College and Research Libraries CONNIE R. DUNLAP -1 Organizational Patterns in Academic Libraries·, 1876-1976 IN THE LAST HALF OF THE 1800s, many of the large academi9 libraries of today were in fledgling institutions, and often the libraries were run by a part-time faculty member with the aid of a few students who kept the library open and circulated books-activities often lim- ited . to a few hours a week. Book collec- tions were small and were often housed in a single room. In many libraries no formal classification system was used, and books were placed on the shelves with a fixed location by broad subject groups. ~ According to recent patterns of devel- ~ opment, libraries, and hence library staffs, were slow to grow. Book ordering, handling of accounts, personnel, and other library functions were often man- aged by the librarian's office. The small staff that existed was concerned primar- ily with housekeeping tasks; and because the span of control was so limited, there "' was little need for formal organization. In the early years of American aca- demic library history, organization ap- 7 pears often to have been the result of happenstance or a consequence of insti- • tutional development rather than a care- ~ ful analysis of the library's needs. In 1900 no library in the U.S. had a book collection of over 1 million volumes. By 1937 there were thirteen such libraries, -~ and by 1951 there were twenty-eight and only half of these were academic li- braries.1 In 1975 there were thirty-nine libraries, twenty-six of them academic, Organization is the means by which management channels and directs work flow through operating units; establishes lines of authority, su- pervision, and controls; and coordi- nates relationships for the accom- plishment of the goals for which the library exists. with more than 2 million volumes.2 The point at which organization be- gins to emerge as a problem and to be recognized as a separate element of ad- ministration can only be guessed at, but a fair estimate seems to · be when a li- brary collection reaches 200,000 vol- umes.3 In tracing library literature, little early reference is to be- found concern-· ing library organization or its problems. Not until the late 1930s and early 1940s was much attention given to a subject now considered to be one of the most important aspects of library administra- tion. It is also interesting to compare successive editions of two of the "bibles" of university library adminis- tration and to note not only the amount of space given to library organization but more especially to the change in the treatment of the subject. The two edi- tions of Wilson and Tauber ( 1944 and 1956) 4 show relatively little change as compared with'" the ·four editions of I 395 396 I College & Research Libraries • September 1976 Lyle ( 1944-1974).5 The greater time span is doubtless due in large part to the the more sophisticated treatment and in- dicates the growing -recognition that a careful study of organization · is essen- tial to. good library management. Organization must be flexible enough to shift with changing conditions-a sit-_ uation well known to librarians in 1976. An organizational pattern is effective only while the conditions for which it was designed exist, and organization alone will not assure att~inment of li- brary goals. Necessary corollaries to suc- cess of programs are the skill, expertise, and goodwill of the staff, understand- ing of the goals and the means neces- sary to attain them, supervision, and adequate training of staff. Many factors influence library organi- zation. Among the most important are the nature an While this kind of arrangement still exists to some extent, it is far less com- mon today, with departmental libraries being integrated into a central system. The early history of The Ohio State University Library saw the rapid devel- opment of the departmental . collections on campus. Several decades passed be- fore the administration realized that the cost of duplication and the lack of bib- liographic · control was undesirable and put them under the control of the li- brary council. By then, however, the pattern had been set, and the lack of space in the general library led t-? the growth of a great number of depart- mental libraries. In part, these libraries · were created because of the lack of a strong general collection. Not until 1903 did the trustees place all departmental collections under the administrative control of the library. By 1926 there were nine official departmen- tal libraries but still niany special li- braries or office collections varying great- ly in size. In 1938 the thirteenth depart- mental library was established.18 Accord- ing to the American Library Directory, Ohio State now has twenty-two depart- mental libraries, including law and med- icine.19 At Berkeley departmental libraries existed before 1900. They were not planned but evolved over a period of years in response to the particular needs of f~culty and students. In 1881 an at- tempt was made to consolidate all li- brary materials in a single building, but within a few years books were being charged out to department heads for de- partmental libraries. In time these col- lections contained books purchased with departmental funds as