It was with considerable difficulty that
Alexander succeeded in preserving the life of this invin¬
cible hero. When Poms was brought before him, Alex¬
ander, over whose passionate nature external impressions
exercised a strong influence, was much struck with his
handsome figure and undaunted mien. He showed this
prince the utmost generosity, not only by reinstating him
in his kingdom, but also by extending its boundaries; and
Poms pioved in return a faithful ally to Alexander.
“ This was,” says Grote, “ the greatest day of Alexander’s
life, if we take together the splendour and difficulty of the
military achievement, and the generous treatment of his
conquered opponent.”
Io perpetuate the memory of this victory, Alexander
ordered two cities to be erected; one on the field of battle,
which he named Nicaea, the other on the opposite side of
the river, which he called Bucephala, in honour of his horse
Bucephalus, who died here, as Arrian says, of mere old ao-e
being on the verge of thirty. All the soldiers who fell'in
the battle he buried with great honours, offered solemn
sacrihces to the gods, and exhibited pompous shows on the
banks of the Hydaspes, where he had forced his passage.
He then entered the territories of the Glausae, in which there
were thirty-seven good cities and a multitude of populous
villages. All these were delivered up to him without fight-
VOL. XIII.
ing
ig and as soon as he received them, he presented them
5 E
770 MACEDONIA.
Macedonia, to Porus, and having reconciled him to Taxiles, he sent the
v ^ ^ i latter home to his own dominions. About this time ambas¬
sadors arrived from several Indian princes with their sub¬
missions ; and Alexander having conquered the dominions
of another Porus, which lay on the Hydraotes, a branch of
the Indus, added them to those of Porus his ally.
, In the middle of all this success, however, news arrived
taken1 and that the Cathei, Oxydraca?, and the Malli, the most war-
razed. like nations of India, were confederated against the Mace¬
donians, and had drawn together a great army. The king
immediately marched to give them battle, and in a few
days reached a city called Sangala, seated on the top of a
hill, and having a fine lake behind it. Before this city the
confederate Indians lay encamped, having three circular
lines of carriages locked together, and their tents pitched
in the centre. These defences being forced, they took re¬
fuge within their walls, and resolved to evacuate by night.
Informed by deserters of this project, Alexander succeeded
in defeating it. Next day he stormed the town, killing, as
Arrian records, 17,000 Indians, and taking 70,000 captives.
His own loss was less than 100 killed and 1200 wounded.
After razing Sangala, he annexed the territory to the king¬
dom of his Indian ally.
The troops Alexander, still unsated with conquest, now prepared to
refuse to pass the Hyphasis (Sutlege). The chief reason which
proceed induced him to think of this expedition, was the information
farther. jae receive(l Gf the state of the countries beyond that
river. He was told that they were in themselves rich and
fruitful; that their inhabitants were not only a very martial
people, but very civilized; that they were governed by the
nobility, who were themselves subject to the laws; and that
as they lived in happiness and freedom, it was likely they
would fight obstinately in defence of those blessings. He
was further told, that amongst these nations there were the
largest, strongest, and most useful elephants bred and
tamed; and was therefore fired with an earnest desire of
reducing such a bold and brave people under his rule, and
of attaining to the possession of the many valuable things
that were said to be amongst them. As exorbitant, however,
as his personal ambition was, he found it impossible to in¬
fuse any part of it into the minds of his soldiers, who were
so far from wishing to triumph over new and remote coun¬
tries, that they were highly desirous of leaving those that
they had already conquered. When, therefore, they were
informed of the king’s intentions, they privately consulted
together in the camp about the situation of their own
affairs. At this consultation, the gravest and best of the
soldiers lamented that they were made use of by their king,
not as lions, who fall fiercely upon those who have injured
them, but as mastiffs, who fly upon and tear those who are
pointed out to them as enemies. The rest were not so
modest, but expressed themselves roundly against the
king’s humour for leading them from battle to battle, from
siege to siege, and from river to river; protesting that they
would follow him no farther, nor lavish their blood any
longer to purchase for him the fame he coveted. Alexander
had too much penetration not to perceive that his troops
were very uneasy. He therefore harangued them from
his tribunal; but though his eloquence was great, and the
love his army had for him was yet very strong, they did
not relent. For some time the soldiers remained sullen
and silent; and at last turned their eyes on Ccenus, an old
and experienced general, whom Alexander loved, and in
whom the army put great confidence. He had the gene¬
rosity to undertake their cause, and told Alexander frankly,
“ that men endured toil in hopes of repose; that the
Macedonians were already much reduced in their num¬
bers ; that of those who remained, the greater part were
invalids; and that they expected, in consideration of their
former services, that he would now lead them back to
their native country, an act which, of all others, would
most contribute to his own great designs, since it would en- Macedonia,
courage the youth of Macedonia, and even of all Greece,
to follow him in whatever new expedition he pleased to
undertake.” The king was far from being pleased with
this speech of Coenus, and much less with the disposition of
his army, which continued in a deep silence. He there¬
fore dismissed the assembly. But next day he called an¬
other, in which he told the soldiers plainly that he would
not be driven from his purpose ; that he would proceed in
his conquests with such as should follow him voluntarily ;
and that, as for the rest, he would not detain them, but
would leave them at liberty to go home to Macedonia,
where they might publish, “ that they had left their king
in the midst of his enemies.” Even this expedient had no
success; his army was so thoroughly tired with long marches
and desperate battles, that they were determined to advance
no further ; upon which Alexander retired to his tent, where
he refused to see his friends, and evinced the same gloomy
temper that reigned amongst his troops.
For three days things remained in this situation. At last Alexander
the king suddenly appeared; and, as if he had been fully consents to
determined to pursue his first design, he gave orders to sa- return,
crifice for the good success of his new undertaking. But
Aristander, the augur, reported that the omens were alto- jndug
gether inauspicious ; upon which the king said, that since B C 325.
his proceeding farther was neither pleasing to the gods not*
grateful to his army, he would return. When this was
rumoured amongst the army, they assembled in great num¬
bers about the royal tent, saluting the king with loud accla¬
mations, wishing him success in all his future designs, and
giving him at the same time hearty thanks, inasmuch as
“ he who was invincible had suffered himself to be over¬
come by their prayers.” A stop being thus put to the con¬
quests of Alexander, he determined to make the Hyphasis
the boundary of his dominions; and having erected twelve
altars of an extraordinary magnitude, he sacrificed upon
them, after which he exhibited shows in the Grecian man¬
ner ; and, having added all the conquered country in these
parts to the dominions of Porus, he began to return. Hav¬
ing arrived at the Hydaspes, he made the necessary pre¬
parations for sailing down the Indus to the ocean. For
this purpose, he ordered vast quantities of timber to be
felled in the neighbourhood of the Hydaspes, through which
he was to sail into the Indus; and by the beginning of
November, he, with a fleet of 2000 boats, began his voy¬
age down the Hydaspes. Craterus and Hephsestion, with
their divisions, moved down the banks of the river. The
king kept on board the fleet, which was commanded by
Nearchus. The main stream of the Indus was gradually
reached, down which they sailed to the ocean. The entire
voyage occupied nine months, from November 326 b.c. to
August 325 b.c. But it is not to be supposed that Alex¬
ander contented himself with the unbroken monotony of
this tedious expedition. All tribes bordering on the river
which did not offer voluntary submission, were attacked, sub¬
dued, and slaughtered. Among these were the Malli. At¬
tacking this brave people with his accustomed energy, Alex¬
ander drove them within the walls of their strongest city
Having pursued them to the gates, the king, in his hot im¬
patience at the tardy arrival of the troops with the scaling-
ladders, managed to mount the wall, and after striking down
its defenders, flung himself into the fortress, where he made
his way, single-handed, for a time against all opposition. He
was on the point of falling, however, from a severe wound,
when his soldiers dashed in, rescued their brave general,
and took the citadel. The Indians were now slaughtered
without mercy ; but Alexander continued for some time in
a very dangerous condition. However, he at last recovered
his strength, and showed himself again to his army, which
filled them with the greatest joy.
On the king’s return to Pattala, he resolved to sail down
MACEDONIA.
Macedonia, the other branch of the Indus, that he might see whether
it was more safe and commodious for his fleet than that
Continues which he had already tried ; and for this he had very trood
his voyage reasons. He had resolved to send Nearchus with his fleet
Indus 6 by seVhrough.the Persian Gulf, up the River Tigris, to
meet him and his army in Mesopotamia ; but as the possi¬
bility of this voyage depended on the ceasing of the etesian
winds, there was a necessity for laying up the fleet till the
season should prove favourable. Alexander, therefore, sail¬
ing through this branch of the Indus, sought on the sea-
coast for bays and creeks, where his fleet might anchor in
safety; he also caused pits to be sunk, which might be filled
with fresh water for the use of his people, and took all ima¬
ginable precautions for preserving them in ease and safety
till the season would allow them to continue their voyage.
In this he succeeded to his wish; for he found this branch
of the river Indus, at its mouth, spread over the plain coun¬
try, and forming a kind of lake, in which a fleet might ride
with safety. He therefore appointed Leonatus, and a part
of his army, to carry on such works as were necessary, caus¬
ing them to be relieved by fresh troops as often as there
was occasion; then having given his last instructions to
Nearchus, he departed with the rest of the army, in order
to march back to Babylon.
through0*1 ^e^ore king’s departure, many of his friends advised
Gedrosia. ,lim against the route which he intended to take. They
told him that nothing could be more rash or dangerous
than this resolution. They informed him, that the country
through which he was to travel was a wild uncultivated de¬
sert ; that Semiramis, when she led her soldiers this way
out of India, brought home but twenty of them ; and that
Cyrus attempting to do the same, returned with only seven.
But all this was so far from deterring Alexander, that it
more than ever determined him to pursue no other route.
As soon, therefore, as he had put things in order, he marched
at the head of a sufficient body of troops to reduce the
Oritas, who had never vouchsafed either to make their sub¬
mission or to court his friendship. Their territories lay
upon the other side of a river called Arabis, which Alex¬
ander crossed so speedily, that they had no intelligence of
his march ; whereupon most of them quitted their country,
and fled into the deserts. Their capital he found so well
situate, that he resolved to take it out of their hands, and
to cause a new and noble city to be founded there, the care
of which he committed to Hephaestion. Then he received
the deputies of the Oritae and Gedrosi; and having assured
them that if the people returned to their villages, they should
be kindly treated, and having appointed Apollophenes pre¬
sident of the Oritae, and left a considerable body of troops
under Leonatus to secure their obedience, he began his
march through Gedrosia. In this march his troops suffered
incredible hardships. The road was very uncertain and
troublesome, on account of its lying through deep and loose
sands, rising in many places into hillocks, which forced the
soldiers to climb, at the same time that it sunk under their
feet; there were no towns, villages, nor places of refresh¬
ment, to be met with ; so that, after excessive marches, they
were forced to encamp among these dry sands. As to pro¬
visions, they hardly met with any during their whole march,
The soldiers were therefore obliged to kill their beasts of
carriage ; and such as were sent to bring some corn from
the sea-side, were so grievously distressed, that, though it
was sealed with the king’s signet, they cut open the bags,
choosing rather to die a violent death for disobedience than
perish by hunger. When the king, however, was informed
of this, he freely pardoned the offenders ; he was also forced
to accept the excuses that were daily made for the loss of
mules, horses, &c., which were in truth eaten by the soldiers,
and their carriages broken in pieces to avoid further trouble.
As for w’ater, their want of it was a great misfortune, and
yet their finding it in plenty was sometimes a greater; for,
771
as in the one case they perished with thirst, so in the other Macedonia
they were thrown into dropsies, and rendered incapable of
travel. Frequently they met with no water for the whole
day together; sometimes they were disappointed of it at
night, in which case, if they were able, they marched on;
so that it was common with them to travel 30, 40, 50, or
even 60 miles without encamping. Through these hard¬
ships numbers were obliged to fall into the rear; and of
these many were left behind, and perished; for indeed
scarcely any of them ever joined the army again. Their
miseries, however, they sustained with incredible patience,
being encouraged by the example of their king, who, on this
occasion, suffered greater hardships than the meanest soldier
in his army.
At last they arrived at the capital of Gedrosia, where Arrival in
they refreshed themselves, and staid some time ; after which Caramania
they marched into Caramania, which being a very plentiful
country, made them ample amends for the hardships and
fatigues which they had sustained. Here they were joined,
first by Craterus with the troops under his command, along
with a number of elephants ; then came Stasanor, president
of the Arians, and Pharismanes, the son of Phrataphernes,
the governor of Parthia. They brought with them camels’
horses, and other beasts of burden, in vast numbers ; having
foreseen that the king’s march through Gedrosia would be
attended with the loss of the greater part, if not all, of the
cavalry and beasts belonging to his army. During Alex¬
ander’s stay in Caramania, he redressed the injuries of his
people, who had been grievously oppressed by their gover¬
nors during his absence. Here also he was joined by his
admiral, Nearchus, who brought with him an account that
all under his command were in perfect safety and in excel¬
lent condition; intelligence with which the king was mightily
pleased, and, after having bestowed on him singular marks
of his favour, sent him back to the navy. Alexander next
set out for Persia, where great disorders had been com¬
mitted during his absence. These he also redressed, and
caused the governor to be crucified ; appointing in his room
Peucestas, who had saved his life when he fought singly
against a whole garrison, as above related. The new go¬
vernor was no sooner invested with his dignity than he laid
aside the Macedonian garb, and put on that of the Medes,
being the only one of Alexander’s captains who, by com¬
plying with the manners of the people he governed, gained
their affection.
Whilst Alexander visited the different parts of Persia, he His pro-
took a view, amongst the rest, of the ruins of Persepolis, ceedings in
where he is said to have expressed great sorrow for the de- rersia.
struction he had formerly occasioned. From Persepolis,
he marched to Susa, where he gave an extraordinary loose
to pleasure, resolving to make himself and his followers some
amends for the difficulties which they had hitherto under¬
gone, purposing at the same time so effectually to unite his
newly-conquered with his hereditary subjects, that the
jealousies and fears which had hitherto tormented both
should no longer subsist. With this view he married two
wives of the blood-royal of Persia—Barsine or Statira, the
daughter of Darius, and Parysatis, the daughter of Ochus.
Drypetis, another daughter of Darius, he gave to Hephees-
tion ; Amastrine, the daughter of Oxyartes, the brother of
Darius, married Craterus ; and to the rest of his friends, to
the number of eighty, he gave other women of the highest
quality. All these marriages were celebrated at once,
Alexander himself bestowing fortunes upon them. He like¬
wise directed that an account should be taken of the num¬
ber of his officers and soldiers who had married Asiatic
wives ; and though they appeared to be ten thousand, yet
he gratified each of them according to his rank. He next
resolved to pay the debts of his army, and thereupon issued
an edict directing every man to register his name, and the
sum he owed; an order with which the soldiers complying
MACEDONIA.
772
Macedonia, slowly, from an apprehension that there was some design
^ against them, Alexander ordered tables heaped with money
to be set in all quarters of the camp, and caused every man’s
debts to be paid on his bare word, without even making any
entry of his name, though the whole sum amounted to twenty
thousand talents. On such as had distinguished themselves
in an extraordinary manner he bestowed crowns of gold.
Peucestas received the first, Leonatus the second, Nearchus
the third, Onesicritus the fourth, Hephsestion the fifth, and
the rest of his guards had each of them one. After this he
made other dispositions for conciliating, as he supposed, the
differences amongst his subjects. He reviewed the thirty
thousand youths whom at his departure for India he had
ordered to be taught Greek and the Macedonian discipline,
expressing high satisfaction at the fine appearance they
made, which rendered them worthy of the appellation he
bestowed on them, that of Epigoni, or successors. He
promoted also, without any distinction of nation, all those
who had served him faithfully and valiantly in the Indian
war. When all these regulations were made, he gave the
command of his heavy-armed troops to Hephaestion, and
ordered him to march directly to the banks of the Tigris ;
whilst in the meantime a fleet was equipped for carrying
the king and the troops which he retained with him down
to the ocean.
Death of Thus ended the exploits of Alexander, the greatest con-
Alexander. qUeror that ever the world saw, at least with respect to the
b.c. 323. j-apjdity of his conquests. In the course of twelve years he
had brought under his subjection Egypt, Libya, Asia
Minor, Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine, Babylonia, Persia, with
part of India and Tartary. Still, however, he meditated
greater things. He had now got a great taste for maritime
affairs, and is said to have meditated a voyage to the coasts
of Arabia and Ethiopia, and thence round the whole conti¬
nent of Africa to the Straits of Gibraltar. But of this there
is no great certainty, though that he intended to subdue the
Carthaginians and Italians is more than probable. All these
designs, however, were frustrated by his death, which hap¬
pened at Babylon in the year 323 B.c. He is said to have
received several warnings of his approaching fate, and to
have been advised to avoid that city, which advice he either
despised or could not follow. He died of a fever, after eight
days’ illness, without naming any successor; having only
given his ring to Perdiccas, and left the kingdom, as he
said, “ to the strongest.”
The character of this great prince has been variously re¬
presented ; but most historians seem to have looked upon
him rather as an illustrious madman than one upon whom
the epithet of Great could be properly bestowed. From a
careful observation of his conduct, however, it must appear
that he possessed not only a capacity to plan, but likewise
to execute, the greatest enterprises which ever entered into
the mind of any of the human race. From whatever cause
the notion originated, it is plain that he imagined himself a
divine person, and born to subdue the whole world; and
extravagant and impracticable as this scheme may appear
at present, it cannot at all be looked upon in the same light
in the age of Alexander. The Greeks were in his time the
most powerful people in the world in respect to their skill in
the military art, and the Persians were the most powerful with
respect to wealth and numbers. The only other powerful na¬
tions in the world were the Carthaginians, Gauls, and Italian
nations. From a long series of wars which the Carthaginians
carried on in Sicily, it appeared that they were by no means
capable of contending with the Greeks, even when they had
an immense superiority of numbers; and much less could they
have sustained an attack from the whole power of Greece and
Asia united. The Gauls and Italians w ere indeed very brave,
and of a martial disposition ; but they were barbarous, and
could not have resisted armies well disciplined, and under the
command of such a skilful leader as Alexander. Even long
after this time, it appeared that the Romans themselves could Macedonia,
not have resisted the Greeks, since Regulus, after having de-
feated the Carthaginians, and reduced them to the utmost dis¬
tress, was totally unable to resist a Carthaginian army com¬
manded by a Greek general, and trained to Greek discipline.
Thus it appears that the scheme of Alexander cannot by
any means be accounted that of a madman, or of one who
projects great things without judgment, and the means ne¬
cessary to execute them. If from his actions we consider
the end which he most probably had in view could his
scheme have been accomplished, we shall find it not only
the greatest, but the best, which can possibly be imagined.
He did not conquer to destroy, enslave, or oppress, but to
civilize and to unite the whole world as one nation. No
sooner was a province conquered than he took care of it
as if it had been part of his paternal inheritance. He al¬
lowed not his soldiers to oppress and plunder the Persians,
which they were very much inclined to do; on the con¬
trary, by giving in to the oriental customs himself, he strove
to extinguish that inveterate hatred which had so long sub¬
sisted between the two nations. In the Scythian countries
which he subdued he pursued the same excellent plan.
His courage and military skill, in which he never was ex¬
celled, were displayed, not with a view to rapine or desul¬
tory conquest, but to civilize and induce the barbarous in¬
habitants to employ themselves in a more proper w'ay of life.
Amidst the hardships of a military life, obstinate sieges,
bloody battles, and dear-bought victories, he still respected
the rights of mankind, and practised the mild virtues of
humanity. The conquered nations enjoyed their ancient
laws and privileges ; the rigours of despotism were softened ;
arts and industry encouraged ; and the proudest Macedonian
governors compelled, by the authority and example of Alex¬
ander, to observe the rules of justice towards their meanest
subjects. To bridle the fierce inhabitants of the Scythian
plains, he founded cities and established colonies on the
banks of the laxartes and Oxus; and those destructive
campaigns usually ascribed to his restless activity and blind
ambition appeared to the discernment of this extraordinary
man, not only essential to the security of the conquests
which he had already made, but necessary for the more re¬
mote and splendid expeditions which he still purposed to
undertake, and which he performed with singular boldness
and unexampled success.
He was of a low stature, and somewhat deformed; but
the activity and elevation of his mind animated and en¬
nobled his frame. By a life of continual labour, and by an
early and habitual practice of the gymnastic exercises, he
had hardened his body against the impressions of cold and
heat, hunger and thirst, and prepared his robust constitu¬
tion for bearing such exertions of strength and activity as
have appeared incredible to the undisciplined softness of
modern times. In generosity and in prowess he rivalled
the greatest heroes of antiquity; and in the race of glory,
having finally outstripped all competitors, became ambi¬
tious to surpass himself. His superior skill in war gave un¬
interrupted success to his arms; and his natural humanity,
enlightened by the philosophy of Greece, taught him to im¬
prove his conquests to the best interests of mankind. In
his extensive dominions he built or founded not less than
seventy cities; the situation of which, being chosen with
consummate wisdom, tended to facilitate communication,
to promote commerce, and to diffuse civilization through the
greatest nations of the earth. It may be suspected, in¬
deed, that he mistook the extent of human power, when in
the course of one reign he undertook to change the face of
the world; and that he miscalculated the stubbornness of
ignorance and the force of habit, when he attempted to
enlighten barbarism, to soften servitude, and to transplant
the improvements of Greece into an African and Asiatic
soil, where they have never been known to flourish. Yet
MACEDONIA.
Macedonia, let not the designs of Alexander be too hastily accused of
extravagance. Whoever seriously considers what he ac¬
tually performed before his thirty-third year, will be cau¬
tious of determining what he might have accomplished had
he reached the ordinary term of human life. His re¬
sources were peculiar to himself; and such views as well
as actions became him, as would have become none be¬
sides. In the language of a distinguished historian, “ he
seems to have been given to the world by a peculiar dis¬
pensation of Providence, being a man like to none other of
the human kind.”
Causes of With the death of Alexander fell also the glory of the
tionof^his" ^ace^on*ans» w^° very soon relapsed into a situation as
empire ^ as’ or Per^aPs worse than, that in which they had been
before the reign of Philip. This was occasioned princi¬
pally by his not having distinctly named a successor, and
having no child of his own come to the years of discretion
to whom the kingdom might seem naturally to belong.
The ambition and jealousy of his mother Olympias, of his
queen Roxana, and especially of the great commanders of
his army, not only prevented a successor from being ever
named, but occasioned the death of every person, whether
male or female, who was in the least related to Alexander.
To have a just notion of the origin of these disturbances, it
is necessary, in the first place, to understand the state of
Macedonian affairs at the time of Alexander’s death.
When Alexander set out for Asia, he left Antipater in
Macedonia, to prevent any disturbances that might arise
either there or in Greece. The Greeks, even during the
lifetime of Alexander, bore the superiority which he exer¬
cised over them with great impatience; and, though no¬
thing could be more gentle than the government of Anti¬
pater, yet he was exceedingly hated, because he obliged
them to be quiet. One of the last actions of Alexander’s
life set all Greece in a flame. He had, by an edict, directed
all the cities of Greece to recal their exiles; which edict,
when it was published at the Olympic games, created much
confusion. Many of the cities were afraid that when the
exiles returned they would change the government; most
of them doubted their own safety if the edict took effect;
and all of them held this peremptory decree to be a total
abolition of their liberty. No sooner, therefore, did the news
of Alexander’s death arrive than they prepared for war.
In Asia the state of things was not much better; not in¬
deed through any inclination of the conquered countries to
revolt, but through the dissensions amongst the com¬
manders. In the general council which was called soon
after the death of Alexander, it was at last agreed, or rather
commanded by the soldiers, after much confusion and alter¬
cation, that Aridseus, the brother of Alexander, who had
always accompanied the king, and had been wont to sacri¬
fice with him, should assume the sovereignty. This Ari-
daeus was a man of slender parts and judgment, not natu¬
rally, but by the wicked practices of Olympias, who had
given him poisonous draughts in his infancy, lest he should
stand in the way of her son Alexander, or any of his
family; and for this, or some other reason, Perdiccas, Pto-
lemy, and most of the cavalry officers, resented his promo¬
tion to such a degree that they quitted the assembly, and
even the city. However, Meleager, at the head of the
phalanx, vigorously supported their first resolution, and
threatened loudly to shed the blood of those who affected
to rule over their equals, and to assume a kingdom which
nowise belonged to them. Aridaeus was accordingly arrayed
in royal robes, had the arms of Alexander put upon him,
and was saluted by the name of Philip, to render him more
popular. Thus were two parties formed, at the head of
Mhich were Meleager and Perdiccas, both of them pre¬
tending vast concern for the public good, yet at bottom
desiring nothing more than their own advantage. Per¬
diccas was a man of high birth, and had a supreme corn-
773
mand in the army, was much in favour with Alexander, and Macedonia,
one in whom the nobility had placed great confidence.
Meleager had become formidable by the phalanx being on
his side, and having the nominal king entirely in his power;
for Aridaeus, or Philip, was obliged to comply with what¬
ever he thought proper, and publicly declared that what¬
ever he did was by the advice of Meleager; so that he
made his minister accountable for his own schemes, and no¬
wise endangered himself. The Macedonians also, besides
their regard for the deceased king, soon began to entertain
a personal love for Philip on account of his moderation.
It is remarkable, however, that notwithstanding all the Meleager
favours which Alexander had conferred upon his officers, murdered,
and the fidelity with which they had served him during his and ,the
life, only two of them were attached to the interests of his e™lnre dl"
family after his death. These were Antipater and Eumenes '11 e ’
the Cardian, whom he had appointed his secretary. Anti¬
pater, as we have already seen, was embroiled with the
Gieeks, and could not assist the royal family, who were in
Asia; and Eumenes had not as yet sufficient interest to
form a party in their favour. In a short time, however,
Perdiccas prevailed against Meleager, and caused him to be
murdered; by which means the supreme power for a time
fell into his hands. His first step, in consequence of this
power, was to distribute the provinces of the empire amongst
the commanders, in order at once to prevent competitors,
and to satisfy the ambition of the principal leaders of the
army. Aridaeus, and the son of Roxana, born after the
death of his father, were to enjoy the regal authority. An¬
tipater had the government of the European provinces.
Craterus received the title of Protector. Perdiccas was
made general of the household troops, in the room of He-
phaestion. Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, obtained Egypt,
Libya, and that part of Arabia which borders upon Egypt.
Cleomenes, a man of infamous character, whom Alexander
had appointed receiver-general in Egypt, was made Pto¬
lemy’s deputy. Leomedon had Syria; Philotas, Cilicia;
Python, Media; Eumenes, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, and
all the country bordering on the Euxine Sea, as far as
Trapezus; but these were not yet conquered, so that he
was a governor without a province. Antigonus received
Pamphylia, Lycia, and Phrygia Major; Cassander, Caria;
Menander, Lydia ; Leonatus, Phrygia, on the Hellespont.
In the meantime, not only Alexander’s will, but even Alexan-
his remains, were so much neglected, that his body was al- der’s body
lowed to lie seven days before any notice was taken of it, negated,
or any orders were given for its being embalmed. The ttnd tus " ‘H
only will he left was a short memorandum of six things Set a?ld<‘‘
which he wished to have done. 1. A fleet of one thousand
stout galleys was to be built and employed against the
Carthaginians and other nations who might oppose the re¬
duction of the sea-coasts of Africa and Spain, with all the
adjacent islands as far as Sicily. 2. A large and regular
highway was to be constructed along the coast of Africa,
as far as Ceuta and Tangier. 3. Six temples of extraor¬
dinary magnificence were to be erected, at the expense of
one thousand five hundred talents each. 4. Castles,
arsenals, havens, and yards for building ships, were to be
established in proper places throughout his empire. 5.
Several new cities were to be built in Europe and Asia;
those in Asia to be inhabited by colonies from Europe, and
those in Europe to be filled with Asiatics ; that by blending
the people and the manners of both, the hereditary antD
pathy which had hitherto subsisted between the inhabitants
of these two continents might, if possible, be eradicated.
Lastly, he had projected the building of a pyramid, equal
in size and beauty to the largest in Egypt, in honour of his
father Philip. But all these designs were, on the pretence
of their being expensive, referred to a council of Macedo¬
nians, to be held nobody knew when or where.
The government, being now in the hands of Perdiccas
774
MACEDONIA.
Macedonia.
The daugh¬
ters of Da¬
rius put to
death by
Roxana.
Revolt of
the Greeks.
B.c. 321.
Disturb¬
ances in
Asia and
Thrace.
Ambition
and cruelty
of Perdic-
and Roxana, soon became cruel and distasteful. Alexan¬
der was scarcely dead when the queen sent for Statira and
Drypetis, the two daughters of Darius, one of whom had
been married to Alexander, and the other to Hephaestion;
and as soon as they arrived at Babylon, she caused them
both to be murdered, that no son of Alexander by any
other woman, or of Hephaestion, might give any trouble to
her or her son Alexander. Sisygambis, the mother of
Darius, no sooner heard that Alexander the Great was
dead, than she laid violent hands on herself, being appre¬
hensive of the calamities which were about to ensue.
War was first declared in Greece against Antipater in
the year 321 b.c.; and, through the treachery of the Thes¬
salians, that general was defeated, with the army he
had under his own command. Leonatus was therefore
sent from Asia, with a very considerable army, to his as¬
sistance ; but both were overthrown with great loss by the
confederates, and Leonatus himself was killed. In a short
time, however, Craterus arrived in Greece with a great
army, the command of which he resigned to Antipater.
The army of the confederates amounted to about twenty-
five thousand foot and three thousand horse; but Antipater
commanded no fewer than forty thousand foot, three thou¬
sand archers, and five thousand horse. In such an unequal
contest, therefore, the Greeks were defeated, and forced to
sue for peace, which they did not obtain except on condi¬
tion of their receiving Macedonian garrisons into several of
their cities. At Athens also the democratic government
was abrogated ; and such a dreadful punishment did this
seem to the Athenians, that twenty-two thousand of them
left their country and retired into Macedonia.
Whilst these things were doing in Greece, disturbances
began also to arise in Asia and in Thrace. The Greek
mercenaries, who were dispersed throughout the inland
provinces of Asia, despairing of ever being allowed to re¬
turn home by fair means, determined to attempt it by
force. For this purpose they assembled to the number of
twenty thousand foot and three thousand horse ; but they
were all cut off to a man by the Macedonians. In Thrace,
Lysimachus was attacked by one Seuthes, a prince of that
country, who claimed the dominions of his ancestors, and
had raised an army of twenty thousand foot and two thou¬
sand horse. But though the Macedonian commander
was forced to engage this army with no more than four
thousand foot and two thousand horse, yet he kept the field
of battle, and could not be driven out of the country.
Perdiccas, in the meantime, by pretending friendship
to the royal family, had gained over Eumenes entirely to
his interest; and at last put him in possession of the pro¬
vince of Cappadocia by the defeat of Ariarathes, king of
that country, whom he afterwards caused to be crucified.
His ambition, however, now began to involve him in diffi¬
culties. At the first division of the provinces, Perdiccas,
to strengthen his own authority, had proposed to marry
Nicaea, the daughter of Antipater; and so well was this
proposal relished, that her brethren, Jollas and Archias,
conducted her to him, in order to be present at the cele¬
bration of the nuptials. But Perdiccas had now other
objects in view. He had been solicited by Olympias to
marry her daughter Cleopatra, the widow of Alexander
King of Epirus, and who then resided at Sardis, in Lydia.
Eumenes promoted this match to the utmost of his power,
because he thought it would be for the interest of the royal
family; and his persuasions had such an effect on Perdic¬
cas, that he was sent to Sardis to compliment Cleopatra,
and to carry presents to her in name of her new lover. In
the absence of Eumenes, however, Alcetas, the brother of
Perdiccas, persuaded him to marry Nicaea; but in order
to gratify his ambition, he resolved to divorce her imme¬
diately after the marriage, and to marry Cleopatra. By this
last alliance he hoped to have a pretence for altering the
government of Macedonia; and, as a necessary measure Macedonia,
preparative to these, he entered into contrivances for de-
stroying Antigonus. Unfortunately for himself, however,
he ruined all his schemes by his own jealousy and precipi¬
tate cruelty. Cynane, the daughter of Philip by his se¬
cond wife, had brought her daughter Adda, who was after¬
wards named Eurydice, to court, in hopes that King Ari-
daeus might marry her. Against Cynane, Perdiccas, from
some political motives, conceived such a grudge, that he
caused her to be murdered. This raised a commotion in
the army, which frightened Perdiccas to such a degree that
he now promoted the match between Aridaeus and Eury¬
dice, to prevent which he had murdered the mother of the
young princess. But, in the meantime, Antigonus, know¬
ing the designs of Perdiccas against himself, fled with his
son Demetrius to Greece, there to take shelter under the
protection of Antipater and Craterus, whom he informed
of the ambition and cruelty of the regent.
A civil war was now kindled up. Antipater, Craterus, Civil war.
Neoptolemus, and Antigonus, were combined against Per¬
diccas ; and it was the misfortune of the empire in general
that Eumenes, the most able general, as well as the most
virtuous of all the commanders, was on the side of Perdic¬
cas, because he believed him to be in the interest of Alex¬
ander’s family. Ptolemy in the meantime remained in
quiet possession of Egypt, but without the least intention
of owning any person as his superior. However, he also
acceded to the league formed against Perdiccas, and thus
the only person in the whole empire who consulted the in¬
terest of the royal family was Eumenes.
It was now thought proper to bury the body of Alex- Alexander
ander, which had been kept for two years, during all which buried in
time preparations had been making for its interment. Ari- Egypt*
daeus, to whose care it was committed, set out from Baby¬
lon for Damascus, in order to carry the king’s body to
Egypt. This was much against the will of Perdiccas ; for
it seems there was a superstitious report, that wherever the
body of Alexander was laid, that country should flourish
most. Perdiccas, therefore, out of regard to his native soil,
would have it conveyed to the royal sepulchres in Macedo¬
nia ; but Aridaeus, pleading the late king’s express direc¬
tion, was determined to carry it into Egypt, from thence to
be conveyed to the temple of Jupiter Ammon. The fune¬
ral was accordingly conducted with all imaginable magnifi¬
cence. Ptolemy came to meet the body as far as Syria;
but, instead of burying it in the temple of Jupiter Ammon,
he erected a stately temple for it in the city of Alexandria;
and, by the respect which he showed for his dead master,
induced many of the Macedonian veterans to join him, who
were afterwards of the greatest service.
No sooner was the funeral over, than the parties above Perdiccas
mentioned came to blows. Perdiccas marched against
Ptolemy, but was slain by his own men, who, after the ^
death of their general, submitted to his antagonist; and empire<
thus Eumenes was left alone to contend against all the other
generals who had served under Alexander. In this con¬
test, however, he would by no means have been over¬
matched, had his soldiers been attached to him ; but as they
had been accustomed to serve against those very generals
against whom they were now to fight, they were upon all
occasions ready to betray and desert Eumenes. However,
he defeated and killed Neoptolemus and Craterus ; but then
found himself obliged to contend with Antipater and Anti¬
gonus. Antipater was now appointed protector of the kings,
with sovereign power; and Eumenes was about the same
time declared a public enemy. A new division of Alex¬
ander’s empire took place. Egypt, Libya, and the parts
adjacent, were given to Ptolemy, because they could not be
taken from him. Syria was confirmed to Leomedon.
Philoxenus received Cilicia. Mesopotamia and Arbelitus
were given to Amphimacus. Babylon was bestowed on
MACEDONIA.
Macedonia. Seleucus. Susiana fell to Antigenes, who commanded the
Macedonian Argyraspida, or Silver Shields, because he
was the first who opposed Perdiccas. Peucestas held Persia;
Tlepolemus had Caramania; Python had Media as far as
the Caspian Straits ; Stasander had Aria and Drangia;
Philip, Parthia; Stasonor, Bactria and Sogdia; Sibirtius,
Aracopa; Oxyartes, the father of Roxana, Paropamisus.
Another Python had the country between this province and
India. Porus and I axiles retained what Alexander had
given them, refusing to part with any portion of their do¬
minions. Cappadocia was assigned to Nicanor. Phrygia
Major, Lycaonia, Pamphylia, and Lycia, were given to An-
tigonus ; Caria to Cassander; Lydia to Clytus ; and Phrygia
the Less to Aridaeus. Cassander was appointed general of
the horse; whilst the command of the household troops
was given to Antigonus, with orders to prosecute the war
against Eumenes. Antipater having thus settled every¬
thing as well as he could, returned to Macedonia with the
two kings, to the great joy of his countrymen, having
left his son Cassander as a check upon Antigonus in Asia.
