College and Research Libraries B y W I L L I A M R . H A W K E N Developments in Xerography: Copyflo, Electrostatic Prints, and O-P Books TR A D E N A M E S are often useful in dis-tinguishing a product of a particular company f r o m a similar product of a different company. T h e need f o r this kind of differentiation, however, ob- scures similarities or even conceals iden- tities, and we find ourselves talking about individuals of the same species as if they were genera. T h i s has been espe- cially true in the field of documentary reproduction where, in one instance, a single process masquerades under at least seventeen different trade names.1 A new manifestation of this is beginning in ad- vertisements f o r reproductions variously called " C o p y f l o " prints, "Electrostatic Prints" and " O - P B o o k s . " W e are not dealing here with three different proc- esses: all three are simply xerographic prints f r o m microfilm produced by means of an automatic, continuous mi- crofilm enlarger called " X e r o x - C o p y f l o . " 2 T h e purpose of this article is to describe this particular method of reproduction, to discuss some of its advantages and limitations, and to provide other in- f o r m a t i o n of a kind which may help librarians, archivists, and other docu- mentalists to employ this new method effectively and economically. X e r o g r a p h y is not new to the library world. Shortly after X e r o x 3 copying 1 W . R. Hawken, " T h e Diffusion Transfer Process," M S . Paper read at the meeting of the Copying Methods Section, Resources and Technical Services Division, America Library Association, 77th Annual Conference, San Francisco, July 13-19, 1958. 2 Registered trade-mark of Haloid-Xerox, Inc. 3 Registered trade-mark of Haloid-Xerox, I n c . Mr. Hawken is Head, Library Photo- graphic Service, University of California, Berkeley. MARCH 1959 equipment became commercially avail- able (1950), Hodgson described the proc- ess in detail and suggested a number of possible library uses.4 B y 1 9 5 3 several li- braries had acquired X e r o x equipment f o r reproducing catalog cards f r o m typed copy or f r o m L C proof sheets.5-6 I n other library applications it has proven its value as a mean of producing paper mas- ters f o r offset printing. 7 Its use in the production of association bulletins8 and an abstract bulletin 9 has been described. I n the new method called X e r o x Copyflo, the basic principles are no dif- ferent f r o m those employed in simpler forms of xerographic copying. A ground- ed selenium plate possessing special pho- toconductive properties is exposed to a corona discharge in the dark which im- parts a u n i f o r m electrostatic charge to its surface. W h e n the image of a docu- ment is projected through a lens onto the surface of this charged plate, light reflected f r o m the white background areas causes the charge to be dissipated to ground, while in the image areas which have not reflected light the charge remains, thus creating what is called an "electrostatic latent i m a g e . " T h e plate is then cascaded with a black p o w d e r * J. G. Hodgson, The Use of Xerography in Libraries (Fort Collins: Colorado A . & M . College, 1952). 5 J. G. Hodgson, Xerography in Reproductive Process for Libraries (Fort Collins: Colorado A . & M . College, 1953). 6 J. H . Dawson, " X e r o g r a p h y in Card Reproduc- tion," CRL, X V ( 1 9 5 4 ) , 57-60. 7 B. H. Weil, " X e r o g r a p h y : Dry Photographic Copy- i n g , " in Information Processing Equipment, M. P . Doss, ed. ( N e w Y o r k : Reinhold, 1955), pp. 105-14. 8 J. G. Hodgson, " T h e Use of Xerography f o r A s - sociation Bulletins," Library Periodicals Round Table News Letter, I ( 1 9 5 4 ) , 6-7. 0 M. G. Wright and R. C. Gremling, "Abstract Bulletin Xerographic Short C u t , " Special Librariesy X L V ( 1 9 5 4 ) , 250-51. 