key: cord-0000396-chd9ezba
authors: Anas, Adam; Poll, Tom van der; de Vos, Alex F
title: Role of CD14 in lung inflammation and infection
date: 2010-03-09
journal: Crit Care
DOI: 10.1186/cc8850
sha: 17589e134590f2f603f0dbe2fbab515fdd34600c
doc_id: 396
cord_uid: chd9ezba

This article is one of ten reviews selected from the Yearbook of Intensive Care and Emergency Medicine 2010 (Springer Verlag) and co-published as a series in Critical Care. Other articles in the series can be found online at http://ccforum.com/series/yearbook. Further information about the Yearbook of Intensive Care and Emergency Medicine is available from http://www.springer.com/series/2855.

Toll-like receptors (TLR) on the surface of cells of the respiratory tract play an essential role in sensing the presence of microorganisms in the airways and lungs. Th ese receptors trigger infl ammatory responses, activate innate immune responses, and prime adaptive immune responses to eradicate invading microbes [1] . TLR are members of a family of pattern-recognition receptors, which recognize molecular structures of bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa (pathogen-associated molecular patterns or PAMPs), as well as endogenous structures and proteins released during infl ammation (damage/ danger-associated molecular patterns or DAMPs). To date, ten diff erent TLR have been identifi ed in humans and twelve in mice. TLR are expressed on all cells of the immune system, but also on parenchymal cells of many organs and tissues. Th e binding of a PAMP to a TLR results in cellular activation and initiates a variety of eff ector functions, including cytokine secretion, prolifera tion, co-stimulation or phagocyte maturation. To facilitate microbial recognition and to amplify cellular responses, certain TLR require additional proteins, such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS) binding protein (LBP), CD14, CD36 and high mobility group box-1 protein (HMGB-1). In this chapter, the role of CD14 as an accessory receptor for TLR in lung infl ammation and infection is discussed. Th e central role of CD14 in the recognition of various PAMPs and amplifi cation of immune and infl ammatory responses in the lung is depicted in Figure 1 .

CD14 was characterized as a receptor for bacterial endotoxin (LPS) in 1990, almost a decade before the discovery and characterization of TLR, and can be regarded as the fi rst described pattern-recognition receptor [2] .

Th e protein was fi rst identifi ed as a diff erentiation marker on the surface of monocytes and macrophages and was designated CD14 at the fi rst leukocyte typing workshop in Paris in 1982. Th e genomic DNA of human CD14 was cloned in 1988 and the gene was later mapped to chromo some 5q23-31. Several polymorphisms have been found in the CD14 gene, of which nucleotide polymorphisms at position -159 and -1619 correlated with decreased lung function in endotoxin-exposed farmers [3] .

Th e CD14 gene consists of two exons which code for a single mRNA that is translated into a protein of 375 amino acids. Th e CD14 protein is composed of eleven leucin-rich repeats, which are also found in TLR and which are important in PAMP binding. Moreover, the crystal structure of CD14 revealed that the protein has a `horseshoe' shape, similar to TLR4, and that LPS is bound within the pocket [4] . In contrast to TLR, however, CD14 lacks a transmembrane domain, and thus cannot initiate intracellular signal transduction by itself. Th e CD14 protein is processed in the endoplasmatic reticu lum and expressed as a 55 kDa glycoprotein on the cell surface via a glycosylphosphatidyl (GPI) anchor [5] . Like other GPIanchored proteins, CD14 accumulates on the cell surface in microdomains known as lipid rafts, which are fairly rich in cholesterol and accumulate several kinases at the intracellular site. CD14 is expressed pre dominantly on the surface of `myeloid' cells, such as mono cytes, macrophages and neutrophils, but at lower levels also on epithelial cells, endothelial cells and fi broblasts.

In addition to being expressed as a GPI-anchored membrane protein, CD14 is also expressed in a soluble form (sCD14) [2] . sCD14 may result from secretion of the protein before coupling to the GPI anchor or from shedding or cleavage from the surface of monocytes. sCD14 is present in the circulation and other body fl uids and levels of sCD14 in plasma increase during infl ammation and infection. Since interleukin (IL)-6 induces sCD14 expression in liver cells it is regarded as an acute phase protein. In bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fl uid from patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), sCD14 levels were strongly increased and correlated with total protein levels and neutrophil numbers in the BAL fl uid [6] , suggesting that sCD14 contributes to the infl ammatory process in the lung.

