College and Research Libraries B A R B A R A H. P H I P P S Library Instruction for the Undergraduate An effort was made to determine the current state of library instruc- tion to undergraduates in American colleges. Literature was searched and a questionnaire was distributed to two hundred colleges. As was expected, dissatisfaction with the status quo is almost universal. A wide range of practices is reported, with the most promising future appearing to lie in the area of programmed instruction and audio- visual aids to teaching. I N R E F E R E N C E or circulation service to college students, it is impossible to es- cape involvement in the frustrations of the typical college freshman. He may get lost in the maze of subject headings, cross references, or involved corporate entries at the card catalog, wandering finally into a wilderness of books, starv- ing mentally in the midst of plenty. Ref- erence librarians are usually only too glad to give assistance. They point out that In the Steps of the Pharaohs does indeed precede Instruction in the Use of .. . and explain the principle of word-by-word filing in the card catalog. They explain the use of encyclopedia indexes. They demonstrate the use of periodical indexes and abstracts. Yet the sobering realization comes that for the student who seeks assistance, there may well be nine others failing to use the li- brary competently who do not ask for help. In order to determine the current ex- tent and effectiveness of methods of li- brary instruction, the present author conducted a study on this topic during the summer of 1965. The periodical lit- erature and theses from 1950 to 1965 Miss Phipps is Associate Librarian in Pa- cific Union College, Angwin, California. were extensively examined. A brief questionnaire was sent to two hundred colleges selected from American Univer- sities and Colleges. These colleges were predominantly in the 500-5,000 enroll- ment bracket. Some attention was paid to geographic distribution: northeastern, 33; southeastern, 33; south central, 29; north central, 61; western, 42; Canadian, 2. The distribution was 119 private col- leges to 81 state owned. There were 157 replies to the two hundred question- naires, making a 78.5 per cent response. Some 126 of the 157 respondents (81 per cent) indicated that some form of library instruction is given. The three- point evaluation scale on the question- naire (1. ineffective; 2. of some value; 3. of great value) was not considered a significant item in the tabulation of re- sponses, for librarians tend to be con- servative. Most of the respondents cir- cled "of some value" in rating each type of instruction. The comments on the re- sponses to the questionnaire were far more eloquent than the unadorned fig- ures. Ninety-seven of the respondents added evaluations of their instruction programs. Seventy-two of these indi- cated that their programs were failing to meet the need. Their comments ranged from the one word "anemic" to long, ar- ticulate letters describing the glaring / 411 412 / College 6- Research Libraries • September 1968 need: lack of staff, lack of time, lack of money for experimentation, lack of co- operation and interest from the faculty and administration. Excerpts taken from their comments provide the random sampling which follows. • I think our program and most programs in institutions of rather large enrollment stinks. Programmed instruction is, I think, a possible way to accomplish something here. • The greatest problem is to reach the students who have the greatest need and not bore those who are acquainted with what we have to offer. • We don't give instruction because I don't believe in it. (The only completely negative response.) • When orientation in the use of library materials on a particular subject is pre- pared with the cooperation of the teacher of that class, and students are aware that an assignment utilizing the materials is im- pending, I am convinced that there is an immediate effectiveness. Transfer of skills to other subject fields seems not to happen. The fifty minutes of initial freshman ori- entation assigned to the library appears to- tally useless except that some of the tim- ider freshmen are herded into the library. • We would like to report that we give adequate and effective instruction, but un- fortunately our staff is too small and too busy to undertake any sort of formal in- struction program. • Our plan was to give an Orientation lecture, part slides and part lecture, to the new freshman and then early in the second semester give a very brief tour of the li- brary with a lecture in the humanities li- brary by one of the librarians there on the PMLA and other literary tools in research. In spite of all efforts it is still optional and first semester this year nothing was done. We think the slides and lectures are quite helpful to some of the students. • The lack of library instruction is very obvious to those of us who man the service desks. . . . Hardly a day goes by that we don't have to send people back to the card catalog to get the complete numbers. • I have prepared a colored slide lecture which is, basically, a tour of the library and an introduction to the card catalog, classed books, periodical indexes, and col- lections. The faculty is notified that this lecture is available; they arrange for their classes to see-hear the lecture if they wish. Not many so choose. We are a 24:1 facul- ty-student ratio, enrollment 2,800, 3M li- brarians. It's pretty much sink or swim. Faculty is excellent, but no time to help students. They either know how already and get a good education, or are lost. Historical data for background study was best presented in concentrated form in a 1952 thesis by Mary Case Marquis.1 Two earlier theses, by Evelyn Steele Little 2 and Mabel Harris,3 also provided good material. A summary of the Mar- quis thesis shows that the prevalent methods of library instruction were three, and that they had not changed over the years: 1. The tour of the library during ori- entation week (this was considered un- satisfactory all along the line); 2. A series of lectures or lessons, vary- ing from one to eight, sometimes as a postlude to the tour, sometimes without the tour, usually given on "borrowed time" from the English department; 3. Separate course in the curriculum, with or without credit, usually a one- hour, one-semester course.4 The following reasons are given for the heretofore lack of success. 