key: cord-0059511-l7t2pjpp
authors: Skulmoski, Gregory J.; Langston, Craig; Patching, Alan; Ghanbaripour, Amir
title: Sustainable Project-Oriented Careers: A Conceptual Model
date: 2020-09-07
journal: Research on Project, Programme and Portfolio Management
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-60139-3_5
sha: f69d9954d0977492c450e6a7ab827975c415634a
doc_id: 59511
cord_uid: l7t2pjpp

An area of interest for project participants is career management. Some active network to find their next consulting engagement, upskill or prepare for major life changes (e.g. marriage or promotion). We find in the literature improved results for those who pursue a sustainable career path. We examine sustainable project-oriented careers and offer error messages that indicate career turbulence such as infrequent upskilling. The sustainable project-oriented career model is reviewed within the context of the Gig Economy where significant turbulence exists (e.g. COVID-19 pandemic) with the mediating role of training and continuing education. We conclude with an overview of innovations in post secondary education that facilitate a sustainable project-oriented career. We bring together evolving career sustainability concepts within the project environment and provide guidance for developing a sustainable project-oriented career, especially important in our current tempestuous times.

Modern project management is a relatively new phenomenon despite the long history of projects throughout millennia; we did not use modern terms to describe what was happening (e.g. even though we had a project sponsor for building the pyramids, they were not called project sponsors; they were simply called pharaohs). It was not until the twentieth century that modern project management emerged as we know it today. Carayannis et al. [12] reviewed the history of project management and traced the shift of focus from tools (e.g., PERT and Monte Carlo) to the human element (e.g. matrix organization and human resource management). We see professional organizations like the International Project Management Association form, grow and offer certifications to foster project management competence and the project-oriented career.

During this time, organizations also long relied on projects to bring new products and services to customers. Favaro [24] distils the history of business strategy, moving from efficiency targets, through to increasing scale and improving quality, to the rise of integrated networks and ecosystems to serve customers. To achieve the strategy, organizations would plan for 5-10 years and then launch a series of carefully and fully planned projects. Many organizations transitioned to a project-oriented organization to help achieve their strategy [28] .

The project-oriented career began to evolve in this time of change. In the past, a typical career in projects began when a person joins a project team as a junior member. If they do well, then they might be promoted to a "senior" project participant (e.g. Lead Engineer). Then if they succeed, we stop them from what they do well and then give them the new role of project manager often without formal training (or they attend project scheduling software training). There is little wonder looking back that we have not equipped our project teams to succeed since many "accidental" project managers led these challenging projects [32] .

Professional organizations offer project-oriented certifications to address competency gaps: Therefore, we see that the project-oriented career has become more formalized, requiring training and education in areas in addition to technical competence like engineering and project management tool proficiency such as budgets and schedules (Hartman 1999) . Planning a career in projects has become much more complex due to significant changes occurring in the business world. In the past, senior management would identify strategic goals, then launch a series of carefully planned projects; however, the timelines now are much more compressed, and the business environment is anything but stable. Agility, disruption, data analytics and integration are the new business mantra [24] .

Long-term planning and a stable workforce were characteristics of the business environment that have long since passed. Now, we have a Gig Economy at the front end of the 4th Industrial Revolution. Indeed, Akkermans, Seibert and Mol [3] state that a predictable career and lifetime employment with stable firms is a thing of the past. In this changing time, project-oriented people may re-examine their career path to be contributors rather than sidelined.

The Gig Economy may simply be described as temporary employment where contractors contribute to an organization's efforts through hourly or piecemeal work. For example, an independent contractor may join a project to set up and test a computer server, then leave the project when their contracted work is completed. Or the Gig Economy worker may be paid on a task-by-task basis such as delivery drivers (e.g. Uber drivers). Organizations now have more opportunities to hire temporary workers when required and minimize a core structure of full-time/long-term employees [46] .

