College and Research Libraries Analysis of Trends in Demand for Computer-Related Skills for Academic Librarians from 197 4 to 1994 Yuan Zhou By means of content analysis, this study examines 2,500 employment advertisements for academic librarian positions in 1974, 1979, 1984, 1989, and 1994 to investigate patterns and trends in the demand for computer-related skills for academic librarians over a period of two de- cades. The study identifies basic computer-related qualifications required for different types of positions, and tracks changes in the demand for these qualifications over time. It also tests the relationship among size of library, type of position, and degree of demand for computer-related skills. Using a quantitative approach, the study measures the changes brought by computer applications in terms of what qualifies an individual to be an academic librarian. · f!iiii!!ii!ii!!iil!ii!l hen comparing the current work environment for aca- demic librarians to that of two decades ago, one finds that among the numerous changes that have occurred, the most visible is perhaps the steady increase in computerization of li- brary services. Replacing many of the paper-based manual processes and en- hancing the services in a variety of ways to a higher-than-ever level, computers and computer facilities systems, data- bases, networks, and other equipment are everywhere in today's academic li- braries. As the application of computers to li- brary operations increased, library man- agers began to make efforts to recruit in- dividuals with relevant computer exper- tise.1'2 Consequently, computer-related skills changed from some esoteric under- ground specialty to one of the most vis- ible concerns in the profession.3 Although it is commonly accepted that the demand for computer-related skills for academic librarians increased signifi- cantly over time, there has been no sys- tematic study in tracing the "footsteps" of such a far-reaching change in what qualifies a person to be an academic li- brarian in the computer age. Basic data analysis on this important change is particularly lacking. A literature search by the author reveals that despite the numerous articles on computer appli- cations in libraries now being pub- lished, few studies have applied a quantitative approach to measure the impact of the change on the librarian's job responsibility and competency. Among the few identified, most fo- cused only on a short period of time. 4 Yuan Zhou is Head of the East Asian Library at the University of Minnesota; e-mail: y-zhou@tx.umn.edu. 259 260 College & Research Libraries It is precisely this lack of systematic study with data measurement support on the issue that the present study aims to rectify. Working with data derived from ad- vertisements for positions in academic libraries, the author focused on identify- ing the types of academic library posi- tions that require computer-related quali- fications, describing the kind of computer knowledge and skills that each type de- mands, and analyzing changes of this de- mand over time. Methodology The author chose position advertisements appearing in American Libraries in 197 4, 1979, 1984, 1989, and 1994 as the data source. The study applied content analy- sis to all advertisements of academic li- brary positions for the years chosen ex- cept for those of part-time, nonprofes- sional, or foreign country positions. The advertisements requiring direct contact with an institution to obtain position de- scriptions also were excluded. The study recorded relevant information collected from each advertisement on a specially devised Information Coding Form (avail- able from the author). The author first conducted a pilot ex- amination of 350 advertisements in the pool to identify various types of com- , puter-related requirements appearing in the advertisements. Based on results from the pilot study, the author developed a checklist of computer-related qualifica- tions for data coding. These qualifications include knowledge of, or experience with, the following aspects: 1. bibliographic utilities, such as OCLC or RLIN; 2. automated library systems, includ- ing general knowledge of library automa- tion; 3. online database searching, such as DIALOG or BRS; 4. microcomputer applications; 5. mainframe computer applications; 6. CD-ROM products; May 1996 7. computer languages or program- ming; 8. computer hardware; 9. possession of a degree in computer science. The author added four additional as- pects to the coding data from 1994 adver- tisements in order to reflect new devel- opments in technology applications. They include knowledge of, or experience with: 1. networks, such as LAN or WAN; 2. Internet searching; 3. resources in electronic formats; 4. image technology or multimedia. Because these headings reflecting what appeared in the advertisements are not designed for standardizing the terminol- ogy employed but for coding data, they are not all mutually exclusive. The author formulated five hypotheses to direct the statistical analysis of the study: 1. As the library work environment be- comes increasingly computerized, pos- session of computer-related skills has changed from an incidental issue to a major qualification for all types of aca- demic library positions. 