1. It has been "nobody's baby," passed to and from librarian to English teacher; 2. Librarian is chiefly an administrator; 3. Lack of time and staff; 1 Mary Case Marquis, "A Study of the Teaching of Library Facilities to College Students (unpublished thesis, MS in LS, George Peabody College for Teach- ers, 1 9 5 2 ) . 2 Evelyn Steele Little, "Instruction in the Use of Books and Libraries" (unpublished thesis, University of Michigan, 1 9 3 4 ) . 3 Mabel Harris, "Non-Professional Library Instruc- tion in Teachers Colleges" (unpublished thesis, U n i - versity of Michigan, 1 9 3 4 ) . 4 Marquis, op. cit., p. 4 5 - 4 7 . Library Instruction for the Undergraduate / 413 4. Absence of data as to cost; 5. Difficulty of introducing a new course into the curriculum; 6. Failure of faculty and administra- tion to recognize the need for in- struction; 7. Wear and tear on reference books; 8. Tendency of students to crib; 9. Lack of student interest; 10. Poor class management; 11. Too little time for the amount of material; 12. Too little credit given. 5 The most acceptable solution, according to the Marquis thesis, would be the one- hour, one-semester course, required of all freshmen.6 The Marquis thesis, bringing the prob- lem into focus up to the early 1950's, is noteworthy on several accounts: first, it shows clearly that the need has been recognized principally during the twen- tieth century; second, modern trends of education have served to increase the use of the library and make the need more emphatic; third, the problem is still with us, although more has been written in the last decade, but there has been little enlightenment as to the best solutions; fourth, there is one significant sign of progress, that of increased use of audiovisual aids and self-teaching de- vices. The respondents to the questionnaire rated the library tour the least effective, if used alone. Eighty-nine of the librar- ians (56.7 per cent), however, still use the library tour. Chief objection to the tour seems to be that it usually comes before the student has need to use the library, and in the midst of much other orientation, rendering the student glassy-eyed and saturated with informa- tion and admonitions. Some of the li- brarians used library handbooks and/or followed through with lectures in class- es. Occasionally the tour was conducted 5 Ibid., p. 4 7 - 4 9 . «Ibid., p . 4 9 . in small groups, with competent guides and sufficient time to make it a demon- stration-laboratory period, complete with prepared worksheets. The orientation week lecture is not as popular today as it was twenty or thirty years ago. Only forty-six (29 per cent) of the respondents use the orientation week lecture. Only nineteen give assign- ments with the lecture. The same objec- tions raised to the tour usually apply here—too early in the year, no recog- nized need to use the information, too academic, and too theoretical. The orientation course, either distinct- ly for library orientation or with library lectures a part of a general orientation course required of all freshmen, is also used by forty-six (29 per cent) of the colleges. Thirty-four require the course, twelve list it as optional. For the eight- een colleges granting credit for the course, the range was wide, one to six hours of credit. Sixteen colleges allow no credit. Apparently the organization of such courses is subject to administrative interest and control. The prevalent means of instruction is through library lectures in freshman English. Ninety-eight respondents (62 per cent) reported this form of instruc- tion. The number of lectures ranged from one to six, with the one to three span the most frequent. Fifty-nine gave assignments with the lectures. A librar- ian gave the lectures in forty-five col- leges; the English teacher in fifty-three. Fifty-two librarians reported lectures given in classes 'other than freshman English, listing twenty-four different areas, with education and history the most common. Comments on this form of instruction indicated that it was spo- radic, usually dependent upon the invi- tation of the teacher. In this day of emphasis on visual ap- proach to learning, it is surprising that ninety-four respondents (60 per cent) used no audiovisual aids in the instruc- tion program. Those using AV listed a 414 / College 6- Research Libraries • September 1968 wide variety, ranging from posters and charts to tapes, slides, filmstrips, opaque projectors, and closed circuit TV. Only sixty-four (40 per cent) of the librarians used reference books for class- room demonstration. If the class is small enough (under fifty) for the students actually to see the color, size, and ar- rangement of the book) it is thought to be more effective to demonstrate the use of each reference book that is intro- duced to the class. For larger classes the instructor may find that projectors of various types, or filmstrips, will be more effective. Only three of the respondents used teaching machines with some form of programmed instruction. This method of library instruction is scarcely beyond the experimental stage, but it definitely deserves further consideration. The increasing numbers of freshmen in colleges across the land have com- pounded the need for adequate library instruction. "Some institutions are al- ready overwhelmed by trying to provide even a basic introduction to library serv- ices, and content themselves with offer- ing each entering student a library handbook and bidding him Godspeed."7 Can this neat dismissal of the problem be its solution? Abraham Barnett com- ments— The size of the library, its