key: cord-0856072-h4w9devs
authors: Chauhan, Poonam; Kumar, Aditya
title: Development of a microbial coating for cellulosic surface using aloe vera and silane
date: 2020-11-16
journal: nan
DOI: 10.1016/j.carpta.2020.100015
sha: f15580473add4c6592b0f678e4780993b3fed580
doc_id: 856072
cord_uid: h4w9devs

The highly contagious nature of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) virus has created a havoc effect all over the world in a very short period. The most effective method for precaution of this virus as suggested by WHO is use of PPEs (triple layered face mask, body suits) and social distancing. However, the frontline doctors and medical staff have high risk of exposure to the virus during treatments and removal and discarding of the PPEs. Also the PPEs are of the onetime use and wearing these PPEs in hot and humid seasons is very uncomfortable. A possible solution of this problem is if clothes are anti-bacterial and anti-viral in nature, one single-layered will be sufficient and the spread of virus will also be minimized. Considering this, we have designed a facile and durable anti-wash antimicrobial coating on cloth by aloe vera and hexadecyltrimethoxysilane (HDTMS). In lab scale study, present coating shows good chemical and thermal stability making it reusable multiple times even after repeated washing. The coated cloth reveals the excellent anti-dirt and stain resistance properties leading to complete non-adherence of dirt and stain (e.g. Color, food, ink) on it. Anti-bacterial and anti-fungi properties of the coated cloth were confirmed by doing E. coli (bacteria) and A. Niger (fungus) culture studies, respectively. This coating is imbibed with well-known anti-viral agent aloe vera which inhibits the attachment of the virus on the surface. The water-repellent nature of the coating combined with the use anti-viral agent, aloe vera makes it a potential anti-COVID-19 coating.

Recently, SARS-CoV-2 or COVID-19 virus has been spreading rapidly all over the world within a short span of time interval. The transmission of viruses such as COVID-19 occurs by two principal means: (1) airborne droplets containing virus (a sneeze or cough); and (2) contact transmission, that is, the physical transfer of virus from a biological source (blood or other liquid, skin) to another person (from a person's hand to another person) or from a surface (counter, table, respirator mask, clothing, carpet or hospital curtain) to another surface (a person's skin, mouth or eye). This fast spreading of COVID-19 is due to its stability for several hours to days in aerosols and on surfaces [1] .

It is recently noticed that COVID-19 can readily undergo in mutation or genetic changes which is making the situation more difficult. Since this virus is a new type of corona virus, the details of COVID-19 are yet under study by people throughout the world and its vaccine and medications have not been established yet. Therefore, many collective measures (washing or sanitizing hands, maintain social distancing, quarantining suspected people, complete or partial lockdown of the cities, closing schools and other public gathering places, cancelling sports and public events, and disinfecting public places and use of respiratory mask) are needed to decrease infection rates in the whole world. The doctors and the health care staff are at extreme risk of getting infection and hence have to wear proper personal protective equipment (PPE) such as respirator masks to minimize contact transmission onto facial skin or airborne inhalation of COVID-19. Although respiratory mask helps trap larger respiratory droplets and protect from contracting the COVID-19, but these masks are presently of one time use as pathogens on their outer layer. Single use of these masks is increasing the problem. Therefore, if their surfaces can be made of anti-viral, these masks can be re-used. Additionally, working while wearing PPE kits by health workers is not easy, particularly, in hot and humid seasons. Therefore, if their clothes are bactericidal and virucidal in nature, then PPE will not be needed and extent of virus spread can be reduced.

Although there are several antimicrobial N95 masks and clothes in the market utilizing iodine, silver or tryclosan, but none of them is efficient of killing or inactivating viruses. The size of microbes and COVID-19 are different. Recent study has been confirmed the structure of COVID-19 [2] and the average size of this virus is 70-80 nm. Therefore it is required to develop new specialized anti-viral coating on cloth surface especially for COVID-19.

To overcome the above mentioned issues, the work has been devoted to design the artificially protective cloth (antibacterial, antiviral) to reduce the transmission of infection with body fluid repellency properties from its surfaces. Antimicrobial and antiviral cloth does not only protect the health care worker from of disease but also prevents the growth of fungus on its surface. If cloth is itself anti-wash in nature, then it can also reduce the risk of spread the disease by repelling the body fluid [3, 4] .

