preston.p65 Perceptions of Discriminatory Practices and Attitudes 433 Perceptions of Discriminatory Practices and Attitudes: A Survey of African American Librarians Cynthia Preston The perceptions of African American librarians regarding discriminatory practices and attitudes in the workplace and how they influence job sat­ isfaction were the focus of this study. A descriptive survey, including a questionnaire, was used to observe both personal and observed expe­ rience of racial discrimination within the profession. Practicing librarians were surveyed for their observations of the situation as it stands today, as well as for their ideas and opinions on issues facing the African Ameri­ can librarian in the future. This study focused on relationships with su­ pervisors, patrons, coworkers, and management. he civil rights movement of the 1960s focused attention on mi­ nority groups. The library sci­ ence profession responded to the changing climate by recruiting mi­ norities, both through scholarships to graduate schools and by establishing “equal opportunity” in hiring library pro­ fessionals. Literature on minorities in librarian- ship expanded in volume during this pe­ riod, led by the prolific author E. J. Josey.1 Josey and others produced a number of monographs that contained essays by black librarians addressing issues and prevailing attitudes that affected them. After the early 1970s, the subject of mi­ norities in librarianship saw little print coverage until the latter 1980s when jour­ nal articles began to reflect the frustration felt by African Americans in the field of libraries and information science. Now is an appropriate time to reexamine the at­ titudes and perceptions of these profes­ sionals. Are African American librarians satisfied with their choice of profession? Is the level of job satisfaction felt by Afri­ can Americans influenced, positively or negatively, by the same factors that affect their nonminority peers? Review of the Literature George P. D’Elia defined job satisfaction as “. . . an employee’s affective response to his job environment.”2 Studies of job sat­ isfaction among professional librarians are well documented in the literature. In a 1986 replication of her original study, Beverly P. Lynch teamed with Jo Ann Ver­ din to compare differences in the satis­ faction levels of professionals and non­ professionals, males and females, reference and technical service workers, supervisors and nonsupervisors, and new Cynthia Preston is a Reference/Collection Development Librarian in the Education, Human Ecology, Psychology, and Social Work Library at Ohio State University; e-mail: preston.7@osu.edu. 433 mailto:preston.7@osu.edu 434 College & Research Libraries September 1998 and long-term employees.3 The results of the second study confirmed those of the original. No significant difference was found between male and female librar­ ians in terms of job satisfaction, but dif­ ferent levels of satisfaction were found between professionals and nonprofes­ sionals and between short- and long-term employees. Is the level of job satisfaction felt by African Americans influenced, positively or negatively, by the same factors that affect their nonminority peers? Susanne P. Wahba’s study focused on Maslow’s five basic needs in relation to job satisfaction: self-actualization and autonomy, esteem, social, security, and physiological.4 One result of her study was that females were less satisfied than males, which does not concur with Lynch’s findings showing no significant difference. Beginning librarians were the focus of D’Elia’s study. His goal was to determine which factors contributed to job satisfac­ tion among librarians new to the profes­ sion. His analysis supports Lynch’s find­ ing of no significant relationship between job satisfaction and gender. The type of library where one was employed also was not relevant. However, supervisory rela­ tionships and specific job characteristics proved to be strong determinants of job satisfaction among beginning librarians. In a study of job satisfaction among U.S. academic librarians, Mohammad Mirfakhrai found that supervisory and coworker relationships, as well as the work itself, had a strong influence on overall satisfaction.5 This concurs with D’Elia’s findings regarding the impor­ tance to librarians of a positive supervi­ sory environment.6 Another frequently cited study con­ ducted by William J. Vaughn and J. D. Dunn defined job satisfaction as “the feel­ ing an employee has about his pay, his work, his promotion opportunities, his co-workers and his supervisor.”7 The au­ thors assigned a numerical value to each of these factors and then computed a grand total to gauge overall significance. Again, the employee’s relationship with his or her supervisor proved to be a very strong determinant of job satisfaction. One factor not taken into consideration in any of these studies was race. Do rac­ ism and discrimination play a stronger role