well as those bor- rowed from the general library. In 1904 the regents ruled that departmental li- braries were considered part of the working equipment of the departments to which they were attached but that the funds assigned to the general library were not to be used for departmental Organizational Patterns I 399 library book purchases. Although the university librarian was empowered to make both temporary and permanent deposits of materials to the departmen- tal libraries, these collections were un- der the administrative control of the de- partment he~ds. In 1913 the regents ordered that all books purchased for departmental li- braries be cataloged as part of the gen- eral library and that the librarian inven- tory the collections each year. In 1916 only seven of approximately thirty-two departmental libraries contained over 1,000 volumes, and as many . as twelve collections had fewer than 1,000 books each. When in 1917 the chemistry de- partment requested transfer of a large number of periodical and journal files to the departmental library, the academ- ic senate voted to approve the general policy of maintaining a comprehensive central collection of books and limiting the withdrawal of books to departmen- tal libraries. By 1932 there were seventy- one departmental collections at Berke- ley; and by the late 1930s the need to consolidate many of these collections into branch libraries was recognized. 20 At present Berkeley has twenty-two branch and eight departmental librar- ies.21 CENTRALIZATION VERSUS DECENTRALIZATION The question of centralization or de- centralization and the problems at- tendant to it have probably created as much controversy as any other organi- zational problem in libraries. The ques- tion has been debated from all sides, but the problem seems no closer to the solution than it ever was. In an attempt to clarify the issues, Robert Miller sum- marized and grouped the arguments into seven categories of accessibility, cost, efficiency, adequacy, use, interrela- tion of subject fields, and educational significance and separated the argu- ments pro and con. He concluded that 400 I College & Research Libraries • September 1976 centralization had the best of the argu- ments on-a margin of four to one. The cause of the central library was in terms of cost, interrelationships, effi- ciency, and educational significance. However, the arguments on efficiency and educational significance could be made to serve decentralization if the in- stitution had the budget to afford good service for both general and ~eparate li- braries and the maintenance of a gen- eral collection of books for the cor- relation of the library needs of the col- legiate departments. The cause for the separate library was best supported by the argument of accessibility. There were two categories for which no con- clusion was drawn: those of adequacy and use of books. 22 Tauber identifieq. three types of cen- tralization: administrative centralization, which generally means control of a num- ber of library units by a central officer; physical centralization of a system in which all units are located in a single building or a restricted number of lo- cations; and operational centralization, in which certain operations are per- formed in a single place by one .group of personnel for the various units of the system. There are various combinations of these types of centralization, depend- · ing on local conditions.23 A number of factors complicate decentralization, such as communication, adherence to personnel standards, unevenness of col- · lection development, dependency on separate financing, duplication of li- brary materials, hours of opening, and varying regulations for circulation and use. Harvard is the most highly decentral- ized system of all American academic libraries, and the separate units enjoy -more autonomy than is generally the custom. The library system comprises some ninety units which are coordinated through the director of the university library, whose relationship to libraries other than Harvard College Library is that of influential counselor rather than direct .administrator. The librarians of the decentralized units maintain relationships with the director, but their primary lines of authority are to the deans, de- partment chairpersons, or directors of institutions. The director of the univer- sity library is a member of all of the administrative committees of the other libraries, and this permits effective par- ticipation in the affairs of those librar- ies. There are many informal contacts between the staffs of the various librar- ies as well. The most important single means of communication among all units is the Harvard Librarian, which provides information on personnel, col- lections, and matters of common inter- est. The importance of coordination within the Harvard system was empha- sized by the corporation when in 1959 it was voted that before any significant new ·library operations were begun, the matter should be discussed with the di- rector of the university library and that the director should be notified when discontinuation of any library collec- tion was proposed. In a symposium on centralization and decentralization held in 1960, Douglas Bryant enumerated many advantages to