ACRL News Issue (B) of College & Research Libraries 263 A ca d em ic L ib r a r y R e s e r v e s , P h o to c o p y in g , a n d th e C o p y rig h t Law by Jo h n C. S te d m a n E d it o r s note: J o h n C. S te d m a n is e m eritu s p r o ­ fe s s o r o f law , U n iversity o f W isc o n sin -M a d iso n , a n d c h a ir o f th e A A U P C o m m itte e on C o p y rig h t L aw . T his a rticle a p pears in a slig h tly m odified f o r m in A A U P B u lle tin 6 4 :142- 49 ( S e p te m b e r 1978). I n t r o d u c t i o n T h e n u m b e r o f q u e stio n s lib ra rian s h av e ab o u t th e n e w co p y rig h t legislation a n d its ap p licatio n to lib ra ry o p e r a tio n s is e x c e e d e d o n ly b y th e a m o u n t of in fo rm a tio n a v a ila b le a b o u t t h e n e w law. A nsw ers to q u e stio n s a re n o t easily o b ta in e d , a n d lib ra rian s h av e b e c o m e in creasin g ly w ary o f advocacy d o c u m e n ts su c h as t h e A ssociation o f A m erican P u b lish e rs ’ re c e n tly p u b lish e d P hoto­ c o p yin g b y A c a d e m ic ‚ Public a n d N o n p ro fit R e­ search L ib ra rie s a n d its e a rlie r P hotocopying by C o r p o r a te L ib r a r ie s . A lth o u g h b o th o f t h e s e d o c u m e n t s p u r p o r t to b e e x p l a n a t o r y o f t h e C o p y rig h t Act o f 1976 as it a p p lie s to lib ra ries, th e y c o n ta in m an y m isre p re s e n ta tio n s a n d offer m islead in g g u id a n c e to librarians. B e c a u s e o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e to p ic to a c a d e m ic lib ra ria n s a n d t h e n e e d for o b je c tiv e analysis, C & R L N e w s has p u b lish e d several a r­ ticles on co p y rig h t a n d re se rv e o p eratio n s d u rin g th e p ast m o n th s. This m ost re c e n t a d d itio n to th e l i t e r a t u r e , w r i t t e n b y J o h n C . S t e d m a n , an e m e r itu s p ro fe s s o r o f law at t h e U n iv e rsity o f W isco n sin -M ad iso n , sh e d s so m e ad d itio n al light on several com plex rese rv e -c o p y rig h t issues. P ro ­ fe ss o r S te d m a n ’s r e a so n a b le a n d o b je c tiv e d is ­ c u s s io n s o f s e c t i o n s 108 a n d 107 a n d t h e G u id elin es f o r C la ssro o m C o p y in g sh o u ld assist lib ra ria n s in in t e r p r e t i n g c o p y rig h t le g isla tio n . A rm ed w ith th is a rtic le a n d th e m aterial issu ed in th e A m e ric a n L ib r a r y A sso ciatio n s L ib r a r ia n s C o p y r i g h t K i t , l i b r a r i a n s s h o u l d h a v e l i t t l e d iffic u lty in fin d in g a n s w e rs to m a n y o f t h e i r c o p y rig h t q u e s tio n s .— M ere d ith A . B u tle r, C h a ir, A C R L C o p y rig h t C om m ittee. D o e s t h e c o m m o n , a n d a c a d e m ic a lly im p o r­ ta n t, p ra c tic e of p h o to co p y in g c o p y rig h te d m a te ­ rials a n d p u ttin g th e m on “re s e rv e ” for u sa g e by s tu d e n ts c o n s titu te co p y rig h t in frin g e m e n t? T he a tte n tio n this q u e stio n has re c e iv e d is e x c e e d e d o n ly b y t h e in c o n c lu s iv e n e s s o f t h e a n s w e rs . © 1978, A m erican A ssociation of U n iv ersity P ro ­ fessors S om e c o m m e n ta to rs a re s u re th a t it c o n s titu te s in frin g em en t; o th e rs are equally su re th a t it does not. T h e follow ing c o m m en ts a tte m p t to search ou t th e line b e tw e e n p e rm iss ib le a n d im p e rm is­ sible p h o to co p y in g for such p u rp o se s a n d to spell o u t th e co n sid eratio n s th a t suggest p erm issib ility in m o st instances. “R e s e rv e s,” for p u rp o se s o f this discussion, are d e fin e d as se le c te d w ritin g s m ade available to in­ dividual a n d successive s tu d e n ts for educational p u rp o se s, su b je c t to sh a rp tim e lim itations and, usually, re stric tio n s on physical rem oval from th e lib ra ry p re m ise s . T h e c o p y rig h t issu e d o e s no t arise ex cep t w ith re sp e c t to c o p y rig h te d m aterials th a t h av e b e e n co p ie d w ith o u t th e ex p re ss o r im ­ p lie d c o n se n t of th e c o p y rig h t ow ner. N o r is th e p r e s e n t discussion c o n c e rn e d w ith lib ra rie s that a re c o n n e c te d w ith com m ercial organizations, or th e p o ssib le liability o f p e rso n s o th e r th an th e li­ b ra rie s or te a c h e r — for in sta n c e , s tu d e n ts — w ho e n g a g e in u n a u t h o r i z e d p h o to c o p y in g o n u n ­ su p e rv is e d co pying m ach in es (see section 108[f]). In sh o rt, w e a re c o n c e rn e d h e r e only w ith th e te a c h e r— o r th e lib ra ry a c tin g upo n th e te a c h e r’s r e q u e st o r on its ow n in itiativ e— w h o m akes, or h as m a d e , t h e u n a u th o r iz e d co p ies in q u e s tio n a n d w ho places th e m on reserv e. Since such p ra c tic e involves a “co pying” w ith in th e m e an in g o f th e c o p y rig h t law, it co n stitu te s in frin g e m e n t (see section 106[1]) u n less such use is p e r m itte d b y section 107 o r 108.1 S e c t i o n 108— L ib r a r y P h o t o c o p y i n g It is logical (if no t chronological) to sta rt w ith section 108 r a th e r th a n 107, since it is th e n a r­ row er a n d m ore specific o f th e two. T h e s tru c tu re o f section 108 is q u ite com plex. S u b sec tio n s (b) th ro u g h (e) se t o u t th e c irc u m sta n c e s in w hich p h o to co p y in g is p e rm itte d , n am ely, for p u rp o se s o f p re se rv a tio n or re sto ra tio n (subsections [b] and [c]) o r to com ply w ith th e re q u e s t o f a u se r (sub­ se ctio n s [d] a n d [e]). S u b sec tio n s (b) a n d (c) are n o t re le v a n t to th e p r e s e n t discussion, b u t s u b ­ sections (d) a n d (e) are. S u b sec tio n (d) p e rm its a lib ra ry , a t t h e r e q u e s t o f a u s e r, to p ro v id e a copy from its o r a n o th e r lib ra ry ’s collection “o f no m ore th a n o n e a rticle o r o th e r c o n trib u tio n to a c o p y rig h te d