in job satisfaction of African American li­ brarians, or are the major correlates of job satisfaction the same, regardless of race? The status of African American librar­ ians parallels that of minorities in other professions. Although “equal opportu­ nity” and “affirmative action” were the buzzwords of the 1960s and 1970s, many blacks in the library profession today are disillusioned with the path their careers are taking. Some find themselves reach­ ing mid-level management positions only to find that the “climb up the ladder of success” stops at the middle rung. At the request of the Harvard Business Review, Edward W. Jones Jr. assessed the progress of black managers in U.S. cor­ porations. The results of his research, though surprising to some, confirms the frustration and anxiety African American professionals face on a daily basis. In his article, Jones coins the term colorism to reflect an attitude that describes a predis­ position to act in a certain manner based on the color of a person’s skin.8 Interviews held with four high-level black executives resulted in the following comments: “ag­ gressive, self-motivated, high-achieving blacks are now feeling deep frustration. Some have left, others stay but are fed up”; “try to conform, and even job hop to other companies, only to confront the same racial barriers—well, it’s debilitat­ ing”; “old biases, attitudes, and beliefs stack the cards against us.” One execu­ tive refers to what this author calls the “spook-by-the-door” syndrome—”they want you to be just a number in a seat representing a particular program.”9 Perceptions of Discriminatory Practices and Attitudes 435 Perhaps the best way to summarize the findings of Jones’s research is to examine a phenomenon he calls “running the gauntlet.” This refers to the fine line Afri­ can American professionals walk as they try to maintain their ethnic identity and at the same time not offend their white peers and business associates. To quote, running the gauntlet means “being smart but not too smart. Being strong but not too strong. Being confident but not ego­ tistical to the point of alienation. Being the butt of prejudice and not being un­ pleasant or abrasive. Being intelligent but not arrogant. Being honest but not para­ noid. Being confident yet modest . . . .” The whole situation is a Catch-22 where you are “damned if you do and damned if you don’t.”10 The question one needs to ask is just how this affects the attitudes and job satisfaction of minority librarians and what the consequences are to the library profession. Administrators may believe that bringing minorities into the workplace under the banner of equal opportunity ends their responsibil­ ity to ensure that equality is maintained. Most of the current literature on Afri­ can American librarians deals with re­ cruitment and retention. However, occa­ sional references do occur regarding the status of blacks within the profession. In April 1991, University of California-Irvine library director Calvin Boyer resigned amidst growing controversy that his ad­ ministration was biased against women and minorities.11 A 1988 Seattle Public Li­ brary employee task force was charged with examining perceptions concerning retention and treatment of minority staff members found that there were “serious problems,” and one conclusion of the task force was that “some employees of color felt they faced discrepancies in hiring and a double standard at work.”12 Even the Library of Congress is not immune from such accusations. In July 1988, a U.S. dis­ trict judge found in favor of several hun­ dred black employees who were passed over for promotion between 1973 and 1987.13 In her essay “Employment Discrimi­ nation Faced by Black Librarians,” Mar­ garet Collins shared the results of an in­ formal survey of black librarians.14 She listed a number of allegations of discrimi­ nation within the library community, in­ cluding: � number of African Americans in the profession; � classification of African Americans on the staff; � denying African American employ­ ees benefits that similarly situated white employees received; � retaliating against African Ameri­ cans who complain of mistreatment; � waiting until the evaluation to give negative performance feedback; � not providing African Americans with the same continuing education op­ portunities afforded to whites; � not including African Americans in key meetings and social functions; � low expectation of African Ameri­ cans; � assigning tedious and routine li­ brary work to African Americans; � deliberate unavailability of super­ visors to train and share information; � lack of promotion opportunities for African Americans; � termination without cause; � harassment and intimidation of African American employees; � denying job opportunities because of race. There are those who feel that affirma­ tive action and other programs have pro­ vided a solution to the problem of in­ equality in the workplace. Not only is