College and Research Libraries JAMES D. LOCKWOOD Involving Consultants in Library Change Most of the literature about consultants in the field of acadmnic li- brarians hip relates to the construction of library facilities. By com- bining pointers from the business field, where application of the consulting engagement has touched upon a broader range of activ-- ities, a more general discussion is presented regarding the need and preparatiqn for and the selection of library consultants. These activ- ities are presented as steps in the organizational change process. First, a decision model is presented for determining the need for a library consultant. Second, preparation for the consulting engagement is dis- cussed. Finally, recommendations are set forth for the selection of an appropriate consulting firm or individual. IF WE WERE TO PARAPHRASE the Associa- tion of Consulting Management Engi- neers' definition of a management consultant, we might arrive at the fol- lowing definition for a library consul- tant: A library consultant may be defined as an individual qualified by educa- tion, experience, technical ability, and temperament to advise or assist on a professional basis in identifying, defin- ing, and solving specific library prob- lems involving the organization, plan- ning, direction, control, and operation of a library. The consultant serves the library as an impartial, objective ad- visor and is not an employee of its or- ganiza tion. 1 Robert Rohlf, director of Minneso- ta's Hennepin County Library, and a noted library consultant, distinguishes the role of the consultant by drawing a line between those who work on a project from its inception to the final I ames D. Lockwood is reference librari- an, Law Library, Indiana University, Bloomington. 498 I assessment and those who simply pro- vide advice or assistance at a particular point in the process. 2 The latter is termed a "critic" by Rohlf. If we accept this basic definition, along with the distinction between "crit- ic" and consultant, we then might ask what roles consultants have played in li- brary change. The role of the consultant, as op- posed to the critic, has evolved largely since the mid-1950s and the passage of the Library Services and Construction Act. Thus, from the beginning, library consultants have been associated with the construction of library facilities. 3 The increasing complexity of library services and operations has meant that the successful building project was the one whose every aspect was scrutinized, both in terms of the present and the fu- ture. Given such diverse concerns as audiovisual materials, microforms, com- puter processing, aesthetics, security, acoustics, lighting, ventilation and tem- perature control, legal requirements, differing managerial styles, and changes in nearly every facet of library opera- tions, it is understandable that outside experts were engaged to assist in the en- tire planning and construction process. The construction boom no longer pro- ceeds at the rate it did in the 1960s. Changes in services and operations, how- ever, are continually being considered, planned, and put into action. Specialists still are being called upon, but the lit- erature on the use of these specialists refers largely to construction projects. It is precisely for this reason that litera- ture from business, where application of the consulting engagement has touched upon a broader range of activities, is drawn upon to round out our view of the use of outside assistance. This paper is designed as a guide to librarians considering possibilities for undertaking some form of organiza- tional or physical change. Be it a change in library facilities, services, or opera- tions, it will do the planning body of the library well to consider systematical- ly the need for a consultant. The first section of the paper presents a model designed to aid in that attempt. Once this has been done, if the decision has been made to seek the services of an outside consultant, it will be in the best interests of the library staff and users for that same planning body to prepare for the consulting engagement and to design a suitable selection process. The latter two sections of the paper deal with these two steps, respectively. The basic. change process for most li- braries will begin with the awareness, on the part of the director or other per- son in a position of major responsibil- ity, of a need for change. The director will, quite likely, rely on input and as- sistance from all individuals responsible for areas in which there appears to be a need for change. As formally consti- tuted, this group will be called the planning committee for the sake of uniformity. For the most part, groups of this nature will proceed through a process such as that outlined below: Involving Consultants I 499 I. Planning Committee A. Definition of the problem in terms of the objectives B. Determination of the necessity for a consultant C. Preparation for the consulting en- gagement D. Selection of consultant ( s ) II. Planning Committee and the Con- sultant( s) A. Review and redefinition of the problems and objectives B. Development of alternative so- lutions C. Evaluation of alternatives and se- lection among them D. Development of action plan, including feedback mech- anisms E. Implementation of project, with adjustments as necessary F. Assessment