Harvard's decentral- ized system and concluded that the policy of coordinated decentralization, like walking a tightrope, required con- stant alertness; there must be continu- ous adjustments if balance is to be maintained.24 Cornell presents a unique situation in that its libraries combine those of a private institution with those operated as contract colleges of the State U niver- sity of New York. The colleges of Cor- nell receive support from a variety of sources, and thi~ necessarily affects the administration of the library system. Al- though Cornell receives funding from various sources, it has moved toward centralized administration of the li- braries and has consolidated in one budget the library support for all the endowed divisions of the university ex- cept for the medical school located in New York City, which is operated as a completely separate division. A single budget for the state-supported colleges, however, has not been effected since that would remove library support from the concern of the several deans, and it is felt that this might have an adverse af- fect on support.25 UNDERGRADUATE LIBRARIES Although the idea of a special library for undergraduates was not new even when Harvard's Lamont Library was built in 1949, Lamont is generally cred- ited with being the first separate library in a large institution dedicated to serv- ing undergraduates. The next under- graduate library in a major institution was opened at Michigan in 1958. These two libraries served as models for the many undergraduate libraries established in the 1960s and early 1970s designed to provide specialized library support for the undergraduate curricu- lum. These separate facilities were pro- vided to relieve the pressure on the over- crowded main libraries and to give the undergraduate student an opportunity for enrichment in a less forbidding at- mosphere than the complicated large re- search library. Two of the largest libraries, Chicago and Princeton, however, do not have 1 separate facilities for undergraduates. Chicago had a separate undergraduate library in 1931 but abandoned it in 1942. Chicago's Stanley Gwynp called the . establishment of undergraduate li- braries "d~partmentalization by age group."26 Louis Shores views the development of undergraduate libraries as a trend to place more responsibility for acquiring an education ·on the students and less upon the faculty. He credits the under- graduate library with being the first tan- gible evidence of an educational break- Organizational Patterns I 401 through in universities with the poten- tial far beyond the simple purpose of providing assigned course readings and optional enrichment materials. Its real strength lies in the provision for indi- vidual differences, the balance of over- specialization, and the creation of a true learning climate. The generalist li- brarian is in the best position to stand guard over the undergraduate's true lib- eral education.27 Gwynn and Dix opposed the estab- lishment of separate undergraduate li- braries at Chicago and Princeton, feel- ing that undergraduates were better served by learning to use the whole li- brary.28· 29 Frederick Wagman made a strong case for the undergraduate li- brary on the grounds that providing adequate physical facilities could be solved more efficiently and economically by a separate library and that the role of the library and the librarian in the education of the undergraduate student was enhanced in such an environment. 30 Arguments in favor of the separate un- dergraduate library were apparently per- suasive, judging from the number of such libraries constructed during the 1950s and 1960s. Most undergraduate libraries are open-stack collections and duplicate ti- tles found in other libraries on campus. Services offered follow traditional pat- terns with the addition of certain spe- cialized facilities such as audio rooms and computerized carrels. Reference as- sistance is frequently geared to helping students locate materials and guiding them as they progress rather than to di- recting them to sources and assuming they will find the needed information. SPECIAL COLLECTIONS In most libraries certain types of ma- terials are segregated into special collec- tions housed separately from the gener- al collections to provide maximum se- curity or other special treatment. Such collections most commonly include rare 402 I College & Research Libraries • September 1976 books, manuscripts, archival materials, maps, and other nonbook items. Collec- tions gathered by private collectors and donated to the library are often re- tained in special collections to attract scholars to the campus or to encourage similar donations by other collectors. Special collections are almost always staffed by experts in the given area who can assist researchers in the use and in- terpretation of these materials. The de- velopment of specialized subject or rare book collections in academic libraries is of considerable historical importance, since these collections have served to strengthen the library and to increase the prestige of the institution. The introduction of area studies pro- grams following World War II caused the establishment of a new kind of spe- cial collection to deal with materials in exotic