key: cord-0723401-xrmunr4j
authors: Hu, Zhiwen; Chen, Ya; Song, Yuling; Yang, Zhongliang; Huang, Hui
title: Naming Human Diseases: Ethical Principles of Curating Exclusive Substitute for Inopportune Nosology
date: 2021-10-02
journal: bioRxiv
DOI: 10.1101/2021.05.01.442270
sha: 9833860d5c71e3a316ec4526fa590535bccec665
doc_id: 723401
cord_uid: xrmunr4j

Background In the medical sphere, understanding naming conventions strengthen the integrity of naming human diseases remains nominal rather than substantial yet. Since the current nosology-based standard for human diseases could not offer a one-size-fits-all corrective mechanism, many idiomatic but flawed names frequently appear in scientific literature and news outlets at the cost of sociocultural impacts. Objective We attempt to examine the ethical oversights of current naming practices and propose heuristic rationales and approaches to determine a pithy name instead of an inopportune nosology. Methods First, we examined the compiled global online news volumes and emotional tones on some inopportune nosology like German measles, Middle Eastern Respiratory Syndrome, Spanish flu, Hong Kong flu, and Huntington’s disease in the wake of COVID-19. Second, we prototypically scrutinize the lexical dynamics and pathological differentials of German measles and common synonyms by leveraging the capacity of the Google Books Ngram Corpus. Third, we demonstrated the empirical approaches to curate an exclusive substitute for an anachronistic nosology German measles based on deep learning models and post-hoc explanations. Results The infodemiological study shows that the public informed the offensive names with extremely negative tones in textual and visual narratives. The findings of the historiographical study indicate that many synonyms of German measles did not survive, while German measles became an anachronistic usage, and rubella has taken the dominant place since 1994. The PubMedBERT model could identify rubella as a potential substitution for German measles with the highest semantic similarity. The results of the semantic drift experiments further indicate that rubella tends to survive during the ebb and flow of semantic drift. Conclusions Our findings indicate that the nosological evolution of anachronistic names could result in sociocultural impacts without a corrective mechanism. To mitigate such impacts, we introduce some ethical principles for formulating an improved naming scheme. Based on deep learning models and post-hoc explanations, our illustrated experiments could provide hallmark references to the remedial mechanism of naming practices and pertinent credit allocations.

Background 79

Terminology is the crystallization of human scientific and technological knowledge in 80 natural language. In the medical sphere, appropriate names were deliberately invented for 81 the designation of human diseases with pathological characteristics. However, 82 underrepresented emphasis has been placed on the nomenclature of human diseases. The 83 current wave of destigmatization calls for constant introspection of the offensive 84 appellations of human diseases [1] [2] [3] . In the same week, the anachronistic usage of 85 German measles in the leading journals Nature and Science without any caution implies 86 that some strongly-held but flawed names may brand social stigma and discrimination 87 [4] [5] [6] . 88 In the 19 th century, the name rubella was proposed as a substitute for German term 89 rötheln, then the epidemic neologism German measles was gradually accepted as 90 idiomatic usages [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] . However, anachronistic usages like that violate the latest naming 91 protocols of the World Health Organization (WHO) -stigmatizing a specific country and 92

its residents [1] . Arguably, the looming worry is to reignite the torch of discrimination 93 and fuel the current infodemic unconsciously [3, [17] [18] [19] [20] . 94 95 Study Objectives 96

Based on extensive literature review, this study aims to punctuate heuristic introspection 97 of naming practices for human diseases and address the following research issues: 98 [1] Did the anachronistic names like German measles cost social impacts? 99 [2] What are the diachronic discourses of German measles and common synonyms? 100

What can we learn from the lexical evolution? 101 [3] Should we hash out inopportune names like German Measles? And How? 102 [4] What are the pertinent principles of curating the exclusive substitute for an 103 anachronistic nosology? 104

Rich collections of the printed or digital imprint of social individuals are formidable 106 proxies to determine the dynamic pragmatics patterns of practical utterances and reveal 107 the collective human behaviours from sociocultural preferences [21, 22] . Following the 108

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 109

guidelines [23] , here we orchestrate rich metadata available to unveil the scientific 110 paradigms via the following experiments (Multimedia Appendix 1).