2. Possession of computer-related skills was of greater importance to positions in large academic libraries than to those in smaller ones (but this difference may have diminished over time). 3. Possession of computer-related skills is of greater importance in certain types of positions than in others (though this difference also may have diminished over time). 4. Computer-related skills that are es- sential to job competency are likely to vary for different types of positions. 5. New computer-related skills are likely to be added to redefine computer literacy for academic librarians as tech- nology advances over time. The study established "computer skills needed" as the dependent variable. The variable has a dichotomous value, namely yes or no. When any aspect from the list above appeared in an advertisement as a "required," "preferred," or "desired" qualification, the variable for that adver- tisement would carry a yes value. In cases where the aspects were listed in a section of "responsibilities" or "duties" rather than a section of "qualifications" in an advertisement, the variable would still carry a yes value. If no aspects were ad- vertised, the variable would carry a no value. The study collected data on indepen- dent variables from two sources. For the variables "year" and "position type," data came directly from the advertise- ments. However, the variable "size of li- brary" took its data from the American Library Directory. The author also gathered other information, such as "title of the position," "name of the library," and "state," for each variable as a safeguard against duplication and data-entry errors. The author chose cross-tabulation and the Chi-square test as the instruments to pro- vide descriptive or inferential analysis, and used Statistical Analysis System (SAS) software to conduct data analysis and hypothesis .testing.5 Findings and Implications A total of 2,833 job advertisements from the years sampled compiled the profile of this study. A review for duplicate cases eliminated 223 observations of readver- tised positions from the data set. The study also excluded system librarian po- sitions from further testing because possession of a variety of computer skills is an indispensable qualification for all such Analysis of Trends 261 creased from a plateau of about three per- cent of the net total from 1979 t'o 1989, to about eight percent in 1994. This dispro- portional emphasis of systems positions suggests that despite the budget con- straints generally experienced by most academic institutions in recent years, aca- demic libraries shared a greater commit- ment to filling automation or computer specialist positions than to filling other types of positions. Overall Increases The test result for hypothesis 1 shows that the growth in demand for com- puter-related skills for academic librar- ians was remarkable for the twenty years studied. In 1974, nine out of ten adver- tisements (89.7%) did not list any com- puter-related qualifications. By 1994, however, the situation had reversed, with 88.9 percent of advertised positions re- quiring one or more forms of computer- related skills. The Chi-square test deter- mined that a statistically significant dif- ference existed among these five years re- garding advertised demand for com- puter-related knowledge and skills (see figure 1). The most dramatic change took place in the late 1970s, when inclusion of com- puter-related requirements in advertise- ments rose from 10.3 percent of the total advertisements in 1974 to 50.8 percent in 1979. The considerable increase continued after 1979, attaining 74.2 percent of the total by 1984. From 1984 to 1994, the pro- TABLEt positions. These adjust- ments yielded a net data set of 2,500 observations (see table 1). Position Advertisements by Year Year Gross total Duplicates Systems Net total positions It is interesting to note 1974 132 34 1 97 that although the total 1979 406 33 13 360 number of advertise- 1984 673 42 23 608 ments dropped sharply 1989 1,082 93 30 959 in 1994 compared to 1989, 1994 540 21 43 476 223 110 2,500 the proportion of systems Sum 2,833 librarian positions in- 262 College & Research Libraries May 1996 FIGURE 1 Increasing Demand for