languages. Although a few col- lections, especially in Chinese and J ap- anese, existed before this time, it was not until the Public Law-480 programs were instituted that such collections be- came fairly common in research li- braries. Since the materials in these ver- nacular collections were in languages not generally known by librarians, spe- cial staffs to deal with them had to be assembled, and these staffs were usually required to handle all aspects of de- veloping the collections from acquisi- tion and cataloging to reference. Materials reqmnng special biblio- graphic control or those needing equip- ment for use are also often segregated into special collections. Microforms, phonorecords or tapes, computer tapes, and videotapes are types of materials frequently so segregated. Staff must be specially trained in handling both ma- terials and equipment. STAFF ORGANIZATION One of the most significant develop- ments affecting library organization and management in recent years is the in- crease of advisory · committees and staff participation ,in the decision-making process to promote cooperation, to pro- vide advice, and to develop middle man- agement expertise. In many libraries bureaucratic organization is being re- placed by a collegial system. Bureau- cratic organizations tend to produce con- formity and generally stifle creativity. Participative systems, on the other hand, generally produce staffs which are not only more interested in the whole li- brary and are more productive, but also staffs which are more flexible and more readily adaptable to change. There are differences between partici- pative management, committee consulta- tion, delegation, self-governance, and other forms of staff involvement. The basic distinction is between involvement in an administrative-hierarchical model and a more ·democratically oriented col- legial system. The impact of a collegial governance is beginning to have far- reaching effects, and the results are sometimes mixed. For some librarians it has meant accelerated advancement, while for others it has caused profes- ·sional dislocation. The focus of col- legial activity is a reorientation toward the needs of library users bringing li- brary service back to its proper source, the user. 31 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT By the 1950s considerable attention was being directed toward scientific management. The January 1954 issue of Library Trends 32 was devoted entire- ly to this subject, monographs such as Dougherty and ... Heinritz33 applied scien- tific management to libraries, and in 1971 the Graduate Library School of the University of Chicago held a con- ference on operations research in li- braries. 34 Citations on this subject are now frequent in the literature. In. the introduction to · the Library Trends issue, Ralph Shaw quoted a statement which defines scientific man- agement as a concept in mental attitude I I ~ ~1 toward achievement. It exercises a basic systematic technique for discovering and establishing objectives, plans, stan- dards, methods, schedules, and controls of an enterprise. It exemplifies the best use of human and material energy. Shaw went on to say that, stated in its most fundamental terms, scientific man- agement is really little more than or- ganized common sense. As is true of the scientific method it- self, it follows the dictum that man's judgment can be no better than the in- formation upon which that judgment is based. It seeks, therefore, to estab- lish the facts of any given situation, taking into consideration all of the factors which must or should influence opinion. It uses careful methodology to make cer- tain that the facts are a reliable sample of the pertinent data, and then, wher- ever feasible, wherever the facts de- duced are conclusive, it follows them to their logical conclusions. Although scientific management uses mechanical and statistical methods and measures in planning, it is not a me- chanical process. Rarely-except where procedures and systems are paced by ma- chines, which is almost never the case in libraries or offices-can the judgment re- sulting from the fact finding be com- pletely objective. So, at best, the method provides a firmer base for conclusions, and the basis for determining, both in advance and after an alteration has been made, whether or not a change is an improvement. 35 MANAGEMENT PLANNING Advanced planning is necessary to the achievement of library goals and to the effective use of personnel. Faced with continued great change, dwindling funds coupled with a high rate of infla- tion and with exponential increases in the number of publications of all types, and with demands for more service both in kind and depth, librarians in the 1970s placed renewed emphasis on Organizational Patterns I 403 planning. The evolution of the library from a passive to an active organization which is more directly involved in the educational process has had considerable influence on the organization of public service units in particular. Management has also come to recognize that staff has a vital role to play in the realization of library goals and the success of library programs. Yavarkovsky compares recent attitu- dinal changes in librarianship with com- mercial and industrial environmental changes of the past twenty years. While corporations are motivated by profit, li- braries attempt to maximize service. Planning reduces the risks of lost ser- vice opportunities, wasted or misdirect- ed resources, and diminished access to resources. He points out that the great- est potential return in planning is in the areas of highest cost such as collection development, technical processing, and stack operations and that these areas are frequently overlooked in planning ef- forts that emphasize new or added ser- vices and facilities. 