physical in- volution, the intangible complexities which must be mastered for use overwhelm and even depress them. Many do not return until an inescapable assignment, a term paper or a prepared speech forces them to do so. They come back, but without heart; and sooner or later come to the reference desk for help. It is at this point that our attitudes are crucial. The impressions we make during this brief interview will be either a con- firmation of their hopelessness or a restora- tion of their motivation and confidence. The one acceptable course open to the li- brarian is the one that makes the student 7 Edward G. Holley and Robert Oram, "University Library Orientation by Television," CRL, XXIII ( N o - vember 1 9 6 2 ) , 4 8 5 . feel he is talking with someone who has mastered the library and that he can too for his more limited purposes achieve a proportionate measure of control.8 Daniel Gore urged that students should be taught LC subject headings, how to use the tracings on the LC card as an analysis of the book, the use of the shelflist as a bibliographic tool, and principles of bibliographic procedure. His clever analogy sums up his argu- ment— Certainly no responsible person would entrust a student to drive a car after such a brief period (1 hour) of instruction. Yet students are required to use a library, which is far more complicated than an automobile, after such a cursory introduc- tion to its mysteries. Perhaps this happens because teachers are in no danger of being run down by libraries, but the conse- quences are still quite serious if one ac- cepts the premise that self-education after college (and during it as well) is vitally important to the student.9 M E T H O D S OF INSTRUCTION In the analysis of the questionnaire, brief mention was made of the various methods of instruction and the frequen- cy of use. The most common methods are now considered in more detail. Library tour. While the tour has gen- erally been rated ineffective as an in- structional device in teaching the use of the card catalog, reference books, peri- odical indexes, and the like, it has been fairly effective in familiarizing students with locations of departments and serv- ices. Some colleges reported holding open house for freshmen, serving re- freshments, keeping the atmosphere in- formal with the hope of encouraging freshmen to return for their research as- signments. This is good for public rela- 8 Abraham N. Barnett, "University Student and the Reference Librarian," CRL, XX ( July 1 9 5 9 ) , 3 2 1 . 9 Daniel Gore, "Anachronistic Wizard: the College Reference Librarian," Library Journal, L X X X I X (April 15, 1 9 6 4 ) , 1 6 9 0 . Library Instruction for the Undergraduate / 415 tions but hardly adequate for teaching the use of the library. Often student guides were used for the tours. Unless these guides are student library workers or have received intensive briefing, they can be destructive in both influence and information—a true case of the "blind leading the blind." Dorothy Hamlen, writing of her experience, includes a copy of a briefing letter sent to student guides that proved to be an excellent aid in setting the tone of the library tour. 1 0 Another college reported that fresh- man English teachers brought their classes on tour of the library in small sections, giving them browsing questions to look u p . 1 1 One hopes that these tours were arranged in advance with the li- brary staff. At Morgan College in Baltimore (un- der three thousand enrollment) an in- teresting orientation program was con- ducted. The freshmen were brought in two weeks early. Two hours a day for a five-day period were allotted to the li- brary. The freshmen were divided into small groups. They received a library workbook with assigned problems. One teacher was assigned to each group and gave informal instruction as he worked with the students. The faculty had pre- viously received an in-service training period and did an excellent job of in- struction. As a result, the teachers were more oriented to the library themselves, and the freshmen entered the school year well oriented to the library.1 2 The orientation lecture. The one-hour lecture on the library to large groups of freshmen is second in familiarity to the tour. Typically the services of the library are described; the policies and regula- 1 0 Dorothy Hamlen, "Initiating the Freshman," Library Journal, LXXIX ( M a y 1, 1 9 5 4 ) , 4 2 2 - 2 4 . 1 1 Mary Lou Chaney, "Discovering the Library," College English, XIV (April 1 9 5 3 ) , 4 0 7 - 4 0 8 . 1 2 Georgetta Merrit, "Library Orientation for College Freshmen in the Small College During Orientation W e e k , " Library Journal, LXXXI ( M a y 15, 1 9 5 6 ) , 1 2 2 4 - 2 5 . tions may be further delineated by mim- eographed brochures; the layout of the building may be made graphic by floor plans; or elaborate, printed handbooks may be provided. In large groups, at- tention is easily lost and the "glazed look" may replace alert interest. Slides and films may assist in extending the at- tention span. Some orientation programs are lengthy enough for two library lec- tures. In larger universities, orientation lectures are held hourly for the first two weeks, allowing the freshmen a choice of time in which to attend two different lectures. At the University of North Car- olina this plan was followed, with one added refinement: the freshmen were allowed to take a "screening test" in the use of the library. If a passing score was reached, the student was excused from the lectures. 1 3 However good this initial lecture may be, if there is no follow-up, no testing program, no additional instruction through classes, little is likely to be re- tained of this early orientation instruc- tion. Individual instruction. No doubt the hoary definition of the perfect university —the student on one end of the log, and Mark Hopkins on the other—is fa- miliar to all. There is much truth in it. Learning is most effective in a person- to-person setting. Library instruction is no exception. The individual approach of the librarian assisting the student is the most effective, if— 1. a librarian is available for help at all times; 2. the librarian is perceptive of the stu- dent's need; 3. the student recognizes the need and asks for help; 4. the method is varied to suit the stu- dent. 1 3 Adriana Pannevis, "Freshman Library Instruction at the University of North Carolina," North Carolina Libraries, XIII ( M a y 1 9 5 5 ) , 113. 