Organizations increasingly are hiring temporary workers when needed, some inhouse services are contracted to external contractors to improve organizational effectiveness and efficiency, by having non-core activities performed by contractors to allow an organization to focus on core activities. However, some organizations choose the outsourcing model to bring in highly skilled contractors to bring innovation to core areas of business [23] . The global demand for outsourcing in 2015 was $524.4 billion and rose to $565 billion 2 years later. This growth has been primarily in logistics, IT (information technology) and business processing such as financial, human resource and call centres [40] . Indeed, IT outsourcing on a global level is expected to grow; such as in 2017 when outsourcing grew by 5.7% in that single year [23] . Indeed, some industries prefer the outsourced model rather than relying on in-house services: by 2020, 72% of all global clinical trials of pharmaceutical products is expected to be conducted by contract organizations with an annual growth rate of 6.9 annually [85] .

At the same time that the Gig Economy offers increased employment options, and business is more favourable to outsourcing, technology advances promise great change, opportunities and challenges. The 4th Industrial Revolution (also known as Industry 4.0) is the continuation of step changes to business beginning with the 1st Industrial Revolution (see Fig. 5 .1). We have progressed by applying steam, electricity and basic information and computer technologies to production. Now we see disruptive technologies being applied to virtual and physical activities on a global scale to allow organizations to cooperate to deliver new products and customizations in ways never before imagined possible or even demanded by consumers [5] . Disruptive technologies are those resources or tools used to produce things (e.g. artificial intelligence) or a finished product with disruptive characteristics (e.g. self-driving car). Other disruptive technologies include blockchain, gene sequencing, large-scale energy storage, building information modelling, nanotechnology, biotechnology, quantum computing, robotics, the Internet of Things and other transformative technologies that can have dual potentialities to help and/or harm [69] . For example, we may see ingestible robots that repair injuries from within, and we may see jobs displaced by these disruptive technologies. Indeed, a recent survey of 1730 project participants reported that 91% of them were impacted by disruptive technologies [64] . Indeed, there are technical "pessimists" who predict severe net job loss due to these disruptive technologies with significant impacts on society [69] . How is business impacted beyond the common challenges of global competition, shorter production cycles and consumer demand for customization? What is the impact to project participants? The 4th Industrial Revolution will likely impact the business by changing consumer expectations (e.g. sustainability), product enhancement (e.g. add digital capabilities to products), collaborative innovation (e.g. work with others) and the way organizations form and organize [69] . The news media is ripe with businesses failing thanks to disruptive technologies: we know about the drastic decline of Kodak, Blackberry and Blockbuster. Technology laggards are more likely to lack a mature digital business strategy, are risk-averse, and technology adoption is a low priority [64] . Many organizations may struggle against competitors who are agile and innovative, and harness global digital platforms for research, development, marketing, sales and distribution to outperform digital laggards [69] . Unfortunately, even if organizations have a digital strategy to deliver innovation, approximately one in ten organizations fail to deliver that strategy [64] . That is, even if an organization has a well-thought-out strategy delivered through innovation, they are likely to struggle to deliver that strategy through a project approach. But it is not organizations that deliver-it is people who deliver innovations through projects to achieve the strategy. Therefore, [27] recommends skill renewal to remain competitive.

Within these changes-Gig Economy, globalization, outsourcing, disruptive technologies, 4th industrial revolution and more-project-oriented workers who desire to succeed, may think strategically about their careers. What does the project-oriented work forecast look like? Are there jobs in project management despite job loss predictions associated with the 4th Industrial Revolution? Crawford, French and Lloyd-Walker [18] state that "a growing percentage of the Australian workforce is employed in project-based or project-oriented organisations, leading to the claim that Australia is a project-based economy". A recent study found that global organizations (chiefly in the financial services, industrial and manufacturing, consumer services, government and non-profit and retail and hospitality sectors) involved in delivering innovative projects rank the technical talent shortage as their top risk to strategy success [27] . Indeed, this shortfall is validated in a PMI study [66] that also looked at the supply and demand of project-oriented people and forecasted a talent shortage:

By 2027, organizations will need 87.7 million people in project-oriented roles;

The talent gap could result in a loss of $207.9 billion in GDP through 2027; On an annual basis, organizations will need to fill 2.2 million project-oriented jobs each year through to 2027.