36 Although once a function limited to top management, the involvement of staff at all levels in the planning pro- cess has become the accepted norm. Not only does such involvement assure great- er cooperation of the staff in the imple- mentation of changes; but it also stimu- lates creativity, increases commitment to the library, and promotes better work- ing relationships among all levels of staff. A number of libraries have recently undertaken major planning studies which have resulted, in many cases, in massive reorganization. In 196~ 70 Co- lumbia made a preliminary investiga- tion of problems in university library management. As a result of the findings of this investigation, the Association of Research Libraries ( ARL) sponsored a case study at the Columbia University Libraries with the cooperation of the American Council on Education and the 404 I College & Research Libraries • September 1976 Council of Library Resources. The study team included repres~ntatives of Booz, Allen, and Hamilton, Inc., and the University Library Management Studies Office of ARL. The study re- sulted in a significant restructUring of the organization and in the implementa- tion of a planning process for evolu- tionary change. 37 In 1970, with a grant from the Coun- cil on Library Resources, Cornell en- tered into a contract with the American Management Association to undertake a long-range planning project. The over- all goal of the project was to develop an effective and unified planning team in addition to a meaningful long-range plan. Project documents provide consid- erable insight into the organization. Par- ticipative management by all levels of staff was an important factor in the planning. At the end of that project, the planning team was replaced by a . smaller planning council to continue the planning process. 38 More than twenty libraries have par- ticipated in the Management Review and Analysis Program ( MRAP), spon- sored by the Association of Research Li- braries, which is designed to guide the systematic internal review of manage- ment functions. The program involves a liaison with study teams of other li- braries, emphasis on staff involvement, and the use of a comprehensive. struc- tured and problem-oriented manual. The Management Review and Analy- sis Program came into being as a result of the conviction that research libraries needed to develop more effective ways of coming to grips with organizational problems. While MRAP focuses on management issues, the key aspects in major successes of the program relate to the management skills and techniques developed in addressing these issues. MRAP examines the operational deci- sion-making process and assesses organi- zational changes that are needed to im- prove the day-to-day requrrements of li- brary operations. At the same time the program raises some questions concern- ing major "long-range decisions for change which involve significant com- mitment in reorganization of library re- sources. In this process of reviewing analysis, librarians learn some of the intricacies in decision making and gain insight into refining and improving management. 39 This program has resulted in a consid- erable change in the libraries using it. A similar program for small and medi- um-sized libraries is under development at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. AuTOMATION AND NETWORKS The application of computerized sys- tems to library processes has had a ma- jor impact on organization. By the late 1960s a great many libraries had imple- mented automated systems for acquisi- tions and circulation. The introduc- tion of machine-readable cataloging (MARC) in 1966 was responsible for major change in technical processing op- erations, and the widespread develop- ment of network systems in the 1970s resulted in a massive reorganization of ·many technical services departments. Some libraries added computer or sys- tems specialists to their staffs to develop automated programs, while others re- tained existing staffs who were experi- enced in working with technical aspects of the library operations to design and implement the new systems. With the increased availability of cataloging copy, it became possible to assign a much larger proportion of the routine processing to paraprofessionals, leaving professional librarians free to do the more difficult original cataloging or for other assignments. Information storage and retrieval sys- tems are having a significant effect on public service operations as well. In ad- clition to using the bibliographic data bases of the networks for public ser- vices purposes, a number of libraries provide access to indexing and abstract- ing data banks produced by societies and governmental