key: cord-0862589-nv8izla3 authors: Li, Shuang; Su, Bin; He, Qiu-Shui; Wu, Hao; Zhang, Tong title: Alterations in the oral microbiome in HIV infection: causes, effects and potential interventions date: 2021-12-05 journal: Chin Med J (Engl) DOI: 10.1097/cm9.0000000000001825 sha: a53e9c39dff391d7b6be77040ab469f1ff5bf252 doc_id: 862589 cord_uid: nv8izla3 A massive depletion of CD4(+) T lymphocytes has been described in early and acute human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, leading to an imbalance between the human microbiome and immune responses. In recent years, a growing interest in the alterations in gut microbiota in HIV infection has led to many studies; however, only few studies have been conducted to explore the importance of oral microbiome in HIV-infected individuals. Evidence has indicated the dysbiosis of oral microbiota in people living with HIV (PLWH). Potential mechanisms might be related to the immunodeficiency in the oral cavity of HIV-infected individuals, including changes in secretory components such as reduced levels of enzymes and proteins in saliva and altered cellular components involved in the reduction and dysfunction of innate and adaptive immune cells. As a result, disrupted oral immunity in HIV-infected individuals leads to an imbalance between the oral microbiome and local immune responses, which may contribute to the development of HIV-related diseases and HIV-associated non-acquired immunodeficiency syndrome comorbidities. Although the introduction of antiretroviral therapy (ART) has led to a significant decrease in occurrence of the opportunistic oral infections in HIV-infected individuals, the dysbiosis in oral microbiome persists. Furthermore, several studies with the aim to investigate the ability of probiotics to regulate the dysbiosis of oral microbiota in HIV-infected individuals are ongoing. However, the effects of ART and probiotics on oral microbiome in HIV-infected individuals remain unclear. In this article, we review the composition of the oral microbiome in healthy and HIV-infected individuals and the possible effect of oral microbiome on HIV-associated oral diseases. We also discuss how ART and probiotics influence the oral microbiome in HIV infection. We believe that a deeper understanding of composition and function of the oral microbiome is critical for the development of effective preventive and therapeutic strategies for HIV infection. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is characterized by severe deficiency of the host immune system through the massive depletion of CD4 + T cells. The World Health Organization reported that, in the end of 2019, approximately, 38 million people were living with HIV worldwide, with around 67% of them receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART). Despite effective ART, several oral diseases, such as oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC) [1, 2] and periodontitis, [3, 4] are frequently reported in all stages of HIV infection. In addition, as the life expectancy in people living with HIV (PLWH) increases, the risk of HIVassociated non-acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) comorbidities such as cardiovascular disease, neurocognitive disorders, cancer, and liver and kidney disease is increasingly reported. [5] [6] [7] Ryder et al [8] also found that older HIV-infected individuals who have received ART may present with a higher incidence of age-related oral diseases. In recent years, several studies have shown that the composition of the gut microbiome in PLWH differs from that of HIV-uninfected individuals, including an increase in the abundance of Prevotella and a decrease in the abundance of Bacteroides. [9] [10] [11] [12] Alterations in the gut microbiome may promote HIV-associated inflammation and immune activation. [13, 14] Similarly, Annavajhala et al [15] suggested that oral microbiome diversity may also play a critical role in systemic inflammation in HIV-infected individuals. Studies have found that CD4 + T lymphocytes in gut-associated lymphoid tissue are greatly reduced in the early stage of HIV infection, [16] resulting in the loss of T helper (Th) 17 cell subsets. [17] It is believed that these interleukin-17-and interleukin-22-producing cells are essential to maintain intestinal epithelial integrity and gastrointestinal barrier function. Therefore, the loss of Th17 cells may contribute to microbial translocation from the gut mucosa into the systemic circulation, promoting inflammation and immune activation in HIV-infected adults. [18] [19] [20] Studies have indicated that Th17 cells are essential for the control of fungal colonization in the oral mucosa. [21] [22] [23] [24] The structure and network of the oral mucosal immune system have also been described to be similar to those of the