key: cord-0984769-ght675my
authors: Narayanan, Aswathy; Vadnala, Rakesh Netha; Ganguly, Promit; Selvakumar, Pavitra; Rudramurthy, Shivaprakash M.; Prasad, Rajendra; Chakrabarti, Arunaloke; Siddharthan, Rahul; Sanyal, Kaustuv
title: Functional and Comparative Analysis of Centromeres Reveals Clade-Specific Genome Rearrangements in Candida auris and a Chromosome Number Change in Related Species
date: 2021-05-11
journal: mBio
DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00905-21
sha: 6de40058c4c674c56c06e016a27900456fb0e004
doc_id: 984769
cord_uid: ght675my

The thermotolerant multidrug-resistant ascomycete Candida auris rapidly emerged since 2009 causing systemic infections worldwide and simultaneously evolved in different geographical zones. The molecular events that orchestrated this sudden emergence of the killer fungus remain mostly elusive. Here, we identify centromeres in C. auris and related species, using a combined approach of chromatin immunoprecipitation and comparative genomic analyses. We find that C. auris and multiple other species in the Clavispora/Candida clade shared a conserved small regional GC-poor centromere landscape lacking pericentromeres or repeats. Further, a centromere inactivation event led to karyotypic alterations in this species complex. Interspecies genome analysis identified several structural chromosomal changes around centromeres. In addition, centromeres are found to be rapidly evolving loci among the different geographical clades of the same species of C. auris. Finally, we reveal an evolutionary trajectory of the unique karyotype associated with clade 2 that consists of the drug-susceptible isolates of C. auris.

with the C. albicans homolog (C3_00860W_A) (see Fig. S1 in the supplemental material). Previous studies suggested that the haploid genome of C. auris is distributed in seven chromosomes (30) . To locate centromeres on each chromosome, we constructed a strain CauI46 expressing protein A-tagged CENP-A Cse4 from a clade 1 Indian isolate Cau46 (see Fig. S2a ). Immunofluorescence staining using anti-protein A antibodies revealed punctate localization of CENP-A Cse4 at the nuclear periphery, suggesting typical kinetochore clustering at interphase and mitotic stages of the cell cycle (Fig. 1a) . High amino acid sequence similarities with other proteins of the CENP-A family and typical localization patterns of the clustered centromeres at the nuclear periphery confirmed that the identified protein is, indeed, CENP-A Cse4 in C. auris. To identify CENP-A Cse4 associated DNA sequences as centromeric chromatin on each chromosome of C. auris, we performed CENP-A chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP), followed by sequencing (ChIP-seq), in strain CauI46. Sonicated genomic DNA without antibodies was also subjected to high-throughput sequencing that served as the input DNA control. The CENP-A Cse4 ChIP-seq analysis identified a single-peak in each of the 7 different scaffolds of 15 scaffolds of the publicly available, fragmented genome assembly of the clade 1 isolate B8441 (Fig. 1b) (30) . The CENP-A Cse4 enriched centromeric chromatin across chromosomes spans 2,516 to 2,908 bp, with an average length of 2,727 bp (Table 1 ). Further analysis of these regions suggests that CENP-A Cse4 -enriched core centromere (CEN) loci in C. auris are largely devoid of open reading frames (ORFs) and represent poly(A) transcriptional cold spots (Fig. 1c) . To further confirm ChIP-seq results, ChIP-quantitative PCR (ChIP-qPCR) using specific primers was performed to measure CENP-A Cse4 abundance at CENs compared to a noncentromeric genomic locus, ;200 kb away from CEN4 (far-CEN4). The same centromeric and noncentromeric primer pairs (see Table S3 ) were used to assess the canonical histone H3 occupancy in the corresponding regions by histone H3 ChIP-qPCR analysis. As expected, histone H3 levels were significantly depleted at the CENs compared to the far-CEN region (Fig. 1d) . Binding of CENP-A Cse4 to transcriptionally inert, histone H3-depleted loci of comparable length on different contigs strongly indicates that these genomic regions correspond to authentic centromeric chromatin.