collection o r p eriodical issue, or … o f a sm all p a rt o f any o th e r c o p y rig h te d w o rk ,” p ro v id e d (1) th e co p y b e c o m e s th e p ro p e rty of th e u se r, (2) th e lib ra ry has no n o tice th a t it is to b e u s e d “ fo r a n y p u r p o s e o t h e r th a n p r i v a t e s t u d y , s c h o la r s h ip , o r r e s e a r c h , ” a n d (3) t h e l i b r a r y d is p la y s o r i n c l u d e s a “ w a r n i n g o f c o p y r ig h t.” S u b s e c tio n (e) p e r m its a lib ra ry to 264 p ro v id e a copy o f an “e n tir e w o rk o r … a su b ­ sta n tial p a r t o f i t , ” su b je c t to th e sam e c o n d itio n s p lu s t h e a d d e d c o n d itio n th a t t h e lib ra ry “ has first d e te r m in e d … th a t a copy … c a n n o t b e o b ta in e d a t a fair p r ic e .” In a d d itio n to th e ab o v e lim ita tio n s , su b s e c ­ tio n s (d) a n d (e) a re also su b je c t to four im p o rta n t g e n e r a l lim ita tio n s s e t f o rth in s u b s e c tio n (a), nam e ly , th a t (1) th e lib ra ry m ak e “no m o re th a n o n e co p y ” (alth o u g h it m ay r e p e a t “on se p a ra te occasions" p ro v id e d th e r e p e titio n s a re “iso lated a n d u n r e la te d ”— su b sectio n [g]); (2) th e c o p y in g is d o n e “w ith o u t any p u rp o s e o f d ire c t or in d ire c t c o m m e r c ia l a d v a n ta g e ” ; (3) its c o lle c tio n s a r e available to th e p u b lic o r re se a rc h e rs ; an d (4) a n o tic e o f co p y rig h t is in clu d ed . As th e fo reg o in g in d ic a te s, th e c o n d itio n s to b e m e t a re n u m e ro u s a n d tech n ical, b u t c o m p lian ce w ith th e m in m e e tin g t h e n e e d s o f in d iv id u a l stu d e n ts sh o u ld ca u se n o se rio u s p ro b le m . T h e c lo s e r q u e s tio n , e sp e c ia lly in v ie w o f th e “o n e c o p y ” li m i ta t io n , is t h e i r a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o — o r p e r h a p s , t h e i r p r a c tic a b ility in — t h e “r e s e r v e ” situ a tio n . U n d e r s e c tio n 108(d), a n in d iv id u a l s tu d e n t co u ld r e q u e s t a copy o f a re fe re n c e d a rti­ cle. B ut could m o re th a n o n e s tu d e n t r e q u e s t a copy o f th e a rtic le ? C o u ld a stu d e n t w ho legally o b ta in e d a copy th ro u g h th is p r o c e d u re sh a re it w ith o th e rs ? T h e p o te n tia litie s o f th e s e as a lte r ­ n a tiv e s to t h e tra d itio n a l “ r e s e r v e ” sy ste m a re o bvious— a n d it is a little h a rd to s e e w h y a re su lt th a t c o u ld b e a c h ie v e d b y th e s e in d ire c t a n d in ­ efficient m e th o d s, if th e y a re p e rm iss ib le , sh o u ld n o t b e a c h i e v a b l e b y t h e s i m p l e r a n d m o r e e f f ic ie n t m e t h o d o f s im p ly p u t t i n g a li m i te d n u m b e r of co p ies on re se rv e . T h e p r e m i s e o f n o n i n f r i n g e m e n t r u n s in to d iffic u lty , h o w e v e r, in t h e face o f se c tio n 108 language. (1) S u p p o se t h e re c ip ie n t tu rn s th e copy o v e r to o t h e r s , e i t h e r o n lo a n o r ir re v o c a b ly ? In th a t case, d o es it m e e t th e r e q u ir e m e n t o f "p riv a te stu d y , sc h o larsh ip , o r re se a rc h ”? It w o u ld seem th a t it does; a n d e v e n if it d o es not, th e lib ra ry sh o u ld b e f re e o f liability i f it h a d n o n o tic e o f th e re c ip ie n t’s in te n t to pass on t h e copy (see su b se c ­ tions (d) a n d (e)). B u t o n e c a n n o t b e su re. T h e a n s w e r may b e yes o r “n o ” d e p e n d in g on w ho is in te r p re tin g th e s ta tu te s .2 (2) I f m o re th a n o n e r e q u e s t is filled, m ig h t th e lib ra ry b e in v io la tio n o f su b s e c tio n (g), w h ich p ro v id e s th a t th e rig h ts to m ake ad d itio n al copies on s e p a ra te o c c a sio n s “ d o n o t e x te n d to ca se s w h e re th e lib ra ry … is aw are o r has su b sta n tia l re a so n to b e lie v e th a t it is en g a g in g in th e re la te d o r c o n c e rte d re p ro d u c tio n o r d istrib u tio n o f m u l­ tip le co p ies … w h e th e r m a d e on o n e occasion o r o v e r a p e rio d o f tim e , a n d w h e th e r in te n d e d for a g g re g a te u se b y o n e o r m o re in d iv id u als or for s e p a ra te u se b y th e in d iv id u al m e m b e rs o f a g ro u p ”? T h e m u rk in e ss o f this lan g u ag e d efies in te r p r e tation a t a n y lev el sh o rt o f ju d ic ia l o m n isc ie n c e .3 N e v e rth e le s s, a t so m e p o in t along th e ro a d o f r e ­ p e a te d p h o to c o p y in g in th e s e c ir c u m s ta n c e s it se em s in e v ita b le th a t a c o u rt w o u ld c o n c lu d e th a t th e lib ra ry w as, o r sh o u ld h a v e b e e n , “a w a re .” U p to th a t p o in t, h o w e v e r, t h e lib ra ry w o u ld b e h o m e free. A b o u t th e m ost o n e can say re g a rd in g section 108 is th a t a lib ra ry , a c tin g in good faith , co u ld fill a single s tu d e n t’s (or te a c h e r ’s) r e q u e s t for a single copy, b u t b e y o n d th a t w o u ld m ove in c re a s­ ingly in to d e e p e r w a te r as re p e a te d re p ro d u c tio n s o c c u rre d . All in all, se c tio n 108 p ro v id e s a p o ssi­ b le m e a n s o f m e e tin g s tu d e n ts ’ n e e d s , b u t th e m ean s a re lim ite d . It is a ro ad p o c k m a rk e d w ith pitfalls. S e c t i o n 107— F a ir U s e S e c tio n 107, in c o n tr a s t, o ffers g r e a t e r p o s ­ sibilities. O n e m u st ex p lo re th is se ctio n from two sta n d p o in ts: (1) th e language o f t h e sta tu te itse lf a n d (2) th e gloss (a so m e w h at ta rn is h e d gloss) th a t has b e e n p u t u p o n it b y t h e h ig h ly p u b lic iz e d (a n d o f te n d i s t o r t e d a n d m i s i n t e r p r e t e d ) G u id e lin e s f o r C la ssro o m C o p y in g a g re e d u p o n by th e Ad H o c C o m m itte e o f E d u c a tio n a l I n s titu ­ tio n s, t h e A u th o rs L e a g u e o f A m erica, a