Several other studies have been done in the preparation of anti-wash and antimicrobial cloth by using nanoparticles (Ag, ZnO and Cu) [5] [6] [7] [8] . Aforesaid these surfaces have some drawbacks such as low durability, poor bonding, high cost, and complex preparation. The nanoparticles are incorporated into the woven fabric matrix by either physical or chemical method. Thus, due to the poor bonding with the fabric, the nanoparticles may gradually detach from the cotton fabric after a period of use and come in contact of human skin, causing serious health problem [9, 10] . Additionally, some nanoparticles (eg. TiO 2 ) are toxic in nature after exposure to sunlight [11] .

Nowadays, the variety of green approaches have been carried out in developing the antimicrobial and antiviral cotton fabric. From the literature, the antimicrobial cotton clothes have been produced using plant leaves extract such as aloe vera [12] , Azadirachta indica (neem) [13, 14] , lotus [15] , ginger, and curry leaves [16] . Plant leaves extract has been chosen as a coating material because it is economical, eco-friendly and bioactive in nature with antifungal, antibacterial and anti-viral activity.at [17, 18] . Among these, aloe vera or aloe barbadense has been used as a curative agent. Its gel consists of 99.3% water and remaining 0.7% solids part [19] . It has 75 active ingredients such as aloesin, anthraquinones (aloin and aloe emodin), aloemannan, acemannan (gel polysaccharides), aloeride, verectin, giberellinlike substance, aloeresin I, 5-methylchromone, flavonoids, glycoprotein fraction, anthraglycosides, reducing sugars, cardiotonic glycosides, saponins, naftoquinones, sterols, triterpenoids, amino acids, vitamins and others [19, 20] .

Due to presence of several active ingredients, aloe vera possesses antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, antioxidant, angiogenic, immune system modulator, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, cathartics, analgesic, antiinflammatory, wound healing, antihepatitis, antigastric ulcer, and antineoplastic activities [20, 21] . Presence of anthraquinones and polysaccharides in aloe vera make it useful as antiviral activities for human cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), H1N1 subtype influenza, and poliovirus [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] . In all studies, anti-viral mechanism of aloe vera is likely the physical inhibition of binding between the virus and host cell. This property of aloe vera holds promise that anti-microbial coatings based on cotton fabric will be effective against many types of bacteria, fungi, and viruses.

In the past studied, it has been found that the various anti-viral and anti-bacterial polymeric and nanoparticles (copper, silver) based coatings are available on the fabric surface. But no anti-viral, anti-dirt and anti-stain coating is produced using green approach. In this work, the simple and low-cost technique (green approach) was used to fabricate the aloe vera based anti-wash coating on cloth. Durability, anti-dirt, stain-resistance ability of prepared coating was examined. Anti-bacterial and anti-fungal properties of coating have been examined in details using E. coli and A. Niger, respectively. Additionally, anti-viral mechanism of coating for COVID-19 has been proposed in this paper.

Commercially available cotton fabric was purchased from Asia Hosiery Mills Private Limited, India. Aloe vera powder was purchased from Axi Rejuvenate Life Care Products, India. HDTMS was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Ethanol was purchased from Merck Life Science Private Ltd., India. All chemicals were used as received.

The aloe vera extract was prepared by extraction process from the aloe vera powder.

The powder was prepared from the dried leaves of aloe vera. One g of aloe vera powder was poured in a conical flask containing 10 ml ethanol, and kept for 12 h at room temperature for extraction. Here, ethanol was used as a solvent for the extraction. The aloe vera extract was filtered by using Whatman filter paper grade-1 to remove particulate matter from the extract solution. An obtained yellow-brownish color clear solution (extract) was used for further experiment.

The cotton fabric was cut into a square shape with a dimension of 3 cm × 3 cm. The

Cotton fabric was washed several times with ethanol and water mixture using ultrasonication for 30 min to remove the wax and other impurities on its surface and dried in the hot air oven for 1 h at 80 ºC. Fig. 1 shows the schematic representation of superhydrophobic cotton fabric.

