College and Research Libraries By W I L L I A M G. L A N D College Libraries Versus the Rising Tide WE H E A R that college a n d university libraries are going to be swamped by t h e d e m a n d s m a d e on t h e m by t h e rising tide of collegians. " B u i l d i n g s which in m a n y cases are already inade- q u a t e will become even m o r e crowded a n d a n t i q u a t e d . . . . By the time the students reach t h e colleges a n d universi- ties, it may become a case of g e t t i n g blood f r o m the p r o v e r b i a l t u r n i p . " 1 T h e i m p l i c a t i o n is t h a t if m o r e money is n o t f o r t h c o m i n g f o r m o r e services a n d m o r e buildings, o u r libraries will fail in their f u n c t i o n of b r i n g i n g the book a n d t h e s t u d e n t together. O temporal O ?nores! Assuming the n o r m a l inertia of faculty committees, college administrators, a n d librarians, this conclusion w o u l d a p p e a r reasonable. If libraries c o n t i n u e to oper- ate on the p r i n c i p l e of b r i n g i n g the book a n d the s t u d e n t together by p r o v i d i n g " t h e r i g h t book, at the r i g h t time, to the r i g h t person, in the r i g h t s p i r i t " of course their services a n d r o u t i n e s will break d o w n u n d e r greatly increased loads. T h i s type of service ideal has been so in- g r a i n e d in the library profession a n d p a r a d e d in its textbooks t h a t any o t h e r philosophy of l i b r a r i a n s h i p w o u l d be heresy. Yet some heretical t h i n k i n g is exactly w h a t is necessary. First of all, it is necessary to p r o j e c t 1 C l i f t o n B r o c k , " T h e R i s i n g T i d e : S o m e I m p l i c a - t i o n s f o r College a n d U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r i e s , " CRL, X I X ( 1 9 5 8 ) , 12-16. Mr. Land is a Research Consultant in Education, Washington, D. C. From 1937 to 1939 he was Assistant Librarian at Duke University and has since worked on special projects for the Library of Congress. college e n r o l l m e n t d a t a f o r a consider- able period, say f r o m 1957-58 to 1972-73, a n d to estimate the n a t u r e a n d force of the variables w h i c h may affect t h a t t r e n d in r e l a t i o n to any o n e i n s t i t u t i o n or g r o u p of institutions. I n 1956-57, fresh- m a n a n d o t h e r first-time college enroll- ments began to rise steeply. B a r r i n g eco- n o m i c or military disasters, they will con- t i n u e to climb so that in 1972-73, w h e n the curve of p o p u l a t i o n increase will have b e g u n to flatten out, there will be somewhat m o r e t h a n twice as m a n y y o u n g people in college as there are now. T h i s does n o t m e a n t h a t every college will have twice as m a n y students. F o r one thing, there will be m o r e institu- tions, p a r t i c u l a r l y at the two-year j u n i o r or c o m m u n i t y college or vocational tech- nical i n s t i t u t e level. T h e m o v e m e n t to i n c o r p o r a t e these institutions as thir- t e e n t h a n d f o u r t e e n t h grades in the p u b - lic school system has already b e g u n in some states. F u r t h e r m o r e , those colleges w h i c h ap- p e a r to have the lowest s t u d e n t costs will a t t r a c t m o r e u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t h a n those r e q u i r i n g a h i g h level of p a r e n t a l in- come or a heavy scholarship subsidy. T h i s means t h a t tax-supported institu- tions will bear the b r u n t of the s t u d e n t tide. Like the p u b l i c schools, they will be forced to employ mass teaching meth- ods a n d to a d o p t c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r s t a n d a r d s of intellectual achievement. O n the o t h e r h a n d , some p r i v a t e colleges will be able to resist overloading a n d will thus be able to m a i n t a i n a h i g h q u a l i t a t i v e s t a n d a r d of instruction. T h e less affluent a n d m a r g i n a l institutions of all kinds will still find it difficult to fill their classrooms a n d dormitories. T h e s e 398 COLLEGE AND RESEARCH LIBRARIES will have to minimize the scope of their curricula a n d devise o t h e r ways of at- tracting students a n d b a l a n c i n g institu- tional budgets. Many variables such as type of college, location, sources of sup- port, s t u d e n t costs, a n d academic offer- ings a n d s t a n d a r d s all affect an institu- tion's