Matters now seemed to wear a better aspect than they
had yet done; and, if Eumenes had believed that his ene-
775
Total de¬
struction __
der^fam"- mies consulted the interest of Alexander’s family,
jy. there is not the least doubt that the war would have been
immediately terminated. He saw, however, that the de¬
sign of Antigonus was altogether a selfish one, and con¬
sequently he refused to submit. From this time, therefore,
the Macedonian empire in Asia ceased to exist; and the
Macedonian affairs were now entirely confined to that king¬
dom itself, and to Greece. Antipater had not been long
in Macedonia after his return,when he died; and the last act
of his life completed the ruin of Alexander’s family. With
a view to the public good, he had appointed Polysperchon,
one of the eldest of Alexander’s captains, to be protector
and governor of Macedonia. This failed not to disgust
his son Cassander, who thought he had a natural right
to these offices, and of course kindled up a new civil
war in Macedonia. This was indeed highly promoted
by his first actions as a governor. He began with at¬
tempting to remove all the governors appointed in Greece
by Antipater, and to restore democracy wherever it had
been abolished. The immediate consequence of this was,
that the people refused to obey their magistrates; the
governors refused to resign their places, and applied for
assistance to Cassander. Polysperchon had also the impru¬
dence to recal Olympias from Epirus, and to allow her a
share in the administration, which Antipater, and even
Alexander himself, had always refused her. The conse¬
quence of all this was, that Cassander invaded Greece,
where he prevailed against Polysperchon. Olympias re¬
turned to Macedonia, where she cruelly murdered Aridseus
and his wife Eurydice. But she was herself put to death
by Cassander, who afterwards caused Roxana and her son
to be murdered ; and Polysperchon being driven into Etolia,
first raised to the crown Hercules, the son of Alexander by
the daughter of Darius, and then, by the instigation of
Cassander, murdered him, by which means the line of Alex¬
ander the Great became totally extinct.
Cassander having thus destroyed all the royal family, as¬
sumed the regal title, as he had for sixteen years before had
all the power. But he enjoyed the title of King of
Macedonia only three years, after which he died, about
298 B.c. By I hessalonica, the daughter of Philip, King
of Macedonia, he left three sons—Philip, Antipater, and
Alexander. Philip, succeeded him, but soon afterwards
died of a consumption, and a contest immediately began
between the two brothers, Antipater and Alexander. Anti-
patei seized the kingdom, and, to secure himself in it, mur-
ered his mother Thessalonica. Alexander invited Pyrrhus,
King of Epirus, and Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, to
assist him, and revenge the death of his mother. But Pyr-
Various re
volutions
in the go¬
vernment.
thus being bought off, and a peace concluded between the Macedonia,
brothers, Alexander, afraid of having too many protectors,
ormed a scheme of getting Demetrius assassinated. In¬
stead of this, however, both he and Antipater were put to
eath; and Demetrius became King of Macedonia, four
years after the death of Cassander.
In 287 before Christ, Demetrius was driven out by Pyr-
i ms, who was again driven out two years after by Lysima-
c-s>who was soon afterwards killed by Seleucus Nicanor;
and Seleucus in his turn was murdered by Ptolemy Carau-
nus, who became King of Macedonia about 280 before our
era. The new king was in a short time cut off, with his
whole iirmy, by the Gauls; and Antigonus Gonatus, the
son of Demetriu8 Poliorcetes, became King of Macedonia
m 278 b.c. He proved successful against the Gauls,
but was driven out by Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, who,
however, soon disobliged his subjects to such a degree that *
Antigonus recovered a great part of his kingdom. But in
a little time, Pyrrhus being killed at the siege of Argos in
Greece, Antigonus was restored to the whole of Macedo¬
nia ; but scarcely was he seated on the throne, when he was
driven from it by Alexander the son of Pyrrhus. The new
invader was in his turn expelled by Demetrius the son of
Antigonus, who, though at that time but a boy, had almost
made himself master of Epirus. In this enterprise, how¬
ever, he was disappointed; but by his means Antigonus
was restored to his kingdom, which he governed for many
years in peace. By a stratagem he made himself master of
the city of Corinth, and from that time began to form
schemes for the thorough conquest of Greece. The me¬
thod he took to accomplish this was, to support the petty
tyrants of Greece against the free states, which indeed
weakened the power of the latter, but involved the whole
country in so many calamities, that these transactions re¬
dound but little to the reputation either of his arms or of
his honour. He died about the year 243, leaving the king¬
dom to his son Demetrius II.
Neither Demetrius nor his successor, Antigonus Doson, War with
performed anything remarkable. In 221 b.c., the king- the Ro-
dom fell to Philip, the last but one of the Macedonian mans-
monarchs. To him Hannibal, after the battle of Cannee, ap- B,c- 221'
plied for assistance, which he refused; and the same im¬
prudence which made him refuse this assistance prompted
him to embroil himself with the Romans, and at last to
conclude a treaty with them, by which he in effect became
their subject, being tied up from making peace or war ex¬
cept according to their pleasure. In 179 b.c. he was suc¬
ceeded by his eldest son Perseus, under whom the war
with the Romans was renewed. Even yet the Macedonians
were terrible in war ; and their phalanx, when properly con¬
ducted, seems to have been absolutely invincible by any
method of making war at that time known. The Romans
had never encountered such a terrible enemy; and in the
first battle, which happened 171 b.c., they were defeated
with the loss of 2200 men, whilst the Macedonians lost no
more than 60. I he generals of Perseus now pressed him
to stoi m the enemy’s camp; but he being naturally of a
cowardly disposition, refused to comply, and thus the best
opportunity he ever had was lost. Still, however, the Ro¬
mans gained little or no advantage over it, until the year
168 b.c., when Paulus Ahnilius, a most experienced com¬
mander, was sent to Macedonia. Perseus now put every-
thing upon the issue of a general engagement; and iEmilius,
with all his courage and military experience, would have
been defeated, had the Macedonians been commanded by
a general of the smallest courage or conduct. The light-
armed Macedonians charged with such vigour, that, after
the battle, some of their bodies were found within two fur¬
longs of the Roman camp. When the phalanx came to
charge, the points of their spears striking into the Roman
shields, kept the heavy-armed troops from making any mo-
776 MAC
Macedo- tion ; whilst, on the other hand, Perseus’s light-armed men
nms did terrib]e execution. On this occasion, it is said that
II iEmilius tore his clothes, and gave up all hopes. However,
v Macer- the Roman general, perceiving that as the phalanx gained
ground it lost its order in several places, caused his own
light-armed troops to charge in those places, whereby the
Macedonians were soon thrown into confusion. Perseus
with his horse took to flight, and the infantry at last did the
same, but not till 20,000 of them had lost their lives.
This battle decided the fate of Macedonia, which imme¬
diately submitted to the conqueror. The cowardly king
took refuge in the island of Samothrace, but was at last
obliged to surrender to the Roman consul, by whom he
was carried to Rome, led in triumph, and afterwards most
barbarously treated. Some pretenders to the throne after¬
wards appeared; but being unable to defend themselves
against the Romans, the country was reduced to a Roman
province in the year 148 B.c.
MACEDONIUS, the name of two bishops of Constan¬
tinople.
(1.) Macedonius, a deacon, raised to the bishopric by
the Arians in a.d. 341, while the orthodox party elected the
patriarch Paul. The partisans of the two rivals involved the
city in a tumultuous broil, murdered Hermogenes the ge¬
neral whom Constantins II., during his own absence, had
empowered to preserve order, and were not quelled until the
emperor himself returned to the city and banished Paul.
Macedonius was recognised as patriarch in a.d. 342. In that
year Paul again returned, and was again banished, and Mace¬
donius, amid much tumult and bloodshed, was forcibly in¬
stalled in the see by the imperial troops. Compelled, how¬
ever, by the intervention of Constans in 348 to confine his
authority again to one church, and to resign the patriarchate
to his former opponent, he was reinstalled in a.d. 350. He
then took vengeance on his opponents by a general per¬
secution, expelling them from all the churches in the pa¬
triarchate, banishing many, and torturing others to death.
Scarcely less disastrous and bloody was the tumult that he
excited among the citizens by removing the ashes of Con¬
stantine the Great from the dilapidated church of the
Apostles to the church of St Acacius. In a.d. 359, on the
division of the Arians into Acacians, or pure Arians, and
semi-Arians, Macedonius adhered to the latter, and conse¬
quently became obnoxious to the former. His enemies, thus
increased, effected his expulsion from the see in the following
year at the council of Constantinople. This event, it is said,
he survived only a short time.
After his deposition, Macedonius became a bold advo¬
cate of the doctrines of the semi-Arians. From this cir¬
cumstance, that sect in the course of time were called Ma¬
cedonians. Their peculiar tenet was, that the Holy Ghost
is distinct from the Father and Son, and is nothing else
than a divine influence pervading the entire universe.
From this impugning of the Spirit, they were sometimes
named Pneutomachi. They were also called Marathonians,
from Marathonius, one of their leaders.
(2.) Macedonius nominated bishop of Constantinople
by Anastasius I., about a.d. 496. His subscription of the
Henoticon of Zeno induced the monks of the city to re¬
nounce his communion, and to resist obstinately his at¬
tempts to reconcile them. Yet, with a mild tolerance that
marked the general tenor of his conduct, he refrained from
using harsh measures against them. About 511 the Em¬
peror Anastasius withdrawing his favours from Macedonius
on account of his recognition of the council of Chalcedon,
deposed and banished him on a charge of heresy and
other crimes. This sentence, which was condemned by
tbe church in all parts of the empire, Vitalian the Goth, in
514, attempted by his unsuccessful rebellion to repeal. Ma¬
cedonius died in exile in a.d. 516.
MACER, Caius Licinius, a Roman historian, and father
MAC
of the orator Caius Licinius Calvus, was probably born Macerata
about 110 b.c. After holding the quaestorship, he was II. .
elected a tribune of the people in 73 b.c., and subsequently 1 acgllli*
became praetor and governor of a province. In 66 b.c. he ^ vray. ^
was arraigned by Cicero under the law De Repetundis, “
and dreading lest the verdict should be damnatory, and
should involve his family in loss and disgrace, he put an
end to his existence. The merits of Macer as an author
can scarcely be determined by the few stray quotations
from his Annales found in ancient authors; but he is sup¬
posed by Niebuhr to have displayed accurate and extensive
research, and to have supplied abundant materials both to
Livy and Dionysius.
MACERATA, a city of central Italy, capital of a cogno-
minal delegation of the Papal States, is situate on an emi¬
nence between the rivers Potenza and Chienti, 21 miles
S.W. of Ancona, and 170 from Rome. It is well built,
with generally straight, spacious, and clean streets, and is
surrounded by walls having six gates. In the centre of the
town is a large but irregular square, in which are some of
the principal buildings, including the cathedral, the palace
of the delegate, and the theatre. Macerata is the see of a
bishop, and the seat of a court of appeal for several of the
neighbouring delegations. It has a number of churches
and convents, and a university for philosophy, theology, and
medicine, with a library of 20,000 volumes. It carries on
some trade in corn, silk, and cattle. Under the French it
was the capital of the department of Musone. Pop. 16,000.
The delegation of Macerata is for the most part moun¬
tainous and wooded; but the valleys and plains are fertile
and well cultivated, producing abundance of corn, wine,
and fruits in great variety. Many cattle are reared. Area
861 square miles. Pop. (1850) 239,942.
MACGILLICUDDY REEKS. See Kerry.
MACGILLIVRAY, Dr William, an eminent natu¬
ralist, was born at Old Aberdeen in 1796. Amid great
poverty, he was enabled to enter King’s College, in his
native town, and after taking the degree of A.M., he
studied medicine, first at Aberdeen and afterwards at Edin¬
burgh. His native bias, however, for natural history made
him forego all intention of adopting the medical profession,
and accordingly he never graduated as M.D. In 1823 he
was appointed assistant to the regius professor of natural
history, and regius keeper of the museum of the Edin¬
burgh University. This appointment he resigned in 1831
for the office of conservator of the museum of the Royal
College of Surgeons in Edinburgh. This work, together
with translating, editing, delivering lectures, and contri¬
buting to scientific journals, was congenial to Macgillivray,
since it introduced him to many naturalists, and afforded a
continual facility for his favourite studies. In 1841 his
scholarship, unsupported by any external influence, raised
him to the chair of natural history in Marischal College, Aber¬
deen. There his excellence as a teacher, and his gentle and
unassuming conduct, soon rendered him popular. During
the whole of his life, his body, not less than his mind, had been
active in the pursuit of knowledge ; and it was while explor¬
ing the central region of the Grampians, in 1850, that he
caught the disorder that ultimately proved fatal. After
a lingering illness, during which he never ceased to work,
he died in September 1852. The most popular of Dr
Macgillivray’s numerous works are the following:—A His¬
tory of British Birds, in 5 vols. 8vo, 1837-1852 ; A Ma¬
nual of British Ornithology, in 2 vols. 12mo, 1840-1841,
reprinted in 1846; The Flowering Plants and Ferns of
Great Britain and Ireland, 8vo, eighth edition, 1852;
and a posthumous work, The Natural History of Deeside
and Braemar, 1856, the copyright of which was bought
by Prince Albert. He also contributed largely to the
Transactions of the Wernerian Natural History Society^
to the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, to the Edin-
MACHIAVELLI.
777
Machia- burgh Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, and to the Edin-
vellL burgh Journal of Medical and Natural Science.
—' MACHIAVELLI, Nicolo, for many years secretary of
the republic of Florence, and justly celebrated for his poli¬
tical, historical, and other writings, was born at Florence
on the 3d of May 1469, being descended from a family
which traced its origin up to the ancient marquises of Tus¬
cany, particularly to the Marquis Hugo, who lived about
the middle of the ninth century. The Machiavellis were
signors or lords of Monte-Spertoli; but preferring the right
of citizenship in Florence to the useless conservation of pri¬
vileges which were daily becoming more and more obnox¬
ious to the rising commonwealth, they prudently submitted
to its laws in order to accept employment in the highest
offices of the magistracy. This family was one of those
attached to the Guelific party which abandoned Florence
in the year 1260, after the defeat at Monte-Aperti. But
their secession was merely temporary. Having returned to
their native country, they regained their influence, and
occupied some of the first offices of the state ; no less than
thirteen of their number having held the situation of gon-
faloniere of justice, and fifty-three that of prior, dignities
which were then considered as the most important in the
republic. The father of Machiavelli was a jurisconsult, and
lived in a state but little removed from poverty. His mo¬
ther, who appears to have been a woman of talent, loved
poetry, and composed verses with facility. It is believed
that, about the year 1494, he was placed under the tuition
of the learned Marcello di Virgilio, professor of Greek and
Latin literature, and the translator of Dioscorides. How
long he remained under the care of this master, or what ad¬
vantages he derived from his instructions, has not been as¬
certained. But, five years later, when he had scarcely com¬
pleted his twenty-ninth year, he was preferred, amongst four
competitors, to the employment of chancellor of the second
chancery of the Signory ; a few months afterwards, he was
appointed, by the Signory and the colleges, secretary to the
ten magistrates of liberty and peace, which constituted the
general government of the republic ; and with this employ¬
ment he continued invested for about fourteen years and
a half. His ordinary occupations, when he resided at Flo¬
rence, comprehended the political correspondence, both in¬
ternal and external, the recording of the deliberations of
the council of magistrates, and the redaction of treaties with
foreign states.
But the Florentine government, justly appreciating the
talents of Machiavelli, were not long in extending his func¬
tions; and he was in consequence successively intrusted with
no less than twenty-three foreign legations, besides frequent
commissions to the cities dependent on the republic. The
first mission on which he was despatched was to France,
where he arrived in 1500, soon after the raising of the siege
of Pisa. Louis XII. had furnished to the Florentines troops
and artillery to form the siege of that place ; and the repub¬
lic had sent to the camp two commissioners, besides its se¬
cretary Machiavelli, who carried on the correspondence.
The Pisans, however, negociated with the king, and at the
same time gained over the principal officers in the besieg¬
ing army. The French troops were to be paid by the Flo¬
rentines, but some delay having occurred in forwarding their
pay, they availed themselves of this as a pretext, and having
disbanded, the siege wras in consequence raised. The French
king reproached the Florentines for the disgrace which had
thus been brought on his arms ; and it was to appease him,
and if possible to obtain fresh succours, that they sent to
France Machiavelli, and Francisco della Casa, who had been
one of the commissioners in the camp before Pisa. During Machia-
this negociation, which lasted five months, the deputies fol- ^ vellL
low'ed the court to Saint-Pierre-le-Moutier, Montargis, Me-
lun, Blois, Nantes, and Tours. They had several audiences
of the king, and his minister Cardinal d’Amboise ; but these
led to no satisfactory result. The envoys were continually
met with the same reproaches, and the court was only ap¬
peased by the reimbursement of the sums which the king
had advanced to the troops.1
In the year 1502 Machiavelli was sent to the Duke di Va¬
lentino (Cesare Borgia) at Imola, and next to Rome. He
also went a second time to France, and afterwards to Siena,
to Piombino, and to Perugia. In 1507 he proceeded by Ge¬
neva to Constance, and from thence to Bolzano, at that time
the residence of the Emperor Maximilian, with whom he
treated of important aftairs. The relation of this mission is
printed amongst his complete works, under the title of Rap-
porto di cose della Magna, fatto questo di 17 giugno 1508.
In 1510 he re-appeared in France, and, after passing about
two months at Blois, witnessed the opening of the national
council at Tours. A fourth mission to the court of Louis
XII. is commonly referred to the following year, 1511; but
it appears uncertain whether it was actually undertaken.
It may with truth be said, however, that if Machiavelli
failed to secure the complete independence of his country,
this proceeded from no fault of his own; inasmuch as the
accomplishment of such an object would have required
more confidence on the part of his fellow-citizens, greater
harmony between the different opinions which then divided
the city, and times less turbulent and unpropitious. But
the glory cannot be denied him of having attempted this
noble enterprise, and devoted to its accomplishment all
his genius, and all the influence which he was permitted to
exercise in the conduct of public affairs.
This is fully established by his political correspondence,
which, besides, is in the highest degree valuable and in¬
teresting. His despatches, indeed, form one of the most
amusing and instructive collections extant. In them we
meet with none of that mystical and verbose jargon which
is so common in modern state-papers. The narratives are
clearly and agreeably written, and the remarks on men and
things are equally shrewd and judicious. We are introduced
into the presence of men who, during twenty years, swayed
the destinies of Europe. Their wit and their lolly, their
gloom and their gaiety, are alike exposed to us; we are
admitted to overhear their familiar talk, to see the masters
of the world in undress, and to observe the manifestations of
their real characters. It is interesting and cupio.us to re¬
cognise, in circumstances which commonly elude the notice
of historians, the feeble violence and the shallow cunning ot
Louis XII.; the bustling insignificance of Maximilian, a
prince afflicted with an impotent desire of renown, rash yet
timid, obstinate yet fickle, always in a hurry, yet always too
late ; the fierce and haughty energy which gave dignity to
the eccentricities of the magnificent Julius; and the soft,
smooth, calm, graceful manners which masked the insatiable
ambition and deadly hatred of Cesare Borgia. The meet¬
ing of the Florentine secretary and the Duke di Valentino,
of the greatest speculative and the ablest practical states¬
man of the age, is a memorable occurrence in the history
of both. Upon two important occasions Machiavelli was
admitted to the society of Borgia; once, at the moment
when his splendid villany had achieved its most signal tri¬
umph, when he caught in one snare, and crushed at one
blow, all his most formidable rivals ;2 and again when, ex¬
hausted by disease, and overwhelmed by misfortunes, he
1 Ginguend, Histoire Litterairc d'Italic, tom. viii.
* See in Opere di Machiavelli (vol. ii. Hague, 1726), Detcrittione del modo tenuto dal Duea Valentino nello amazzarc Vitellozxo- ViteUi,
Oliverotto da Ferrno, it Signor Pagolo, et UDuca di Gravina Or tint.
yOI.. XIII. 5 F
778
MACHIAVELLI.
Machia- was the prisoner of the deadliest enemy of his house. These
velli. interviews are fully described in the correspondence. Se-
veral writers have supposed that there existed a close and
intimate connexion between these remarkable men, and the
secretary-envoy has even been accused of prompting the
crimes of this artful and merciless tyrant; but, from the offi¬
cial documents, it is evident that their intercourse, though
ostensibly of an amicable, was in reality of a hostile descrip¬
tion. “ It cannot be doubted, however,” says an able writer,
“ that the imagination of Machiavelli was strongly impress¬
ed, and his speculations on government coloured, by the ob¬
servations which he made on the singular character, and
equally singular fortunes, of a man who, under such disad¬
vantages, had achieved such exploits; who, when sensuality,
varied through innumerable forms, could no longer stimu¬
late his sated mind, found a more powerful and durable ex¬
citement in the intense thirst of empire and revenge ; who
emerged from the sloth and luxury of the Roman purple
the first prince and general of the age ; who, after acquir¬
ing sovereignty by destroying his enemies, acquired popu¬
larity by destroying his tools ; who had begun to employ
for the most salutary ends the power which he had attain¬
ed by the most atrocious means; who tolerated within the
sphere of his iron despotism no plunderer or oppressor but
himself; and who fell at last, amidst the mingled curses
and regrets of a people, of whom his genius had been the
wonder, and might have been the salvation.”1 Some of the
crimes of Borgia, which appear to us the most revolting,
would not have been viewed with equal horror by an Ita¬
lian of the fifteenth century; and, besides, patriotic feel¬
ing might induce Machiavelli to regard with indulgence
and regret the memory of the only leader capable of de¬
fending the independence of Italy against the confederate
spoilers who were then plotting the dismemberment of that
divided and unhappy country.
But whilst Machiavelli deeply regretted the misfortunes
of his country, he clearly discerned the cause and the re¬
medy of these. It was the military system of the Italian
people which had extinguished their valour and discipline,
destroyed their independence, and rendered their wealth
an easy prey to every foreign plunderer. Machiavelli pro¬
jected a scheme for abolishing the practice of employing
mercenary troops, and organizing a national militia; and the
exertions which he made to accomplish this grand object
are alike honourable to his understanding and his patriot¬
ism. He studied with assiduity the art of war, and made
himself master of all its details.2 When levies were de¬
creed, he flew from place to place to superintend the exe¬
cution of his design, and availed himself of every circum¬
stance which could contribute to its success. For a time
the scheme promised well, and the new troops acquitted
themselves respectably. But the fury of parties continued
to increase, and the tide of misfortune came on before the
barriers which should have withstood it were prepared.
The emperor and the pope wished to re-establish the Me¬
dici, and the moment was favourable for such an enterprise.
Florence was then governed by the gonfaloniere Soderini,
a man equally presumptuous and feeble, who obstinately
adhered to France, without discerning that that power was
not in a condition to afford him any aid. It was in reference
to this inconsiderate policy that Machiavelli observed,
“ The good fortune of France has made us lose half the
state; her bad fortune will cause the loss of our liberty.”3
The prediction was not long in being verified. As soon as
the French armies had lost their superiority in Italy, the
storm burst upon Florence. In 1512, the pope and the
emperor combined against their common enemy, and, con- Machia.
trary to the faith of treaties, imposed a contribution of a velU.,
hundred thousand florins. Machiavelli flew through the
territory of the republic, to examine the state of the for¬
tresses, and organize a vigorous resistance; but all his ef¬
forts were unavailing, and divided Florence soon opened
its gates to the Medici, who re-conquered at once their
property and their ancient authority.
1 his revolution, which caused the ruin of the gonfalo¬
niere, proved also the signal for the fall of the secretary.
The new Signory immediately attacked him in two decrees,
dated the 8th and 10th of November ISIT. By the one he
was deprived, “ absolutely despoiled,” of his offices of chan¬
cellor and secretary to the ten magistrates of liberty and
peace ; by the other he was exiled for a year to a part of the
Florentine territory, which he was forbidden to quit under
the penalty of incurring the displeasure of the Signory. A
third decree, dated the 17th of the same month, prohibited
him from entering the palace of the high and magnificent
signors. On this subject Ginguene has omitted some facts.
“ Machiavelli,” says he, “ after fourteen years of service
useful to his country, was first deprived of his employ¬
ment, and then confined for a year to the territory of the
republic, with a prohibition not to set foot in the palace of
the Signory. Nor was this the term, it was in fact only
the commencement of his misfortunes.” And he adds in
a note, that the fate of the secretary was decided by three
decrees of the 8 th, 10th, and 17th of November. There ap¬
pears to be some confusion in this statement. The decree
of the 17th was evidently a mitigation of that of the 10th.
The latter banished him for a year, and intimated to him
that he was not to leave the territory of the republic; that
is, it ordained him to quit Florence in order to live in the
Florentine dominions, exclusive of the city properly so
called. The third decree, dated the 17th, only prohi¬
bited him from entering the palace of the Signory, without
ordaining him to leave the city; but another decree of
the same date was published, in which he was permitted
to enter the palace during the* whole of the day of the 17th ;
and the same liberty was granted him on the 4th of De¬
cember 1512, and on the 21st of March and 9th of July
1513. Ginguene has refuted some of the statements pub¬
lished respecting the treatment Machiavelli is alleged to
have experienced after the return of the Medici; but it
is not the less true, as appears by the subsequent modifi¬
cations of the original decree, to the extent already stated,
that the removal of the secretary was considered as an affair
of some difficulty, and one the accomplishment of which
required management and address. But when this object
had been effected, he found himself exposed to the great¬
est dangers. Accused of being concerned in the conspi¬
racy formed by Capponi and Boscoli against Cardinal de’
Medici, afterwards Leo X., he was thrown into prison, and
put to the torture, which he endured with unflinching re¬
solution. “ I have been near losing my life,” said he,
“ which God and my own innocence have saved; I have
supported all evils, including imprisonment and others.”
On the accession of Leo X. he was included in an am¬
nesty, and owed his deliverance to the generosity of that
liberal and accomplished pontiff.
These terrible trials, which extraordinary courage can
alone withstand, attest the energy and the force of charac¬
ter which belonged to the fallen statesman. Instead of
yielding to despondency, he sought for an alleviation of his
lot in study and in literature ; and it is to his misfortunes
that we are indebted for the best known of his works, the
3 Edinlur-gh Review, vol. xlv. pp. 283, 284. 1 See his treatise DcU' Arte della Guerra, passim.
Speaking, on one occasion, of the alliance with France, he observed, che la Imona fortuna di essa aveva fatto perder la tnelb della
rtalo, la cattiva avrebbe fatto perdere la libertd.
MACHIAVELLI.
779
Machia- Prince, the dialogue on the Art of War, hk Histories, and
ve L' , Comedies, which he composed during his retirement at
San-Casciano, and which, with the collection of his politi¬
cal letters, deserve to be classed amongst the most remark¬
able monuments of modern literature. From his retreat,
however, he wrote to the friends whom he had still pre¬
served, signifying his desire to be again employed in the
conduct of affairs ; and his wishes in this respect were to a
certain extent gratified. After the death of Lorenzo de’
Medici, Leo X. who possessed great influence in the go¬
vernment of Florence, recalled Machiavelli, and requested
him to point out the means of reforming the administration.
In 1521, there was confided to him a mission to the minor
brothers at Carpi. He was next ordered to fortify anew
the city, and to treat of some affairs with Francisco Guic¬
ciardini, then governor of Romagna. Finally, he was em¬
ployed in the army of the league against Charles V. This
commission was the last remarkable occupation of his life.
He returned to Florence in one of the last days of Mav
1527, and having, not long afterwards, suffered much in¬
convenience from pains in the stomach, he took a medi¬
cine in which he had great faith for relieving this disorder;
but being soon attacked by violent spasms in the bowels,
he expired on the 22d of June, at the age of fifty-eight,
after having received all the sacraments of the church.
The following letter from his son Pietro to Francisco Nel¬
li, professor at Pisa, annihilates all the fables which have
been circulated respecting his death :—“ I cannot tell you
without tears, that, on the 22d of this month, our father
Nicolo died of pains in the bowels, caused by a medicine
which he had taken two days before. He was made to
confess his sins by the friar Matteo, who kept him com¬
pany till his death. Our father has left us in great pover¬
ty, as you know.” Machiavelli was in his person of the
ordinary size, his complexion was of an olive hue, and his
physiognomy animated and expressive; in conversation he
was at once simple and lively, and his repartee was prompt
and piquant. Conversing one day with Clodio Tolomeo,
the latter said to him, “ At Florence the men have less
science, and are less learned, than at Siena, always except¬
ing yourselfto which Machiavelli replied, “ At Siena
the men are greater fools than at Florence, not even except¬
ing you.” Some one having remarked to him that he had
taught princes to be tyrants, he replied, “ If I have taught
princes to bejyrants, I have also taught the people to de¬
stroy tyrants.” He was interred in the church of Santa-
Croce, in the burying-place of his family; but for more
than two centuries his bones lay undistinguished, and it
was reserved for an English nobleman, Earl Cowper, to
pay the last honours to the greatest statesman of Florence,
by erecting a monument to his memory.1
Several writings of the Florentine secretary are regard¬
ed as estimable productions of a superior mind ; others are
considered as pernicious, and containing abominable doc¬
trines. Amongst the latter are the apology for the conduct
of the Duke di Valentino, when he caused Vitellozzo-Vitelli
and others to be massacred at Sinigaglia (II modo tenuto
dal Duca Valentino, &c.); the treatise of the Prince (11
Principe'); and some detached opinions contained in the
Discourses on Titus Livius (Discorsi sopra la prima deca
di T. Livio), which opinions, forming part of a writing pos¬
terior to the composition of the Principe, will, as far as pos- Machia.
sible, be explained in the more detailed exposition which velli.
we shall endeavour to give of the object and intentions of'N—,,'V"*“
the author when he composed that celebrated treatise.
At the head of the works generally admitted to have es¬
tablished beyond all dispute the reputation of Machiavelli
as a profound thinker, and a politician of inexhaustible ge¬
nius, maybe placed those letters or despatches, published un-
. ei the title of Legazioni, of which we have already spoken
incidentally. Ginguene has observed, in reference to these
letters, that one would not willingly read the collection,
which he considers somewhat diffuse, but that, in regard to
the character and life of the secretary, and the history of
his own time, it may be consulted with advantage. In this
opinion, however, we cannot by any means concur. The
collection is suited to the taste of the age, and the country
to which it belongs; nor has this taste materially changed ;
for even the Italian diplomatists of the present day fre-
quently indulge in similar details, introducing such argu¬
ments as they think fitted to support their observations,
and to create a favourable impression of their zeal and in¬
dustry. That the Legazioni sometimes descended into mi¬
nutiae which may be considered as trifling or irrelevant, we
readily admit; but even these particulars are by no means
devoid of interest; and as to the entire collection, a reader
of intelligence cannot peruse it without being at once
amused and instructed by it.
The seven books on the Art of War (DelT Arte della
Guerra) show that Machiavelli was profoundly conversant
with the principles of military science. An Italian writer,
adverting to this circumstance, observes, that such know¬
ledge is not only wonderful in a man devoted to civil occu¬
pations, but might even be considered as extraordinary in
an old general. According to the author of the preface to
tJie edition of 1813, Machiavelli had acquired this insight
into military science in consequence of profound medita¬
tions on the works of the ancient Romans, who may be re¬
garded as the first masters of the art of war; and, in fact, the
combinations of the secretary have constant reference to
those of Vegetius. His principal object was to establish the
superiority of infantry, at a time when this branch of the
service had fallen into general discredit; and his theories
fortunately attracted so much regard, that to him may, in a
great measure, be attributed the return of sound tactics,
and the perfection to which the art of war subsequently at¬
tained. Algarotti, in his fourth discourse on the studies
of Palladio, gives us to understand that that celebrated ar¬
chitect learned the military art in the writings of the Flo¬
rentine secretary; Frederick II. has described, in agree¬
able verses, some of his military precepts ; and there is a
French work, entitled Instructions sur lefait de la Guerre,
extraites des livres de Poly be, Frontin, Vegece, Machiavelli,
et plusieurs autres bons auteurs, Paris, 1563. Of the tactics
of Machiavelli it is not necessary to express here any opi¬
nion. But the treatise is able and interesting ; as a com¬
mentary on the history of the times it is invaluable ; whilst
the ingenuity, grace, and perspicuity of the style, and the
eloquence and animation of particular passages, must give
pleasure even to readers who take no interest in the subject
which the author treats with so much skill and ability.2
The Discorsi, written about the year 1516, the epoch of
a. WhiCh 13 tHe W°rk °f SPinazzi’ bears the Ascription, Tanto nomini nullum par elogium, Nicolaus Machiavelli obiit
Colmirm °f T™ in,the form of a dialogue, and the opinions of the writer are put into the mouth of Fabrizio
nreSnkrv ronv^tl eKCC.lesiastlcal state,’ a«d a11 officer of distinguished merit in the service of the king of Spain After some
preliminary conversation, tabrizio expresses his regret that those who in later times affected the manners nf i?
meZlf rSlorirt1 VetrfSt, tri<,inrB ^ *» * on The*
several improvements are suggesteSThe detaUs l0rentme mihtia’ t0 whlch we have alread7 alluded, is very ably defended ; and
Hie Swiss and the Spaniards were at this time regarded as the best soldiers in Europe. The Swiss battalion rnncietoa
men in deep formation, and bore a close resemblance to the Grecian phalanx. The Spaniards, like the soldiers of Rome/were^rmed
M A C H IA V E L L I.
780
Machia- his disgrace, prove that the principles of the author were
vclli. uniform and constant, and that his views and observations
v*^^^'had always a character of justness, depth, and gravity.
The Roman republic, in its constitution and its establish¬
ments, contained the germs of its greatness ; and the in¬
roads committed upon these were the causes of its decline.
Machiavelli followed this fatal progress beyond the history
of Livy ; he discerned and meditated on it in the Annals
and in the History of Tacitus. He there found not only
facts, but results; a manner and a style, which he adopted
as models. Tacitus became his master in the art of observ¬
ing, and also, in one sense, in the art of writing; what he
had acquired in the study of the former of these two great
historians he carried to the school of the latter ; and it
may be said that he learned from Tacitus to read and ex¬
plain Livy. After having laid the foundations of his work
on the history of Rome, Machiavelli employed himself in
following Livy step by step in the perusal of that history ;
stopping short at every thing which suggested a reflection,
or indicated the application of a principle. The text of the
historian disappears, or is but rarely cited; actions, insti¬
tutions, and laws, are alone discussed. The objects of com¬
parison, ancient as well as modern, spring up, so to speak,
every instant; luminous results are thence deduced ; and
an inexhaustible variety of facts continually supports the
evidence of the reasonings and the solidity of the maxims.
Throughout we discover a mind habituated to profound
meditations, and a firmness of soul tried and exercised by
the storms of liberty. See, for example, to what he re¬
duces, in his fourth chapter, all the noise made by the
quarrels between the senate and the Roman people, which
he does not hesitate to regard as the primary cause of the
liberty of Rome. Observe also, in his seventh chapter,
the strong reasons upon which he grounds the utility, or
rather the necessity, of public accusations; and with what
justness of discrimination he distinguishes, in his eighth
chapter, the effect of public accusations, preferred on pub¬
lic grounds, from those of adulation and calumny. In a
word, he reasons inductively from history as he finds it,
and deduces his conclusions, not from any appeal to gene¬
ral or speculative principles, but from the facts as these
are detailed in the pages of the historian. If he errs, it is
only because his experience, acquired in a peculiar state
of society, does not always enable him to calculate the ef¬
fect of institutions differing from those of which he had
observed the operation; but in regard to all that comes
within the sphere of his own observation or experience,
his sagacity is seldom at fault, and he may justly be con¬
sidered as the founder of that science which has been
somewhat vaguely denominated the philosophy of history.
The books Delle Historic Fiorentine, a work in which
he begins by describing the events which brought about
the destruction of the Roman empire, are altogether an
admirable composition, and entitle Machiavelli to a sepa¬
rate place amongst historians, seeing that the ancients Machia-
have not left any model on which he could form a particular
style. The first book displays the science and penetration
of the writer ; and it may be supposed that Bossuet was
filled with admiration of his free, bold, rapid, and indepen¬
dent manner, when he sketched the plan of his Discourse
on Universal History. The narrative in the seven other
books proceeds with the same vivacity; nor can the most
careless reader fail to receive from it a vivid and faithful
impression of the national character and manners of the
Florentines. This work was undoubtedly the last of the
author. He is believed to have completed it in 1525 ; and
it was his intention, we are told, to continue it, which is
rendered probable by the fragments collected after his
decease. The general character of Machiavelli’s style,
particularly in the History and in the Life of Castruccio,
is elegance and simplicity. He is always full of grace
without artifice, and of elegance without insipidity; he is
clear without being verbose, and concise without obscurity
or pretension to the mysterious; and such is the transpa¬
rency of the medium through which his ideas are convey¬
ed, that the actual depth of the current of thought is not
at first discernible.