gastrointestinal mucosal immune system. [25] This accumulating evidence suggests that oral microbiota may be similar to gut microbiota, both of which might induce systemic diseases through systemic translocation in HIV infection. In addition, Schmidt et al [26] found that oral species, including opportunistic pathogens, might diffuse from the oral cavity to the gut, which may directly cause inflammation in the gut. Therefore, a focused effort on the effects of the oral microbiome on HIV will be critical. Culture-dependent methods such as growth on media, microscopic observation, and biochemical analysis have been used to determine the composition of the microbiome. However, the appropriate culture conditions of some species might remain unclear, making them difficult to be cultivated. Currently, with the development of molecular techniques, next-generation sequencing, such as whole-metagenome shotgun sequencing and 16S ribosomal RNA amplicon sequencing, has been widely used for microbiome analysis. These "novel" technical approaches clearly contribute to the monitoring and manipulation of the human microbiome and provide new opportunities for diagnostics and therapeutics of human diseases. [27] To comprehensively understand the human microbiome and the relationship between the microbiome and human diseases, the National Institutes of Health of the US launched the "Human Microbiome Project" in 2007. [28] This review discusses alterations in the oral microbiome in HIV infection and the effects of the oral microbiome on HIV-associated oral diseases and evaluates the effects of potential interventions on the oral microbiome in HIV-infected individuals. The oral microbiome is an important part of the human microbiome and includes different microbes e.g., bacteria, fungi, viruses, mycoplasma, and protozoa. [29] Bacteria are the predominant group of the oral microbiome, of which approximately 700 bacterial species have been identified. The oral microbiome plays a critical role in human metabolism, physiology, and immunity, including inhibiting pathogenic microorganism colonization, maintaining the acid-base balance, regulating local oral immunity, and participating in salivary nitrate metabolism. [30] The Human Oral Microbiome Database (http://www. homd.org/) contains records for a total of 775 microbial species. Among them, approximately 57% have been cultivated and named, 13% can be cultivated but not named, and 30% are uncultivated. Many of them have unique living conditions, such as specific temperature, pH, nutrition, and interaction with other species. The inability to fully replicate the ecological conditions in the oral cavity may be the reason why some oral microbiota cannot be cultivated artificially. The human oral bacterial microbiome consists primarily of six phyla: Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Spirochaetes, and Fusobacteria. [29, 31] Bik et al [32] analyzed the bacterial diversity in the oral cavity of ten healthy individuals and found that the most abundant genus was Streptococcus, followed by Haemophilus, Neisseria, Prevotella, Veillonella, and Rothia, similar to other reports on the oral microbiome. [31, 33, 34] In addition to bacterial communities, different fungi are also widely colonized in the human oral cavity. [35] It is known that in elderly and immunocompromised individuals, oral commensal fungi can also serve as opportunistic pathogens. Ghannoum et al [36] used internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequencing to characterize the oral mycobiome in healthy individuals. This study demonstrated that the oral mycobiome comprises 74 culturable and 11 nonculturable fungal genera. In the samples from 20 healthy individuals, the most common genera were Candida (75%), followed by Cladosporium (65%), Aureobasidium and Saccharomycetales (50% for both), Aspergillus (35%), Fusarium (30%), and Cryptococcus (20%). The homeostasis of oral microbiota can be affected by multiple factors, including diet, smoking, and drugs. Moreover, changes in secretory components in saliva, innate and adaptive immune responses, and the physiological structure and function of the oral mucosa can also cause the dysbiosis of the oral microbiome. [37] Indeed, several studies have demonstrated a significant difference in the alterations of the oral microbiome between PLWH and HIV-uninfected healthy controls. [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] However, the potential mechanisms of oral microbiota changes in HIV infection remain unclear. Alterations in salivary composition and function in HIV infection might play a key role in the dysbiosis of the oral microbiome. Saliva contains a variety of secretory components that are essential for maintaining oral homeostasis. [43] Studies have shown that secretory components, including