145 which clings by electrostatic attraction to the charged image areas, rendering the image visible. T h i s powder image is then transferred, again by electrostatic attrac- tion, to a sheet of p l a i n white paper and is then fused to the p a p e r by heat to f o r m the final copy. I n ordinary xero- g r a p h i c copying the successive steps are p e r f o r m e d m a n u a l l y . " C o p y f l o " is simply the name given to a machine which per- forms all of these operations r a p i d l y , automatically, continuously, and at a much lower per-print cost than has been hitherto possible by other photographic methods. T h e r e are three models of C o p y f l o equipment available, one of which re- produces only f r o m microfilm, another only f r o m loose-sheet originals, and a third which combines both of these func- tions. Copyflo Model 1 reproduces single positive copies continuously f r o m 35mm. or 16mm. roll microfilm, positive or neg- ative (but not intermixed), perforated or imperforated. T h e enlargement range is f r o m seven to twenty-four diameters in fifteen steps. Copyflo Model 2 reproduces single copies of o p a q u e or translucent originals at ratios f r o m 46 per cent to 200 per cent of original size. T h e max- i m u m w i d t h document which can be re- produced is twenty-four inches (reduced to 46 per cent of original size in copy- ing). Copyflo Model 3 combines all of the features of Models 1 and 2 and is interchangeable f r o m microfilm to orig- inal document operation and vice versa. T h e rate of output f o r all three models is the same—twenty linear feet of paper per minute. W h e n C o p y f l o equipment first became available in 1956, some of the larger commercial microfilm service companies acquired M o d e l 1 machines to provide enlargements f r o m microfilm at rates which were substantially lower than those f o r the silver halide photoprints formerly supplied. B y using the services of one such commercial firm, the J o h n Crerar, N e w b e r r y , and University of Chi- cago libraries began supplying such en- largements to clients of their photo- duplication services. T h e N e w b e r r y L i - brary's experience with this method prompted B e n C. B o w m a n , assistant li- brarian at N e w b e r r y , to suggest this method as a solution to the bad-paper book problem. H e cited as an e x a m p l e the complete reproduction of a 1 1 0 - p a g e book by this process at a cost of less than five dollars, and suggested ways in which a w i d e r and better coordinated use of this method might benefit all libraries faced with the bad-paper book prob- l e m . 1 0 In 1957 the L i b r a r y of Congress and the N a t i o n a l L i b r a r y of Medicine ac- q u i r e d C o p y f l o machines f o r the produc- tion of photocopies of materials in their collections. I n October 1957, University Micro- films, Inc., announced that they h a d ac- quired a Copyflo machine and could sup- ply enlargements f r o m their extensive collection of master negatives, or f r o m microfilms sent to them f o r p r i n t i n g . 1 1 Half-size (5i/2" x 8i/£") enlargements f r o m their file of master negatives of doc- toral dissertations were offered at a flat rate of f o u r cents per p a g e . 1 2 I n 1958, University Microfilms, Inc., offered a f u r t h e r service called " O - P B o o k s , " or " O P b . " B y w o r k i n g out agree- ments w i t h a n u m b e r of publishing houses in the U n i t e d States, copies of out-of-print books are supplied in the f o r m of enlargements produced f r o m microfilm by means of Copyflo equip- ment at a flat rate of 31/2 cents per page f o r octavo-size pages measuring 6i/g x 93^ inches or less. T h i s price includes a soft paper b i n d i n g . 1 3 W a g m a n has pointed 10 Ben C. Bowman, "Xerography, Possible Solution to the Bad-Paper Book Problem," CRL, X I X ( 1 9 5 8 ) , 185-86. 11 " X e r o g r a p h y Comes to U-M—'Electrostatic' Print- ing from F i l m , " Microcosm, I I I ( 1 9 5 7 ) , 1-2. 12 E. B. Power, " 'Printing' in Editions of O n e , " Microcosm, I I I ( 1 9 5 7 ) , 4. 13 O-P Books: Cumulative List as of Jan. 1959. ( A n n A r b o r , M i c h . : University Microfilms, Inc., 1959.) 112 COLLEGE AND RESEARCH LIBRARIES- out that in many instances the cost of re- producing out-of-print books by this method in editions-of-one will not ex- ceed the purchase price of a volume on the second-hand book market where there is a competing d e m a n d . 