of results obtained and procedure used The three steps which this paper ad- dresses are IB, C, and D. We will con- sider the determination of need for outside assistance and then proceed to the latter two phases of the process. It should be noted that in most instances where consultants are not engaged the process moves directly from IA to liB. DETERMINING THE NEED FoR AssiSTANCE FRoM OuTSIDE THE LIBRARY When considering prospects for change, regardless of its nature, there is usually some concern over how impor- tant decisions are made. Who should be involved, what data are necessary to sup- port given alternative solutions, and similar concerns are commonly voiced. The numerous benefits of the use of consultants have been spelled out clearly in the literature of both library science and business.4 Briefly, these include new ideas, fresh approaches, analytic ability, specialized skills and experiences, su- perior ability to introduce and imple- ment change, ability to work on a specific problem with all resources at 500 I College & Research Libraries • November 1977 one time, objectivity (both for political reasons of corroborating a desired point of view and in the sense of "no con- flict of interest"), more up-to-date knowledge, and the fact that consul- tants are not permanent burdens to the organization's payroll. Each of these potential benefits falls under one of three broad categories: skills and abilities, time factors, and ob- jectivity and influence. Each of these di- mensions will have considerable bearing on decision-making. If the objective is a well-chosen change program, appropri- ately introduced, then the quality of decisions throughout the entire process is of utmost concern. In terms of increasing the quality of decisions, three factors operate that al- ready might exist to the fullest extent necessary for the particular undertak- ing. The quality of the decisions made throughout the process outlined above is a function of ( 1) the number of al- ternatives considered, ( 2) the accuracy of the predictions about the conse- quences resulting from selecting each alternative, and ( 3) the nature and effi- ciency of the feedback mechanisms pro- vided (allowing adjustments resulting from corrections, changes, etc. ) . That is, all of the potential advan- tages could be present in the library to begin with, or adding a position for an individual processing the desired qual- ities may be possible. Some organiza- tions, for example, believe it possible to set up internal consulting groups within their company, thus allowing for internal objectivity. 5 This is viewed as increasing the number of alternatives considered and the accuracy of the pre- dictions about the consequences of each. The four basic sources of assistance for increasing the quality of decisions made during the change process are: Internal I 1: Utilize present staff I2: Add a specialist to the staff External E1: Engage a critic to review and provide assistance for a partic- ular part of the program E2: Engage a consultant (firm or individual) Figure 1 presents a decision model based upon these four sources. It is important to note that although no one model or set of considerations can apply for all types of libraries or programs, there are several important steps that take place in assessing any library's situation. The model is essentially a contingency model. As was stated above, it is quite possible that a given library might have all of the qualities and resources allow- ing the planning committee to arrive at high quality decisions. The ability to take advantage of this, however, is con- tingent upon the time considerations present. If prompt action is critical or if the use of staff time will severely cur- tail services, then it still may be wise to obtain assistance from outside. The considerations, expressed in ques- tion form, are arranged along the top of the figure. To use the model for as- sistance in arriving at a decision, one moves along the decision tree from left to right. Barring the presence of any overriding external factors, the symbol at the terminal node designates one of the prescribed alternatives noted above. A discussion of the rationale of each of the twelve outcomes follows the descrip- tion of each consideration. The first two considerations in Figure 1 ( A and B ) focus on the locus of the expertise, which is important in assuring the likelihood of high quality decisions. Does it reside within the organization, or must it be obtained from outside?6 Consideration B simply assures economy in cases where expertise in most aspects of the project is already present. Con- sideration C is a second factor, further clarifying the tern porariness-permanence dimension of the needed skill. Time (Consideration D) is, in effect, Library staff possess all expertise necessary to make high quality decisions? A Is expertise lacking only in one part of entire project? B Is time 'a crucial factor? ( staff time limited or prompt action necessary) D Is expertise needed for specified period only? c Fig. 1 Is objectivity a crucial factor? E Decision Model for Determining the Need for a Consultant Is objectivity in only one part of project acceptable? F 2-Il & El . 6-I2 & El . 