immunoglobulin A (IgA), lysozyme, and host defense peptides, such as antimicrobial peptides, defensins, and histones, play an important role in microbial control and oral mucosal immunity. [44, 45] A recent study indicated the composition and function of saliva change in HIV infection. The impairment of local immunity in HIV infection, including decreased salivary IgA, defensins, and cytokines, might convert commensal microorganisms to microorganisms with increased pathogenicity and lead to the dysbiosis of oral microbiota, which could increase the risk of opportunistic infections. [46, 47] Arirachakaran et al [48] showed that HIV-infected individuals, regardless of whether they are receiving ART, have a higher frequency and load of opportunistic microorganisms than HIV-uninfected controls. Other studies also revealed that the diversity and bacterial load in salivary samples from HIV-infected individuals were significantly higher than those in HIV-uninfected samples. [49] In addition, a negative correlation between oral lesions and CD4 + T-cell counts has been reported. [50] [51] [52] Therefore, the disruption of oral mucosal immunity in HIV infection might destroy the colonization of commensal bacteria in the oral cavity and lead to an increase in oral microbial diversity, resulting in an increased risk of HIV-associated oral diseases. However, different studies have also shown differing results. They found that the oral bacterial diversity in PLWH was significantly decreased when compared with that in HIVuninfected individuals. [38, 39, 46, 53] A possible explanation might be the increased proportion of opportunistic pathogens caused by immunodeficiency in HIV infection. [46] Furthermore, a variety of salivary proteins, such as lysozyme, defensin, lactoferrin, secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor, and salivary agglutinin, have been confirmed to inhibit HIV infectivity in vitro, which also shows the importance of changes in salivary components in the pathogenesis of HIV infection. [54] In addition to the secretory components, cellular innate immune components in the oral cavity, e.g., macrophages, natural killer cells, polymorphonuclear leukocytes, and dendritic cells, also have the capacity to protect the oral mucosa from the colonization of pathogenic microorganisms. [55] These innate immune cells can recognize pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). PRRs mainly comprise several families, including Toll-like receptors, C-type lectin receptors, retinoic acid inducible gene-like receptors, and nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors. [56] The binding of these PRRs to the pathogen-associated molecular patterns presented on the surface of microorganisms will induce the production of cytokines, chemokines, and vasoactive molecules, which might play important roles in regulating the innate immune response to infection and promoting the induction of adaptive immune responses. [55, 57] Therefore, these innate immune cells are essential for the prevention of bacterial infections. However, innate immune responses in the oral cavity are impaired in HIV infection, which may lead to the dysbiosis of the oral microbiome and increase the occurrence of opportunistic infections. [44] In addition, immunodeficiency associated with HIV infection might lead to defects in the adaptive immune response, which could also promote oral microbiota dysbiosis. A number of studies have shown that the Th17 immune response is essential for the control of fungal infection and inflammation of the oral mucosa. [21, 58] Dutzan et al [59] found that Th17 cells could maintain oral barrier integrity and aid in fighting oral fungal infections. Furthermore, the critical role of Th17 cells in the fight against Candida infection has been described in a previous study. [60] In addition, Th1 cells might mediate early gingival inflammatory lesions in response to bacterial plaques by producing cytokines such as interferon g (IFNg). [55, 61] Th2 immune responses are also closely related to the progression of periodontal diseases [62] [ Figure 1 ]. Although previous studies have demonstrated that oral microbiome composition might change in HIV infection, the results obtained from the different studies are not the same [ Table 1 ]. A recent study compared saliva micro- Figure 1 : Proposed mechanisms of oral microbiome dysbiosis in HIV infection. In health, oral epithelial cells have the capability to maintain microbial colonization. However, disrupted oral immunity, including changes in secretory components in saliva (sIgA, lysozyme, and antimicrobial peptides), deficiency of innate immune responses (macrophages and dendritic cells), and adaptive immune response (CD4 + Th), may cause oral microbiome dysbiosis in HIV infection. Such an imbalance between the oral