416 / College 6- Research Libraries • September 1968 Even at its best, individual instruction reaches only a fraction of the students. Many students do not use the library often enough to recognize their own need. Those who do are often too timid or indifferent to seek help. There are devices and procedures used by various libraries to make indi- vidual instruction more efficient and the follow-up work more certain. Robert S. Taylor of Lehigh University described the program there in some detail, par- ticularly a follow-up card used by the reference department. If a student's question is too complex or too time-con- suming to receive immediate help, the student is asked to write his name and address on a postcard, along with the question, with the assurance that it will be searched and the assistance given by mail. Those writing on theses fill out a worksheet to be presented when re- questing assistance.1 4 Table projectors and other self-teach- ing devices are used effectively in some instances, and will be considered later with audiovisual aids and programmed teaching. In spite of modern aids, how- ever, the most important element in in- dividual library instruction will continue to be the dedication and interest of the librarian involved. Library instruction as a separate course. In colleges where orientation is a required and separate course, library lectures may form a significant part of the course, ranging from one lecture, with or without assignments, to four or more lectures. If library assignments are given, sections may be staggered in or- der that not too many will receive the instruction at the same time. This helps to avoid the traffic jams in the reference room. What are the basic essentials that should be presented in library instruc- tion lectures? Specific details will vary with each situation; variation will occur u Robert S. Taylor, "Coordinated Program of Li- brary Instruction," CRL, XVIII (July 1 9 5 7 ) , 3 0 4 - 3 0 6 . from year to year in the same college. No program is static. Several student li- brary assistants who were sophomores, when asked their opinion of the prime essentials for freshmen in library usage, replied with one voice, "Teach the use of the card catalog!" One might suggest the following as minimum topics: 1. location of services in the library; 2. rules and policies of the library; 3. use of the card catalog; 4. encyclopedias and dictionaries; 5. periodical indexes; 6. statistical yearbooks and Facts on File; 7. indexes to composites: Granger, Sut- ton, etc.; 8. Book Review Digest; 9. biographical dictionaries. The first two items, along with shelving arrangement and classification system, could be presented in the library hand- book, using the handbook as text materi- al in the lectures. When library instruction can be given in a separate required course, the needs of the students can be met without the confinement of time and space experi- enced when fitting units of library in- struction into a general orientation course. This seemed to be the goal and preference of many of the respondents to the questionnaire. The offering of such a course requires the recognition of need from the administration and the addi- tion of sufficient library personnel to supply the teaching staff. A very full and practical outline for a freshman library course is given by Wil- son, Lowell, and Read in The Library in College Instruction.15 They recommend a required course, a minimum of twelve hours of instruction, and preferably twenty hours or more. Credit is usually one semester hour. There are, of course, many other excellent course outlines. The best of these can be only a guide, 1 5 Louis R. Wilson and others, The Library in Col- lege Instruction ( N e w York: H. W . Wilson, 1 9 5 1 ) , p. 2 8 8 - 8 9 . Library Instruction for the Undergraduate / 417 for the library instructor must tailor his course to fit his situation. Gates's Guide to the Use of Books and Libraries16 i s considered by some to be a fairly ade- quate text for such an orientation course. Library instruction in freshman Eng- lish. According to the librarians respond- ing to the questionnaire, instruction in freshman English is the most prevalent method: 62 per cent reported instruction given by this means. Individual com- ments from the questionnaires on this means of instruction range from enthusi- asm over the successful cooperation, to a realization of the inevitable cribbing, and finally, to a dismal lack of coopera- tion. • For two years, each member of the professional staff has met with two or more sections of English 102 to give a lecture on the library as related to the freshman research paper. The staff is delighted with the plan. It has accomplished much more than the various programs given during orientation week. We seem to be recog- nized as individuals, rather than just "bodies behind desks." • The basic idea of the program is very good. It integrates the library instruction with an actual English 100 term paper as- signment, making the lectures more mean- ingful to the students in terms of their im- mediate needs. • Unfortunately many English instructors do not know how to use the library them- selves and apparently see no need for their students to know what they do not. Some attempts have been made combined with other orientation needs, but to no avail. In College English, an article by Block and Mattis 1 7 reports that after students choose their term paper topics early in the semester, the librarian comes in for two lectures, a week apart. The first lec- ture gives techniques of search, the sec- ond session gives help on their specific topics. Even after the scheduled ses- 1 6 Jean Key Gates, Guide to the Use of Books and Libraries ( N e w York: McGraw-Hill, 1 9 6 2 ) . 