Thus, while there could be an overall net job loss, there appear to be opportunities in technical areas, and especially in project management for people with the right skills. Technical proficiency ("Project Management Technical Quotient"-PMTQ) with disruptive technologies is an emerging project-oriented skillset: the ability to select, modify, manage and integrate technologies to solve problems and add value to specific projects [63] . Those with PMTQ competencies have three distinctive characteristics in addition to long-standing competencies like soft skills, project management tools and process expertise in traditional and adaptive delivery methods like Agile, and business strategy skills [63] : Curiosity: they welcome new ideas and ways of doing things wherever it may lie on the low to high technology continuum. They have an open mind, tempered with some scepticism. Inclusive Leadership: they look after not only their team but their team's resources such as technology and robots. Future-Proof Talent Pool: they recruit and nurture those who embrace these digital skills, and keep up with trends and adapt their own skill sets accordingly; there is a regular renewal of skills.

When a project-oriented person has these updated skills, including PMTQ, then they are more likely to find and keep jobs in project-oriented organizations [65] or to deliver value through an outsourcing arrangement. This raises the question: what can be found in the project-oriented literature and research?

To learn more about sustainable careers, we follow a systematic literature review process that involves two steps: plan the literature review process, then follow the literature review plan [11] . We conduct a Boolean search of key career sustainable terms (see Table 5 .1) and you searched across over 170 databases, including the following electronic databases such as ISI Web of Science, Scopus and SpringerLink. After searching the entire databases (e.g. everywhere), we narrow our Boolean search to filter in those articles from peer-reviewed journals. We then search only in the title of the publications of peer-reviewed journals.

We follow [11] systematic literature review process and applied inclusion and exclusion criteria (see Table 5 .2) to guide the quality of our review. One might be surprised that only 12 journal papers were found with the term "sustainable career" in their titles.

We then read the publications identified in Step 2, Table 5 .1. At some point in our careers, we were hired or brought onto a project team; we had the necessary competencies to add value. However, with time comes unpredictability, Sustainable careers are becoming an increasingly pronounced concern for many as evidenced in the recent growth of research papers in scientific journals and conferences [21] . Indeed, even the meaning of career is in flux as we see more workers adopt a subjective view of career success rather the more traditional view of career success through hierarchical progression [20, 79] . One emerging career sustainability model incorporates agency theory from psychology (the individual obeys the organization in exchange for the organization taking responsibility for their actions); it brings together the dimensions and indicators of career sustainability [21] . The DeVos career sustainability model begins with the concept of time in that sustainability is related to what happens over one's career to protect and foster human and career development. We have modified the model to substitute a project-oriented career occurring over time. It is over time that we can better assess sustainability rather than during a discrete moment of analysis. We have modified this model to specifically explain a project-oriented approach, rather than a psychological approach to career sustainability.

The key modification to this career sustainability model (see Fig. 5 .2) is to replace the individual's agency modelling perspective with a person in a project-oriented career, working overtime on a series of projects. In project-oriented organizations, a person may temporarily join an organization to perform project work, and then leave the organization upon completion of that work. However, some join an organization, and then stay for a series of projects, and then leave the organization [38] . It is this concept of a person working in a series of projects that displaces psychological concepts related to career sustainability.

When one has a project-oriented career, and one works in a series of projects, the notion of career sustainability may eventually be considered. Career sustainability is indicated by three elements:

(i) Productivity, where the individual performs successfully in their current role as well as having a high potential for future employability. New joiners and existing workers may need to learn new skills to complete tasks. An important concept is a fluid fit between these three career sustainability indicators: all three may be in flux and impact each other over time [21] . Thus, a project participant works in a series of projects over their career, and if the person has the right mix of success, health and productivity over time, that person has had a sustainable career.

During one's career, there is the notion that chance events (positive or negative) can occur that alter career trajectory; Akkermans, Seibert and Mol [3] refer to this as career shocks. The worker has control over some shocks like a decision to get pregnant that can impact their career. However, there are some shocks that the worker has less control such as when a person is made redundant or promoted to a position with more responsibility requiring more effort. These career shocks vary in intensity (moderate to severe), valence (positive or negative effects), frequency and duration [21] . These career shocks may also be predictable or unpredictable, as well as originate from multiple sources such as geopolitical, environmental, organizational, interpersonal and family-oriented [3] . Given enough time, most working people face a career shock; how a person reacts or indeed, plans for the career shock, impacts career sustainability. In this paper, we use the term "turbulence" rather than shock, since we can often avoid the ill effects of turbulence, whereas shocks imply less control. Therefore, we substitute career turbulence for career shocks in our model. In Table 5 .3, we identify examples of career turbulence from our systematic review of the literature.