the assumption incorrect, but the benefits of such programs are highly debated within the African American community itself. Minorities who feel fortunate to be the beneficiaries of these programs may later http:librarians.14 http:minorities.11 436 College & Research Libraries September 1998 discover that they are resented by peers who feel they have been “handed” a po­ sition based solely on skin tone. Admin­ istrators may believe that bringing mi­ norities into the workplace under the ban­ ner of equal opportunity ends their re­ sponsibility to ensure that equality is maintained. Black employees then have the extra burden of proving to employ­ ers that they are qualified to advance within the ranks while assuring their col­ leagues that they have indeed earned whatever promotions they may receive. One recent article on affirmative action and diversity echoes Jones’s gauntlet theory, “for this reason, affirmative ac­ tion is a red flag to every individual who feels unfairly passed over and a stigma for those who are its beneficia­ ries.”15 Similar views have been expressed by Patrick Hall. In his article “Against Our Best Interests: An Ambivalent View of Affirmative Action,” he reflected on con­ versations with other minority librarians who shared feelings of self-doubt about their achievements.16 “Affirmative action has always placed an asterisk next to them. This is only one of the negative con­ sequences of affirmative action despite the so-called gains. No matter how hard one works, or how many master ’s or doc­ toral degrees one possesses, the special- hire asterisk—that small star of omission used to indicate doubtful matter—is ever present.” Although recent literature has begun to focus on job satisfaction and librarian- ship, little has related directly to minori­ ties. A study by Leigh Estabrook, Chloe Bird, and Frederick L. Gilmore on the ef­ fects of automation on job satisfaction found that race is the second largest fac­ tor in explaining job satisfaction among professional librarians, with whites being significantly more satisfied than blacks.17 The authors of the study felt this was dis­ turbing because it indicated that libraries do not treat minority workers equally. As an African American student of li­ brary and information science with sev­ enteen years of paraprofessional experi­ ence, the author has had many conversa­ tions with black librarians from all areas of service and faculty rank. Many of their comments and opinions can best be summed up by Hall’s article “Yassah! I’s the Reference Librarian!” In it, The author reflected that: . . . time and time again I am either directly or indirectly snubbed, pa­ tronized, or completely ignored by both patrons and my fellow staff members. . . . repeatedly, patrons will seek a white librarian to con­ firm the answers I have given them, even on very simple questions that someone who was ‘brain dead’ could answer. . . . my role as a black librarian is subject to society’s not­ so-subtle bias about the intellectual capacity of blacks. . . . after such ex­ periences, blacks in my position can’t help but feel somewhat angry and resentful. . . . the library estab­ lishments for which we work must be cognizant of the special situations minority librarians face in perform­ ing our duties—situations that are not faced by our white colleagues.18 If the frustration felt by some minority librarians continues at the current level, not only will they be tempted to leave the profession but their experiences may serve to dissuade other minorities from entering the field. This study will evalu­ ate issues concerning black librarians to­ day. It is hoped that it also will aid in the future recruitment and retention of librar­ ians of color. Objectives The purpose of this study was to exam­ ine the perceptions of African American librarians on discriminatory practices and behaviors that occur within the profession and to ascertain if these perceptions are stronger indicators of job dissatisfaction http:colleagues.18 http:blacks.17 http:achievements.16 Perceptions of Discriminatory Practices and Attitudes 437 than those factors identified by nonminority librarians. To this end, it was necessary to reexamine some areas al­ ready noted that influence job satisfaction among librarians. These include salary; relationships with coworkers, supervi­ sors, and administrators; area of work; type and size of library; and opportunity for advancement. By including questions that deal with issues specific to African American librar­ ians, this study attempted to determine whether the practice or perception of rac­ ist or discriminatory behavior weighs more heavily in the determination of job satisfaction than those factors not particu­ larly associated with minority groups. Methodology A descriptive mailed survey was used to collect data on both personal and ob­ served perceptions of racial discrimina­ tion within the profession. The results were analyzed to see what, if