Homology searches for CEN sequences among themselves and against the whole genome did not yield any significant results, suggesting that each DNA sequence underlying centromeric chromatin is unique and different. A dot plot comparing each centromere DNA sequence against itself as well as other centromeric sequences suggested the unique nature of sequences and the absence of DNA sequence repeats in C. auris centromeres (Fig. 1e) . Searches for specific DNA sequence motifs also did not detect any, except the 40-bp poly(A) and poly(T) stretches, which are present in all the seven regions, though not exclusive to the centromeres (see Fig. S2b ). The presence of poly(A) stretches at all centromeres prompted us to analyze the GC content of the CEN sequences identified. Two sequence features were investigated using the sliding window approach: GC content (the percentage of G and C residues in the scaffold in a sliding window of 5 kb, with a step size of 1 kb) and GC3 content (GC content at the third position of codons in the annotated ORFs, across the scaffolds, by calculating a moving average of 10 adjacent ORFs). These studies revealed the overlap of C. auris centromeres with deep GC and GC3 troughs in all the scaffolds (Fig. 1f) .

At each of the seven centromeres in C. auris, core CENP-A Cse4 chromatin occupies the entire ORF-free region, often extending partially to the neighboring centromereproximal ORFs. By comparing the lengths of CENP-A Cse4 -bound and the associated ORF-free regions in the previously characterized centromeres of Ascomycota, we observed that centromeric chromatin tends to possess a localized region within the gene-poor zones in species like C. albicans and S. cerevisiae. Exceptionally, the ratio of centromeric chromatin to the remaining ORF-free pericentric region in C. auris, similar to that of C. lusitaniae, is close to 1 (see Fig. S2c ). Thus, C. auris, like C. lusitaniae seems to lack pericentric heterochromatin (34) . We analyzed RNA-seq data available for C. auris (SRR6900290, SRR6900291, SRR6900292, and SRR6900293) to examine variations of gene expression at the centromere vicinity that might indicate the presence of pericentric heterochromatin. We could not detect any suppression of gene expression in the centromere neighborhoods (see Fig. S2d and e), confirming that C. auris, like C. lusitaniae, possesses pericentric heterochromatin-deficient centromeres (see Fig. S2f ). Pericentric heterochromatin formation is a concerted function of pericentric repeats, RNA interference machinery, chromodomain proteins, methyl transferases as well as histone deacetylases. However, these factors have a patchy distribution in the fungal kingdom (35) (36) (37) (38) . Orthologs of Dcr1 (the noncanonical Dicer protein) are present (B9J08_002318 in C. auris, CXQ85_005187 in C. haemulonii, CXQ87_004766 in C. duobushaemulonii, and C7M61_003937 in C. pseudohaemulonii). However, orthologs of Ago1 (Protein Argonaute), Rdp1 (RNA-dependent RNA polymerase), HP-1 (chromodomain protein), and Clr4 (histone-lysine N-methyltransferase) could not be detected in any of these ascomycetes.

Clade-specific karyotype alterations in C. auris involve centromeres. Clinical isolates of C. auris have been primarily classified into four geographical clades, which exhibit differences in virulence, drug resistance, and genome plasticity (13, 30, 33) . Having identified centromeres in a clade 1 isolate, we sought to identify centromere loci in other clades of C. auris. Are the centromeres and their neighborhoods conserved in sequence and location across different geographical clades? To answer this, we predicted the putative centromere coordinates in clades 2, 3, and 4 of C. auris based on gene synteny, GC content, and ORF content using the available assemblies (GCA_003013715.2 of strain B11220 for clade 2, GCA_005234155.1 of strain LOM for clade 3, and GCA_008275145.1 of strain B11245 for clade 4). The predictions were experimentally tested using strains expressing CENP-A Cse4 -protein A fusion proteins in each of these three clades. The predicted loci were enriched with CENP-A Cse4 and depleted of canonical histone H3 (Fig. 2a, b , d, e, g, and h). Like clade 1, all seven identified centromeres in each of the three clades overlap GC and GC3 troughs (Fig. 2c , f, and i). Taken together, we identified small regional AT-rich centromere loci with conserved synteny (Fig. 3a ) of all chromosomes in each of the four clades of C. auris.