1 4 I n 1958, the R e c o r d a k Corporation, one of the first commercial firms to ac- quire Copyflo equipment, began to ad- vertise "Electrostatic Prints" in library publications for making low-cost f u l l size reproductions of books. T h e various announcements and ad- vertisements, particularly those stressing the unusually low cost of the prints pro- duced, naturally attracted considerable interest on the part of librarians. T h i s interest was heightened by the appear- ance of an advertisement f o r " O - P B o o k s " which included a testimonial by Verner C l a p p , President of the Council on L i b r a r y Resources, in which he was quoted as follows: " A magnificent achievement—O-P Books solves the out- of-print book p r o b l e m . " 1 5 It is in the nature of advertisements to state in very brief, attention-getting terms what a particular machine or process can do, and any examples of quality or cost are usually taken f r o m ideal instances. Ascertaining what the limitations of a process might be, what things it specifically cannot do, or what the costs might be under average rather than o p t i m u m conditions is usually much more difficult. I n the case of Copy- flo, a number of limitations exist which, f o r certain types of materials, will rule it out as a possible method of reproduc- tion, whether f r o m existing microfilms or f r o m original documents. T h e effec- tive use of the Copyflo method as a li- brary tool and any evaluation of its ef- fectiveness in solving the out-of-print book or other documentary reproduction 14 F. H. Wagman, " T h e Copyflo Process and the Problem of Out-of-Print and Deteriorating Book Stocks," Microcosm, I V ( 1 9 5 8 ) , 1-2. 15 CRL, X I X ( M a y , 1958), inside cover. This ad- vertisement has also appeared in other publications. problems must begin with an under- standing of certain interrelated physical, technical, and economic factors which impose limits on its usefulness. P H Y S I C A L F A C T O R S Size I n C o p y f l o printing, a roll of micro- film 16mm. or 35mm. in width becomes a roll of enlarged paper prints ranging in size f r o m 4i/2 to 1 1 inches in w i d t h . 1 6 T h e f o r m a t of the pages and frames on the completed roll of paper prints is ex- actly that of the microfilm. T h e size of the original documents and the f o r m a t f r a m i n g , spacing, and alignment of the successive images are therefore factors which must be considered in the produc- tion of microfilms f o r subsequent print- ing with C o p y f l o equipment. Format Documents may be filmed in any one of the f o u r formats shown in F i g u r e 1 . T h e selection of the best filming position will be determined by the size of the original and the size of the reproduction desired, always keeping in m i n d that di- mension " A " cannot exceed 1 1 inches in the final print. Position 1A. Single pages 1 1 inches in width and of any length can be repro- duced f u l l size by Copyflo. W i d e r pages which are capable of yielding an accept- able reproduction when reduced to 1 1 inches may also be reproduced in this format. Positions IB and 2B. Single or double pages 1 1 inches in height can be repro- duced f u l l size, larger pages in reduced size. Position 2A. If the width of two pages does not exceed 1 1 inches, the material can be reproduced f u l l size. L a r g e r mate- rials will be reduced to the 1 1 - i n c h max- imum. I n filming loose sheet material, doubling the f r a m e length will permit 18 One laboratory offers 12-inch paper but states that the printing surface is "11 inches approximately." MARCH 1959 113 F I G U R E 1 M I C R O F I L M P O S I T I O N C H A R T I A t •* 1 Single Page/Double Frame (Text parallel to short axis of film) r I B 1 •< 1 Single Page/Single Frame (Text parallel to long axis of film) the filming of f o u r pages per exposure in this format. Framing and Spacing E v e n at moderate ratios, the reduction in size achieved in microphotography is so great that film space is frequently used carelessly and prodigally. It is not un- common to see a film of a series of short articles separated