CD14 is a molecule with a wide range of functions. In addition to functioning as a pattern recognition receptor for a variety of microbial ligands, CD14 also acts as a receptor for endogenous molecules like intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-3 on the surface of apoptotic cells, amyloid peptid, ceramide, and urate crystals. Ligation of CD14 by these ligands, except for apoptotic cells, mediates activation of infl ammatory responses.

LPS is the major constituent of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria and is one of the most potent TLR ligands. CD14 together with LBP plays an essential role in binding of LPS to the TLR4/MD-2 complex [7] . LBP, which, among others, is present in the bloodstream and BAL fl uid [8] , binds to LPS aggregates and transfers LPS monomers to CD14. CD14 associates with TLR4/ MD-2 and transfers the LPS monomer to this complex [7] . Likewise, sCD14 is able to mediate LPS-activation of cells with low membrane CD14 expression, such as epithelial and endothelial cells [9] . However, at high con cen trations, LBP and sCD14 are also able to downregulate LPS-induced responses by transfer of LPS to lipoproteins for subsequent removal [10] . Recent data indicate that LPS is bound by MD-2 within the TLR4/ MD-2 complex [11] and that subsequent conformational changes in TLR4 lead to reorganization of its cytoplasmic domain, enabling the recruitment of the adaptor proteins, myeloid diff erentiation primary-response protein 88 (MyD88) and TIR-domain-containing-adaptorprotein-inducing-inter feron (IFN)-β (TRIF) [12] . Th ese adaptors initiate signal transduction to the nucleus by activation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB and IFN regulatory transcription factor (IRF)-3, leading to the production of cytokines that regulate infl ammatory cells [12] . In macrophages, TRIF-dependent signaling is essential for the expression of the majority of LPS-induced genes, including IFN-α/β. CD14, which lacks an intracellular domain for signal transduction, is expressed on the surface of alveolar macrophages, infi ltrating monocytes and neutrophils, and at lower levels also on epithelial and endothelial cells in the lung. CD14 recognizes and binds various structures from invading microbes, such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Gram-negative bacteria, lipoteichoic acid (LTA) from Gram-positive bacteria, lipoarabinomannan (LAM) from mycobacteria, viral double stranded (ds) RNA and F glycoprotein (F-gp) from respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). CD14 subsequently transfers these bound components to Toll-like receptors (TLR) which than trigger cell activation. Binding of LPS to CD14 is regulated by additional accessory receptors in the lung, including LPS-binding protein (LBP) and a number of surfactant proteins (SP). Furthermore, soluble CD14 (sCD14) enhances LPS-induced activation of cells with low CD14 expression. Depending on the microbe and the PAMPs it expresses, CD14-amplifi ed responses can either be benefi cial to the host by induction of an adequate infl ammatory and immune response to eradicate the invading microbe, or detrimental to the host by excessive infl ammation and/or dissemination of the pathogen. Recently, it was reported that, in the absence of CD14, the TLR4/MD-2 complex can distinguish between diff erent chemotypes of LPS [13] . Smooth LPS is synthesized by most Gram-negative bacteria and consists of three modules: Th e lipid A moiety, a core poly saccharide, and an O-polysaccharide of variable length (made up of 1 to over 50 monosaccharide units) [7] . Gram-negative bacteria that fail to add the core polysaccharide or the O-polysaccharide chain to the lipid A moiety produce `rough' LPS, named after the rough morphology of the colonies these bacteria form. Lipid A, the bioactive part of both smooth and rough LPS, is responsible for most of the pathogenic eff ects in Gram-negative bacterial infections [7, 12] . Murine macrophages lacking CD14 secreted equal amounts of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF) to macrophages expressing CD14 upon stimulation with rough LPS, but failed to secrete TNF in response to smooth LPS, an eff ect which was reversed by addition of sCD14 [13] . Moreover, macrophages lacking CD14 failed to secrete IFN-α/β in response to either rough or smooth LPS. Th ese fi ndings indicate that CD14 is required for activation of the TLR4/TRIF pathway by either smooth or rough LPS, and required for the activation of TLR4/ MyD88 pathway by smooth but not by rough LPS [13] . In addition to LPS, CD14 also facilitates TLR4 activation by other PAMPs including certain viral components [13, 14] .

