College and Research Libraries


Process Not Product 
in Course-Integrated 

Instruction: A Generic Model 
of Library Research 

Constance A. Mellon 
Pre-writing, writing, and editing are viewed as recurring stages in the writing process. Com-
position courses embodying this view often have a library research component. In order to 
blend the writing process with an appropriate introduction to the library, the University of 
Tennessee at Chattanooga developed a generic model of library research. This model has three 
stages: pre-library, library awareness, and library competence. Each parallels a stage in the 
writing process. Library use is presented as a series of activities including searching, retrieving 
material, evaluating material, summarizing, and, if necessary, retracing earlier steps. 

ost faculty agree that college 
students should acquire the 
ability to do research. Yet, re-
search is a way of life to many 

who teach in higher education, an activity 
so familiar that they rarely pause to ana-
lyze it or to consider its complexity. Thus it 
is difficult for faculty to understand the 
dislike students exhibit toward research 
papers, their uncertainty of how to begin, 
and t_he poor quality of the papers they 
produce. 

In many instances, freshman English in-
structors, sometimes supplemented by in-
struction librarians, have been responsi-
ble for teaching college students how to do 
research. The traditional methods of 
teaching research have evolved from a lin-
ear, product-oriented model. The instruc-
tion librarian focuses on tool use or search 
strategy, the product of which is the 
vaguely described "information about 
your topic." The English instructor fo-
cuses on selecting topics, preparing an 
outline, and presenting information. The 
product of this activity is the equally 

vague research paper. Since the emphasis 
tends to be upon a product appropriate to 
a specific discipline, little consideration is 
given to the transferability of the subject 
matter from one discipline to an<?ther. 
There is, however, a new movement in 
higher education which lays the ground-
work for the concept of writing as process. 
When writing is examined as process, or 
in terms of recurring stages, the link be-
tween retrieval and use of materials and 
the circular nature of the link are far easier 
to see. 

WRITING AS A PROCESS 

Within the last decade research on writ-
ing has moved from an examination of the 
written product to an exploration of the 
process through which the product is cre-
ated. Most writing theorists describe a 
three stage process: a pre-writing stage 
during which the writer explores the topic 
of the proposed piece of writing, a writing 
stage during which the writer is con-
cerned with expressing his/her ideas for a 
specific audience, and a rewriting, or edit-

Constance A. Mellon is in the Department of Library Science at the East Carolina Library, Greenville, North 
Carolina 27834. 

471 



472 College & Research Libraries 

ing, stage during which the writer evalu-
ates and reworks his/her piece of writing. 

During the first stage of the writing pro-
cess, the writer is not concerned with an 
audience. Rather, the task is to explore the 
topic, what the writer already knows 
about the topic, and what the focus of the 
written piece should be. The technique 
most commonly used at this stage is free-
writing. Beginning with a topic, the writer 
writes steadily for a short period, putting 
down thoughts as they occur. The writer 
does not let the pencil stop moving even if 
circles or loops must be drawn. This tech-
nique is sometimes called "looping." 
James Moffett suggests that this technique 
allows the writer to tap into a stream of 
consciousness, thus discovering personal 
knowledge, interests, and conclusions 
about a topic. 1 This stage represents the 
writer talking without a concern for the 
audience, style, or the rules of grammar. 

During the second stage, the writer 
composes the message to be presented. 
Attention is given to the audience as well 
as to style, syntax, and choice of language. 
The task of writing is presented as a series 
of drafts and revisions rather than a single 
attempt to prepare a finished · product. 
Students are assisted in their revision of 
various drafts of their papers through in-
dividual conferences with faculty and by 
peer evaluation. 

The final stage, rewriting, can range 
from simply proofreading and polishing 
to major revision based on peer review 
and self-evaluation. 2 Individual confer-
ences and group work with peers help to 
match writing style with intended audi-
ence. Editing for grammar and spelling is 
also emphasized as an important final ac-
tivity in the preparation of the paper. 