Although the real merit of the Florentine secretary con¬
sists in his profound knowledge of the science of govern¬
ment, in which he has not been surpassed either amongst
the ancients or the moderns, yet he is also entitled to a dis¬
tinguished place amongst comic authors. His Mandragola,
which, according to Voltaire, surpasses all the comedies of
Aristophanes, is superior to the best of Goldoni, and infe¬
rior only to the best of Moliere ; in fact, it is the work of a
man who, if he had devoted himself to the drama, would
probably have attained the very highest excellence, and
produced a permanent and salutary impression upon the
national taste. By the correct and vigorous delineation of
human character, it produces interest without a skilful or
pleasing plot, and laughter without the least ambition or
affectation. Machiavelli had an exquisite sense of the ri¬
diculous, and his dramatic humour, which has often been
compared to that of Moliere, and certainly resembles it in
comic force, if not in benevolent gaiety and chastened
morality, seldom fails to prove effective. The Clizia is an
imitation of the Casina of Plautus, which is itself an imi¬
tation of the lost KXijgomisvo/of Diphilus. Machiavelli has
executed his task with judgment and taste, accommodat¬
ing the plot to a different state of society, and dexterous¬
ly connecting with it the history of his own times. Be¬
sides these, the Maschere, the Andria, and two other come¬
dies without titles, the one in prose and the other in verse,
appear amongst the works of Machiavelli. The charming
little novel of Belphegor is also pleasantly conceived and
wittily told; but the extravagance of the satire in some
measure injures its effect. Machiavelli was unhappily
married ; and his wish to avenge his own cause as well as
with the sword and the shield. But the victories gained by Flaminius and ^milius over the Macedonian kings seemed to prove
that the weapons used by the legions were superior to those of the phalanx. And the same experiment had been recently tried
with the same result at the battle of Ravenna, “ one of those tremendous days into which human folly and wickedness compress
the whole devastation of a famine or a plague.” In that dreadful conflict, the infantry of Aragon, deserted by their allies, hewed a
passage through the thickest of the imperial pikes, and effected an unbroken retreat, in the face of the gensdarmene of De Foix,
and die artillery of Este. Machiavelli, struck with these facts, proposes to combine both systems ; to arm the foremost lines with
the pike, for the purpose of repulsing cavalry, and those in the rear with the sword, as being a handy weapon, adapted to almost
every exigency. He expresses the highest admiration of the military science of the ancient Romans, and the greatest contempt
for the maxims in vogue amongst the Italian commanders of the preceding generation ; he prefers infantry to cavalry, and fortified
camps to fortified towns ; he recommends the substitution of rapid movements and decisive engagements for the languid and dila¬
tory operations of his countrymen ; and he attaches but little importance to the invention of gunpowder, which, he seems to think,
ought scarcely to produce any change in the mode of arming or disposing troops. The artillery of those days was ill constructed,
ill served, and consequently of little use in the field of battle; this arm was then in a rude inefficient state, and hence might in a
great measure be disregarded in a general system of tactics; but if Machiavelli could have foreseen the improvements wjjich
were destined to take place, particularly in point of mobility, he would have been convinced that a change both in the mo e o arow¬
ing and disposing troops would in consequence become necessary, and that the deep formations of ancient times durst no longer e
opposed to the ravages of shot, shells, grape, canister, and the other destructive missiles discharged by modern artillery.
M A C HIA V £ L LI.
Machia- that of Ins brethren in misfortune carried him beyond even
velll‘ the license of fiction.1
Machiavelli was also a poet, though, in this capacity, he
is not perhaps entitled to a very high place. The Decen-
nali are merely abstracts in verse of the history of his own
times. The style and versification are sedulously modelled
on those of Dante; but the manner of Dante, like that of
every other great original poet, was suited only to his own
genius and his own subject, and did not therefore admit
of being copied or imitated. The Assino d' Oro and the
Capitoli are also formed on the same model, and are in
every respect superior. rIhe Golden Ass indeed has nothing
but the name in common with the romance of Apuleius,
which, in spite of its irregular plan and vicious style, is
one of the most fascinating books in the Latin language,
combining the various merits of Le Sage and Radcliffe,
Bunyan and Crebillon. The poem of Machiavelli, which
is evidently unfinished, is copied from the earlier cantos of
the Inferno ; whole lines are transferred without acknow¬
ledgment, and all without producing their wonted effect;
the flowers of language which have bloomed upon one soil,
wither when transplanted to another. Yet the Assino d’Oro
is not altogether destitute of merit; the allegory displays
considerable ingenuity, and there is some vivid colouring in
the descriptions.
But, of all the works of Machiavelli, that which has excited
the greatest attention is the celebrated treatise entitled II
Principe. This production, in which the ferocious Borgia
is, according to the supposition of several writers, presented
as a model to sovereigns who wish to govern absolutely,
has acquired a deplorable reputation in Europe, and made
the author himself be regarded by many as an incarnation
of the evil principle.2 The first edition, known as that of
Antonio Blado d’Asola, appeared at Rome on the 4th of
January 1532, accompanied with a privilege of Pope Cle¬
ment VII. and dedicated to Philip Strozzi, the friend of
the author. Bayle speaks of an edition of 1515, which no
one has seen, there being, in all probability, a misprint in
the date. The Giunta reprinted the Prince the same year,
1532, and again in 1540. The sons of Aldus also publish¬
ed it at Venice in 1540; and Gabriel Giolito gave an
edition of it in lo50. It was successively translated into
German, Montbeliard, 1626 ; twice into Latin ; then into
French by Amelot de la Houssaye (Amsterdam, 1683, and
Hague 1743), and, lastly, by Giraudet in 1799, along
with the complete works of the author.
We know not of any work which has excited so much dis¬
cussion and controversy as this, or which has been so often
and so vehemently assailed. The intentions of the author
have been variously interpreted. Some, thinking they saw in
it a complete system of irreligion, impiety, and tyranny, have
cried out “Wolf, wolf ;”3 whilst others have demanded that,
according to the rules of just criticism, the work should be
judged of as a whole, not by detached or disfigured frag¬
ments, and that, above all, the disapprobation with which the
author always accompanies the exposition of the perverse
principles he has developed, should not be dissembled or
concealed. Voltaire, writing to the prince-royal of Prussia
(20th May 1738), observes : “ The first thing I am obliged
to advert to is the manner in which you think of Machiavel.
Why should you be moved with the virtuous displeasure
781
which you express against me because I have praised the Machia-
style of a bad man ? It is for the Borgias, father and son, velli.
and all those petty princes who require crimes to effectv
their elevation, to study this infernal policy. It belongs to
such a prince as you to detest it. This art, which may be
classed with that of the Locustes and the Brinvilliers, may
give to some tyrants a temporary sway, just as poison may
procure an inheritance; but most assuredly it has never
made men either great or happy. What, then, can any one
accomplish by pursuing this frightful policy ? Nothing but
misery to others, and also to himself. These are the truths
which should form the catechism of your exalted soul.” On
the 26th of June 1739, the prince replies to this flattering
homage in the true French style, by informing his corre¬
spondent that what he meditates against Machiavelism is
properly a continuation of the Henriade. “ It is out of the
noble sentiments of Henri IV.” says he, “ that I am forging
the thunderbolt which will crush Cesare Borgia.” On the
27th of December, Voltaire renders homage for homage.
“ We shall at length,” says he, “ have a book worthy of a
prince ; and I doubt not that an edition of Machiavel, with
this counter-poison at the end of each chapter, will be one of
the most precious monuments of literature.” “ The Anti-
Machiavel,” he adds, “ ought to become the catechism of
kings, and of their ministers.” The book which, in this
commerce of flattery, Voltaire denominates Anti-Machiavel,
is the Examen du Prince de Machiavel, by the prince-royal,
afterwards king of Prussia, who, in his preface, declares
that “ he always .looked upon the Prince as one of the most
dangerous works that ever was published,” though he after¬
wards lived long enough to find some of its maxims more
convenient and agreeable than he had at first anticipated.
It would be equally endless and impertinent to relate the
host of criticisms and apologies, of accusations and defences,
of which Machiavelli has been the object, in almost all the
languages of Europe. But we shall cite the authority of
a judge whom it will not be easy to refute; we mean that
of the Florentine secretary himself. Before finishing his
treatise of the Prince, he wrote to one of his friends, Fran¬
cisco Vettori, a letter, which discloses without any reserve
his real position and his motives, and thus puts an end to
all speculation upon the subject. This letter, found in the
Barberini library at Rome, was published for the first time
by Angelo Ridolfi, in a work entitled Pensieri intorno alio
scopo di Nicolo Machiavello nel libro II Principe, Mi¬
lan, 1810; and Ginguene has also cited it in his Histoire
Litteraire dItalic, though, for some reason, he has di¬
vided it into two parts, giving the one half in the text,
and the other half in a note. The first part contains details
which may perhaps be considered as ignoble, but which
nevertheless make known the peculiar cast of character, as
well as the patience, of the author; the second shows him
in all the dignity of his talent. We shall only cite the por¬
tion which has immediate reference to the subject before us.
“ On the approach of evening,” says he, continuing the
description of his habits and mode of life, “ I retire to my
dwelling, and enter my cabinet; at the door I divest my¬
self of my peasant’s garb, bedaubed with mud and dirt, put
on proper attire, and thus decently dressed I enter the an¬
cient courts of men of old. Being well received by them,
I fill myself with that nourishment which alone agrees with
' Th.e subject of this novelta piacevolissima cannot be better described than in the words of the argument prefixed • “ Befimor ar
cidiavolo e mandate, da Plutone in questo mondo, con obligo di dover prender moglie. Ci viene, la prende : e non notencKX
nre la supeibia di lei, ama megho retornarsi in Inferno, che ricongiugnersi seco.” Ben Jonson in the nlot of TAp ,•/ • a
appears to have taken some hints from this tale, with others from Boccacio. ’ P ^ “ a”
, .J °.U.t.ot hls surnamef’ says a writer in the Edinburgh Review (vol. xlv. p. 260), “ they coined an epithet for a knave and out nf
hu Christian name a sjnonjme for the devil.” For the latter potot, the wrfter has the authority of Hu“blaS pH ih cMohi
f Nick Machiavel had ne’er a trick, *
„ . ... ,. . ,, . . Though he gave his name to our Old Nick.
But on this subject the antiquarians, we believe, are by no means agreed.
3 See preface to the French edition of 181-3.
782 MACHIAVELLI.
Machia- me, and for which I was born ; nor do I hesitate to con-
velli. verse with them, and to inquire the motives of their actions;
 v 'whilst they, on the other hand, being full of humanity, re¬
ply to my inquiries. For four hours I experience no wea¬
riness ; I forget all sorrow; I have no dread of poverty, and
death no longer alarms me ; I transport myself entirely to
them; and, as Dante says that there will never be science
unless we retain what we have learned, I have noted down
the substance of my conversation with them, and composed
a work, De Principatibus, in which I enter as deeply as I
can into this subject, with a view to fathom it. I examine
what a principality is ; how many kinds there are of them;
how they are acquired, how maintained, how lost; and if
ever any trifle (ghiribizzo) of mine gave you pleasure, this
should not displease you. It should also be acceptable to
a prince, more especially to a new one; wherefore I ad¬
dress it to the magnificent Julius.1 Philip Casavecchia has
seen my treatise, and can inform you in detail of the sub¬
ject itself, and the arguments I have had with him ; and as
to myself, I am now occupied in extending and correcting it.
You wish that I should abandon my actual mode of life,
and go to enjoy yours; I will do so gladly; but I am pre¬
vented at present by some affairs which will be settled in
about six weeks. The only thing which makes me hesitate
is, that, near these Soderini, I shall be obliged, on my ar¬
rival, to visit and to speak with them. I am also apprehen¬
sive that, upon my return, instead of stopping at my own
house, they would make me alight at the barigel (prison);
for although this state stands on solid foundations, and enjoys
great security, still it is new, and consequently suspicious ;
nor are there wanting meddling intriguers (saccenti), who,
like Paul Bertini, would run up a long score, and leave me
to pay the reckoning. I beseech you to save me from this
danger, and I will by all means come to you at the time I
have mentioned. I have been talking with Philip about my
little work (the Prince), and I have asked him whether it
would be proper to give it to the world or not, and, in the
event of its being expedient to do so, whether I should
bring it myself or send it to you. Were it not published, it
is doubtful whether it would ever be read by Julius, and Ar-
dinghelli2 would reap the honour of this the last of my works.
The necessity which pursues me, hoivever, urges me to give it,
because I am wasting away, and cannot long remain thus
without becoming contemptible through poverty. My wish is,
that these Medici would begin to employ me, were it only at
Hrst to roll a stone. If I did not then gain their good
will, I would have myself only to blame; and by this pro¬
duction, if it be read, people will see that, during the fif¬
teen years I passed in studying the art of government, I
have not been a careless or inattentive observer; besides,
every one should be eager to employ a man who has ac¬
quired experience at the expense of others. Of my fidelity
no doubt can reasonably be entertained, because, having
always acted with good faith, I am not likely now to sacri¬
fice my character. He who has been faithful and good
forty-three years, which is my present age, cannot change
his nature. My indigence sufficiently attests my fidelity and
uprightness^
This letter requires no explanation or commentary. In
it Machiavelli lays bare his whole soul, disclosing without
reserve his vexation, his dread of misery, the shame with
which he regarded the almost disgusting situation to which
he had been reduced, and his desire at any sacrifice to be 1 Machia-
again employed in public affairs ; nor will the attentive ob-v yeUi-
server, who reads it with care, fail to discover in it a key to
the treatise of the Principe. Indeed the Italian writers no
longer judge of that work without referring to the letter
addressed to Vettori.3 It has been said that Machiavelli,
despairing of the liberty of Florence, was inclined to sup¬
port any government which might secure its independence.
But this is a refinement wholly unsupported by evidence.
The motive which impelled him to the composition of the
work was actual indigence, and the prospect of still great¬
er misery ; the object which he sought to attain by it was
immediate employment under the new masters of Florence,
were it only in the first instance to roll a stone. None of
the designs which have been so freely imagined, and so
confidently ascribed to the fallen secretary, seems ever to
have entered his mind. He wanted bread, and thinking
that his book, containing the results of his experience and
observation, would be acceptable to a prince, especially
a new one, he tenders it through Yettori, in the hope that
it might be instrumental in saving him from that destitu¬
tion, the prospect of which he contemplated with so much
horror. It is also to be observed that the book, when
first published, did not appear to the Italians in the light
in which it was afterwards regarded. This is sufficiently
evident from the fact that it was printed in virtue of a pri¬
vilege granted by Pope Clement VII., dated the 23d of
August 1531. Italy was then abandoned to such disorders,
that some sovereigns hoped to find useful counsels, where,
in point of sound morality, they could meet with nothing
but odious precepts. At the same time, if we separate
the author from his work, it may be observed, that Machia-
vellt could not know that his work would ever be publish¬
ed. He composed it in the form of a memoir to Lorenzo
de Medici; and in his dedication to that young prince, he
tells him that he has nothing to offer him but the know¬
ledge of the actions of great men, which he had acquir¬
ed by long experience in modern affairs; and at the close
he adds, “ If your magnificence, from the elevated station
you occupy, would deign to cast an eye on this lower re¬
gion, you would learn how unjustly I suffer under the great
and continual malignity of fortune.”4
With regard to the general character of Machiavelli as
a writer, and also to the particular question, whether the
treatise of \hePrince was a serious production, or, as Bacon
seems to suggest,5 merely a piece of grave irony, intended
to put nations on their guard against the arts of new and
ambitious princes, we refer the reader to the judicious and
discriminating remarks upon both points, contained in the
First Preliminary Dissertation (pp. 32-37). The Prince is
an account of the means by which tyrannical power is to be
acquired and preserved; it is a theory of that class of phe¬
nomena in the history of mankind. Hence it is essential
to its purpose that it should contain an enumeration and
exposition of tyrannical arts ; and on this account it may
not only be viewed, but used, as a manual of such arts. A
philosophical treatise on poisons would, in like manner,
determine the quantity of each poisonous substance ca¬
pable of producing death, the circumstances favourable or
adverse to its operation, and every other information es¬
sential to the purpose of the poisoner, though not intended
for his use. But the general utility of such a work is,
1 In point of fact, it is dedicated to the young Lorenzo de’ Medici, duke of Urbino, and brother-in-law of Strozzi. .
1 Nicolas Ardinghelli, distinguished for his acquirements in Greek and lioman literature, died a cardinal at Home in 1547-^
* On this question, and on other important points relative to Machiavelli, the reader may consult the excellent dissertation of
the Chevalier Baldelli. . , :, v
4 Et se vostra Magnificenza dallo apice della sua Altezza, qualche volta volgerlt gh occhi in questi luoghi bassi, conoscera quanto
indegnamente io sopporti una grande e continua malignitd di Fortuna.”
* “ Est quod gratias agamus Machiavello et hujusmodi scriptoribus, qui aperte et indissimulanter proferunt quid homines facen?
soleant, non quid debeant.” {Dz Augment. Scient. lib. viii. c. 2.)
Afachin
lleth.
mac
Machine nevertheless, indisputable; and it is also plain, that a
calm unvarnished exposition of tyrannical arts is the bit¬
terest satire against them. Of this Machiavelli himself
seems to have been fully aware, when he observed, in re-
p. y had been made upon this very work,
that if he had taught princes to be tyrants, he had also
taught the people to destroy tyrants. The Prince must,
therefore, have had the double aspect here pointed out,
\i°Uu ne-U l<;r ^le °hjects thereby indicated had actu¬
ally been in the contemplation of the author. It may not
be Hie object of the chemist to teach the means of exhi-
itmg antidotes, any more than of administering poisons ;
but his pupils or readers may employ his discoveries for
ot i objects. Aristotle had long before given a similar
theory of tyranny, but without the suspicion of an immoral
intention ; nor was it any novelty, in more recent times,
amongst those who must have been the first teachers of
Machiavelli. The schoolmen followed the footsteps of
Aristotle too closely to omit so striking a passage as that
to which we have alluded (Politic, lib. v. c. 3); and, in
tact, Aquinas explains it in his commentary, like the rest,
with most unsuspecting simplicity. To us, accordingly,
tie plan of Machiavelli, like those of former writers, ap¬
pears to have been purely scientific; and so Lord Bacon
seems to have understood him, where he gives him thanks
tor exposing openly, and without reserve, what princes ac¬
tually do, not what they ought to do. Great defects of cha-
racter are no doubt manifested by the writings of Machia-
velh. But if a man of so powerful a genius had shown a
mindutterlydepraved, it would have been a painful and per¬
haps solitary exception to the laws of human nature ; and
certainly no depravity can be conceived greater than a deli¬
berate intention to teach perfidy and cruelty. That a man
who was a warm lover of his country, who underwent cruel
sufferings for her liberty, and who was esteemed by the
very best of his countrymen (e. g. Guicciardini, his political
opponent), should fall into such unparalleled wickedness,
may be considered as wholly incredible. The author of
the Prince, according to the common notion of its inten¬
tion, could never have inspired such sentiments, had he
been a man steeped in depravity, and devoid of all virtu¬
ous feeling. To possess the power, however, of contem¬
plating tyranny with scientific coldness, and of rendering it
the mere subject of theoretical speculation, must be owned
to indicate a defect of moral sensibility. But, to say no¬
thing of the political maxims then received, and of the
lenity with which the Italians regarded those crimes which
required self-command, address, quick observation, fertile
invention, and profound knowledge of human nature, the
Prince was obviously wrung from the author by the pres-
sureof severe distress; and it is more than probable, that,
but for his misfortunes, this famous treatise would never
have seen the light.1
The most ample and esteemed edition of the works of
MachiaveHi is that of 1813, Italia (Florence), in eight
vols. 8vo. The best of the French translations is thaf of
Guiraudet and Hochet, Paris, 1799, in 9 vols. 8vo. Those
of Gohorry, Paris, 1571 and 1635, of the Sieur de Brien-
cour, Rouen (Paris), 1664, and of Tetard, Hague, 1691-
1696? reprinted in 1743, were very incomplete. Of the
English translations of Machiavelli, there is one by Fame-
worth 2 vols. 4to, London, 1762; and another, entitled
THe History of Florence, and of the Affairs of Italy, from
the earliest Times to the Death of Lorenzo the Magnificent;
together with “ The Prince,” and various Historic! Tmnto
MAC
783
together with “ The Prince” and various ^Historical ^Tracts,
London, 1 vol. 8vo, 1847. rT r—p'i
MACHINE. See Mechanics. '
MACHINLLETH, a parliamentary borough and mar-
ket-town of Wales, Montgomeryshire, near the confluence Mackenzie.
2 16 -hmtas and Dovey, 35 miles W. from Montgomery. ^<
t stands in a pleasant valley, and consists of well built and
spacious streets. Ihe chief edifices are the town-hall,
mltin 1(83, and used also as a market-house; and the
c mrch, a plain but tasteful building, with an embattled
tower. An old house situate here constituted the senate-
lilno 'T the,1lords and commons of Wales assembled in
02 at the call of Owen Glyndwr, whom they acknow¬
ledged and crowned Prince of Wales. The manufactures
i I?6 t0Tn are ummP01'tant, comprising chiefly wool and
leather; but a brisk trade is carried on in the produce
o the county. Machinlleth is supposed to have been the
iviaglona ot the Romans—a military station, erected to over¬
awe the mountaineers. Some Roman remains are found
W i-f VT;t?’ M^hinlleth combines with Newtown,
Welshpool, Llanidloes, Montgomery, and Llanfyllin, in re¬
turning a member to parliament. Market-day, Wednes¬
day. Pop. (1851) 1673. ^
MACKENZIE, Sir Alexander, a well-known navi¬
gator, was a native of Scotland, and emigrated to Canada
at an early age. _ After being engaged for some years at
1 ort Chipewyan in the north-west fur trade, he formed
the project of reaching, by an overland route, the coast of
the Northern Polar Ocean. Starting from Chipewyan on
the 3d of June 1789, with a company, in four canoes, he
sailed down the Slave River to its outlet in the Slave
Lake. He then coasted along the lake, and reachino- its
western extremity, entered the river which afterv/ards re¬
ceived his name. Following the stream in its N.W.
course, he issued forth into the Great Frozen Ocean on
tie loth of July, and had thus achieved an important
discovery. Mackenzie returned by the same route, and
readied Chipewyan after an absence of more than a hundred
tvt more ai'duous adventure was his overland journey
to the North Pacific. He set out in October 1792, sailed
lor a considerable distance up Peace River, and after
braving numerous hardships and dangers, reached his des¬
tination in July 1793. He followed the same track on
ins return. . Mackenzie afterwards repaired to England, and
published his Voyages through North America to the Frozen
and Pacific Oceans in 1789 and 1793, 4to, London, 1801.
In 1802 his successful enterprises were rewarded by the
honour of knighthood. He died in 1820.
Mackenzie, Sir George, a learned writer and eminent
lawyer of Scotland, was the grandson of Kenneth, first
Lord Mackenzie of Kin tail, and the nephew of Colin and
George, first and second Earls of Seaforth. He was born
at Dundee in 1636; and after passing through the usual
course of education in his own country, he was sent to the
university of Bourges, at that time denominated the Athens
of lawyers, where he remained three years. Young Scotch¬
men intended for the bar, having no sufficient means of
instruction in the Roman law at home, were then accus¬
tomed to frequent the university of Bourges, as in later
times they repaired to those of Utrecht and Leyden. He
was called to the bar in the year 1656, and had risen into
considerable practice before the Restoration. Immediately
after the Restoration he was appointed one of the justices-
depute,—criminal judges who exercised that jurisdiction
which was soon afterwards vested in five lords of sessions,
under the denomination of commissioners of justiciary; and*
in 1661, he and his colleagues were ordained by the parlia-
f,° repair’ once in the vveek at least, to Musselburgh
and Dalkeith, and to try and judge such persons as are ther
or therabouts delate of witchcraft.”
. Mackenzie s name appears in the parliamentary proceed¬
ings as counsel in almost every cause of importance; and
1 See Edinburgh Review, vol. xxvii., pp. 213, 214.
784
MACKENZIE.
Mackenzie-his connection in that character with the Marquis of
Argyll gives no small weight to a passage in his Memoirs
respecting a circumstance in the trial of that nobleman,
which has been the subject of much historical controversy.
Between the years 1663 and 1667 he was knighted. He
represented the county of Ross during the four sessions ot
the parliament which was called in 1669. In 1667 he had
been appointed lord-advocate in the room of Sir John
Nisbet. By that preferment he was, unhappily for his cha¬
racter, implicated in all the worst acts ot the Scotch a
ministration of Charles II. Having betrayed some repug¬
nance, however, to concur in those measures which openly
and directly led to the re-establishment of Popery, he was
removed from his office in 1686, and (which is not a little
remarkable) reinstated in 1688, when such measures were
still more avowedly pursued.
At the Revolution he adhered to the fortunes ot his
royal master. Being elected a member of the convention,
he supported the pretensions of King James with courage
and ability. King William had been solicited by some
eager partisans to declare Mackenzie and a few others
incapable of holding any public office; but he refused to
accede to the proposal. At this critical juncture Sir George
Mackenzie composed and delivered his inaugural address on
the foundation of the library of the Faculty ot Advocates,
which he had been mainly instrumental in establishing; a
circumstance evincing no inconsiderable degree ot firmness,
and intrepidity. When the death of Dundee destroyed the
hopes of his party in Scotland, he took refuge in Oxford,
the natural asylum of so learned and inveterate a lory.
But, under the tolerant government of King William, he
appears to have enjoyed, in perfect security, his ample for¬
tune, the fruit of his professional labours.
In the spring of 1691, Sir George Mackenzie went to
London, where he contracted a disorder w^ch earned him
off. He died in St James’s Street, on the 2d of May 1691;
and his death is mentioned as that of an extraordinary per¬
son bv several of those who recorded the events of their
time. * His body was conveyed by land to Scotland, ana
interred with great pomp and splendour in the Greytriars
churchyard, Edinburgh; a circumstance which shows how
little the administration of William was disposed to dis¬
courage the funereal honours paid to its most inflexible
^ The writings of Sir George Mackenzie are literary, legal,
and political. His Miscellaneous Essays, both in prose and
verse, considered as the elegant amusements of a statesman
and lawyer, afford evidence of the refinement of his taste
and the variety of his accomplishments. In several of his
moral essays, both the subject and the manner betray an
imitation of Cowley; and we find Evelyn and Dryden
speaking highly of his merits as a writer. i • tit *
His work, On the Laws and Customs of Scotland in Mat¬
ters Criminal, published in 1678, and dedicated to the Duke
of Lauderdale, is an ingenious and plausible production.
The works of Sir George Mackenzie were published at
Edinburgh in two volumes folio, in 1716 and 1122. A
History of the Affairs of Scotland from the Restoration of
King Charles 11. 1660, to the [year] 1691, was published
at Edinburgh in 1821, 4to, under the editorial superintend¬
ence of Mr Thomas Thomson, who, in an able preface,
related the singular circumstances in which the manuscript
was rescued from destruction. It is to be regiette , ow
ever, that the portion thus published ends at the very time
when the author’s means of information became more
ample. For many reasons, it would be highly desirab e to
possess the sequel of these Memoirs. (See Edinburg
Review, xxxvi* 1.)
Mackenzie, Henry, was born at Edinburgh, in August
1745. His father, Dr Joshua Mackenzie, was an eminent
physician in that city, the author of a volume of Medical
and Literary Essays ; his mother was the eldest daughter o ac enzie.
Rose of Kilravock, an ancient family in Nairnshire.. “v-*"
After being educated at the High School and University
of Edinburgh, Mr Mackenzie entered upon the study of
exchequer business. In 1765 he went to London to study
the modes of English exchequer practice. Whilst there,
his talents induced a friend to solicit his remaining in Lon¬
don to qualify himself for the English bar; but the wishes
of his family, and the moderation of his own unambitious
mind, decided his return to Edinburgh, where he ulti¬
mately became attorney for the crown. When in London
he sketched some part of his first and very popular work,
The Man of Feeling, which was published anonymously in
1771. The great popularity of this volume gave occasion
to a remarkable fraud on the part of a Mr Eccles of Bath,
who, taking advantage of the book being anonymous, laid
claim to the authorship, transcribed the whole in his own
hand, with interlineations and corrections, and maintained
his right with such plausible pertinacity, that Messrs Ladell
and Strahan, Mr Mackenzie’s publishers, found it neces¬
sary to undeceive the public by a formal conti adiction.
The Man of the World was published a few years alter
The Man of Feeling, and breathes the same tone of exqui¬
site sensibility. In his first publication he imagined a hero
constantly obedient to every emotion of his moral sense.
In The Man of the World he exhibited, on the contrary, a
person rushing headlong into vice and ruin, and spreading
misery all around him, by grasping at happiness m defiance
of the moral sense. His next production was Julia de
Roubigne, a novel in a series of letters. The fable is very
interesting, and the letters are written with great elegance
and propriety of style. In 1777 or 1778, a society of gen¬
tlemen in Edinburgh, mostly lawyers, projected the publi¬
cation of a series of papers on morals, manners, taste, and
literature, similar to those of the Spectator. Their scheme
was speedily carried into effect, and the papers, under the
title of the Mirror, of which Mr Mackenzie was the editor,
were published in weekly numbers. The whole with the
names of the respective authors, were afterwards repub¬
lished in three duodecimo volumes. 1 o the Mirror suc¬
ceeded the Lounger, a periodical of a similar character,
and equally successful. Mr Mackenzie was the most
valuable contributor to both these works. He contributed
forty-two papers to the Mirror, and fifty-seven to the
Lounger. They are distinguished from all the rest by that
sweetness and beauty of style, and tenderness of feeling,
which form the peculiar character of his writings. In the
Lounger Mr Mackenzie was the first to appreciate the
crenius of Burns, in a review of his poems, then recently
published, which at once drew the unknown poet from ob¬
scurity into the full blaze of a fame that will never the.
On the institution of the Royal Society of Edinburgh Mr
Mackenzie became one of its members ; and enriched he
volumes of its Transactions with an elegant tribute to the
memorv of his friend Judge Abercrombie and a memoir
on German tragedy, the latter of which bestows high
praise on the Emilia Galotti of Lessing, and on ^ Robbers
bv Schiller. He also published in 1791, a small volume
containing translations of the Set of Horses by Lessing,
and of two or three other dramatic pieces. In the Jrans-
actions of the Highland Society he wrote an account of the
origin and proceedings of that association, and published a
view of the controversy respecting the poems ot Ossian in
which he attempted to vindicate their authenticity; and in
the same paper gave a spirited and interesting account of
Gaelic poetry. In 1793 he wrote the Life of Dr Black-
lock prefixed to the quarto edition of the works of the blina
poet; and in 1812 he read to the Royal Society a memoir
of John Home, author of Douglas, in which he gives a
sketch of the literary society of Edinburgh during the latter
part of the last century.
Mackin¬
tosh.
MAC
Mackenzie Mr Mackenzie was not so fortunate as a writer of dramas.
Kiver Several of his plays were brought out at different theatres,
but, though possessed of considerable merit as literary pro-
ductions, they were not successful on the stage. He wrote
several political tracts in the Tory interest, which procured
him the countenance and respect of Mr Pitt and other
illustrious statesmen of his time, and led to his being ap¬
pointed, in 1804, comptroller of taxes for Scotland. He
died at Edinburgh on the 14th of January 1831, in the
eighty-sixth year of his age.
A complete edition of his works was published at Edin¬
burgh, in eight volumes 8vo, in 1808.
MACKENZIE RIVER, a large river of British North
America, N.W. territory, rises in the Great Slave Lake, flows
m a N.W. direction, and falls into the Arctic Ocean by
numerous mouths, after a course of about 900 miles. It
is generally about 3 miles in width, and the delta at its
mouth, formed by flat alluvial islands, is 90 miles in length,
by from 15 to 40 in width. The principal affluents are,—the
Mountain and Peel Rivers, and the Great Bear Lake River,
which brings down the surplus waters of that lake. Mac¬
kenzie River is named after Alexander Mackenzie, by whom
it was discovered and navigated in 1789.
MACKINTOSH, The Right Honourable Sir James,
one of the most distinguished men of his time, and who
attained to great eminence in literature, philosophy, his¬
tory, and politics, wtis born at Aldourie, on the banks of
Loch Ness, Scotland, on the 24th of October 1765. His
father, Captain John Mackintosh, was the representative
of a family which had for above two centuries possessed a
small estate called Kellachie, in Inverness-shire. He had
served long in the army, which he entered very youn<r,
and had been severely wounded at the battle of Felin<rl
hausen, in the Seven Years’ War. His mother was Mar¬
jory Macgillivray, daughter of Mr Alexander Macgillivray
by Anne hraser, sister of Brigadier-General Fraser, who
was killed in General Burgoyne’s army in 1777.
In the summer of 1775 young Mackintosh was sent to
school at the town of Fortrose ; and he had scarcely learned
to read when he evinced that predilection for abstract spe¬
culation which afterwards formed so prominent a feature of
his intellectual character. A gentleman having lent him
Burnet’s Commentary on the Thirty-nine Articles, he per¬
used it with great avidity; and the part which struck him
most forcibly, and which he read with peculiar eagerness
and pleasure, was the commentary on the seventeenth
article, which relates to predestination; a strange subject
to engage the attention and interest the understanding of
a mere boy. His mind appears to have revolted at°the
doctrine of eternal decrees of election and reprobation;
though surrounded by orthodox Calvinists, he became a
warm advocate for free will; and before he had completed
ms fourteenth year, he was probably the boldest heretic
in the county. About the same time he read the old
translation of Plutarch’s Lives, Echard’s Roman History,
and the works of Pope and Swift. His first poetical at¬
tempt was a pastoral, or elegy, on the death of his uncle.
Brigadier-General Fraser, who fell on the 7th of October
* rn anC^ *n an^ 1780 his muse was exceedingly
prolific, and he even commenced an epic poem on the de¬
fence of Cyprus by Evagoras, King of Salamis, against the
Persian army.
In October 1780 he entered King’s College, Aberdeen,
w ere he remained during that and the three following ses¬
sions. At Aberdeen he was by common consent recognised
* inter studiosos facile princeps; whilst his courteous de¬
meanour, refined manners, playful fancy, and easy flow of
elocution, rendered him a general favourite amongst his
companions. His chief associate at King’s College was the
ate Reverend Robert Hall, whom the exclusive system of
the English universities had forced to seek in this northern
VOL. XIII.
MAC
seminary for that academical education which was denied
to him, as a Dissenter, in his own country. Like Castor
and Pollux, these young men were assimilated in the
minds of all who knew them by reason of the equal splen-
our o their talents, although in other respects they were
extremely unlike.
In the spring of 1784, having previously taken his degree
of Master of Arts, he finally quitted King’s College, “ with,”
he says, but little regular and exact knowledge, but with
considerable activity of mind, and boundless literary ambi¬
tion ; and in the October following he set out for Edin¬
burgh to commence the study of physic, which he had made
choice of as a profession. His arrival in that city opened
a new world to his mind. Edinburgh was then the resi¬
dence of many eminent men ; of Adam Smith, Dr Black,
John Home, Henry Mackenzie, Dr Cullen, Principal Ro¬
bertson, Dr Ferguson, Dr Hutton, Professor Robison, Mr
Dugald Stewart, and others. He was admitted a member
of the Speculative Society, which had been established
about twenty years before, and which had general literature
and science for its objects. In this exciting atmosphere,
speculation rather than study engrossed his attention. Spe¬
culators, indeed, are seldom submissive learners. Those
who will make proficiency in useful knowledge, must for a
time trust to their teachers, and believe in their superiority;
but those who too early think for themselves must some¬
times imagine themselves wiser than their masters; and
lienee docility is often extinguished when the work of edu¬
cation is scarcely commenced. After three years spent in
Edinburgh, he obtained the degree of M.D. in 1787; and
eaily in 1 <88 he set out for London. His views were, in
the first instance, directed to the medical profession ; and he
was led from circumstances to contemplate a medical ap¬
pointment in Russia. But this project, in which he wras sup¬
ported by Mr Dugald Stewart, did not take effect; and it is
probable that he felt but little regret at the failure of a
scheme which would have removed him from such a scene
of interest and enjoyment as London then presented. On
the 18th of February 1789 he was privately married to
Miss Catharine Stuart, a young lady of a respectable Scotch
amily; and at the age of twenty-four he found himself
with no prospect of any immediate professional settlement,
his little fortune rapidly diminishing, and a wife to pro¬
vide for. r
The struggle regarding the regency that followed the
announcement of the malady with which the king had been
attacked in the autumn of 1788, was the occasion of a
pamphlet by Mr Mackintosh, in support of the analogy
which Mr Fox endeavoured to establish between the actual
state of his majesty and a natural demise of the crown.