The coating solution was prepared by mixing HDTMS (5%, v/v) and aloe vera extract followed by stirring for 2 h at room temperature. Cleaned cotton fabric was immersed in the prepared coating solution for 24 h. Afterward, fabric sample was dried in the hot air oven at 

Scanning electron microscope (SEM, Supra 55V, Carl Zeiss, Germany) was used to examine the surface morphology of cotton fabric before and after modification. To examine the wettability of cotton fabric, a contact angle measurement (DSA 25, Krüss, Germany) was performed on its surface at the room temperature with 3-5 µL droplet of water. Water contact angles (WCA) were measured four times at different positions on each sample and mean value of them were reported. Functionality of the cotton fabric sample was recorded using a Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR, Cary 660, Agilent Technologies, USA) in the wavelength range of 400-4000 cm -1 . The FTIR spectra was recorded at the scan number of 16 . The resolution of the FTIR analysis was maintained at 4 cm -1 .

The antibacterial activity of uncoated and coated sample was measured against E. coli. bacteria using disk diffusion method [28] . Initially, both uncoated and coated cotton fabric were cut into the circular shape with diameter 7 mm. Subsequently, approximate 25 ml prepared Muller Hinton agar was poured onto the sterilized petri dishes and left for 30 min to get solidified before inoculating. 1 ml of bacteria culture with a concentration of 1×10 -5 colony forming unit (CFU)/ml was spread onto the Muller Hinton agar plate and then a hole was punched into the each plate and sample was kept in it. After that, the petri dishes were The antifungal assay of uncoated and coated samples was performed using agar disc diffusion method against Aspergillus niger. Sabouraud dextrose agar media was prepared in autoclave and poured into the sterile petri plates. The fungal isolate was inoculated on the solidified culture media plates. The samples were cut in the disc (7 mm) and were placed on the media with the help of sterile forceps. The plate was incubated at 27 ºC, and then the zone of inhabitation was measured at different time intervals (24 h, 48 h).

In self-cleaning experiment, the dust particles were spread over the both uncoated and coated surfaces. Later, the water was dropped on the dusted clothes using dropper. Behavior of the water on both dusted samples was observed by capturing the optical images using camera (Oneplus A6000, f/1.7). In stain resistant experiment, blue color water droplets were kept on both uncoated and coated cotton fabric. After that, both samples were dried for complete vaporization of the water droplets from its surfaces, and the stained on both coated and uncoated samples were observed before and after drying at room temperature.

In thermal stability test, coated sample was annealed in the hot air oven (120 ºC to 170 ºC) for 1 h. After that, the WCA of annealed sample was measured to examine the wettability of its surface. In washing durability test, coated sample was immersed in the water containing detergent and placed into the ultrasonication bath at 40 ºC. After 1 h, the washed fabric sample was rinsed with water to remove the excess detergent solution from its surface and dried at 80 ºC. Finally, the WAC was measured after washing to check its superhydrophobicity.

An antimicrobial cotton fabric was fabricated using aloe vera extract and fluorine free silane by a simple immersion process. An aloe vera extract shows antibacterial and antifungal properties. The main bioactive components present in aloe vera such flavonoid compounds, have been identified. So, alkali reagent test was performed to identify the flavonoid compounds. In this test, natural color of aloe vera extract (reddish) was changed into yellowish-brown color by adding the dilute NaOH (0.1N) dropwise into the extract and became colorless after adding drop of dilute acid in the mixture, found the similar observation from literature [29] . Modify cloth shows the same property of cotton cloth like before while the color of its surface was slightly changed because of the aloe vera extract natural color. are attached chemically with silane (low surface energy material) and flavonoid (by crosslinking). The WCA captured image of the coated surface is shown in Fig. 3 , which exhibits superhydrophobicity. The contact angle for water-based products and oils are found to be more than 150 º as shown in Table 1 . Scanning electron microscopy was used to study of the surface morphology of both uncoated and coated cotton fabric. It is found that the cotton fabric is tightly woven with dozens of threads. SEM images reveal that a pristine cotton fabric has an inherent surface roughness consisting of micro-structures as shown in the Fig. 3 (a) . The morphology of coated sample reveals the microstructures of the surface with the in-homogenously distribution of coating material (aloe vera extract) or the aggregation of the flavonoid's molecules (enclosed in red circle) as shown in Fig. 3 (b) . Increase of the contact angle is because of roughness on the surface and the long chain alkyl molecules which is hydrophobic in nature. As explained by Cassie-Baxter wetting state, these rough microstructures present on coated surface contains air pockets beneath the water droplet and these air pockets enhance the water contact angle, making the surface superhydrophobic [30] .