Most theorists consider the process re-
cursive rather than linear. Thus, no clear-
cut, linear stages can be observed; rather, 
the writing activities shift back and forth 
among the stages as the written product 
grows, changes, and develops. Focus on 
the recursive nature of the writing process 
stems from the work of researchers such 
as Pere and Flower and Hayes. 4 

GENERIC MODEL OF 
LIBRARY RESEARCH 

Starting with the concept of writing as 

November 1984 

process, a group of faculty at the Univer-
sity of Tennessee at Chattanooga (UTC) 
met daily as part of a summer project to ex-
amine the freshman composition course 
which includes an introduction to the re-
search paper. The group included repre-
sentatives from the arts, the sciences, the 
social sciences, composition, and the li-
brary. One objective was the development 
of a process model of library research. 

The first step in developing the model 
was the conceptualization of what the 
group coined the ''generic'' approach to 
library research. As the group discussed 
research, it recognized that, in addition to 
a discipline specific concept of library re-
search, there was also a more general re-
search need. Thus "generic" research is 
defined as the need to locate sufficient in-
formation for research papers in other in-
troductory courses such as general educa-
tion courses. The aim is to identify general 
principles with lifelong application rather 
than the simple acquisition of facts for im-
mediate use. The generic model broadens 
the definition of ''information sources'' to 
include communication with experts and 
personal observation. 

The model (see Figure 1) is conceptual-
ized in three stages: pre-library, library 
awareness, and library competence. Dur-
ing the pre-library stage, the need-to-
know is generated. It begins when the po-
tential researcher selects or is assigned a 
research topic. Using techniques of inven-
tion such as freewriting or brainstorming, 
the student explores existing knowledge 
of a topic and begins to choose a focus for 
research. As the limits of personal knowl-
edge are explored, the student reaches a 
point where the insufficiency of that 
knowledge is recognized. This is the point 
we have labelled ''library readiness.'' 

The second stage, library awareness, in-
volves the conscious recognition of the 
need-to-know . Here the motivation to 
seek additional information is increased. 
At this stage, the student begins note-
taking. Basically, this is talking to oneself 
about new information being acquired. As 
the student reviews these notes and be-
gins to evaluate the adequacy of initial 
sources, the need for more information is 
generally recognized. This provides the 
transition into the final stage of the model. 



Process Not Product 473 

PRE-LIBRARY STAGE (GENERATING THE NEED TO KNOll) 

CREATIVE TECHNIQUES ARE USED 
TO FIND POINTS OF INTEREST 

PROBLEM OF INSUFFICIENCY OF PERSONAL 
KNOWLEDGE I S RECOGNIZED 

ll BRARY READ lflESS AS 
SOLUTION IS INTRODUCED 

LIBRARY AWARENESS STAGE (CONSCIOUS RECOGNITION OF THE NEED TO KNOll) 

INFORMATION IS SOUGHT 

(FROM LIBRARY RESOURCES! 

---------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------- ----------- --- .. ---. 

FIGURE 1 
Generic Model of Library Research 

As the student enters the library aware-
ness stage, simple instruction should be-
gin on the bibliographic organization of 
the library and the use of either fact or 
finding tools immediately applicable to 
the information need. This introduction is 
most effective if students have at least an 
elementary competence in summary, 
paraphrase, and bibliographic form-the 
basic tools of note-taking. It is not enough 
for students merely to master the technical 
aspects of a tool such as an index. They 
must be able to identify and retrieve rele-
vant information of potential use to the 
product of their research efforts. 

One of the conflicts encountered at this 
stage is the balance between success and 
frustration. As all experienced researchers 
know, library research is a problem-
solving activity with more dead-ends than 
successes. Students need to be exposed to 
the reality of the dead-end as well as to the 
benefits of a successful search. While it is 
unlikely that a first search will yield too 
much success, it may well result in too 
much frustration. It is therefore very im-
portant for the composition instructor and 
the instruction librarian to cooperate and 
closely monitor this initial library experi-
ence. In this way, the student can be 

guided to an experience that is both realis-
tic and rewarding. 