Computer-Related Qualifications for Academic Librarians Over Time 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 ------------------------------------------------------ 0+----------1----------~----------+---------~ 1974 Not stated Required Preferred In duties . Totals X 2 = 414.411 1979 1974 1979 No. % No. % 87 89.7 177 49.2 6 6.2 82 22.8 1 1.0 75 20.8 3 3.1 26 7.2 97 100.0 360 100.0 p < .001 portional growth of the advertisements listing computer-related qualifications does not seem as impressive as it does for the period of 1974 to 1984. However, this does not necessarily imply that the diffu- sion of computer applications slowed down in academic libraries for the period. It should be noted that the variable "com- puter skills needed," carrying a dichoto- mous value, measures only a yes-no situ- ation for each position. The variable could not measure the breadth of computer-re- lated skills needed for a position. It is mostly in this dimension, as discussed later in this study, that the demands for computer-related skills for academic li- brarians continued to grow in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Size of Library The study categorized all libraries into 1984 1989 1994 1984 1989 1994 No . % No. % No. % 157 25.8 156 16.3 53 11.1 225 37.0 427 44.5 322 67.6 153 25.2 281 29.3 70 14.7 73 12.0 95 9.9 31 6.5 608 100.0 959 100.0 476 100.0 four groups based on the size of their volume holdings in the thousands: • Size 1 • Size 2 • Size 3 • Size 4 1-349 350-999 1,000-1,999 2,000 and above Because position advertisements rarely include information on the size of an institution's collection, the author derived data from the American Library Directory. The study calculates a library's collection based on its book and bound-periodical holdings only because statistics for other materials are often unavailable or incom- plete in the Directory. There were two cases in 1974, three in 1979, seven in 1984 and 1989, and four in 1994 that were ex- cluded from this test on hypothesis 2 be- cause the Directory provided no holdings information for these libraries (see table 2). The results of this test were surprising. Contrary to the hypothesized expectation that large libraries were more likely to demand computer-related qualifications for librarians, the results of the Chi-square tests on the data from 1979, 1984, 1989, and 1994 were all statistically insignifi- cant when setting alpha at 0.01. The test could not be applied to data from 1974 because the values of the expected fre- quency in several cells were too low to meet a validity requirement of the Chi- square test. 6 Nevertheless, the descriptive statistics produced indicate that the larger libraries did not post proportionally more advertisements listing computer-related requirements in 1974 than the smaller li- braries. These results suggest that the degree of demand for librarians with computer skills has little to do with the size of a library. Caution must be exer- cised in making this generalization, how- ever, as the variable used in this test can- not measure the breadth of the computer skills a position may require. Difference in this aspect may ~xist between larger and smaller libraries. Type of Position The author divided all positions into four categories: (1) technical services division, including positions for acquisitions, cata- loging, serials, preservation, and collec- tion management; (2) public services di- vision, including positions for reference, bibliographic instruction, circulation, document delivery, and interlibrary loan (ILL); (3) administrators division, includ- ing deans, university librarians, directors, and assistant or associate directors who have general management responsibili- ties; and (4) branch librarians and special- ists division, including branch librarians, government document librarians, bibliog- raphers, area specialists, curators, and ar- chivists. Although more subdivisions may be applicable to some of these cat- egories (e.g., division 4), the study did not Analysis of Trends 263 0'1<"1001'- ootriooN 00 0'1 00 00 r-- ................ 00 0000000 ........ 00 0'1 00 ........ 