f u t u r e outlook. T o d a y , too m a n y institutions are using n a t i o n a l projec- tions f o r local p l a n n i n g w i t h o u t consid- ering t h o r o u g h l y the possible v a r i a b l e effects of o t h e r factors. It is n o heresy to state t h a t successful library activity p l a n n i n g d e p e n d s on ade- q u a t e i n s t i t u t i o n a l p l a n n i n g . Yet the li- b r a r i a n of a large tax-supported college has said in essence, w i t h reference to his new building, " T h e d e a n was busy. . . . W e held no faculty conferences in the early stages. . . . T h e architect read the s t a n d a r d texts, a n d visited the s t a n d a r d examples." His i n s t i t u t i o n is now sad- dled w i t h a fine e x a m p l e of library archi- tecture designed for today's p a t t e r n of library service even t h o u g h tomorrow's r e q u i r e m e n t s for mass e d u c a t i o n may very well be different. As a n o t h e r ex- ample, a small church-controlled college located in an increasingly competitive area h a d a c c u m u l a t e d some eighty-thou- sand volumes over the years. Its fifty-year old library b u i l d i n g was truly inade- q u a t e . Yet in spite of the p e n u r y of its faculty a n d resources, a n d w i t h o u t re- gard to the very h i g h percentage of stu- dents m a j o r i n g in subjects r e q u i r i n g m i n i m u m library use, this college raised a substantial sum of money f o r a new library b u i l d i n g to house a n d e x p a n d an o u t m o d e d book collection. I n b o t h these instances the library will suffer f o r years to come because of i n s t i t u t i o n a l f a i l u r e in e d u c a t i o n a l p l a n n i n g . It should n o t be heresy to suggest t h a t the interwoven problems of book selec- tion, purchase, cataloging, storage, use, r e t i r e m e n t , a n d discard look for their solution to a firm definition of the func- tion which t h a t p a r t i c u l a r library is to serve in t h a t p a r t i c u l a r i n s t i t u t i o n . Li- brary activities are generally conducted u p o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n that any accepted definition is a valid one. I n consequence, problems c o n t i n u e to arise a n d are set- tled piecemeal because there is insuffi- cient g u i d i n g principle. Since the college library is p a r t of a n i n s t i t u t i o n devoted to education, its f u n c t i o n cannot be de- fined w i t h o u t firm policy definition a n d projective p l a n n i n g for the i n s t i t u t i o n as a whole. In this, administrative leader- ship a n d responsibility is foremost, b u t the solution of i n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o b l e m s in the e d u c a t i o n a l sphere rests also u p o n the faculty. W i t h respect to t h e library, while the responsibility of the college ad- m i n i s t r a t i o n is still p a r a m o u n t , leader- ship in technical matters rests w i t h the l i b r a r i a n a n d in educational effectiveness w i t h the faculty. T w e n t y years ago, while still at Lawrence College, president Wris- ton wrote: "A s t u d e n t does n o t learn by being told how to use the library, b u t by using it. Moreover the responsibility f o r the use of books should n o t be centered in the l i b r a r i a n , b u t in the faculty." 2 T h i s may be heresy to the library profes- sion, which has gone so far as to say t h a t "competence in the use of the library is one of the liberal arts," 3 —a somewhat erratic convolution of t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l concept. T h i s diversity of a t t i t u d e indi- cates t h a t the r e l a t i o n s h i p of the college a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , the faculty a n d t h e li- brary technician—however cooperative in meeting i m m e d i a t e problems—needs m o r e of that cohesive q u a l i t y which aris- es f r o m common philosophy a n d educa- tional goal. T r a d i t i o n a l l y the library connotes a storehouse of books a n d a place to study. I n seeking library f u n d s a university says, 2 H e n r y M. W r i s t o n , The Nature of a Liberal Col- lege. (Appleton, W i s . , L a w r e n c e College P r e s s , 1937), 65. 