The genomes of clade 2 and clade 4 have been assembled into seven scaffolds (GenBank assemblies GCA_003013715.2 and GCA_008275145.1, respectively), while the assemblies of clade 1 (GCA_002759435.2) and 3 (GCA_005234155.1) are fragmented. From MLST analysis based on RPB2 (39), TUB2, and EFB2 gene sequences, we observed that strain A1, isolated in China (SRS4986047), belongs to clade 3 and that strain CA-AM1 (SRS7388889), isolated in Italy, belongs to clade 1. Both GCA_014673535.1 (for strain CA-AM1) and GCA_014217455.1 (for strain A1), being complete assemblies with seven contigs, were used in clade 1 and clade 3 assembly, respectively, for genome-wide comparisons. Centromere locations in these isolates were also identified. Centromere coordinates of all the isolates analyzed are listed in Table 2 . Based on the presence of centromeres and syntenic regions shared with CA-AM1, we propose the merger of scaffold PEKT02000002.1 to PEKT02000001.1, PEKT02000005.1 to PEKT02000003.1, and PEKT02000004.1 to PEKT02000007.1 in the current reference assembly of clade 1 to fill the gaps and construct an improved assembly. Next, we performed genome-wide comparisons using the publicly available chromosome-level assemblies of C. auris to study the involvement of centromeres in cladespecific rearrangements, if any. All combinations of pairwise comparisons revealed interclade chromosomal changes in C. auris. Representative images using clade 4 (GCA_008275145.1) assembly as the reference is shown in Fig. 3b . Centromeres were numbered from 1 to 7 in the clade 4 assembly based on the decreasing sizes of the chromosomes harboring them. Centromeres of clades 1, 2, and 3 were numbered based on synteny with clade 4 CENs. Cross-clade comparisons revealed the genome of clade 2 to be the most rearranged one compared to the other three clades, as reported previously (40) (Fig. 3b) . We did not observe any major chromosomal rearrangements between clade 4 and clade 1 assemblies used, while two translocation events were observed between clade 3 and clade 4. Compared to clade 4, five of seven chromosomes in clade 2 had undergone chromosomal rearrangements, resulting in chromosome shuffling. Three of these rearrangements in chromosomes 1,3, and 6 involve synteny breaks near the centromeres (101 kb away from the centromere in chromosome 1, 91 kb away from the centromere in chromosome 3, and 68 kb away from the centromere in chromosome 6). These structural changes resulted in centromere relocations in clade 2 compared to other clades, generating significant karyotype alterations (Fig. 3c) . We also detected a segmental duplication in the clade 2 reference assembly (GCA_003013715.2). Duplication of a 145-kb fragment in contig 000006 in the clade 2 assembly places two copies of the centromere region on the same contig, separated by 144 kb (Fig. 3d) .

Centromeres were earlier shown to be the most rapidly evolving loci in two closely related species of the CTG-Ser1 clade: Candida albicans and Candida dubliniensis (26) . A similar genome-wide analysis among the clades of C. auris suggested that centromeres exhibit high incidence of substitution mutations compared to the intergenic regions of the genome. This is true for all the clades, though the extent of sequence divergence is different ( Fig. 3e ; see also Table S3 ). Hence, a geographical clade-specific accelerated evolution of centromere sequences in the same species is evident from these analyses.

C. haemulonii and related species share centromere properties with C. auris. The size of the C. auris genome is 12.2 to 12.4 Mb that falls in the same range with genomes of phylogenetically related, multidrug-resistant, pathogenic species C. haemulonii, C. duobushaemulonii, and C. pseudohaemulonii of sizes 13.3, 12.6, and 12.6 Mb, respectively (based on corresponding NCBI GenBank assemblies; see Materials and Methods). Since all these species of the C. haemulonii complex share similar biochemical properties, the misidentification of species in clinics is quite common. Gene synteny around the CEN neighborhoods in these species is conserved compared to C. auris, enabling the prediction of CEN coordinates ( Fig. 4a and Fig. 5a and e). The predicted CEN regions were also found to be histone H3 depleted and overlapping with scaffold GCand GC3 minima ( Fig. 4b and c and Fig. 5b , d, f to h), suggesting that these are the bona fide CENs. The identified regions are largely free of ORFs and have lengths comparable to those of C. auris CENs (Table 3) . Comparisons utilizing the available chromosome level assembly of C. duobushaemulonii revealed that this species has a chromosomal organization more similar to clades 1, 3, and 4 than to clade 2 of C. auris (see Fig. S3a to c), further corroborating the distinctiveness of clade 2, isolates of which are usually drug sensitive.