This seems to have been his first public appearance in the
field of politics, for which his mind had now taken a de¬
cided turn. About the same time he made the acquaint¬
ance of Horne 1 ooke, whose cause he warmly espoused at
the election for Westminster. In the autumn of 1789 he
made a tour, in company with his wife, through the Low
Countries to Brussels; and, upon his return to London
contributed a number of articles on Belgium and France
to the Oracle newspaper, with which he appears to have
been for some time connected. To the same date must be
referred his resolution to devote himself to the study of the
law. Hitherto the exercise of his powers had been almost
exclusively confined to the columns of a newspaper; but
although the most successful efforts of ability are often
passed unheeded, or make but a feeble and transitory im¬
pression where such are neither looked for nor expected
yet this preliminary training was not without its advantage’
and the time now approached when he was to appear be¬
fore the world in a higher and more independent character.
u P^duced by the publica¬
tion of Mr Burke s Reflections on the French Revolution, the
5 G
785
Mackin¬
tosh.
786 M A C K I
Mackin- admiration excited by the work in some quarters, and the
tosh. vehement indignation with which it was greeted in others,
are matters of universal notoriety. By some it was regarded
as the most marvellous union of wisdom and genius that
had ever appeared in the world, whilst to others it seemed
inconsistent with the former life and opinions of the author,
notwithstanding that an abhorrence for abstract politics, a
predilection for aristocracy, and a dread of innovation, had
always been articles of his political creed. A multitude of
pamphlets appeared in opposition to it, and each shade of
opinion was warmly defended against the common enemy of
all change. The great majority of these productions, how¬
ever, with the exception of Paine’s Eights of Man, soon fell
into oblivion. But whilst Mr Burke was sustaining the attack
of the man who had been his fellow-combatant in the Ame¬
rican contest for freedom, “ a bolt was shot from amongst
the undistinguished crowd, but with a force which showed
the vigour of no common arm.” The VindicicB Gallicce was
published in April 1791. It had been finished in a great
hurry, but, with all its imperfections and defects, it at once
placed the author in the first rank of the party in this country
who were upholding the cause of France. He was courted
and caressed on all hands, his company was eagerly sought
for, and, as he himself expressed it, he was for a few months
the lion of the place.
In Michaelmas term 1795, Mr Mackintosh was called to
the bar, and attached himself to the home circuit. Having
thus entered upon a path which, when pursued by the pa¬
tient steps of genius and industry, so often leads to wealth
and distinction, he evidently enjoyed the satisfaction which
arises from having in view a constant and honourable occu-
pation. But a severe affliction awaited him in the death of
his wife, which took place early in 1797. In 1799 Mr
Mackintosh formed the plan of giving lectures upon the
Law of Nature and of Nations. The benchers of Lincoln’s
Inn granted him the use of their hall, and he commenced
his course by an exposition of the general aim and scope
of the undertaking, as well as ot the views and feelings
which had led him to embark in it. This discourse, which
the lecturer was induced to publish, had no sooner issued
from the press than commendations poured in upon him
from every quarter. Mr Pitt, Lord Loughborough, Dr Parr,
and others, united their suffrages in its praise; and it must
be confessed that if Mackintosh had published nothing else
than this discourse, he would have left a striking monument
of his intellectual strength and symmetry. His political
opinions, indeed, had undergone a considerable change;
and as the tone of these lectures differed materially from
that of the Vindicice Gallicce, and of the Letter to Mr Pitt,
this circumstance, together with the support ostentatiously
given to them by the ministers of the day and their con¬
nections, served to alienate from him several of his old
political friends, and to beget suspicions for which there
existed no solid foundation.
We come now to an event of great importance in the life
of Mr Mackintosh; we mean the trial of M. Peltier, an
emigrant royalist, for a libel on the First Consul of France.
The address delivered by Mr Mackintosh, as counsel for
the accused, formed one of the most splendid displays of
eloquence ever exhibited in a court of justice, and it will,
beyond all doubt, maintain its place amongst the few efforts
of forensic oratory which have survived the occasions that
produced them, and are preserved as models for future
artists in the same line. “ I perfectly approve of the ver¬
dict,” said Mr, afterwards Lord Erskine ; “ but the manner
in which you opposed it, I shall always consider as one of
the most splendid monuments of genius, learning, and elo¬
quence.” This trial took place on the 21st February 1803,
and some months afterwards, Mr Mackintosh was appointed
to the office of recorder of Bombay, vacant by the death of
Sir William Syer. Upon his appointment, he received the
N T O S H.
customary honour of knighthood, and, early in 1804, sailed Mackin-
with his family for India. His time there appears to have tosl1-
been divided between the discharge of his official duties,
literary occupations somewhat irregularly pursued, corre¬
spondence with his numerous friends in Europe, and occa¬
sional excursions into different parts of the country. The
experiment, however, was not successful, in as far as re¬
garded the views which had induced him to solicit the ap¬
pointment. For although we now know that his mind was
in a state of great vigour and activity during the whole of
his residence in India, yet he was not enabled to accom¬
plish, indeed scarcely to commence, any of the great works
he had contemplated; whilst his habitual inattention to
economy prevented any great improvement in the state of
his worldly affairs. The consequence was, that he returned
to England in 1812, with broken health and spirits, uncer¬
tain prospects, and vast materials for works which were never
to be completed.
Mr Percival, now at the head of the government, offered
him a seat in parliament, and an early promotion to the head
of the Board of Control. These tempting offers, however,
he declined. But he was almost immediately returned on
the Whig interest, as member for the county of Nairn.
After this his life scarcely admits of any detailed abstract.
He continued in parliament, and ‘true to liberal principles
for the remainder of his days. In 1818 he was appointed
professor of law at Hayleybury, and resigned that situation
in 1827. He contributed articles of great value to the
Edinburgh Review; and in a “Preliminary Discourse”
to the present work, being the second in order, furnished
a very able history of ethical philosophy, which has been
printed separately in 8vo, with a preface by Professor
Whewell of Cambridge. After printing several volumes
of a popular and abridged History of England, which con¬
tains more thought and more lessons of wisdom than any
other history with which we are acquainted, he left at his
death the invaluable fragment of the History of the Re¬
volution of 1688, of which a very masterly account will
be found in Mr Macaulay’s Grit, and Hist. Essays, 1852,
p. 305. Under Lord Grey’s administration, in 1830, he
was appointed to a seat at the Board of Control, and cor¬
dially co-operated in all the great measures of reform which
were then brought forward and carried after a severe
struggle. He died in 1832, regretted wdth more sincerity,
and admired with less envy, than any man of his age. In
him, perhaps more than in any man of his time, was exem¬
plified that mitis sapientia, which formed the distinguishing
attribute of the illustrious friend of Cicero, and which wins
its way into the heart, whilst it at once enlightens and satis¬
fies the understanding.
With regard to the intellectual character of Sir James
Mackintosh, we cannot do better than quote the words in
which the able writer who reviewed the Memoirs of his
Life, by his son, in that journal to which he was so valuable
a contributor, has described, or rather portrayed it: His
intellectual character cannot be unknown to any one ac¬
quainted with his works, or who has even read many pages
of the memoirs now before us; and it is needless, therefore,
to speak here of his great knowledge, the singular union of
ingenuity and soundness in his speculations his perfect
candour and temper in discussion—the pure and lofty
morality to which he strove to elevate the minds of others,
and in his own conduct to conform,—or the wise and humane
allowance which he was ready, in every case but his own,
to make for the infirmities which must always draw down
so many from the higher paths of their duty. These
merits, we believe, will no longer be denied by any who
have heard of his name or looked at his writings. But
there were other traits of his intellect which could only be
known to those who were of his acquaintance, and which
it is still desirable that the readers of these memoirs should
MAC
lacklin bear in mind. One of these was that ready and prodigious
Macknight. mern0r^,i^>^ w^‘ch a'l that he learned seemed to be at once
^ ir- -^ / engraved on the proper compartment of his mind, and to
present itself at the moment it was required; another, still
more remarkable, was the singular maturity and complete¬
ness of all his views and opinions, even upon the most ab-
stmse and complicated questions, though raised, without
design or preparation, in the casual course of conversation.
In this way it happened that the sentiments he delivered
had generally the air of recollections—and that few of those
with whom he most associated in mature life could recol¬
lect of ever catching him in the act of making up his mind
in the course of the discussions in which it was his delight
to engage them. His conclusions, and the grounds of them,
seemed always to have been previously considered and
digested; and though he willingly developed his reasons,
to secure the assent of his hearers, he uniformly seemed to
have been perfectly ready, before the cause was called on,
to have delivered the opinion of the court, with a full sum¬
mary of the arguments and evidences on both sides. In
the work before us, we have more peeps into the prepara¬
tory deliberations of his great intellect—that scrupulous
estimate of the grounds of decision, and that jealous ques¬
tioning of first impressions, which necessarily precede the
formation of all firm and wise opinions,—than could pro¬
bably be collected from the recollections of all those who
had most familiar access to him in society. It was owing,
perhaps, to this vigour and rapidity of intellectual digestio^i
that, though all his life a great talker, there never was a
man that talked half so much, who said so little that was
either foolish or frivolous; nor any one perhaps who knew
so well how to give as much liveliness and poignancy to
the most just and even profound observations as others
could ever impart to startling extravagance and ludicrous
exaggeration. The vast extent of his information, and the
natural gaiety of his temper, made him independent of such
devices for producing effect, and, joined to the inherent
kindness and gentleness of his disposition, made his con¬
versation at once the most instructive and the most gene¬
rally pleasing that could be imagined.” (j. B—e.)
MACKLIN, Charles, an eminent actor and dramatic
wTiter, was born in the county of West Meath, Ireland,
about 1690. He was apprenticed to a saddler at the age
of fourteen, but not relishing that occupation, he ran away,
and after some adventures in England, became badgeman
^ollege5 Dublin, a position which he gave up in
I 716 to try his fortune as an actor at the theatre of Lin¬
coln s Inn Fields, London. Macklin’s success in this new
sphere was very encouraging; and in 1741 he established
Ins fame as a player m the character of Shylock, a part to
which he gave the tragic reading since universally adopted
He absented himself from the stage from 1753 to 1759, and
was engaged as a tavern-keeper and lecturer on oratory and
criticism in the Piazza, Covent Garden. Failing in this
scheme, he resumed his histrionic art at Drury Lane; but
his mind giving way, he was compelled finally to leave the
“ Macklin died in 1797, at the great age of
™ hlS ten dramatic pieces, the most noted are,—
Ihe Man of the World, and Love a la Mode. (See his
Memoirs by Kirkman, 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1799.)
MACKNIGHT, Dr James, a learned Scottish divine,
was the son of the minister of Irvine, in Ayrshire, and was
born in that town in 1721. From the school of his native
place he was removed about the age of fourteen to the
university of Glasgow, and studied there with great success.
At the completion of the ordinary curriculum he repaired
to Leyden to study theology. On his return he was licensed
as a preacher, and after officiating as an assistant, first at
the Gorbals, in Glasgow, and afterwards at Kilwinning
le was ordained in 1753 minister ofMaybole, in Ayrshire.
His first work, The Harmony of the Gospels, appeared in
MAC 787
1756, and passed through a second edition in 1763. In Maclaurin.
t ns latter year was also published his Truth of the Gospel
History. 8o well known had Macknight now become, that
le received a diploma of D.D. from the university of Edin-
burgh, and in 1769 was elected moderator of the General
Assembly. During this year he was translated to the
pansh of Jedburgh; but after the lapse of three years, was
promoted to Lady Tester’s church, Edinburgh. In 1778
he was transferred to the Old Church in the same city, a
charge which he held during the rest of his life. For a
long time he had been composing,' with persevering and
elaborate care, his New Translation of the Apostolical
Lpistles, with a Commentary and Notes. It appeared in
179o, and was praised by the ablest divines of all denomi¬
nations in Britain. After passing his latter years in a total
cessation from literary labour, he died in December 1799
I he fifth edition of his Harmony was published, London,
1819, and his Translation, London, 1809.
C0LIN> a veiT eminent mathematician
and philosopher, was the son of a clergyman, and born at
Kilmoddan, Argyleshire, Scotland, in 1698. In the year
1 /09 he was sent to the university of Glasgow, where he
continued five years, and applied himself intensely to study.
His great genius for mathematical learning discovered it¬
self as early as the age of twelve, when, having acciden¬
tally met with a Euclid in a friend’s chamber, he became
m a few days master of the first six books without any
assistance; and it is certain, that in his sixteenth year he
had invented many of the propositions which were after¬
wards published under the title of Geometria Organica. In
his fifteenth year he took the degree of Master of Arts, and
on that occasion composed and publicly defended, with
gieat applause, a thesis on the power of gravity. After
this he quitted the university, and retired to the country seat
of an uncle, who had the care of his education, for his
paients had been some time dead. Here he spent two or
three years in pursuing his favourite studies ; but, in 1717,
he offered himself as a candidate for the professorship of
mathematics in the Marischal College of Aberdeen, and ob¬
tained it alter a ten days’ trial with a very able competitor.
In 1719 he went to London, where he became acquainted
with Sir Isaac Newton and other eminent men, at which
time also he was admitted a member of the Royal Society.
In 1722 Lord Polwarth, plenipotentiary of the King of
Great Britain at the Congress of Cambray, engaged him
to become tutor and companion to his eldest son, who was
then about to set out on his travels. After a short stay at
Paiis, and visiting other towns in France, they fixed their
residence in Lorraine, where Maclaurin wrote his tract on
the percussion of bodies, which gained the prize of the Royal
Academy of Sciences for the year 1724. But his pupil dying
soon afterwards at Montpellier, he returned immediately to
his professorship at Aberdeen. He was hardly settled there,
how'ever, when he received an invitation to Edinburgh,—
the curators of that university being desirous that he should
supply the place of Mr James Gregory. He had some
difficulties to encounter; but at length these were all sur¬
mounted, principally through Sir Isaac Newton, and he was
introduced into the university in November 1725.
In the year 1733 he married Anne, the daughter of Mr
Walter Stewart, solicitor-general for Scotland. In 1734,
Berkeley, Bishop of Cloyne, published a piece called The
Analyst, in which he took occasion, from some disputes
which had arisen concerning the grounds of the method of
fluxions, to attack the method itself, and also to charge
mathematicians in general with infidelity in religion. Mac¬
laurin thinking himself included in this charge beo-an an
answer to Berkeley’s book; but, as he proceeded, so many
new theories and problems occurred to him, that instead of
a vindicatory pamphlet, his work became a complete system
o fluxions, with their application to the most important
.
788
Maclaurin.
MAC
MAC
problems in geometry nncl natural philosophy. This work
was published in Edinburgh in 1742, in 2 vols. quarto,
and is the most considerable of all his works. In the mean¬
time, he was continually bringing forward some perfor¬
mance or observation of his own, many of which were
published in the fifth and sixth volumes of the Medical
Essays at Edinburgh. Some of them were likewise pub¬
lished in the Philosophical Transactions, particularly,—1.
Of the Construction and Measure of Curves; 2. A New
Method of describing all kinds of Curves ; 3. A Letter to
Martin Folkes, Esq., on Equations with Impossible Roots,
May 1726; 4. Continuation of the same, March 1729; 5.
On the Description of Curves, with an account of farther
improvements, and a paper dated at Nancy, November
27, 1722’; 6. An account of the Treatise of Fluxions,
January 27, 1742; 7. The same continued, 10th March
1742; 8. A Rule for finding the Meridional parts of a
Spheroid with the same exactness as of a Sphere, August
1741; 9. Of the Basis of the Cells wherein the Bees de¬
posit their Honey, 3d November 1734.
When the Earl of Morton set out in 1739 for Orkney
and Zetland, to visit his estates there, he desired Mr Mac¬
laurin to assist him in settling the geography of these
islands, which was then very erroneous in all maps; to ex¬
amine their natural history, survey the coasts, and measure
a degree of the meridian. Maclaurin’s family affairs, and
other connections, would not permit him to do this; he,
however, drew up a memorial of what he thought necessary
to be observed, furnished the proper instruments, and re¬
commended Mr Short, the optician, as a fit person for the
management of them. He had still another scheme for
the improvement of geography and navigation, of a more
extensive nature, which was not destined to succeed, viz.,
the opening of a passage from Greenland to the South Sea
by the north pole.
In 1745, having been very active in fortifying the city
of Edinburgh against the Highland army, he was obliged to
fly from thence to the north of England, where he was in¬
vited by Herring, then Archbishop of York, to reside with
him during his stay in this country. In this expedition,
how'ever, being exposed to cold and hardships, and natu¬
rally of a weak and delicate constitution, he laid the foun¬
dation of an illness which put an end to Ids life, in June
1746, at the age of forty-eight.
Mr Maclaurin was a good as well as a great man, and
his peculiar merit as a philosopher consisted in this, that all
his studies were accommodated to general utility; and we
find, in many places of his works, an application even of the
most abstruse theories to the perfecting of the mechanical
arts. In his lifetime, however, he had frequent opportu¬
nities of serving his friends and his country by his great
skill. Whatever difficulty occurred concerning the con¬
structing or perfecting of machines, the working of mines,
the improvement of manufactures, the conveying of water,
or the execution of any other public work, he was at hand
to resolve it.
Of his works, we have mentioned the Geometria Orga-
nica, in which he treats of the description of curve lines by
continued motion. We need not repeat what has been said
concerning the paper which gained the prize of the Royal
Academy of Sciences in 1724. In 1740 the academy ad¬
judged him a prize, which did him still more honour, for
solving the motion of the tides from the theory of gravity,
a question which had been given out the previous year, but
without receiving any solution. He had only ten days to
draw up this paper, and could not find leisure to transcribe
a fair copy, so that the Paris edition of it is incorrect.
He afterwards revised the whole, and inserted it in his
Treatise of Fluxions, as he did also the substance of the
former paper. These, with the Treatise of Fluxions, and
the pieces printed in the Philosophical Transactions, of
which we have given a list, are all the writings which Mac- Macneill.
laurin lived to publish. Since his death, two more volumes
have appeared, containing his Algebra, and his Account of
Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophical Discoveries. His Al¬
gebra, though not finished by himself, is yet allowed to be
excellent of its kind, containing, in a volume of no great
bulk, a complete elementary treatise of that science, as far
as it had then been carried. (See the Fourth and Fifth
Dissertations prefixed to this work.)
MACNEILL, Hector, a distinguished Scottish poet,
born on the 22d of October 1746, at Rosebank, on the
Esk, and almost amongst the classic woods of Hawthorn-
den, was descended from an old respectable family in the
south of Argyllshire. Pecuniary circumstances forced his
family from this choice retreat, to occupy a farm on the
banks of Loch Lomond, where part of the boyhood of Hector
was spent.
His early education, with the exception of a short time
spent at school in the neighbourhood, was solely con¬
ducted by his father at home, who, along with the common
branches, carefully imbued his mind with piety and good
morals, and, with parental fondness and pride, also encou¬
raged his boyish passion for the muses. Preparatory to
going to Bristol to the house of a wealthy mercantile re¬
lative, young Hector was, at the age of twelve, sent to
Glasgow for two years, to acquire those branches imme¬
diately applicable to a commercial life. On his arrival
at Bristol, he was occupied for a short time in the count¬
ing-house of his relative, and in completing his commer¬
cial education previously to his departure for the West
Indies. After spending six years in Antigua and Granada,
he returned to his native land with the acquisition of the
French language, but with no more wealth than when
he departed.
Both his mother and sister had died in his absence, and
his father did not survive his return above a year and a half.
The small inheritance to which he thus succeeded he sunk
in an annuity, which, however, he unfortunately lost by
bankruptcy. #
In this emergency, through the interest of a friend in
London, he was appointed to the office of assistant-secre¬
tary in the flag-ship of Admiral Geary. Having made two
cruises, he resigned this situation, and soon afterwards un¬
dertook the same office in the flag-ship of Sir Richard
Bickerton, appointed to the East India station. During
this service he was present in the last naval engagement
with the able French commander Suffrein.
Before leaving India he visited Surat, and the sculp¬
tured excavations of Elephanta. An account of these si^-
gular remains he afterwards published in the Archceologia in
1787. Neither enriched with the gold of India, nor se¬
cured in a competence by a permanent appointment, he
returned to Scotland after an absence of five years.
He retired for two years to a humble residence in the
neighbourhood of Stirling, where he produced the beautiful
descriptive poem of The Links of Forth.
The exhausted state of his pecuniary resources, how¬
ever, compelled him to revisit the West Indies, where he
was appointed to an office in the custom-house at Kingston,
Jamaica; but the debilitating effects of fever, and other
circumstances connected with his duties, induced him to
return to his native country. At the request of his friend
Dr Currie, he drew up an impartial statement On the
treatment of the Negroes, which was published at Liver¬
pool in 1788.
Upon his passage home he composed the second canto
of the sweetly wild poem of The Harp, founded on a
tradition of the Hebrides, and communicated to him by
Graham of Gartmore, with whom, on his return to Stirling¬
shire, he lived for nearly two years.
Being afflicted with a nervous disorder, which, by im-
MAC
Macnish proper treatment, continued about six years, he fixed his
II residence for a time in a cottage near the field of Bannock-
Macon. burn> Here, while suffering greatly from his malady, he
composed Scotland’s Skaith, the happiest effort of his
genius.
In the hope of recovery from his long-protracted com¬
plaints, although by many deemed irremediable, he again
sailed for Jamaica. This voyage happily contributed alike
to restore his health and to afford him a future competence.
By the death of one of the companions of his boyhood, the
Grahams of Three-Mile-River, he now received a legacy,
and the surviving brother settled on him an annuity for life.
Under his friendly roof, previously to his return, he wrote
The Scottish Muse, descriptive of the various vicissitudes
of his own poetical life.
With the well-deserved emoluments of his poetical
labours, and another bequest of an intimate medical friend
in Jamaica, he returned to Scotland, and spent the even¬
ing of his days in the capital of his native land, in the
enjoyment of publicly awarded honour, lettered ease, and
comparative affluence. Here he published The Pastoral or
Lyric Muse of Scotland (1808), also two satirical poems,
entitled Town Fashions (1810), and Bygane Times and
Late Come Changes (1811). His last literary efforts were
The Scottish Adventurers (1812), and an unpublished
autobiography in three volumes, which has been the chief
guide in this brief account. Such were the calm labours
of the years spent in Edinburgh, till the 15th March 1818,
when he died at an advanced age, leaving a name endeared to
his countrymen, and embalmed in the song of his fatherland.
From his attachment to truth, he was free, undisguised,
and even severe ; quick in temper, yet serene and social;
proudly honourable, yet warm and benevolent. True to
nature and feeling, as a poet he excels in the simple and
pathetic ; and though his humour and satire be less suc¬
cessful, his manner is serious and his aim uniformly well
directed.
A selected edition of his poetical works was published at
Edinburgh (1812), in two vols. 12mo.
MACNISH, Robert, M.D. and LL.D., was born in
Glasgow in 1802, where he practised as a physician, and
made extensive contributions to magazine literature under
the name of “ The Modern Pythagorean.” He found leisure
also to produce some works of very considerable merit on
subjects demanding much patient inquiry and thoughtful
sagacity. The best known of these are his Anatomy of
Drunkenness, Philosophy of Sleep, Metempsychosis, and
Book of Aphorisms. He died in 1837.
MACON (the ancient Matiscd), a town of France,
capital of the department of Saone-et-Loire, is situate on
the declivity and at the foot of a hill, on the right bank of
the Saone, which is here crossed by an old stone bridge
of 12 arches, 38 miles N. of Lyons. The town, though
pleasantly situate, is ill built, the streets being generally
narrow, crooked, and ill paved, and the houses, though mostly
of stone, of a dull and sombre appearance. The ramparts that
formerly surrounded the town have been laid out in public
walks. A handsome quay extends along the bank of the
river. The chief public buildings are,—the town-hall, con¬
taining a theatre and public library, the old episcopal palace,
now the residence of the prefect, the general hospital, the
prison, and some of the churches. Macon is the seat of
tribunals of primary instance, and of commerce; and has a
communal college, society of arts and agriculture, school of
design, and a primary normal school. It has no manufac¬
tures of importance, being principally dependent on its
trade in wine, the produce of the vicinity. Pop. (1851)
12,653.
Macon, a town of the United States of North Ame¬
rica, capital of Bibb, county Georgia, on both sides of the
Ocmulgee, here crossed by a bridge 380 feet in length, 30
MAC 789
miles S.W. of Milledgeville. Being situate at the head of Macpher-
the river navigation, Macon has been steadily increasing in son-
importance. In 1822 it was little more than a village, but
now has become the third town in Georgia, both as regards
commercial importance and population. Its chief public
buildings are,—a court-house, market-house, and aWesleyan
female college founded 1839. Cotton is the staple trade,
and is shipped here for the sea-coast in large quantities.
In the vicinity there is a much-admired cemetery and a
curious mound, supposed by some to be artificial. Pop.
(1850) 5953, (1853) about 7000.
MACPHERSON, James, the translator of Ossian, was
born at Kingussie, in the county7 of Inverness, in 1738.
He received his school education at Inverness, and after¬
wards studied at King’s College, Aberdeen. In 1758,
while schoolmaster of his native village, he published his
Highlander, a heavy poem in six cantos, which met with
no success. On becoming tutor afterwards to the son of
Graham of Balgowan, he met Home, the author of Doug¬
las, at Moffat, to whom he showed certain verses claiming
to be translations of old Gaelic poetry. By the kindness of
Home these pieces were submitted to the perusal of Dr
Blair, and having elicited the admiration of that critic, were
published in 1760, under the title of Fragments of Ancient
Poetry, collected in the Highlands of Scotland, and trans¬
lated from the Gaelic or Erse Language. This perfor¬
mance rendered Macpherson exceedingly popular, and
gained for him the patronage of such men as Hume and
Dr Robertson. So keenly had this specimen of old Celtic
literature excited the public curiosity, that money was
subscribed to enable Macpherson to rescue what fragments
of traditionary poetry yet lingered among the Scottish
Highlands. Accordingly he set out, and after exploring
the mainland and the isles, published as the result of his
tour, Fingal; an Ancient Epic Poem, in six books, with
several other Poems, by Ossian, the son of Fingal, 4to,
1762; and Temora, in eight books, with other Poems, by
Ossian, 4to, 1763. These works were read with avidity,
were translated into several European languages, and ma¬
terially increased both the wealth and the fame of Mac¬
pherson. Yet even at this early period the enjoyment of
his good fortune began to be disturbed by that controversy
regarding the authenticity of Ossian which remains un¬
settled even at this present day. In 1794 he accompanied
Governor Johnstone as his private secretary to Pensacola;
and after resigning this situation, and holding official ap¬
pointments at Florida and the West Indies, he returned to
England in 1766. Settling down in London, and resum¬
ing his literary pursuits, he produced, in 1771, An Intro¬
duction to the History of Great Britain and Ireland, 4to.
The wound which the publication of this work inflicted
upon the fame of the author was by no means healed by
the prose translation of Homer’s Iliad, which he produced
in 1773. In 1775 he published The History of Great
Britain from the Restoration to the Accession of the House
of Hanover, in 2 vols. 4to. Appointed soon after this to
defend the proceedings of the government towards America,
he wrote a pamphlet entitled The Rights of Great Britain
Asserted against the Claims of the Colonies, 8vo, 1776.
In 1779 he produced his Short History of the Opposition
during the last Session of Parliament, a work which so
favourably impressed the public that they generally as¬
cribed it to Gibbon. On his appointment soon afterwards
to the lucrative office of agent to the Nawab of Arcot, Mac¬
pherson began to ply his facile pen in the treatment of
Indian affairs. In his official capacity he sat in parliament as
member for Camelford during several years, but never spoke
in the house. Towards the close of his life, his declining
health induced him to remove to Belleville, a seat which he
had bought in his native Strathspey. He died there on
the 17th February 1796. In accordance with his own re-
790 M A C
Macquer quest, he was buried in Westminster Abbey, and a monu-
II ment was erected to his memory on a conspicuous site
Madagas- within his own grounds.
car* It is now generally agreed that Macpherson caught the
spirit of his Ossianic poetry from the tales of the old Celtic
bards, but often supplied lacunas in the work from his own
invention. To him, therefore, we must ascribe many of
the weird images and flowing sentences which sometimes
characterize it, as well as the pointless verbiage and false
description that often render it irksome.
MACQUER, Pierre Joseph, an eminent chemist, was
born at Paris on the 9th of October 1718. He was mem¬
ber of the Academy of Sciences and professor of pharmacy,
and was engaged in the Journal de Sgavans for articles in
medicine and chemistry. With the last of these sciences
he was intimately acquainted. He had a share in compil¬
ing the Pharmacopoeia Parisiensis, published in 1758, in
4to, and wrote various valuable works on chemistry. His
Dictionnaire de Chimie was translated into English by Keir.
He died at Paris in 1784.
MACROBIUS, Ambrosius Aurelius Theodosius, an
ancient Latin writer, lived about the beginning of the fifth
century. In the preface to his Saturnalia he tells us that
Latin is not his mother tongue; and from the Graecisms
that abound in his style, we infer that he was a Greek.
The opinion that he was a Christian rests on no sure basis,
and is rendered doubtful by the warm sympathy which is
lavished in the work above mentioned on the sanctity and
religious opinions of the heathen priest Praetextatus. He
had a son, Eustathius, to whom he addressed the introduc¬
tion to his Saturnalia. Nothing more is known respecting
him. Only three of the works of Macrobius are extant.
His grammatical treatise De Differentiis et Societatibus
Groeci Latinique Verbi, is known to us merely under the
form of an abstract by a certain author, Joannes. In his
Commentarius ex Cicerone in Somnium Scipionis he dis¬
courses on the tenets of the later Platonists touching the
constitution of the universe. His principal work, Saturna-
liorum Conviviorum Libri VII., is a collection of heteroge¬
neous discussions on the Saturnalia and the Roman deities,
on jesting and feasting, on the poetry of Virgil, and on the
physiology of the human frame. The best editions of Ma¬
crobius are those of Gronovius, 8vo, Leyden, 1670; and
the Bipont, 2 vols., 1788.
MACROOM, a market-town of Ireland, county of Cork,
on the River Sullane, 21 miles W. of Cork. It consists
chiefly of one long street, occupied chiefly by cabins and
other mean dwellings. The principal buildings are,—the
parish church, Roman Catholic chapel, school-house, mar¬
ket-house, session-house, bridewell, dispensary, and work-
house. Market-day, Saturday. Pop. (1851) 3727
MADAGASCAR, a large and important island in the
Indian Ocean, about 300 miles from the coast of Africa,
from which it is separated by the Mozambique Channel.
Cape Amber, its northern extremity, is situate in S. Lat. 12.,
whence it extends southward, slightly inclining to the W.,
about 937 English miles, to Cape St Mary, in S. Lat. 25.40.
Its extreme western shore is in E. Long. 43. 10., and its
most easterly cape in E. Long. 50. 30. The breadth of the
island increases gradually from the northern point to the
centre, where it is widest, being about 350 miles across;
while the average breadth of the southern portion is about
250 miles. It has been estimated to contain 150,000,000,
or even 200,000,000 acres of land ; and though such esti¬
mates, in the absence of actual measurements, can only be
regarded as approximations to its actual extent, its surface
is equal to three-fourths of the territory of France, and
larger than Great Britain and Ireland combined.
I he coasts of Madagascar contain a number of bays and
harbours, some of them spacious and sheltered, and capable
of affording excellent and secure anchorage for shipping of
MAC
the largest dimensions. Among these may be specified Madagas-
Diego Saurez Bay, or British Sound, near the north-eastern car.
extremity of the island; Port Loquez, Antongil Bay, and
the Bay of St Luce, on the eastern coast. Tamatave and
b oule Pointe, though the most frequented ports on this side
of the island, are only open roadsteads, protected by reefs
of coral. St Augustine’s Bay, a port of frequent resort
for vessels trading to the N.W. coast, and ships engaged
in the whale fishery, Tolia Bay, Boiana, Bambetoka, Ma-
jambo, Nareenda, Pasandava, and Chimpaykee Bays, are
the most important on the western coast. There are
several small islands adjacent to the northern shores of Ma¬
dagascar, of which St Mary’s, 31 miles long and 2 or 3
miles broad, on the eastern coast, and Nosibe, a somewhat
larger and more compact island, on the N.W. coast, are the
most important. Both these small islands are now occu¬
pied by the French, the latter having been taken posses¬
sion of by them in 1840.
The physical aspect of the country is varied. The
shores of the northern parts, and some portions of the
south-eastern coast, are bold and precipitous,—the high land
and mountain ranges extending to the sea ; but in general
the coast is low and flat for a distance varying from 10
to 50 miles on the eastern side of the island, and from 50
to 100 miles in some parts of the western coast. The low
land is generally covered with luxuriant vegetation ; and
trees of large size and abundant foliage often extend to
within a few yards of high-water mark. At varying dis¬
tances from the coast the country rises gradually towards
the interior, where the land is highest, being 6000 feet
above the level of the sea. The ascent from the low
lands along the coast to the high central regions consists,
especially on the eastern side, of a succession of ranges of
mountains, or hills, running in a direction parallel with the
coast, and 500 or 600 feet high. The mountain ranges
are occasionally separated by fertile plains of several miles
in width, but more frequently by a narrow valley only, or
a mountain stream. With one or two exceptions, the
loftiest mountains of the island are in the interior, and rise
from the most elevated portions of the central provinces.
The highest of these is Ankaratra, a basaltic pile, on a
range of gneiss or granite mountains, about 50 miles to
the S. of the capital. Next to Ankaratra, Andringitra,
to the N.W. of the capital, and Angavo, near the bound¬
ary, between Ankova and Ankay, about 60 miles to the
eastward of the capital, together with langogora, near
the northern extremity of the island, are reported as the
highest mountains in Madagascar, and are computed to be
between 8000 and 12,000 feet above the sea.
The valleys are numerous ; some of them extensive,
fertile, and remarkably beautiful. The soil is occasionally
marshy and wet, but is in general the most prolific and ex¬
tensively cultivated in the country. Belisa, in the country
of the Sakalavas, to the S.W. of the capital; Ambolo, in
the province of Anosy, to the S.E.; Angavo, situate in
Ankay, between the lofty mountain of the same name
and Ifady; and Betsimitatatra, to the W. of the capital, are
among the most celebrated valleys in the island. They
vary from 4 to 10 miles in breadth, and from 40 to 60
miles in length, and are generally populous, fertile, and
extensively cultivated. Besides the valleys, there are ex¬
tensive plains ; one to the W. of the capital, being nearly
100 miles across. These are sometimes comparatively
barren, but more frequently covered with thick coarse grass.
The country is well watered, even in the high and
central regions. The rivers are numerous, and some of
them large, winding their way, under different names, 150
or 200 miles from their sources to the sea. The mouths
of the rivers are generally choked with sand, and though
some of them on the N.W. coast are navigable for small
craft for a considerable distance from the coast, they are
M A D A G
Madagas- but little used for purposes of inland navigation. The Sam-
v ®ar‘ baho and Betsibooka are said to be navigable for boats
for the distance of 150 miles from the sea. The Ikiopa, Man-
siatra, Matetanana, and Mangoro, are among the largest
rivers in Madagascar; the greater part of them find an
outlet on the western coast. Extensive lakes stretch along
the eastern coast for nearly 200 miles, and at intervals
communicate with the sea. Others exist in different parts
of the island, and are celebrated for their extent or beauty ;
some of them being 100 miles long, and occasionally
studded with islands, and surrounded by the most luxu¬
riant vegetation. Some of them abound with fish, which
are highly prized by the inhabitants residing on their bor¬
ders. Saririaka (literally, image, or portrait of the ocean) ;
Imania, in the Sakalava country; Imanangora, in the pro¬
vince of the Antsianaka; and Itasy, in Imerina, are among
the most remarkable.