3 P a t r i c i a B. K n a p p , " A Suggested P r o g r a m of College I n s t r u c t i o n in the U s e of the L i b r a r y , " Li- brary Quarterly, X X V I ( 1 9 5 6 ) , 230. SEPTEMBER 1958 399 "A new building, imaginatively designed, is a pressing n e e d . " Is it too m u c h to ask first f o r a new i m a g i n a t i o n on t h e p a r t of the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , the faculty, a n d the l i b r a r i a n before the design becomes pressing? L i b r a r y plans are b e i n g consid- ered in m a n y institutions, each w i t h its own p l a n n i n g a n d policy decisions to be f o r m u l a t e d before s p e n d i n g t h o u s a n d s or millions o n cement a n d steel. I n some instances n o new b u i l d i n g w o u l d really be needed, if library activity could per- vade dormitories a n d s t u d e n t u n i o n s as well as classroom a n d l a b o r a t o r y build- ings. W i t h o u t i m a g i n a t i o n , administra- tors a n d trustees blithely assume t h a t library o p e r a t i o n is a static concept, a n d t h a t " t h e f u n c t i o n of t h e library, a n d especially of t h e academic library, is to b r i n g the book a n d the s t u d e n t togeth- er." 4 Merely r e f i n i n g or e n l a r g i n g t h e present type of library o p e r a t i o n will re- sult eventually in faculty a n d s t u d e n t de- m a n d s engulfing the library's machinery. It does n o t take m a n y m o r e s t u d e n t s or m a n y years to m a k e a b u i l d i n g crowded or a n t i q u a t e d . It does, however, take considerable effort a n d time to m a k e c a r e f u l projections of facts a n d variables f o r consideration in e d u c a t i o n a l plan- ning, b u t the result is a creative institu- tional i m a g i n a t i o n . It should n o t be difficult, f o r instance, to imagine e x t e n d i n g the library's pres- ent activities as a supplier of already re- corded d a t a — w h e t h e r in book, j o u r n a l , film, disc, or machine-coded f o r m — t o embrace activities as compiler, m a n u f a c - t u r e r a n d d i s t r i b u t o r w h e r e such needs exist. I m m e d i a t e p h o t o - r e p r o d u c t i o n of research materials by libraries is becom- ing a n o r m a l e x p e c t a t i o n . Collections of source materials or selected readings, such as are used e x p e r i m e n t a l l y in teach- ing p r i o r to t r a d e p u b l i c a t i o n , r e q u i r e bibliographical, editorial, r e p r o d u c t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n services which the aca- 4 Brock, op. cit. demic library is in a position to correlate. T h e filmed or televised lecture, together w i t h a mass of visual-aid m a t e r i a l avail- able f r o m i n d u s t r i a l a n d o t h e r sources, can be provided f o r mass teaching pur- poses t h r o u g h a library-centered visual aids b u r e a u . H i g h l y successful filmed materials, such as Professor George Boas's lecture, " W h a t Is a Picture?," have been p r o d u c e d u n d e r university auspices. A n o t h e r area r e q u i r i n g cen- tralized technical services is t h a t of the correlation a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of ma- chine-coded i n f o r m a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y a d a p t a b l e to the finite d a t a of the nat- u r a l sciences, b u t highly i m p o r t a n t also to all fields using statistical materials. It may be t h a t p u b l i c a t i o n , visual-aid, sta- tistical, or d o c u m e n t a r y facilities can be f u r n i s h e d by o t h e r divisions of the col- lege or university, b u t since they involve i n f o r m a t i o n seeking, cataloging, or o t h e r d o c u m e n t a t i o n , a n d p r o d u c i n g materials f o r research or teaching purposes, the possible usefulness of the library organi- zation w i t h i n a n i n s t i t u t i o n is n o t to be disregarded. P a r t of creative institution- al p l a n n i n g is to e x a m i n e these a n d o t h e r possibilities in r e l a t i o n to f u t u r e research a n d teaching activities in t h e light of p r o j e c t e d d e m a n d , supply, per- sonnel, a n d financial s u p p o r t . Possibilities such as these may in prac- tice be envisioned only by already large or still growing instutions w i t h sizeable budgets. Yet small colleges as well as uni- versities can e x p e r i m e n t in using the li- brary to e x t e n d their e d u c a t i o n a l effec- tiveness. O n e m e t h o d is to b r i n g teach- ing to the focal p o i n t of learning. T h e m a j o r i t y of A m e r i c a n u n d e r g r a d u a t e s find t h a t their need f o r knowledge be- comes