key: cord-0950189-ugl7toh6 authors: Chen, Li; Deng, Yang; Dong, Shengkun; Wang, Hong; Li, Pan; Zhang, Huaiyu; Chu, Wenhai title: The occurrence and control of waterborne viruses in drinking water treatment: a review date: 2021-04-30 journal: Chemosphere DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130728 sha: 47c6459e2fba3cb909bbae9a77effc44ecfff482 doc_id: 950189 cord_uid: ugl7toh6 As the coronavirus disease 2019 continues to spread globally, its culprit, the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 has been brought under scrutiny. In addition to inhalation transmission, the possible fecal-oral viral transmission via water/wastewater has also been brought under the spotlight, necessitating a timely global review on the current knowledge about waterborne viruses in drinking water treatment system – the very barrier that intercepts waterborne pathogens to terminal water users. In this article we reviewed the occurrence, concentration methods, and control strategies, also, treatment performance on waterborne viruses during drinking water treatment were summarized. Additionally, we emphasized the potential of applying the quantitative microbial risk assessment to guide drinking water treatment to mitigate the viral exposure risks, especially when the unregulated novel viral pathogens are of concern. This review paves road for better control of viruses at drinking water treatment plants to protect public health. Supplying sufficient and clean drinking water has remained challenging in many countries and 17 regions (Roberson, 2011; Kaushal, 2016; Soller et al., 2019) . Among different water pollutants, 18 waterborne pathogens, particularly viruses, pose a lasting threat to human health and well-being 19 (Fenwick, 2006; Gerba et al., 2017) . With inadequate sewage disinfection and poor hygiene, 20 water-transmitted viral pathogens can find their pathway to potable water and cause human 21 diseases. On the average, 829 Pressure-driven membrane filtration can be subdivided into microfiltration (MF), UF, 236 nanofiltration (NF), and reverse osmosis (RO). Due to screening, bridging and electricstatic 237 attraction, suspensions and certain pathogens in water can be trapped on the membrane during 238 water filtration. Physical sieving or adsorption, cake layer formation, and fouling state of the 239 membrane phenomena enhance the capture of viruses for MF and UF membrane filtration 240 processes. However, MF and UF membranes cannot fully remove viruses owning to the relatively 241 large pore size (Fritzmann et al., 2007) . Their performance in the reduction of viruses fluctuates 242 with the operating conditions and likely fail after the damage of the membrane materials. It is 243 reported that MF membrane could only achieve 0.5 log reduction of MS2 (synthetic fresh water, 244 pH = 8.3) (Zhu et al., 2005a) . 245 In contrast, NF and RO membranes can almost completely remove viruses because the viral 246 particles can not to pass through the membrane materials. RO membranes exploit the osmotic 247 pressure across a semi-permeable membrane to separate bacteria and viruses from drinking water, 248 so the aggregation of viruses, protein content in the suspension and adsorption to the membrane 249 material would influence the removal efficiency (Ideno et al., 2020) . In view of the formation of 250 undesirable biofilms on the membrane surface and prohibitive membrane cleaning and 251 replacement (Tran et al., 2007; Stoica et al., 2018) , RO membranes are not recommended for 252 microorganism removal. 253 During the sedimentation and filtration processes, viruses, Giardia, Cryptosporidium and 254 other pathogenic microorganisms are transferred from water-to-water treatment residuals (i.e., 255 sludge). The sludge should be carefully managed and treated, particularly amid an epidemic. 256 Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection gains a growing interest in the water industry because the 258 disinfection has proven for efficient inactivation of (oo)cysts of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in 259 water. The UV disinfection process involves passing water through the tubes emitting UV lights, dose-dependent tendency in the infection loss and indicated difference in resistance using different 281 inactivity assay (Ko et al., 2005) . A similar study reported that LP and MP UV disinfections were 282 equally effective in damaging the genome, but MP UV was more effective in inactivating AdV in 283 cell culture, rather than in DNA damage induction (Eischeid et al., 2009 (Chick, 1908) , that is, the 292 proportion of viable microorganisms (N t /N) decreases exponentially with time: 293 ln(N t /N) = −k cw C n t = −kCt where k cw is the inactivation rate constant (dimensionless), N t is the microbial concentration 294 after contact time t , C is the disinfectant concentration, n is the coefficient of dilution 295 (dimensionless). The Ct values are the product of the remaining disinfectant dose C and the 296 contact time t, and act as an essential parameter for practical disinfection performance and 297 disinfection system design. 298 Chlorination is currently the most used disinfection method at DWTP due to simple operation, Monochloramine, practically generated from the reactions of ammonia with aqueous chlorine, was 336 first applied in the United States and Canada in 1917. Thereafter, the disinfecting agent was 337 widely used in 1930s due to less odor caused by residual chlorine. Hypochlorite capable of being 338 slowly released from monochloramine acts as the active ingredient. Therefore, monochloramine 339 requires a longer contact time than chlorine to achieve the same disinfection efficiency. 