To further confirm that cotton fabric was successfully modified by HDTMS and aloe vera extract, FTIR study was done to understand the chemical bonding. The existence of all signature peaks on uncoated, coated cotton surface, and the aloe vera extract solution were shown in Fig. 4 . In Fig. 4 (a) , peaks at 1458 cm -1 and 1656 cm -1 correspond to the C=C (aromatic ring) and C=O (flavonoids groups), respectively [31] . Commonly, the peaks at 3336 cm -1 and 2901 cm -1 in uncoated cloth are attribute to -OH stretching groups [32, 33] . The C-H bond is stretching vibration of CH 2 group. Furthermore, the band appeared at 1162 cm -1 and 1054 cm -1 are attribute to the C-O-C and C-O, related to the asymmetric vibration of the betaglycosidic linkage in cellulose [34, 35] as shown in Fig. 4 (b) . The presence of the absorption peak at 1650 cm -1 , which is assigned to the C=O stretching vibration, demonstrates that flavonoid compounds have been successfully attached onto the cotton fabric. At this peak, it shows the strong antioxidant compound [31] . The peaks at 2916 cm -1 due to the C-H asymmetric shows the presence of long chain alkyl groups [36] , indicating that the cotton fabric was well coated with HDTMS and flavonoid compounds as shown in Fig. 4 (b) .

In general, chance of bacteria growth is high in humid environment, and cotton works as a resource of nutrient for bacteria due to the presence of cellulose materials. So, the large number of bacteria could easily adhere on the cotton fabric. In this paper, antibacterial activity of both uncoated and coated fabric was evaluated against the gram negative bacteria (E. coli). Fig. 5 (a-c) shows that the bacteria are adhere to the uncoated sample at the different time intervals (24 h, 48 h, 72 h) due to its water absorption property. On the other hand, coated cotton fabric has the tendency to repel water from its surface, making difficult to adhere and penetrate into the cotton fabric matrix. So, the coated sample shows the inhabitation zone surrounding it as clearly shown in Fig. 5 (d-f) (Table 2 ). It is concluded that the coated cotton fabric shows the excellent antibacterial activity for a long time against the E. coli bacteria. The anti-fungal activity of both uncoated and coated cotton fabric was calculated against the A. Niger fungus. The uncoated cloth was wetted quickly, and visible spore is seen near the sample, implies the growth of fungal as shown in Fig. 6 (a-b) while the coated cloth when exposed to fungal shows no growth over its surface as well as around the sample as shown in Fig. 6 (c-d) . Even after 48 h it exhibits the antifungal activity. The antifungal activity on the coated surface is observed due to its moisture control ability along with aloe 

With the help of primarily results of antibacterial and antifungal activities of aloe vera coating and its antimicrobial and antiviral mechanism given in literature, we have been proposed the antiviral mechanism of aloe vera coating for COVID-19 virus. The main mode of transmission of virus is aerosol droplets containing COVID-19 (a sneeze or cough) which is water based and present coated cloth surface exhibits extremely good water-repellent nature. Therefore, inhibition of virus from the cloth is by repelling aerosol droplets from the surface (Fig. 7) . and this amino acid is later delivered in ribosome in protein synthesis.

Aloe vera has 75 bioactive agents such as anthraquinones (aloin and aloe-emodin), aloemannan, acemannan (polysaccharides), aloeride, verectin, giberellinlike substance, flavonoids, glycoprotein fraction, anthraglycosides, reducing sugars, cardiotonic glycosides, saponins, naftoquinones, sterols, triterpenoids, amino acids, vitamins and others [19, 20] .

structures analogue of tetracycline) inhibit the protein synthesis by preventing the association of aa-t-RNA with the ribosome [20, 24, 37] . It is because of negative charge present on anthraquinone and its derivatives which can attract the positive charged aa-t-RNA as shown in Fig. 8 . It can be concluded that the water-repellent nature of the coating combined with the use of anti-viral agent aloe vera makes it a potential anti-COVID-19 coating. Further viral testing is required to demonstrate the concepts discussed herein. Therefore authors are in the process of carrying out the viral testing of present coating and the findings will be content of a future publication. After aloe vera based coating on cloth, multi-layered clothing and full body cover PPE kits will not be needed and virus transmission will also be reduced.