The third stage of the model is the li-
brary competence stage. The aim is to de-
velop in the student a competence in the 
library research skills being taught and 
used in the composition course. At this 
stage it is assumed that the need-to-know 
has been internalized to the point where 
the student is motivated to continue li-
brary research. After the information ini-
tially retrieved is evaluated, the student 
generally becomes aware of its insuffi-
ciency. This generates a need for specific 
information. Since the library has been 
presented as one solution to the problem 
of insufficient knowledge, the student is 
inclined to return to the library to seek fur-
ther information. This is the first step in a 
recursive process of search, retrieval, and 
evaluation. As new sources of information 
are located and examined, students are 
encouraged to analyze these sources in or-
der to refine, distill, and expand their 
ideas about the research topic. This pro-
cess continues until the information re-
trieved is viewed as sufficiently adequate 
for the student to begin writing the paper. 
Once again it must be remembered that 
process, by its very nature, is not linear 



474 College & Research Libraries 

and does not occur in neat, predictable 
steps. The student who has begun to write 
may find, through the influence of the de-
veloping text, that more information is 
needed or that perspectives on the topic 
have changed. This may necessitate a re-
turn to other steps specified by the model. 

THE MODEL APPLIED TO 
BEGINNING COMPOSITION 

Application of the generic model of li-
brary research resulted in modifications 
and changes of emphasis in teaching the 
research component of beginning compo-
sition. While writing as process had been 
the focus of UTC' s composition program, 

. library research was not viewed as not 
taught as process. Research paper assign-
ments in the composition course varied 
widely from section to section and the top-
ics were selected without consideration 
for the availability of materials, biblio-
graphic format, or reference tools needed 
to satisfy information needs. Many com-
position teachers, unfamiliar with the bib-
liographic organization of the library and 
the concept of search strategies, relied on 
the ''scavenger hunt'' assignment in or-
der to orient students to library resources. 
Since instructors frequently did not know 
if their assignments could be effectively 
completed within the constraints of the li-
brary's resources, the result was often 
frustrated reference librarians, anxious or 
hostile students, and irritated composi-
tion teachers. Thus, when topics for re-
search papers were assigned, students 
were unprepared for the rigors and disap-
pointments of library research. Teachers 
were left with the impression that library 
resources were inadequate. 

As the generic model of library research 
developed and grew with input from li-
brarians, composition teachers, and in-
structors from other undergraduate disci-
plines, it became clear that the traditional 
methods of assigning research papers and 
introducing library research were inade-
quate. Participants in the summer project 
decided that three areas should be empha-
sized in the development of library in-
struction activities: attitudes toward the li-
brary and librarians, limitation of research 
topics to provide positive experiences 

November 1984 

rather than frustration for students, and 
the development of print materials to sup-
plement instruction in the use of specific 
library tools. Since attitudes are pivotal to 
the development of competent research-
ers, it was decided that the following ob-
jectives should be stressed in presenting 
the library to students: an understanding 
of the intrinsic role of library research in 
undergraduate education; a sense of ben-
efit to result from effective library use; the 
development of an attitude of library com-
petence in the student; an appreciation of 
the reference librarian's professional role 

· and the complexity of academic libraries; 
an understanding of library search as chal-
lenging rather than frustrating; and a re-
definition of library success as compe-
tence in search processes rather than as 
number of items retrieved. 

After the four-week summer project, 
during which the generic model of library 
research was developed, the director of 
composition, in consultation with the co-
ordinator of library instruction, integrated 

· the model into the suggested format for 
fall classes. Application of the model was 
made easier because the composition pro-
gram had been designed around the con-
cept of writing as process. The process 
emphasis led many beginning composi-
tion teachers to design their courses 
around a series of short research papers, 
rather than one long paper. 

Since library readiness is dependent 
upon the mastery of some basic skills as 
well as a need-to-know, the first research 
paper taught these skills. Students se-
lected a topic from a required book of read-
ings and used this material as research in-
formation. The skills of summary, 
paraphrase, and bibliographic form were 
emphasized and the problem of plagia-
rism was addressed in a controlled setting 
from a uniform information source. 
Therefore, before their initial use of the li-
brary for research, students experienced a 
simplified version of the process required 
to produce a research paper. 