7-E2 10-12 & El 11-E2 502 I College & Research Libraries • November 1977 a measure of urgency and priority. As stated above, if prompt action is crucial (that is, if delays are costly to the li- brary or its users), then outside help is sought, or there is a restructuring of pri- orities, e.g., the completion of the proj- ect overrides concern for staff assistance to the user. The final two questions ( E and F) must be considered while keeping two outcomes in mind. If objectivity is preferable for the purpose of ( 1) ob- taining responsible analysis of data or of a particular situation or ( 2) provid- ing an outside opinion because power- ful decision-making bodies may be skeptical of internal opinions (i.e., per- ceived lack of quality decisions), then E must be answered in the affirmative. Consideration F provides for economy, as in cases where objectivity only is re- quired at a particular phase. The rationale for each of the twelve outcomes is as follows: 1-E2 If the present staff possess the necessary expertise, a lack of time alone is sufficient cause for obtaining outside help. If the quality of deci- sions is to be maintained, then we need not go so far as to explore the question of objectivity. 2-I1 & E1 The presence of expertise within the staff and its availability in terms of time still may not satisfy ob- jectivity requirements. In this instance objectivity is required for only one part of the project, allowing the ex- ternal critic to supplement the pres- ent staff. 3-E2 Outcome 3 is identical to Out- come 2, except that objectivity throughout the project requires the engagement of a consultant. 4-I1 This solution allows full reliance on present staff, who possess both the expertise and the time required, while objectivity is not crucial. 5-E1 If expertise is lacking but for only one segment of the undertaking, the next question becomes, "Is exper- tise required on a temporary or per- manent basis?" In this case a critic can provide short-term aid in one seg- ment of the project. Since a critic is one from the outside, the provision for objectivity is met without pursu- ing the two final considerations. 6-I2 & E1 This is identical to Outcome 5, but the permanence of the re- quired expertise calls for the hiring of a competent specialist. This can be done in this instance since objectivity, although crucial, is only necessary to one part of the project. The result is that a critic may be employed for seg- ments requiring objectivity. This sup- plements the qualities of the special- ist. 7-E2 The distinguishing factor in- this outcome is the requirement for objec- tivity throughout the project, while at the same time the limits of the need for expertise cannot be speci- fled. Such a situation has no inexpen- sive solution . . To assure objectivity, an outsider usually is deemed desir- able. Nonetheless, over a lengthy peri- od, outsiders may lose a degree of objectivity as well. Such instances may require a series of competent con- sultants. An example is a case requir- ing a specialist in affirmative action implementation, who for political reasons must remain outside the li- brary's employ. 8-I2 This solution is identical to Out- come 5, but the need for expertise on a permanent basis calls for the hiring of a specialist even when objectivity is not essential. 9-E2 When desired expertise is lacking for significant portions of a project and when the period of required ex- pertise ·is delineated, then we have the classic consulting situation. Time and objectivity need not enter into consid- eration, as sufficient cause for aid on a temporary basis from outside the organization already exists. 10-I2 & E1 The three final putcomes all represent a condition wherein ex- pertise is lacking in a significant por- tion of the project, and that expertise will be required for an indefinite period. In Outcome 10, a suitable solu- tion can be achieved by hiring a spe- cialist, supplementing this individ- ual's expertise with the objectivity of a critic in the part of the project re- quiring that quality. 11-E2 The circumstances in Outcome 10 become considerably modified when objectivity is crucial throughout the project. This is a more extreme version of the circumstances present- ed in Outcome 7. As with Outcome 7, filling this need may prove to be ex- pensive to the library. 12-12 In the final outcome, seeking a permanent specialist represents the ideal solution. What is called for is relatively broad based expertise in a given area over an indefinite period. Since objectivity is not a requisite, employing the specialist will assure the continuity of skills desired. Through use of the considerations noted in Figure 1, a decision to utilize any one of the four basic sources of as- sistance could be reached. The remain- ing sections of the paper, while relevant to 12 and E1, assume that E2 is the prescribed solution. If the consultant is truly necessary, for any of the reasons stated above, the planning committee would do well to prepare for the rigor of a well-designed selection process and for the peculiarities of a consultancy relationship. The nature of a consul- tancy relationship calls for careful con- sideration of factors not normally taken into account in the hiring of reg- ular staff. PREPARA noN FOR THE CoNsULTING ENGAGEMENT Preparation for a consulting engage- ment begins immediately upon the de- cision to seek the services of a con- sulting individual or firm. This section Involving Consultants I 503 of the paper will