Infodemiological study. In the global online news coverage experiments, we aim to 112 unveil the scientific paradigms of the diachronic discourse and emotional tone. Here, the 113 metadata analysis aims to demonstrate the emotional polarity of the public in the context 114 of global online news on German measles, Middle Eastern Respiratory Syndrome, 115 Spanish flu, Hong Kong flu, and Huntington's disease over time, respectively. 116

First, the code scheme was curated following three main principles that we established 117 before [24] . According to the code scheme, the search formulas are available in 118

Multimedia Appendix 2. Second, the unbiased and comprehensive metadata of global 119 online news coverage and emotional tone retrieved through the open project GDELT 120

Summary between December 30, 2019 (the outbreak of COVID- 19) and May 8, 2021 121 (the Sixth anniversary of World Health Organization Best Practices for the Naming of 122 New Human Infectious Diseases), including the textual and visual narratives of different 123 queries [25, 26] . Finally, by leveraging the capacity of GDELT's machine translate and 124 neural network image recognition [26] , the instant news portfolio in Figure 1 summarizes 125 the textual and visual narratives of different queries in 65 multilingual online news. The 126 volume ratio is the total volume of matching articles divided by the total number of all 127 articles monitored by GDELT. The emotional tone is the average tone of all matching 128 documents, and the normalized score ranges from −10 (extremely negative) to +10 129 (extremely positive) based on the tonal algorithm. 130

Historiographical study. The Google Books Ngram Corpus (GBNC) is a unique 131 linguistic landscape that benefits from centuries of development of rich grammatical and 132 lexical resources as well as its cultural context [27] . It contains n-grams from 133 approximately 8 million books, or 6% of all books published in English, Hebrew, French, 134

German, Spanish, Russian, Italian, and Chinese. The GBNC covers data logs from 1500 135 to 2019. A unigram (1-gram) is a string of characters uninterrupted by a space, and an n-136 gram (n consecutive words) is a sequence of a 1-gram, such as morbilli (unigram), 137 rubeola (unigram), rubella (unigram), Rötheln (unigram), and German measles (bigram). 138

In this study, by retrieving the use frequency of a specific lexicon in historical 139 development, we first obtain a glimpse of the nature of historical evolution in Figure 3 . 140

Then, as we continue to stockpile seminal patterns in Figure 3 , some have argued that 141 correlation is threatening to unseat causation as the bedrock of scientific storytelling 142 before. We must punctuate heuristic cautions of wrestling with information from 143 retrospective sources, cross-validation, and the reassembly of the whole story. Finally, 144

we provide compelling arguments to the extent of understanding the underneath nature 145 of lexical dynamics and pathological differentials based on authentic materials and 146 critical examination. 147

Semantic similarity experiments. Based on the epistemic results of the above 148 historiographical study, as an exemplificative case, we could construct the initial 149 candidates of German measles, which includes morbilli, rubeola, rubella, and rötheln. 150

Relatedly, as prior knowledge, the term rotheln is ordinarily used as a translation of the 151

German term rötheln in literature. From the outset, it's reasonable to expand the initial 152 candidates to morbilli, rubeola, rubella, rötheln, and rotheln. 153

Directed at five expanded candidate words, we employed the BERT model and 154

PubMedBERT model to quantify the semantic similarities between them, respectively. 155

The cosine similarity formulas to calculate semantic relevance is as follows: The BERT model and PubMedBERT model have the same architecture with different 160 corpora for preliminary training and pre-training (Figure 4) . Coupling with a multi-layer 161 bidirectional transformer encoder and bidirectional self-attention, the BERT and 162

PubMedBERT models are more sensitive to semantics than the constrained self-attention 163 used by GPT-2 model. The former uses the BookCorpus (800M words) and English 164

Wikipedia (2,500M words) for training, its multilingual pre-training model can handle 165 over more than 100 languages [28] . The latter model uses the latest collection of PubMed 166 abstracts (14M abstracts, 3.2B words, 21GB), and its pre-training model can facilitate 167 understanding the word semantic in the medical field [29] . The two models used the 168

Wordpiece embeddings with their own token vocabularies. The two models are capable 169

to verify the homology between rötheln, and rotheln, and identify the target word with 170 the closest similarity to German measles in the initial candidates ( Figure 5) 

where C represents word co-occurrence matrix, ( , ) refers to the number of co-191 occurrences of the words x and y, ( ) represents the number of occurrences of the word 192

x, ( ) represents the number of occurrences of the word y, N represents the number of 193 words in the corpus. Thirdly, we used singular value decomposition (SVD) to obtain a 194 4500×4500 matrix for the corpus of the two time periods. Finally, in Figure 6 [40] [41] [42] [43] have been accused of unnecessary social 208 impacts in previous studies (Figure 1 ).