The second assignment was a library re-
search paper. Information sources were 
limited to journal articles which could be 
found in Readers' Guide to Periodical Litera-
ture, Social Sciences Index, and Education In-



dex. This limit was established because 
(1) journal articles are easier for beginning 
researchers to read and to summarize than 
books, and (2) non-circulating journals are 
readily accessible. Students were intro-
duced to the concept of index use through 
the familiar Reader's Guide. They were 
then led to other Wilson indexes which 
provide more scholarly sources of infor-
mation without requiring mastery of a 
technical jargon that is beyond the knowl-
edge of most freshman. 

To arrive at the point of "library readi-
ness,'' composition teachers worked with 
students to define and explore topics from 
a controlled list that was developed with 
the help of the reference staff. Each of the 
four or five topics was checked in the in-
dexes to verify that enough information 
was available and accessible in the library 
to support students' research efforts. Ac-
cordingly, library instruction sessions 
were developed around specific topics, fo-
cused on specific tools, and offered to stu-
dents who recognized their need-to-
know. 

Library instruction sessions were de-
signed to incorporate the concept of ge-
neric versus disciplinary research. The 
students were told that as undergraduates 
they would often be expected to follow a 
systematic process in order to complete a 

Process Not Product 475 

research assignment. They were shown 
how to define and narrow a topic using 
subject headings, subheadings, cross ref-
erences, and titles of articles in indexes. 
This technique saves time and frustration 
for beginning researchers since topic nar-
rowing with indexes assures that relevant 
information is readily available. To in-
crease the likelihood of a successful search 
the need for a problem-solving approach 
to finding terms was stressed. In addition, 
the program provided a simple overview 
of library reference tools, and a basic re-
search strategy with practice in its use (see 
Figure 2). 

Since the library instruction session is 
relatively straightforward, it was origi-
nally thought that the composition 
teacher would conduct it after briefings by 
the library faculty. However, evaluation 
data indicated that approximately eighty 
percent of the students in every class men-
tioned that the "friendliness" and 
"knowledge" of the librarian alleviated 
their fear of library research. Thus, al-
though the goal of both the writing pro-
gram and the library instruction program 
was integration of library skill develop-
ment into the fabric of the composition 
course, it was decided that a single session 
taught by a librarian should be retained. 

Composition teachers differed in their 

ANALYZE THE RESEARCH PROBLEM DETERMINE THE RESEARCH NEEDS 

o Survey the topic 
o Divide into subtopics 

Select subtopic of interest 
oFreewrite to determine: 

a. what you know 
b. what you need to know 

oDetermine possible forms of information 
o Decide how scholarly information must be 
o Decide how much information is needed 

CHANGE RESEARCH QUEST I ON 
INTO THE WORDS OF THE TOOL 

EVALUATE THE MATERIALS SUMMARIZE RELEVANT MATERIALS 

FIGURE2 
Basic Search Strategy for Beginning Composition Students 



476 College & Research Libraries 

approach to the third research paper. 
Some repeated the entire process used for 
the second research paper. Others pre-
ferred to have students apply that process 
to a research project involving the use of 
other library tools. For the latter group, 
students were required to use newspapers 
in support of an opinion paper on a cur-
rent topic. Students responded well to 
this assignment; so well in fact that News-
bank, previously almost unused, became 
one of the most popular tools in the refer-
ence collection. 

The integration of library instruction 
into the writing program evolved slowly 
over a three year period. In developing the 
library instruction program, the initial fo-
cus was beginning composition, a course 
required of all students. This assured 
some entry level information search skills. 
Two years were spent in building links to 
the composition faculty and determining 
the best concepts to be presented. Since its 
introduction the teaching model has been 
evaluated and a number of revisions and 
refinements have been made. 