340 HAdV was known to be resistant to monochloramine disinfection. Interestingly (2010) found that the Ct values of 900 mg × min L -1 and 1500 mg × min L -1 were required to 344 achieve 4 logs inactivation of CV B5 and Echoviruses 11 (buffered chlorine-demand-free water, 345 pH = 7, 5 ± 0.2 ℃ ) respectively, HAdV-2, EV-11, and CV B5 showed resistance to 346 monochloramination, increase in pH resulted in higher Ct values required. It is consistent with 347 results in another study (Black et al., 2009 ). To achieve 4 logs removal for HAdV, the Ct values 348 required for monochloramine at pH = 9 were nearly 13000 mg × min L -1 at 5 °C and over 5000 mg Electrochemical method is recognized as a high-efficiency, environmentally friendly alternative 472 disinfection method for the treatment of drinking water. The typical application of electrochemical 473 disinfection is for swimming pool, seawater, and drinking water disinfection. When an iridium-antimony-tin-coated titanium anode and direct current were applied for 500 inactivating MS2 in solutions with sodium chloride addition, better disinfection could be achieved 501 with increases in salt content, contact time, and applied current (Fang et al., 2006) . Chlorine-active 502 substances generated by electrochemical device on-site performed a faster inactivation rate of EC, 503 Vibrio cholerae, Clostridium perfringens and MS2 than that of free chlorine. However, though the 504 viruses present smaller in size and simpler constructed compared to bacteria, their resistance to 505 electrochemical treatment is greater than that of bacteria, so it limits the applicability and needs 506 further investigation (Drees et al., 2003) . 507 The inactivation efficiency of the electrochemical disinfection system depends to a large extent on the target cell structure, electrode materials, electrolyte composition, microorganisms, 509 and other experimental parameters (e.g., flow rate and current density). The electrochemically 510 generated oxidants like chloride-active substances enhance the disinfection efficiency, while 511 H 2 PO 4 2-, HCO 3 -, and CO 3 2have inhibitory effect on the deactivation of electrochemical process 512 (Christensen et al., 2003) . It is speculated that the excessive chlorine species produced by 513 electrochemical system owns the same disadvantages as chlorine in drinking water disinfection. 514 The application of QMRA has become a promising predictive model for risk assessment (Schijven 516 et al., 2011; Enger et al., 2012) . The four steps of QMRA describe the whole process from the 517 scientific understanding of pathogens, the transportation in natural and engineering systems, as 518 well as the routes of exposure and disease outbreaks. QMRA is applied for estimation of the 519 microbial risk resulted from exposure to a particular pathogen and reveal the critical steps in risk 520 exposure. Also, the reverse risk assessment could be applied to evaluate the effect of drinking 521 water treatment to achieve acceptable limits of microbial risk (US EPA, 2017). Owing to the 522 difference in occurrence and resistance to disinfectant of viruses in aquatic environment, details on 523 the recovery, viability, and infectivity (and other microbial factors relevant to the exposure 524 assessment) in QMRA were reported to various extents. It is recommended to apply QMRA for 525 microbial risk assessment based on site-specific conditions to reveal the processes with high 526 potential risk, for the purpose of risk mitigation. The estimation of microbial risk from exposure to 527 pathogens relies on raw water indicators (e.g., pathogen concentration), treatment performance 528 (e.g., effect of drinking water treatment system), and exposure route (Schijven et al., 2016; 529 Hamouda et al., 2018) . Here, we focus on the studies that examined the performance of drinking 530 water treatments for removing and/or inactivating waterborne viruses, and the proposed reduction 531 of waterborne viruses to achieve the accepted annual disease risk in DWTP in Table S3 . 532 As mentioned above, there are mainly three ways for viruses to enter and pollute drinking 533 water, among which the sewage discharge and reuse serves as the vital way. It was believed that 534 scenarios incorporating considerable failure in drinking water treatments resulted in the risk level 535 surpassing the acceptable limit (Mohammed and Seidu, 2019) . In drinking water treatment system, chlorine disinfection played a most important role in controlling the microbial risk (Sokolova et al., 537 2015; Mohammed and Seidu, 2019), while a sub-optimal disinfection processes (particularly UV 538 treatment) significantly increased the pathogenic infection risk, which emphasized the importance 539 of the ability to disinfection continuously (Mohammed and Seidu, 2019) . In addition, the reverse 540 risk assessments were applied to evaluate the reduction target in drinking water treatment system 541 by setting annual disease risk targets. Astrom et al. (2007) put forward that 6 -7 logs removal for 542 NV and 5 -6 logs removal for EV would be necessary to keep the risk limit. While another 543 reasearch confirmed that the average required reduction for NV was between 7.6 and 8.8 logs 544 (Sokolova et al., 2015) . As to the treatment effect of viruses in the drinking water treatment, the 545 disinfection process has a vital role in assuring inactivation of waterborne viruses and the 546 microbial safety of drinking water supply. It is necessary to assess the site-specific microbial risk 547 posed by waterborne viruses timely to ensure microbial safety of drinking water. 548 This paper reviewed and emphasized the knowledge about waterborne viruses in drinking water 550 treatment system, including the sources and occurrence of viruses, and their concentration, 551 detection, and reduction, as well as the critical processes and objectives in controlling the 552 microbial risk according to QMRA. Although much effort has been made to improve the 553 waterborne viruses related treatments (including concentration, detection, and reduction 554 technologies), further research is needed for controlling microbial risk posed by waterborne 555 according to local conditions with QMRA, thus the critical steps in microbial risk exposure could 564 be revealed. 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