any, rela­ tionship these factors have on job satis­ faction among African American librar­ ians. Sample The target population to be studied was African Americans employed in libraries in the United States in 1993; however, no single source identified this group in its entirety. The eighth edition of the mem­ bership directory of the Black Caucus of the ALA defined an accessible population. Because the majority of members of the Black Caucus hold professional positions, use of the directory further defined the accessible population as predominantly professional, degreed librarians. Corporations, group members, and retired members were eliminated from the sample. To ensure representation of all library types, the remaining 469 per­ sonal members were categorized by type of library (i.e., academic, public, school, and private). As suggested by the sam­ pling table in Ronald Powell’s text on re­ search methods, a 45 percent proportion­ ate, stratified random sample was se­ lected which produced a final sample size of 214.19 Each name was numbered, and a computer program was used to gener­ ate the final sample list. The final sample represented library types as follows: 41.5 percent, academic; 41.1 percent, public; 10.7 percent, school; and 5.1 percent, pri­ vate. Questionnaire Development It was necessary to develop a new ques­ tionnaire for this study because none was available that targeted this specific group of librarians nor the specific topic of dis­ crimination in libraries. The pilot survey form consisted of twenty Likert-style questions where the respondent indicated agreement or disagreement by selecting a number between 1 (strongly agree) and 5 (strongly disagree). Most of the ques­ tions concerned issues related to job sat­ isfaction (e.g., relationship with cowork­ ers, feelings of personal accomplishment, and so on); however, some questions were included that dealt specifically with rac­ ism and discrimination. Initially, the pilot survey was distrib­ uted to an audience attending a lecture on minority librarianship given by E. J. Josey on May 20, 1992, at Ohio Domini­ can College, in Columbus. This group was selected because the topic was deemed of interest to African American librarians and the turnout was expected to be sig­ nificant. However, attendance was less than expected. Only thirty-four question­ naires were returned. The results were analyzed to check for any ambiguity in wording or interpretation of directions. Moreover, additional questions on job satisfaction were included. These were based on the job satisfaction questionnaire found in Andrew D. Szilagyi’s Organiza­ tional Behavior and Performance.20 The final questionnaire consisted of three sections. The first section contained twenty-seven Likert scale attitudinal questions relating to job satisfaction and perceptions of dis­ crimination. The second asked for demo­ http:Performance.20 438 College & Research Libraries September 1998 Table 1 Demographic Responses* Area of Work N Percentage Administration 42 36 Public Services 67 57 Technical Services 6 5 Other 2 2 Salary N Percentage Less than $20,000 3 2 $20,000-$30,000 24 20 $30,000-$40,000 32 26 $40,000-$60,000 53 43 More than $60,000 10 8 Job Status N Percentage Full time 120 98 Part time 2 2 Professional 118 97 Support 3 2 Type of Library N Percentage Private 4 3 Academic 54 43 Public 56 45 School 9 7 Other 1 1 Size of Library N Percentage Large 57 48 Medium 43 36 Small 19 16 * Percentages may not total 100% due torounding. graphic information, both to aid in the de­ velopment of a profile of the study par­ ticipants and for comparison to previ­ ously studied relationships of demo­ graphics to job satisfaction. The informa­ tion requested included current employ­ ment status, type of library, size of library, area of work, total years of library expe­ rience, salary, position status (e.g., full- time/part-time, support/professional), education, and a check question to ensure that the respondent was African Ameri­ can. The third section asked respondents to define what they felt were the major issues facing African American librarians today. This section also provided space for additional comments, plus instruc­ tions on where and when to return the questionnaire. The final questionnaire was submitted to, and approved by, the Human Subject Review Board at Kent State University. Data Collection In April 1993, revised surveys were mailed to the sample of 214 individuals. A self-addressed, stamped envelope was enclosed with each survey to encourage its return and improve the response rate. The final survey was accompanied by a cover letter explaining the reason for the project and describing what steps would be taken to ensure anonymity. Also in­ cluded were names, addresses, and tele­ phone numbers of Kent State University faculty to contact with any questions or concerns about the study. A deadline of May 19 was set for the first mailing, which produced 101 re­ sponses. In October, a second and final mailing resulted in twenty-three addi­ tional surveys. Thus, the final number of respondents totaled 124, for a response rate of 57 percent. Results Survey information was analyzed using the SAS (Statistical Analysis System) soft­ ware program. Frequencies and percent­ ages were computed for all questionnaire items using the SAS procedure PROC FREQ. As table 1 reflects, 98 percent of the 124 respondents indicated they currently work in libraries: approximately 45 per­ cent in public libraries, 43 percent in aca­ demic libraries, 7 percent in school librar­ ies, and 3 percent in private libraries. These percentages closely match the type of library representation of the original sample. Most of the respondents were employed full-time (98%), held a profes­ sional position (97%), and had earned the Master of Library and Information Sci­ Perceptions of Discriminatory Practices and Attitudes 439 ence degree (93%). Most worked in pub­ lic services (57%), with the second larg­ est group employed in administrative positions (36%); only five percent worked in technical services. As to size of library, 48 percent of the respondents worked in a large library, 36 percent in a medium- sized library, and 16 percent in what they considered a small library. Answers to a question concerning to­ tal years of library experience varied Relationships with coworkers, administration, and supervisors also were satisfactory for the majority of respondents. greatly, from one year to forty-one years. The median number of years of experi­ ence was eighteen, with approximately 50 percent of respondents falling in the range of eleven to twenty-two years of experi­ ence (i.e., interquartile range). Salary in­ formation was surprising considering the low pay generally associated with the profession. The largest group of respon­ dents (43%) reported salaries in the $40,000 to $60,000 range. As table 1 shows, almost 70 percent of the respondents made between $30,000 and $60,000. Table 2 contains responses to the atti­ tudinal questions. Questionnaires marked “strongly agree” or “agree” were categorized as agreement; those marked “disagree” or “strongly disagree” were categorized as disagreement. Respon­ dents who marked the midpoint were categorized as neutral. As table 2 shows, most of the respondents (67%) were gen­ erally satisfied with their jobs and agreed that their jobs gave them a sense of ac­ complishment (81%). Relationships with coworkers, administration, and supervi­ sors also were satisfactory for the major­ ity of respondents. Only 15 percent indi­ cated that they did not have a good rela­ tionship with their supervisor. Sixty-two percent agreed that their supervisor en­ couraged their professional growth, and 60 percent reported good relationships with administration. Fifty-six percent said that their coworkers made their jobs pleasant and that they were generally sat­ isfied with coworker relationships (59%). This positive relationship also extended to patrons in that 85 percent of the respon­ dents felt that patrons responded posi­ tively to their efforts, with 59 percent dis­ agreeing that patrons were reluctant to approach an African American staff mem­ ber for assistance. Attitudes about pa­ trons’ respect were less certain, with only 45 percent disagreeing that clients do not respect their expertise as much as they do the expertise of their white counterparts. Some of the attitudinal questions dealt with affirmative action, support for Afri­ can American librarians, and observed discrimination. Fifty-six percent of the respondents felt that being an African American had not hindered their profes­ sional growth. Only six percent believed they had been denied access to continu­ ing education opportunities because of race, with a slightly higher percent (19%) believing they had been denied promo­ tion because of race. Generally, respon­ dents did not perceive affirmative action policies as being detrimental to their ca­ reers; 81 percent disagreed that affirma­ tive action was a hindrance to profes­ sional growth. In terms of whether affir­ mative action had had any direct impact on their appointment to their present po­ sition, 43 percent felt it had not, 27 per­ cent felt it had, and 30 percent were un­ decided. The results suggest that libraries, for the most part, are complying with the law and that overt discriminatory practices have not directly affected professional growth of the responding librarians, yet only 32 percent of the respondents denied the presence of racial discrimination in their work environments. Seventy-six percent reported that their libraries did not have a mentoring program for minori­ ties; 34 percent felt that their workplace lacked cultural diversity; and 32 percent agreed that the library administration was 440 College & Research Libraries September 1998 Table 2 Perceptions of Job Satisfaction and Discrimination No. Agree Undecided Disagree 1. My supervisor encourages my professional growth. 