n d th e A ssociation o f A m erican P u b lish e rs .4 S ectio n 107, sta n d in g alo n e, se e m s to p ro v id e c o n s i d e r a b l e f r e e d o m to e d u c a t i o n a l p h o t o ­ co p iers— g ra n te d th a t its r a th e r v ag u e and g e n ­ eral lan g u ag e will e n g e n d e r c o n sid e ra b le u n c e r­ ta in ty u n til t h e c o u rts h a v e a u th o rita tiv e ly sp o ­ ken . T h e se c tio n codifies an e q u ita b le d o c trin e th a t has b e e n an u n w ritte n p a rt o f th e co p y rig h t law for m o re th a n a h u n d r e d y ears. T rad itio n ally its ap p lic a tio n has b e e n larg ely r e s tric te d to th e u se o f e x c e rp ts as p a r t o f fu rth e r w ritin g s ,5 b u t th e C o n g re ss th a t e n a c te d th e C o p y rig h t Law o f 1976 w e n t fu rth e r. It clearly v iew ed se ctio n 107 as, a m o n g o th e r th in g s, a m ean s o f b a lan cin g th e re s p e c tiv e in te r e s ts o f th e c o p y rig h t o w n e r a n d th e u se r o f c o p y rig h te d m aterials. As th e H o u se R e p o rt p u ts it, “it is th e in te n t o f th is legislation to p ro v id e an a p p ro p ria te balan cin g o f th e rights o f cre a to rs, a n d th e n e e d s o f use rs. ”6 Section 107 p re sc rib e s fo u r factors to b e c o n ­ sid e re d in d e te r m in in g w h e th e r a u s e is “fair”: (1) p u rp o se a n d c h a ra c te r of th e u se , (2) n a tu re of th e w o rk , (3) a m o u n t a n d s u b s ta n tia lity o f t h e p o rtio n u se d , a n d (4) effect u p o n th e m a rk e t for th e w ork. O f th e s e four, it is th e la st— th e effect u p o n t h e o w n e r ’s m a r k e t— t h a t is lik e ly to b e given th e m ost w eig h t. F o r reaso n s in d ic a te d la t­ e r , th is c o n s id e ra tio n m ay w ell s t r e n g th e n th e position o f o n e claim in g fre e d o m to p h o to co p y for r e se rv e p u rp o se s . A se c o n d c o n s id e ra tio n o p e ra t­ in g in o n e ’s favor is th e tw ic e -e x p re sse d re fe re n c e in th e se c tio n to e d u c a tio n a l usage. I t (1) d efin es “ fair u s e ” as in c lu d in g “p u r p o s e s su c h as … te a c h in g (in clu d in g m u ltip le co p ies for classroom use), sc h o larsh ip , o r re s e a rc h ,” a n d (2) re fe rs to 265 “th e p u rp o se an d c h a ra c te r o f th e u se ” as “in clu d ­ in g w h e th e r such u se is o f a com m ercial n a tu re or is for non p ro fit a n d educational p u rp o se s .” T h ese provisions should give c o n sid erab le aid an d com fort to th e w o u ld -b e “r e se rv e ” copyist. W ith in t h e a r e a u n d e r d is c u s s io n , “ r e s e r v e ” p h o to co p y in g in c o n tro v e rtib ly qualifies as b e in g “ fo r n o n p r o f it e d u c a t i o n a l p u r p o s e s . ” F u r ­ th e rm o re , if it is p erm issib le to m ake “ m u ltip le copies for classroom u s e ,” it w ould se em to follow logically th a t o n e could m ake a sm a ller n u m b e r for u se u n d e r th e re strictiv e conditions th a t ty p i­ cally apply to a lib ra ry re se rv e program . B ut w h at a b o u t th e effect u p o n th e m ark e t? T h e stro n g opposition o f co yright o w n ers to r e ­ se rv e p ra c tic e s a p p a re n tly ste m s from th e fear th a t such p ractices will seriously u n d e rc u t th e ir sales. As th e R e g ister of C o pyrights has o b se rv ed , “T his p ractice was u se d as k in d o f a m o n ste r, an exam ple o f th in g s th a t sh o u ld n ’t b e d o n e. ”7 Are t h e s e fears w ell fo u n d e d ? I f e n tir e books o r a su b s ta n tia l p a r t t h e r e o f a r e p h o to c o p ie d , th e y may w ell be. If access to th e m aterial is im p o r­ ta n t en o u g h to w arra n t photo co p y in g this e x te n ­ sively, th e in stitu tio n w ould p ro b ab ly , alth o u g h no t necessa rily ,8 p u rch ase a copy ra th e r than do w ithout. B ut it is also tr u e th a t, in th e a b sen ce of u n u su a l c ircu m stan ces such as o u trag eo u s p rice, in a c c e s s ib ility , o r lo n g d e la y in o b ta in in g th e copy, th e in s titu tio n w o u ld p ro b a b ly p u rc h a s e r a th e r th a n p h o to co p y , anyw ay. All in all, th e cases in w hich b o o k-length m aterials a re p h o to ­ co p ied for re se rv e p u rp o ses a re likely to b e rare , a n d th e situ a tio n s in w hich such p ra c tic e s will d e p riv e th e co p y rig h t o w n e r o f a sale e v en m ore rare . Such statistical stu d ies as have b e e n m ade b e a r this o u t.9 T h e p h o to c o p y in g o f a sin g le c h a p te r o r ex­ c e rp t, o r of a single a rticle from a periodical, in­ volves d ifferen t co n siderations. H e re th e reserv e photo co p y in g p ra c tic e is m uch m o re com m on. At th e sam e tim e , how ever, it is m uch less likely to c u t in to sales. E v e ry th in g e lse b e in g equal, th e single c h a p te r o r article g en erally plays a less es­ se n tia l ro le in th e o n g o in g e d u c a tio n a l pro cess th an does th e book-length tre a tise . A given copy, b e in g sh o rte r a n d th e re fo re su b je ct to m o re rapid tu rn o v e r, will norm ally se rv e m o re stu d e n ts , th u s r e d u c in g th e n u m b e r n e e d e d for r e s e rv e . T h e s tu d e n t w ho d e sire s a copy for perso n al u se (or to pass a ro u n d to o thers) will b e m ore in c lin e d to r u n o f f o n e u n d e t e c t e d on a n u n s u p e r v i s e d m a c h in e th a n to b u y a copy. A u th o riz e d p u r ­ c h a s e d c o p ie s a r e le s s lik e ly to b e a v a ila b le p ro m p tly and a t a reasonable p r ic e .10 O ften th e m aterial w an ted is n o t available a t all u n less one is w illing to b u y th e larg er pub licatio n in w hich it is c o n ta in e d (shades o f th e a n titru s t law ban on tie-ins!). E v en if p erm issio n is given to copy a rti­ cles, th e ch arg e im p o sed by m any p u b lish e rs (in­ clu d in g non p ro fit p u b lish ers) may far exceed w hat could b e d e e m e d , by any te s t, a reaso n a b le price (conceivably to in d u c e o n e to p u rch ase instead of to photocopy)11—a n d in excess o f w hat th e n o n ­ profit educational in stitu tio n is able o r w illing to pay for th e privilege. Taking e v e ry th in g in to consideration, o n e may suggest th e follow ing conclusions w ith re sp e c t to section 107: 1. An educational in stitu tio n will not norm ally photocopy, for re se rv e p u rp o ses, m aterials th a t it can m ore econom ically obtain by pu rch ase . 