microbiome and oral immune responses may also contribute to the development of HIV-related oral diseases (periodontal disease) and HIV-associated non-AIDS comorbidities. Periodontal disease is caused by the interplay between pathogenic bacteria and host defense, which can also lead to microbial translocation and an increased risk of systemic conditions. AIDS: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome; HIV: Human immunodeficiency virus; IgA: Immunoglobulin A; IFN-g: Interferon g; IL-4: Interleukin-4; Th: T helper. Chinese Medical Journal 2021;134 (23) www.cmj.org [41] 35 HIV+ subjects prior to and after 6 months of ART Saliva Longitudinal • Higher bacterial richness and diversity in HIV+ subjects with persistently low CD4 counts after 24 weeks of ART • Differences in several taxa, including Porphyromonas species discriminated between HIV+ subjects before and after 6 months of ART Starr et al [65] 154 perinatally HIVinfected youth 100 perinatally HIVexposed, uninfected youth [64] 20 HIV+ Japanese with ART 13 HIVÀ controls Cross-sectional and longitudinal • No largely differences in three major genera, Prevotella, Streptococcus, and Veillonella between the HIV+ subjects and controls. (continued ) Chinese Medical Journal 2021;134(23) www.cmj.org biome samples from HIV-infected individuals and HIVuninfected controls. They found that the abundance of Streptococcus was increased in HIV-infected individuals, while the abundance of Neisseria was higher in healthy controls. [38] Another study showed similar results: the abundance of Veillonella, Rothia, and Streptococcus was significantly increased in the oral microbiome of PLWH, whereas the abundance of Neisseria was significantly decreased. [39] The oral microbiome in HIV-infected children and teenagers is also characterized by a higher frequency of the phyla Firmicutes and the genus Streptococcus. [63] However, other studies have shown that there are no large differences in the oral microbiome between HIV-treated patients and healthy controls. [64, 65] In addition, alterations in the oral fungal community composition in PLWH have also been noted when compared with those in HIV-uninfected individuals. [66] A study compared the oral fungal composition of 12 HIVinfected individuals with that of 12 HIV-uninfected individuals. The study showed that Candida, Epicoccum, and Alternaria were the most common, presenting in 92%, 33%, and 25% of HIV-infected individuals, respectively. However, the most abundant fungi in HIV-uninfected controls were Candida, Pichia, and Fusarium, presenting in 58%, 33%, and 33%, respectively. [67] Fidel et al [68] have also demonstrated the relative abundance of oral fungal communities in 149 HIV-positive and 88 HIVnegative subjects. This study suggested that 168 species can be identified in 12 dominant genera by sequencing of the ITS2 region of the rRNA gene repeat. However, they indicated that the diversity of the oral mycobiome is usually dominated by a small number of species, and HIV and ART might affect the oral mycobiome composition. In addition, many studies have shown increased Candida colonization in HIV infection. [1, 35, 69, 70] These studies support that HIV infection can significantly change the host oral microbiota. However, the effects of an altered oral microbiome on HIV-associated diseases remain to be shown. The oral microbiome is known to play an important role in host health and disease. On the one hand, the dysbiosis of the oral microbiome has been found in people with various oral diseases, such as dental caries, periodontal diseases, oral mucosal diseases, and oral cancer. [71] On the other hand, the dysbiosis of oral microbiota has also been observed in digestive system diseases (inflammatory bowel disease, [72] [73] [74] liver cirrhosis, [75] pancreatic cancer [76, 77] ), nervous system diseases (Alzheimer disease [78, 79] ), endocrine system diseases (diabetes [80] ), immune system diseases (rheumatoid arthritis, [81, 82] HIV infection [39, 65] ), cardiovascular diseases (arteriosclerosis [83] ), adverse pregnancy outcomes, [84] and polycystic ovary syndrome. [85] The potential mechanisms may be that oral microbiota could enter the gastrointestinal tract and respiratory tract through eating and aspiration. Moreover, Han et al [86] reported that oral microbial dysbiosis could promote adverse systemic conditions through bacteremia. Studies have also shown that periodontal disease caused by the interaction between pathogenic microorganisms and host defenses can lead to microbial translocation and an increased risk of inflammatory diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases. [87, 88] Therefore, the systemic translocation of the oral microbiome might also contribute to systemic diseases. The oral cavity is one of the most common sites for opportunistic