In the lung, binding of LPS to TLR4 is infl uenced by a number of surfactant proteins (SP), including SP-A, SP-C and SP-D [15] . Th ese surfactants are able to infl uence the interaction between TLR4 and LPS by direct binding to LPS; i.e., SP-A binds to rough LPS and lipid A, but not to smooth LPS, SP-C also binds to rough LPS, and SP-D binds to both rough and smooth LPS. SP-A and SP-C binding to LPS inhibits TNF secretion by alveolar macrophages, whereas SP-D binding to LPS moderately enhances TNF secretion by alveolar macrophages. In addition, SP-A, SP-C and SP-D also bind to CD14 at the site which recognizes LPS. Strikingly, binding of SP-A to CD14 enhanced the binding of rough LPS and binding of SP-C to CD14 augmented binding of smooth LPS [15] , whereas binding of SP-A to CD14 reduced binding of smooth LPS and binding of SP-D to CD14 decreased binding of both smooth and rough LPS. Furthermore, SP-D infl uences LPS-induced TNF secretion by alveolar macrophages by regulating matrix metalloproteinasemediated cleavage of CD14 from the surface of these cells [16] .

Together, these fi ndings suggest that LPS recognition in the lung and subsequent induction of infl ammatory immune response is a complexly regulated process.

In addition to LPS-induced activation of TLR4, CD14 also amplifi es a number of TLR-dependent responses triggered by other bacterial PAMPs, including peptidoglycan, lipoteichoic acid (LTA) and lipoarabinomannan (LAM) [17] [18] [19] .

Peptidoglycan is an essential cell wall component of virtually all bacteria. Peptidoglycan is a polymer of Nacetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid, crosslinked by short peptides. Breakdown products of peptido glycan are recognized by diff erent classes of pattern-recognition receptors [19] . Polymeric soluble peptidoglycan is recognized by TLR2 on the surface of cells, and the interaction of peptidoglycan with TLR2 triggers MyD88-dependent activation and nuclear translocation of NF-κB, and subsequently the transcription and secretion of cytokines. Muramyl dipeptide and γ-Dglutamyl-meso-diaminopimelic acid, which are lowmolecular weight breakdown fragments of peptidoglycan, are recognized by intracellular pathogen recognition receptors, nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain containing (Nod)2 and Nod1, respectively [19] . Ligand binding to these receptors triggers interaction with the receptor-interacting protein kinase, RIP2, which activates NF-κB. Of these peptidoglycan breakdown products, only polymeric peptidoglycan binds to CD14, and CD14 enhances polymeric peptidoglycan-induced TLR2 activation. Th e low molecular weight fragments of peptidoglycan, like muramyl dipeptide, do not bind to CD14, do not induce cell activation through CD14 and also do not interfere with the binding of polymeric peptidoglycan to CD14 [19] . Furthermore, unlike LPS, peptidoglycan bound to sCD14 is not able to activate epithelial and endothelial cells with low membrane CD14 expression.

LTA is a constituent of the cell wall of Gram-positive bacteria, anchored on the outer face of the cytoplasmic membrane and commonly released during growth and antibiotic therapy. Like polymeric peptidoglycan, LTA induces NF-κB activation and cytokine secretion in a TLR2-dependent manner. LTA is recognized by LBP and CD14, and these accessory receptors both enhance LTAinduced cell activation [18] . Presumably in a similar manner, CD14 also enhances TLR2-dependent cellular activation by LAM derived from the cell-wall of mycobacteria. LAM derived from slowly growing virulent mycobacteria like Mycobacterium tuberculosis and M. leprae is capped with mannose (ManLAM), whereas LAM from avirulent and fast growing mycobacterial species is uncapped (AraLAM). Strikingly, AraLAM from avirulent mycobacteria is much more potent in inducing TNF secretion by macrophages than ManLAM from virulent mycobacterial strains [12] . AraLAM-, but not ManLAM-induced TNF secretion by monocytes and macrophages was largely CD14-, TLR2-and MyD88dependent [17] .