1 7 Haskell M. Block and Sidney Mattis, "Research Paper, A Cooperative Approach," College English, XIII (January 1 9 5 2 ) , 2 1 2 - 1 5 . sions, the librarian may be invited back to give more help on different topics. From Harding College in Searcy, Ar- kansas, comes a well outlined program by Annie May Alston. 1 8 I. Time of instruction A. Freshmen—1 week of lessons beginning in third week of the fall semester. B. Sophomores—after freshmen in- struction is completed, usually about the end of the first six weeks. II. Courses A. Freshmen—in Communications (Freshman English) all sections three class periods. B. Sophomores—in World Affairs, Institutions, Humanities, Biolo- gy, Health and Safety, two class periods. III. Objectives A. Freshmen 1. Position of library 2. Locations of materials 3. Library policies and regula- tions 4. Use of card catalog, Readers Guide, encyclopedias, dic- tionaries, biographical refer- ence. B. Sophomore level 1. Reference tools in subject area under study 2. Acquaintance with authori- ties 3. Knowledge of technical liter- ature. The problem of students cribbing on the assignment sheets is ever present. If the same uniform assignment sheet is given to all, it is easy enough for those who have done the assignment earlier to pass answers on to later sections, or for those who are enterprising to divide up the assignment, with each member of a 1 8 Annie May Alston, "Library Instruction on the General Education Level," Arkansas Libraries, X (July 1 9 5 3 ) , 7 - 9 . 418 / College 6- Research Libraries • September 1968 group doing a f e w questions, and pool- ing the answers. In the interest of mak- ing an assignment for several hundred students easy to correct, librarians have sometimes made the cribbing too easy. There are several ways of making it more difficult to be dishonest. Nearly all of them involve more preparation and/ or more correction time. At the University of New Hampshire, Hugh Pritchard1 9 reports another inter- esting variation to curb cheating. The students received the usual lectures on the card catalog, periodical indexes, and yearbooks. Then they were asked to find, if possible, their name in the card catalog, or one beginning with the same first three letters. They then answered a set of questions about this book (same questions used for all—the answers would, of course, vary) such as place, publisher, date, and title. N e w Hampshire students also chose articles from the Readers Guide on some subject area of their major in col- lege and gave the bibliographic data for each article, including subject headings they selected, the abbreviations they found, and whether or not the magazine was in the library. They again looked up their family name in biographical dictionaries, and their major field in yearbooks and encyclopedias. The as- signments were simple to prepare but difficult to grade; cribbing was more dif- ficult but not impossible if a student bribed someone else to do his work for him. The wear and tear on reference books was more evenly distributed. Verna Melum writes that at the Uni- versity at DeKalb, handbooks costing fifty cents, including the Wilson pam- phlet on indexes, are available. 2 0 Work- sheets emphasizing points covered in the lecture and methods of study are given out. With the worksheets are mim- 1 9 Hugh Pritchard and others, "Library Exercise for Freshmen," Library Journal, LXXXIV (September 15, 1 9 5 9 ) , 2 5 7 6 - 7 8 . 2 0 Verna Melum, "Library Instruction to 2 , 0 0 0 Freshmen," CRL, XXI (November 1 9 6 0 ) , 4 6 2 - 6 8 . eographed form sheets (uniform for all students) to be filled in .with the an- swers to the problem. Problem cards, with clues in red, are passed out to all students. No two students in any section have the same problems. They copy the clues from the cards on their form sheets, and the problem cards are taken up by a teacher. These are used over and over, as no answers are written on the cards. Matching each problem card is a key card in green. This is given to the readers, and the correction is thus simplified. Tests are devised for machine scoring. Eleanor Devlin feels that working with freshmen through the English class- es or other small groups has a distinct advantage over the tours or large lec- tures : New students will not be an amorphous mass to be herded through a perfunctory schedule that interests no one; instead they will be members of smaller classroom groups whose visits to the library will have a purpose planned by the teacher, ex- pected by the librarian and understood by the students themselves.21 Audiovisual aids in library instruction. Audiovisual means many things to many librarians. In the responses to the ques- tionnaire, 38 per cent reported using some type of audiovisual device. How- ever, these were chiefly slides, filmstrips, charts, and posters. Charts and posters have been used near the card catalog or periodical indexes to depict the methods of use. These are well and good if used to supplement organized formal instruc- tion, but they are hardly an effective substitute. Often these printed devices, even handbooks, go unread except by the more conscientious student. Slides and filmstrips are cheaper than movies or television, but again they are merely adjuncts to the lectures and may suffer from the impersonalism of mass media. 2 1 Eleanor D e v l i n , "Thoughts on Freshman Orienta- tion," Catholic Library World, XXIX (October 1 9 5 7 ) , 27. Library Instruction for the Undergraduate / 419 Television, closed circuit or aired over the campus station, is good as a mass medium, perhaps preferable to the com- mercial filmstrips, or movies, but it is a "canned" lecture. Of course laboratory assignments would be difficult to give and impossible to follow through on when given to hundreds of students at once. The Vu Graph projectors with trans- parencies, the overhead projector with transparencies, and the opaque projector are all useful aids in the classroom, usu- ally accessory to the lecture. The over- head projector and transparencies espe- cially work well with larger groups. Ro- land Moody reported the use of the Vu Graph and a taped narration; he was pleased that this cost only about $10 a lecture compared with $35 to $300 for commercially prepared material. 