Naming conventions are not merely for naming diseases but for the vitality of science 210 and the promotion of social progress [2, 33, 44, 45] . Evidently, as shown in Figure 1 , the 211 results of the infodemiological study show that the global news outlets (in 65 languages) 212 enjoy long-standing but flawed naming conventions with extremely negative tones, such 213

as German measles, Middle Eastern Respiratory Syndrome, Spanish flu, Hong Kong flu, 214

and Huntington's disease. Admittedly, the coverage of affective tones is much negative 215 than the standard portrayal assumes on average [46] . This finding highlights that these 216 controversial stereotypes confounded the generally accepted norms at the cost of social 217 progress, such as worsening acute stress of patients, provoking the backlash against 218 particular communities, triggering unjustified slaughtering of food animals, and creating 219 needless travel barriers or trade barriers [1] [2] [3] 47, 48] . 220

Understanding how naming conventions strengthen the integrity of naming practices 221 remains nominal rather than substantial yet. In the COVID-19 infodemic, multifarious 222 monikers have become explicit consideration in the COVID-19 paper tsunami, and the 223 global profusion of tangled hashtags has found their ways in daily communication [49] . 224

Just as the remarks of the editorial of Nature, "As well as naming the illness, the WHO 225 was implicitly sending a reminder to those who had erroneously been associating the virus 226

with Wuhan and with China in their news coverage -including Nature. That we did so 227

was an error on our part, for which we take responsibility and apologize."[50] 228

Unfortunately, many more stigmatized names somewhat aggravate the collective 229 perceptual biases and contribute to recent backlash against Asians and diaspora [24, 51] . 230 Accordingly, scientists must verse themselves in naming conventions rather than feeding 231 the trolls of stigma and discrimination. 232 Of similar concern, we witness that many anachronistic names, from Spanish flu to Zika, 243

and from Lyme to Ebola, are named after geographic places in our daily communications. 244

But they are stigmatized cases and plain inaccurate ( Table 1) . 245 [54]

Lyme disease Lyme disease was named after the "original location", the town of Old Lyme, Connecticut in 1975. More than 130 years ago, a German physician Alfred Buchwald first discovered the erythema migrans of what is now known to be Lyme disease.

[53]

Ebola disease The hemorrhagic fever caused by the filovirus is named after the Ebola River at Legbala, Congo. Yambuku, a town situated 100 kilometers away from Legbala, was the first epicenter in 1976.

[ or renaming pre-existed nosology, as well as pertinent credit allocation (Figure 2 ). 277

First, as shown in Figure 2 , many contributors were involved in the general taxonomy 278

and nomenclature process of human diseases, including the discover(s), originator(s), 279

proposer(s), auditor(s), and ratifier(s). Without moral discernment, the Matthew effect of 280 credit misallocations always discourages individual engagement in such practices [58] . 281

Scientists, who preluded the accession of a particular disease, do not always earn their 282

bona fide niches because of credit misallocation in the scientific narratives. well as its cultural context [27, 90] . Arguably, the lexicographical and historiographical 347 study promises to articulate the ins and outs of scientific narratives by leveraging the 348 capacity of these rich metadata corpora over four centuries. As shown in Figure 3 synonyms as morbilli and rubeola [92] . The English term measles was introduced by Dr. 358

John of Gaddesden as an equivalent of the Latin term morbilli around the 14 th century 359

[63, 93, 94] . But such designation was generally criticized for "a product of semantic and 360 nosographic confusion." [95] The term rubeola originally borrowed from the Latin word 361

Rubeus (meaning reddish) in Avicenna of Bagdad's writings, is thought to have been 362

used for the first time as a translation of the term measles [94, 96] . Indeed, the great 363 majority of scientists recognize German measles to be an independent disease. 364

According to the OED Online, the earliest known references to German measles date 365 back as far as 1856 ( Table 2) . Therefore, it is generally believed that the epidemic entity 366

German measles was accepted growly after 1856 [7, 97, 98] . But this is not the case. The 367 earliest usages could be stemmed back to about 1814 ( Table 3) . 368 [101]

German measles

With regard to the name, 'German measles' -its usual trite designation here -seems unexceptionable for common use. [7] rubella 1866

Rötheln is harsh and foreign to our ears…I therefore venture to propose Rubella as a substitute for Rötheln, or, at any rate, as a name for the disease which it has been my object in this paper to describe.