agencies through spe- cially trained subject specialists. On a very limited scale, computers are also used for management purposes in academic libraries. Mathematical models and computer simulation techniques are used to measure physical situations. Such research has been reported at Pur- due, Chicago, and UCLA. The com- puter makes it possible to use a model for testing a hypothesis in compressed time. A director can exercise the model on the computer, observe the conse- quences of a decision, alter the strate- gy accordingly and repeat the process until the desired results are obtained.40 0RGANIZA TIONAL CONFLICT Although a certain amount of conflict in any organization can be attributed to personality differences, it has long been recognized that organization itself can also contribute to disharmony. One of the most frequent causes of conflict is the failure to recognize common goals or the subordination of the primary goal of getting books to readers to the secondary goal of acquiring and pro- cessing them. Librarians have tradition- ally placed great emphasis on the or- ganization of library materials, and cer- tainly no less attention should be given to the organization of the staff. Library organization creates tension with its professional and nonprofes- sional staffs in which parts of the staff sometimes feel less than full-fledged members, even though no library could operate effectively without the very val- uable and very significant contribution they make. The greatest conflict is most frequent- ly--between public and technical service staffs on a departmental level. On the personal level, clashes frequently occur Organizational Patterns I 405 between the specialist and nonspecialist, the established staff and the beginner, and between those with territory to pro- tect and those who seek change. .To meet changing demands, libraries will have to find new ways to resolve conflict and to establish new relation- ships between individuals and groups. Involvement of the staff in setting goals and establishing priorities creates a cli- mate in which the individual frequent- ly makes a greater commitment to the achievement of those goals and prior- ities. Under such conditions, conflict is generally considerably reduced. FUTURE ORGANIZATION Recent trends in higher education and the economic crisis of the 1970s have had serious implications for li- brary management, and organizational structure will have to be adapted to pro- vide expanded and more specialized ser- vices. As libraries grow in complexity, greater language expertise, subject spe- cialization, and knowledge of the sys- tems and methods of information ac- cess, storage, and retrieval will be need- ed; and the organization must be flex- ible enough to accommodate these changing needs. Continued growth and tighter fund- ing will underscore the need for more thorough planning to make the most ef- fective use of both physical and human resources. To compensate for increased personnel costs, new ways will have to be found to increase the efficiency and productivity of the staff wherever pos- sible. The increased application of au- tomated systems will permit th~ reassign- ment of staff from work connected with acquiring and processing materials ·to work directed toward assisting the user. Planning must be action oriented, and the organization created by it must be flexible enough to shift with changes in the institution or to accommodate needs that cannot be anticipated. 406 I College & Research Libraries • September 1976 REFERENCES 1. Arthur M. McAnally, "Organization of Col- lege and University Libraries," Library Trends 1:20-36 (July 1952). 2. World Almanac (New York: Newspaper Enterprise Assn., 1976); and ARL Statis- tics, 1974-75: (Washington, D.C.: Asso- ciation of Research Libraries, 1975). 3. McAnally, "Organization of College and University Libraries," p.20. 4. Louis R. Wilson and Maurice F. Tauber, The University Library: The Organizat·ion, Administration, and Functions of Academic Libraries (Chicago: U niv. of Chicago Pr ., 1945; 2d ed., New York: Columbia Univ. Pr., 1956). 5. Guy R. Lyle, The Administration of the College Library (New York: Wilson, 1944; 2d ed., 1949; 3d ed., 1961; 4th ed., 1974). 6. Edward A. Wight, "Research in Organiza- tion and Administration," Library Trends 6:141-46 (Oct. 1957). 7. McAnally, "Organization of College and University Libraries," p.22-23. 8. Archie L. McNeal, "Divisional Organiza- tion in the University Library," in Univer- sity of Tennessee Library Lectures, no.12 (Knoxville, Tenn.: Univ. of Tennessee, 1961). 9. McAnally, "Organization of College and University Libraries," p.30. 10. Donald Coney, "Administration of Tech- nical Processes," in C. B. Joeckel, ed., Cur- . rent Issues in Library Administration (Chi- cago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1939), p.163- 80. 11. J. R. Lund, "Cataloging Process in the Uni- versity Library: Proposal for Reorganiza- tion," College & Research Libraries 3:212- 18 (June 1942). 12. McAnally, "Organization of College and University Libraries," p.31-33. 13. Doralyn Hickey, "Public and Technical Li- brary Services: A Revised Relationship," in Norman D. Stevens, ed., Essays for Ralph Shaw (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow, 1975). 