Fountains and springs are numerous and valuable, espe¬
cially those situate in the more elevated provinces, where they
are called by the people rano-velona (living waters). Be¬
sides these, mineral waters and medicinal springs, of great
reputed virtue, are occasionally met with ; and thermal
or hot springs, some of unusually high temperature, are of
frequent occurrence.
I he geology of Madagascar has yet to be examined and
described ; and little is at present known respecting it, be¬
yond-the aspect of some of its more prominent features in
the parts most accessible to Europeans. The successive
ridges of mountains, or hills, between the eastern coast
and the interior, seem to consist of primary rocks; gneiss,
granite, quartz, sometimes of a beautiful pink colour, at
others in large transparent masses, are frequently met with ;
basalt and large beds of clay are also to be seen. In the
central and southern parts of the island slate formations
and limestone, with imbedded fossils, have been found.
Iron of excellent quality is plentiful near the surface of
the ground in some of the central provinces, and is so
abundant in one of the mountains—Ambohimiangavo—that
it is called Iron Mountain. Coal has also been found on
more than one spot in the northern parts of the island. No
attempts have been made to ascertain the extent or qua¬
lity of the coal ; but iron has long been wrought by the
natives into such implements of war, agriculture, or domes¬
tic use, as their grade of civilization required. Copper and
other minerals are said to exist in the country; but all the
copper that is seen in the possession of the natives seems to
have been obtained from foreigners.
The climate is very unequal, both in relation to its salu¬
brity and temperature. In the high northern and central
districts it is salubrious, and many very aged people are to
be met with among the inhabitants. In the northern re¬
gions showers of sleet often fall; and in the central districts
the ground is occasionally covered with hoar frost, and ice
*s seen among the mountains during the winter season.
I he fluctuations of the temperature are often extreme;
the thermometer ranging from 40° to 80° in the same day.
The seasons of rain are periodical and regular. The cli¬
mate of the low lands, and the vicinity of the coast through¬
out the whole islands, is exceedingly unhealthy. The
heat during great part of the year is intense, the rain fre¬
quent, vegetation rank and luxuriant, and fevers of an in¬
termittent and typhoid character severe, and very fre¬
quently fatal to Europeans and the natives of the more
salubrious districts. The miasma is most virulent between
the months of November and April, and during this time
the natives of the interior avoid visiting the coast, and few
trading vessels resort to the ports.
The central districts of the island are comparatively
sterile, though some are covered with thick tall grass; but
all the low land, the intervening regions, and some of the
higher portions of the country, are clothed with verdure.
A S C A E.
Immense forests, 40 or 50 miles in breadth, traverse, with
occasional interruptions, parts of nearly all the provinces of
the island. I hese forests abound with large and durable
timber, suitable for carpentry and ship-building. Woods
valuable for cabinet work, viz., a species of mahogany, and
ebony, are also met with. But the botany of Madagascar,
regarded from a scientific or economic point of view, pre¬
sents a rich and extensive field as yet scarcely penetrated.
Ivvo botanists from Germany, who visited the island more
than thirty years ago, mention that among 400 plants which
they collected, 100 were new or undescribed species, and
200 new varieties. I he plants already known are rare and
valuable, and some of them peculiar to the island; among
the latter may be mentioned the Urania speciosa, or travel¬
ler s tree, which not only furnishes to the traveller or the
labouier, at all seasons, a cool, sweet, and wholesome be¬
verage, but is also extensively employed in the structure of
the native dwellings, as well as for a variety of domestic
purposes; the Sagus rufia^ which provides clothing for so
large a portion of the lower classes of the people; several
species of cotton ; the poisonous lunyena, which has been
rendered so destructive of human life among the people;
the splendid Poinsiana regia, and the Colvillea racemosa,
40 or 50 feet high, and which, when covered every year,
the one with scarlet, the other wdth yellow flowers, are
among the most gorgeous and magnificent of vegetable
productions. Also the curious and elegant lattice-leaved
plant Ouvirandra fenestrahs. Several kinds of spices are
indigenous, as are also different species of indigo; plants
yielding the gum-copal and gum-elastic, and numerous
varieties of dye-woods, are also found. Honey and wax
abound in the wooded parts of the island.
Among the plants used as food, rice is the most abundant
and universal, though arrow-root is the principal article of food
among the Sakalavas on the western coast. Besides these,
there are yams, manioc, sweet potatoes, and sugar-cane,
lo these have been added millet, maiz, and potatoes.
Among the fruits, the cocoa-nut plantain, or banana, of which
there are several species peculiar to the island, and of excel¬
lent quality; citrons, oranges, melons, mangoes, and peaches.
Domestic poultry are abundant; there are also several kinds
of pheasants, and a small species of partridge. The guinea-
fowl, both wild and tame, exists in considerable numbers.
1 urkeys, geese, and ducks, and a superior kind of domestic
fowl, have been introduced, thrive well, and are exported in
large numbers to Mauritius and the Isle of Bourbon. Water-
fowl, in considerable abundance, are found among the lakes
and marshy parts of the island. Pigeons and parroquets
inhabit the woods; and among the feathered tribes birds of
the falcon genus are frequently seen. A kind of ostrich is
said to resort to the most solitary parts of the island; and
the existence of an immense bird in the island is proved
by the gigantic fossil eggs which have been found near St
Augustine’s Bay, and are now in the museum at Paris.
Horned cattle, wild and tame, are the most abundant
and important of the quadrupeds. The former, in im¬
mense herds, roam over the remote, unfrequented parts
of the island, seldom disturbed by the hunters. Tame
cattle, which are of the buffalo breed, are reared in great
numbers as food and for exportation. Sheep in small
numbers are fed in Imerina, and pigs in some of the
districts. Wild hogs exist in the woods, together with
wild dogs and cats, baboons, monkeys, racoons, lemurs,
foxes, and squirrels, and the rare and singular animal the
Cheiromys Madagascariensis, or Aye-aye, of which only
one skeleton has yet reached Europe. Tame dogs are kept
in the villages; but cats, being considered creatures of
evil omen, are rarely seen, and rats and mice consequently
swarm in all the habitable parts of the island. Scorpions
are numerous, large, and venomous. Few of the serpents
are poisonous, though many are unusually large, and are
791
Madagas¬
car.
MADAGASCAE.
792
Madagas- said to attack and destroy a quadruped. Crocodiles abound
car- in the rivers and shallow waters, and often prove fatal to
travellers and cattle when fording the streams. They are
large and powerful reptiles, measuring 15 or 17, and some¬
times even upwards of 20 feet in length. In the southern
parts of the island they are said to be exceedingly fierce
and dangerous, at times attacking and upsetting the frail
canoes of the natives, and preying upon the voyagers; yet
such is the superstitious feeling of the people towards the
crocodile, that though they would seek protection from it
by charms or prayers, they would not injure or attempt to
kill one, even in self-defence.
Agriculture is but in its infancy. Rice is cultivated ex¬
tensively, and the plantations wrought and irrigated with
commendable industry and skill; other articles are only cul¬
tivated to a small extent, and as supplementary to the rice,
which is the staple food of the inhabitants. The imple¬
ment chiefly in use is a strong iron spade, with a long,
straight handle. The labours of the field are chiefly per¬
formed by male and female slaves, and oxen are not used,
either for tillage or as beasts of burden, excepting when
they are driven over the fields to pulverize the soil; and
the few horses which they possess are kept for riding.
Though the native manufactures are not numerous, they
indicate no deficient capabilities in the people. They fabri¬
cate articles of jewellery in gold and silver with much taste
and skill, and work well in iron and wood. Their matting,
platted or woven by the hand, is not only large and strong,
but some kinds fine and beautiful in quality and pattern.
Their native stuffs, woven from the fibrous parts of the
rufia leaves, and their lambas, or native dresses, in cotton
and silk, though wrought in the simplest looms, are often
beautiful and durable fabrics.
The commerce of the island, though at present but
trifling, is capable of almost unlimited extension. The
chief articles of export are—cattle, poultry, rice, rufia cloth,
matting, a kind of grass hat, woven by hand, light and
durable ; gums, and bees’ wax. Coffee would grow well in
many parts of the island, indigo might be produced to
almost any extent, and both might furnish valuable articles
of export. Good sugar has been made, but at present the
cane is only cultivated for purposes of food, or for distil¬
ling from its juice a strong, fiery sort of arrac, the use of
which is extended among the people, especially at the ports,
and threatens to produce the most disastrous consequences.
Other articles of export might be produced in a country so
fertile and extensive ; and rice might, with but compara¬
tively little additional labour, be raised in much larger quan¬
tities than it is produced at present. It is scarcely possible
to conceive of a soil more adapted for the cultivation of rice
than that of many parts of Madagascar, or more fertile
than in favourable seasons it often proves; a single bushel
of seed yielding, under their most skilful modes of culture,
in a favourable season, one hundred bushels of grain. The
crop, when ripe, is reaped, dried, and thrashed op the ground.
Their process of thrashing consists in taking up large hand¬
fuls of rice and straw, and beating the ears on a stone or
portion of rock fixed in the midst of a dry, hard, thrashing-
floor, prepared for that purpose in some central spot easily
accessible from the cultivated fields. When the grain is
thrashed, it is carried on the heads of slaves to the granaries
of their owners. These granaries vary in structure in
different parts of the island. On the eastern coast and to
the southward, the grain is stored in small houses raised on
posts, with projecting ledges, to prevent the access of rats
and mice. At the capital and some of the central provinces,
the rice is preserved in granaries built of clay, in the
form of a cone, with only one aperture on the summit.
Some of these granaries are built above ground adjacent
to the dwellings of their owners ; others are constructed of
the same form and dimensions under ground, the aperture
at the top, generally about a foot below the surface, being Madagas-
covered with a stone, and then the hollow filled up with car.
earth composing the surface of the court-yard, in which the '
underground granary is usually sunk. Rice by these means
is often preserved for a great length of time in excellent
condition. With land so fertile and adapted for the growth
of such abundant crops of rice as the plantations in the
interior often yield, it might be raised for exportation to
almost any extent; but the absence of canals and public
roads, and all means of land carriage, precludes the possi¬
bility of conveying the produce of many of the provinces
to the seaports, excepting in comparatively small quantities,
and thus impedes very materially the development of the
resources of the island. The government has been de¬
terred from constructing or encouraging the formation of
public roads, from an apprehension of the facilities they would
afford to a hostile force invading the country and seeking
to penetrate the interior. The want of good roads, there¬
fore, though detrimental to their commercial interests, is
preferred by them as a means of security. This disadvan¬
tage might be, to a great extent, compensated in some of
the provinces by greater attention to the means of carriage
by water. The late Radama commenced the work of con¬
necting some of the principal lakes on the eastern coast by
means of a canal, but since his death the work has been
discontinued. Boats, better adapted for conveying grain
in larger quantities to the places adjacent to the ports, and
accessible by water, might be constructed, and would assist in
augmenting the exports from the island. Their imports are
chiefly cotton and woollen goods, wearing apparel, articles
of domestic use, fire-arms, ammunition, wines, and liquors;
and to these other articles will doubtless be added as their
means of purchasing them increase. The Hovas, the para¬
mount race in the country, exhibit many of the elements of
a thoroughly commercial people ; keenness in trade seems
to be intuitive with many, and the love of bartering
almost a passion among all ; scarcely any engagement in¬
terferes with the market, and multitudes employ them¬
selves in hawking goods of foreign or domestic manufac¬
ture about the country for sale. In this occupation many
persons of rank and property employ their slaves, giving
them a percentage on the amount or the profit of their
sales. The dealings of the Hovas are seldom transactions
of barter or exchange, but usually money purchases. The
only coins they use are Spanish dollars, and very recently
five-franc French pieces. For all the cattle exported these
silver coins alone are received in payment. The Malagasy
have no native currency ; and for ordinary use among them¬
selves, the Spanish dollar is cut into halves, quarters,
eighths, and smaller portions, even to the seventy-second
part of a dollar. The cut pieces of the dollar are weighed
in every instance, and a pair of money scales, with their ap¬
propriate iron weights, are not only considered essential in
every house, but are often seen thrust into the girdles of the
men when employed in their ordinary avocations. Money¬
changers are a distinct class among the traders, and the rate
at which whole dollars and cut silver are exchanged fluc¬
tuates almost daily at the capital and other principal
places, as the one or the other are most in demand.
In other parts of the island, especially those remote from
the capital or the ports visited by shipping, the trade
among the inhabitants is carried on to a great extent by ex¬
change, or barter. Several attempts have been made by
the foreign traders to induce the natives to receive gold coin
in payment for cattle and other articles, but hitherto without
success. The Hovas are not ignorant of the relative value
of gold and silver, but at present seem only to value the
former for the manufacture of jewellery and other articles
of personal ornament.
The government of the country was, until the reign
of the late King Radama, exercised by a number of
MAD AG
Madagas- princes, or rulers, independent of each other. Theper-
car- sonal will of each ruler was the supreme law, which all
living under his authority were required to obey. This
government was nevertheless, to a certain extent, represen¬
tative, and embodied in its practical working a recognition
of the will of the people. A number of the principal per¬
sons in each province or territory, governed by a single
chief, were always associated with the supreme ruler in ad¬
ministering the government, which was maintained according
to certain traditional usages recognised alike by all parties.
Besides this, appeals were made on all great occasions to
the people, who were summoned to public assemblies, called
kabarys, when the wishes or requirements of the ruler were
made known, and the people were required to express their
opinions; and though the latter were generally expected to
concur, without questioning, in the proposals that were made,
they were thus recognised as parties concerned, and plans
. vvere sometimes modified in consequence of the proceed¬
ings at the public kabarys.
By the natives themselves Madagascar is divided politi¬
cally into twenty-two provinces, and these provinces often
comprise two or three smaller political or territorial sub¬
divisions, as in the case of Ankova, the central province of
the island, and the province of the Hovas, which includes
Imerina, Imamo, and Vonizongo. Sometimes the province
and its chief town, or village, are designated by the same
name, as in Mahavelona and Tamatave, though the inhabi¬
tants of both these and the adjoining provinces are called
Betsimesarakas. At other times the province and its in¬
habitants are called by the same name, as in Antsianaka and
Betsileo. In other instances a large extent of country
is called by one name and its inhabitants by another, as in
the S.W. coast, where the country was called Menabe,
the inhabitants, Sakalavas; and each large division of the
island has its own local usages and laws.
The late King Radama succeeded during his reign, which
terminated in 1828, in obtaining, by conquest or treaty, the
subjection and adhesion of all the independent rulers in
Madagascar, and thus became the acknowledged sovereign
of the whole island. And although he allowed no autho¬
rity or law above his own will, even this arbitrary and ab¬
solute rule, exercised as it was in carrying into effect his
own enactments, and supported, moreover, by the military
organizations introduced among the Hovas during his rei<m,
was nevertheless administered with a large measure of re¬
gard to previously existing usages among the people. The
system of government established by Radama has, with
but slight alteration, been continued by his successor. The
present government of Madagascar may therefore be re¬
garded as a sort of combination of pure military despotism
and limited monarchy; the former, though greatly prepon¬
derating, being modified by certain acknowledged require¬
ments from the sovereign, and traditional and hereditary
rights and usages on the part of the people. The sovereign
of Madagascar claims nominally the right and authority to
do whatever he pleases with the lives and property of his
subjects; but traditions and customs have in a number of
instances the force of law, which the sovereign deems it
needful to respect; and to some extent the opinion of the
people, as expressed through their subordinate and local
authorities, is considered, and their will to a certain extent
regarded. For though the power of the sovereign is nomi¬
nally absolute, and he is lord of the soil, owner of all pro¬
perty, and master of all the people, and disobedience to
his orders would be followed by confiscation of property,
loss of liberty, and most likely of life, long-established
usages seem to require the appearance at least of equity
and justice in the proceedings of the ruler, and the exercise
of this power conformably with acknowledged rights of the
people. No sovereign would feel himself safe whose rule
was condemned by the majority of his people; but a sove-
VOL. XIII.
A S C A R.
reign whose rule was wise and just would be regarded with
admiration and veneration, as a being almost more than
human. On one occasion a sovereign of this character
was apparently near his death, and the diviners said that a
human sacrifice was required for the preservation of his
life. When this was made known to the people, an indivi-
dual came forward and offered to die for the preservation
of his sovereign; his offer was accepted, though his life
was ultimately spared.
I he duties of the sovereign are onerous and varied. He
is not only supreme ruler, ordering all affairs, enacting all
laws, and superintending their execution ; he is also su-
pi erne judge, and punishment of death can only be inflicted
by his authority; he is likewise commander-in-chief of all
the forces of the kingdom ; and he is, moreover, chief priest,
officiating personally in the religious rites at the national
festivals. He has no officially appointed council, but may
call to his assistance whomsoever he chooses, consult them
unitedly or separately as he pleases, and follow their ad¬
vice or his own as he deems preferable. Radama, it is
said, was accustomed to consult his chief officers repeat¬
edly in reference to any measures of policy which he was
contemplating, and then decide according to his own judg¬
ment. The sovereignty is hereditary, as are also most
of the offices of the government; yet both rank and office
are acquired by merit. In both cases they are the gift of
the sovereign, but grade in society descends hereditarily.
Though the sovereignty is hereditary, the ruling sovereign
has the right of nominating his successor, with such limita¬
tions and conditions as he may judge fit, and nothing less than
armed insurrection would set aside such nomination, if offici¬
ally or publicly announced to the people. The arming and
training the troops of Madagascar according to the Euro¬
pean manner, accomplished by Radama about thirty years
ago, as well as the uniting of the whole island under one
sovereignty, changed to a great extent the system of go¬
vernment, which is now, considering the partial civilization
of the people, elaborately organized and highly centralized.
I he rank in the army is reckoned by numbers, commencing
with the privates, whose rank is 1, and rising through all
the intermediate grades in the service to that of the com¬
mander-in-chief, whose rank is 14, and is the highest be¬
neath the sovereign. The same gradations of rank extend
to all civil officers of the government, and impart a military
character to the whole. The rank of any individual is de¬
rived from the sovereign, by whom it may be increased on
account of merit, or reduced by way of fine or penalty for
offence. In some of the provinces, hereditary rulers still
exercise jurisdiction ; but the governors of these are usually
appointed by the sovereign, and are at the same time chief
commanders of the military posts in the districts. The
laws or edicts of the sovereign are proclaimed to the people
in the capital, and the country immediately adjacent, by the
sovereign in person, or by some of the supreme judges or
other high officers. On these occasions the people are
summoned to attend, and are generally expected to express
their assent, or to propose any alterations they may desire.
The laws and requirements of the sovereign are sent to the
governors or chiefs of the provinces by regular messengers,
and are promulgated publicly to the people, generally in
the market-place ; and it devolves on the heads of thousands
and heads of hundreds to secure their due observance in
their respective villages. There is also a sort of military
police charged with maintaining order, preventing theft,
arresting delinquents, &c.
Justice is administered by magistrates or judges appointed
by the sovereign ; the sittings of the judges are public, ge¬
nerally in the open air. 1 he ordeal of the tangena, or
drinking of poison-water, is very frequently resorted to in
order to prove the innocence or guilt of the parties accused.
I he revenue of the sovereign is limited as compared with
5 H
793
Madagas¬
car.
794 M A D A G
Madagas- the amount of property in the island, the riches of many
car’ of the nobles, as well as the numbers of persons in go-
vernment employ. The want of a more ample revenue
operates unfavourably upon the people, leading often to
great oppression,—large supplies, viz., provision for the
army, felling timber, quarrying stones, and all kinds of
public work, are required to be furnished without any pay¬
ment whatever. The people are not insensible to the
advantages of good government, but would much prefer
a better mode of sustaining it, as it is said that a tax,
even to one-fourth of the produce of the land, would be less
oppressive than the present system. The revenue of the
sovereign is derived from spoil taken in war, chiefly cattle
and slaves ; donations of money on certain occasions, as ac¬
knowledgments of sovereignty; a tenth of all the produce of
the country; a sort of poll-tax on all slaves; one-fifth of the
profits of goods taken to the capital and sold, excepting in
public market; and a duty of 10 per cent, on all foreign
imports and exports ; the first-fruits of harvest, an an¬
nual tax on each spade, as a sort of rental for the land cul¬
tivated, and a small tax on each house. In addition to
these sources of revenue, a portion of all fines imposed by
the judges, one-third of the price of all persons sold into
slavery on account of debt, and the property of all who die
in consequence of drinking the tangena, or poison-water,
belongs to the sovereign. The court of the sovereign at
the capital of the kingdom is maintained in considerable
pomp, and with numerous attendants. The troops of the
sovereign are estimated at 40,000 men, a considerable por¬
tion of whom are armed with muskets; and some idea of
the number of government employes, and of the progress
of education under the patronage of Radama, may be ga¬
thered from the fact that, while in the year 1818, when the
first missionary arrived in the island, the king (Radama)
employed only one writer, in 1836, when the missionaries
left, no fewer than 4000 writers were employed by the
oueen’s government.
Ihe religious opinions of the Malagasy are exceedingly
vague, indefinite, and crude, their mythology disjointed
and fragmentary, and their acts of worship apparently un¬
impressive and infrequent. Their idols, or objects of su¬
perstitious regard, make scarcely any appeal to the senses
or feelings, except to their fears; nevertheless, they cling
tenaciously to the creed or belief which has been handed
down from their ancestors, and surrender themselves un¬
scrupulously to its influence. They are not destitute of
ideas respecting a supreme, invisible, and mighty spiritual
being, whom they call God; yet it is exceedingly difficult
to arrive at the exact ideas which they associate with the
word, as it is used for objects utterly incompatible with each
other. Their religion seems to consist in a belief in the
power of the spirits of their ancestors ; hence, the spirits of
the ancestors of the reigning family are regarded as among
the chief objects of national worship and trust. Other
objects of worship seem rather to be charms than idols.
Their belief in charms of various kinds is universal, as is
also their belief in witchcraft, sorcery, and divination, and
likewise in a species of fatalism, or stern, inevitable, immut¬
able destiny. They have no temples, or altars, or priesthood ;
their visible objects of worship are kept in houses con¬
sidered sacred, and prohibited, except to certain persons ap¬
pointed as their keepers. Offerings, or presents, are made
to those having the custody of the idols, and requests are
preferred; but they are generally brief ejaculations, depre¬
cating anger, and imploring wealth or some other temporal
good. Most of their calamities are ascribed to sorcery, or
the agency of invisible and malignant beings, against whom
charms alone afford protection; and almost every transaction
of life, and often even life itself, is dependent on divination ;
as in the event of birth on days esteemed lucky, or the
reverse, in which case it depends on the diviner of the
A S C A R.
infant’s destiny whether or not it is to be permitted to live. Madagas-
I heir ordeals are exceedingly sanguinary, delusive, and cruel, car-
and their religion has in no degree tended to enlighten the
understanding, or improve the character of its adherents;
while it has, so far as it has operated, retai'ded their civiliza¬
tion. Their ideas of a future state are as dark and unsatis¬
factory as their religion during their present life; not that they
are destitute of all belief of a future life, but it is uncertain,
unsatisfactory, and unwelcome, and death at times as alarm¬
ing as irresistible. The ceremonies connected with death
and interment are numerous and costly ; and the tombs of
their chiefs (piles of stones of large dimensions) are among
the most striking and impressive of their antiquities.
It has been said, that at one time the Arabic language
was understood and written by a few individuals, probably of
Arabic descent, residing on the south-eastern coast; but pre¬
viously to the year 1820 education and letters were un¬
known in Madagascar; neither had they any hieroglyphic
or picture writing, or any of the ruder methods of record¬
ing events which have prevailed among some nations in
the early periods of their history. At the time above men¬
tioned, the English missionaries of the London Missionary
Society commenced their labours at the capital, under the
auspices of the king, and with all the assistance he was
able to afford them. They formed an alphabet, and fixed
the orthography for the language, adopting the common
European characters to express the native sounds ; subse¬
quently they prepared grammars and vocabularies of the
language, printed elementary books, and finally translated
the Bible into the Malagasy language. Their efforts to teach
reading and writing were at first attended with great diffi¬
culties, on account of the great aversion of the people to
all innovation in their established usages, and from an ap¬
prehension of the liberty and safety of their children, as
few foreigners, excepting slave-traders, had visited the ca¬
pital. These difficulties were, however, at length overcome;
and during the reign of Radama the schools were not only
increased in the capital, but extended to the provinces, and
it is estimated that 10,000 or 15,000 scholars were educated.
After the death of Radama, the enlightened patron of edu¬
cation among his people, schools and teaching were dis¬
couraged, and in a few years entirely prohibited throughout
the island. But so self-evident were the advantages and
enjoyments of education, and such the earnest desire of
those who already possessed them to perpetuate it, that
although no public means of education existed, it seems to
have been considered as a part of parental duty to educate
the children, especially the boys in each family. The de¬
gree of proficiency attained by the men and boys belonging
to the families of those who had been originally taught in the
schools of the mission, shows that great attention and time
must have been devoted to their instruction; and although
the present government (185 7) is not favourable to education,
the Hovas, the only portion of the inhabitants among whom
it has ever prevailed, seem determined that it shall not be
lost, while multitudes of the young are eager for instruc¬
tion and books. A number of them are very imperfectly
acquainted with English; and had the schools continued,
many would before this have acquired a degree of pro¬
ficiency which would have placed within their reach the
rich treasures which that language contains. As it is, con¬
sidering the prohibition of public schools by the govern¬
ment, the amount of education among the Hovas is remark¬
able. All books treating on the subject of religion being
prohibited, and even their possession subjecting to very se¬
vere penalties, while few were prepared by the missionaries
in which religion was omitted, the people may be said to be
almost destitute of books ; still, so far as the Hovas are con¬
cerned, theyare not an uneducated people. The entire Bible,
a translation of Bunyan’s Pilgrim's Progress, and a number
of other books of a Christian and educational character exist
MADAGASCAR.
Madagas
car.
in the Malagasy language, together with grammars and
dictionaries prepared by the missionaries during their resi-
^ dence upon the island.
The early history of Madagascar is necessarily involved
in great obscurity on account of the absence of all records
among the people themselves. The name of the island is
unknown among the natives, and is only adopted by them
as the term by which foreigners designated their country.
It was called Serandah by the Moors and Arabs, by whom
it was visited for the purposes of trade long before it was
discovered by Europeans. The inhabitants of Europe were
made acquainted with its existence at the close of the
thirteenth century by the publication of the travels of Marco
Polo; and it is said to have been discovered by Europeans
in the year 1506. By the Portuguese it was called the
Island of St Lawrence, probably in honour of the saint on
whose day in the calendar it was discovered. The Portu¬
guese formed a settlement on the coast in 1508. By the
French, during the reign of Henri IV., it was called Isle
Dauphine. By Marco Polo it was designated Magaster ;
and by the English it seems always to have been called by
the name it now bears. The colony settled by the Portu¬
guese was destroyed by the French, who subsequently formed
their first settlement in the island in 1642, by virtue of a
patent from Cardinal Richelieu to a Captain Rivault, who,
associated with others, formed the French East India Com¬
pany. It is stated by Flaucourt that at that time the English
had a settlement of 200 men at St Augustine’s Bay; and
it is certain that considerable efforts were in progress for
colonizing in Madagascar during the early part of the reign
of Charles I., but in the troubles of subsequent periods it
appears to have been lost sight of. The French formed
settlements at different times, which continued for unequal
periods during 100 years, but the last was abandoned about
1740. In the beginning of the present century, and dur¬
ing the administration of General Decaen, the fast French
governor of Mauritius, French agents were sent to Ta-
matave and Foule Pointe to protect the French traders,
and facilitate commercial intercourse with the people, who
vyere then regarded as proprietors of the country. These
factories, or establishments for the protection of trade,
continued till the capture of Mauritius and its depend¬
encies by the English in 1810. On the 17th of February
1811, a British frigate proceeded to Madagascar, and M.
Sylvan Roux, the French commander at Tamatave, surren¬
dered to the officers sent down, and the places were occu¬
pied by British troops. A settlement was afterwards com¬
menced by the English at Port Loquez, in the north, and
a tract of land purchased from the chiefs. But about this
time the British government made proposals to Radama,
the sovereign of the Hovas, and the most powerful ruler in
the island, to abolish the trade in slaves from Madagas¬
car. In 1818 this object was secured by a , treaty, and
by this treaty the English ceded to Radama all claim to any
part of Madagascar derived from the French by conquest,
or obtained from the natives by purchase; and Madagascar
was declared to be an independent country. The French
subsequently claimed certain portions of the eastern coast;
but Radama refused to allow their claim, affirming that
he alone was sovereign of Madagascar, and they were
strangers and foreigners. In 1829 an expedition under
M. Gourbeyre was sent, consisting, it is said, of 1500
troops, to take possession of some parts of the coast; and
though they succeeded in destroying the village and
fort at Famatave, burning the habitations and killing
vast numbers of the people, the resistance they met with
at Foule Pointe obliged them to embark with loss, and
finally sail from the coast. No attempt has since been
made by the French to obtain possession by force of any
portion of the Island of Madagascar; the attack on
Tamatave in 1846 being caused altogether by the dif-
795
ferences between the native rulers and the resident foreign Madagas-
traders. car.
The reign of Radama, which commenced in 1810, and
terminated by his death in 1828, at the early age of thirty-
six, was the most important and eventful period in the
history of Madagascar. The treaty with England not only
secured the abolition of the slave trade, which had become
a source of great misery and injury to the people, but was
associated with more intimate and friendly relations with that
country than had ever existed between the people and
any civilized nation; it was followed by the introduction
of more honourable commerce and various productions of
civilized countries, besides the introduction of European
ai ms and tactics. I his last, by rendering other powers
subject to the sovereign of the Hovas, united the whole
population under one government. A number of youths
U'ere sent to Mauritius, and others to England, for educa¬
tion and instruction in the arts of civilized life; and Euro¬
pean artisans, sent out by the Missionary Society, introduced
several of the most useful handicrafts among the people.
Education commenced, and its benefits were widely ex¬
tended. The power of superstition, so unfavourable to
the advancement of the people, was undermined, and its
influence, by the shrewdness and address of the sovereign,
greatly impaired. Besides the introduction of letters and
the useful arts, the missionaries had instructed the people
in the Christian religion, and not only was the knowledge
of the chief distinguishing truths of Christianity very gene¬
rally diffused among the inhabitants of the central province,
where the missionaries resided, but some few of the people
appeared to have adopted in sincerity the faith of their
teachers. But on the death of Radama, and the assassina¬
tion of a number of his friends, including the young Chris¬
tian prince whom he had nominated as his successor, the
party who raised the present queen to supreme power,
and administered the government of the kingdom, pursued
a course directly opposed to the policy of Radama. Inter¬
course with Europeans was restricted and avoided, all the
innovations of Radama were disapproved, and every effort
made to revive ancient usages and the former supersti¬
tions of the country. The idols and their keepers were
restored to the power and influence they had originally
exercised; and it seemed to be the object of the authorities
to restore the country to the state in which it was prior to
the arrival and instructions of the Europeans, except in
regard to the slave trade, which was still forbidden, and
the military organization of the forces after the European
manner, which was still continued. The benefits of com¬
merce with Europeans were also so obvious and abundant,
that efforts were made to preserve and increase them; but
beyond this they seemed unwilling to extend their connec¬
tion with foreigners. Commercial intercourse was, in con¬
sequence of the attack of the French and English on Ta¬
matave in 1846, discontinued for several years, and though
restored in 1853, the existing authorities have not evinced
any desire for more intimate or extended intercourse with
Europeans.
The revival of the influence of the ancient superstitions
of the country, and other motives, led to the prohibition
of religious teaching, and threatened with the severest pe¬
nalty the profession of the Christian faith, and the practice
of any part of Christian worship by any native in Mada¬
gascar. The missionaries left the island in 1836; and after
this the authorities appear to have determined to use every
means in their power to prevent the continuance of Chris¬
tianity among the people, and a system of persecution, as
severe as any through which the disciples of Christ have
passed in former ages, was commenced in Madagascar.
Multitudes have been sentenced to fines and confiscation,
loss of lank and hard labour; others have been sold into
inedeemable slavery, or imprisoned in fetters. Some have
796
MAD
MAD
Maddaloni died in chains from starvation; others from drinking the
II poison-water; others have been put to death by spearing
Madeiras. or hanging. Some have been burnt alive; others have been
^ thrown from steep rocky precipices, and their mangled
remains left a prey for the dogs. Numbers have thus
honoured the Christian faith by the blameless consistency
of their lives, and the heroic constancy and holy fortitude
of their deaths. Christianity, nurtured by the teachings of
the few portions of the Bible still existing among them,
continues. It is said that the young prince, the queen’s
only child, and heir-apparent to the throne, is himself a
Christian, and has fully and publicly identified himself
with the Christians, and afforded them all the protection
and encouragement which his rank and influence affords.
Though the laws against Christianity are not repealed,
there is no active persecution, and none have for seve¬
ral years past been put to death on account of their
religion. (w.E.)
MADDALONI, a town of South Italy, kingdom of
Naples, and province of Terra-di-Lavoro, 14 miles N.N.E.
of Naples. It has several churches and convents, an hos¬
pital, and a royal college. It has also some manufactures,
and carries on a considerable trade in the products of the
vicinity. The noble aqueduct which conveys water to the
royal palace of Caserta is conspicuous here. Pop. 12,500.
MADDER. See Dyeing, c. iv. § 1.
MADEIRAS, The, a group of islands in the North
Atlantic Ocean, consisting of two inhabited islands, named
Madeira and Porto Santo, and three uninhabited barren
rocks, named collectively the Desertas. Funchal, the capi¬
tal of Madeira, is in N. Lat. 32. 37. 45., and W. Long. 16.
55. 20.
Madeira, the largest of the group, has a length of 30 geo¬
graphical miles, an extreme breadth of 12 miles, and a coast
line of about 72 miles, leaving out of view the indentations,
which are not great. Its longer axis lies E. and W.; and
it is traversed in the same direction by a mountain chain,
having a mean altitude of 4000 feet, and forming the back¬
bone of the island, up to which deep ravines penetrate from
both coasts. Pico Ruivo, the highest summit, stands in the
centre of the island, and has a height of 6100 feet. Several
of the adjacent summits are very little lower than this. I he
greatest part of the interior is uninhabited; for the towns,
villages, and scattered huts, either lie near the mouths of
ravines, or upon the lower slopes that stretch from the
mountains towards the coast. The ridges between the
ravines terminate in lofty headlands; and nearly the whole
coast is bound by precipices of dark basalt or crumbling
tufa. On the S. side of the island there is left hardly any of
the indigenous wTood which once clothed the whole island,
and gave it the name it bears ; but on the N., some of the
valleys are still filled with native trees of fine growth. The
eastern extremity is terminated by a long, narrow7, and com¬
paratively low promontory of rock, named Point Sao Lcu-
ren^n. Here there is a quantity of calcareous sand, with
land shells of an extinct species, and calcareous infiltrations
simulating the roots and branches of trees. After Funchal,
the capital, the principal places of the island are,—Santa
Cruz, Machico, Cama de Lobos, Ribeira Brava, Ponta de
Sol, Magdalena, and Calheta, on the S. coast; San \ i-
cente, Ponta Delgada, San Jorge, Santa Anna, Fayal, and
Porto da Cruz, on the N. coast. All these towns and vil¬
lages are at the mouths of ravines, except Santa Anna, which
is a parish scattered over ground elevated at least H)00 feet
above the sea. The N. coast is bound by a loftier wall of
rock, and has altogether a wdlder aspect than the S. I he
roads, in a country with a surface so broken as Madeira, must
necessarily be bad, and hence, in transporting articles of bulk
or weight, the people make use as far as possible of the sea.
A great improvement has taken place within the last two
or three years in the roads of the interior; but incessant
repairs are required to keep them passable—the heavy rains Madeiras.
of winter being very destructive. Those near Funchal are
well paved with small pieces of broken basalt.
It has been conjectured, but on insufficient evidence, that History,
the Phoenicians discovered Madeira at a very early period.