2 2 Slides have been an effective visual aid in many instructional programs. Usu- ally the slides are locally prepared, with kodachrome shots of the library, close- ups of the card catalog, indexes, or what- ever is to be introduced. This can be substituted for taking the actual book to the classroom. Library policies and regu- lations can be presented via slides and transparencies, then reinforced by the printed handbook. Slides are a particu- larly useful substitute for the tour when the physical plant, locations of various rooms, loan desks, and services are shown. An unusual adaptation of slides is de- scribed in a thesis by George L. Wil- liams. 2 3 This describes the use of the ad- matic slide projector with the slides ar- ranged with explanatory scenarios on discs, and set up either for display use in a lobby (illustrating loan procedures) or by the card catalog (demonstrating 2 2 Roland H. Moody and Albert Donley, "Library Orientation for College Freshmen Using A.V. Materials for Orientation Lecture," Library Journal, LXXXI ( M a y 15, 1 9 5 6 ) , 1230. 2 3 George L. Williams, "An Automatic and Continu- ous Program of Education in the Use of Library Ma- terials" (unpublished thesis, Kent State University, 1 9 5 1 ) . card catalog usage). The projector is op- erated by a switch and will automatical- ly turn the disc, presenting whatever procedure is placed on the machine. The scenarios must be carefully selected and worded. The slides are held on the screen for six seconds only, and an en- tire sequence is run in three minutes. Captions must be brief and simple, pic- tures must be carefully chosen to illus- trate only the details in the caption—a single idea to a caption and a picture. A sound attachment is available for the projector. A "hold" switch may be pressed to hold a picture longer than the six seconds. Table model viewers are available for individual instruction. Slides are more flexible than film- strips, which of course have a rigid se- quence. In planning either device for a local program, extreme care must be used to get good photography, logical sequence, and only one concept to a slide. If student "actors" are used, it is wise to have the same individual in all the slides of a given sequence. Prepared films are available which are good in library instruction. Here again, if a film can be well planned and pro- duced on campus which illustrates the local library, it is preferable. Films are more expensive than slides or strips and more difficult to keep up to date. Televised library instruction is used in several colleges and universities. It is either released on a campus telecast or done as a regular classroom lecture on closed circuit television. The card cata- log, indexes, and reference books can be presented by this means and released to the entire Freshman English class at once, or it can be given whenever so scheduled by the teacher. If released as a regular telecast it may be run at varying times and the students may view it in their dormitories or in some classroom or auditorium. In one college, eight sessions by closed circuit television were held with four hundred in each session. There were four receivers in 420 / College 6- Research Libraries • September 1968 each room. The location of the libraries, special services, and card catalog were emphasized. 2 4 The most extensive project reported in library instruction by TV has been at Illinois State University at Normal, Illi- nois, under the direction of Robert Her- tel. A trial run was carried through with a small group of two hundred freshmen, divided into four sections: first group, all three lectures on TV; second group, two TV lectures, one live; third group, two TV lectures, one live in a large group; fourth group, all three lectures live. All received a pre-test and a post-test. There was no appreciable difference in scores. Lesson one was on the card cata- log with an assignment. Lesson two in- cluded reference books (shown and de- scribed on T V ) . Lesson three included a test over reference and an introduction to periodical indexes with an assign- m e n t . 2 5 Dorothy Fegerburg, in the same arti- cle, emphasized the teacher's viewpoint. There must be careful, meticulous plan- ning of the lesson. The lecture cannot vary from the plans and the cues for the cameramen and technicians. The teacher must stay in camera range and present a pleasing appearance. The in- structions for technicians and lesson plan had to be written out in full. While there is no opportunity for students to ask questions, and the personal contact is missing, this medium does make mass in- struction possible early in the year. This type of teaching before TV cameras is exacting, challenging, and "the hardest work she had ever done." 2 6 The students were asked for evalu- ation. Fifteen per cent were negative, complaining that they were unable to ask questions. Sixty-six per cent thought the lectures were more interesting on TV. Admittedly there are difficulties in the TV instruction; most, however, are sur- mountable. The instructor should resolve the following questions. 1. What information and data do I wish to communicate: locations, card cat- alog, reference works, term paper form? 2. What courses must it fit? 3. What techniques are most effective —slides, movies, mockups, narrator? 4. Is the closed circuit most effective? Sufficient time must be allowed for plan- ning and production; a year ahead may be needed. A TV director should ex- amine and give counsel on the script. Programed instruction and teaching machines in library instruction. F o r t h e novice wishing orientation to the vocab- ulary of teaching machines, Philip Lewis has an informative article in the Wilson Library Bulletin which describes their possible use in library instruction and gives a brief glossary of terms. 