14. American Library Association, A Survey of Libraries in the United States, Vol. 1 (Chicago: American Library Assn., 1926), p.196. 15. Wilson and Tauber, The University Li- brary, 2d ed., p.144. 16. Ralph Ellsworth, Planning the College and University Library Building (Boulder, Colo.: Pruett Press, 1960), p.5-9. 17. Lawrence Thompson, "The Historical Background of Departmental and Col- legiate Libraries," Library Quarterly 12: 49-50 (Jan. 1942). ' 18. George Schoyer, History of O.hio State Uni- versity Libraries, 1870-1970 (Columbus: Office of Educational Services, The Ohio State University Libraries, 1970), p. 5-14. 19. American Library Directory, 1974-1975 (New York: Bowker, 1974), p.761. 20. Kenneth G. Peterson, The University of California Library at Berkeley, 1900- 1945 (Berkeley: Univ. of California Pr., 1970), p.139-43. 21. American Library Directory, 1974-1975, p.41-42. 22. Robert A. Miller, "Centralization versus Decentralization," ALA Bulletin 33:75-79, 134 (Feb. 1939). 23. "Centralization and Decentralization in Academic Libraries: A Symposium," Col- lege & Research Libraries 22:328-40, 398 (Sept. 1961). 24. Ibid., p.328-34. 25. Ibid., p.334-38. 26. Stanley Gwynn, "Departmentalization and Circulation Work," Library Trends 6:89 (July 1957). 27. Louis Shores, "The Undergraduate and His Library," in University of Tessessee Li- brary Lectures, no.ll (Knoxville, Tenn.: Univ. of Tennessee, 1961). 28. "Library Service to Undergraduates: A Symposium," College & Research Libraries 14:266-72 (July 1953). 29. William S. Dix, "Undergraduates Do Not Necessarily Require a Separate Facility," College & Research Libraries 17: 148-50 (March 1956). 30. Frederick H. Wagman, "The Case for the Separate Undergraduate Library," College & Research Libraries 17: 150-55 (March 1956). 31. Evert Volkersz, "Library Organization in Academia: Changes from Hierarchical to Collegial Relationships," in E. J. Josey, ed., New Dimensions for Academic Library Service (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow, 1975), p.80-81. 32. Ralph Shaw, ed., "Scientific Management in Libraries," Library Trends 2 (Jan. 1954). 33. Richard M. Dougherty and Fred M. Rein- ritz, Scientific Management of Library Op- erations ( New York: Scarecrow, 1966 ) . 34. Don R. Swanson, ed. Operations ,Research: Implications for Libraries (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1972). · 35. Shaw, "Scientific Management in Librar- ies," p.359-60. 36. Jerome Yavarkovsky, "Management Plan- ning to Achieve Academic Library Goals," in E. J. Josey, ed., New Dimensions for ... Academic Library Service, p.221-27. 37. Columbia University Libraries, The Ad- ministrative Organization of the Libraries of Columbia University: A Detailed De- scription (New York: Columbia Univ. Li- braries, 1975). 38. William E. McGrath, Development of a Long-Range Strategic Plan for a University Library (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Li- braries, 1973). 39. Duane E. Webster, "Development and Use of the Management Review and Analysis Program," in "Management Review and Organizational Patterns I 407 Analysis Program: A Symposium," Journal of Academic Librarians hip 1 : 6 (Jan. 1976). See also his "The Management Re- view and Analysis Program: An Assisted Self-Study to Secure Constructive Change in the Management of Research Libraries," College & Research Libraries 35:114-25 (March 1974). 40. Mohammed M. Aman, "Computer Applica- tions in Academic Library Operations," in E. ]. Josey, ed., New Dimensions for Aca- demic Library Service, p.86-99. Connie R. Dunlap is university librarian, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina. ON OUR COVER Williams College's Stetson Hall, in the tradition of the classic American college library building, is a red brick Georgian structure. Although this colonial style failed to satisfy the nineteenth century's preference for ornate decoration and complex de- sign, its simplicity and grace had regained favor by the time Williams constructed its new library. Planned by the librarian, Christine Price, the building was designed by the architectural firm of Cram and Ferguson. The four-story structure, 128 by 104 feet, has the unusu~l feature of two .designedly separate fronts intended to reflect in the exterior the two major separate collections of the college, the college library it- self and the rich Chapin Library of rare books and manuscripts. Constructed at a cost of $750,000, the building was planned to house 220,000 vol- umes, about twice the size of the collection in January 1923 when it was opened for use by the 650 students and sixty-five faculty members. By that time, Christine Price had been succeeded as librarian by W. N. C. Carlton. An addition iii 1957, also de- signed by Cram and Ferguson, provided expanded stack space that enabled the building to serve until August 1975, when the new Sawyer Library was completed. Stetson Hall will continue to house the Chapin Library, the Williamsiana Collection, manuscripts, and special collections, as well as offices and other facilities particularly to serve the faculty.-W. L. Williamson, Professor, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Acknowledgments: Lawrence E. Wikander and Nancy G. MacFadyen, Williams College.