Pliny tells us of King Juba’s geographical investigations, and
mentions certain Purple, or Mauritanian Islands, the position
of which, with reference to the Fortunate Islands, or the Ca¬
naries, might seem to indicate the Madeiras. There is a ro¬
mantic story, which every historian of the island feels bound
to mention, even while he discredits it, to the effect that
two lovers, Robert Machim and Anna d’Arfet, fleeing from
England to France in 1346, wrere driven out of their course
by a violent storm, and cast on the coast of Madeira at the
place subsequently named Machico, in memory of one of
them. In 1419 two of the captains of Prince Henry of Por¬
tugal were driven by a storm to the island called by them
Porto Santo, or Holy Port, in gratitude for their rescue
from shipwreck. The next year an expedition was sent
out to colonize the island, and Madeira being descried, they
made for it, and took possession on behalf of the Portuguese
crown. Funchal was made a city in 1508, the seat of a
bishop in 1514, and of an archbishop in 1539. When the
archbishopric of Goa was created in 1547, the chief ecclesi¬
astical dignity of the island was reduced to a bishopric. For
the sixty years intervening between 1580 and 1640, Ma¬
deira, with Portugal itself, was under Spanish rule. In 1801
British troops arrived to garrison the island, as an attack
on the part of France was expected, but they remained
only a few months. In 1807 a large body of British troops,
commanded by General Beresford, was again landed, and
the island continued under the British flag until the peace
of 1814. A few years since, Madeira ceased to be a Por¬
tuguese colony, being made a province and an integral part
of the kingdom, entitled to send deputies to the Cortes
assembling at Lisbon.
The inhabitants are of Portuguese descent, with some Inhabi-
intermixture of Moorish and Negro blood. The men are oftants-
middle stature, well formed, with black hair and eyes.
Those of the lower classes are strong, capable of long-
continued labour, and industrious as long as they are under
the pressure of want, which is but too general!}7 the case.
They are sociable and light-hearted, respectful in their be¬
haviour towards their superiors, and polite towards each
other. The women, in spite of their fine hair and eyes,
are generally plain. The morals of all classes are not very
strict, the priests frequently setting a bad example to the
community. At the commencement of 1854 there were
991 foundlings in the different places provided for their
reception in Madeira. The dress of the peasantry, without
being picturesque, is peculiar. Both men and women wear
on their heads the carapu^a, a small cap made of blue cloth,
in shape something like a funnel, with the pipe standing
upwards. The men have trousers of linen, drawn tight, and
terminating at the knees; a coarse shirt envelopingthe upper
part of their person, covered by a short linen jacket, or, in
the town, by a jacket of blue cloth, completes their attire,
with the exception of a pair of rough yellow boots. 1 he
women’s outer garments consist of a gaudily printed calico
gown, with a small cape of coarse scarlet or blue woollen
cloth. The natives are fond of music, but they possess little
skill in singing or playing, except as regards one instrument,
the machete, \ small‘kind of guitar, struck by the fingers.
The mass of the people is entirely uneducated; and even
the higher classes, though usually speaking English or
French, seem to have little taste for reading or mental im¬
provement. They are indolent, in spite of the fact that
they are becoming poorer day by day. The principal busi¬
ness is carried on by British merchants, in whose hands
the chief part of the wine trade has been vested. * Ihe
British consul receives a salary of L.300, and is allowed to
MADEIRA S. 797
Madeiras. engage in trade. The inhabitants of Madeira amounted in
] 855 to 102,837persons. The population has been gradually
decreasing for some years, and this decrease may be in part
attributed to the stream of emigration which has of late
years set in to the British settlements in South America, and
in part to the severe pressure which followed the failure of
the grape crop. Notwithstanding that, in the ten years
ending with 1855, nearly 35,000 persons left the island as
emigrants, there is reason to believe that it is still much
too densely populated, looking to the small proportion which
the cultivable ground bears to the whole, and to the general
want of capital.
Govern- The administration of affairs is in the hands of a civil
inent, civil governor appointed by the crown. At the present time
^msions, the same person holds this office and that of military
commandant. The defence of the island is intrusted to a
battalion of infantry of the line, a detachment of artillery, and
a militia of nominally 1200 men. The forts along the shore
are neglected and falling to ruin. The law' of Portugal is
administered by two chief judges appointed by the crown,
each of whom has a separate division of the island under
his jurisdiction, within which he tries both civil and criminal
cases, with the assistance of a jury. Minor cases are taken
before magistrates elected by the people. For municipal
purposes, the island is divided into nine districts, called
concelhos, each of which has its municipal chamber (the
members of which are chosen by the people), whose duty
it is to keep the roads properly repaired, cleansed, lighted,
&c. The chief police magistrate of each concelho, styled
administrador, is appointed by government. A bishop,
with a yearly income of L.533, is at the head of the clergy,
his cathedral being at Funchal. There are 49 parishes,
each of which has its church and resident priest. Roman
Catholicism is the established form of religion, but other
religions are tolerated, except as regards the natives. The
island sends four representatives (deputados) to the Cortes
at Lisbon. They are elected by such of the male inhabi¬
tants as possess an annual income of 100 dollars. In 1854
the number of children of both sexes receiving instruction
at elementary schools supported by private funds was 197;
those of both sexes at the public primary schools supported
by the municipalities and by government amounted to 2055,
and those at private schools of this class numbered 337.
At the Lyceum of Funchal, an establishment falling into
the class of secondary schools, there are six professors, who
are paid by government. In 1854 the pupils at the Lyceum
were 121 in number. The total sum expended by the
government on schools of all classes in 1854 was about
L.1230. 1 his sum covered the salaries of four professors
of medicine and surgery attached to the hospital at Funchal,
and the cost of the priests’ seminario. By law, all children
of a certain age should be sent to school, but this regulation
is not enforced, so that probably not more than an eighth
part of them are actually receiving education.
Trade. The manufactures of Madeira are insignificant, their
chief object being to satisfy some of the simple wants of
the poorer classes. Baskets, straw hats, coarse linen and
woollen articles, and shoes, are the principal objects. Arti¬
ficial feathers, flowers, and sweetmeats are made for sale by
the nuns. A good deal of needlework embroidery has been
executed of late years by the women of Funchal for export¬
ation, and a few fancy articles are made of the fibre of the
Agave Americana. The bulk of the labouring population
is employed in agricultural pursuits. Wine has hitherto
been the chief article of export, but this branch of trade
will soon cease. The rearing of the cochineal insect has
been lately undertaken, in the hopes of its supplying the
loss of the grape. Many of the coopers employed during
the existence of the w ine trade have emigrated ; the rest
earn a precarious subsistence. The casks they made pos¬
sessed repute for excellence of construction. The chief
artisans of Funchal at present are boot and shoe makers, Madeiras.
cabinetmakers, carpenters, and stone-masons. The num- 's—/
ber of merchant ships anchoring at Funchal (which is the
only foreign port) during 1855 was 242, of which 121 were
British, and 91 Portuguese. The chief imports are,—manu¬
factured goods, iron ware, grain, salt, and timber. In 1855,
of grain there was imported 195,765 bushels, principally
from the neighbouring coast of Africa, and from the
Azores. In the same year 27,800 bushels of salt entered.
The official returns of the imports of manufactured goods
cannot be relied on. The total receipts of the custom¬
house in 1855 amounted to rather more than L.l 7,000.
I here is no bank on the island; the gold and silver coin
in circulation is not Portuguese, but British, American, and
Spanish. Accounts are made out in reis, imaginary coins,
4800 of which are equal by law to the pound sterling.
Spanish and American dollars are current, at the value of
1000 reis, or 4s. 2d. British money. Funchal is a coaling
station for the British mail steamers from England to
Brazil and the African coast, which touch here once a
month on their outward voyages, and again on their return.
The Portuguese and French steamers to Brazil likewise
touch here. Besides these vessels, twm English sailing
packets are continually plying between London and Ma¬
deira, and a Portuguese packet brig to and from Lisbon.
The system of agriculture in Madeira is of a very primi- Agricul-
tive description, the implements of every kind being ex- ture-
tremely rude, and the ignorance of all principles complete.
Probably not more than one-half of the island is cultivated.
I he want of water keeps large tracts in their original state,
and a very large part of the remainder is of such a nature
as to defy cultivation. An incalculable amount of labour
has been expended upon the soil of Madeira : First in the
erection of w'alls, that have been built with the view of pre¬
venting the soil being washed from the slopes into the sea
by the heavy rains of winter. In this way a great part of
the lower and cultivated region is supported, the inclosures
being built up one above another in the form of terraces.
Secondly, the levadas, or water-courses, have cost vast toil.
These works are either of masonry, or cut through the solid
rock, and the water is thus brought by long winding chan¬
nels from points high up in the mountains to the region of
cultivation, where it is distributed by subordinate channels
to the different inclosures, in regular order, according to the
rights of their owners. In the absence of irrigation, the
island for half the year would be a bare rock. Water in
this climate has its value as well as the soil, and the one is
made the subject of bargain, and sells just as much as the
other. The springs, as might be supposed, are more nu¬
merous and copious on the north side of the great central
chain of hills than on the south, whilst the demand for wa¬
ter is more urgent on the south than on the north. At¬
tempts have consequently from time to time been made to
convey the water by tunnels from one side to the other, but
the skill of the engineers has frequently been inadequate to
the difficulties, for the bottom of the completed tunnel has
been more than once found to slope in the wrong direction.
Could the whole of the south side be properly irrigated, the
produce of the island would be wonderfully increased. A
very large proportion of the land, perhaps as much as four-
fifths, is strictly entailed. The removal of this restriction
on the sale of land has been frequently agitated, but hither¬
to without avail. 1 he relations of landlord and tenant
are founded upon the old Roman, or what is now known as
the metayer system. Money rents are unknown ; but the
gross produce of the land, after deducting the tithe, is equally
divided between the owner and the occupier. It is the lat¬
ter who is at the expense of all improvements, and these
are his absolute property, which he can sell to another, with¬
out the consent of the landlord, whenever he pleases, and
which, if not otherwise dealt with, will descend to his heirs.
M A D E I R A S.
798
Madeiras. The landlord, however, has always the right of getting rid of
this incumbrance on his estate by paying his tenant the value
of the improvements; but as he is usually without capital,
this is very seldom done. Hence, the occupier of the land
acquires a nearly perfect fixity of tenure. According to the
mode of valuation adopted in such cases, the tenant’s share
of the land may be estimated to be worth at least as much
as the landlord’s. The tenements are usually very small;
and what we call fields are very rarely seen. The cattle
are all stall-fed when they are not feeding on the moun¬
tains. Horses are never employed for draught, all the la¬
bour of that kind being effected by oxen, of which there is
an abundant supply. These animals are small, but strong
and hardy. Mules and asses are a good deal employed to
convey burdens on their backs. Up to the year 1852, the
vine, which was introduced soon after the discovery of the
island, yielded the chief produce—that which has given Ma¬
deira a name all over the world. In that year disease first
manifested itself; it stopped the production of wine, and is
gradually destroying the plant. The pressure was at first
great upon all classes ; but liberal subscriptions from abroad
in some degree mitigated the distress. Nevertheless, many
persons died from sheer want during the first eighteen
months, and a large number were induced to leave the island
for the British West Indies or South America. The lower
classes have now got past the worst; indeed, they are bet¬
ter off now than they were for several years previous to the
appearance of the grape disease. The income of the land¬
lords, however, has not increased with the increasing pros¬
perity of the tenants, and many of them have suffered a loss
of at least one-half their revenue. The trade of a wane
merchant will soon be extinct; for though large stocks had
accumulated, owing to the gradually diminishing demand,
the continued drain, in the absence of fresh supplies, will
exhaust them in a year or two. Taking the average of the
ten years ending with 1855, the annual export was about 5000
pipes, each pipe containing 92 imperial gallons. The cul¬
tivators of the soil have covered large tracts with sugar-cane,
which here succeeds pretty well, though it does not attain
the luxuriance of that in the West Indies. The juice is
not converted into sugar, but is distilled into a kind of rum,
the whole of which is drunk by the lower classes on the
island. The cultivation of grain has considerably increased
of late years, and the island now produces a much greater
proportion of what is required for consumption than formerly.
In 1854 the harvest is supposed to have yielded 113,250
bushels of grain, whilst the importations amounted to 216,290
bushels. Several of the merchants are turning their atten¬
tion to cochineal, which has succeeded well in the Canaries
and in Algeria. The vegetables principally cultivated are,
—potatoes, sweet potatoes, pumpkins, beans, French beans,
onions, cabbages, and theArum Colocasia; the grain chiefly
consists of maiz, wheat, and barley. A little arrow-root is
made. The coffee tree succeeds well in low damp situations,
and the produce commands a higher price on the island than
Brazilian coffee. The commonest fruits are,—the orange,
peach, guava, fig, custard-apple, granadilla, and banana.
Apples, pears, cherries, walnuts, and mulberries, succeed
better on the hills than near the shore. Various tropi¬
cal plants have been introduced of late years, such as the
mango and pine-apple. There are large chestnut woods at
a height of between 2000 and 3000 feet, producing great
quantities of fruit, which forms an appreciable item in the
sustenance of the people.
Funchal. Funchal, styled a city, is the chief town of Madeira, and
the capital of the archipelago. It is distant about 1164
miles from the Lizard Point in England, and 380 from the
coast of Africa. It has a population, including the neigh¬
bouring rural parishes, of nearly 29,000 persons, equal to
almost one-third of the total population of the island, but
probably not many more than half that number live in the
town itself. It stands on the shore of a shallow bay on the Madeiras.
S. coast, backed by an amphitheatre of mountains. In
this position it is seen to great advantage. Numerous count¬
ing-houses, with their gardens, on the neighbouring slopes,
give an air of great cheerfulness to a rugged landscape.
I he height of the mountains immediately behind may be
estimated at 4000 feet. The bay is commanded by the
cannon of a small fort placed on an insulated rock near the
shore, and those of a fort upon an elevation behind the
town. There are no facilities for landing either passengers
or goods. The anchorage is tolerably good, and vessels in
the bay are safe from all winds, except that from the S.
When this blows stx-ong, they are obliged to slip their cable
and take to the open sea. The chief edifices are,—the
churches, none of which deserve much notice, the gover¬
nor’s chapel, and the custom-house, a spacious substantial
building. The streets are narrow and irregular, but very
clean ; at night they are lighted with oil lamps. The city
contains three public walks planted with trees, some foun¬
tains of excellent water,-a large poor-house, flat-roofed, a
large hospital, and a jail. The dowager Empress of Brazil is
now building an hospital for the reception of 24 consumptive
patients of Portuguese or Brazilian birth. Interments have
ceased to be made in the churches, and now take place in
appropriate cemeteries near the town. The houses are
usually furnished with an iron balcony at the windows; and
the larger houses have a tall turret. The entrances of some
of the great houses are striking, from the spacious paved court,
or hall, into which the principal staircases descend. The
ground storey is usually set apart for shops, stores, &c., and
the windows are defended with stout iron bars, giving a pri¬
son-like air to the streets. The shop windows, as in Lis¬
bon, present none of the tempting display of those in an
English town. Three small streams traverse the town on
their way to the sea, and the deep channels along which
they run are crossed by bridges. In summer the streams
are nearly dried up. Occasionally during winter the wa¬
ters are swollen by violent rain on the mountains, and a vast
quantity of rubbish is brought down, which chokes up the
channel, and compels the water to overflow its banks. In
this way much damage has been done in a few hours to the
houses in the neighbourhood. A very disastrous inunda¬
tion occurred during the night, in October 1803, after a hot
and dry summer. Great damage was done to property,
several houses and a church were swept away, and between
300 and 400 persons lost their lives. In October 1842
another flood occasioned immense damage, but no lives
were lost. In December 1855 one of the rivers was blocked
up by stones brought down from the hills, and the stream
rushed into the adjacent houses on each side. A former
governor laid the foundation of a museum of natural history,
geology, &c.; and the Camara of Funchal has a small collec¬
tion of books accessible to the public. The Portuguese
Club has a large house, containing ball-rooms and a billiard-
table, but no library. The room of the Commercial Associa¬
tion is supplied with newspapers. The aftairs of the city
are managed by the Camara Municipal, a body of persons
somewhat like one of our municipal corporations, the chair¬
man of which is named a president. Their income arises
from a share of the duty on grain imported, an impost on
salt, fresh meat sold in open market, fish taken, and wine,
and on licenses for the opening of shops. They expended
in 1854-5 about L.3900,principally in lighting and repairing
the streets. The leper’s hospital, with its 30 inmates, costs
them L.290: their schools about L.400. The markets
are well supplied with vegetables, but they are not of the
first quality. Flesh meat is cheap, and tolerably good, with
the exception of the mutton. Fish is abundant and cheap,
when fishing is possible, and forms an important item in the
sustentation of the islanders. No wheel-carriages are in
use; all cartage being effected either on the backs of mules
MADEIRA S.
799
Madeiras. and asses, or by means of a rude sledge drawn by bullocks,
v—A low, covered car, mounted upon a sledge, and drawn by
oxen, is generally used in place of the omnibuses and cabs
of our cities. The only other means of locomotion are by
horses, palanquins, and hammocks. The hammock is a
kind of chair suspended from a pole, each extremity of which
is borne on a man’s shoulder. The second resembles a
ship’s hammock, and is likewise suspended from a pole.
This affords an easy mode of progression on a long journey.
The common people are accustomed to carry heavy bur¬
dens on the head and shoulders, and resolutely refuse to
make use of such innovations as wheel-barrows and trucks.
The only bookseller’s shop in Madeira is kept by an
Englishman for the benefit of his countrymen. Some of
the Portuguese shopkeepers have a few books on their
shelves, but they are chiefly almanacs, or works of Ro¬
man Catholic devotion. Four newspapers are published
weekly in Funchal, the circulation of which is very small.
Attracted thither by the wine trade, many British mer¬
chants have taken up their residence at Funchal. The Bri¬
tish resident population of Madeira amounted in 1856 to 75
families and 290 persons. They have built a church and
constructed a cemetery. It has its shopkeepers, physicians,
and a chaplain, who receives L.400 a-year, partly from the
residents, and partly from the British government. There
are two places of worship where the forms of the English
Established Church are used, and the Scotch Presbyterians
have likewise a place of religious meeting. Visitors to the
number of about 300 annually betake themselves to Fun¬
chal during the winter and spring, the major part of whom
are persons afflicted with pulmonary disease. The town is
entirely protected from the north wind; and though the
climate is rather damp, the temperature is remarkably
equable. The air is free from dust and smoke; and the
trying winds of spring, so prevalent on the continent of
Europe, are not felt here. The hotels and boarding-houses
are numerous and well conducted, being chiefly in the
hands of English persons. Invalids may obtain in most of
these very comfortable accommodation. Furnished houses,
with gardens, in the immediate neighbourhood of the town,
can also be obtained. Good drugs are dispensed by the
apothecaries ; and most of the articles a temporary sojourner
is likely to require may be purchased at the shops. At the
English Club there is a billiard-table and a library of 2300
volumes. Such is the number of British assembled every
winter in a small space, that a stranger will probably feel
his separation from home less here than anywhere else out
of England.1
Situate in the temperate zone, about ten degrees N. of
the tropics, and surrounded by the ocean, Madeira enjoys a
climate of singular mildness; for not only is the winter
warm, but the summer is cool. The mean annual tempe¬
rature of Funchal is about 66° F. In winter the thermo¬
meter has never been know n to fall lower than 460,5, and
indeed it very seldom touches 48°; whilst the temperature
in the summer rarely rises higher than 80° near the shore.
The mean temperature of the seasons is nearly the follow¬
ing,—spring, 65° ; summer, 70°-5 ; autumn, 670,5 ; winter,
61°. The mean daily range is about 10°. The number
of days in the year on which rain has been observed to fall
varies from 66 (1850) to 113 (1852) ; but 88 may be con¬
sidered the mean. The annual quantity of rain likewise
varies considerably ; in 1825 as little as 20-43 inches fell,
in 1826 as much as 43-35 inches; but 30 inches may be
considered the average fall, and of this quantity nearly |ths
fall in winter, f ths in autumn, and £th in spring. A heavy
and prolonged descent of rain usually occurs in September
or October, after which the weather clears up until Janu-
Olimate.
ary. Rain continues to fall, at more or less distant in- Madeiras.
tervals, until June, after which come months of settled
weather, almost unbroken by a shower. The rain is often
very irregularly distributed through the colder months. At
the commencement of the rainy weather, and sometimes in
the course of the winter, the rain falls with almost tropical
violence. Observations with the w7et and dry bulb thermo¬
meter four times daily through the first four months of
1852 and 1853, gave, as a mean result, 73 per cent, of the
vapour required for the saturation of the atmosphere. Ob¬
servations taken eight times daily in the seven months
from November 1854 to May 1855, yielded results that
showed the air held 71 "6 per cent, of the vapour necessary
for saturation. It must be remembered that Madeira is a
small island in a w-arm latitude, and that the air must conse¬
quently contain a considerable quantity of aqueous vapour
from the proximity of the sea. The prevalent winds are
those that blow from the N., or from a point or two E. or
W. of N. I lie W. wind, coming across a great expanse
of ocean, brings rain; that from the E., coming from
Africa, is a dry wind. The leste of the inhabitants is a hot
and dry E.S.E. wind, which visits Madeira for a few days
each year, usually in the summer. It has been compared
to the scirocco of southern Europe, but it has few of the
disagreeable effects of that wind; and some persons even
feel an unusual exhilaration of spirits during its continu¬
ance. The mountain-tops are then hotter than the lower
regions, but even there the thermometer sometimes indi¬
cates 93°; and, at a much lower temperature than this, fur¬
niture, books, &c., show the extreme dryness of the air by
bending or cracking. As the thermometer never approaches
the freezing point by several degrees, frost and snow are
wholly unknown in Funchal; but snowfalls on the mountains
at least once during the winter, not lower, however, than 2500
feet above the level of the sea ; and hail sometimes makes its
appearance in the storms of wind which occasionally burst
over Funchal. A series of daily barometrical observations,
made at ten a.m. for six years, at a locality 89 feet above
the sea, gave 30° as the mean annual reading. Sir James
Clark, speaking of the climate of Madeira with reference
to its effects on pulmonary disease, makes the following re¬
marks:— “When w-e take into consideration the mildness
of the winter and the coolness of the summer, together
with the remarkable equality of the temperature during the
day and night, as well as throughout the year, we may safely
conclude that the climate of Madeira is the finest in the
northern hemisphere. That great and lasting benefit is to
be derived (by an invalid) from a temporary residence in the
climate of Madeira many living examples sufficiently prove.”
The Desertas are three long, narrow rocks (one of them
attaining the height of 2000 feet), lying at the distance of
about 11 miles S.E. from the nearest part of Madeira.
They present nearly vertical precipices to the sea on both
sides, and are not easily accessible ; yet persons visit them
for the purpose of sowing a little grain and gathering the
scanty crop. Rabbits and gulls are abundant, and there
are seals at one of these islets.
Porto Santo, where a lieutenant-governor resides, lies
about 25 geographical miles N.E. of Madeira, surrounded
by several uninhabited islands and rocks. Its length is
about 6^ geographical miles, and its greatest breadth 3
geographical miles. Its population, according to the re¬
turn of 1854, amounted to 1708 persons. The only town
bears the name of the island, which is unproductive, the
supply of water being scanty, a»d bare of every kind of wood.
Before the grape disease made its appearance, 1500 pipes
of wine of an inferior quality were annually made here,
which was distilled into brandy, for the purpose of mixing
1 Further information respecting the island will be found in a little work entitled Madeira, its Climate and Scenery : a Handbook for
Invalid and other Visitors, 2d. ed., Edin. 1857.
800 MADE
Madeiras. with the wines of’ Madeira. Around the town there is a
large tract of comparatively level ground, great part of
which is covered by calcareous sand (perhaps an ancient
sand-dune) containing fossil land-shells. At the extremi¬
ties of the island are hills, of which Pico de Facho, the
highest, attains the altitude of 1660 feet. Small sailfhg
boats are continually passing between Porto Santo and
Madeira to convey to the former the various requirements
of the inhabitants, including firewood, and the greater part
of their food. Hardly any grain, besides barley, is cultivated.
Zoology. Madeira has no indigenous land mammals. The wild
goats and swine, spoken of by some of the early voyagers,
must have escaped from confinement. The rabbit, which
abounds in certain parts of the island, and at the Desertas,
the black rat, brown rat, and mouse, have all been intro¬
duced. Seals, however, were encountered by the first
comers, and this amphibious animal still haunts the De¬
sertas. The porpoise is occasionally seen swimming near
the shore.
As to birds, it appears that only one is peculiar, and
that is a wren. Amongst the thirty species which breed
on these islands are,—the kestrel, buzzard, and barn-owl;
the blackbird, redbreast, blackcap, wagtail, goldfinch,
two swifts, three pigeons, the quail, red-legged par¬
tridge, woodcock, two petrels, and three puffins. The
green canary, the ancestor of our domesticated bird, is
abundant here, as well as in the Canary Islands. About
seventy other species have been occasionally seen at Ma¬
deira, straggling thither chiefly from the African coast, and
many of them coming with the leste. The commonest of
these are the sparrow-hawk, two herons, the common cur¬
lew, snipe, coot, water-hen, widgeon, kittiwake, and
hoopoe. Sometimes the Egyptian vulture, the solan goose,
the common starling, thrush, wren, skylark, sparrow, mar¬
tin, turtle-dove, bittern, corncrake, cuckoo, and crow, find
their way thither, as well as the African bee-eater and the
European goat-sucker.
The reptiles are very few, and none are poisonous. A
small lizard (Lacerta Dugesii) is abundant, and makes
its appearance in thousands on a sunny wall. It was very
destructive to the grape crop. A frog has been intro¬
duced, and is gradually making its way over the island.
A turtle (Caouana caretta, J. E. Gray) is frequently
captured, and cooked for the table; but the soup is much
inferior to that made from the green turtle of the West
Indies.
The fishes are said to belong to nearly 190 species,
many of which are peculiar, and beautiful or curious.
Several of them are used for food, and amongst these are
the tunny, which is sometimes taken of the weight of
300 lb., Jew-fish, mackerel, John Dory, grey mullet,
red mullet, and braize. Amongst the more curious may
be mentioned several species of shark, the torpedo, the stag¬
horned horse-fish, the striped remora, flying-fish, sword-fish,
and trumpet-fish.
Nearly 1200 species of insects have been found at the
Madeiras, and of these the beetles claim 555 species, the
Hymenoptera about 217 species, and the Diptera about 160
species. The beetles have been described in Mr Wollas¬
ton’s elaborate volume, Insecta Maderensia ; but none of
the other orders have yet received a close examination.
Gay colours are rare in the Madeira Coleoptera, the tints
being usually obscure. The type of this section of the
fauna is, in the main, Mediterranean; and it is said to have
a greater affinity to the fauna of Sicily than to that of any
other country which has been hitherto investigated. One
or two of the spiders are reputed to be poisonous.
About 119 species of shells, covering land molluscs, ex¬
ist at the Madeiras, of which 111 are peculiar, and of the
whole number, 76 belong to the genus Helix. In addition
to the above, 13 species of dead land shells have been
IRAS.
found in calcareous sand-beds, which do not correspond to Madeiras.
living species. v-»-'
A list, acknowledged to be incomplete, of 156 species of
marine testaceous mollusca, found at Madeira, has been
printed; 70 per cent, of the species being common to
the Mediterranean and the Lusitanian coast, and 45 per
cent, common to the coast of Britain. The corals are very
few, but there are many kinds of sponge; none, however,
of any value commercially.
A considerable number of the plants found in the lowest Botany,
regions have certainly been introduced since the coloniza¬
tion of the island by the Portuguese. Besides these, a
large portion of the flora is of a Mediterranean character.
Of the rest, the great majority is common to Madeira and
the Canary Islands ; but there still remain between 80 and
90 plants which are peculiar. The flowering plants, found
truly wild, belong to about 364 genera and 650 species: the
monocotyledons numbering 72 genera and 122 species;
the dicotyledons 292 genera and 528 species. The pro¬
portion of monocotyledons to dicotyledons is therefore
10 to 43. The three largest orders are—Compositae,
Leguminbsae, and Graminaceae. Madeira contains 41
species of ferns, 3 of which are peculiar to it, and 6
others belong to the peculiar flora of the islands of the
North Atlantic. A connection with the flora of Madeira
and that of the West Indies and tropical America has been
inferred by the presence in the former of 6 ferns, found
nowhere on the continent of Europe or in North Africa,
but existing on the islands of the E. coast of the American
continent, or on the Isthmus of Panama. A further rela¬
tionship to that continent is to be traced by the presence
in Madeira of the beautiful shrub Clethra arborea, Ait., be¬
longing to a genus which is otherwise wholly American.
In the lower regions the dragon-tree (Draccena Draco, L.),
and a cactus {Opuntia Tuna, Mill.), are forms more striking
to the eye than any other amongst the indigenous vege¬
tation. Of the former, very few wild specimens remain;
but the Cactus exists in such abundance in the lower
regions, as to give a character to the landscape. Amongst
the trees, four of the laurel order are most conspicuous.
The other trees most worthy of note are,—a Pittosporum,
a Heberdenia, a Juniperus, a Sideroxylon, a Rhamnus,
and an Olea (Picconia),—all now more or less scarce. The
juniper attains a height of 40 or 50 feet, and yields a
scented wood, which is prized by the cabinetmaker. Two
heaths of arborescent growth, and a whortleberry, cover
large tracts on the mountains. The flora of Madeira has
been greatly defaced by the reckless hand of man. Several
of the trees and shrubs grow only in situations that are
nearly inaccessible; and some of the plants are of the
greatest rarity. Few specimens of the noble forests that
once clothed the island remain, and these are daily de¬
creasing. The coast is too steep, and the sea too boister¬
ous, for a luxuriant marine vegetation. Between high and
low water mark there is a narrow fringe of Ulvse, with a
few small plants belonging to the orders Fucacese and
Ceramiaceae.
Nearly the whole of Madeira is of volcanic origin. The Geology,
foundation of the island may have been either laid under the
sea, or pushed through the floor of a continent; and two
distinct causes, operating in some degree contempora¬
neously, have contributed to its present elevation. First,
a long and complicated series of eruptions gradually piled
up a mass of basalt, tuff, cinders, ashes, &c., to the height
of between 4000 and 5000 feet; secondly, this mass, or so
much of it as was then in existence, was upheaved to the
extent of from 1000 to 2000 feet. Evidence that at least
part of Madeira is of submarine origin is afforded by frag¬
ments of limestone imbedded in basalt and tuff, in a valley
near the northern coast. Although the structure of the
limestone has been much changed by heat, the genera of
MAD
Madeiras. its marine shells can still be identified. But it seems to be
only the nucleus of the island that yields any trace of a
submarine origin ; the upper two-thirds at the centre, and
all the exterior beds downward to the coast, are apparently
of supra-marine formation. That there were pauses of
considerable duration in the accumulation of the materials
of the island, is shown by several facts. The lignite and
leaf bed of San Jorge, lying under 1200 feet of lavas, prove
that time was allowed for the growth of a vegetation of a
high order. It is clear, moreover, that great alterations
and dislocations had taken place in the rocks of various
localities before other lavas and tulfs were in existence.
There do not appear to be any data for determining
when volcanic action first commenced in this locality; but
the limestone fossils, though scanty, afford evidence that
the upheaval of that portion of the island at least took place
during, or subsequent to, the miocene tertiary epoch. Nor
is anything clear as to the period of the cessation of vol¬
canic action. At the present day the subterranean fires
seem perfectly extinct. There are no live craters, nor
smoking crevices, as at the Canaries and Cape Verdes; or
hot springs, as at the Azores. On the slopes which descend
from the central ridge to the sea, especially in the neigh¬
bourhood of Funchal, there are many hills with conical
shapes of more or less regularity, which seem to have been
formed at a comparatively modern epoch. Volcanic cinders
and slag are lying upon several of them, which look as if
they had been thrown out of a furnace yesterday. Yet,
round the base of others there may be traced streams of
lava flowing from a higher source, and showing that, subse¬
quent to the construction of these lateral cones, modern as
they look, molten matter issued from higher vents, which
assumed, on cooling, the character of ordinary compact
basalt.
If we examine the general configuration of Madeira, we
shall see a mountain chain, about 30 miles in length,
running E. and W., and throwing off lateral ridges, that
give it an extreme breadth of about 12 miles. Peaks rise
about the middle to a height of more than 6000 feet;
and deep ravines, lying between the lateral ridges, strike
for the most part N. and S. from the central ridge to the
sea. In the sections afforded by the ravines, the nucleus
of the island is seen to consist of a confused mass of more
or less stratified rock, upon which rest beds of tuff, scoriae,
and lava, in the shape of basalt, trap, and trachyte, the
whole traversed by dykes. These beds are thinnest near
the central axis; as they approach the coast they become
thicker and less intersected by dykes. They do not often
exceed 1500 feet in thickness, but a section in the Curral
shows that they have there a thickness of 3000 feet. Near
the axis their angles vary from 3° to 7°; but 2 or 3 miles
away they are inclined at angles of 10°, 13°, and even 20°.
Sir Charles Lyell is of opinion that these lavas issued, for
the most part, from vents situate in the central district;
that the form originally possessed by the whole island was
that of a flattened dome, with sides varying in their slope
from 3° to 7° or 8°; and that the present steeper inclina¬
tion of the lava was acquired at a subsequent period,
when shaken by convulsions which attended eruptions from
lateral vents, whether clefts or craters, at a much lower
elevation. At the centre of the island there are several
summits of nearly the same altitude, and these are in some
places connected by narrow walls and ridges, which are
frequently quite impassable, whilst at others they are sepa¬
rated by ravines of enormous depth. On all sides are seen
vertical dykes, projecting like turrets above the weathered
surface of the softer beds. Sir C. Lyell found the materials
of many of these peaks arranged with a quaquaversal dip,
and he therefore considers them to be the ruins or skeletons
of cones of eruption.
In the various parts of the island may be seen elevated
VOL. XIII.
MAD
tracts of comparatively level ground. These are supposed
to have been formed by the meeting of numerous streams
of lava flowing from cones and points of eruption in close
proximity; various ejectments assisting at the same time to
fill up inequalities. Deep down in the lateral ravines,
covered by beds of basalt, there exist cones of eruption
which have been overwhelmed by streams of melted matter
issuing from the central region, and afterwards exposed to
view by the same causes that excavated the ravines. These
ravines may be regarded as having been formed at first by
subterranean movements, both gradual and violent, which
dislocated the rocks, and cut channels along which streams
flowed to the sea. In course of time the waters, periodi¬
cally swollen by melted snows and the copious rains of
winter, would cut deeper and deeper into the heart of the
mountains, and would undermine the lateral cliffs, until the
valleys became as wide as we now find them. Even the
Curral, which, from its position in the centre of the island,
its rounded shape, and other circumstances, has been usually
deemed the ruins of a crater, is thought to be nothing more
than a valley scooped out in the way described. The
rarity of crateriform cavities in Madeira is very remark¬
able. There exists, however, to the E. of Funchal, on a
tract 2500 feet high, the Lagoa, a nearly perfect crater,
500 feet in diameter, and with a depth of 150 feet; and
there is another equally perfect in the district known as
Fanal, in the N.W. of Madeira, nearly 5000 feet above the
sea. The basalt, of which much of the upper part of the
island is composed, is of a dark colour and a tough texture.
It is sometimes full of vesicular cavities, formed by the
expansion of imprisoned gases. Olivine and augite are
frequently disseminated in it. A rudely-columnar struc¬
ture is very often seen in the basalt, but there is nothing
so perfect as Staffa or the Giant’s Causeway. The trachytic
rocks are small in quantity compared with those of the
basaltic class. The tufa is soft and friable, and generally
of a yellow colour; where a hot stream of lava has been
poured over the tufa, it has assumed a red colour. Black
ashes and fragments of pumice are sometimes found in the
tufaceous strata.
The mineral contents of the rocks of Madeira are unim¬
portant. There are no metallic mines ; a small quantity of
native lead has, however, been found. The lignite is too
impure to be of any value as fuel. No sulphur has been
found; but a little iron pyrites and specular iron are occa¬
sionally met with. The mineral spring of St Antonio,
near Funchal, is impregnated with carbonate of iron, and
small quantities of the muriates of soda and magnesia, but
no sulphates have been detected in it. The basalt yields
an excellent building-stone, various qualities of which are
quarried near Cama dos Lobos, 5 or 6 miles W. of Fun¬
chal. A small quantity of sienitic greenstone has been
discovered, in situ, near Porto da Cruz, evidently pushed
up from below.
At Porto Santo the trachytic rocks bear a much greater
proportion to the basaltic than in Madeira. An adjacent
islet is formed of tuffs and calcareous rock, indicating a
submarine origin, upon which supra-marine lavas have been
poured. The older series contains corals and shells (also
of the miocene tertiary epoch), with water-worn pebbles,
cemented together by carbonate of lime; the whole appear¬
ing to have been formed upon an ancient beach. The
calcareous rock is taken in large quantities to Funchal, to
be burnt into lime for building purposes.