infections in PLWH. Several oral diseases often occur in PLWH, including periodontal diseases, OPC, oral warts, oral hairy leukoplakia, and Kaposi sarcoma (KS), even in those receiving ART. [44] Globally and throughout the decades, OPC has remained the most common oral manifestation in HIV infection, including among HIV-infected individuals receiving ART (26.2%). [89] OPC is caused by various Candida species, and Candida albicans is the most prevalent species isolated from PLWH. [70, 90, 91] The incidence of OPC in HIV infection is influenced by a multitude of factors, including immune status, [92] bacteriome-mycobiome interaction, [93] antifungal therapy, and ART. [94] Patil et al [1] showed that oral Candida colonization in HIV-infected patients increased, and it was significantly related to a lower CD4 + T-cell count. Coker et al [95] also demonstrated that low CD4 + T-cell levels in HIV-infected children might persistently alter oral microbiota. In addition, other studies found that the prevalence of dental caries and periodontal diseases in PLWH was increased, which may be related to changes in oral microbiota in HIV-infected patients. [3, 96] Compared with PLWH with mild periodontal disease, Abiotrophia, Rothia, and unclassified Pasteurellaceae were enriched in HIV-infected individuals with moderate and severe periodontal disease, and Treponema spp. were enriched in patients with severe periodontal disease. [4] Moreover, Marion et al. found that oral microbiota composition in HIV-infected individuals with oral KS was significantly different from that of HIV-infected individuals without oral KS. They found that at the genus level, the abundances of Aggregatibacter and Lautropia were decreased, whereas those of Corynebacterium and Shuttleworthia were increased in HIV-infected individuals with oral KS. [97] These studies indicated that distinct oral microbiota might affect the development of oral diseases in PLWH. Although the use of ART can inhibit HIV replication, increase CD4 + T lymphocytes, and reduce the occurrence of oral lesions, it cannot completely restore the oral microbiome of PLWH from its dysbiosis to normal. [38, 98] Studies observed that the oral microbiome compositions in HIV-infected individuals with ART became more similar to those in HIV-uninfected controls; however, a difference remained between the groups. [38, 99] Annavajhala et al [15] indicated that the use of specific ART regimens was associated with alterations in both gut and oral bacterial diversity. A study showed that Fusobacterium, Campylobacter, Prevotella, Capnocytophaga, Selenomonas, Actinomyces, Granulicatella, and Atopobium were increased in HIV-infected individuals after receiving ART, while Aggregatibacter was significantly decreased. [45] Another study collected samples from 35 HIV-infected subjects at baseline and after 24 weeks of ART to compare the differences in oral microbiota. The results showed that the dominant phyla in samples from patients with 24 weeks of ART remained similar to those observed at baseline, and the diversity was not significantly different between samples collected at baseline and those collected after 24 weeks of ART. However, PLWH with persistently low CD4 + T-cell counts had significantly increased bacterial richness and Shannon diversity, indicating that shifts in oral microbiota may play an important role in the recovery of CD4 + T-cell counts. [40] A recent study also found that Prevotella_7, Neisseria, and Haemophilus were negatively correlated with CD4 + T-cell count, whereas Neisseria was positively correlated with viral load. [37] Imahashi et al [64] also revealed the effects of long-term ART on gut and oral microbiota in PLWH. They suggested that ART, especially nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor-based ART, has more suppressive effects on the composition and diversity of microbiota in the gut than that in the oral cavity. Although OPC is still the most common oral opportunistic infection in PLWH, the introduction of ART can reduce its incidence in PLWH. [1] Interestingly, Maurya et al [100] found that although ART can decrease the risk of OPC in HIV-infected individuals, it does not decrease the colonization of Candida in the oral cavity. ART may play a key role in maintaining homeostasis between host immunity and the oral microbiome. However, it can also reduce oral commensal microorganisms that are capable of inhibiting pathogen colonization. Therefore, the potential mechanisms of ART on oral microbiome colonization remain unclear, and the further studies are necessary. In addition to ART, many studies have demonstrated that probiotics can be used as a new therapeutic approach to improve the quality of life in PLWH. [101] Probiotics play a beneficial role in human health by regulating the immune system and controlling