present a series of steps through which the planning com- mittee may increase the probability of a successful consulting engagement. It is assumed by this point that all persons within or related to the library are aware of efforts being made to effect changes in the library. It also should be the case that these individuals are cog- nizant of the reasons for selecting some- one from outside the library in order to achieve these changes more efficiently and effectively. This not only increases comprehension, thus allowing the li- brary staff to be supportive, it also aids in the acceptance of the final recom- mendations. This last statement may seem manip- ulative, but it is fair to say that this is the stage where the staff should be re- minded to anticipate and faciUtate change. There are two major goals in the preparation for the consulting engage- ment. The first is to arrive at an agree- ment as to the planning committee's expectations of the consulting relation- ship. These might be called topics of mutual obligation and agreement. Once this has been done, a selection process should be designed to facilitate the identification and selection of a quali- fied consultant. In terms of the first goal, it is impor- tant to be prepared to inform the con- sultant (in written form) of these expectations as well as to insure that the members of the committee come to an agreement among themselves. Table 1 outlines the usual· topics that the committee must take into account. As the nature of the change being un- dertaken may vary considerably, some of these might best be illustrated. The first topic, the nature of the problem and the approach to the solu- tion, while seemingly arrived at prior to the determination of the need for out- side assistance, may need to be stated again. In most cases, and particularly 504 I College & Research Libraries • November 1977 TABLE 1 ToPICS OF MuTUAL ·OBLIGATION AND AGREEMENT TO BE CONSIDERED 1. Nature of the problem and general approach to the solution 2. Particular constraints present 3. Library liaison assigned 4. Time schedule for project A. Length B. Phases C. Portion of project consultant is involved with D. Length of workday E. Concurrent involvement in other activi- ties 5. Subcontracting of particular portions of project 6. Final report A. Deadline B. Nature (e.g., oral or written) C. Confidentiality D. Other factors 7. Fees A. Type of fee arrangement B. Fee estimate C. Schedule of payments 8. Additional assistance to be provided by the library A. Travel expenses B. Materials and supplies C. Office and secretarial needs D. Special research needs those requ1nng objectivity, this assures greater likelihood of a successful ven- ture. When soliciting proposals, a brief statement of the problems will be neces- sary. The particular constraints of the sit- uation may not be obvious at this point. Many of them will, however, revolve around the elements of policy, philoso- phy of service, budgetary limitations, time, and space. It is generally advantageous to select a library liaison, keeping a variety of factors in mind. First, it is important to specify simultaneously the roles of the liaison, the consultant, the commit- tee, and the director. Where will the final authority lie? Will the consultant be responsible for the project with only specified exceptions, or will the con- sultant be performing an advisory func- tion only? The Vroom article presents a model for rationally considering the important factors involved in decisions of this type. 7 In any case, the liaison should be someone who is not only influential and knowledgeable but also accessible and personable. A second person should be designated in the event of the liaison's absence. The fourth topic, that of time, has several important facets. Maximum and minimum estimates of length are a ne- cessity, while particular phases or mile- stones must be preset to allow for the measurement of progress. Not all con- sultants begin at the start of a project nor carry through with follow-up stud- ies after its completion. Any such ex- pectations should be made clear as soon as possible. Also under the time dimension come two concerns that typically arise after work has begun, thus causing hard feel- ings. The first is that of establishing an agreement on the length of a workday. Many employers of consultants focus most of their energies on the determina- tion of the fee, only to learn that agree- ment on a per diem basis is of limited value without some agreement on the definition of a workday. The second sensitive area, like the first, is not a dif- ficult problem as long as it is considered during the selection process and not after the project is half-completed, and that is the need to determine what other activities the consultant expects to be participating in at the time. If the in- dividual is a library director or has oth- er engagements, it is fair to ask how these will be handled concurrently and if they will cause any undue delay. One last comment on time: The com- mittee should privately agree as to the specific circumstances in which they would seek termination of the con- sulting engagement. Subcontracting is a concern in two basic ways. It is important to know the weak points of a consultant prior to the final selection. If data are to be ana- lyzed or air conditioning checked, it would be advantageous