121 62% 21% 17% 2. In general, I am satisfied with my job. 123 67 26 7 3. My co-workers make my job pleasant. 124 56 31 13 4. I never contemplate changing professions. 123 35 28 27 5. I feel that Affirmative Action had a direct impact 123 27 30 43 on my appointment to my present position. 6. I have observed racial discrimination in my work 123 51 16 32 environment. 7. Clients do not respect my expertise as much as 122 29 25 45 they do my white colleagues' expertise. 8. My job gives me a sense of accomplishment. 124 81 14 4 9. My library's administration is not sensitive to 123 32 20 47 the challenges facing African American librarians. 10. I have been denied promotions because of my race. 123 19 18 63 11. My co-workers relate to me first, as a librarian and 120 42 32 25 secondly, as a Black librarian. 12. The workforce at my library is culturally diverse. 123 36 30 34 13. I do not have a good relationship with my supervisor. 124 15 15 69 14. My library has a mentoring program for minorities. 118 10 14 76 15. Affirmative Action is a hindrance to my professional 120 5 14 81 growth. 16. I am often asked for professional advice on 121 54 27 19 "non-ethnic" issues by my colleagues. 17. I have been denied access to continuing education 124 6 12 72 opportunities because of my race. 18. I am encouraged by my superiors to apply for 116 33 28 40 administrative positions. 19. I often socialize with co-workers not in my 124 42 28 29 ethnic group. 20. I often think of searching for another job. 124 28 27 44 21. My job skills are being fully utilized. 124 49 19 31 22. In general, I am satisfied with my relationship 123 59 30 11 with my co-workers. 23. I have a good relationship with the administration. 124 60 25 15 24. Patrons/clients respond positively to my efforts. 123 85 11 3 25. Being an African American has not hindered my 119 56 20 23 professional growth. 26. Patrons/clients in my library are reluctant to 123 16 24 59 approach an African American staff for assistance. 27. I intend to search for a new job in the near future. 122 24 20 56 insensitive to the challenges facing Afri­ can American librarians, with 20 percent being undecided. Only 33 percent agreed that they are encouraged by their superi­ ors to apply for administrative positions. More important, only 42 percent said their coworkers related to them, first, as a li­ brarian and, second, as a black librarian. These results, combined with the uncer­ tainty about patrons’ respect for their ex­ Perceptions of Discriminatory Practices and Attitudes 441 pertise, suggest that the observed dis­ crimination might be in the climate, sup­ port, and interpersonal relationships ex­ perienced in the workplace rather than in overt acts or practices. Although 81 percent reported that their jobs gave them a sense of accomplish­ ment, only 49 percent felt that their job Although 81 percent reported that their jobs gave them a sense of accomplishment, only 49 percent felt that their job skills were being fully utilized. skills were being fully utilized. It is true that 56 percent denied they intended to search for a new job in the near future, but only 44 percent denied they often think of searching for another job. There was far less certainty about changing pro­ fessions, however. Thirty-five percent in­ dicated they never contemplate changing professions and 27 percent indicated they do, with 28 percent being undecided. Eighty-seven (70%) of the participants responded to the section of the question­ naire asking them to list issues that are “important to African American librarians today.” The top six concerns and their per­ centages are represented in table 3. These results suggest that although African American respondents were gen­ erally satisfied with their jobs and, for the most part, with their coworker and su­ pervisory relationships, they were less certain about staying with their current position or even in the profession as a whole. Because of this, it was decided to view contemplation of a job search (i.e., question 20) as another measure of satis­ faction. Because the Likert scale question­ naire items were measured on the ordi­ nal scale, Spearman correlations were computed to establish any significance between question 2 concerning general satisfaction with the job and other per­ ceptions about the job, coworkers, dis­ criminatory practices, and support rep­ resented in the remaining twenty-six at­ titudinal questions. The SAS procedure PROC CORR was used to determine the correlations. Nonparametric equivalents of one-way analysis of variance were computed to examine potential relation­ ships between general satisfaction and demographic items such as work area, size of library, type of library, job status, education, etc. Kruskal-Wallis tests were run using the SAS procedure PROC NPAR1WAY. These tests were repeated for question 20. Because of the number of relationships examined, a conservative alpha level of .001 was established for the study. Although there was no significance between overall job satisfaction and the general employee–supervisor relation­ ship (Q13), there was a moderate correla­ tion between job satisfaction and having a supervisor who encourages profes­ sional growth (Q1, rho = .49). In addi­ tion, having a good relationship with the administration is significantly related to overall job satisfaction (Q23, rho = .46). A tentative significant relationship ex­ isted between overall satisfaction and an administration that is sensitive to the challenges facing African American li­ brarians (Q9, rho = -.33), meaning that those who are more satisfied perceive their administration as being sensitive to their needs. Another area that shows some signifi- Table 3 Issues concerning African American Librarians Issue Percent Lack of advancement and 38% promotion opportunities Racism and discrimination 22 Recruitment and retention 17 Salary 15 Need for more mentors and 13 role models Participation and representation 10 in professional associations 442 College & Research Libraries September 1998 cance in determining job satisfaction is the relationship with coworkers (Q22, rho = .30). Results show a moderate significance between job satisfaction and having co­ workers who make the job “pleasant” (Q3, rho = .43). Being able to socialize with non–African American librarians also was of moderate significance in determining job satisfaction (Q19, rho = .38). The strongest significant factor to over­ all job satisfaction was related to the librarian’s individual feeling of accom­ plishment (Q8, rho = .54). A slight signifi­ cance existed between satisfaction and the perception that one’s job skills are being fully utilized (Q21, rho = .39). Test results show a moderate correlation between job satisfaction and the intent to search for a new job (Q20, rho = -.40), mean­ ing that those who are satisfied are unlikely to do so. This correlation is consistent with that of those who are contemplat­ ing changing professions (Q4, rho = .43). Generally, librarians who are satisfied in their work are not planning to search for a job in the near future (Q27, rho = -.35). No significant correlation was found to exist between overall job satisfaction and Affirmative Action policies. Test re­ sults also indicate no significant relation­ ship between overall job satisfaction and overt discrimination, relationships with clients, or lack of promotional opportu­ nities. Other factors shown not to have significant correlation include: cultural diversity of the workplace, existence of a mentoring program, access to continuing education opportunities, and encourage­ ment to apply for administrative posi­ tions. As previously mentioned, thinking about other employment opportunities (Q20) also might be viewed as a measure of satisfaction with the current job posi­ tion. As already noted, those who are sat­ isfied with their job do not contemplate looking for another one (Q2, rho = -.40). An interesting fact, however, was that those who are considering looking for another job also are thinking of leaving the profession (Q4, rho = -.43), and they are considering taking on a job search in the near future (Q27, rho = .65). Results also show a moderate significance be­ tween the desire for a new job and ob­ served racial discrimination in the work­ place (Q6, rho = .36). There existed a slight significant correlation between the intent to search for a new job and the percep­ tion of a lack of sensitivity to the chal­ lenges facing African American librarians on the part of the administration (Q9, rho No significant correlation was found to exist between overall job satisfac­ tion and Affirmative Action policies. = .32), the nature of the client relationship (Q7, rho = .33), and the librarian’s sense of accomplishment (Q8, rho = -.35). In addition, there was a slight significance between the intent to search for a new job and the feeling that being an African American is a hinderance to professional growth (Q25, rho = -.34). Kruskal-Wallis tests were run to test for any significant relationship between the two satisfaction measures (Q2 and Q20) and demographic factors. No significant relation­ ship was found at the .001 level. Conclusion Although the data show no significant correlation between job satisfaction and perceptions of racism and discrimination, two specific aspects of this study require closer examination. First, respondents to the survey listed racism and discrimina­ tion as the second most important issue facing African American librarians today (see table 3). Second, 69.3 percent of the participants responded to the comments section of the questionnaire. The vast ma­ jority of these comments were positive. They “loved the idea” of this study. They felt that “it was about time” that someone looked into it in detail. They “hoped to see the results published.” Some even in­ cluded their name and address so that they Perceptions