2. As a co n se q u e n c e , it will p u rc h a se , ra th e r than photocopy, m aterials o f a volum inous n a tu re s u c h as b o o k s, p r o v id e d th e y a r e o b ta in a b le p ro m p tly an d on reaso n a b le term s. 3. If d e n ie d p erm issio n to p h o to co p y sh o rte r m aterials (articles, ex cerpts, ch a p te rs, etc.), it will b e unlikely to p u rch ase additional copies, unless o b ta in a b le p ro m p tly a n d on cle a rly re a so n a b le term s, b u t in stea d will m ake and d istrib u te m u l­ tip le copies for classroom u se to th e e x te n t p e r ­ m issib le o r, e x c e p t for co p ies a lre a d y o w n e d , forgo use o f th e m aterial in qu estio n . W h atev er a l t e r n a t i v e it a d o p t s , t h e p r o b a b i l it y o f a n y a d d itio n a l r e m u n e ra tio n o f sig n ific a n c e to th e copyright ow ners is slight. 4. T his b e in g so, a balan cin g o f th e b u rd e n s u pon u se rs (in term s, n o t only of financial costs, b u t also o f u n c e rta in ty , d elay , a n d n o n -u se) o f d en y in g th e right to en g ag e in re se rv e p h o to co p y ­ ing, against th e m in u scu le b enefits likely to ac­ c ru e to copyright o w ners, su p p o rts a conclusion O u r S u c c e s s w a s A c h i e v e d b y P u t t i n g Y o u r S u c c e s s F i r s t W e know our future depends on your satisfaction with our service. Since 1962 the highest stan­ dards in completion of orders, actual publisher reports (not our stock status), and accurate in­ voicing to your requirements places us a s the best order source for m any acquisition librarians. - Ca t ll h 517-8 e 49-2117 Collect - BOOK H S IN C E O 1 9 6 2 USE J O B B E R S S E R V IN G L IB R A R IE S W IT H A N Y B O O K IN P R IN T 208 W E S T C H IC AG O ST R EE T JO N E SVILLE M IC HIG A N 49250 266 th a t re s e r v e c o p y in g , w ith in re a so n , sh o u ld b e d e e m e d a “fair u se ” u n d e r se ctio n 107. W h a t c o n s t i t u t e s a u s e “ w i t h i n r e a s o n ” is difficult to d e fin e , a n d th e language o f section 107 gives no g u id an ce in th is re sp e c t ex c e p t for th e g e n e ra l factors prev io u sly m e n tio n e d . To a large e x te n t th e p ro b le m sh o u ld reso lv e itself, since li­ b ra rie s, in th e ex ercise o f good ju d g m e n t, a re u n ­ likely to p h o to co p y if th e m aterial th e y w an t is av aila b le from a u th o r iz e d so u rc e s p ro m p tly , in a d e q u a te form a n d s u p p ly , a n d a t a re a so n a b le p ric e — photo co p y in g , after all, is n o t an in e x p e n ­ sive process. Irre s p e c tiv e o f th e s e c o n sid eratio n s, if th e co p ied m aterials co m e w ith in th e “fair u s e ” te s t a p p lie d p u rs u a n t to th e “m u ltip le copies for classroom u se ” pro v isio n or m e e t th e c rite ria o f se c tio n s 108(d) a n d (e), d is c u s s e d ab o v e , su c h u se s sh o u ld b e d e e m e d “re a so n a b le ” for re se rv e p u rp o se s, b o th b e cau se this conclusion conform s to th e basic th in k in g o f th e C o n g ress as e x p re ss e d in sections 107 a n d 108 (since in ju ry to co p y rig h t ow n ers w ould p ro b ab ly b e m inim al) a n d b e c a u se a c o n tra ry h o ld in g w o u ld p o se se rio u s e n fo rc e ­ m e n t p ro b le m s— a re su lt th a t c o u rts a re unlikely to view w ith m u ch en th u sia sm . G u i d e l i n e s f o r C l a s s r o o m C o p y in g T h e re rem ain s th e q u e s tio n o f th e G uidelines f o r C la s s r o o m C o p y in g . S o m e m ig h t d is m is s th e m as in a p p lic a b le to re se rv e p ra c tic e s, sin c e t h e y a r e c l e a r l y d i r e c t e d , a n d l i m i t e d , to classro o m a c tiv itie s. In e v ita b ly , h o w e v e r, th e y will b e a r u p o n th e su b je c t o f re se rv e s for several reasons: (1) th e y do d e a l w ith th e sam e m aterials a n d w ith p ractices th a t h av e th e sam e o b jectiv es as t h e re se rv e p ractices; (2) th e ir c rite ria as to w h a t p ra c tic e s sh o u ld b e a c c e p ta b le u n d e r th e “ fair u s e ” d o c trin e w e re a g re e d u p o n b e tw e e n th e c o p y rig h t o w n e rs a n d r e p re s e n ta tiv e s o f a s u b s ta n tia l s e g m e n t o f e d u c a tio n a l u s e r s — an a g re e m e n t th a t C o n g ress k n ew o f a n d fo u n d ac­ c e p ta b le p rio r to final e n a c tm e n t o f th e C o p y rig h t Law; (3) g u id e lin e in te rp re ta tio n s o f w h at m ay b e d o n e u n d e r th e “ m u ltip le c o p ie s for classroom u se ” provision m ay w ell affect co nclusions as to w h at is re aso n a b le “re se rv e ” activity. T h e C lassroom G u id elin es an d th e ir p ro s an d cons h av e b e e n extensively d isc u sse d else w h e re . H e n c e , th e r e is n o n e e d to discuss th e m h e r e ex­ c e p t as th e y b e a r u p o n th e “r e s e rv e s ” issue. F iv e p o in ts sh o u ld b e e m p h a siz e d a t th e o u tse t, how ­ ever. 1). T h e y s e t fo rth only m in im u m ru le s, i .e ., w h a t te a c h e r s c a n d o w ith im p u n ity . D e s p ite so m e r a t h e r m is le a d in g te r m in o lo g y in s p o ts , th e y do not, in te rm s, lim it w h at a te a c h e r can do u n d e r th e law. In o th e r w ords, p ractices n o t ex­ p re ss ly a u th o r iz e d b y t h e a g r e e m e n t m ay still c o n s titu te “fair u s e ” u n d e r th e g e n e ra l c rite ria se t fo rth in section 107. 