2 7 Southern Illinois University has drawn wide interest in the field of education, and particularly in library instruction, for its pioneer experiments with teach- ing machines. The venture has been re- ported in several professional journals; in fact, practically all articles discussing teaching machines for the library refer to this project. The experiment with teaching ma- chines at Southern Illinois University started in I 9 6 0 . 2 8 A learning room was set aside where the teaching machine was installed. A sequence of instruction was carefully planned, with instruction 2 4 R. W. McComb, "Closed Circuit Television in a Library Orientation Program," CRL, XIX (September 1 9 5 8 ) , 3 8 7 . 2 5 Robert Hertel and others, "TV Library Instruc- tion," Library Journal, LXXXVI (January 1, 1 9 6 1 ) , 4 2 - 4 6 . 29 Ibid., p . 4 5 . 2 7 Philip Lewis, "Teaching Machines and the Li- brary," Wilson Library Bulletin, XXXVI (February 1 9 6 2 ) , 4 6 4 - 6 7 . 2 8 Ralph McCoy, "Automation in Freshman Library Instruction," Wilson Library Bulletin, XXXVI ( F e b - ruary 1 9 6 2 ) , 4 6 8 - 7 0 . Library Instruction for the Undergraduate / 421 frames, picture or illustration frames, testing frames, all of which were pro- jected in prescribed order on the screen of the machine. The student using the machine (only one at a time) operated the switch that changed the frame, so that he could regulate the speed at which he proceeded. The University divided the freshmen participating (twelve sections of Fresh- man English out of 100) into three groups: four sections used teaching ma- chines; four sections learned the same content from lectures; and four sections received no instruction at all. Pre-test- ing was done during the first week of school for all twelve sections. Assign- ment sheets were used for actual experi- ence in the library. A post-test was ad- ministered after the instruction program was finished. The results showed no sig- nificant difference between those re- ceiving instruction by teaching machine and those receiving it in the traditional lecture method. The control group (zero group) fell considerably below the other two, not catching up until near the end of the sophomore y e a r . 2 9 Five units were programed for the experiment: 1. Introduction to the library; 2. Card catalog; 3. Classification; 4. Periodical indexes; 5. Reference books. One unit was available for a week, thus running the entire program through in five weeks. There are two ways of programming the machine in relation to sequence: ( 1 ) the linear program, ( 2 ) the branch- ing program. In the linear program ev- ery student had to take each step or frame in sequence just as a film strip would always be shown in the same or- 2 8 Paul Wendt and Grovenor Rust, "Pictorial and Performance Frames in Branching Programmed In- struction," Journal of Educational Research, L V (June 1 9 6 2 ) , 4 3 0 - 3 2 . der—no skipping of material. In the branching program the route of se- quence could vary according to errors made. If the wrong response were given to a testing frame following the instruc- tion frame, the student was routed back for more instruction (a remedial route). Answers were given by pressing a choice of buttons. If the correct response were made, the student could choose to skip certain steps and go on to more difficult material. About one hundred and forty frames were used in each unit. The av- erage time needed was twenty minutes. Slow students might need thirty to forty; quick students took ten minutes. In this type of instruction the student knew immediately whether he was cor- rect or not; he was not allowed to pro- ceed until correct answers were given. In Southern Illinois University there was the added feature of performance frames. After viewing an instruction frame, perhaps illustrating some filing principle in the card catalog, the stu- dent would be required to look up a certain heading in a sample drawer of cards by the teaching machine before proceeding to more instruction. A group of indexes and reference books were available near the teaching machine for other performance frames. 3 0 Detailed de- scription of the machines, with more in- formation on linear and branching pro- grams and performance frames is given in the McCoy article. 3 1 The advantages of the teaching ma- chine are many. 1. every sentence of instruction is pre- tested; 2. the student may work independently; 3. no teacher or library staff member is needed as an instructor; 4. the student must master a point be- fore being allowed to proceed; there is reinforcement of learning; 30 Ibid., p . 4 3 0 . 3 1 McCoy, op. cit., p. 4 7 0 . 422 / College 6- Research Libraries • September 1968 5. the student must respond physically and is thus kept more alert; 6. bright students may proceed at their own speed taking by-pass options; 7. slow students may proceed at their own speed with less frustration than in a class; 8. the student knows immediately whether he has answered correctly or not; 9. the entire content must be examined and re-evaluated for worth, learning sequence, etc., before it is pro- gramed. There are obvious difficulties, how- ever, including the following: 1. Skill is required in programming a se- quence and phrasing of questions (technicians, psychologists, and sub- ject specialists needed); 2. Concepts are more difficult to pro- gram than information (a catalog card is easy, classification is hard); 3. Movies and sound are needed with the machine; 4. Only one student can use it at a time. A battery of machines would be needed in large universities to handle several thousand freshmen. Even four or five machines would be needed in smaller colleges. The expense would be prohibitive for most institutions.3 2 How then can teaching machines fit into the average library instruction pro- gram? If one is fortunate enough to have several machines available on the cam- pus, perhaps their use could be pre- empted for library instruction at differ- ent times of the year. Certainly they could be most efficient for review and remedial work. Out of the experimentation at South- ern Illinois University has come the pos- sibility of programed instruction via book form. Several texts, notably in mathematics, have been devised for in- dividual instruction and have proved 32 Ibid., p . 