In addition to the systematic introduc-
tion to library research, the new composi-
tion course provides an opportunity for 
reference librarians to work more closely 
with composition faculty. Approximately 
one-third of the class sessions are now 
held in the reference area of the library. 
Faculty participate by fielding questions 
from their students and by providing an 
effective interface between students and 
reference librarian. 

EVALUATING THE 
GENERIC MODEL IN USE 

Forty-three sections of English 102 were 
offered in the year following the develop-
ment of the generic model of library re-
search and the redesign of composition 
classes based on the model. Thirty-seven 
of these sections used the new course de-
sign. Seven hundred and fifty students 
were involved. Evaluation data were gath-
ered from faculty and students to deter-
mine the effect of the process on teaching 
and learning. Comments from both 
groups were positive. Faculty experienced 
greater control over teaching and students 
experienced growing confidence in the 

November 1984 

search, retrieval, and use of information. 
Composition faculty were asked to state 

in writing their observations and attitudes 
about the new teaching approach. Re-
sponses were consistently positive, with 
all faculty describing the search for infor-
mation as an integral part of the research 
paper process. One faculty member ex-
pressed it in this way: 

Research is a process, of course, but this semes-
ter's work has convinced me that the process is 
not a matter of finding a topic, locating sources, 
doing bibliography cards, writing a draft and 
then writing a final paper. These are steps in 
writing a research paper, but the real process 
involves much reading, writing, and wonder-
ing. These activities do not necessarily occur in 
any order, and they most certainly must be re-
peated a number of times in the research pro-
cess. For the students to realize that this process 
leads to the best paper, these activities must be 
built into the paper assignment. 

Other composition teachers talked 
about the "relationship between the 
search process and the creative process," 
and described the writing of a research pa-
per as "a process of thinking, reading, 
sorting, and writing,'' and discussed the 
intellectual growth of students in terms of 
''their ability to assimilate and use infor-
mation.'' 

All composition teachers who used this 
process felt that it was successful and that 
their teaching was more effective as a 
result. One instructor explained: 

Taking a research assignment and working to-
gether through each succeeding step not only 
makes the task much easier for the students, 
but they are better able to understand and work 
with the information they find. On a daily ba-
sis, students say that they are becoming more 
comfortable with the research process. They are 
learning to use the library resources. They are 
able to gather information to answer questions. 
And once they gather that information, they 
seem better able to assimilate it and to produce 
focused, organized, and even readable papers. 

A second instructor comments, ''After 
some extensive rethinking and redesign of 
my 102 syllabus, I was able to incorporate 
the process approach into the students' 
learning of research, and I have been re-
ally happy with the results.'' She went on 
to explain her reasons: "I feel confident 



that, for the first time in a long while, 
these students are going to know how to 
handle a research assignment in the fu-
ture, in any general education class." 

A third instructor explained it this way: 

By the end of the semester, most students were 
handling most facets well. Because we empha-
sized the skills involved at each stage and they 
had a chance to develop these skills, most stu-
dents now feel quite at home in the library and 
are pleased with their new ability. 

Students in the composition classes 
were required to keep journals. In the 
journals they commented on their experi-
ences gathering information and writing 
the research papers. Students were also 
asked to write evaluations that discussed 
the positive and negative aspects of learn-
ing to use the library. Over ninety-five 
percent expressed satisfaction with the 
new way in which the library and its re-
sources were integrated into course de-
sign. While earlier class evaluation data 
emphasized tool use, the evaluation data 
from classes integrating the generic model 
reflected the beginnings of a process ori-
entation. One student explained that she 
"was now able to locate the same source 
of material by using different angles," 
while another declared, ''I also discovered 
that there really was a system to finding a 
path through the materials at our dis-
posal." Overall the comments provided 
an excellent reflection of the awakening of 
process. 

In addition to their beginning aware-
ness of process, many students described 
an initial freeing of ''library anxiety.'' 
They began the semester dreading the li-
brary, but ended it with confidence in 
their ability to use library resources. One 
student explained that she was '' abso-
lutely frightened about the idea of work-
ing in the library. I was sure everyone else 
would know what to do and I was certain I 
would be the only panicky one in the 
group.'' By the end of the semester her 
feelings had changed. "Now," she said, 
''I feel very confident whenever I go into 
the library.'' 