to know whom the consultant has in mind as a subcon- tractor for these specialized analyses. Sixth, the nature of the final report should be spelled out clearly. It may be that none is necessary. If one is, then any deadline should be specified, along with a statement as to the number of copies, confidentiality, the nature and number of oral presentations accom- panying it, and some discussion as to copy or distribution rights. The topic of fees often receives more emphasis than it is due. Throughout the literature there are claims by former employers of consultants, as well as by consultants themselves, stating that ( 1) if the library needs a consultant in the first place and ( 2) if it is careful in its selection and in its subsequent relation- ship, it probably will find that the con- sultant services are worth much more to the library than the actual fee paid. There are numerous discussions in the litera- ture of types of fees and some of the related ethical concerns.8 Whatever the fee arrangement, it is best to establish, in writing, a final cost estimate and an agreed-upon schedule of payment. Additional assistance to be provided by the library should function as a catchall for most items not covered above. Special research needs may not be clear until the approach to the par- ticular problem is discussed. Computer time, or perhaps the availability of such implements as calculators or drafting tables, may be all that is necessary. In some instances payment of travel ex- penses and the availability of secretarial assistance are expected as well. Once these topics have been discussed thoroughly by the committee, the second goal is to establish a selection procedure to be followed in the next step of the organizational change process. The pro- cedure might follow the steps laid out in the final section of the paper. Involving Consultants I 505 SELECI'ION OF THE BEST- QUALIFIED CONSULTANT As with the two previous stages in the organizational change process, the selec- tion procedure will vary according to the specific nature of the problem. An- other factor affecting the selection pro- cedure in general is the estimated number of qualified consultants avail- able. It is possible that the few available experts on a given problem are known. In this case it may be advantageous to review published reports or visit for- mer · employers prior to contacting the consultant. In general, however, it is wise to fol- low a standard procedure which gives less preference to the notability of an individual. After all, one factor in the quality of the final decision is the num- ber of alternatives. Therefore, it is best to optimize this factor from the very beginning. The first step in the procedure is the identification of suitable candidates for the job. Brief discussions of some of the relative advantages and disadvan- tages of individual consultants and firms of various sizes are presented else- where and will not be covered here. 9 Typical sources utilized in obtaining names are state library agencies, the Li- brary Administration Division of the American Library Association, col- leagues who have dealt with similar problems recently, and directories. 10 If the nature of the problem is such that specialists in that field are likely to be members of a particular professional association, it would be wise to contact that association. 11 The second step, soliciting proposals, follows the period of preparation dis- cussed in the previous section of the paper. The brief statement of the prob- lem then is sent to likely candidates. Specifically, the desire for a brief pro- posal should be indicated as well as the probable procedure to be followed and 506 I College & Research Libraries • November 1977 the candidate's qualifications to per- form such services. ·The committee should request supporting material in the form of reports, lists of similar un- dertakings, and a list of references from recent contractors. The evaluation of the proposals is very important. It is of paramount con- cern that all statements and supporting documents be weighed in light of the requirements of the particular project on which the library is embarking. For example, does the consultant exhibit a basic understanding of the nature and scope of the particular task at hand? If so, are the approach .and its probable consequences both practical and timely and consistent with the overall philoso- phy of library service at the institution? Having met these minimal qualifica- tions, what merit does the proposal have when judged in light of the benefits and drawbacks of similar proposals? Once a field of candidates has been narrowed down to the two or three most promising, it is necessary, and is consid- ered common practice, to seek informa- tion as to the past performance of the individuals being considered. (If the services of a firm are under considera- tion, by all means determine exactly which individuals would be assigned, and their past records.) Such checks will provide more relevant information when the projects undertaken are simi- lar in nature and scope to that intended for the project under consideration. The following guidelines provide an approach to securing reference inquiry responses that are directly relevant to the selection discussion. After providing the reference with a brief statement of the work to be done, the following in- formation should be requested: 1. How did the consultant's task in that organization differ from the work to be done? 2. How did the consultant meet com- mitments in terms of the items in Table 1 (Topics of Mutual Obli- gation and Agreement to Be Con- sidered)? 