0'1 0 o\ ;\ 264 College & Research Libraries split them further because smaller groups would run a higher risk of violating a validity requirement for the Chi-square tesU For positions of department heads, unit heads, and assistant or associate di- rectors whose managerial responsibilities are confined to mainly one division, the author decided to classify them with their respective divisions rather than with the administrators division (see figure 2). The test results from all appropriate years, namely 1979 to 1994, were statisti- cally significant. Although the data from 197 4 could not support a valid Chi-square test, the considerable differences among types of positions were observable. The results validate the first contention of the third hypothesis-that "possession of computer skills is of greater importance in certain types of positions than in oth- ers" -and demonstrated that despite the increased demand for computer-related skills in all types of positions, differences in the degree of desirability among vari- ous positions remained significant over these years. Nevertheless, the data from 1994 suggest that such differences are likely to lessen further in the future and validate, to a degree, the second conten- tion of the third hypothesis as a trend. It is interesting to observe the changes within the technical services and public services divisions. Technical services li- brarians were pioneers in implementing automated systems to replace paper- based manual operations in academic li- braries. In 1974, when possession of com- puter-related skills did not seem to be an issue to public services positions, over one-quarter of the advertisements for technical services positions searched for candidates with such a qualification. The data suggest that at the early stage of com- puter applications, academic libraries fo- cused their efforts on automating inter- nal operations. This focus soon expanded. In 1979, after just five years, 42.9 percent of the advertisements for public services positions included some form of com- puter-related requirements. Increases of May 1996 such requirements among the advertise- ments for technical services positions, however, were even more impressive for the period, demonstrating that as aca- demic libraries strove to expand automa- tion of the internal operations, they also made substantial efforts to extend the benefits of computerization to their pa- trons. By 1989, the proportions of the ad- vertisements demanding computer-re- lated qualifications were almost identical in the two divisions, resulting from greater increases of such advertisements in the public services division from 1979 to 1989. The greater increases indicated that the focus of the expanding comput- erization gradually shifted to public ser- vices functions. Position Preference for Computer Skills Differences among types of positions may reside not only in the degree of de- sirability for computer-related qualifi- cations, but also in the kind of com- puter knowledge or skills specified in the advertisements. As hypothesis 4 proposed, each type of position tends to have its own preference for certain computer skills. This analysis examines what kinds of computer skills were most relevant to each type of position by studying the frequency of a variety of computer skills specified in the ad- vertisements for different position types. The author included only the advertisements listing at least one form of computer-related qualification in this analysis. The frequency for each computer-related qualification was cal- culated in proportion against the total number of relevant advertisements for a given position type within a given year. Because many advertisements, particu- larly in later years, listed more than one such qualification, the total of the pro- portions for all applicable qualifications for a position type within a year may exceed 100 percent (see table 3). Differences in preference for certain kinds of computer knowledge or skills FIGURE2 Changes in Demand for Computer-Related Qualifications by Position Type 100 ------------ ------------------------------------- Technical Services Public Services Administrators Branch & Specialists X2 P value 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1974 #Y =number of yes cases 1979 1974 (n=95) #Y %Yes #T 6 26.1 23 0 0.0 15 3 13.0 23 1 2.9 34 %Yes = percentage of yes cases of the type total #T = total cases of the type 1984 1989 1979 (n=355) #Y %Yes #T 100 74.6 134 45 42.9 105 16 38.1 42 22 29.7 74 48.9 <.001 --+-Technical Services -A- Public Services _._Administrator -o- Branch & Specialists 1994 1984 (n=601) 1989 (n=948) #Y %Yes #T #Y %Yes #T 172 84.7 203 283 89.6 316 172 77.5 222 312 90.4 345 38 71.7 53 54 60.7 89 66 53.7 123 149 75.3 198 40.603 65.761 <.001 <.001 1994 (n=468) #Y %Yes #T 117 96.7 121 > 142 95.9 148 = ~ 51 87.9 58 -<" rll 111 78.7 141 ..... rll 0 31.914 lot\ ~ <.001 lot ~ = Q.. rll N 0'1 c.n 266 College & Research Libraries among different types of positions assert themselves once computer applications in academic libraries develop beyond the embryonic stage. From 1979 through 1989, knowledge of, or experience with, bibliographic utilities was the most fre- quently listed computer-based qualifica- tion among positions in the technical ser- vices division, whereas knowledge of, or experience with, automated