f r o m each other by a foot of blank film. If such a film were enlarged ten diameters, the nineteen one-foot spaces w o u l d become 190 feet of waste paper which w o u l d add consider- ably to the cost. Excess film used f o r spacing should be spliced out before printing. F r a m i n g and spacing between frames also should be carefully controlled. One- eighth inch of excess f r a m e space on each side of 600 frames enlarged twelve di- ameters w o u l d require almost 1 5 0 feet of additional paper. I n using cameras such as the R e c o r d a k or K o d a g r a p h Mi- crofile Models C, D, and E, in which the spacing between frames is controllable, the spacing should be adjusted to a min- imum. Alignment of Images C a r e f u l alignment of successive images / 2 A _ 1 Double Page/Single Frame (Text parallel to short axis of film) r T " 2 B - t •< 1 Double Page/Double Frame (Text parallel to long axis of film) on microfilm w i l l reduce both labor and materials costs. A s shown in F i g u r e 2, a microfilm of 3 x 5 cards properly aligned can be reproduced on a roll of 5-inch paper, whereas cards filmed without re- g a r d to alignment may require 7- or 8- inch paper. It will also be seen that prints of unaligned images will require more labor in cutting and trimming. Binding Margins W h i l e lateral control f o r positioning the projected image on the roll of paper is possible with Copyflo equipment, the best practice for obtaining additional paper area f o r b i n d i n g margins is to pro- vide f o r it in the positioning, spacing, and alignment of images during filming. I n photographing large pages f r o m bound volumes in position 1 A , the pages should be offset to the right. Using positions I B and 2 B , increasing the length of the f r a m e will provide the de- sired margins. Using position 2 A , the v o l u m e can be offset to the right if only a left-hand margin is required. If a fold- ed f o r m a t is to be used, the magnification of the image can be controlled to pro- vide a margin. A 9-inch image width f o r the two-page format, when printed on 1 1 - inch paper, w i l l provide an additional 114 COLLEGE AND RESEARCH LIBRARIES- inch on both sides. A n 8-inch image width w i l l provide U/2 inches of margin on each side, and so on. Enlargement Ratios T h e degree of enlargement obtainable with Copyflo equipment is not adjust- able over a continuous range. T h e r e are ten fixed magnification steps f o r 35mm. film—7, 71/2, 8i/4, 9, 9i/4, 1 1 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 14 and 15. A d d i t i o n a l magnification steps of 17, 18, 19, 22 and 24 may be used f o r enlarging f r o m 16mm. microfilm. If documents are to be reproduced to the exact size of the originals, the reduction ratio used in filming must correspond to one of the listed magnifications. T E C H N I C A L F A C T O R S Reproduction of Illustrations T h e electrical characteristics of the xerographic process are such that a charge can be held by the selenium plate as a " l i n e " image but cannot be held over large solid areas such as are f o u n d in continuous-tone illustrations. F o r ex- ample, if a black area one-inch square is reproduced, only a shadowed outline of the square w o u l d appear. T h e center w o u l d be white. A l t h o u g h a method ex- ists whereby solid-tone areas can be " h e l d " in making single-copy reproduc- tions by xerography, this is not possible with present Copyflo equipment. T h e re- production of materials which contain significant continuous-tone illustrations such as scientific journals cannot, there- fore, be successfully accomplished by this method. Density Copyflo printers are capable of print- ing f r o m a wide latitude of background densities. F o r the best results, however, a background density of 1.2 plus or minus 0.2 is desirable. G o o d contrast between image and background areas is equally important. Because the printing MARCH 1959 F I G U R E 2 process is a continuous one, abrupt changes in density within the roll of microfilm cannot be compensated f o r by changes in exposure. Permanence Since the powder image which is fused to the