Some philosophers have thought that many of the facts
regarding the fauna and flora of the Atlantic islands may be
explained by supposing that there existed, at a geologically
modern period, a large tract of land which connected these
islands with the continents of Europe and Africa, (j.y.j.)
Madeira, a river of South America, Brazil, formed by
the junction of the Beni and Mamore, in S. Lat. 10.23., W.
5 i
801
Madeira.
IF
802 MAD
Madison, Long. 65°, and falling into the Amazon after a N.E. course
James 0f aj30ut; 700 miles.
Madison MADISON, James, fourth president of the United States
v y of America, was born in Virginia in 1758. He was edu-
. * Y cated at the college of Princeton, in New Jersey, where he
graduated in 1772, and commenced to prepare himself for
the bar. He began his political career in 1776 as a mem¬
ber of the Virginia Convention, when he gave early proof
of high talent and patriotic zeal. He took his seat as a
member of Congress in 1780. After the settlement of the
dispute between Great Britain and the colonies, Madison
returned to private life, to prosecute his legal studies and ex¬
tend his acquaintance with natural history, his favourite
branch of science. He was again elected to the Virginia
legislature in 1784, when he planned and took an active
part in completing the constitution of the United States.
His personal record of the debates of the convention re¬
specting the constitution is the only complete or authentic
information on that subject extant. He was chosen a mem¬
ber of the first Congress under the constitution in 1789,
when he gained the friendship and esteem of General
Washington and other eminent men of his time. When
Jefferson was elected president, he became his secretary of
state, and took an active part in the negotiations then pend¬
ing between the United States and Spain, Britain, and
France. His Examination of the Doctrines of National
Law is said to be one of the ablest papers on the relative
rights of neutral and belligerent powers to be met with.
He succeeded Jefferson as president in 1809; and one of
his first acts was to forbid all communication with England
and France till those powers should revoke their orders in
council and their Berlin decrees. France complied, but Eng¬
land stood firm, and this induced a five years’ war between
the United States and Britain. Notwithstanding the mis¬
fortunes of this war, and the active opposition of the federa¬
lists, Madison retained the presidency till 1817, when, peace
being concluded with Britain, he retired from office with a
high reputation for eminent ability and spotless integrity.
With the exception of occasional assistance given to the
legislature of Virginia in revising their constitution, and
the discharge of the duties of rector of their university,
Madison remained in the closest retirement till his death in
1836, at the advanced age of eighty-five. His debates, let¬
ters, papers, essays,and miscellanies, were purchased by Con¬
gress for 30,000 dollars, and published in 3 vols. large 8vo,
under the editorial superintendence of H. D. Gilpin, in
1840.
MADISON, a city of the United States of North Ame¬
rica, capital of the state of Wisconsin, Dane county, on
an isthmus between Third and Fourth Lakes, 80 miles W.
of Milwaukie. The land on which it stands rises abruptly
from the lakes; and has a generally unequal surface, com¬
manding, however, a most extensive and charming prospect.
The capital, built of limestone, is situate on a platform 70
feet above the lakes ; and to the W. of this, on an emi¬
nence nearly 60 feet higher, stands the Wisconsin univer¬
sity, founded in 1851. Iron and wool are manufactured
here, and a brisk trade is carried on in agricultural produce.
Water power is abundant; and by railway the town is con¬
nected with the Mississippi and Michigan Lake. Pop.
(1850) 1525, (1855) 8664.
Madison, a town and river-port of the United States of
North America, capital of Jefferson county, Indiana, on
the right bank of the Ohio, 86 miles S.S.E. of Indianapolis.
It is beautifully situate in a valley nearly 3 miles long, and
inclosed on the N. by steep and rugged hills. The streets
are well built, and the houses are mostly of brick. Its chief
edifices are,—a court-house, a gaol, two market-houses,
and several large schools. The inhabitants are principally
employed in manufacturing cotton, wool, iron, and oil.
Steamers from this port communicate regularly with the
MAD
Mississippi throughout the year, navigation being usually Madras,
open here all winter. Madison was settled in 1808. Pop. v ,
(1850) 8681, (1853) about 12,000.
MADRAS, a city of Hindustan, and the capital and seat
of government of the presidency of the same name, is
situate on the coast of Coromandel, on the western shore
of the Bay of Bengal. The English possessed no fixed
establishment here until a.d. 1639, when they received a
grant from the Hindu dynasty of Bijanagur, then reigning
at Chandergherry, permitting the erection of a fort. In
consequence of this permission, Mr Day, the chief of the
factory at Armegon, proceeded with great alacrity to the
construction of a fortress, which was soon surrounded by
a town ; and this town he allowed to retain its Indian appel¬
lation, but the fort he named Fort George. The territory
granted along with it extended 5 miles along the shore,
and 1 mile inland. The fort is an irregular polygon, some¬
what in the form of a semicircle, of which the sea-face is
nearly a diameter, and presenting a front on that side of
500 yards. Towards the land, the fort presents a double
line of fortifications, both bomb-proof. The sea-face is
armed with heavy guns. Within the inclosure are the bar¬
racks, which are said to be capable of affording accommo¬
dation for 1000 men. Attached to the barracks is a bazaar
for the supply of the troops; the other buildings within the
fort are,—the old church, the exchange, and various govern¬
ment offices. A wide esplanade separates the fort from the
Black Town of Madras. The latter is inhabited chiefly by
natives. There are three broad streets running N. and S.,
and dividing the town into four nearly equal parts. These
streets are well built, and contain many houses with upper
storeys and terraced roofs. On the beach, parallel with
these streets, is a line of public offices, including the su¬
preme court, the Marine Board office, the custom-house, and
the offices and storehouses of the principal European mer¬
chants. These are well finished buildings. In conspicuous
situations in the town are the male and female orphan
schools. The other buildings of note are,—the gaol of the
supreme court, the mint, the Roman Catholic cathedral, the
Church Mission chapel, the Armenian church, Trinity chapel,
the general hospital, and medical sc! 100I. Various suburbs,
or divisions, have gradually grown up around the old town and
are now included within the city. These are Royapooram,
on the N. of the Black Town; Vepery, including Pursewa-
kum, situate to the W.; Chintadrapettah, separated from
Vepery by the River Koom; Poodoopetta and Egmore,
lying W.of Chintadrapettah; and Triplicane with St Thome,
situate to the S. of the fort. The accession of these divi¬
sions has imparted an irregular shape to the city of Madras,
the circumference of which is stated to be about 12 miles.
The population has been estimated at 720,000. Triplicane
is divided from the fort by the River Koom. About a mile
from its mouth, this river divaricates, forming two nearly
equal branches, the left, or more northern of which flows by
the fort, while the right takes a direction first S., and sub¬
sequently S.E. The two branches meet each other about
300 yards from the sea, and inclose an island three-quarters
of a mile in length, and of half that in breadth, laid out with
roads, and ornamented in the centre by a statue of Sir
Thomas Munro. On the bank of the right branch of the
river are the government gardens. Government House is
large and handsome ; the floors, the walls, and the pillars, are
of the most beautiful chunam of different colours, almost
equal in splendour to marble itself. The roads are a great
ornament to the place, being broad, and shaded on each side
by a noble avenue of trees. Chepak Garden, the residence
of the last Nawab of the Carnatic, is situate S.E. of Govern¬
ment Garden; and between it and the sea is a mosque of
some architectural excellence, the only Mussulman place
of worship of any importance in the city. The principal
church belonging to the English establishment is that of St
MADRAS.
Madras. George, situate in Royapetta. It is said to be very beauti-
' ful. St Andrew’s church, built for the use of the members
of the Church of Scotland, is in the southern part of the
Vepery division. It has been regarded as a fine specimen
of architecture and engineering skill ; but Bishop Heber
thought the form injudicious with a view to hearing. It
was finished in 1820, at a cost of about L.20,000. The
European residents live in garden-houses, or villas, situate
in compounds, or distinct inclosures, dispersed throughout
the suburbs, and about the neighbourhood of the city, ex¬
tending from 3 to 4 miles inland. These are generally of two
storeys, constructed in a pleasing light style of architecture,
terraced with porticos and verandahs supported by pillars.
In Lord Valentia’s account of Madras, it is observed,
that it would probably have been difficult to find a worse
place for a capital than that chosen for Madras, on the
extreme point of a coast where the current is most rapid,
and where a tremendous surf breaks even in the finest
weather. But the original error of fixing on this for the
site of a great capital cannot now be recalled, the expense
of removal to a more convenient spot would be so great.
Owing to the exposed situation of Madras, it affords no
secure anchorage ; and there is always a great difficulty in
landing from vessels, which generally moor in 9 fathoms,
with the flag-staff W.N.W., about 2 miles from the shore.
Any ship s boat that should attempt to cross the surf would
inevitably perish; and, accordingly, the boats from ships
anchor outside the broken water, and wait for the country
boats to carry the passengers safely to the shore. These
boats are of a particular construction, being built of soft
wood, with flat bottoms. They are sewed together, and have
not a nail in their whole construction, so that they are very
light and pliable, and are borne many yards through the
surf without injury, as they yield to the waves like leather.
These boats require to be guided by seamen of experience
and tried skill; and it is an extremely critical operation to
conduct them through the surf. When they come within
its influence, the cockswain stands up, and, under great
agitation, marks time with his voice and his foot, whilst the
rowers work their oars backwards until overtaken by the
swell, which, curling up in its approach to the shore, sweeps
the boat along with fearful violence. The rowers now ply
every oar forward with their utmost vigour, to prevent the
wave from carrying back the boat with its receding swell;
and by a few successive surfs the boat is at length dashed
high and dry on the shore. A species of floating machine,
called a catamaran, formed of two or three light logs of
wood, 8 or 10 feet in length, lashed together with a small
piece of wood inserted between them, to serve as a stem-
piece, is employed by the fishermen and lower classes of
natives to carry them through the breakers. On these
they go out to fish, or to carry letters, or small quantities of
refreshments to shipr when no boats can venture out. They
secure the letters in a pointed cap, where they cannot be
damaged; and when the men happen to be washed off by
the surf, they regain the catamarans by swimming, unless
when they are attacked by a shark. The dexterous navi¬
gators of these frail vessels, who distinguish themselves by
saving persons in danger, or by their care in conveying
papers through the surf in dangerous weather, are rewarded
with medals. European passengers, when they land at
Madras, being ignorant of the language, manners, and cus¬
toms of the country, necessarily rely on the natives for
help; and accordingly passengers landing at Madras are
immediately surrounded by numerous servants of all kinds,
called dobashies, eager for employment. They undertake
to transact for the Europeans all their necessary business,
to buy all that is wanted, and to procure servants, trades¬
men, palanquins, and the like.
Madias, when seen from the sea, presents a striking ap¬
pearance, the fbi tifications of Fort St George being within
803
a few yards of the shore ; and, at a distance, minarets and Madras,
pagodas are seen mixed with trees and gardens. The
public offices and storehouses are fine buildings, with co¬
lonnades to the upper storeys, supported on arched bases,
covered with beautiful shell-mortar from Madras, which is
hard, smooth, and polished. These being near the beach,
which is always crowded, form interesting objects. At a
distance, the low, flat, sandy shores extending to the N.
and S., and the small hills that are seen inland, give an
appearance of barrenness, which, however, improves on a
closer inspection. Madras is surrounded by a level country,
which in general exhibits a naked, brown, dusty plain, with
few villages to enliven the scene, or any other objects to ‘
relieve the eye, except a range of abrupt detached hills to
116 r n ^.uts .°f t*le natives are covered with tiles, and
are fully superior in their appearance to those in Bengal;
and in the inns and choultries, also, which are common on
the roads, travellers experience greater attention.
Madras being the seat of the government of the presi¬
dency, the governor, members of council, and public func-
tionaiies reside here, as do also the judges of the supreme
court. The chief establishments of every department of
the government are here, and there are various local esta¬
blishments. Among these may be mentioned the police-
office, the court for the recovery of small debts, the govern¬
ment savings-bank, the bank of Madras, and various in¬
surance offices. Madras is the seat of an episcopal see. In
addition to the principal church (St George’s} there are
about eight English churches and chapels of the United
Church of England and Ireland. In the Scottish church
of St Andrew, already mentioned, the worship is conducted
by ministers in communion with the Established Church of
Scotland, of whom two are chaplains in the service of the
Company. The seceding body from the Established Scot¬
tish Church, calling itself the “ Free Protesting Church of
Scotland,” maintain public worship in the hall of the Free
Church Mission Institution. The Romanists have a bishop,
Or vicar-apostolic. The Wesleyans have five chapels, the
Baptists two, the Independents one, and the American
Mission two. Measures have been recently taken for the
introduction of a new scheme of state education throughout
India, in the benefits of which the city of Madras will
largely participate. There is an agricultural and horticul¬
tural society, of which the governor is the patron. The
Madras Literary Society enjoys the same distinguished
patronage, and now adds to its title that of the “ Auxiliary
of the Royal Asiatic Society.” About nine or ten news¬
papers are published at Madras, some of these three times
a week, some twice, and some once only.
In 1744 Madras was besieged by the French from the
Mauritius under M. de la Bourdonnais. The town was taken
on the 10th of September, and was ransomed for L.440,000,
exclusive of plunder, which amounted to L.200,000 more.
All the British inhabitants were afterwards compelled to
abandon the place. Madras was restored at the peace of
Aix-la-Chapelle, and evacuated by the French in August
1749, when it was found in a very improved condition, the
bastions and batteries having been greatly enlarged and
strengthened. The defences of the town were still, how¬
ever, inferior to those of Fort St David, where the East
India Company ordered the presidency to continue. Madras
was again besieged in 1758 by the French under M. Lally.
The siege commenced on the 17th of December, and was
prosecuted with vigour till the 17th of February 1759,
when the French were obliged precipitately to raise it!
Phis was the last and most memorable siege which Madras
ever sustained. The garrison consisted of 1758 European
troops, 2200 Sepoys, and 150 European inhabitants. The
besieging force consisted of 3500 Europeans, 2000 Sepoys,
and 2000 native and European cavalry. Since this period
Madras has never been assailed by an enemy, though nearly
804
Madrid.
' v '
MAD
approached by Hyder’s cavalry in 1781, when they de¬
scended from the mountains to ravage the plains ot the
Carnatic. The population of the city of Madras, including
the suburbs, has been estimated, as above observed, at
720,000. Lat. 13. 5., Long. 80. 21.
The presidency of Fort George, or of Madras, compre¬
hends nearly the whole of India S. of the Krishna River,
and also that large portion of the Deccan, the Northern
Circars. Within these boundaries there are several native
states. The rest of the country is under the immediate
jurisdiction of the governor and council of Madras, and, for
the collection of the revenue and the administration of jus¬
tice, is divided into districts. The names of these, with
their respective areas and amount of population, are set
forth in the following tabular statement:—
Area in
Districts.
Square
Miles.
Population.
Rajahmundry  4,501 1,012,036
Masulipatam  4,711
Guntoor, including Palnaud  4,752 570,089
   7,959 935,690
Chingleput  2>717 583,462
Madras, City of  27 720,000
Arcot, south division, including Cuddalore... 5,020 1,006,005
Arcot, north division, including Consoody... 6,580 1,485,873
Bellary  12,101 1,229,599
Cuddapah, including Poonganoon  13,298 1,451,921
Salem, including Vomundoor and Mulla-
pandy     7,499 1,195,377
Coimbatore  8,151 1,153,862
Trichinopoly  2,922 709,196
Tanjore, including Najore....  3,781 1,676,086
Madura, including Shevagunga and Ramnad 13,545 1,756,791
Tinnevelly  5,482 1,269,216
Malabar...  6,050 1,514,909
Canara  7,152 1,056,333
116,248 19,847,305
Ganjam  5,758 926,930
Vizagapatam  4,690 ^254,272
Kurnool    3,278 273,190
Coorg  2,116 Not known.
Total  132,090 22,301,697
The native states of Travancore and Cochin, and the
hill zemindaries adjoining the British district of Vizagapa¬
tam are also under political and military management of
this presidency. Mysore, though under the political ma¬
nagement of the government of India, is subject, for all mili¬
tary purposes, to the jurisdiction of the Madras presidency,
by the territories of which it is indeed almost completely
surrounded. Their respective areas are stated as follows:—
Square Popula-
Miles. tion.
Cochin  1,988 288,176
Mysore  30,886 3,460,696
Poodoocottah (Raiah Tondiman’s dominions)... 1,165 61,745
Travancore  4,722 1,011,824
Jeypoor and hill zemindars  13,041 391,230
Total  51,802 5,213,671
And if to these aggregates be added the area and popu¬
lation of the territory of the Company in this presidency,
the total area will amount to 183,892 square miles, and the
total population to 27,515,368.
(Further particulars connected with the Madras presi¬
dency will be found under the article Hindustan, and also
under the names of the various provinces and districts into
which the presidency is divided.) (e. t.)
MADRID, a province of Spain, one of the five into
which New Castile is divided, lies between N. Lat. 39. 53.
and 41. 7., W. Long. 3.10. and 4. 35. It is divided into thir¬
teen pandos, containing 225 pueblos, with a population in
1849 of 405,737, in a space of about 1310 square miles. It
is separated from the province of Guadalajara by the Somo-
sierra, and from Segovia by the Carpetanos and the Sierra
MAD
Guadarrama, whose ramifications form the principal moun¬
tains of the province. It lies in the basin of the lagus, ^
which, rising in the province of Cuenca, arrives in that of
Madrid after a course of 20 leagues, and leaves it after a
tortuous course of about 18, having received the Jarama,
and some less important streams. Other rivers in this pro¬
vince are the Lozoya, the Guadarrama, the Manzanares,
the Tajuna, and the Henares. The soil is mostly clayey,
and there are sandy tracts. Agriculture is in a backward
and neglected condition. The productions consist of wheat,
barley, rye, oats, algarrobas (a kind of pulse), pease, French
beans, and other legumes; wine, oil, flax, hemp, fruits, wax,
honey, &c. Gardening is carried on to some extent near
the capital, though the markets of Madrid receive their
most liberal supply of fruits and vegetables from Valencia.
Sheep, goats, and horned cattle are reared; and fish are
found in the Jarama and other rivers. In the Sierra Gua¬
darrama are quarries of granite, lime, and gypsum. I here
are mines of lead, iron, and copper in the same sierra, and
several of silver, not at all productive. J here are manu¬
factures of coarse cloth, of baize and frieze, of counterpanes
and other coarse stuffs; also of leather, paper, earthenware,
porcelain at Moncloa, bricks and tiles, saltpetre, glass and
crystal, guitar strings, chocolate. The extensive cotton
manufactures of San Fernando, about 22 leagues from
Madrid, have been for many years discontinued. Many
women, especially in the partido of Getafe, are employed
in the embroidery of tulle for mantillas. Ihere is very
little commerce beyond that for the supply of the capital
with necessaries. Primary instruction not many years ago
was deplorably neglected, but there has recently been some
advance in this respect. The university of Alcala has long
been transferred to Madrid, so that the whole higher in¬
struction of the province is centred in the capital.
On account of the elevated situation of this province,
and its being surrounded with snow-covered summits, the
air is at all seasons keen and penetrating, and even in the
suffocating heats of summer the breeze is cold; yet the
climate is generally salubrious.
Madrid, capital of the above province and of Spain, is
situate in N. Lat. 40. 24. 57., W. Long. 3. 41. 51., on the left
bank of the River Manzanares, an affluent of the Tagus, at
an altitude of 2245 feet above sea-level. It occupies nearly
the centre of the kingdom, being about 300 miles from the
Atlantic, and an equal distance from the Mediterranean, 240
miles S.W. of Bayonne, and 350 E.N.E. of Lisbon. It
stands on some sandy hills of little elevation, in the midst ot
an extensive plain, bounded to the view on only one side, by
the mountains of Somosierra and Guadarrama. 1 he basin
in which it stands is of tertiary formation, consisting of gyp¬
sum, marl, meerschaum, and limestone. Owing to its eleva¬
tion and exposure, the air is extremely subtle and keen. I he
mean temperature in winter is 43°, though the thermometer
frequently indicates 32° and under; in summer the mean
is 76°, while, during the S.E. wind, the thermometer often
indicates 90° or 105° in the shade. These extremes, which
have given rise to the adage, “ Tres meses de invierno, y
nueve del infierno” (three months of winter, and nine of
hell), are very prejudicial to health, causing pulmonary dis¬
eases, which, with the convulsive colic, may be called en¬
demic ; pulmonia carrying off many victims every year at
the beginning of winter, and during the long-continued
colds of that season ; while, even in the suffocating heats of
July and August, the breezes from the snow-covered Gua¬
darrama often sweep along the streets with a death-like chill.
The natural insalubrity of the city is enhanced by the
want of water, and by the neglect of sanitary precautions
on the part of the inhabitants.
The form of Madrid is that of a square, with the corners
rounded off; from E. to W. it measures about 2640 yards,
and 2970 yards from N. to S. It is surrounded by a very
Madrid.
MADRID.
£05
Madrid, poor wall, partly built of brick, partly of earth—the house
walls in some quarters forming part. There are five gates
(puertas), whose names indicate their position,—Alcala,
Bilbao, Segovia, Toledo, and Atocha,—and elevenportillos.
Of these sixteen entrances, the finest is that by the Puerta de
Alcala, which terminates the Calle de Alcala, the handsomest
street in the town. The puerta is in the modern Ionic
style, with three archways, and was erected by Charles III.
in 1778. The Portillo de San Vicente, erected by the
same monarch in 1775, deserves notice ; it is built of Col-
menar granite. The Puerta de Toledo, erected 1813-27,
in honour of the restoration of Ferdinand VII., is a pre¬
tentious but heavy structure. Madrid is divided into ten
districts, and consists of 512 streets and 70 plazas, large
and small. The old streets are irregular, tortuous, and nar¬
row, but the modern ones, especially in the E. part of the
town, are broad and handsome. The Calle de Alcala, al¬
ready mentioned, which connects the Prado with the
Puerta del Sol, is a very fine street, bordered on both sides
with acacias, and containing some elegant buildings; but
its irregularity in point of width and level detract much
from its appearance. The Calle Mayor, De la Montera,
Caballero de Gracia, Hortaleza, Fuencarral, Carrera de
San Geronimo, and Atocha, deserve notice. The Plaza
Mayor is a rectangle of about 400 feet by 306; the houses
are uniform in height and decoration, and have porticos.
Here the executions and royal bull fights were celebrated,
the royal family viewing them from the Panaderia. There
is in the centre a bronze equestrian statue of Philip III.,
designed by Pantoja, and cast by Juan de Bologna, which
has been much admired. The Puerta del Sol, formerly
the east gate and tower of the city, having on its front a re¬
presentation of the sun, is now the central plaza, and the
favourite lounge and place of most traffic in the city. It is
situate in the confluence of four principal streets, and
contains only one building worthy of attention, the Casa de
Correos. The Plaza de las Cortes, so called from the house
of deputies, is remarkable as containing the fine statue of
Cervantes by Sola, erected in 1835. The most frequented
promenade is the Prado on the east and north sides
of the city, in length about 9650 feet. It was planted
by the Conde de Aranda in the time of Charles III., and
laid out by Jose Hermonsilla. It contains some indifferent
monuments and fountains. On the E. are the gardens of
the Buen Retiro laid out by Olivares ; on the W. the Flo¬
rida; on the N. the Delicias; and on the S., Chamberri.
These are less frequented.
Madrid has small architectural pretensions, and is almost
wholly without Roman, Moorish, or Gothic remains. Her
most ancient public buildings are in the worst style of the
renaissance, and the private houses in general mean and
incommodious. Like the other large towns in Spain, Mad¬
rid is disfigured with numerous heavy-looking convents.
There are altogether sixteen churches and sixty-one con¬
vents, besides chapels and convents which have been put to
other uses. The church of Maria de la Almudena is the
iglesia mayor, and the most ancient, having been a Moorish
mosque; it is small and of no merit. Perhaps the finest
church in Madrid is that of the convent {de monjas) of La
Encarnacion, in the form of a Latin cross, and with Ionic
decorations; its high altar is very fine. The chapel of Las
Salesas Viejas, a large convent of nuns, erected by Barbara,
queen of Ferdinand VI., as a seminary and retreat for her¬
self, has been converted into a parish church. It is a fine
Corinthian structure, and the marbles of the high altar are
magnificent. The convent of San Geronimo, founded by
Enrique IV., one of the few Gothic specimens, contained
numerous marble sepulchres of eminent men, which were
mostly destroyed by the French, with those in the church of
San Martin. The structures for civil purposes are better,
and the Palacio del Congreso de Diputados, begun in 1843,
deserves particular mention. The Aduana, erected 1769, Madrid,
is a fine large building in the Calle de Alcala, and contains
various public offices. The barracks of the Life-Guards,
occupied by cavalry, is an enormous but tasteless erection
of the last century.
There are two royal residences in the city,—the Palacio
Real and the Palacio de Buen Retiro. The former is one
of the largest and finest in Europe. At first view its aspect
is very imposing; a closer inspection disappoints. It is
built on the site of the ancient Moorish Alcazar. When
Charles V. made Madrid his residence in 1532, he caused the
Alcazar to be improved and enlarged, and the obstructing
houses to be demolished. Philip II., and the succeeding
monarchs, continued the improvements; but the whole was
destroyed by fire in 1734. The present edifice was begun
in 1738, under Philip V., by Sachetti of Turin, and was
not finished till 1764 ; the palace of Buen Retiro being,
occupied in the meanwhile. The wings and hanging gardens
are still unfinished. It is a square of 470 feet each way,
and about 100 feet in height, vaulted throughout. The
reception-room is very magnificent. Marbles are used pro¬
fusely for the floors and doorways; and the ceilings are
painted by Mengs, Antonio Velasquez, Maella, Jaquinto,
Bayeu, and Tiepolo. This palace contains the Bibliotheca
de Camara and the Armeria Real. The former consists of
about 200,000 volumes, and from 2000 to 3000 MSS. (See
Libraries). The latter, occupying the south facade, is per¬
haps the finest armoury in the world, containing numberless
weapons, native and foreign, of all ages. The royal chapel,
though plundered in 1808 of its fine pictures, is still very
magnificent. The order is Corinthian; the decorations very
splendid. The Palacio de Buen Retiro exists in a state nearly
approaching to desolation, the damage done by the French
never having been entirely repaired. The oldest part, built
by Olivares for Philip IV., is a large regular square, but subse¬
quent additions and improvements have destroyed the har¬
mony of the whole. The palaces of the grandees, if we
except those of the Duque de Liria, the Conde de Altamira,
and Don Jose Salamanca, are not remarkable. Those of
Alba, Liria, and Medinaceli contain valuable galleries of’pic-
tures. There are eight theatres: the Teatro del Principe,
erected in 1806 by the architect Villanueva, is the most
elegant and best arranged in the city ; the Teatro del Cruz,
erected in 1737 by Ribera, and capable of containing 1500
persons, is in exceedingly bad taste, and inconveniently con¬
structed. The Plaza de Toros, built in 1749, is about 1100
feet in circumference, and contains 12,000 spectators; and
the bull-fights are held between the months of April and No¬
vember. One of the finest public galleries in the world is the
Museo dePinturas, situate in the Prado—a heavy, indifferent
building,—which contains the collections formed by Charles
V., Philip II., and Philip IV., and numbered 1833 pictures
in 1850. The specimens of Raphael, Titian, Murillo, and
especially Velasquez, are numerous and remarkable.
There are 60 public schools of primary education in
Madrid, besides escuelas pias, colegios, and private institu¬
tions. Modern educational movements have not left Madrid
unaffected, and great improvements in this respect have
taken place within the last fifteen years. Female educa¬
tion is chiefly carried on in convents. The university of
Alcala, founded by Cardinal Ximenes in 1508, was trans¬
ferred in 1836 to Madrid, and has since that time under¬
gone much reform and extension. In 1845 chairs of
medicine, natural history, and astronomy were added. There
is a school for the blind, one for deaf-mutes, and schools
of engineering, military science, and the fine arts. Among
educational institutions may be reckoned the botanical
garden, laid out in 1781; the library of San Isidro, which
contains about 60,000 volumes, and the museum of natural
science, formed chiefly under Charles III. on the several
purchased collections augmented by contributions from the
806 MAD
Madridejos Spanish Indies. The collection contains the most magni-
II. ficent crystals of emerald in the world, and fine ores of the
v. a j precious metals. The principal learned society {Academia)
is the Royal Spanish Academy, founded in 1713, for the
study and improvement of the Castilian language. The
Academy of History possesses a fine collection of coins and
medals; there are also academies of natural science, archaeo¬
logy, fine arts, ecclesiastical science, and legislation. Of
these associations it may be said that their projects are
much more magnificent than their actual results.
The hospitals of Madrid are very numerous; the princi¬
pal is the General or United Hospital, a very large build¬
ing in the Calle de Atocha, containing 1526 beds, and
receiving patients of both sexes. There are three foundling
hospitals, and two for orphans. The military hospital is
large and well conducted; it occupies the former seminary
of the nobility in the Plazuela del Seminario. There are,
besides, hospitals for the reception of foreigners, and for the
natives of several Spanish provinces.
The manufactures of Madrid are inconsiderable; every
article of food and clothing, almost without exception, is
imported. Tapestry, carpets, and china are manufactured
for the court. Deserving of notice are the saltpetre works,
the manufacture of hats, that of looking-glasses, and some
breweries. Little wine is grown near the capital, and not
much fruit; but the markets are well supplied, and regu¬
larly, from all quarters of the kingdom.
The environs of the city are uninteresting; the sole at¬
tractive points being the royal villas of La Moncloa, on the
road to the Escorial, close to the Manzanares, El Pardo, a
fine hunting-seat restored by Charles III.; and La Vista
Alegre. About 3 miles on the Toledo road are the Cara-
vancheles, two villages of pleasurable resort. The village
of Loeches has a convent remarkable for a fine collection of
paintings. A railway between Madrid and Aranjuez has
been constructed; others are contemplated.
Spanish archaeologists have claimed for Madrid a very
high antiquity ; but its origin and that of its name are ex¬
ceedingly obscure. The immediate source of the latter is the
Arabic appellation Majril. The earliest authentic historical
mention of the town corresponds to a.d. 932. It first rose
to importance when Charles V., benefiting by its keen air,
made it his occasional residence, and founded the Palacio
Real; Philip II. formed a similar attachment, and created
it his capital and “ only court” in 1560. Fruitless attempts
have been repeatedly made by subsequent monarchs to
transfer the seat of empire to Valladolid or Seville.
The population of Madrid amounted in 1845 to 216,740,
including the garrison. This population, composed of na¬
tives of all the Spanish provinces, has little common cha¬
racter beyond that of indolence.
MADRIDEJOS, a town of Spain, province of Toledo,
on the high road of Andalufia, which crosses the plains of
La Mancha, 40 miles S.E. of Toledo. The streets are broad
and regular; but the houses are old, built of lapia, and have
a mean appearance. The church of the Franciscan nuns,
and the convent San Cristo del Prado, are good edifices; the
latter is surrounded with trees, and has a fine promenade
in its vicinity,—the only place of recreation in the town.
Madridejos is supplied with water from wells, and from
springs in the neighbouring hills. The manufacture of
bombasin has much decayed of late years in the town, from
the cheapness of foreign productions. The surrounding
district is of good soil, and grows wheat, rye, wine, oil, and
saffron. There are also numerous quarries of gypsum and
limestone. Market-day, Saturday. Pop. 5160.
MADRIGAL, a short poem, composed of a number of
free and unequal verses, neither confined to the regularity
of a sonnet, nor to the point or antithesis of an epigram,
but only consisting of some tender and delicate thought,
expressed with elegant simplicity. The derivation of the
M M C
word cannot be determined. The earliest madrigals were Madura
those of Lemmo of Pistoia. The composition of madrigals
attained a very high degree of excellence in England during Maecenas,
the reign of Elizabeth, and are said to be in no way inferior
to those of Italy. Orlando Gibbons is the best known
among the English madrigal composers; Marenzio and
Clari among those of Italy.
MADURA, an extensive district of Hindustan, situate
within the presidency of Madras. It is bounded on the
N. by the districts of Trichinopoly and Coimbatoor ; on the
N.E. by Tanjore and the native state of Poodoocottah ; on
the E. by Palk’s Straits and Tanjore; on the S. by the
Gulf of Manaar, and on the W. by Travancore. It lies be¬
tween Lat. 9.5. and 10.54., Long. 77.15. and 79.15., and has
an area of 10,700 square miles. The principal river is the
Vygah, which, after a course of about 180 miles, falls into
Palk’s Strait, a short distance N.W. of the headland of
Tonitorai. The climate of the hills is mild and genial in
summer. It is said, moreover, to be cold in January, when
the ground is covered with hoar-frosts during the morning ;
but the climate of the plain is characterized by dryness and
heat, the thermometer having been known to reach 115°,
and according to some, 130°. This district participates in
the vicissitudes of the two monsoons. Its population, in¬
cluding Dindigul, amounts to 1,756,791. The territory
came into the possession of the British in 1801. The name
of the capital is Madura, an ancient city, the four sides of
which front nearly the four cardinal points. It was formerly
well fortified with a ditch, rampart, and square towers; and
from 1740 to 1760 sustained many sieges, and was often in
possession of refractory Polygars. Since it has come into
the possession of the British, considerable improvements
have been made in the town by laying it out with wide
streets, market-places, and accommodation for travellers,
whereby the public health and convenience have been
greatly promoted. E. Long. 78. 10., N. Lat. 9. 55. (e.t.)
Madura, an island in the Eastern Archipelago, lying im¬
mediately N.E. of Java, with which island it is conjoined
under the Dutch government. (See Java.)
MiEANDER, a river which rises in Phrygia, not far from
Celaenae, and on leaving that province forming the boundary
between Caria and Lydia. It fell into the iEgean Sea be¬
tween Miletus and Priene, which latter city had gradually
been removed 40 stadia from the sea by the muddy deposits
of the river. It was remarkable for the winding character of
its stream; hence the origin of the word “ to meander.”
(Str. xii. 577, 579 ; PI. v. 31, 3.) It is joined by theMar-
syas, Obrimas, Glaucus, Lycus, &c. It is now the Meinder,
or Boyuk Meinder.
MiECENAS, Caius Cilnius, the friend and counsellor
of Augustus Caesar, a man whose name has become a syno-
nyme for a patron of literature, from the munificent and
generous support he afforded to the learned. He flourished
from about 41 to 8 b.c. He was very generally considered
by the ancients as descended from the royal line of Etru¬
ria. The family of the Cilnii is mentioned by Livy (x. 3)
as very powerful at Arretium, now Arrezzo, B.c. 300. We
have no account of the early years of Maecenas, but there is
little doubt that his education was carefully attended to, and
becoming the dignity of his birth. In what way he acquired
the friendship of Octavius we have no means of knowing;
but we find him actively engaged in his cause immediately
after the murder of Julius Caesar, B.c. 44. His talents seem
to have been particularly adapted for the administration of
the civil affairs of government, and we find him more fre¬
quently thus engaged, than in the active business of war.
He was employed (b.c. 40) to negotiate the marriage be¬
tween Augustus and Scribonia, the sister of Scribonius Libo,
the father-in-law of Sextus Pompey, with the view of se¬
curing a channel by which he might obtain peace with
Pompey if circumstances should require it (Appian. B. C.
M C
Maecenas, v. 53). The same year Maecenas was one of the commis-
sioners appointed to negotiate the peace between Antony
and Octavius at Brundusium, which was sealed by the mar¬
riage of Octavia and Antony (v. 64). He was again the
principal person employed in the conference between Oc¬
tavius and Antony (b.c. 37), on the banks of the river be¬
tween Metapontum and Tarentum, when peace was agreed
upon (v. 92). He had the command of the whole of Italy
and Rome at the time of the battle of Actium, b.c. 31, at
which period he put down a conspiracy entered into by
Lepidus the son of the triumvir (iv. 50; Yell. Pat. ii. 88).