library sys- tems ranked second. During the same time, knowledge of, or experience with, online searching was the most frequently listed computer-related requirement among pub- In 1994, one out of every four relevant advertisements in the public services division listed knowledge of, or experience with, Internet searching, ... lie services positions, followed by knowl- edge of, or experience with, automated li- brary systems. In the administrators divi- sion, the most frequently listed computer- related qualification was knowledge of, or experience with, automated library sys- tems. For the branch librarians and spe- cialists division, knowledge of, or experi- ence with, online searching appeared in at least one-half of the relevant advertise- ments during this period. Knowledge of, or experience with, bibliographic utilities ranked second for the division in 1979 and 1984, whereas knowledge of, or experience with, automated library systems was sec- ond in 1989. These most frequently listed qualifications were the core computer skills for academic librarians in respective types of positions to have for the period. A major change occurred in 1994, when knowledge of, or experience with, automated library systems became the most frequently listed computer-re- lated qualification for all types of po- sitions. The listing rate ranged from 81.1 percent in the branch librarians and specialists division to 100 percent in the administrators division among May 1996 the relevant advertisements used in this analysis. A sharp increase was most observable in the public services and the branch librarians and special- ists divisions when compared to the 1989 data. This change suggests that knowledge of automated library systems has become a generic component of com- puter literacy for academic librarians in all types of positions. Despite the unifor- mity on this requirement, preferences for other computer skills continued to vary from one type of position to another. The computer-related qualifications that are needed for academic librarians to main- tain their job competency also have been augmented by advances in technology over time. Such augmentation is best seen in the case of the public services division. Rapid development in introducing micro- computers and CD-ROM products to aca- demic libraries since the mid-1980s made knowledge in these aspects important new qualifications for librarians within the pub- lic services division. The four items added to the list to ac- commodate data from 1994 give the study more power in analyzing recent trends. In 1994, one out of every four relevant advertisements in the public services di- vision listed knowledge of, or experience with, Internet searching, and one out of every seven included knowledge of, or experience with, networks as required or desirable qualifications. As a natural con- sequence of increased demand for these new aspects, demand for online search- ing skills declined. Clearly, as more alter- native sources became available, aca- demic libraries reduced their dependence on traditional online services. If this trend continues, it seems likely that knowledge of Internet searching may become a ma- jor component of computer literacy for positions in the public services division. Similar changes also occurred in the branch librarians and specialists division. As the demand rose for new computer- related qualifications such as knowledge of, or experience with, microcomputer TABLE3 Reguirements on Com~uter-Related Qualifications hi Position Ty~e Computer-Related Qualifications (in Percentage)* Year BU AS OL MC MF CD CP HW cs NW IN EF MM Technical Services 1974 (N=6) 33.3 66.7 1979 (N=100) 95.0 12.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1984 (N=172) 87.2 30.2 1.7 2.3 0.6 1989 (N=283) 84.5 50.2 2.5 9.9 0.7 0.4 1994 (N=117) 80.3 85 .5 1.7 14.5 2.6 5.1 0.9 3.4 6.8 5.1 Public Services 1979 (N=45) 6.7 6.7 86.7 2.2 2.2 1984 (N=172) 9.3 16.3 80.2 7.0 0.6 1989 (N=312) 8.0 29.8 82.4 22.4 18.6 1.6 0.3 1994 (N=142) 12.7 88.7 64.8 40.1 1.4 56.3 0.7 2.1 1.4 14.8 25.4 5.6 0.7 Administrators 1974 (N=3) 33 .3 66.7 1979 (N=16) 31.3 87.5 6.3 1984 (N=38) 10.5 97.4 7.9 2.6 2.6 1989 (N=54) 14.8 94.4 7.4 5.6 1.9 1.9 1994 (N=51) 5.9 100.0 5.9 19.6 9.8 11.8 11.8 3.9 Branch Librarians and Specialists 1974 (N=1) 100.0 > ::s 1979 (N=22) 27.3 13.6 59.1 llol -1984 (N=66) 28.8 19.7 62.1 9.1 '< ~. 