pathogen colonization. [102] Studies have shown that probiotics are effective in preventing and treating many disorders, such as acute gastroenteritis, [103] inflammatory bowel diseases and irritable bowel syndrome, [104, 105] Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea, [106] allergies, [107] neonatal sepsis, [108] and respiratory tract infections. [109] Hu et al [110] also reported that probiotics might exert their beneficial effects on coronavirus and have a positive effect on host immune functions during severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. In recent years, probiotics have also been used to prevent various oral diseases, such as dental caries, [111] gingivitis, [112] and periodontitis. [113] In addition, the administration of probiotics could have a beneficial effect on OPC. [114, 115] De Barros et al [116] found that Lactobacillus could reduce the filamentation of C. albicans in in vitro and in vivo models, presenting the suppressive effect of probiotics on fungal pathogens. Other studies also showed that intake of Lactobacillus rhamnosus by immunosuppressed mice might decrease the development of candidiasis. [117] An in vitro study also suggested that Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactobacillus plantarum had antifungal effects against different oral Candida species isolated from HIV/AIDS patients. [118] In addition, recent studies also focused on the intervention of prebiotics and found nutritional stimulation of beneficial bacteria by prebiotics might play a crucial role in promoting oral health. [119, 120] Jiménez-Hernández et al [49] conducted a study on the impact of prebiotic intervention on the saliva microbiome of PLWH. A total of 32 HIV-infected subjects completed a 6-week prebiotic intervention, including viremic ART-untreated patients, immunological ART responders, immunological ART nonresponders, and HIV-uninfected controls. The diversity and richness of the saliva microbiome were decreased in the four groups after prebiotic intervention. In viremic ART-untreated individuals, the Actinobacteria Rothia mucilaginosa was increased, whereas some potential pathogens, such as Chinese Medical Journal 2021;134(23) www.cmj.org Corynebacterium, Fusobacterium, or Prevotella melaninogenica, were decreased after the use of prebiotics. These studies have further demonstrated that the probiotics and prebiotics may be beneficial to regulate oral microbiota dysbiosis in HIV infection and prevent and reduce the occurrence of HIV-related oral diseases. However, the oral microbiome could be influenced by multiple factors. It is necessary to identify specific bacteria that are beneficial to preventing and treating HIV-related diseases. Further clinical studies are also needed to determine the efficacy and safety of probiotics in different clinical conditions. Increasing evidence suggests a significant link of oral microbiome changes to HIV infection. We summarized the recent findings on alterations in oral microbiota of HIV infection and the potential roles of the shifts in oral microbiota in HIV-associated oral diseases. Moreover, we reviewed the effects of ART and probiotics on oral microbiota in HIV-infected individuals. It is evident that the oral microbiome plays an essential role in the pathogenesis of HIV disease, and a better understanding of the oral microbiome might improve the oral health of HIV-infected patients. In addition, further investigations are needed to evaluate the impact of the potential interventions on oral microbiome in HIV infection, which is groundwork for the formidable task of developing novel approaches for the prevention and therapy of HIV/AIDSassociated diseases. None. Oropharyngeal candidosis in HIV-infected patients-an update Oropharyngeal candidiasis in the era of antiretroviral therapy. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod Relationship between human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) infection and chronic periodontitis Oral microbiome in HIV-associated periodontitis Altered immunity and microbial dysbiosis in aged individuals with long-term controlled HIV infection Immune activation, inflammation, and non-AIDS comorbidities in HIV-infected patients under long-term ART HIV and aging: role of the microbiome Current trends and new developments in HIV research and periodontal diseases Evolution of the gut microbiome following acute HIV-1 infection An exploration of Prevotella-rich microbiomes in HIV and men who have sex with men Alterations in the gut microbiota associated with HIV-1 infection An altered intestinal mucosal microbiome in HIV-1 infection is associated with mucosal and systemic immune activation and endotoxemia Gut dendritic cell activation links an altered colonic microbiome to mucosal and systemic T-cell activation in untreated