Recently CD14 was also found to enhance the innate immune response triggered by the TLR3 ligand poly(I:C), a synthetic mimic of double stranded RNA [20] . TLR3 together with TLR7 and TLR8 are regarded as sensors for viral infection, since these receptors recognize viral nucleic acids, like single and double stranded RNA. Th e potentiating eff ect of CD14 on TLR3 activation resulted from increased uptake of poly(I:C) and intracellular delivery to the compartment where TLR3 resides [20] . Taken together, these fi ndings suggest that CD14 plays an important role in the induction and amplifi cation of infl ammatory responses evoked by a wide variety of pathogens.

Th e contribution of CD14 to TLR ligand-induced lung infl ammation has been investigated in several animal studies (Table 1) . Intratracheal administration of LPS did not signifi cantly induce TNF release and neutrophil accumulation in the lungs of rabbits, unless LPS was complexed with LBP [21] or the animals were subjected to mechanical ventilation [22] . Intratracheal instillation of anti-CD14 antibodies together with LPS/LBP or intravenous pretreatment with anti-CD14 or anti-TLR4 antibodies before mechanical ventilation markedly reduced these infl ammatory responses [21, 22] . Despite a reduction in lung neutrophil number, intravenous anti-CD14 treatment of rabbits exposed to LPS and subjected to ventilation did not cause a decrease in lung chemokines, including CXCL8 (IL-8), growth related oncogene (GRO) and monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1, whereas anti-TLR4 treatment did lower the level of GRO moderately and of CXCL8 signifi cantly [22] . Th ese fi ndings reveal that LPS alone does not cause signifi cant lung infl ammation in rabbits and suggest that additional accessory signals are required. Whether mechanical ventilation induces increased release of LBP or release of (endogenous) DAMPs which potentiate the LPS-induced response remains to be determined.

In contrast to rabbits, administration of LPS alone to lungs of naive mice induced severe pneumonitis, irrespective of the manner of LPS delivery (inhalation or intra tracheal or intranasal instillation) or the source of LPS (Escherichia coli or Acinetobacter baumannii). Using antibody-treated and gene-defi cient mice, CD14 was found to be critically involved in the development of LPS-induced lung infl ammation [23] [24] [25] [26] . A study with CD14-defi cient mice and TLR4 mutant mice (lacking a functional TLR4) showed that LPS-induced vascular leakage, neutrophil infi ltration, nuclear translocation of NF-κB. Th e release of cytokines (TNF and IL-6) and chemo kines (CXCL1 and CXCL2) in the lung was completely dependent on these pattern recognition receptors [24] . Similar observations were made by others using mice treated intravenously with anti-CD14 Infl uenza A mouse CD14 -/-/~clearance, ~lymphocyte recruitment and activation, ~neutrophil infl ux, 50 ~cytokines antibodies [23] and by our group using CD14-defi cient and TLR4-defi cient mice [25] . Furthermore, intratracheal treatment of CD14-defi cient mice with sCD14 restored the infl ammatory response to the level present in wildtype mice, whereas treatment with wild-type alveolar macrophages restored the neutrophil infi ltration of the lung but not pulmonary TNF release [26] . Moreover, treatment with wild-type alveolar macrophages also restored neutrophil infi ltration in the lung of LPSexposed TLR4-defi cient mice [27] . Th ese fi ndings indicate that sCD14, and CD14 and TLR4 on the surface of alveolar macrophages contribute to the development of LPS-induced lung infl ammation. However, when a high dose of LPS was administered to the lungs of mice, acute lung infl ammation was absent in mice lacking functional TLR4, but only partially reduced in CD14 defi cient mice [24] . Th us, LPS-induced lung infl am mation is entirely dependent on TLR4 and, depending on the dose of LPS, also on the presence of CD14 in the lung.