3. What is the reference's overall evaluation of the consultant's work? 4. Would the reference retain the services of the same consultant again? This should be done in person, if pos- sible. Phone calls would prove more pro- ductive than letters, if personal contact is not possible. Personal contact allows for more open interaction as well as vis- ual inspection of the work that was done (if appropriate). Hopefully, by the time the interview stage is reached, one or two candidates stand out as the most appropriate choices. In that the host library normal- ly pays the expenses of the interview trip, it is to the advantage of the li- brary to limit the number invited. The interview provides an opportuni- ty for the consultant to determine local circumstances and to offer the host li- brary staff an opportunity to discuss the proposed project, the prospective con- sultant's qualifications, and the specifics of the proposed solution. The discussion of qualifications should include such topics as the con- sultant's familiarity with the practice of consulting; evidence of specific skills and knowledge of relevant theory; awareness of recent trends; professional activities, recent experiences; and espe- cially participation in workshops or some form of continuing education. The interview also allows the plan- ning committee an opportunity to assess the prospective consultant's integrity, objectivity, analytic ability, level of energy, human relations and persuasive skills, maturity, and oral and written communications skills, both in the field of library science and in areas of his or her special competence. It is at this point that the committee must be wary of any guarantee of results, cost savings, or other such inducements. One individual should have a keen in- terest in the interview in particular. It is the liaison who must assess the poten- tial quality of the working relationship with the consultant throughout the length of the entire change process. Finally, the list of topics of mutual obligation and agreement must be dis- cussed. This will enable clarifications to be made so that a contract may be agreed upon quickly in the event of an affirmative decision. The final evaluation should be confi- dential. A frank discussion, perhaps with one committee member assigned the position of the devil' s advocate, should bring out any matter needing further clarification. CONCLUSION The literature is not lacking for com- plaints about the work of consultants. 12 In return, there is no lack of complaints on the part of consultants about those attempting to make use of their ser- vices.l3 On the other hand, there is no shortage of complaints about projects undertaken, poor solutions attempted, and disastrous results achieved, all in li- braries without the presence of any out- side assistance at all. All of this points to the importance of a rational decision-making process, from the point of awareness of a need for change. Once a tentative determina- tion of the problem has been achieved it is necessary to ask questions about the nature of the information and analyses likely to be required to reach a satis- factory solution. Does the organization possess all of the expertise required to reach high-quality decisions? The an- swer to that question lies in the particu- lar nature of the problem and the ex- pertise of the staff. Once answered, the importance of sufficient time and objec- tivity also must be weighed. A framework for determining the need for outside assistance was present- ed in the form of a decision model. Involving Consultants I 507 Once a need has been identified, prep- aration for and selection of the con- sultant also should follow a systematic procedure. By clearly specifying the committee's expectations, as well as the obligations of each participant, crucial steps for arriving at a satisfactory part- nership have been accomplished. By this point, the necessity for a con- sultant and the preferred relationship have been clarified. The final step in as- suring the most promising progress to- ard the library's goal is to establish and carry out a systematic selection pro- cedure such as that presented above. To quote a common expression, "If you don't know where you are going, any road will take you there." This ap- plies equally to libraries relying on their own staff as to those relying on poorly selected outsiders. REFERENCES 1. Association of Consulting Management En- gineers, Inc., Professional Practices in Man- agement Consulting. (Rev. ed.; New York: The Association, 1966), p.17. 2. Library Buildings Institute, Chicago, 1963, Problems in Planning Library Facilities: Consultants, Architects, Plans and Cri- tiques: Proceedings. Edited by William A. Katz and Roderick G. Swartz (Chicago: American Library Assn., 1964), p.12. 