2). S uch c o m m itm e n ts as m ay b e c o n ta in e d in th e g u id e lin e s a re b in d in g only u p o n th o se w ho e n t e r e d in to t h e a g r e e m e n t , n o t u p o n o th e r s w h e th e r th e y b e p riv a te p a rtie s, c o u rts, or gov­ e r n m e n t officials. C o u rts a re free , o f c o u rse , to tak e th e m in to co n sid e ra tio n a n d to follow th e m if th e y se e fit, ju s t as p riv a te p a rtie s a re fre e to do so ( b o th w ith r e s p e c t t o p r a c t i c e s t h a t t h e g u id e lin e s p e rm it a n d p ractices th a t th e y p u rp o rt to p ro h ib it).12 3). As n o te d above, th e g u id e lin e s re fe r only to classroom u sages a n d say n o th in g a b o u t reserv es. 4). A lthough n o t lim ite d in th e ir p h raseo lo g y to e le m e n ta ry a n d se co n d ary schools, th e r e a re in­ d ic a tio n s th a t th e s e , r a t h e r th a n in s titu tio n s o f h ig h e r ed u catio n , w e re w h at th e d ra fte rs h a d in m in d .13 5). A lthough n o tin g w ith ap p ro v al th e ex iste n c e a n d te rm s o f th e g u id e lin e s, th e C o n g ress d id n o t v iew th e m as an a u th o r ita tiv e i n te r p re ta tio n o f section 107. As th e H o u se c o m m itte e re p o rt p u ts it: “T h e C o m m itte e b e lie v e s th e g u id e lin e s a re a r e a s o n a b le i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e m in i m u m s ta n d a rd s o f fair u se . T e a c h e r s w ill k n o w th a t cop y in g w ith in th e g u id e lin e s is fair u s e .”14 T h e fo re g o in g c o n s id e ra tio n s b e c o m e c ru c ia l w h e n o n e c o n s id e rs c e r t a i n p r o v is io n s o f t h e g u id e lin e s re la tin g to b re v ity , sp o n ta n e ity , a n d c u m u lativ e effect— provisions th a t p o se p ro b le m s for th e re se rv e p h o to co p y in g p ractice. B re v ity . As a c o n d itio n o f p e rm iss ib ility , th e g u id elin es se t lim its o n th e n u m b e r o f w o rd s or illu stratio n s th a t a co p ied d o c u m e n t m ay contain. F o r in sta n c e , p o e try e x c e rp ts a re n o t to exceed 250 w ords; articles a re no t to exceed 2,500 w ords; c h a r ts , d ia g ra m s, e t c . , a r e lim ite d to o n e p e r book o r p erio d ical issue, etc. S uch lim its m ay or m ay n o t b e p racticab le for e le m e n ta ry a n d se co n ­ d ary schools, b u t th e y a re obviously im p ra c tic a b le in m a n y h i g h e r e d u c a tio n s itu a tio n s . In su c h cases, te a c h e rs d e s irin g to u se le n g th ie r m aterials in th e ir classes o r w ishing to p u t th e m o n re se rv e h ave th r e e choices: (1) forgo use; (2) o b tain p e r ­ m ission; o r (3) c o n te n d th a t m o re e x ten siv e u se m e e ts th e m o re g e n e ra l “fair u s e ” c rite ria c o n ­ ta in e d in section 107, e v e n th o u g h n o t w ith in th e p e rm iss ib le lim its s e t in th e g u id e lin e s— a c o n ­ t e n tio n th a t sh o u ld b e p e rs u a s iv e , for re a so n s p r e v i o u s l y s u g g e s t e d , to t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e p h o to co p y in g is “w ith in re a so n ,” tak in g all factors in to c o n s id e ra tio n .15 S p o n ta n e ity . T h e g u id e lin e s r e q u ir e th a t th e co pying b e “a t th e in sta n c e a n d in sp ira tio n o f th e in dividual te a c h e r” a n d th a t th e d ecisio n to use b e so close to th e tim e o f u se as to m ake it “u n ­ re aso n a b le to ex p e c t a tim ely re p ly to a re q u e s t for p e rm is s io n .” In m any in stan c es it m ay b e easy to m e e t th e s e r e q u ire m e n ts , e s p e c ia lly th e r e ­ q u ire m e n ts o f “in d iv id u al in sp ira tio n ”— it is th e te a c h e r, a fte r all, w ho usu a lly d ec id e s w h at m a te ­ rials to h a n d o u t to s tu d e n ts o r p u t on re se rv e for th e ir u s e .16 C o m p lia n c e w ith th e tim e e le m e n t m ay b e m o re difficult— te a c h e rs often follow th e p ra c tic e of assigning such m aterials in successive 267 y ears, alth o u g h o n e ra re ly know s a t a given tim e o f u se w h e th e r h e o r sh e will b e using th e sam e m aterial n ex t tim e. In any e v e n t, c o n tra ry to th e im p lic a tio n s o f t h e g u id e lin e s , fa ilu re to m e e t th e s e re q u ire m e n ts does n o t r e n d e r section 107 in o p e ra b le . E x is te n c e o f e ith e r o r b o th o f th e se c o n d itio n s ( te a c h e r ’s in itia tiv e a n d p r e s s u re o f tim e) will u n d o u b te d ly s tr e n g th e n th e te a c h e r ’s case in a “fair u se ” co n tro v ersy , b u t n o th in g in section 107 su g g e sts th a t e ith e r o f th e m is in d is­ p e n s a b le to a ‘fair u se ” finding. N o r do th e c o n ­ gressional c o m m itte e re p o rts p ro v id e su p p o rt for giving to “sp o n ta n e ity ” th e im p a c t su g g e sted in th e g u id elin es. T ru e , th e S e n a te re p o rt, ad o p tin g v erb atim a 1967 co m m e n t in a H o u se re p o rt, r e ­ fers to “s p o n ta n e ity ” in th e se n se th a t th e in itia­ tiv e m u st co m e from th e te a c h e r, no t from h ig h e r o r o u tsid e au th o rity , b u t it in clu d es no m e n tio n o f a tim e factor in th a t d isc u ssio n .17 T h e H o u se c o m m itte e c o m m e n t is e v e n m ore c ircu m sp ect. It m e r e ly s ta te s th a t its e a r l i e r d isc u ss io n (from w hich th e above S e n a te c o m m e n t ste m m ed ) “still has value as an analysis o f various asp ects of th e p ro b le m . ”18 In sh o rt, as n o te d prev io u sly , com ­ p lia n c e w ith t h e g u id e lin e s a ssu re s th e te a c h e r p ro te c tio n , b u t n o n co m p lian ce m ay still b e d e ­ fe n d e d as a “fair u se .” C u m u la tive e ffect. T h e g u id e lin e s co n tain rigid lim ita tio n s on t h e f re q u e n c y o f c la ssro o m u se . A ffirm atively, th e y p e r m it c o p y in g (1) “for only o n e co u rse in th e sc h o o l,” (2) n o t m o re th a n