A second student declared, "lhave had 
a complete change of attitude toward the 
UTC library.'' He describes how his '' ter-

Process Not Product 477 

rible fear'' of the library turned into confi-
dence, ending on the exultant note: "It is 
unbelievable how much information is 
contained in the UTC library and it is all 
there waiting for me to use it!'' 

While some students recorded tradi-
tional complaints about the availability of 
specific journals, access to copy machines, 
and the temperature of the building, there 
were few negative comments on the pro-
cess by which they were taught. In fact, 
only three suggestions for improvement 
appeared with any regularity: a tour of the 
library; two sessions rather than one be-
cause of the amount of material covered 
by the librarian; and more training in the 
use of microform. 

These comments graphically illustrate 
the growing confidence and pride ex-
pressed by students as they began to 
search for, retrieve, and use information 
in a more proficient, process-oriented 
way. Demonstrating, discussing, nd 
guiding students through the resea 
process was time-consuming, but reward-
ing. One composition teacher declared, 
that the effort paid off handsomely. Stu-
dents were responsive and exhibited 
growing confidence in their own abilities. 

IN SUMMARY 

The concept of writing as a process pro-
duces changes in the teaching of begin-
ning composition that require corre-
sponding changes in the presentation of 
library instruction. The recursive nature of 
the composing process demands that li-
brary use be viewed as a series of recurring 
activities that include searching, retriev-
ing, reading or skimming material to eval-
uate its applicability, summarizing rele-
vant material, and analyzing retrieved 
information for adequacy and sufficiency. 
This process continues until the student 
stores enough information to reach the 
rhetorical goals set for the proposed re-
search paper. To help students achieve 
this process orientation toward library re-
search, composition teachers and instruc-
tion librarians need to develop an inte-
grated approach to teaching. This requires 
an understanding and respect for the ex-
pertise of the other. 

While much attention in higher educa-



478 College & Research Libraries 

tion is currently being directed toward the 
concept of writing as a process, little 
thought appears to be given to how this 
new concept affects the presentation of li-
brary instruction. With the exception of 
Flower and Hayes, 5 writing process 
models do not mention the impact of 
library-retrieved information on the 
writer. Therefore, it is up to the instruc-

November 1984 

tion librarian to alert composition faculty 
to the desirability of inserting library as 
process into research writing as process. 
Instruction librarians who put forth the 
necessary effort will find that it "pays off 
handsomely'' through the increased moti-
vation and positive attitudes that students 
have toward library research and its role in 
the total research process. 

REFERENCES 

1. J. Moffett, "Writing, Inner Speech, and Meditation," College English 44:231-46 (Mar. 1982). 
2. A. Humes, The Composing Process: A Review of the Literature (Bethesda, Md.: ERIC Document Repro-

duction Service, ED 192 378, July 1980). 
3. S. Perl, "The Composing Processes of Unskilled College Writers, II Research in the Teaching of English 

13:317-36 (Dec. 1979). 
4. L. Flower and J. L. Hayes, ''A Cognitive Process Theory of Writing, II College Composition and Com-

munication 32:365-87 (Dec. 1981). 
5. Ibid., p .381. 



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.ro- prOVide free orderi liSHIN.G CO. will to , 

·' all foreign microform n~ sefVICe for any forrr 
ICfO· pany on an .' rom any com- corr 
ex- search !Y SUbJ8Cf, plus f~ title f; 

~i~heb~~ !~~;~v~~i~~%~~·sdollis1atrspri~. g;::r~~ """""on Of all 1 . . • In· IBn,:' 
•,nu-l. handling of all ~o~~e~·gand fiche and tor ;-
an- dence ,, n correspon . 
"e ru • currency exchange and sh· • en . 
· · ,...ng and custom •P- 9w 

required: $0. s PrOblems. Salary~j st/' . 
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: CATALO~ER: Northern Or ~ . 
; ~lege l•brary is seeking~ 
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