Thus, the Sustainable Project-Oriented Career model has the project participant working in a project-oriented organization either as a contractor or as an internal employee. This person works on a series of projects over time, and this is called a project-oriented career. During this career, there are most likely career shocks (positive and negative, that vary in intensity) that face the project participant. If the person makes the right decisions, then there will be a fit between the career and the career sustainability indicators of being successful, healthy and productive will be positive. If the person does not respond appropriately to career shocks, then a sustainable project-oriented career is in jeopardy. Increasingly, a self-directed or "protean career" is the responsibility of the individual rather than the organization [3] .

When we reviewed general literature for elements of turbulence, we find potential examples of career turbulence that could cause challenges for project-oriented people:

• The globalization of work and changes to how work is structured, • Organizations reducing the amount of responsibility for workers' careers, • Career planning and development procrastination, • Increasing personal competency and threshold skill deficits, and • Increasing stress and a work-life imbalance.

The literature also reveals things people should do who have sustainable careers; we refer to these enablers as sustainable career drivers.

There are three key areas of response a person can take to improve the probability they have a sustainable project-oriented career. Repeatedly, the notion of career renewal is highlighted as critical to a sustainable career [1, 50, 51, 78] . It has been long recognized that individuals might complete formal training or education in areas of demand (especially future demand) so that one's skills align with the needs of the organization [72] . Second, one's career is more likely to become sustainable if one is flexible and adaptable to new opportunities; simply, the more one can do, the more opportunities there will be to choose, resulting in career continuity [51, 78] . Finally, building upon work-life balance research, career sustainability is more likely if the career is integrated with one's home life, the community and society [1, 58, 59, 78, 86] . We reviewed the literature for elements related to our Sustainable Project-Oriented Career model and uncovered potentially applicable sustainable career drivers (see Table 5 .4). Therefore, a sustainable career is more likely if one takes time for periodic renewal, one is flexible and adaptable to leverage new opportunities and one's career is holistically integrated to achieve an acceptable work-life balance trajectory. We find in general career research literature, career sustainability drivers help guide workers and human resource management professionals to build and maintain sustainable careers. But what about sustainable careers in project management? Chudzikowski [17] In press N = 34, interviews

Conform and align early with one's organization; take ownership for own's career

We systematically review the six, project management-related journals and search everywhere for the term "sustainable career", and we find only one result (see Table 5 .5). We also search for the term "career" everywhere, and then again, but only in the title; and find that career sustainability is a new term in the project management-oriented literature. We review these papers for their relevance to sustainable careers. We learnt that many of the results were due to the authors using the term "career" publication biography, rather than somehow relating to their research. Again, we find that within the project management literature, there were hints of sustainable career turbulence (see Table 5 .6) and drivers (see Table 5 .7).

When one reviews the project management literature, research and opinion articles about sustainable careers in project management do not exist; however, there is useful information related to sustainable project-oriented career turbulence and drivers. We believe that a perceptive project participant may see signs that their project-oriented career is unsustainable: that is, there may be "error messages" that one's career is in trouble.

We offer error messages as indicators that one's career may not be sustainable. Hartman [32] developed a series of project management error messages designed to alert the project manager that something is wrong in their project. While no one sustainable project-oriented career error message may be the "nail in the coffin", a sustainable project-oriented career is in jeopardy as error messages accumulate. After our literature review analysis, we have categorized these error messages into (i) renewal opportunities, (ii) adaptability and (iii) holistic integration (e.g. work-life balance). Bredin [10] 2013 N = 10, case study Project managers and career models of Swedish project-oriented firms Lack of job rotation to increase competency