paper is reported to be as perma- nent as the paper itself, 1 7 xerographic enlargements on a high quality rag-stock paper should be as d u r a b l e as any docu- ment ever produced. E C O N O M I C F A C T O R S Equipment and Operating Costs U n l i k e other reproduction methods such as blueprints and diazo, square footage of paper and cost do not stand in a fixed relationship in printing by means of Copyflo. A t the present time Copyflo equipment is priced f a r beyond the reach of all but the largest libraries. T h e Model 1 machine may be purchased outright f o r $52,500, may be rented by the month f o r $ 1 , 2 5 0 or may be rented on a " M e t e r P l a n " for $800 per month. T h e monthly rental under the " M e t e r P l a n " entitles the user to only twenty- five hours of machine r u n n i n g time dur- ing the month. A d d i t i o n a l r u n n i n g time is charged f o r at a rate of fifty cents per minute up to a m a x i m u m monthly ren- 17 R. M. Schaffert, "Xerography and Xeroprinting," Penrose Annual, X L I V ( 1 9 5 0 ) , 96-99. 115 tal of $2,050. Machine r u n n i n g time is therefore the principal cost factor in printing by Copyflo. Because the ma- chine r u n n i n g time is always the same regardless of the width of the paper used, prints are significantly cheaper if the f u l l width of 1 1 - i n c h paper can be used to m a x i m u m advantage. T h e selling price f o r 1,000 feet of 1 1 - i n c h paper prints as given by one commercial firm is only 814 per cent greater than f o r 1,000 feet of 51/4-inch paper prints, even though twice as much paper is used. T o give a specific e x a m p l e of how this can affect costs, let us assume that a Copyflo reproduction is to be made of a book having 1,000 pages 51/4 inches wide and 7 inches high. F i v e h u n d r e d exposures w o u l d be required to micro- film this book. If position 2-B were used, f u l l size prints could be made on a roll of paper 7 inches wide. A l l o w i n g an ex- tra inch of paper f o r spacing between frames, each print w o u l d measure 7 x 1 2 inches. Five hundred prints w o u l d there- fore require 500 feet of 7-inch paper. If position 2-A were used, f u l l size prints could be made on a roll of paper 1 1 inch- es wide. A g a i n allowing an e x t r a inch of paper f o r spacing between frames, each print w o u l d measure 8 x 1 1 inches. Five hundred prints w o u l d thus r e q u i r e a total of 3 3 3 feet of 1 1 - i n c h paper. Fig- ured at commercial rates, 500 feet of 7- inch paper w o u l d cost 41 per cent more than 3 3 3 feet of 1 1 - i n c h paper, even though the total square footage of paper used is virtually identical. Commercial Sources Because of the high costs of Copyflo equipment, libraries which wish to have enlargement prints f r o m microfilm made by this process must turn to one of the commercial laboratories offering this service. A t the present time there are twenty-one Copyflo installations in this country at the f o l l o w i n g locations: A n n A r b o r , Michigan, University Microfilms, Inc.; A t l a n t a , Georgia, R e c o r d a k Corpo- ration; Cambridge, Massachusetts, Gen- eral M i c r o f i l m C o m p a n y ; Chicago, Illi- nois, X e r o x Processing Laboratories, di- vision of H a l o i d - X e r o x , Inc. and Re- cordak Corporation; Dallas, T e x a s , R e - cordak Corporation; Denver, Colorado, Dakota Microfilm; Houston, T e x a s , Southern Microfilm C o m p a n y ; L o n g Island City, N e w Y o r k , Remington- R a n d , Inc.; L o s Angeles, C a l i f o r n i a , Re- cordak Corporation, and Microfilm C o m p a n y of C a l i f o r n i a ; N e w Y o r k City, N e w Y o r k , X e r o x Processing Laborato- ries, division of H a l o i d - X e r o x , Inc. and R e c o r d a k Corporation; R e d w o o d City, C a l i f o r n i a , M a r k L a r w o o d C o m p a n y ; Saint Louis, Missouri, R e c o r d a k Cor- poration; Saint Paul, Minnesota, D a k o t a Microfilm; San Francisco, C a l i f o r n i a , R e c o r d a k Corporation, Branco's Graph- ic Arts Service and George R e p r o d u c - tions; Seattle, Washington, M a r k Lar- T A B L E I P R I C E R A N G E O F C O P Y F L O P R I N T S F R O M S I X C O M M E R C I A L S O U R C E S * PAPER ORDINARY 24 # 100% 9 0 # 25% PAPER OFFSET WIDTH SULPHITE BOND RAG STOCK RAG STOCK MASTER STOCK 5" $46.25-69.30 $81.73— $84.40— 6" $47.30-70.38 $82.66- 99.19 $85.33-102.40 8i/2" $49.05-73.20 $85.00-102.00 $87.67-105.20 9" $49.40-73.74 $85.46— $88.13— 10" $50.00-74.88 $86.40-103.68 $89.07-106.88 $100.00-138.88 11-12" $50.80-76.02 $87.33-104.80 $90.00-108.00 * P r i c e p e r 1,000 f e e t u n c u t . 