[102] Shortly before (1768), the two diseases had been separated by Sauvages in his Nosology, and he was the first to call measles "rubeola," instead of "morbilli," by which name it had always been known before. This new name, "rubeola," was adopted by Cullen in his Nosology, published four years later (1772).

[ names rubella or German measles as a substitute for Rötheln [7, 86] . Then, the epidemic 384

term German measles was accepted gradually as a synonym of rubella. German measles, 385

Rötheln or rubeola per se, was officially ratified as a distinct disease at the 7 th 386

International Medical Congress, London, August 2 to 9, 1881 [88,111-118]. A quarter-387 century later, the term German Measles has ultimately become common usage. 388

Rubella has been "discovered -and named -multiple times" in the past centuries [119] . 389

In modern literature, rubella has become a de facto synonym for German Measles after 390 1944 [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] . In 1740, the English name rubella is derived from Latin rubellus reddish, 391 and the clinical description of rubella was first described by Friedrich Hoffmann, the 392 author of Fundamenta Medicinae [108, 109] . Then, rubella was considered by Dr. Maton 393

to be a mere variant of measles or scarlet fever in 1814 [105,106,120]. Half a century 394 later, English surgeon Henry Veale suggested the need to name the discrete disease, and 395

formally proposed the name rubella as a substitute for Rötheln in 1866 [97]. As a major 396 human infectious disease, rubella must have emerged only in the past 11,000 years for 397 which some close relatives may still exist among animals [4, 64] . Indeed, consistent with 398 the historiographical results (Figure 3 An exclusive substitution for an anachronistic usage could be a pre-existed synonym, a 406 blend word, or a neologism. However, we should curate an exclusive substitute following 407 the ethical principles (Figure 2) . Relatedly, as a heuristic case, we hash out the 408 inappropriate name like German Measles to quell confusion and avoid stigma. Here, we 409 demonstrate an illustrational approach to determine an exclusive substitution for German 410

Measles without ambiguity. 411

First, the similarity coefficient between words is determined by deep learning models, 412

and finally screen out an exclusive substitute for German Measles according to the 413 semantic similarity scores of word embeddings. In Figure 4 , the input example is first 414 constructed by summing the corresponding token, segment, and position embeddings, 415

and then word embeddings go through the BERT base model to obtain the vector 416 representations with semantic information. As for the bigram like German measles, we 417 averaged the individual word vector to get the final word vector. By quantifying the 418 cosine similarity scores between the word vectors (Figure 5) , it turns out that the term 419 rotheln is substantial equivalence to rötheln with the highest semantic fidelity, and the 420 results of the BioBERT model and the PubMedBERT model shed light on each other. 421

Most notably, as a model in the medical field, the PubMedBERT model maps out that 422

Rubella should be the exclusive substitution for German measles with the highest 423 semantic similarity. 424 425 Figure 4 . Illustrational architecture of the BERT and PubMedBERT models. 426 PubMedBERT model. The higher scores in the heatmaps, the higher the semantic 429 similarity between two synonyms. 430

Second, some case studies are given using the same function with the PubMedBERT 431 model for post-hoc explanations ( Table 4 ). According to syntactical function, in case #1, 432 the qualifier 'this' refers to rubella, so the synonymous sentence of the original sentence 433 was that rubella is another name for German measles. Semantically, rubella has an 434 equivalence relationship with German measles, with a very high semantic relevance 435 (0.954). In case #2, rötheln has a dependent relationship with German measles rather than 436 an equivalence relationship. In cases #3 and #4, morbilli and rubeola tend to the 437 appositions of measles rather than those of German measles. To sum up, the case studies 438 further emphasize the high semantic similarity between rubella and German measles. 439 Table 4 . Some case studies are retrieved using the same function with the PubMedBERT 440 model. 441

No.

Examples Semantic similarity scores #1 Rubella: This is another name for German measles, it causes mental retardation, deafness, and still birth. 0.954 #2 All these physicians were German, and the disease was known as Rötheln (from the German name Röteln), hence the common name of "German measles".