HIV-1 infection The microbiome and HIV persistence: implications for viral remission and cure Oral and gut microbial diversity and immune regulation in patients with HIV on antiretroviral therapy Incomplete immune reconstitution in HIV/AIDS patients on antiretroviral therapy: challenges of immunological non-responders Microbial translocation is a cause of systemic immune activation in chronic HIV infection Gut mucosal barrier dysfunction, microbial dysbiosis, and their role in HIV-1 disease progression Gut microbiota diversity predicts immune status in HIV-1 infection Initiation of ART during early acute HIV infection preserves mucosal Th17 function and reverses HIVrelated immune activation Th17 cells confer long-term adaptive immunity to oral mucosal Candida albicans infections Tissue-resident memory Th17 cells maintain stable fungal commensalism in the oral mucosa Oral-resident natural Th17 cells and gammadelta T cells control opportunistic Candida albicans infections Th17 cells and IL-17 receptor signaling are essential for mucosal host defense against oral candidiasis The mucosal immune system in the oral cavity-an orchestra of T cell diversity Extensive transmission of microbes along the gastrointestinal tract The human oral microbiome in health and disease: from sequences to ecosystems NIH HMP Working Group. The NIH human microbiome project Human oral microbiota and its modulation for oral health In sickness and in health-what does the oral microbiome mean to us? An Ecological Perspective Study of inter-and intra-individual variations in the salivary microbiota Bacterial diversity in the oral cavity of 10 healthy individuals The bacterial microbiota in the oral mucosa of rural Amerindians Characterizing oral microbial communities across dentition states and colonization niches Oral mycobiome identification in atopic dermatitis, leukemia, and HIV patients -a systematic review Characterization of the oral fungal microbiome (mycobiome) in healthy individuals Normal oral flora and the oral ecosystem Altered salivary microbiome in the early stage of HIV infections among young Chinese men who have sex with men (MSM) Alterations in oral microbiota in HIV are related to decreased pulmonary function Significant effect of HIV/HAART on oral microbiota using multivariate analysis Alterations in the oral microbiome in HIVinfected participants after antiretroviral therapy administration are influenced by immune status Alteration in oral microbiome among men who have sex with men with acute and chronic HIV infection on antiretroviral therapy The salivary microbiota in health and disease HIV infection and compromised mucosal immunity: oral manifestations and systemic inflammation Contribution of HIV infection, AIDS, and antiretroviral therapy to exocrine pathogenesis in salivary and lacrimal glands HIV infection and microbial diversity in saliva Modulation of the orodigestive tract microbiome in HIV-infected patients Highly-active antiretroviral therapy and oral opportunistic microorganisms in HIV-positive individuals of Thailand Modulation of saliva microbiota through prebiotic intervention in HIV-infected individuals Oral lesions: a true clinical indicator in human immunodeficiency virus Correlation of CD4 counts with oral and systemic manifestations in HIV patients Oral manifestations and their correlation to baseline CD4 count of HIV/AIDS patients in Ghana Dysbiosis in the oral bacterial and fungal microbiome of HIV-infected subjects is associated with clinical and immunologic variables of HIV infection Saliva and viral infections Oral mucosal immunity. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Pattern recognition receptors and inflammation Pattern recognition receptors as potential drug targets in inflammatory disorders Regulation of host-microbe interactions at oral mucosal barriers by type 17 immunity On-going mechanical damage from mastication drives homeostatic Th17 cell responses at the oral barrier Human anti-fungal Th17 immunity and pathology rely on cross-reactivity against Candida albicans T cell antifungal immunity and the role of C-type lectin receptors The role of T cells in periodontal disease: homeostasis and autoimmunity Oral bacteriome of HIV-1-infected children from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: next-generation DNA sequencing analysis Impact of long-term antiretroviral therapy on gut and oral microbiotas in HIV-1-infected patients Oral microbiota in youth with perinatally acquired HIV The mycobiome in HIV Oral mycobiome analysis of HIV-infected patients: identification of Pichia as an antagonist of opportunistic fungi Effect of HIV/HAART and other clinical variables on the oral mycobiome using multivariate analyses A neglected epidemic: fungal infections in HIV/AIDS Oropharyngeal candidiasis in HIV/AIDS patients and non-HIV