one a rtic le , tw o e x c e r p ts , o r t h r e e ite m s from th e sam e collective w o rk o r p erio d ical v o lu m e d u rin g o n e class te r m , a n d (3) no m o re th a n n in e in ­ stances of “ m u ltip le cop y in g for o n e co u rse d u r ­ in g o n e class te r m .” N egatively, th e y sta te th at copying “re p e a te d w ith re s p e c t to th e sam e item by th e sam e te a c h e r from te rm to te r m ” is “p ro ­ h ib ite d .” O n e m ay c o n c e d e th a t re p e titio u s u se may, d e p e n d in g u p o n th e circu m stan ces, h ave an a d v e r s e effect u p o n th e m a rk e t for t h e c o p ie d m aterial a n d c o n se q u e n tly b e a factor to c o n sid e r in d e te rm in in g w h e th e r a u se is “fa ir.”19 T h e re is n o th in g , h o w e v e r, in e ith e r th e provisions o f se c­ tion 107 or th e c o m m itte e re p o rts to su p p o rt th e re stric tiv e te s t se t fo rth in th e g u id e lin e s o r to su g g e st th a t th e “fair u se ” d e fe n se is no t available to o n e w ho goes b ey o n d th e s e g u id e lin e lim its in c la s sro o m u s e o r , fo r r e a s o n s p r e v io u s ly s u g ­ g e s te d , in re se rv e p hotocopying. C o n c l u s i o n s In th e lig h t o f w h at has b e e n said, th e follow­ in g c o m m en ts a re in o rd er: (1) O n e m u s t, o f c o u r s e , a b id e b y s u c h r u le s a n d conform to su c h p ro c e d u re s as a re clearly r e ­ q u ir e d b y t h e n e w s ta tu te s a n d t h e r u le s a n d re g u la tio n s d e v e lo p e d th e r e u n d e r . F o r instance, th e inclusion by lib ra rian s o f a co p y rig h t n otice on m aterials, th e p o stin g o f w arn in g s on u n s u p e r­ v is e d m a c h in e s a n d in c o r p o r a t i o n t h e r e o f o n o rd e r form s, actin g passively r a th e r th a n as th e in itia to r in p h o to c o p y in g for class u se a n d r e ­ se rv es, a n d so on, m ay se em m e re tech n icalities to a lib ra ry staff, b u t com p lian ce w ith such c o n d i­ tio n s can sp e ll th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n liab ility and nonliability. (2) C a re sh o u ld b e tak en to avoid u n reaso n a b le a n d excessiv e p h o to c o p y in g . I t is o n e th in g to p ho to co p y in th e good-faith b e lie f th a t it is p e r ­ m issible u n d e r th e sta tu tes. It is q u ite a n o th e r to in sist u p o n p h o to co p y in g in u tte r d isreg ard of th e le g itim a te rig h ts o f co p y rig h t o w n ers or to p ersist in p ra c tic e s th a t a re c le a rly illegal o r h a v e a u ­ t h o r i t a t i v e l y b e e n d e c l a r e d to c o n s t i t u t e in frin g e m e n t. S uch c o n d u c t co u ld re s u lt in th e a w a rd o f s t a tu t o r y d a m a g e s (ty p ic a lly a m u c h h e a v ie r p e n a lty th a n t h e “ a c tu a l d a m a g e s ” to w hich th e good-faith e d u catio n al violator is su b ­ je c te d ).20 It m ig h t also g e n e ra te in th e ju d iciary an a d v e rse a ttitu d e to w ard p h o to co p y in g for e d u ­ c atio n a l p u rp o s e s in g e n e ra l, to t h e lo n g -ra n g e d e tr im e n t o f th e ed u catio n al co m m unity. (3) A t t h e sa m e tim e , a p r a c tic e t h a t a p p e a r s reasonably w ith in th e language a n d sp irit o f th e n ew law— m o re specifically, o f sectio n s 108 a n d especially 107—a n d w hich is im p o rta n t in th e fu r­ th e ra n c e o f h ig h e r ed u c a tio n may, a n d sh o u ld , b e p u rsu e d u p to th e p o in t w h e re such p ra c tic e is a u th o rita tiv e ly h e ld to c o n s titu te in frin g e m e n t. To refrain from p ractices th a t can reasonably be d e e m e d p e rm issib le is a d isserv ice to th e cause o f ed u c a tio n a n d ru n s th e risk o f se ttin g a p a tte rn o f c o n d u c t th a t u ltim a te ly grow s (or d e g e n e ra te s ) in to a legal in te rp re ta tio n of th e law. At th e o th e r e x tre m e , c o n tin u e d p e rs is te n c e in a p ractice after it has b e e n au th o rita tiv e ly o u tla w e d su b je c ts th e ed u catio n al co m m u n ity to th e u n p le a sa n t resu lts d e s c rib e d in th e p re c e d in g p arag rap h . In th e lat­ t e r situ a tio n , th e only v iab le a lte rn a tiv e is e ith e r to try to g e t th e law c h a n g e d b y ju d icial o r legis­ lativ e m ean s (if o n e feels stro n g ly ab o u t it) or to b ow to th e decision. (4) P u ttin g m aterials on re se rv e , for educatio n al p u rp o se s a n d at th e re q u e s t o f te a c h e rs, w ould se em to b e in accord w ith th e foregoing p rin c i­ p l e s p r o v i d e d p r o p e r p r o c e d u r e s ( d is c u s s e d above) a n d good ju d g m e n t as to re aso n a b le lim its a re o b se rv e d . T h e v a rie ty in circ u m sta n c e s m akes it im p o ssib le to lay dow n d e fin ite ru le s c o n c e rn ­ in g w h at can a n d ca n n o t b e d o n e — past efforts to do so u n d e rlin e th e futility o f this ap proach. As b e n c h m a rk s to g u id e o n e in th is in h e re n tly u n ­ c e rta in area, h o w e v e r, th e follow ing o b se rv atio n s sh o u ld p ro v e useful: (1) I f u se rs a n d co p y rig h t o w n ers, singly o r in g ro u p s, can v o lu n tarily ag ree u p o n a satisfactory a rra n g e m e n t— fine. O n e can only a p p la u d such efforts. T h e p ro b le m s arise no t from th is p ro c e d u re , as su ch , b u t from p riv a te p a rtie s o r g ro u p s th a t p u r p o rt to speak for o th e rs w h o h av e no t c o n s e n te d to such re p re se n ta tio n , or from th e a rro g a tio n o f such an a g re e m e n t into a r u l e o f law . (2) T h e C la s s r o o m G u id e lin e s sh o u ld b e tak en for w hat th e y are, n am ely, a voluntary 268 a g r e e m e n t as to m in im u m p e r m is s ib le p ractices, w ith th e validity still to b e d e te rm in e d u n d e r th e g e n e ra l “fair u s e ” d o c trin e se t forth in se ctio n 107 as to p ractices th a t go f u rth e r th a n th