The clothes need regular washing to remove the dirt, contamination and stain. Due to daily washing, cotton fabric does not lead permanent effect, and degrades its quality. So, to avoid this problem, the anti-washing properties has been developed on the cloth surface in this paper. To demonstrate the anti-dirt property of coating, the hydrophilic dust particles were placed on both uncoated and coated surfaces. When water droplet is dropped on the uncoated cloth, it becomes completely wet with the dust particles, and spread over the sample surface as shown in Fig. 9 (a) . In case of coated sample, spherical drop is formed with the dust particles and roll-off from its surface and turning the cotton fabric dust free ( Fig. 9 (b) ).

The above observation clearly indicates the excellent anti-dirt ability of coating which is due to its high water repellence property.

Nowadays, stains are growing concern in clothes related to many purposes such as wearing, household, and medical. Stain comes from food, liquid, detergents, and disinfectant.

The uncoated fabric has the ability to absorb all water and oil based products, is stained immediately. Some stains are very difficult to remove from the clothes. Even, it could actually cause permanent damage the clothes. Since after coating cloth can easily repel water, water based liquid (cold drink, tea, coffee, etc.), and other liquid, therefore it should also show the stain resistance property. In stain resistance experiment, the color water droplets are placed on both coated and uncoated samples as shown in Fig. 9 (c) , the coated fabric does not get wetted by the colored water and forms the spherical drop on it while the uncoated cotton fabric becomes quickly wet. Later, both uncoated and coated samples are dried at room temperature. Color stained marks are seen on the uncoated whereas a little stain is observed on the coated sample ( Fig. 9 (d) ) because of a small area of the spherical drop is touched on its surface, and left the small stain due to the diffusion of color in the fiber present on the surface. The above results confirm the stain-resistant property of cloth after coating. The chances of damage of coating are more likely from gentle uses. In practical application, the laundry durability should be good for reuse of coated cloth. The laundry durability experiment of coated sample was carried out by the ultrasonication bath. The coated sample was kept into the beaker containing detergent solution in the ultrasonication bath for 1 h at 40 ºC. Although, the coated sample has the high water repellency, but due to the addition of detergent, the surface tension of water decreases. It was immersed into the water detergent solution without applying any external force. The optical images of water droplet on coated cotton fabric before and after laundry with WCA are shown in the Fig. 10 (a). There is no change in the WCA of coating. The above observation clearly indicates the excellent washing durability without losing its wetting property. To study the effect of elevated temperature on coating, the coated sample was annealed at high temperature of 120 ºC to 170 ºC for 1 h in hot air oven. It is found that after annealing up to 160 ºC it maintains its color along with superhydrophobicity (WCA ≈ 156º) and losses its superhydrophobicity above 160 ºC with WCA ≈ 148º due to the decomposition of HDTMS (boiling point =155 ºC) from its surface [40] as shown in Fig. 10 (b) . No change is observed in its color even after annealing at 180 ºC. In comparison, the uncoated cotton fabric starts to decompose gradually at 149 ºC after exposing the heat. This test implies that coating is thermally stable and provide the protection to the cloth form the heat.

In this work, a simple green approach has been used to prepare the anti-wash and antimicrobial cloth using HDTMS and aloe vera extract. Aloe vera acts as an antimicrobial and antiviral agent and HDTMS reduces the contact of the water and other liquids from surface by lowering the surface energy. The coated cloth shows the excellent water repellency with a WCA of 164°. It also shows that the coated cotton fabric possesses remarkable washing durability in detergent solution. Coated cloth is also able to survive upto 160 ºC. Moreover, coated cloth exhibits the excellent anti-dirt and stain-resistant properties.

The coated cloth surface shows the antibacterial and antifungal activity against the E. coli and A. niger, respectively over a long time period (≈72 h). In this paper, we have demonstrated two antiviral mechanisms: repellency of aerosol containing viruses due its superhydrophobic nature and inhibition of protein synthesis of virus due to presence of aloe vera on the coated surface. The water-repellent nature of the coating combined with the use of anti-viral agent aloe vera makes it a potential anti-COVID-19 coating. Further viral testing is required to demonstrate the concepts discussed herein, which has yet to be reported. Therefore, authors are in the process of carrying out the viral testing of present coating and the findings will be content of a future publication. Importantly, after aloe vera based coating on cloth, multilayered clothing and full body cover PPE kits will not be needed and virus transmission will also be reduced.