subjects in the Southeast of Iran Oral microbiomes: more and more importance in oral cavity and whole body Oral microbiota and inflammatory bowel disease (in Chinese) Dysbiosis of salivary microbiota in inflammatory bowel disease and its association with oral immunological biomarkers Highthroughput sequencing provides insights into oral microbiota dysbiosis in association with inflammatory bowel disease Microbiota, cirrhosis, and the emerging oral-gut-liver axis Variations of oral microbiota are associated with pancreatic diseases including pancreatic cancer Enrichment of oral microbiota in early cystic precursors to invasive pancreatic cancer Oral microbiota changes in elderly patients, an indicator of Alzheimer's Disease Oral microbiota and Alzheimer's disease: do all roads lead to Rome? Subgingival biodiversity in subjects with uncontrolled type-2 diabetes and chronic periodontitis Oral microbiota perturbations are linked to high risk for rheumatoid arthritis The oral and gut microbiomes are perturbed in rheumatoid arthritis and partly normalized after treatment Role of oral microbiota in atherosclerosis Adverse pregnancy outcomes (APOs) and periodontal disease: pathogenic mechanisms Dysbiosis of the saliva microbiome in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome Mobile microbiome: oral bacteria in extra-oral infections and inflammation Cardiovascular disease and the role of oral bacteria Periodontal disease and coronary heart disease incidence: a systematic review and meta-analysis Systematic review of the changing pattern of the oral manifestations of HIV Iranian HIV/AIDS patients with oropharyngeal candidiasis: identification, prevalence and antifungal susceptibility of Candida species Distribution of Candida species among HIV-positive patients with oropharyngeal candidiasis in Immunopathogenesis of oropharyngeal candidiasis in human immunodeficiency virus infection The bacteriome-mycobiome interaction and antifungal host defense Current strategies for prevention of oral manifestations of human immunodeficiency virus. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Immune status, and not HIV infection or exposure, drives the development of the oral microbiota Clinical and microbiological profiles of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-seropositive Brazilians undergoing highly active antiretroviral therapy and HIV-seronegative Brazilians with chronic periodontitis Signatures of oral microbiome in HIV-infected individuals with oral Kaposi's sarcoma and cell-associated KSHV DNA Oral microbiome in HIV-infected women: Shifts in the abundance of pathogenic and beneficial bacteria are associated with aging, HIV load, CD4 count, and antiretroviral therapy Multicenter comparison of lung and oral microbiomes of HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected individuals Oropharyngeal candidiasis and Candida colonization in HIV positive patients in northern India Microbiota and probiotics in health and HIV infection Probiotics and immunity Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG versus placebo for acute gastroenteritis in children The effectiveness of probiotics in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)-a Critical Review The microbiome and inflammatory bowel disease Probiotics for the prevention of Clostridium difficileassociated diarrhea in adults and children Bugging allergy; role of pre-, pro-and synbiotics in allergy prevention The pros, cons, and many unknowns of probiotics Probiotics for preventing acute upper respiratory tract infections Review article: probiotics, prebiotics and dietary approaches during COVID-19 pandemic Probiotics as an adjunct therapy for the treatment of halitosis, dental caries and periodontitis Clinical and microbiological effects of the adjunctive use of probiotics in the treatment of gingivitis: a randomized controlled clinical trial Effects of bifidobacterium probiotic on the treatment of chronic periodontitis: a randomized clinical trial Effect of probiotics on oral candidiasis: a systematic review and metaanalysis The potential management of oral candidiasis using anti-biofilm therapies Lactobacillus paracasei 28.4 reduces in vitro hyphae formation of Candida albicans and prevents the filamentation in an experimental model of Caenorhabditis elegans Lactobacillus rhamnosus intake can prevent the development of Candidiasis Antifungal effects of Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactobacillus plantarum against different oral Candida species isolated from HIV/AIDS patients: an in vitro study Nutritional stimulation of commensal oral bacteria suppresses pathogens: the prebiotic concept Oral prebiotics and the influence of environmental conditions in vitro Alterations in the oral microbiome in HIV infection: causes, effects and potential interventions