o se a p p ro v e d in th e g u id elin es. (3) “ F a ir u se ” u n d e r section 107 is to b e d e te r m in e d in lig h t o f th e provisions re la tin g to ed u catio n al uses a n d by ap p licatio n o f th e four factors liste d in th a t se c­ tio n , e s p e c ia lly t h e fo u rth fa c to r, d e a lin g w ith m a rk e t effects. (4) C a re sh o u ld b e ta k e n to k e e p a b re a s t o f th e c o u rt d e te rm in a tio n s a n d to c o n ­ form to th e c o u rt ru lin g s u n til th e y a re o v e rru le d o r th e s ta tu te is a m e n d e d . (5) As a ru le o f th u m b , it sh o u ld b e c o n s id e re d “ fair u s e ” (u n le ss a n d u n til th e c o u rts r u le o th e rw ise ) for a te a c h e r , e ith e r d ire c tly o r o p e ra tin g th ro u g h th e lib ra ry , to p u t on re se rv e th o se m aterials th a t c o u ld b e d i s t r i b u t e d to in d iv id u a l m e m b e r s o f th e class c o n s iste n t w ith th e “fair u s e ” d o c trin e ; a p ractice th a t a te a c h e r can e n g a g e in d ire c tly sh o u ld be p e rm iss ib le a c tin g th ro u g h a lib ra ry as agent. (6) I t goes w ith o u t saying th a t in d o u b tfu l a n d m a r­ ginal cases th e lib ra ry sh o u ld c o n su lt w ith a p p ro ­ p ria te legal counsel w ith re s p e c t to th e validity of th e p ro p o se d c o u rse o f co n d u ct. (5) It is o f g re a t im p o rta n c e , d u rin g th e p e rio d o f u n c e r ta in ty a n d d e v e lo p m e n t, th a t lib ra rie s k e e p full re c o rd s o f w h a t p h o to c o p y in g th e y e n ­ gage in; th e reaso n s for d o in g so; th e costs and b e n e fits (both m o n e ta ry a n d e d u catio n al) of w hat th e y d o as c o m p a r e d to a l t e r n a t i v e p r a c tic e s ; w h at p ractices th e y refrain from en g ag in g in as a re su lt o f th e co p y rig h t law (and, again, th e costs an d benefits); th e specific effect of th e ir p ractices u p o n t h e p u r c h a s e o f o r s u b s c r i p t i o n to c o p y rig h te d m aterials; a n d so on. S uch d a ta b e ­ co m e highly re le v a n t in co n n ectio n w ith po ssib le sp e c ific litig a tio n t h a t m ay r e s u l t , in s h a p in g c o u rt a ttitu d e s g e n e ra lly , in th e ir b e a rin g upo n th e efforts of u se rs an d /o r o w n e rs to a m e n d th e law, a n d in p ro v id in g assistan ce to th e R e g iste r of C o p y rig h ts in m a k in g th e fiv e-y ea r re p o rts r e ­ q u ire d b y section 108(i). S uch d ata, im p o rta n t as th e y a re in d e a lin g w ith th e difficult issues th a t a b o u n d in th e n e w law, ta k e on a d d e d im p o r­ ta n c e in view of th e c h an g es in b o th p ractices and effects th a t a re likely to o ccu r as a re su lt o f th e rap id d e v e lo p m e n ts , technological and o th erw ise, th a t a re o c c u rrin g in th e fields o f re p ro g ra p h y a n d c o m m u n ic a tio n .21 R e f e r e n c e s 1. F o r th e tex t o f th e s e se ctio n s se e L ib ra ria n 's G u id e to th e N e w C o p y rig h t L a w (Chicago, A m erican L ib rary A ssn., 1977), a p p en d ix I. 2. W h e th e r t h e r e c ip ie n t-le n d e r w o u ld b e liable is also an in te re stin g q u e stio n . Section 106(3), g iv in g t h e c o p y r ig h t o w n e r t h e e x c lu s iv e rig h t “to d is tr ib u te copies … to th e p u b lic b y … tr a n s f e r o f o w n e r s h ip , o r b y … l e n d i n g , ” m ig h t s u g g e s t lia b ility . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , S e c tio n 109(a) p r o v id e s th a t, “ n o tw ith s ta n d in g t h e p ro v isio n s o f S e c tio n 106(3), th e o w n e r o f a p a r tic u la r c o p y … lawfully m ad e … is e n title d … to sell o r o th e r w is e d isp o s e o f t h e p o ss e ssio n o f th a t c o p y .” A ny q u e stio n w h e th e r th e copy u n d e r discussion is “lawfully m a d e ” se em s to b e se t­ tle d b y section 108(a), w hich sta te s th a t co m ­ p lian ce w ith th e co n d itio n s se t fo rth in th a t se ctio n re n d e rs th e c o p y in g a n o n in frin g in g a c t r a t h e r th a n m e r e ly p r o v id in g fre e d o m from liability for in frin g e m e n t. 3. T h e R e g i s t e r o f C o p y r i g h t s , q u o t i n g an a n o n y m o u s s o u rc e , c o m m e n te d r e c e n tly as follows w ith re s p e c t to se ctio n 108(g): “T h e first tim e you re a d it, it so u n d s m ean in g less a n d th e se co n d tim e you re a d it, it so unds e v e n m o re m e a n in g le ss.” P roceedings o f th e 7 0 th A n n u a l M e e tin g o f th e A m e r ic a n A s ­ sociation o f Law L ib ra r ie s, L a w L i b r . J r n l . 70:453-63 (Nov. 1977). 4. F o r th e tex t o f th e g u id elin es se e L ib ra r ia n ’s G u id e to th e N e w C o p y rig h t L a w ‚ ap p e n d ix II, p. 9-1 1 . 5. L eo n E. S eltzer, “ E x cep tio n s a n d F a ir U se in C o p y rig h t: T h e E xclusive R ig h ts’ T e n sio n s in th e N ew C o p y rig h t A c t,” C o p y rig h t Society o f th e U .S .A . B u lletin 24:215, 237 (1977). 6. U .S ., C o n g re ss, H o u se , C o m m itte e on th e Ju d ic ia ry , C o p y r ig h t L a w R e v isio n , R e p o rt No. 94-1476, 94th C o n g ., 2d se ss., S ep t. 3, 1976, p. 74. T h is c o m m e n t, ta k e n to g e th e r w ith th e re p o rt’s e a rlie r s ta te m e n t (id ., p. 66) th a t “ Section 107 is in te n d e d to r e s ta te th e p r e s e n t ju d ic ia l d o c trin e o f fair u se , n o t to c h a n g e , n a rro w , o r e n la rg e it in a n y w a y ,” su g g e sts th a t th e H o u s e c o m m itte e v ie w e d th e ju d ic ia lly a p p lie d “fair u s e ” d o c trin e as no t lim ite d to u s e o f e x c e rp ts in f u rth e r w rit­ ings (see re fe re n c e 5 above). W illia m s & W il­ k in s v. U .S ., 487 F .2 d 1345 (C t.C l. 1973), affirm ed b y a d iv id e d c o u rt, 420 U .S . 376 (1975); cf. W ih to l v. C ro w , 309 F .2 d 777 (8th C ir. 1962). 7. P roceedings, L a w L i b r . J r n l . 7 0 :453-63 (Nov. 1977). 