1989 (N=149) 24.2 35.6 54.4 22.8 6.7 0.7 1.3 rn 0 1994 (N=111) 18.0 81.1 35.1 37.8 31.5 0.9 0.9 0.9 5.4 18.9 12.6 2.7 """' t-1 *BU = Bibliographic utilities MF = Mainframe computer applications cs = Computer science degree 1-1 tTl ::s AS . Automated library systems CD = CD-ROM products NW = Networks Q.. OL Online database searching CP = Computer languages or programming IN = Internet searching rn N MC Microcomputer applications HW = Computer hardware EF = Resources in electronic formats 0'1 'I MM = Image technology or multimedia 268 College & Research Libraries applications and CD-ROM products, the demand for previously high-ranking skills such as online searching and bib- liographic utilities declined. This trend of a growing need for new computer-related skills also is reflected in the emergence of a demand for knowledge of Internet searching (18.9%) and resources in elec- tronic formats (12.6%). In fact, the de- mand for knowledge of resources in elec- tronic formats-one of the newest com- puter-related qualifications-was found more often in the advertisements of this division than in any other. An important contributor to this fact was the change occurring in requirements for bibliogra- phers. Previously, computer-related skills received less emphasis for bibliographers than for many other types of academic librarian positions. 8 However, recent trends indicate a change. An analysis of the advertisements for bibliographer po- sitions revealed that in 1989,37.5 percent included at least one computer-related qualification. That number increased to 58.8 percent by 1994. Among these cases, one-half specified knowledge of resources in electronic formats. As might be expected, computer-re- lated requirements for positions in the technical services division experienced the fewest changes over the time ob- served. Knowledge of, or experience with, bibliographic utilities and auto- mated library systems remained the ba- sic computer-based qualifications for po- sitions in this division. The demand for a newer skill-knowledge of, or experience with, microcomputer applications-is still quite moderate, though slowly in- creasing. It appears that the division that experienced the earliest upheaval from computer applications entered a period of relative stability, compared to the other divisions. If, however, publications in elec- tronic formats live up to predictions that they will become major aspects of schol- arly communication, requirements for technical services positions will naturally change in response to this development. 9 May 1996 Advertisements for positions in the ad- ministrators division consistently listed knowledge of automated library systems as their major component of computer lit- eracy, whereas knowledge of bibliographic utilities-in high demand during the early stages of library automation-decreased in frequency in this division during the time observed. Recent trends in the escalating demand for knowledge of microcomputer applications, Internet searching, and net- works may suggest something of the di- rection computer-related requirements could take for the next generation of aca- demic library administrators. Multiple Requirements Change also can be measured by the in- creases in advertisements listing multiple · requirements for computer-related quali- fications over the years observed. This measurement offers some useful data to analyzing the breadth of computer-re- lated skills demanded for the various position types. Because no advertise- ments with multiple requirements ap- peared in 197 4, the author excluded that year from the analysis, as well as the year 1979, for the branch librarians and spe- cialists division (see table 4). Cross-tabulation provides a useful comparison of the technical services di- vision with the public services division. The data demonstrated that in the early years of computer applications, advertise- ments for technical services positions were more likely not only to require com- puter-related skills but also to demand a broader range in such qualifications than advertisements for public services posi- tions. In 1984, 21.5 percent of the relevant advertisements for technical services po- sitions specified two or more computer- related qualifications, whereas only 11 percent of public services positions did so. However, this difference virtually dis- appeared in 1989, when advertisements listing multiple requirements in both di- visions were nearly equal at 43.5 and 44.2 percent, respectively. In addition, adver- ,.....\0 00\C"''OO ,.....;c) a\~ ........ ("'' (") V) 00 ...... o ...... ........ (") Analysis of Trends 269 O,.......V"'l\0 v),......;cx:)o\ ("'1("'1 ............. -.::f-0000 ................ t-V"l 0~ ........ .c ~t-C"''-.::t f'-CioN ~-(")(") Olrllrllrl 1.0000-.::t" 00\0000 ~ 8 o\cx:i\Ci\Ci lf"io\11')~ lf"icx:ir--:cx:i OOt-lrlC"'' 0\00V) ...... r- r- r- V) ~ 0 ,.....z tisements specifying three or more com- puter-related skills attained a consider- ably larger share in the public services division at 15.7 percent than they did in the technical services division at 4.2 per- cent. As discussed previously, this change is attributable largely to the increased use of microcomputers and CD-ROM prod- ucts in the public services environment. Thus, by 1989, advertisements for public services positions listed a wider variety of computer-related qualifications than those for technical services. This trend continued, and in 1994, more than 70 per- 270 College & Research Libraries cent of the relevant advertisements in the public services division specified three or more computer-related skills, compared to only 20 percent in the technical services division. The need for a greater variety of com- puter-related skills also was seen as a trend among positions in the branch li- For administrator positions, nearly 88 percent of the advertisements in 1994listed computer-related qualifi- cations, indicating that knowledge ... of emerging computer technolo- gies in libraries is a highly desirable attribute for academic library administrators. brarians and specialists division. In 1989, 38.6 percent of the relevant advertise- ments in this division listed more than one computer-related skill. In 1994, how- ever, more than 40 percent of the adver- tisements in this division specified three or more computer-related skills, a level second only to the public services divi- sion and twice that of technical services. Concluding Remarks By analyzing four years of position ad- vertisements published in American Li- braries over a period of twenty years, this study tracks the growing demand for various computer-related qualifications for different types of academic librarian positions. The findings validate the con- tention of the first hypothesis that "pos- session of computer-related skills has changed from an incidental issue to a major qualification for all types of aca- demic library positions." The change demonstrates that developments in com- puter applications have had a sweeping impact on attitudes toward computer lit- eracy in academic libraries. The results of testing the relationship between the demand for computer- related qualifications and size of librar- ies invalidate the second hypothesis that "possession of computer-related skills May 1996 was of greater importance to positions in large academic libraries than to those in smaller ones." The tests show that the demand for computer-related qualifica- tions in small academic libraries was simi- lar to that in large ones during the entire period observed. The type of position proved a useful indicator in assessing the need for com- puter-related qualifications. Generally speaking, current advertisements for po- sitions in technical and public services nearly always specify certain computer- related skills. The finding suggests that individuals seeking a career in these two major divisions of academic libraries must prepare themselves by obtaining relevant computer-related skills. For ad- ministrator positions, nearly 88 percent of the advertisements in 1994 listed com- puter-related qualifications, indicating that knowl~dge of applications of avail- able and emerging computer technolo- gies in libraries is a highly desirable at- tribute for academic library adminis- trators. Although advertisements in the branch librarians and specialists divi- sion have not specified computer-re- lated skills to the same degree as in the other divisions, the data show that in 1994, more than three-quarters (78.7%) of the net total advertisements listed some type of computer-related qualifica- tions. An investigation into the relevance for a variety of computer-related skills to aca- demic library positions yields important findings. It reveals that for most com- puter-related skills, the degree of rel- evance tends to vary from one type of position to another. The qualification most frequently specified in the advertise- ments of all types of positions is knowl- edge of, or experience with, automated library systems, indicating that, for the present time at least, this qualification is the most readily transferable computer- related skill among academic library po- sitions. The investigation also found that the scope of computer-related skills for academic librarians is augmenting as technology and applications develop. As a result, the degree of importance at- tached to some particular skills at a given time may change, giving way to the lat- est development. By examining the frequency of adver- tisements listing multiple requirements over time, the study revealed that the majority of the advertisements demand- ing computer-related skills have changed during the period observed, from asking for only one form of the skills to asking for multiple skills. This change is attrib- utable to recent developments in elec- tronic publishing and the application