Our group determined whether CD14 also contributes to the development of lung infl ammation induced by LTA, a TLR2 ligand from the cell wall of Gram-positive bacteria [28, 29] . Lung infl ammation induced by Staphylo coccus aureus LTA was completely dependent on TLR2, but independent of LBP and only moderately dependent on CD14 expression. As compared to wildtype mice, S. aureus LTA-induced neutrophil infl ux was unchanged in CD14-defi cient mice, whereas TNF and CXCL2 release in the lung were partially reduced [28] . Strikingly, however, pulmonary infl ammation was also greatly diminished in TLR4-defi cient mice, as well as in mice defi cient for platelet activating factor receptor (PAFR), a known receptor for LTA on epithelial cells. Similarly, lung infl ammation induced by Streptococcus pneumoniae LTA, which is less potent compared S. aureus LTA, was also completely dependent on TLR2 expression. However, in contrast to S. aureus LTA, neutrophil infi ltration of the lung was moderately reduced in CD14-defi cent mice treated with pneumococcal LTA, whereas TNF and CXCL2 release in the lung was unchanged [29] . Moreover, pneumococcal LTAinduced lung infl ammation was moderately diminished in TLR4-defi cient mice. Th us, despite the amplifying eff ect on LTA-induced TLR2-mediated responses in vitro, CD14 contributes minimally to lung infl ammation induced by LTA. Th e unexpected contribution of TLR4 to LTA-induced lung infl ammation may result from DAMPs generated during the infl ammatory process in the respiratory tract.

In line with the fi ndings that CD14 contributes to LPSinduced lung infl ammation in mice, a number of studies have shown that CD14 is essential for the host defense response in the lung against Gram-negative bacteria, such as nontypeable Haemophilus infl uenzae, a possible cause of community acquired pneumonia, and A. baumannii and E. coli, which are frequent inducers of nosocomial pneumonia (Table 1) . Nontypeable H. infl uenzae expresses the TLR4 ligands LPS and lipooligosaccharide on its cell wall, as well as several TLR2 ligands, including lipoproteins and porins. Previously, we found that activa tion of alveolar macrophages by nontypeable H. infl uenzae depended on expression of TLR4, TLR2, and CD14 [30] . Moreover, bacterial clearance after intranasal infection with nontypeable H. infl uenzae was markedly reduced in CD14-defi cient and TLR4-defi cient mice, as well as in TLR2-defi cient mice at later stages of the disease [30] . Interestingly, despite impaired bacterial clearance in CD14-defi cient and TLR4-defi cient mice, the infl ammatory response in the lung was strongly reduced in TLR4 defi cient mice, but elevated in CD14 defi cient mice. Similar observations were made with encapsulated H. infl uenzae in TLR4-mutant mice [31] . Furthermore, clearance of nontypeable H. infl uenzae was also significantly impaired in MyD88-defi cient mice, but not in mice lacking functional TRIF [30] . In a similar manner, CD14 was involved in the host defense response against A. baumanii [25] . CD14-defi cient mice, like TLR4defi cient mice, suff ered from impaired bacterial clearance in the lungs and enhanced bacterial dissemination after intranasal infection with A. baumannii. However, unlike TLR4-defi cient mice, CD14-defi cient mice developed similar infl ammatory responses compared to wild-type mice. Th ese fi ndings suggest a role for CD14 in antibacterial responses against nontypeable H. infl uenzae and A. baumannii. Although the role of TLR4 (and TLR2) in phagocytic killing is controversial, it is unknown whether CD14 is involved in such processes. Th e role of CD14 in E. coli-induced pneumonia was determined in anti-CD14 antibody treated rabbits. Intravenous anti-CD14 antibody treatment of rabbits inoculated with E. coli by bronchial instillation, resulted in decreased bacterial clearance from the lungs, but had no eff ect on neutrophil infi ltration or cytokine release in the lungs [32] . However, anti-CD14 treatment protected against sustained hypotension and reduced the levels of nitrate and nitrite in the blood. Th e contribution of CD14 to E. coli-induced pneumonia has not been investigated in mice, whereas the role of the other components of the LPS receptor complex (TLR4, MD-2, MyD88, TRIF) has been determined using gene-defi cient or mutant mice. Although analysis of bacterial clearance after intranasal infection of TLR4-mutant mice with E. coli produced inconsistent results [33] , lack of MD-2 or TRIF resulted in impaired bacterial clearance after E. coli instillation in the lungs [34, 35] . Moreover, E. coli-induced neutrophil accumulation and cytokine release was signifi cantly reduced in mice devoid of functional TLR4, MD-2, MyD88 or TRIF [33] [34] [35] . Th ese fi ndings indicate that signaling through the TLR4 receptor complex is essential in the host defense response against E. coli, and suggests that CD14 may contribute to these E. coli-induced responses.