pressing at the time w h e n they act- ually set to work to use library materials on the problems w h i c h have been as- signed in the classroom. T h i s is the p o i n t at which there is the m a x i m u m oppor- t u n i t y for s t i m u l a t i n g the student's la- 400 COLLEGE AND RESEARCH LIBRARIES tent abilities a n d interests, so t h a t he may work efficiently w i t h the materials at h a n d a n d p e r h a p s gradually acquire a concern f o r the q u a l i t y a n d value of his intellectual effort. Using the library may be t h o u g h t of as h a v i n g t h e same rela- tion to studies in the h u m a n i t i e s a n d the social sciences as using the laboratory has to teaching in the physical a n d biological sciences, even t h o u g h the work of those laboratories is in t u r n s u p p l e m e n t e d by the d a t a recorded in journals a n d mono- graphs. T h u s the teaching f u n c t i o n of the college library can be a highly im- p o r t a n t one. Since it i m p l e m e n t s the e d u c a t i o n a l philosophy of the i n s t i t u t i o n itself, such a teaching f u n c t i o n of the library is basically the responsibility of the faculty. T h i s implies an organizational division of the library i n t o the two operations of technical processes a n d of teaching, co- o r d i n a t e d by a n a d m i n i s t r a t o r responsi- ble for financial, educational, a n d policy liaison w i t h the college a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d the d e p a r t m e n t s of the faculty. It also implies t h a t the less the reference service of the college library represents bibliographical searching or direction of students in library techniques a n d the more it becomes a g u i d a n c e of the stu- dent's intellectual effort, the type of staff r e q u i r e d becomes less t h a t of the library- science g r a d u a t e a n d m o r e t h a t of the scholar interested in the problems of teaching. T h r o u g h this teaching f u n c t i o n of the college library there is a real op- p o r t u n i t y to develop in-service t r a i n i n g of seniors or g r a d u a t e students or y o u n g instructors. T h i s is a significant oppor- t u n i t y to n u r t u r e a new g e n e r a t i o n of teachers w h o will have h a d experience a n d insight into the problems of h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n as well as competence in their subject specialties. I n small a n d large college libraries t h e r e is also a pressing need for imagina- tive e x p e r i m e n t in r e d u c i n g the costs of technical processes. I n book selection a n d purchase, each decision a n d action involved in the process becomes expens- ive w h e n m u l t i p l i e d by the n u m b e r of such actions d u r i n g the year. Since insti- t u t i o n s of similar type a n d e d u c a t i o n a l philosophy t e n d to have similar curric- ula, they o u g h t to be able to combine their selection a n d o r d e r i n g operations. T h i s proposal, u n d o u b t e d l y heretical to b o t h faculty a n d librarians, is particular- ly applicable to j u n i o r a n d c o m m u n i t y colleges which have a relatively consist- ent level of e d u c a t i o n a l p u r p o s e a n d somewhat limited library f u n d s . It should be possible f o r such institutions to oper- ate libraries o n the package p r i n c i p l e of u n i t standardization. F u r t h e r m o r e , in or- der to r e m a i n w i t h i n their physical bounds, such libraries could a d o p t a con- sistent policy of r e t i r i n g or discarding library materials. Such college libraries can be operated o n the s u p e r m a r k e t principle, keeping their stock at a maxi- m u m economical level, fresh, a n d attrac- tive to their customers o n p r i m a r i l y a self-service basis. I n n o v a t i o n has been successful in the grocery business: it o u g h t to be tried in college libraries. N o less heretical notions can be de- veloped w i t h respect to cataloging, a n d it is h i g h time that this expensive tech- nical o p e r a t i o n be considered, in college a n d university libraries, in r e l a t i o n to the teaching f u n c t i o n of the library it- self. T h e expansion of reference service i n t o a teaching service, w i t h intellectual a n d subject competency r a t h e r t h a n com- petency in the use of the library as a goal, implies t h a t there m i g h t be m u c h less d e p e n d e n c e on t h e subject entries