of network technology. The continued in- crease in the use of microcomputers and CD-ROM products in academic libraries also is an important contributor. Accord- ing to the data from 1994, positions for public services librarians were more likely to demand multiple requirements than positions in any other division. While identifying the most relevant computer-related qualifications for each type of position, the study also disclosed that certain qualifications appeared in advertisements only rarely over the time observed. These include knowledge of, or experience with, mainframe computer applications, computer languages and programming, computer hardware, and possession of a degree in computer sci- ence. It appears that these qualifications are required almost exclusively for sys- tems librarian positions. One additional item rarely listed in the advertisements is knowledge of, or experience with, im- Analysis of Trends 271 age technology and multimedia. The in- frequent appearances of this requirement in the advertisements may reflect the rela- tively recent development of this com- puter application. The study clearly demonstrated that computer applications have never stopped advancing in academic libraries, nor has the demand for computer-liter- ate librarians. This situation presents a great challenge to the entire profession. Library schools must enrich their auto- mation curricula to reflect new develop- ments and to meet the increasing demand for computer-literate graduates. Libraries must continue their efforts to provide pro- grams of professional development and on-the-job training to enhance employees' computer-related skills. However, im- provement of librarians' computer lit- eracy depends ultimately on librarians themselves. They must take initiatives to build their basic computer literacy and keep up with new skills as they develop, because the future of academic librarian- ship will certainly rely more, and not less, on the development of computer appli- cations in libraries. Note: The author wishes to express his sin- cere appreciation to Linda C. Smith, Kathryn Luther Henderson, and Bryce Allen of the University of fllinois at Urbana-Champaign for their invaluable guidance with this re- search. The author also is gratefully in debt to Calvin Elliker at the University of Michi- gan Libraries, whose numerous editorial re- marks helped greatly in shaping the final draft of this paper. Notes 1. Karen L. Horny, "Managing Change: Technology & Profession," Library JournalllO (Oct. 1985): 56. 2. S. Michael Malinconico, "Librarians in an Age of Technology," Library Administration & Management 3 (summer 1989): 143. 3. Susan Baerg Epstein, "Suddenly Last Decade! Automation Arrives," Library Journal 108 (Feb. 1983): 183. 4. For example, David Block, Emerging Personnel Requirements in Academic Libraries As Re- flected in Recent Position Announcements, ERIC, ED 215703 (Washington, D.C.: ERIC Document Reproduction Service, 1985); Phyllis J. Hudson, "Recruitment for Academic Librarianship," in 272 College & Research Libraries May 1996 Librarians for the New Millennium (Chicago: ALA Office for Library Personnel Resources, 1988); and David W. Reser and Anita P. Schuneman, "The Academic Library Job Market: A Content Analysis Comparing Public and Technical Services," College & Research Libraries 53 (Jan. 1992): 49-59. 5. SAS is the trademark of the SAS Institute Inc., Cary, North Carolina. 6. The Chi-square test requires that the value of expected frequency (f) for each cell in the test be at least five. See Donald Byrkit, Statistics Today: A Comprehensive Introduction (Menlo Park, Calif.: Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Co., 1987), 502. 7. Ibid. 8. Yuan Zhou, "From Smart Guesser to Smart Navigator: Changes in Collection Develop- ment for Research Libraries in a Network Environment," Library Trends 42 ·(spring 1994): 649. 9. Eldred Smith and Peggy Johnson, "How to Survive the Present While Preparing for the Future: A Research Library Strategy," College & Research Libraries 54 (Sept. 1993): 389-96. Teaching Information Retrieval and Evaluation Skills to Education Students and Practitioners: A Casebook of Applications Patricia 0' Brien Libutti, Bonnie Gratch, editors Scenarios depicting actual instructional sessions at the undergraduate, graduate, practitioner, and high school levels using goals and objectives statements. Several cases include the teaching of ERIC and Internet resources. Most useful are the reflective analyses of the sessions by librarian instructors that reveal lessons learned about teaching technology. $26.50; ACRL member $22.50, 152p. 0-8389-7813-4, 1995 Order from ALA Order Fulfillment, 155 N. 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