8. In m any situ atio n s a n o n p ro fit e d u c a tio n a l in ­ stitu tio n m ay sim ply d e c id e to d o w ith o u t— all th e m o re so, since such in stitu tio n s u su ­ ally o p e r a t e o n lim ite d b o o k b u d g e ts a n d m u s t c o n s ta n tly s e le c t fro m a lo n g list o f m erito rio u s m aterials w h at few ite m s to buy. 9. N ational C om m ission on N ew T echnological U ses o f C o p y rig h te d W orks (C O N T U ), “ D raft R e p o rt o f th e S u b c o m m itte e on P h o to c o p y ­ in g ” (15 M ar. 1978), p .7 0 -7 1 . 10. A lth o u g h c l e a r a n c e c e n t e r s c a n p r o v i d e p r o m p t a c c e s s ib ility a n d r e d u c e r e d ta p e , th e y giv e no a s s u ra n c e th a t p ric e s will b e r e a s o n a b le . T w o r e c e n t e x a m p le s o f h ig h p ric e s d e m a n d e d b y th e p u b lis h e r (b o th o f th e m n onprofits!) for copies: a 2 0 -p a g e r e ­ p rin t, $5.00; copies a t $1.25 a page. 269 11. A q u ick check o f a single copy o f e ach o f tw o p u b lic a tio n s p a r tic ip a tin g in t h e C o p y rig h t C le a ra n c e C e n te r a rra n g e m e n t in d icates th at, if e x tra p o la te d on a y e a r’s basis, th e fee for p h o to c o p y in g t h e e n tir e y e a r’s issues w o u ld b e d o u b le th e y e a r’s su b sc rip tio n ra te in o n e case an d te n tim e s th e ra te in th e o th e r — a n d th is w ith o u t a n y c o s t to t h e p u b l i s h e r for p rin tin g o r m ailing. W h e th e r th e s e a re ty p i­ cal o r atypical, I d o no t know. 12. T his n o n b in d in g effect is ap p licab le to n o n ­ p a rtic ip a tin g co p y rig h t o w n ers ju st as i t is to n o n p a rtic ip a tin g users. 13. As th e R e g iste r o f C o p y rig h ts p u t it in a r e ­ c e n t talk b e fo re th e A m erican A ssociation o f L aw L ib raries: “T h ey [th e g u id elin es] m ay b e to o r e s tr ic tiv e in t h e law sc h o o l s itu a tio n . … I t d o es se em to m e th a t th is was w ritte n w ith e l e m e n t a r y , s e c o n d a r y s i t u a t i o n s in m in d . I am n o t su g g e stin g th a t you can go v e ry far b e y o n d th is in th e law school situ a­ tio n , b u t it d o e s seem to m e … th a t th e r e is a r e a l i s t i c b o r d e r l i n e b e y o n d t h e s e g u id e lin e s th a t in a law school situ a tio n you c o u ld p ro b a b ly apply. I am saying th a t you d o n o t n e e d to re g a rd th e s e as th e law o f th e M e ad s [sic] a n d th e P e rsia n s .” Proceedings, L a w L i b r . J r n l . 70:453-63 (Nov. 1977). 14. U .S . C o n g re ss, H o u se , R e p o rt No. 94-1476, p. 72. E m p h a sis su p p lied . 15. In h e r AALL talk, th e R e g iste r o f C o p y rig h ts h ad this to say a b o u t re se rv e s, in c lu d in g r e ­ p e a te d u sa g e from y e a r to y ear: “ M y feeling is th a t w ith in t h e a m b it o f 107 a n d 108 it c a n ’t b e s t o p p e d , a n d th a t u p to a p o in t, u sin g p h o to co p ies o f e x c e rp ts a n d a rticles is p e r m i s s ib l e u n d e r 108 a n d 107 c o m b in e d so m e h o w o r o th e r, b u t w h e n you g e t to th e p o in t w h e r e you k n o w [th a t] w h a t y o u a re d o i n g — y o u t h e l i b r a r y o r y o u t h e p r o fe s s o r — is ta k in g m o n e y o u t o f t h e a u ­ th o rs ’ a n d p u b lis h e rs ’ royalties, b y s u b s titu t­ in g a p h o to co p y for a sale o r p u rc h a se , th e n I th in k you m a y b e in a n o t h e r d i m e n s i o n .” P r o c e e d in g s , L a w L i b r . J r n l . 7 0 :4 5 3 - 6 3 (1977). 16. T h e in tro d u c tio n o f th e lib ra ry in to th e a c t as th e m e re c o p y in g -a n d -d e p o sitin g a g e n t o f th e te a c h e r , r a t h e r th a n as t h e in itia to r o f th e p ra c tic e , d o es n o t c h an g e th e p ic tu re . 17. U .S ., C o n g re ss, S e n a te , C o m m itte e o n th e Ju d ic ia ry , C o p y r ig h t L a w R e v isio n , R e p o rt N o. 94-473, 9 4 th C o n g ., 1st se ss., N ov. 20, 1975, p. 63. T h e S e n a te re p o rt, again u sin g lan g u a g e ta k e n from t h e e a r lie r H o u s e r e ­ p o rt, d o es c o m m e n t as follow s in its d isc u s­ sion o f th e “n a tu re o f th e c o p y rig h te d w o rk ” (p. 64): “A k e y , th o u g h n o t n e c e ssa rily d e ­ te rm in a tiv e , factor in fair u se is w h e th e r or n o t t h e w o rk is a v a ila b le to t h e p o t e n t i a l u s e r .” 18. U .S ., C o n g ress, H o u se , R e p o rt No. 94-1476, p. 67. 19. F o r ex am p le, if n e w copies a re m a d e for su c­ cessiv e u ses, as d is tin g u ish e d from re p e a te d usage o f co p ies p rev io u sly m ad e. See re fe r­ e n c e 15 above. B ut re p e titio u s c o p y in g may also, as p rev io u sly n o te d , cause o n e to op t in favor o f p u rc h a sin g from an a u th o riz e d so u rce i n s t e a d o f p h o t o c o p y i n g . A lso o n e w h o p la n n e d to p u t a given copy to re p e a te d use, if foreclosed from copying, m ig h t b e in clin ed to p u r c h a s e r a t h e r th a n s im p ly to re fra in from using. Cf. re fe re n c e 8 above. 20. See se ctio n 504(c)(2) o f th e act, w h ich reads in p art: T h e c o u rt shall re m it sta tu to ry d a m ­ ages in any case w h e re an in frin g e r b e lie v e d an d h a d re a so n a b le g ro u n d s for b e lie v in g th a t h is o r h e r u se o f th e c o p y rig h te d w ork was a fair u se u n d e r se c tio n 107, if th e in frin g e r was: (i) an e m p lo y e e o r a g e n t o f a non p ro fit e d u c a tio n a l in s titu tio n , lib ra ry , o r a rc h iv e s a c tin g w ith in t h e sc o p e o f h is o r h e r e m ­ p lo y m e n t w ho, o r such in stitu tio n , lib ra ry , o r arch iv es itself, w h ich in frin g e d b y r e p ro d u c ­ i n g t h e w o r k in c o p i e s o r p h o n o r e c o r d s ; 21. F o r ex am ple, d e v e lo p m e n ts w ith re s p e c t to c o m p u te rs, c le a ra n c e c e n te r s , m icrofilm ing, r e p rin t se rv ices, etc. ■■