of the card catalog, which is at best a n im- perfect a n d highly variable b i b l i o g r a p h i c tool. T o the e x t e n t t h a t the card catalog becomes used as merely a finding list, subject cataloging can be r e d u c e d to a finding list of bibliographies. T h e im- plications of this suggestion f o r the li- SEPTEMBER 1958 401 brary budget a n d f o r i n s t r u c t i o n a l meth- ods in b o t h the library a n d the classroom deserve c a r e f u l consideration, particular- ly in r e l a t i o n to i n s t i t u t i o n a l p l a n n i n g . T h e heresy of m i n i m a l cataloging leads to a n o t h e r , since the fewer records there are to m a i n t a i n a n d alter the m o r e chance there is for book collections to become flexible. M i n i m u m inventory a n d record costs m e a n t h a t titles can be a d d e d a n d discarded m o r e readily, a n d the book stock of the college library can be kept abreast of i n s t r u c t i o n a l needs w i t h o u t e n l a r g i n g its storage area. T h e n e x t step, which professional l i b r a r i a n s will surely regard with h o r r o r , is to place library collections w h i c h are p r i m a r i l y for u n d e r g r a d u a t e use outside the li- brary's control, l e t t i n g the s t u d e n t body be completely responsible f o r inventory a n d m a i n t e n a n c e . Such d o r m i t o r y or stu- d e n t u n i o n collections, or special subject libraries, need n o t be a d r a i n o n the li- brary b u d g e t if they are m a i n t a i n e d — a n d lost volumes r e p l a c e d — f r o m s t u d e n t fee f u n d s . It may be heresy to the adminis- t r a t o r w h o w a n t s every i t e m accounted for at all times, b u t it is possible t h a t un- supervised library collections, particular- ly of cheap editions, may be one m e t h o d of p r o v i d i n g a q u a n t i t y of r e a d i n g ma- terials, b o t h c u l t u r a l a n d instructional, f o r the rising tide of u n d e r g r a d u a t e s . It is a c o m m o n p l a c e in e d u c a t i o n a l ad- m i n i s t r a t i o n t h a t n o r m a l practice repre- sents the ideas of two generations ago a n d t h a t committee decisions are usually a g e n e r a t i o n removed f r o m the h e a d of the e d u c a t i o n a l procession. U n d e r such circumstances the f u l l tide of college stu- dents will have already swamped b o t h library a n d i n s t i t u t i o n before a n y t h i n g is d o n e to cope w i t h the essentials of t h e p r o b l e m a n d its technical, financial, a n d e d u c a t i o n a l implications. Solutions arrived at u n d e r pressure are likely to be piecemeal, a n d are likely to e n g e n d e r a d d i t i o n a l problems. F u r t h e r m o r e , solu- tions which may be satisfactory in one i n s t i t u t i o n may n o t at all m e e t the re- q u i r e m e n t s in a n o t h e r situation. N o r is a solution r e c o m m e n d e d by a "foremost a u t h o r i t y " necessarily valid, because he is a "big wheel." I t seems to be a charac- teristic of educators to play follow-the- leader, to await the results of a confer- ence, or to let someone else try it first. W h a t is needed is n o t only creative insti- t u t i o n a l i m a g i n a t i o n , b u t also action based u p o n projective e d u c a t i o n a l plan- ning. I t is u n f a s h i o n a b l e today to question the r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s of nationally or- ganized conferences or committees, par- ticularly in the field of e d u c a t i o n . It is certainly n o t surprising t h a t the Presi- d e n t ' s C o m m i t t e e o n E d u c a t i o n Beyond t h e H i g h School should include a recom- m e n d a t i o n t h a t "Federal grants-in-aid on a m a t c h i n g basis be m a d e available . . . to assist as m a n y types of n o n p r o f i t high- er e d u c a t i o n institutions as possible to construct needed non-income-producing facilities (such as classroom, laboratory, library, a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e buildings)." 