To our knowledge, it is unclear whether CD14 contributes to host defense against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a frequent cause of nosocomial pneumonia, and Burkholderia cepacia, a prevalent Gram-negative bacterium, together with P. aeruginosa, in patients with cystic fi brosis. Recently, it was found that both TLR4 and TLR5 are critical in the host response to P. aeruginosa and that TLR4-defi cient mice were not susceptible to intratracheal P. aeruginosa infection unless a bacterial mutant devoid of fl agellin production was used [36] . A similar approach is required to determine a role for CD14 in Pseudomonas-induced pneumonia. It is plausible that CD14 also contributes to the host response against B. cepacia, since LPS from this bacterium signals through TLR4 and anti-CD14 antibodies dramatically inhibited B. cepacia-induced chemokine secretion by lung epithelial cells [37] . Whether CD14 contributes to host defense response against Klebsiella pneumoniae, a known cause of nosocomial pneumonia, also remains to be determined, but data from our study with TLR4-mutant mice indicate that signaling through TLR4 is essential for successful clearance of this bacterium [38] .

In contrast to the essential role of pulmonary TLR4 and CD14 in the host defense response against most Gramnegative bacteria, we found that TLR4 was not involved and CD14 played a remarkable detrimental role in the host response to B. pseudomallei, the causative organism of melioidosis (the most common cause of communityacquired sepsis in Southeast Asia) [39, 40] . CD14defi cient mice infected intranasally with B. pseudomallei were protected from mortality, accompanied by enhanced bacterial clearance in the lung, blood and liver, and reduced cellular infi ltration in the lung [39] , whereas the course of disease in TLR4-defi cient mice was indistinguishable from wild-type mice [40] . Moreover, intranasal administration of sCD14 to CD14-defi cient mice partially reversed the phenotype into that of wild-type mice [40] . Interestingly, these fi ndings in B. pseudo mallei-infected CD14-defi cient mice strongly resemble our previous results found with TLR2-defi cient mice, and are in line with the observation that B. pseudomallei expresses an atypical LPS which signals through TLR2 [39] . Whether CD14 interacts with TLR2 in B. pseudo mallei-induced responses, and by which mechanism these receptors facilitate the growth and dissemination of B. pseudomallei after intranasal infection remains to be determined.

In the model for S. pneumoniae-induced pneumonia, we observed an unexpected detrimental role for CD14 in the innate host defense response. S. pneumoniae, a Gram-positive bacterium and the single most frequent pathogen causing community-acquired pneumonia, induces severe lung infl ammation and sepsis in wild-type mice after intranasal instillation. Strikingly, CD14defi cient mice were protected against pneumococcal pneumonia, presumably as a result of reduced bacterial spread to the circulation and reduced lung infl ammation [41] . In contrast, TLR2-defi cient and TLR4-mutant mice were not protected against pneumococcal pneumonia [38, 42] , but in fact TLR2 seemed redundant for effi cient bacterial clearance and TLR4-mutant mice were more susceptible to pneumonia, accompanied by impaired bacterial clearance. However, as in CD14-defi cient mice, lung infl ammation was also reduced in pneumococciinfected TLR2-defi cient mice [42] . Since intrapulmonary treatment with sCD14 rendered CD14-defi cient mice equally susceptible to S. pneumoniae as wild-type mice [41] , these results suggest that S. pneumoniae abuses (s) CD14 in the lung to cause invasive respiratory tract infection. Interestingly, the phenotype of CD14 defi cient mice strongly resembled the phenotype of mice defi cient for PAFR [43] , a receptor for phosphoryl choline from the pneumococcal cell wall which facilitates pneumococcal invasion of cells. Further studies are required to determine whether CD14 serves as a chaperone in the presentation of S. pneumoniae to the PAFR so that the phosphoryl-PAFR-mediated invasion is facilitated.

Since M. tuberculosis expresses a number of molecules, such as lipoproteins, which activate immune cells in a CD14-dependent manner, we and others investigated whether CD14 also contributed to the host immune response in mice with lung tuberculosis [44] . Although initially after intranasal infection of wild-type and CD14defi cient mice no diff erences in bacterial loads, cell infi ltration and release of most cytokines in the lung were found [44, 45] , at later time points (> 20 weeks after infection) CD14-defi cient mice were protected from mortality presumably as a result of a reduced infl ammatory response in the lungs [44] . Th ese fi ndings are completely opposite to the results from M. tuberculosisinfected TLR2-defi cient and TLR4-mutant mice, which suff ered from reduced bacterial clearance, chronic infl ammation, increased cellular infi ltration of the lungs and reduced survival [46] [47] [48] . Th e mechanism underlying the detrimental eff ect of CD14 in the host response against M. tuberculosis remains to be established.