The victory at Actium having placed the Roman empire
in the hands of Octavius, he consulted with his friends,
Agrippa and Maecenas, whether he ought not to abdicate
his authority. Agrippa advised him to restore the republic,
but Maecenas was of a contrary opinion. The speeches
which they each delivered are given by Dion Cassius (411,
1-40). Augustus adopted the opinion of Maecenas, and
was guided in all his more important transactions by his
advice, having confidence not only in his good sense and
discretion, but in the integrity of his character. To Maece¬
nas, therefore, may in a great measure be ascribed the glory
of his reign. After his death, Augustus frequently regret¬
ted that he had no longer a friend to assist him ; and when
he had committed any act of which he repented, he used to
say, that if Maecenas or Agrippa had been alive, he would
not have had cause to reproach himself for the folly of his
conduct (Sen. De Benef. vi. 32). It is said that Maecenas
one day observed Augustus on the point of condemning
some persons to death, and being unable to approach the
tribunal on account of the crowd, he threw a paper to him,
on which he had inscribed these words, “ Descend from
the tribunal, thou butcherupon which Augustus, struck
by the admonition, left the judgment-seat without passing
sentence. The palace of Maecenas was on the Esquiline
Hill, and his gardens are frequently mentioned as occupying
the ground which had been previously employed as the
place of burial for the poor (Tacit. Ann. xv. 39). It is,
however, to his generous patronage of the learned that he is
principally indebted for his fame; and their gratitude has
amply repaid all the attention he may have bestowed on
them. His palace was the common resort of all the lite¬
rary characters of his age. There might be found Virgil
and Horace, Yarius, famed for his tragedies, Propertius,
Domitius Marsus the rival of Catullus, Valgius, Plotius, and
Tucca. It was through Maecenas that the learned had
access to the emperor, and were loaded with his favours.
Horace gives a very interesting account of his introduction
to Maecenas, which must have taken place as early as B.c.
40, when both the poet and Maecenas were still young. To
Maecenas Horace was indebted for his Sabine farm ; and
Virgil was through him restored to his paternal estate near
Mantua. Virgil dedicated the Georgies to his patron ; and
to him Propertius has dedicated several of his poems. It
is needless to add, that much of the poetry of Horace was
also addressed to him. Maecenas has been accused, how¬
ever, of being devoted to pleasure ; but his faults were those
of the age in which he lived, and his virtues were his own
(Senec.-E]p?'s£. 92, 114). Virgil died many years before
Maecenas, B.c. 19; but whether Horace predeceased Mae¬
cenas or not is uncertain. Horace died in the month of
November b.c. 8 (Sueton.) ; and Dion Cassius (41, 3) men¬
tions the death of Maecenas towards the close of the same
year. The clause in the will of Maecenas, in which he re¬
commends to Augustus his friend Horace, would lead us to
conclude that Horace survived him. At all events, only a
few months could have intervened between their deaths.
He was married to Terentia, a woman of a disagreeable
temper, from whom he frequently separated ; but found his
happiness so dependent on her smiles, that he soon received
her back to his arms (Sen. Be Prov. 3). Pliny states that
MAE 307
the health of Maecenas was at all times delicate ; and that Maelstrom
for the last three years of his life he scarcely enjoyed an II .
hour’s sleep (vii. 52, 2). Of the writings of Maecenas we ^ae3tr^^
have nothing remaining except a few epigrams, which are
published in the Anthologia Latina of Burmann (i. 53,
ii. 225, iii. 149). He was also the author of two tragedies,
Prometheus and Octavia ; and is supposed to have written
memoirs to serve for the history of Augustus. (See Fabri-
cius, Bibliotheca Latina^ iii. 964 ; Be Mcecenatis Vitd, Mo-
ribus, et Rebus Gestis, auct. Meibom, Lugd. Bat. 1653;
Lion, Mcecetiatiana, Getting. 1824; Memoires de VAcad., des
Inscrip, xiii.) In Italian there is a Life by Cenni, Rome, 1684;
by Dini, Venice, 1704 : in German, by Bennemann, Leips.
1/44 ; by Lion, Getting. 1824 ; and by Frandsen, Altona,
1843 : in French, by Richer, Paris, 1746. The only Life
in English is by Dr Ralph Schomberg, London, 1766,12mo.
MAELSTROM, or Moskoestrom, a whirlpool off the
coast of Norway to the S.W. of the Lofoden Islands; N.
Lat. 67. 48., E. Long. 12. It consists of a swift current,
running every six hours alternately from N. to S.and from
S. to N., contrary to the motion of the tide, thus producing
a wide eddy, the noise of which is heard to a great distance.
Whatever small vessel comes within its reach is immediately
sucked in, and after being dashed to pieces on the rocks at
the bottom is thrown up again by the whirlpool. It is
least agitated about the turn of the tide, and it is then only
that it can be approached with safety. The diameter of
the whirlpool is about 1^ miles.
MiEOTIS, Palus or Lacus, in Ancient Geography^
the modern Sea of Azoff, which see.
MAES TLIN, Michael, a celebrated astronomer of Ger¬
many, born about 1542 in Wiirtemberg. He spent his
youth in Italy, and during his residence in that country
made the acquaintance of Galileo, whom it is said the
powerful argumentation of Maestlin induced to renounce
the system of Ptolemy in favour of that of Copernicus.
On his return to Germany, he was appointed professor of
mathematics at Tubingen, where he had Kepler for his
pupil, and for whose instruction in mathematical science he
declined to receive any pecuniary remuneration. Kepler
afterwards speaks of his generous master in terms of grati¬
tude and admiration, and found occasion, when Maestlin
subsequently stood in need of sympathy and aid, of giving
substantial expression to his affection for him. Maestlin
died at Tubingen in 1590. His works are,—Be Stella nova,
Ephemendes, 1551; Thesis de Eclipsibus; Observatio et
Bemonstratio Cometce anni 1577 et 1578, 4to, Tubing.
1578; Consideratio et Observatio Cometce 1580, Heidelb.
1581 ; Alterum Examen Gregoriani Kalendarii, Tubing.
4to, 1586; Epitomce Astronomice, Tubing. 1597.
MAESTRICHT, a strongly-fortified town of Holland,
and capital of the duchy of Limburg, is situate on the left
bank of the Meuse, and connected by a stone bridge of
nine arches, with its suburb of Wych on the opposite bank.
This is one of the strongest fortresses in Europe, being sur¬
rounded by walls and ditches, and having also a number of
detached bastions, an arsenal and military magazine, and a
citadel or fortress, called St Pierre, on a neighbouring height.
By opening sluices a great part of the surrounding country
may be laid under water. Under the hill of Petersberg,
on which the citadel stands, is a subterranean stone quarry,
covering a space of 13 miles by 6, and said to be intersected
by 16,000 passages, forming a most intricate labyrinth.
The rock is a soft, yellowish stone, abounding in curious
and interesting fossils. The town is well and regularly
built, having wide, clean, and well-paved streets. The
town-hall, built in 1662, stands in the centre of the great
market-place, and is said to be one of the finest edifices in
Holland. Ihe church of St Gervais, a fine Romanesque
edifice, dating probably from the tenth century, is orna¬
mented with five towers, and has a splendid portal. There
808
M A F
MAG
Maffei. are six Roman Catholic and three Calvinistic churches, two
m hospitals, two orphan asylums, a lazaretto, lyceum, public
library, and society of agriculture. The chief manufactures
are>—woollen and cotton stuffs, leather, soap, tobacco, fire¬
arms, beer, and spirits. Maestricht is connected with Aix-
la-Chapelle by railway, and also carries on a considerable
trade with various places on the Meuse. It has frequently
suffered from sieges. In 1579 the Spaniards, under the
Duke of Parma, took it by assault after a siege of four
months, and put the garrison and most of the townspeople
to the sword. It was also taken by Louis XIV., but was
unsuccessfully attacked by William III. of England. It
was bravely and successfully defended by its garrison against
the Belgians in 1830. Pop. (1854) 24,394.
MAFFEI, Francesco Scipione, Marquis, a celebrated
Italian writer, was born at Verona in 1675, and studied five
years at the college of Parma, where he gave early mani¬
festations of eminent ability, both in literature and science.
Born of a noble family, and early admitted to familiar in¬
tercourse with men and women of culture and refinement,
Maffei’s mind was favourably directed from the idle frivoli¬
ties with which a person of his rank is apt to waste his
youth, and turned towards those nobler pursuits in which
he afterwards wron for himself so distinguished a name. He
visited Rome in 1699, and besides acquainting himself with
the monuments of that city, gained the friendship of some
of her more distinguished men. Eager for all sorts of dis¬
tinction, he, in 1704, joined his brother Alessandro, then
lieutenant-general in the Bavarian service, and as a volun¬
teer reaped the laurels of a soldier at the battle of Dona-
wert. The evidence of personal bravery which S. Maffei
here displayed gave dignity to his pen when he lifted it
afterwards in his Della Scienza Chiamata Cavalleresca, to
denounce the practice of duelling, then so common in his
native country. In conjunction with Apostolo Zeno and
Vallisnieri, Maffei commenced, in 1710, the Giornale dei
Litterati, the earliest literary journal in Italy. His Osser-
vazioni Litteratie, published in 1737-40, in 6 vols., was a
continuation of his literary journal after its discontinuance
in 1730. He took great interest in the reformation of the
Italian theatres, then in a deplorable condition; and in his
work, Trattato dei Teatri Antichi e Moderni, defended the
histrionic art against the denunciation of Father Concina,
a performance which met with the approbation of Pope
Benedict XIV. Nor did his efforts stop here; in 1713 he
wrote, and brought upon the stage, the tragedy of La Ale-
rope, a work which was received with very great applause,
and won for its author the title of the “ Veronese Sophocles”
from the celebrated Voltaire. Maffei now directed his at¬
tention more exclusively to political studies, and brought
out his greatest work, the Verona lllustrata, a history and
description of his native city, remarkable alike for extensive
learning, historical insight, and elegant writing. The re¬
putation of Maffei was spread over Europe, when, in 1732,
he visited Paris, and collected materials for his Gallice
Antiquitates, which he published at Paris during the fol¬
lowing year. He afterwards went to England, where he
was received at the court of George II., was made a mem¬
ber of the Royal Society, and had the degree of LL.D.
conferred on him by the university of Oxford. He spent
four years in travel, and returned to Italy by Holland and
Germany. He died at Verona in 1755, aged eighty years.
In addition to the works already mentioned, Maffei wrote
three treatises against the popular belief in magic ; one on
the legitimacy of receiving interest on a loan of money,
entitled DelP Impieyo del Denaro (1746), for which he
suffered a temporary exile, through the influence of the
Jansenists; and one, \he Museum Veronense, on ancient
inscriptions and hieroglyphics, published at Verona in 1749.
A collected edition of Maffei’s works was published at
Venice, in 28 vols. 8vo, 1790.
MAGADOXO, or Mukdeesha, an Arabian town on Magadoxo
the E. coast of Africa, N. Lat. 2. 2., E. Long. 45. 25. It 11
is the capital of a state of the same name, and is a place of Magal-
very considerable trade, exporting ivory, gum, and a pecu- aen^~ t
liar kind of cloth ; and importing sugar, dates, salt fish, arms,
and slaves. The town is walled, and is divided into two
parts, one of which is composed entirely of tombs, while
the other contains about 150 stone and a number of wooden
houses, and an Arabian mosque. Pop. probably about 4000.
The state extends along the coast for about 240 miles,
and is estimated to have a population of about 150,000.
Its sovereign is a tributary to the Iman of Muscat in
Arabia.
MAGALHAENS, or Magellan, Fernando, the dis¬
cover of the straits known by his name, is said to have been
born at Oporto, in Portugal, in the latter half of the fif¬
teenth century. Entering the Portuguese navy at an early
age, he served in the East Indies for five years under Albu¬
querque, and bore a distinguished part in the siege of Ma¬
lacca in 1511. As he thought, however, that his achieve¬
ments were not duly rewarded, he returned to Portugal to
make a personal appeal for promotion to King Emmanuel
himself, but was again unsuccessful. Accordingly, he
opened a communication with Charles V. of Spain. Refer¬
ring to the bull of Pope Alexander VI., that had divided
the globe into two parts, and had assigned as their distinc¬
tive spheres of discovery the western half to the Spaniards
and the eastern to the Portuguese, Magellan endeavoured
to prove to that monarch that the Moluccas, then claimed
by Portugal, lay within the Spanish half of the world. He
also volunteered to settle the question beyond all doubt by
sailing to the Moluccas by a westward instead of an east¬
ward course. His proposal was accepted by the Spanish
king; and, accordingly, on the 20th September 1519, Ma¬
gellan sailed from San Lucar, in command of a squadron of
five ships, with 236 men on board, and steered directly for
Rio Janeiro. After taking on board at that port afresh supply
of provisions, he sailed southward along the coast, and on
the 13th March 1520 entered a bay on the shore of Pata¬
gonia, to which he gave the name of San Julian. While
the fleet lay wintering here, three of the captains, impatient
perhaps of the control of a Portuguese, broke out into open
mutiny, and by their example began to spread discontent
among the crews. In a short time, however, Magellan had
one of the mutineers secretly slain, another publicly exe¬
cuted, and the third thrust ashore on the inhospitable coast
of Patagonia. On the 21st October 1520, he doubled the
headland which he called Cape Virgins, and arrived at the
mouth of the straits which are now known by his name.
With the utmost difficulty he induced his sailors to venture
into the unknown passage. One of his ships was wrecked
at the entrance of the straits, another turned back in the
middle ; but, on the 28th of November, the remaining three,
to the great joy of Magellan, issued forth into the vast ocean.
Boldly directing their course across this untraversed sea, to
which, on account of its calmness, they gave the name of
Pacific, and sailing for more than three months without see¬
ing land, the crews suffered great hardships from disease
and want offood. On the 6th March 1521, he discovered
the group of islands which, on account of the thievish pro¬
pensities of the inhabitants, he called Ladrones. He then
proceeded to another cluster of islands, formerly unknown,
but afterwards called the Philippines. There the prince of
the island of Zebu agreed to become tributary to Spain, on
condition that Magellan should render him supreme over
the chieftains of the other islands in the group. In fulfil¬
ling this agreement, Magellan encountered an obstinate re¬
sistance from the inhabitants of the small island of Matan.
On 27th April 1521, after fighting for an entire day, he was
forced to retreat, through lack of ammunition, and in the
subsequent confusion he was felled by a stone, and despatched
MAG
Magdalena by the thrust of a lance. His fleet was conducted home by
II Sebastian del Cano.
Magdeburg MAGDALENA, a river in South America, the second
jn length in the republic of New Granada, rises at the
junction of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras of the Andes,
in the small Lake of Papus; N. Lat. 1. 58., W. Long.
76. 25. It flows northwards for 500 miles between these
two ranges, and then enters the plain. After receiving from
the W. the Cauca, which is nearly as large as itself, in N.
Lat. 9. 25., it divides into several branches and falls into
the Caribbean Sea, Lat. 11. 8., Long. 74. 50. The total
length is estimated at about 800 miles, and it is navigable
as far up as Honda, 435 miles from its mouth. The Mag¬
dalena is a rapid river, and the amount of its descent and
the force of its current are such, that for some distance from
its mouth the waters may be distinguished by their fresh¬
ness from the surrounding ocean. Rapids and cataracts
frequently interrupt its course, and its banks are infested
with caymans and crocodiles, which, along with the exces¬
sive heat of the climate, and the swarms of mosquitoes,
render the progress of the navigator anything but safe and
agreeable. It is, however, the main channel of communi¬
cation between the provinces in the interior and the sea.
Besides the Cauca, it receives a number of smaller tributa¬
ries, the chief of which are the Sogamosa and Bogota,
from the E. The chief towns on its banks are,—Neiva,
Tocama, Honda, and Mompox. The department of the
same name in the N. of the republic has an estimated area
of about 52,000 square miles, and a population of about
337,000. It is divided into four provinces, and its chief
town is Cartagena on the sea-coast.
MAGDEBURG, a fortified town of Prussia, capital of
the province of Saxony, and of a cognominal government,
is situate on the left bank of the Elbe, 90 miles S.W. from
Berlin, with which, as well as with Hamburg, Brunswick,
Leipzig, and other places, it is connected by railway. It
ranks as a fortress of the first class ; and in consequence of
the additions and improvements which its fortifications have
received since the war, it is now considered one of the
strongest places in Europe. On account of its great extent
it could not be invested by an army of less than from
50,000 to 100,000 men. The citadel, on an island in the
Elbe, serves also as a state prison: Lafayette, Carnot, and
others, have been confined in it. Magdeburg consists of
three parts, Alstadt, Neumarkt, and Friedrichstadt, be¬
sides the suburbs of Sudenburg and Neustadt. With the ex¬
ception of one spacious street, called the Broadway, all the
streets are narrow and crooked. There are two large pub¬
lic squares, the largest and finest of which is the Domplatz,
in which is the cathedral; the other, the market-place, has
in the centre an equestrian statue of the Emperor Otto,
erected in 973. The Fiirstenwall, a sort of terrace ex¬
tending along the Elbe, and planted with trees, forms a
very agreeable promenade. The public gardens outside the
Sudenberger Gate, and by the side of the Elbe, are taste¬
fully laid out, and much resorted to. Magdeburg contains
few ancient public buildings of note, having been almost
burned to the ground by Tilly in 1631, when only 139
houses were left standing. Fortunately, among those saved
was the cathedral, one of the finest Gothic edifices of
Northern Germany, erected between 1211 and 1363, and
restored at great cost, 1825—34. It is built entirely of free¬
stone, is 362 feet long, and has two lofty towers. It con¬
tains numerous tombs and monuments, among which is that
of Otto the Great and his empress. Among the other
churches are the church of the Virgin, built in the eleventh
century, and the French Reformed church, dating from the
latter part of the seventeenth century. The town-hall,
government-house, artillery barracks, and theatre, are among
the chief of its other buildings. Magdeburg is the see of
a bishop, and, as the capital of a province, is the seat of a
YOL. XIII.
MAG 809
number of important courts and offices. It has also nume- Magellan
rous benevolent and educational institutions, among which II
are several hospitals and orphan asylums, a deaf-mute insti- ^agen<^ie-
tution, ecclesiastical gymnasium, female high school, normal
seminary, and schools for agriculture, commerce, surgery, &c.
Magdeburg is also one of the most important trading and
manufacturing towns of Germany. From its position on
the Elbe, and its extensive railway connection with all parts
of Germany, it is an important entrepot of trade for a great
part of Germany. Steamboats ply regularly between Ham¬
burg and Magdeburg; and by means of a canal connecting
the Elbe with the Havel, it has direct water communication
with Berlin and other places. The manufactures comprise
woollen, linen, and cotton stuffs ; gloves, lace, hats, tobacco,
and earthenware. Magdeburg existed as a town as early
as the eighth century. It has frequently suffered from
sieges, especially in 1631, when it was taken and sacked by
the imperialists under Tilly. It was taken by the French
in 1806, and annexed to the then kingdom of Westphalia.
In 1849 Magdeburg contained 50,996 inhabitants, besides
5185 military ; the suburb of Neustadt, 10,023 ; and that
of Sudenburg, 4284 inhabitants. In 1853 the total popu¬
lation of city and suburbs was 77,159. The government of
Magdeburg is one of the three that compose the province
of Saxony. It is divided into fifteen circles, and has an area
of 4447 square miles, with, in 1852, a population of 714,268.
Its soil is of great fertility, and is well cultivated.
MAGELLAN, or Magalheans, Strait of, an arm of
the sea which separates Patagonia from the group of islands
}yjng the S. of South America, of which the principal is
Fierra del Fuego. It received its name from Ferdinand
Magellan, who first sailed through it from the Atlantic to
the Pacific. For some time after this it was thought to be
the only communication between the two oceans ; but since
Cape Horn has been doubled, it is little used on account
of the difficulty of navigation. The entrance to the channel
at the eastern end is situate in about S. Lat. 52., and is 15
miles in breadth, while that on the side of the Pacific ex¬
tends to 33 miles. There is, however, another arm reaching
to the Pacific by Cockburn Channel and Magdalen Sound.
The breadth of the main strait varies very considerably,
being at one point not more than 1£ miles across. The
middle of the strait is much farther S. than either of its
extremities, and the whole length is nearly 300 miles. It
is bounded by precipitous rocks, rising in some places to
3000 or 4000 feet above the level of the sea, and the depth
in some places is so great as to give no soundings with a
line of 1500 feet. Towards the western mouth the strait
is broken up by a number of islands.
MAGENDIE, FRANgois, an eminent physiologist, the
son of a physician in Paris, was born at Bordeaux in October
1783. At an early age he was removed to the capital; and
after attending school for some time, became a pupil of
Boyer, the eminent surgeon. He was then successively
appointed aide d'anatomie in the Faculty of Medicine, a
demonstrator, and physician to the Hotel Dieu. In 1816
he published Precis Elementaire de Physiologic, 8vo, a
work, which, in some of its subsequent editions, appeared
under the title of Elemens de Physiologic. His Recherches
Physiologiques et Medicales sur les Causes, les Symptomes,
et le Traitement de la Gravelle, was published at Paris in
1818. In 1819 he became a member of the Academy of
Sciences. One of his most important works, Formulaire
pour la Preparation etEmploi de plusieurs nouveaux Me¬
dicaments, appeared in 1821, and was soon after translated
into all the European languages. In 1831 Magendie be¬
came professor of anatomy in the College of France. He
published in 1839 Leqons sur les Phenomenes Physique de
la Vie, and Lemons sur les Fonctions et les Maladies du Sys-
teme Ferueaux. In 1842 was printed at Paris his Recherches
Philosophiques et Cliniques sur le Liquide Cephalo-Rachi-
5 K
810 MAG
Ma£gi dien ou Cerebro-Spinal. Magendie died in October 1855.
II . Among his important services to science may be named his
v Mag'‘ demonstration that the two roots of the spinal nerves have
two distinct functions. Sir Charles Bell had previously
shown that the nerves sometimes perform the double func¬
tion of sensation and volition, and Magendie clearly es¬
tablished and admirably illustrated the fact, that the two
roots of the spinal nerves are always devoted to two sepa¬
rate functions. He likewise discovered that the veins are
the principal agents in absorption; that food destitute of
nitrogen is not nutritious; and that strychnia produces
asphyxia by acting upon the spinal cord, and by thus para¬
lyzing the nerves of respiration.
MAGGI, Jerome, in Latin Magius, one of the most
learned men of the sixteenth century, was born at Anghiari
in Tuscany. He applied himself to all the sciences, and
even to the art of war; and distinguished himself so much
in this last study, that when the Turks besieged Fama¬
gusta, he destroyed all the works of the besiegers by means
of mines and fire-machines, and in an instant overthrew
what had cost them infinite labour. But the Ottomans took
the city in 1571, plundered his library, carried him loaded
with chains to Constantinople, and after treating him in the
most inhuman and barbarous manner, caused him to be
strangled in prison in 1572.
MAGGIORE, Lago. See Lago Maggiore.
MAGI, the caste of hereditary priests under the Medes
and Persians. Some derive their name from mog, or mag,
which signifies priest in the Pehlevi language. They were
in exclusive possession of scientific knowledge; and so cele¬
brated were they in astrology and enchantment, that their
name was given to all other kinds of enchanters and magi¬
cians. We find the word also used to denote any men dis¬
tinguished for their wisdom. Thus the wise men of the
east, in Matt. ii. 1, 7, 16, are termed Magi; and it is not
difficult to perceive how, in the minds of the superstitious
vulgar, this class of men should early come to be regarded
under this twofold aspect. The grand doctrine of the an¬
cient Magi, previous to the reformation effected among
them by Zoroaster, was that of opposition, or strife, as the
parent and original cause of all things. The two great
principles which waged continual warfare throughout the
universe were those of light and darkness, of good and evil,
Ormuzd and Ahriman, which were destined to divide the
dominion of the world, now preserving, now destroying
finite things, till the final struggle should arrive, when dark¬
ness should be swallowed up of light, and the good should
reign for ever. To seize upon and master those hostile
powers was the chief task of the Magi, and they held that
this could be effected by prayer and a true knowledge of
the laws of opposition. When once this mastery was ob¬
tained, all subject to those powers were at their disposal:
they could pry into futurity, raise the dead, and accomplish
countless other supernatural triumphs over the limitation
and suffering to which man is naturally subjected. That
this system had its origin in the endeavours which thought¬
ful men perpetually exert after an intelligible explanation
of the universe, there can be little doubt; and it can be
as little doubted that their art, so far as it was real, had its
foundation in a superior knowledge of the powers of nature.
But what sprung originally from a love of truth, from the
scientific tendencies of the human mind, could soon, in the
hands of the dishonest and the grasping, be prostituted to ful¬
fil the ends of vulgar avarice and sordid ambition; and hence
the degradation of the tvise man, the priest of science, into
the magician, the wonder-worker, with his magical theurgia
and wicked incantations.
Zoroaster reformed the religious doctrines and ceremo¬
nies of the Magi. (See Zoroaster.) The best source of
information for the study of the character and religion of
the eastern Magi is to be found among the works of An-
M A G
quetil du Perron, who brought to Europe the celebrated Magic
books called the Zendavesta. (See vols; xxxiv. and xxxix. Square,
of the Memoires de l'Academic des Inscriptions.) Inter-
esting information may also be obtained respecting the Magi
and magic in Kleuker’s Zendavesta and Magikon; also,
Creuzer’s Symbolik und Mythologie ; also, Windischmann
and Conrad Horst on Magic; and Sir Walter Scott’s De¬
monology and Witchcraft.
MAGIC SQUARE, a square figure, formed of a series
of numbers in mathematical proportion, so disposed in pa¬
rallel and equal ranks, that the sums of each row, taken
either perpendicularly, horizontally, or diagonally, are equal.
Let the several numbers which compose any square
number (for instance, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c., to 25, the square
number, inclusive) be disposed in their natural order after
each other in a square figure of twenty-five cells, each in its
cell; if now you change the order of these numbers, and dis¬
pose them in the cells in such manner that the five numbers
which fill a horizontal rank of cells, being added together,
shall make the same sum with the five numbers in any other
rank of cells, whether horizontal or vertical, and even the
same number with the five in each of the two diagonal
ranks; this disposition of numbers is called a magic square,
in opposition to the former disposition, which is called a
natural square. See the following figures.
Natural Square. Magic Square.
The Hindus, Egyptians, and Chinese are said to have
been acquainted with those arrangements at a very early
period, and adhered to the belief that such squares were
possessed of powers of divination.
Moschopulus, a Greek author of no great antiquity, is the
first who appears to have spoken of magic squares; and, by
the age in which he lived, there is reason to imagine he
did not look on them merely as a mathematician. However,
he has left us some rules for their construction. In the
treatise of Cornelius Agrippa, so much accused of magic,
we find the squares of seven numbers, viz., from three to
nine inclusive, disposed magically. Bachet applied him¬
self to the study of magic squares, on the hint which he
had taken from the planetary squares of Agrippa.
After him came Frenicle, who took the same subject in
hand. He gives, however, no general demonstration of his
methods, and frequently seems to have no other guide than
chance. It is true, his book was not published by himself,
nor did it appear till after his death, viz., in 1693.
In 1703 Poignard, a canon of Brussels, published a
treatise on sublime magic squares. Before him there had
been no magic squares constructed but for series of natural
numbers that formed a square. Instead of taking all the
numbers that fill a square, he only takes as many succes¬
sive numbers as there are units in the side of the square,
which, in this case, are six; and these six numbers alone
he disposes in such manner in the thirty-six cells, that none
of them are repeated twice in the same rank, whether it
be horizontal, vertical, or diagonal; whence it follows, that
all the ranks, taken all the ways possible, must always
make the same sum, which Poignard calls repeated pro¬
gression. Instead of being confined to take these numbers
according to the series and succession of the natural num¬
bers, that is, in arithmetical progression, he takes them
Maginn
II
Maglia-
becchi.
MAG
MAG 811
likewise in a geometrical progression, and even in an har-
monical progression.
The book of Poignard gave occasion to M. de la Hire
to turn his thoughts the same way, which he did with such
success that he seems to have well nigh completed the
theory of magic squares. He first considers uneven squares,
all his predecessors on the subject having found the con¬
struction of even ones by much the most difficult; for
which reason M. de la Hire reserves these for the last.
M. de la Hire proposes a general method for uneven
squares, which has some similitude to the theory of com¬
pound motions, so useful and fertile in mechanics. As that
consists in decomposing motions, and resolving them into
others more simple, so does M. de la Hire’s method con¬
sist in resolving the square that is to be constructed, into
two simple and primitive squares.
As to the even squares, M. de la Hire constructs
them, like the uneven ones, by two primitive squares; but
the construction of primitives is different in general, and
may be so a great number of ways; and those general
differences admit of a great number of particular varia¬
tions, which give as many different constructions of the
same even square.
Dr Franklin seems to have carried this curious specu¬
lation farther than any of his predecessors. He con-
sructed not only a magic square of squares, but likewise
a magic circle of circles. The details are not, however, of
such importance as to require particular notice in this
place. In addition to the writers on this subject, already
specified, we may add the names of Stifels, Leibnitz,
Bachet, and Ozanam. (For a complete history of this
subject, see Montucla, vol. i., p. 346; Hutton’s Dictionary ;
and Ozanam and Montucla’s Mathematical Recreations^)
MAGINN, William, LL.D., one of the most spirited
and versatile of modern writers, was born at Cork in
1793. He received his elementary education at an aca¬
demy, conducted by his father, in his native town ; and at
the early age of ten years entered Trinity College, Dublin,
which afterwards honoured him with the degree of LL.D.
On leaving college, he divided his time between assist¬
ing his father as a schoolmaster and contributing literary
articles to various periodical publications. He began to
contribute to Blackwood’s Magazine in 1819, and the wit,
irony, fun, and eloquence of “ Sir Morgan O’Doherty ”
continued to adorn the pages of that journal till Maginn’s
death. In 1823 he visited London, where his elegant
scholarship, pungent satire, and spirited style, soon pro¬
cured for him constant employment. Maginn became
joint-editor of the Standard newspaper in 1828 ; and two
years afterwards established Fraser’s Magazine, a publi¬
cation to which he contributed very extensively. His
trenchant, caustic pen sometimes got him into difficulties
with the fashionable novelists, and Maginn was not at all
slow to give “ satisfaction ” when it was deemed neces¬
sary. Of a generous, witty, jovial nature, he found one
of his greatest snares in his fondness for society. The
brilliant humorist and boon companion was sought after
by every one ; and by too freely submitting to the temp¬
tation to which he was thus exposed, he found, while yet
in his prime, that health and means had alike deserted
him. In 1842 he was cast into the Fleet prison for
debt, and on being released by passing through the In¬
solvency Court, found himself in a state of utter beggary,
from which he was relieved by death during August of the
same year. He died of consumption at Walton-on-the-
Thames, aged forty-eight years.
MAGL1ABECCHI, Antonio, a scholar remarkable for
his great memory, was born at Florence in 1633. De¬
prived of his father at the age of seven, he was apprenticed,
after receiving a scanty education, to a goldsmith in his
native city. Soon afterwards his thirst for reading began
to appear, and with the aid of Ermini, librarian to the Cardi- Magna
nal de Medici, he speedily became an adept in Latin and Grajcia
Hebrew. Cultivated by the most unflagging application, ^laJncn.
his memory soon became noted for its strength and accu-
racy; and in course of time he was appointed librarian to i ^
Cosmo III., Grand Duke of Florence. In this congenial
situation he became so absorbed in his studies as to ne¬
glect the ordinary comforts of life. A commodious apart¬
ment, which he occupied in virtue of his new office, was
abandoned after a sojourn of four months. In his former
dwelling, to which he retired, one chair served him for a
seat during the day, and another for a bed during the night
His old thread-bare cloak was also the coverlet of his couch.
He died among his books in 1714, after bequeathing to the
public his valuable library, now known by the title of Mag-
liabecchiana. (See Libraries.)
MAGNA GTLECIA, as generally used by ancient Greek
authors, consisted of the Greek cities in Southern Italy that
were scattered along the shores of Lucania, Bruttii, and
Calabria. The cities on the E. coast were built between
735 and 685 b.c. Of these, Sybaris, Crotona, and Meta-
pontum, were founded by the Achaeans; Tarentum by the
Spartans ; Siris by the lonians ; and Locri Epizephyrii by
the Locrians. The Greek cities on the W. coast, with
the exception of Rhegium, were of a later date, and, with
the exception of that town and Velia, were merely offshoots
of the colonies on the E. coast. Thus, Posidonia and Laiis
were colonized from Sybaris, and Hipponium and Medma
from Locri. At an early period the cities of Magna
Graecia, as their general title implies, outrivalled in power
and prosperity their mother country. As they were, how¬
ever, descended from distinct races, and were united by no
common political interest, their greatness was more appa¬
rent than real—more temporary than permanent. They were
often at war among themselves, and the rapid advancement
of one city was frequently the result of the fall of another.
Common danger was the only motive that could league them
together. Accordingly, in 393 b.c. they entered into an
alliance for mutual protection against the separate attacks
of Dionysius of Syracuse and the Lucanians, but were de¬
feated by the former at the River Helorus in 389 b.c.
and by the latter near Laiis in 390 b.c. Many of the
cities of Magna Graecia afterwards fell before the re¬
peated attacks of the Lucanians and Bruttians. Those
that survived came under the sway of the Romans
after the capture of Tarentum in 272 b.c. At the begin¬
ning of the second Punic war, however, they all revolted
with the exception of Rhegium. From the severe punish¬
ment that followed this revolt they never recovered. In
the time of Strabo, Rhegium, Tarentum, and Neapolis alone
retained traces of their former Greek civilizationj
MAGNENTIUS, a Roman emperor of the west, was of
barbarian extraction, and rose to the dignity of count under
the Emperor Constantine. He afterwards entered the
service of Constans; and in A.D. 350, while commanding
the troops that defended the banks of the Rhine, he con¬
ceived the design of wresting the sceptre from that feeble
and indolent prince. With the connivance of Marcellinus,
Count of the Sacred Largesses, his plot was matured and
carried into execution. That dignitary invited the officers
of the army, then stationed near the city of Autun, to a
feast in honour of the birthday of his son, and at a late hour
of the banquet introduced Magnentius arrayed in the robes
and insignia of royalty. The cry of “Long live Augustus”
that was raised at this signal by several conspirators, was
taken up unconsciously by the excited and astonished
guests; and Magnentius forthwith took possession of the
imperial palace at Autun. The assassination of Constans
followed immediately; and within a short time Gaul, Italy,
and the greater part of the western provinces had acknow¬
ledged the title of the usurper. After raising a formidable
812
Magnes.
MAG
army, Magnentius first attempted, but without success, to
negotiate an agreement with Constantine, Emperor of the
East, who was already intent upon revenging the death of
his brother Constans. He then marched through Italy and
Noricum into Pannonia, and in a.d. 351 repulsed the
troops of Constantine on the plain of Sciscia. In the same
year a battle fought before the town of Mursa, on the
Drave, ended in the total defeat of Magnentius. A second
routing of his forces in the defiles of the Cottian Alps com¬
pleted his disaster; and when on the eve of being captured
by his enemies, he died by his own hand at Lugdunum, in
August a.d. 353.
MAGNES’, one of the earliest of the comic poets of
Athens, and the contemporary of Chionides, was a native
of Icaria in Attica, and flourished during the fifth century
B.C. We can gather, from what Aristotle says of him, that
he was the earliest comic poet of whom any victories are
recorded. An anonymous writer says he gained eleven
victories, while Suidas and Eudocia affirm, that out of nine
plays which he exhibited, he gained only two victories. The
latter statement is rendered exceedingly questionable by a
passage in Aristophanes, a writer who flourished a few years
after Magnes, and who, while praising his wit and versatility,
charges the Athenians with fickleness and ingratitude
towards the old comedian, who, from the enjoyment of an
MAG
eminent popularity had been reduced to total neglect. Magnesia
{Knights, line 520, &c.) The titles of a few of the plays
of Magnes constitute almost all that can be discovered
respecting them. Scarcely more than half-a-dozen lines of
his works are extant. A scholiast on Aristophanes signa¬
lizes the Barbitides, a satire on a peculiar class of musi¬
cians ; the Ludoi, an attack on the indecent dances of the
Lydians; and a few others of which the authorship is
doubtful.
MAGNESIA, a city of Ionia, situate on the Lethaeus,
an affluent of the Maeander, was commonly called Magnesia
ad Mceandrum, in contradistinction to Magnesia ad Sij)y-
lum, a town in Lydia. It is said to have been founded by
a colony from Magnesia in Thessaly, and rapidly rose to
wealth and power. Captured and sacked by the Cimme¬
rians about 726 B.c., it was rebuilt in the following year by
the Milesians, or, according to Athenaeus, by the Ephe¬
sians. Magnesia was one of the three cities that supported
Themistocles during his exile, and there the memory of
that great man was long afterwards preserved by a monu¬
ment erected in the agora. In the time of Strabo the
town was noted for its magnificent temple to Artemis Leu-
cophryene, still seen in ruins. Under the Romans it was
included within the kingdom of Pergamus, and from that
period it seems to have gradually declined.
END OF VOLUME THIRTEENTH.
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