5 Yet the history of e d u c a t i o n a l adminis- trators' efforts to o b t a i n Federal money for e d u c a t i o n at all levels clearly shows that it has become a h a b i t for the Ameri- can people to look for n a t i o n a l aid in solving their c o m m o n problems. I t is, however, very possible t h a t the overhead costs of o b t a i n i n g Federal aid, together with the a d d i t i o n a l cost of complying w i t h Federal s t a n d a r d s a n d supervision of plans or construction, increase total costs a n d delay completion. T h e r e are situations in which d e p e n d e n c e u p o n state or Federal cooperative projects, or using g o v e r n m e n t a l f u n d s of any k i n d , are d e t r i m e n t a l to the i n s t i t u t i o n . T h e college or university library t h a t waits for Federal h a n d o u t s as a way of solving its p r o b l e m s will merely half-solve them, 5 P r e s i d e n t ' s Committee on E d u c a t i o n Beyond the H i g h School, Second Report to the President ( S u m - m a r y Report, J u l y 1957), 22-23. 402 COLLEGE AND RESEARCH LIBRARIES for only t h a t which conforms to already accepted p a t t e r n s will be done. Further- more, by the time the j o b gets d o n e the f u l l force of the tidal wave of under- g r a d u a t e s will already have i n u n d a t e d the campus. It will be objected that any radical e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n can e n d a n g e r an insti- t u t i o n by the possible w i t h d r a w a l of regional or professional accreditation. T h i s is merely one of the variables to be considered in e d u c a t i o n a l p l a n n i n g . As- s u m i n g t h a t accreditation is of real value to an i n s t i t u t i o n — a view n o t held by all administrators—its r e q u i r e m e n t s deserve at least d i p l o m a t i c consideration. It is possible, a l t h o u g h n o t probable, t h a t officials of the little college w i t h an old library of 80,000 volumes could n o t con- vince an accrediting g r o u p t h a t it w o u l d be better to r e t a i n only 20,000 volumes chosen so as to benefit its instructional p a t t e r n , a n d to d e p e n d on regional re- sources f o r the needs of its faculty. I n general, accrediting bodies allow for the i n t r o d u c t i o n of experiments which are m a d e on a sound principle, a l t h o u g h the initiative in developing new d o c t r i n e rests with the institution. Certainly any p l a n f o r library resources, facilities, a n d services which has been f o r m u l a t e d as p a r t of an institution's projective plan- n i n g w o u l d m o r e likely be affirmed t h a n otherwise. Despite i m p e d i m e n t s to i n s t i t u t i o n a l leadership in imaginative e d u c a t i o n a l p l a n n i n g , it is obvious t h a t such leader- ship is not only essential b u t t h a t it should be creative. T h e library is a n in- tegral element in whatever steps are tak- en to cope w i t h instructional p r o b l e m s resulting f r o m the rising tide of s t u d e n t e n r o l l m e n t . T h e p r i m e need of college a n d university libraries in r e l a t i o n to the education of u n d e r g r a d u a t e s is n o t just "a new building, imaginatively de- signed," b u t a new design of library op- e r a t i o n created t h r o u g h e d u c a t i o n a l cre- ativity a n d by i n s t i t u t i o n a l i m a g i n a t i o n which values its c o n t r i b u t i o n to the total effectiveness of instruction. Such plan- n i n g requires n o t only firm definition of e d u c a t i o n a l policies b u t also a u n i t y of outlook a n d coordinated action by col- lege a d m i n i s t r a t o r , faculty, a n d librar- ian. W e are at the b e g i n n i n g of a new period of r a p i d g r o w t h in college enroll- ments resulting f r o m the rising tide of A m e r i c a n y o u t h of college age. T h e pres- ent t r e n d in e d u c a t i o n a l theory is to pro- vide e d u c a t i o n or t r a i n i n g to whatever extent is r e q u i r e d by the ability a n d will- ingness of y o u t h to benefit. T h u s there are m a n y types of colleges, r a n g i n g f r o m overgrown h i g h schools to institutions devoted to the discovery a n d dissemina- tion of learning. W i t h i n these colleges a n d universities t h e r e is a m p l e v a r i a t i o n in the e d u c a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n which the library may p e r f o r m . If institutions have n o t yet considered the library as a po- tentially i m p o r t a n t factor in their plan- n i n g for f u t u r e e d u c a t i o n a l effectiveness, a n d if creative i m a g i n a t i o n has n o t yet been b r o u g h t to bear on the p r o b l e m s involved, it is h i g h time for e x e r t i n g some leadership. A n d let there be at least a m o d i c u m of heresy! SEPTEMBER 1958 403