3. For example, the following are representa- tive of the 1960s: Dorothy D. Corrigan and Hoyt R. Galvin, "Library Building Consult- ing, Problems and Ethics," ALA Bulletin 62:505-10 (May 1968); Ernest R. DePros- po, ed., The Library Building Consultant, Role and Responsibility; Report of a Semi- nar (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers Univ. Pr., 1969); Ralph E. Ellsworth, "Consult- ants for College and University Library Building Planning," College & Research Libraries 21:263- 68 (July 1960); Library Buildings Institute, Problems in Planning Library Facilities; Nancy R. McAdams, "Super-Librarian and Sub-Architect: The Anomaly of the Role of the Building Con- sultant," Library Journal 91:5827-31 (Dec. 1, 1966); R. H. Rohlf, "The Consultant's Role," in Library Buildings: Innovation for Changing Needs; Proceedings of the Li- brary Buildings Institute, San Francisco, June 22-24, 1967 (Chicago: American Li- brary Assn., 1972 ), p.168-71. 508 I College & Research Libraries • November 1977 4. See, for example: John N. Berry, ed., Di- rectory of Library Consultants (New York: Bowker, 1969) and especially Ralph Blas- ingame's "Introduction"; A. W. Bowron, "Electric, Computer-Aided, User-Surveyed, Recycling Depot," British Columbia Li- brary Quarterly 35:38 (Spring 1972); Keyes D. Metcalf, Planning Acad.emic and Research Library Buildings (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965) p.243; Rohlf, "The Consultant's Role," p.168; J. W. Allen, "Consult the Consultant," Industrial Re- search 17:46-47 (Jan. 1975); D. C. Caruth, H. J. Blender, and H. C. Sher- wood, "Thinking of Using a Management Consultant?" Burroughs Clearing House 57:24-25 (June 1973); Neil G. Davey, The External Consultant's Role in Organi- zational Change (East Lansing: Michigan State Univ. Graduate School of Business Administration, 1971) p.27; Jerome H. Fuchs, Making the Most of Management Consulting Services ( New York: AMACOM, 1975 ), chapter 2; A. M. Leder- er, ·"Selecting ·a Management Consultant: Who, Why, and How," Administrative Management 34:61-62 (Aug. 1973); Phil- ip W. Shay, How to Get the Best Results from Management Consultants (New York: Assn. of Consulting Management Engi- neers, Inc., 1974) p.3-4; N. Song, "Use and Abuse of Management Consultants," Management Review 63:35-36 (June 1974); C. D. Truckenbrodt, "Maximizing Return from a Management Consultant," Bankers Monthly 92:22-23 (Sept. 1975); "When Should You Call in a Consultant?," Administrative Management 23:68-72 (Feb. 1962). 5. Stanley C. Hollander, Management and Clients ( 2d ed.; East Lansing: Michigan State Univ. Graduate School of Business Administration), 1972, p.141. 6. The basic decision tree model shown in Figure 1 is adapted from Victor H. Vroom, "A New Look at Managerial Decision Mak- ing," Organizational Dynamics 1:66 (Spring 1973), who developed a similar model for determining the appropriateness of authoritative, consultative, or group de- cisions in organizational decision-making situations. For a portrayal of the types of expertise required in a specific situa- tion and the typical locus of responsi- bility for each area of a library building project, see Stephen Langmead and Mar- garet Beckman, New Library Design: Guide Lines to Planning Academic Library Buildings (Toronto: Wiley, 1970), p.118- 25. 7. Vroom, ''A New Look at Managerial De- cision Making." 8. For some of the more thorough, see the fol- lowing: Association of Consulting Manage- ment Engineers, Inc., Professional Practices in Management Consulting, p.37-41; J. Costello, "Cost of Hiring a Consultant," Nation's Business 63: 6 ( Sept. 197 5 ) ; G. Duffy, "Consulting Engineer Firm De- tails Business Practices," Air Conditioning, Heating and Refrigeration News 133:3 (Sept. 30, 1974); Fuchs, Making the Most of Management Consulting Services, p.51- 63; Hollander, Management and Clients, introduction and table of contents; and Shay, How to Get the Best Results from Management Consultants, p.32-35. 9. Fuchs, Making the Most of Management Consulting Services, chapter 3; Hollander, Management and Clients, introduction; and Shay, How to Get the Best Results from Management Consultants, p.9-10. 10. Berry, Directory of Library Consultants; "Guide to Microfilm Consultants and Con- sulting Organizations," in Microfilm Source Book, 1974-5 (New Rochelle, N.Y.: Micro- film Publications, 1974), p.131-39; and a list of other directories can be found in Hollander, Management and Clients. 11. See, for example, American Psychological Association, Professional Affairs Commit- tee, Division 14, "Proposed Guidelines for Choosing Consultants for Psychological Se- lection Validation Research and Imple- mentation," reprinted in W. Clay Hamner and Frank L. Schmidt, Contemporary Problems in Personnel: Readings for the Seventies (Chicago: St. Clair Press, 1974), p.124-26. 12. For example: Berry, Directory of Library Consults, introduction; Murray L. Bob, "And a Consultant Shall Lead Them," Li- brary ] ournal 94:44-45 (Jan. 1, 1969 ) ; Davey, The External Consultant's Role in Organizational Change, a study of factors influencing effectiveness; "The Debate over Licensing Consultants," Busif}ess Week (Aug. 3, 1974), p.18, see also editorial on p.64: "Liberty Not License"; Shay, How to Get the Best Results from Management Consultants, p.10-12; and E. N. Smith- Montgomery, "How to Get the Worst from a Management Consultant," Business Man- agement 40:16-18 ( April1971). 13. McAdams, "Super-Librarian and Sub- Architect"; Richard Messing, "What Con- sultants Expect of Their Clients," Manage- ment Review 59:40-45 (May 1970); Smith-Montgomery, "How to Get the Worst from a Management Consultant."