116 150 COLLEGE AND RESEARCH LIBRARIES- wood C o m p a n y ; Syracuse, N e w Y o r k , H a l l and McChesney, Inc.; Washington, D. C., R e c o r d a k Corporation and R e m - ington-Rand, Inc. Other firms have Copyflo machines on order. I n f o r m a t i o n on additional sources of Copyflo prints may be obtained f r o m H a l o i d - X e r o x , Inc., Rochester 3, N e w Y o r k . Paper Stocks C o p y f l o prints can be supplied on a variety of paper stocks, including 20- and 24-pound white sulphite bonds, 90- p o u n d sulphite, 24-pound 100 per cent rag, 90-pound stocks having a rag con- tent of 25, 50, or 100 per cent, 120-pound 100 per cent rag, linen ledger, a translu- cent v e l l u m 100 per cent rag, and short r u n paper offset master stock. T o make paper offset masters f r o m microfilm negatives, the originals should be filmed under glass in position A - l in a f r a m e area 16 inches long to provide the neces- sary 1 5 inches f o r the length of the master. Successive images should be care- f u l l y aligned to minimize registration problems in the offset printing process. Masters thus prepared are not slotted or perforated. Users whose machines have p i n bars must perforate or slot the masters to fit their machines. Costs of Copyflo Prints Prices f o r Copyflo prints obtained f r o m commercial sources show consider- able variation. T h e range f o r thousand- foot rolls of prints f o r a few typical sizes f r o m six commercial sources is given in T a b l e I. C u t t i n g charges are in addition to the prices shown. A single cut merely to separate the prints w i l l vary in cost f r o m $ 3 . 7 5 to $ 5 . 3 3 per thousand prints. A second gang cut to bring the prints to u n i f o r m size will cost f r o m $ 1 . 2 5 to $2.67 additional, per thousand prints. T h i r d and f o u r t h cuts, where required, add still f u r t h e r to the total cost. T h e m i n i m u m charges in effect at some of the laboratories may make the reproduction of small quantities of material prohibi- tively expensive. M i n i m u m charges of $ 1 5 . 0 0 per order are not unusual. S U M M A R Y C o p y f l o equipment has made possible the production of permanent enlarged prints f r o m microfilms on a variety of standard paper stocks at costs which are substantially lower than previous meth- ods. T h e process is well suited to the reproduction of text and line drawings but does not yield satisfactory copies of continuous-tone illustrations. Other phys- ical, technical, and economic factors place f u r t h e r limits on its utility. Since the largest single cost factor is machine operating time, careful attention to the arrangement, spacing, f r a m i n g , and alignment of images is necessary if the m a x i m u m in efficiency and economy is to be realized. T h e cost of the equipment is such that most libraries must d e p e n d on commercial services. T h e usefulness of the method in solving documentary reproduction problems can be deter- mined only if its limitations as well as its capabilities are understood. National Union Catalog of MSS T h e Council on Library Resources has made a grant of $200,000 to the Library of Congress to initiate work on a National U n i o n Catalog of Manuscript Col- lections. T h e immediate goal of the grant is to bring together consistent descriptions of some twenty-seven thousand known collections of manuscripts in over seventy-five cooperating depositories and to print and sell catalog cards describing each collection. I t is the hope of the Council "that this catalog will eventually record all collections of manuscripts held by libraries and archives in the U n i t e d States." MARCH 1959 117