In addition to its role in (myco)bacterial infections, CD14 may also play a role in the pulmonary host response against respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), the most common cause of lower respiratory tract disease in infants and young children worldwide, and infl uenza A virus, a cause of pneumonia in very young children, the elderly and immunocompromised patients. Th e envelop F glycoprotein from RSV and certain infl uenza A virus components activate macrophages in a CD14-dependent manner [14, 20] . Experiments with wild-type and TLR4mutant mice infected intranasally with RSV showed that viral clearance was reduced in the absence of functional TLR4 [14] , due to impaired natural killer (NK) cell migration and function and impaired cytokine secretion. Recently, it was found that TLR2 and TLR6 are also involved in recognition of RSV [49] . Whether CD14 contributes to these TLR-mediated immune responses against RSV remains to be determined. Using CD14defi cient mice, we demonstrated that CD14 played a minimal role in infl uenza A virus-induced pneumonia [50] . During the entire course of disease, viral loads were slightly reduced in CD14-defi cient mice, but this did not result from improved lymphocyte recruitment or lympho cyte activation, or consistent changes in pulmonary cytokines [50] . Th us, despite the fact that infl uenza A expresses ligands that require CD14 for immune cell activation [20] , CD14 seems redundant in the host defense response against infl uenza A virus.

CD14 plays a central role in the lung in the recognition and binding of a variety of (myco)bacterial and viral components, and in the amplifi cation of subsequent host responses. Th e studies discussed in this chapter indicate that the contribution of CD14 to the pulmonary host defense responses may range from benefi cial to detrimental, depending on the microbe and the PAMPs it expresses. Interfering with CD14-LPS or CD14-LTA inter actions reduced lung infl ammation. Interference with CD14-pathogen interactions, however, did not have a signifi cant eff ect on M. tuberculosis or infl uenza A virus infection, resulted in reduced clearance of nontypeable H. infl uenzae, E. coli or A. baumannii in the lung, but enhanced clearance (and reduced dissemination) of B. pseudomallei or S. pneumoniae. Th e latter observation indicates that certain pathogens may abuse CD14 in the lung to cause invasive disease. Whether CD14 is a suitable target for intervention in these latter infectious diseases and/or in aberrant infl ammatory responses during pneumonia requires further study.

Abbreviations ARDS = acute respiratory distress syndrome, BAL -broncoalveolar lavage, DAMP = damage/danger-associated molecular pattern, F-gp = F glycoprotein, GPI = glycosylphosphatidyl, GRO = growth related oncogene, HMGB-1 = high mobility group box-1 protein, ICAM = intracellular adhesion molecule, IFN = interferon, IL = interleukin, IRF = IFN regulatory transcription factor, LAM = lipoarabinomannan, LBP = lipopolysaccharide binding protein, LPS = lipopolysaccharide, LTA = lipoteichoic acid, MCP = monocyte chemoattractant protein, MyD88 = myeloid diff erentiation primary-response protein 88, NF = nuclear factor, NK = natural killer, Nod = nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain containing, PAFR = platelet activating factor resceptor, PAMP = pathogen-associated molecular pattern, RIP = receptorinteracting protein kinase, RSV = respiratory syncytial virus, SP = surfactant protein, TLR = Toll-like receptors, TNF = tumour necrosis factor, TRIF = TIR-domain-containing-adaptor-protein-inducing-interferon-β

Toll-like receptors: function and roles in lung disease

CD14 and innate recognition of bacteria

Polymorphisms in the CD14 gene associated with pulmonary function in farmers

Crystal structure of CD14 and its implications for lipopolysaccharide signaling

CD14, a receptor for complexes of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and LPS binding protein

Relationship between soluble CD14, lipopolysaccharide binding protein, and the alveolar infl ammatory response in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome

Innate immune sensing and its roots: the story of endotoxin

Van der Poll T: Pulmonary lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-binding protein inhibits the LPS-induced lung infl ammation in vivo

Lipopolysaccharide activation of human endothelial and epithelial cells is mediated by lipopolysaccharidebinding protein and soluble CD14

Modulatory eff ects of sCD14 and LBP on LPS-host cell interactions

The structural basis of lipopolysaccharide recognition by the TLR4-MD-2 complex

Pathogen recognition and innate immunity

CD14 is required for MyD88-independent LPS signaling

Pattern recognition receptors TLR4 and CD14 mediate response to respiratory syncytial virus

Augusto: LA Interactions between LPS and lung surfactant proteins

Surfactant protein-D regulates soluble CD14 through matrix metalloproteinase-12

CD14 is a pattern recognition receptor

Lipoteichoic acid (LTA) of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus activates immune cells via Toll-like receptor (TLR)-2, lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP), and CD14, whereas TLR-4 and MD-2 are not involved

Peptidoglycan recognition in innate immunity

Double-stranded RNA-mediated TLR3 activation is enhanced by CD14

Lipopolysaccharide binding protein and CD14 interaction induces tumor necrosis factor-alpha generation and neutrophil sequestration in lungs after intratracheal endotoxin

Eff ect of Toll-like receptor 4 blockade on pulmonary infl ammation caused by mechanical ventilation and bacterial endotoxin

Eff ect of CD14 blockade on endotoxin-induced acute lung injury in mice

Distinct roles of pattern recognition receptors CD14 and Toll-like receptor 4 in acute lung Anas et al. Critical Care

Diff erential roles of CD14 and tolllike receptors 4 and 2 in murine Acinetobacter pneumonia

CD14 is an essential mediator of LPS induced airway disease

The role of Toll-like receptor 4 in environmental airway injury in mice

Lipoteichoic acid-induced lung infl ammation depends on TLR2 and the concerted action of TLR4 and the platelet-activating factor receptor

Role played by Toll-like receptors 2 and 4 in lipoteichoic acid-induced lung infl ammation and coagulation

The MyD88-dependent, but not the MyD88-independent, pathway of TLR4 signaling is important in clearing nontypeable haemophilus infl uenzae from the mouse lung

Toll-like receptor 4 mediates innate immune responses to Haemophilus infl uenzae infection in mouse lung

Eff ect of CD14 blockade in rabbits with Escherichia coli pneumonia and sepsis

TLR-4 pathway mediates the infl ammatory response but not bacterial elimination in E. coli pneumonia

Toll/IL-1 receptor domaincontaining adaptor inducing IFN-beta (TRIF)-mediated signaling contributes to innate immune responses in the lung during Escherichia coli pneumonia

Myeloid diff erentiation protein-2-dependent and -independent neutrophil accumulation during Escherichia coli pneumonia

Control of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in the lung requires the recognition of either lipopolysaccharide or fl agellin

Burkholderia cepaciainduced IL-8 gene expression in an alveolar epithelial cell line: signaling through CD14 and mitogen-activated protein kinase

Role of Toll-like receptor 4 in gram-positive and gram-negative pneumonia in mice

Toll-like receptor 2 impairs host defense in gram-negative sepsis caused by Burkholderia pseudomallei (Melioidosis)

CD14 impairs host defense against gram-negative sepsis caused by Burkholderia pseudomallei in mice

Van der Poll T: CD14 facilitates invasive respiratory tract infection by Streptococcus pneumoniae

Toll-like receptor 2 plays a role in the early infl ammatory response to murine pneumococcal pneumonia but does not contribute to antibacterial defense

Improved host defense against pneumococcal pneumonia in platelet-activating factor receptor-defi cient mice

Van der Poll T: CD14 contributes to pulmonary infl ammation and mortality during murine tuberculosis

Toll-like receptor (TLR)2-and TLR4-mediated pathogen recognition in resistance to airborne infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Toll-like receptor 4 expression is required to control chronic Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in mice

Toll-like receptor 2-defi cient mice succumb to Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection

Toll-like receptor 4 plays a protective role in pulmonary tuberculosis in mice

Respiratory syncytial virus activates innate immunity through Toll-like receptor 2

Van der Poll T: CD14 plays a limited role during infl uenza A virus infection in vivo

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.