#3 Morbilli sine catarrho has no doubt been described, but it is always held that in these cases our test for measles is awanting, and that it may be German measles, or something else equally non-protective against a similar attack. period through historical synonyms. In Figure 6 , we projected the latent semantic drifts 448

of German measles, morbilli, rubeola, rubella, and rötheln from their debuts to 2020 449 ( Table 2 and Table 3 ). To highlight the cases of semantic drift, the five keywords (in 450 colors) were shown with their historical synonyms (in gray). The closer two words are to 451 each other, the more semantically similar they are. For example, the term Rubella was 452 closely associated with the German term masern in 1740, and the dominant meaning of 453

Rubella was more semantically similar to the words fowlpox and morbillivirus in 2020. 454

As for the term German measles, its meaning was closer to pustula, flowered measles, 455

and strawberry measles when it debuted. However, the semantics of German measles is 456 closer to those of paramyxoviridae and three day measles today. Rubeola changed its 457 dominant meaning from skin disease scabies to röteln, and this change approximately 458 took place between 1768 and 2020. Comparatively, Rötheln was more often associated 459 with the word variola rather than anthrax, while Morbilli was referred to pediculosis or 460 rash rather than rosacea or red sandwort. Therefore, it is found that five keywords have 461 different degrees of semantic drift over time. Coupled with the previous results ( Figure  462 3), rubella is a high-pragmatic-frequency synonym of German Measles in recent 463

literature and tends to survive in due course. 464

In short, our results strongly suggest that rubella is a geography-free, high-pragmatic-465 frequency, and high-semantic-homology synonym of German Measles 

The Lancet. COVID-19: fighting panic with information

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PRISMA 2020 explanation and elaboration: updated guidance and 564 exemplars for reporting systematic reviews

The COVID-19 Infodemic: Infodemiology Study 567 Analyzing Stigmatizing Search Terms

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Abbreviations 835 BERT: Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers 836 COVID-19: Coronavirus Disease 2019 837 GBNC: Google Books Ngram Corpus 838 GDELT: Global Data on Events, Location and Tone 839 ICD: International Classification of Diseases 840 ICD-11: Eleventh revision of the International Classification of Diseases 841 MERS: Middle Eastern Respiratory Syndrome 842 OED Online: Oxford English Dictionary Online 843 PCA: Principal Component Analysis

PRISMA 2020 explanation and elaboration: updated guidance and exemplars for reporting systematic reviews

Trends of infodemiology studies: a scoping review

Multimedia Appendix 2 Code scheme A defined itemized code scheme of crowd behavior in daily communication is paramount for our understanding of the unbiased and comprehensive archive of global online news. Firstly, the initial search candidates included German measles, Middle Eastern Respiratory Syndrome, Spanish flu, Hong Kong flu, and Huntington's disease

Then, we formulated the candidates of subjective searches in daily communication by three main principles: (i) Search interest on the top of the ranks; (ii) Be formal and complete in spelling; (iii) As much as possible consistent with global crowd participant

Finally, the eligible search formulas meeting the inclusion criteria are as following

German measles" OR "German Measles") AND PublicationDate>=12/30/2019 AND

Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome" OR "Middle Eastern Respiratory Syndrome") AND PublicationDate>=12/30/2019 AND

Spanish flu" OR "Spanish Flu" OR "Spanish influenza" OR "Spanish Influenza") AND PublicationDate>=12/30/2019 AND

Hong Kong flu" OR "Hong Kong Flu" OR "Hong Kong influenza" OR "Hong Kong Influenza") AND PublicationDate>=12/30/2019 AND

Huntington's disease" OR "Huntington's chorea" OR "huntington's disease" OR "huntington's chorea" OR "Huntington Disease" OR "Huntington disease" OR "Huntington chorea" OR "huntington disease

Amid Heightened Concerns, New Name for Novel Coronavirus Emerges

Pandemic lessons from Iceland

Spanish Flu": When Infectious Disease Names Blur Origins and Stigmatize Those Infected

Viral surveillance and the 1968 Hong Kong flu pandemic

Perspectives on xenophobia during epidemics and implications for emergency management

Stigma, history, and Huntington's disease

Huntington's disease out of the closet?

Uncovering the true prevalence of Huntington's disease

Dispelling the stigma of Huntington's disease

The COVID-19 Infodemic: Infodemiology Study Analyzing Stigmatizing Search Terms