4 7 2 . successful. Library instruction material is available from the Southern Illinois Uni- versity Press in book form, programed for individual instruction. The results on the testing program are the same for book form or machine. The books are cheaper than machines, and of course each student can have access to a text. The book form is easier to use but it is also easier to cheat on mastery of infor- mation. There is no writing of answers in the text, so they can be used with suc- ceeding classes. 3 3 Tests. Currently, the test used most widely is Feagley, "A Library Orienta- tion Test for College Freshmen."3 4 It is devised for diagnostic, or pre-testing. Norms are available for uninstructed stu- dents. The test is not timed. Fifty to sixty minutes is the suggested time. It seems adequate as a guide to what and how much instruction is needed. Some of the questionnaire respondents sug- gested instructing only those students who fell below a predetermined passing mark on this test. For local comparison the test might be used again, unan- nounced, after the instruction program. No norms are provided for this use of the test. Other tests available are listed in Tests in Print and Buros' Mental Measurements Yearbook. C O N C L U S I O N S Present conditions— 1. Library instruction in some form is more common than it was twenty years ago. 2. Librarians on the whole agree that instruction in library usage is most acutely needed. 3. Nearly all reports of surveys indi- cate universal dissatisfaction that not enough is being done. 3 3 Paul R. Wendt, "Programmed Instruction for Li- brary Orientation, Illinois Libraries, XLV (Februarv 1 9 6 3 ) , 7 4 - 7 5 . 3 4 Ethel M. Feagley and others, "A Library Orienta- tion Test for College Freshmen," ( N e w York: Colum- bia University Teachers College Bureau of Publica- tions, 1 9 5 5 , 12 p. Library Instruction for the Undergraduate / 423 4. There is a consciousness of over- whelming numbers of freshmen to be in- structed, and of wholly inadequate staffs to meet the need. 5. There is much evidence of a lack of cooperation between college administra- tions and librarians and between librar- ians and faculty (chiefly English depart- ments ) in the question of library in- struction. Methods— 1. Library tours alone have proved to be of little value in freshmen orientation. 2. Orientation lectures usually have little value unless followed by later in- struction. They usually come too early in the year for freshmen to be motivated by need. 3. Library instruction should come, if possible, during the first two months of the school year, unless scheduling of the freshman term paper takes place at varying times during the year. 4. Librarians are usually more effec- tive instructors in library usage than in- structors in other disciplines, unless the faculty member is himself well oriented to library usage and the needs of the freshman. 5. The lectures assigned to the library during an orientation credit course may be more beneficial than during orienta- tion week, but they often lack the moti- vation of assignments. 6. The separate, required credit course, usually one hour for one semes- ter, may not be possible in large univer- sities, may not be obtainable in small colleges, but where practicable it is usu- ally the most satisfactory coverage of library instruction for lower classmen. 7. The released-time program in fresh- man English (in which the librarian gives the instruction in the classroom) seems to be the most prevalent in the small-to-medium sized college. This is usually satisfactory, if the relationship with the English department is a mutu- ally cooperative one. This too, is true of released time in other classes and de- partments. 8. Assignments using the books intro- duced are, in the experience of some, most essential to the retention of the in- struction given. The students need to see the books introduced, and then use them individually in their own assignments. 9. Assignments create problems of cribbing, of heavy traffic in the reference area, of heavy use of certain books. This can be partially solved, where feasible, by individual assignments or by intelli- gent introduction of individual research topics by the English teacher. 10. Televised lectures are excellent as a mass medium where instruction must be given quickly to a large group, but the weaknesses are a lack of personal contact and the lack of opportunity for questions. 11. Movies, especially those locally produced, like televised lectures, are ex- cellent as a mass medium, saving staff time and personnel. Like TV lectures, they also fail in providing adequate as- signments and follow-up with personal contacts. This is a prevalent problem in many large institutions where instruc- tion must make use of mass media, or none at all. 12. Teaching machines are excellent where numbers of students and budgets permit. When only one student can re- ceive instruction at a time from a ma- chine, this limits the usefulness. 13. Programed instruction in books may be the answer for large institutions where small group instruction is impos- sible. This is a newer medium, not thor- oughly tested for library instruction, but it has possibilities. 14. Individual aid by the library staff to the struggling student is still the epit- ome of good instruction. True, it cannot take the place of group instruction in most colleges, for they cannot reach with personal attention all who need help. But machines, movies, or TV will never replace the helping hand of an inter- ested librarian. • •