Crawford [18] 2013 N = 9, interviews Project career paths in Australia

Rise of contract work

Havermans [33] 2019 N = 21, interviews Explore the motivation and experience of becoming a project manager Frustrating processes, project administration, stress from conflict and work overload, changing work conditions, accountability without authority, politics

Huemann [39] 2019 N = 20, Interviews Project manager career development and line manager relationships

Lack of project manager, career development support from line managers

Assigned the same types of projects time after time, Haphazard and infrequent networking to uncover new opportunities, Did not get the promotion, job or contract, Shut out from normal activities (e.g. not invited or contracting meetings), Works on the same aspects of PM on all projects (scheduling, e.g. without crossfertilization of competence in other knowledge areas), Does not contribute to professional activities outside the workplace, Does not promote the company he or she is working for in meetings or conferences outside of the organization, Does not update the work procedures according to the lessons learned or from reading new PM literature, Can only work with particular types of people, Not open to new ideas coming from subordinates or the project team.

These types of error messages may indicate that your career may benefit from being open to new opportunities to expand career flexibility.

Clinically depressed, No longer exercise as often as you would like, Unplanned career absences, High annual leave balance, Does not take advantage of employer-offered stress avoidance or stress management schemes or employee assistance programmes, Regularly works more than 50 h per week, Regularly works at home after a full day of work for more than an hour or more than two evenings a week, Consistently works at least half a day on weekends for more than one weekend a month, Thinks about the undesirable things that occurred in the workplace, Stressed about the risks that are extremely unlikely to happen.

These types of error messages may indicate that your career may benefit from more work-life balance to have a more holistic integration.

Long time since your last formal class that had an assessment component, Infrequent professional development other than mandatory learning requirements (e.g. Fire Safety), Unfamiliar with Adaptive Project Management methods (Agile, Scrum, #NoProjects, Kanban, Lean), Curriculum vitae is out of date, Lack of professional institution membership (e.g. IPMA, PMI, etc.), Infrequently reads journals or magazines from your industry, Headhunters seldom contact you, Infrequent and irregular online professional social network participation (i.e. LinkedIn, ProjectManagement.com, GanttHead.com, etc.), Unfamiliar with emerging PM computer/mobile applications. (i.e. Slack, Monday, WorkflowMax, Wrike, Trello, Mavenlink, Asana, etc.).

These types of error messages may indicate that a sustainable project-oriented career may benefit from an intervention such as renewal. At the same time that we see disruption and transformation in project management, we also see a great change in education and training that will be of interest to those who seek formal renewal.

One can renew their skill set through education and training. Training involves attaining specific and practical skills, usually through relatively short-term learning experiences. Education involves more than theoretical learning in a classroom setting about a wide variety of topics gained over a relatively long term. Training often prepares a learner for the present while education prepares an individual for a future job [67] . While the focus of this paper is about preparing for the future by having a sustainable career, we do want to emphasize the importance of training in project management. Project-oriented participants will do well to review the wide variety of training opportunities offered by professional organizations like the International Project Management Association, Project Management Institute, Association for the Advancement of Cost Engineering International, British Computer Society and others.

There has been a significant change to the higher education sector that better support successful renewal opportunities:

1. Multiple Degree Options: There is greater diversity within degrees so that a learner can find a better fit with the degree and their goals [47] . Take a Master of Project Innovation and Master of Project Management) where the learner graduates with two degrees in a shorter period since electives and core classes are shared between the two degrees. 3. Accelerated Programmes: Universities are finding ways to deliver the full degree but within compressed time frames so that the learner achieves the learning outcomes but over a shorter period [44] . For example, some universities offer classes over three rather than the typical two semesters per year, resulting in students graduating sooner. 4. Intensive Classes: Students can attend intensive classes (e.g. Thursday, Friday and Saturday) so that they can work most of the week and attend classes at the end of the week and on the weekend. Intensive classes improve access to educational renewal [47] . 5. Problem-Oriented: More educational programmes are supplementing theoretical learning with problem-oriented thinking supplemented with design thinking [49] ; that is, they use newly acquired theory to solve problems. By doing so, learning is reinforced. 6. Personalized Learning: Students have more choice within courses to personalize learning and more electives to achieve their learning outcomes often through academic mentorship [14] . 7. Interactive: More and more, lectures are replaced with interactive learning [47] activities like discussions, role plays, peer to peer, board rotation, etc. 8. Flipped Classroom: The flipped classroom is a relatively new teaching approach where the traditional classroom activities are flipped with students complete assigned learning activities before they attend the class. The key advantage is that students in a flipped classroom, have more guidance with higher order learning activities like analysis and evaluation, to improve learning. 9. Outdoor Learning Spaces: Universities are adding outdoor learning spaces to bring additional diversity to the educational environment [13] . Rather than selfdirected group learning and discussions occurring in classrooms, this type of learning environment is especially welcomed by adults who enjoy getting out of the classroom to learn. 10. Workplace Readiness/Authentic Assessment: Perhaps one of the largest changes is that many university programmes have adapted their curriculum so that the content is more likely to be used in practice [14, 47] . Students increasingly ask that they become workplace-ready as they progress through their program. This feedback has triggered a rethinking of how to assess student learning. This might mean a decline in exams and essays, and an increase in reports, problem-solving exercises and other types of assignments to approximate what is done in the real world. More institutions are addressing workplace readiness and including authentic assessment [84] . 11. Digital Badges: Digital badges (micro-credentials) are an emerging online system to recognize accomplishments and competence [22] . An awarding organization offers a learning opportunity for a student. Successful students are awarded a digital badge to recognize their competence. The online badge includes key information such as badge name and description, awarding criteria, issuer, learning evidence, date issued, etc. Some universities issue digital badges (e.g. Design Thinker) after one or two subjects are completed to a certain standard (e.g. 65%). The student can add this digital badge to their CV and to an online platform like LinkedIn rather than waiting until graduation to show the fruit of their efforts.

Therefore, while there is great change occurring in the project environment, there are also increased opportunities and modes of learning for those project-oriented participants who are looking for renewal opportunities to boost their sustainable project-oriented career.

Long gone is the norm that one had a job for a lifetime-a stable, singular and linear career. More project-oriented participants understand the simple concept of supply and demand: if one has competencies that are in demand, then one will likely remain employed. Organizations are becoming more project-oriented and recruit project participants often for particular jobs, and may retain them for additional project work or release them [38] . Many work arrangements are fragile, given changes brought about to how we work (disruptive technologies brought about by the 4th Industrial Revolution) and how we organize for work (more outsourcing and contract work in the Gig Economy). Add work changes to career turbulence external shocks (e.g. family commitments or job promotion), then a project-oriented participant may feel out of equilibrium with an unsustainable project-oriented career. One may have a respected project-oriented job but may need to work long hours to meet deadlines, perhaps resulting in family conflict, stress and possible burnout. Such imbalance is usually not sustainable. One may also have a good project-oriented job but has not expanded or renewed their skill set to be able to contribute to projects involving disruptive technologies. Or they may have a singular career focus, rather than a composite career, with multiple, and perhaps entrepreneurial initiatives.

Career sustainability is complex, non-linear and fluid; career sustainability is more likely if one addresses at least three key elements: (i) holistic integration with one's life, (ii) career flexibility and (iii) career renewal [21] . Compounding career planning and development is that one's personal goals change over time [21] ; the sports car that was important in one's twenties becomes less important with marriage and the arrival of twin babies! During one's career, there may be changes in the degree of career fit and sustainability [61] . Hirschi et al. [36] advise to take a whole-life perspective when living a sustainable career; we might be guided by sustainable career drivers and unsustainable career error messages in order to take proactive planning and action. Unsustainable career error messages can inform us if any of these areas are weak. Career sustainability is of even greater importance to some given that we have an ageing population that is expected to work longer in their careers [75] .

We conclude this paper with an overview of new trends occurring in education that make renewal more attractive and feasible for most. Project-oriented career sustainability is the individual's responsibility according to a protean view; there are positive actions one can take to have a sustainable career in projects.

The general area of career sustainability research is in its infancy [51] ; some call for more research about the nature and dimensions of sustainable careers, indicators of a sustainable career and general sustainable career theory building [21] . However, it appears to this research team that the research opportunities in project-oriented careers are broad and deep.

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