key: cord-0296447-7bybk3k2 authors: Ouboter, Dimitri A.; Kadosoe, Vanessa S.; Ouboter, Paul E. title: Impact of ecotourism on abundance, diversity and activity pattern of medium-large terrestrial mammals at Brownsberg Nature Park, Suriname date: 2021-04-07 journal: bioRxiv DOI: 10.1101/2021.04.07.438794 sha: cb9a0f3a5ae460f2e77cd287736d0d4a2c839232 doc_id: 296447 cord_uid: 7bybk3k2 The impacts of ecotourism on biodiversity are poorly understood and the outcome of research is often contradictory. On the one hand ecotourism could impact the occurrence, survival or behavior of species, on the other hand ecotourism is often mentioned as providing a “human shield” by deterring negative practices like gold mining, logging and hunting. Brownsberg Nature Park is easily the most visited protected area of Suriname, with a high number of ecotourists visiting from abroad. A four-year study on the impact of ecotourism on medium-large terrestrial mammals was carried out between 2013 and 2016 using 16 camera trapping stations. The area has a clear gradient of tourism pressure, with the pressure decreasing further away from the lodging facilities. Evidently, the impacts of human presence on the mammal communities were more significant in the busiest areas. Most species avoided areas with many hikers or switched to a more nocturnal activity pattern. In these areas the impact was not reflected in species numbers, however it was causing a significant lowering of the diversity of mammals. On the other hand, vehicles had little impact on species avoidance or diversity, but did increase nocturnality even more than hikers. A few species seemed to be “attracted” by hikers and/or traffic. Giant armadillos and spotted pacas used the pools in the road created by traffic. Ocelots, margays and red-rumped agoutis seemed to favor human disturbance probably because of predator release. Some of the most impacted species were the jaguar, puma and lowland tapir, all three species with significant contribution to ecosystem balance. Their avoidance or even disappearance from highly human frequented areas could easily result in ecosystem changes in these areas. Management measures should focus on lowering the number of hikers in popular places and limiting the number of vehicles in recreational or tourist areas. providing a "human shield" by deterring negative practices like gold mining, logging and 23 hunting. 24 Brownsberg Nature Park is easily the most visited protected area of Suriname, with a 25 high number of ecotourists visiting from abroad. A four-year study on the impact of 26 ecotourism on medium-large terrestrial mammals was carried out between 2013 and 2016 27 using 16 camera trapping stations. The area has a clear gradient of tourism pressure, with 28 the pressure decreasing further away from the lodging facilities. Evidently, the impacts of 29 human presence on the mammal communities were more significant in the busiest areas. 30 Most species avoided areas with many hikers or switched to a more nocturnal activity 31 pattern. In these areas the impact was not reflected in species numbers, however it was 32 causing a significant lowering of the diversity of mammals. On the other hand, vehicles 33 had little impact on species avoidance or diversity, but did increase nocturnality even 34 more than hikers. A few species seemed to be "attracted" by hikers and/or traffic. Giant 35 armadillos and spotted pacas used the pools in the road created by traffic. Ocelots, 36 margays and red-rumped agoutis seemed to favor human disturbance probably because of 37 predator release. Some of the most impacted species were the jaguar, puma and lowland 38 tapir, all three species with significant contribution to ecosystem balance. Their 39 avoidance or even disappearance from highly human frequented areas could easily result It is situated northwest of the Brokopondo Reservoir, about 90 km south of the capital 133 Paramaribo (Fig 1) . Brownsberg is a ferro-bauxite capped mountain with a 470-530 m 134 high plateau that stretches approximately 34 km in length and 13.5 km in width at its 135 widest point [19] . The area is covered by humid forest and hosts a wide variety of 136 habitats due to its wide range of elevations, steep slopes and gullies [5, 20] . This creates 137 high diversity within a small area which is illustrated by the diverse fauna and flora, 138 including endemic species which can also be found within the park [5]. Brownsberg 139 Nature Park is home to at least 125 species of mammals consisting of "ten opossums, five 140 pilosans, four armadillos, 58 bats, eight primates, 13 carnivores, five ungulates, and 22 141 rodents" [21] . This includes all of the felid and primate species known to occur in 142 Suriname. Most of the surface area of Brownsberg is covered by mesophytic and meso-143 xerophytic rainforest. Other habitats occurring in the Park include xerophytic low forest, 144 bamboo-liana forest, marshy streamside forest and swamp-marsh forest [19] . The climate 145 is tropical, with two wet seasons (April/May to August and December to January) and 146 two dry seasons (February to April and August to November/December) [ Tourists can rent lodging facilities located on the northern part of the plateau (Fig 1) , 184 which can be reached through a road coming in from the North-East and starting at Mostly Reconyx PC900 cameras, containing a covert infrared flash, were used during the 202 study. Cameras were attached to trees between 30 to 80 cm (depending on the viewing 203 angle from tree to trail) above the ground and secured with a Python lock. Cameras were 204 set to take five rapid (<1 second interval) photos upon detection of a moving (warm) 205 object, after which the camera had a delay of three minutes before arming again. For the analysis, medium-large terrestrial mammals were defined as species with a 216 bodyweight usually greater than 1 kg as an adult. This means that the smaller opossums 217 (Philander opossum, Metachirus nudicaudatus and mouse opossums of the genus 218 Marmosa), mice and rats were excluded from the analysis. Also, principally arboreal 219 mammal species, such as squirrels and monkeys, were excluded from the data analysis. 220 All photos were identified to either species of animal (using [25]) or classified as type of 221 trigger by humans (e.g. tourist, vehicle, bicycle, hunter, gold miner). The species as 222 opposed to the number of specimens was counted in each photo trigger (e.g. one peccary 223 equals one trigger, but a group of ten peccaries also equals one trigger). When two or 224 more consecutive triggers were of the same species, the first was counted and the second 225 only after 30 minutes had passed since the first trigger. This measure was applied to 226 prevent multiple counts of the same individual of several species that may linger in front 227 of a camera for longer periods (agoutis, peccaries and armadillos) or may reappear after a 228 short while (pumas). On the contrary, consecutive triggers by hikers or vehicles, were 229 counted irrespective of time between triggers. 2) and a significant positive correlation between the distance to the 297 tourist center and Simpson's Diversity Index (r=0.709, p=0.002) (Fig 3) . Shifts in activity patterns due to disturbance by hikers and vehicles are statistically 368 significant for the jaguar and puma (Fig 7) . Both species had a shift to more nocturnal 369 activity, and this was rather noticeable due to traffic rather than hikers. The shift to more 370 nocturnal activity for the ocelot was solely due to the significant impact of hikers. 371 Shifts in the activity of diurnal non-predatory species, due to disturbance, were usually 372 not significant and resulted mostly in less activity in the late afternoon and an increase in 373 activity in the early morning (Amazonian brown brocket, red acouchi, red-rumped agouti) 374 (Fig 8) . This was in contrast to the cat species. Traffic caused a shift in the activity 375 pattern of the nine-banded armadillo to more activity in the early night. 376 Changes in activity patterns due to human disturbance are further illustrated in Fig 9. 377 The impacts of human disturbance were most noticeable on jaguars, changing their 59% 378 diurnal activity to 20% as a result of hikers, and only 11% remaining with heavy traffic. 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