of Discriminatory Practices and Attitudes 443 could be informed of the results in the event the data were not published. Only one respondent chided the researcher for putting too much emphasis on “black­ ness,” feeling that this did more harm than good to professional African American li­ brarians. This researcher disagrees. So one might ask, if racism and dis­ crimination are issues of major concern among this selective population, why is there so little statistical significance be­ tween these factors and overall job satis­ faction? Although there may be no scien­ tific explanation to this disparity, an opin­ ion can be supplied based on personal observation. Racism is intrinsic to this society. As an African American, this au­ thor is reminded of its existence every time she looks in the mirror or ventures out of her home. The reality is that equal opportunity and fair treatment can be leg­ islated but attitudes cannot. Racism is such an integral part of our environment that, by itself, it is not a sig­ nificant and recognizable determinant of job satisfaction or dissatisfaction. So, where African American librarians may agree that racist attitudes and practices need to be addressed within the profes­ sion, the existence of racism alone is not the primary source of job dissatisfaction. Second, this study indicates a moder­ ate relationship between the intent to search for a new job and perceived dis­ crimination on the job. The group that showed a correlation between these fac­ tors also perceived a lack of administra­ tive sensitivity to the challenges they face, along with the feeling that being an Afri­ can American is a hinderance to their pro­ fessional growth. Of particular concern to this author is the moderately significant relationship between the intent to search for a new job and the consideration of leaving the profes­ sion altogether. Any loss of African Ameri­ cans to the library profession is a great one. Jan S. Squire noted that “it is apparent from the lack of literature that dealt with the job satisfaction of ethnic minority li­ brarians that there is a need for research to be conducted in order to examine this area more fully.”21 It is hoped that this study is just the beginning. Notes 1. E. J. Josey, ed., The Black Librarian in America (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Pr., 1970); —, What Black Librarians Are Saying (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Pr., 1972); E. J. Josey and Kenneth E. Peeples, eds., Opportunities for Minorities in Librarianship (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Pr., 1977). 2. George P. D’Elia, “The Determinants of Job Satisfaction among Beginning Librarians,” Library Quarterly 49 (July 1979): 283. 3. Beverly P. Lynch and Jo Ann Verdin, “Job Satisfaction in Libraries: A Replication,” Library Quarterly 57 (Apr. 1987): 198. 4. Susanne P. Wahba, “Job Satisfaction of Librarians: A Comparison between Men and Women,” College & Research Libraries 36 (Jan. 1975): 46. 5. Mohammad H. Mirfakhrai, “Correlates of Job Satisfaction among Academic Librarians in the United States,” Journal of Library Administration 14, no. 1 (1991): 124. 6. D’Elia, “The Determinants of Job Satisfaction among Beginning Librarians,” 300. 7. William J. Vaughn and J. D. Dunn, “A Study of Job Satisfaction in Six University Librar­ ies,” College & Research Libraries 35 (May 1974): 163. 8. Edward W. Jones Jr., “Black Managers: The Dream Deferred,” Harvard Business Review 64 (May-June 1986): 88. 9. Ibid., 85. 10. Ibid., 92. 11. “U.C./Irvine Library Director Resigns during Bias Investigation,” American Libraries 22 (May 1991): 374. 12. Gloria Leonard, “Bias Busting: Valuing Diversity in the Workplace,” Library Administra­ tion & Management 5 (fall 1991): 205. 13. “Court Award to Black Employees Cut by $600,000,” American Libraries 19 (Sept. 1988): 640. 444 College & Research Libraries September 1998 14. Margaret Collins, “Employment Discrimination Faced by Black Librarians,” in The Black Librarian in America Revisited, ed. E. J. Josey (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Pr., 1994), 256. 15. R. Roosevelt Thomas Jr., “From Affirmative Action to Affirming Diversity,” Harvard Busi­ ness Review 68 (Mar.–Apr. 1990): 108. 16. Patrick Hall, “Against Our Best Interests: An Ambivalent View of Affirmative Action,” American Libraries 22 (Oct. 1991): 899. 17. Leigh Estabrook, Chloe Bird, and Frederick L. Gilmore, “Job Satisfaction: Does Automa­ tion Make a Difference?” Journal of Library Administration 13, no. 1–2 (1990): 183. 18. Hall, “Yassah! I’s the Reference Librarian!” American Libraries 19 (Nov. 1988): 900. 19. Ronald Powell, Basic Research Methods for Librarians (Norwood, N.J.: Ablex, 1991), 75. 20. Andrew D. Szilagyi, Organizational Behavior and Performance (Glenview, Ill.: Scot, Foresman, 1987), 702. 21. Jan S. Squire, “Job Satisfaction and the Ethnic Minority Librarian,” Library Administration & Management 5 (fall 1991): 201.