Aerosol and Surface Stability of SARS-CoV-2 as Compared with SARS-CoV-1

Transmission electron microscopy imaging of SARS-CoV-2

Superhemophobic and Anti-Virofouling Coating for Mechanically Durableand Wash-Stable Medical Textiles

Surface modification of cotton fabric using TiO2 nanoparticles for self-cleaning, oil-water separation, anti-stain, anti-water absorption, and anti-bacterial properties

Morphological, antimicrobial, durability, and physical properties of untreated and treated textiles using silver-nanoparticles

One-step synthesis of superhydrophobic coating on cotton fabric by ultrasound irradiation

Production and characterization of superhydrophobic and antibacterial coated fabrics utilizing ZnO nanocatalyst

Facile fabrication of multifunctional fabrics: use of copper and silver nanoparticles for antibacterial, superhydrophobic, conductive fabric

Determination of silver nanoparticle release from antibacterial fabrics into artificial sweat

Release of titanium dioxide from textiles during washing

Antibacterial activities and UV protection of the in situ synthesized titanium oxide nanoparticles on cotton fabrics

Antibacterial properties of Aloe vera gelfinished cotton fabric

Experimental study on antimicrobial activity of silk fabric treated with natural dye extract from neem (Azadirachta indica) leaves

Synthesis and characterization of neem chitosan nanocomposites for development of antimicrobial cotton textiles

Antibacterial activity of cotton fabric treated with extracts from the lotus plant

Antibacterial activity of herbal treated cotton fabric

Aloe vera-a review of toxicity and adverse clinical effects

In-vivo effects of Aloe arborescens miller varnatalensis Berger (Kidachi aloe) on experimental tinea pidis in guinea pig feet

The aloe vera phenomenon: a review of the properties and modern uses of the leaf parenchyma gel

Pharmacological Update Properties of Aloe Vera and its Major Active Constituents

Assessment of Anti HSV-1 Activity of Aloe Vera Gel Extract: an In Vitro Study

Antiviral activity of Aloe vera against herpes simplex virus type 2: An in vitro study

Assessment of Anti HSV-1 Activity of Aloe vera Gel Extract: An In Vitro Study

Aloe Polysaccharides Inhibit Influenza A Virus Infection-A Promising Natural Anti-flu

Evaluation of the antiviral activity of anthraquinones, anthrones and anthraquinone derivatives against human cytomegalovirus

In vitro antiviral activity of the anthraquinone chrysophanic acid against poliovirus

Fabrication of superoleophobic cotton fabric for multi-purpose applications

Preliminary Phytochemical Screening, Quantitative Analysis of Alkaloids, and Antioxidant Activity of Crude Plant Extracts from Ephedra intermedia Indigenous to Balochistan, The scientific world journal

Wettability of porous surfaces

Rapid and effective evaluation of the antioxidant capacity of propolis extracts using DPPH bleaching kinetic profiles, FT-IR and UV-vis spectroscopic data

Physicochemical properties and thermal stability of microcrystalline cellulose isolated from esparto grass using different delignification approaches

Effect of the Delignification Process on the Physicochemical Properties and Thermal Stability of Microcrystalline Cellulose Extracted from Date Palm Fronds, Waste Biomass Valori

Ecofriendly isolation and characterization of microcrystalline cellulose from giant reed using various acidic media

Microcrystalline cellulose from Posidonia oceanica brown algae: Extraction and characterization

Fabrication of coral-like superhydrophobic coating on filter paper for oil-water separation

Inactivation of Enveloped Viruses by Anthraquinones Extracted from Plants

Anti-adhesive effect of an acidic polysaccharide from Aloe vera L. var. chinensis (Haw.) Berger on the binding of Helicobacter pylori to the MKN-45 ell line

In vitro activity of Aloe vera inner gel against microorganisms grown in planktonic and sessile phases

Self-cleaning, stain-resistant and anti-bacterial superhydrophobic cotton fabric prepared by simple immersion technique

There is no conflict to declare.

Corresponding Authors: E-mail: adityaku43@gmail.com