A centromere inactivation event accounts for the chromosome number alteration between C. lusitaniae and C. auris. Candida lusitaniae, another opportunistic pathogen, is classified under the Clavipora/Candida clade of Metschnikowiaceae and is phylogenetically close to C. auris (Fig. 6a) . It was previously reported to have eight AT-rich short regional CENs made up of unique DNA sequences (34) . On the other hand, we report that C. auris has seven functional CENs identified in this study. To trace the events that led to the chromosome number reduction during the divergence of these two species, we compared the gene synteny across the centromeres in C. lusitaniae and C. auris. Though the genomes are highly rearranged (see Fig. S3d ), we found that the gene synteny around centromeres is conserved between the two species. Intriguingly, chromosome 8 of C. lusitaniae was rearranged as three distinct fragments that fused with other chromosomes of C. auris. As a result, two C. lusitaniae centromeres (ClCEN2 and ClCEN8) were mapped to the same C. auris chromosome, based on synteny analysis (Fig. 6b) . ChIP-seq analysis revealed CEN2 to be functional in C. auris out of the two regions as CENP-A Cse4 is recruited only at CEN2. This observation illustrates a clear example of "evolution in progress" as the region corresponding to C. lusitaniae CEN8 becomes nonfunctional in C. auris despite gene synteny conservation between the two species around this region. ClCEN8, the functional centromere of chromosome 8 in C. lusitaniae, spans a region of ;4.5 kb, while the average centromere length is 4.3 kb. The size of the corresponding syntenic regions of the inactivated centromere (inCEN) is 1.1 kb in C. auris. In comparison, the functional centromeres of the same species have an average length of 2.7 kb. We posit that the significant, centromere-specific attrition of DNA sequence accompanied by the reduction of ATcontent resulted in the centromere inactivation in C. auris (Fig. 6c ). Analysis at the sequence level reveals divergence at the inCEN to be intermediate of that of centromeres and intergenic regions, further suggesting a "transition from centromeric to intergenic region" (see Table S3 ).

A distinct CEN-associated structural change observed in C. auris, compared to the syntenic CEN in C. lusitaniae, is a pericentric inversion altering the relative positions of three ORFs (Fig. 6d ). In addition to the presence of inCEN, five centromere regions in C. lusitaniae (ClCEN1, ClCEN2, ClCEN5, ClCEN6, and ClCEN7) have syntenic centromeres in C. auris. The remaining two centromeres of C. auris identified through CENP-A Cse4 ChIPseq are located at synteny breakpoints. The immediate ORFs flanking CEN3 in C. lusitaniae are conserved in C. auris but are separated by a length of 55 kb. The centromere is located adjacent to one of the synteny blocks, resulting in partial synteny conservation (Fig. 6e) . We also mapped a synteny breakpoint at the centromere on chromosome 2 of C. auris. The ORFs on either side of the C. auris CEN2 maps to different chromosomes in C. lusitaniae (Fig. 6f) .

The same patterns were observed in C. haemulonii, C. duobushaemulonii, and C. pseudohaemulonii, where sequences syntenic to ClCEN8-flanking blocks map to the same scaffold bearing ClCEN2 synteny regions ( Fig. 6g ; see also Fig. S4a and b) . The region corresponding to ClCEN8 has undergone differential sequence attrition in these species, resulting in reduced sequence length (840 bp in C. haemulonii, 361 bp in C. duobushaemulonii, and 496 bp in C. pseudohaemulonii) as observed in C. auris inCEN. CEN-specific sequence loss has also resulted in the reduction of AT-content in these species. CEN-associated inversions and synteny breakpoints in these species are also identical to those in C. auris (Fig. 6h to j; see also Fig. S4c to h). The typical patterns of CEN-associated changes in C. auris and other species of the C. haemulonii complex suggest that these events must have occurred in an immediate common ancestor before species divergence. Putative small regional, AT-rich centromeres identified in other species of the Clavispora/Candida clade. Around 40 ascomycetous species are classified under the Clavispora/Candida clade of Metschnikowiaceae (41) . To explore the centromere properties in the Clavispora/Candida clade, we attempted CEN identification in other species for which genome assemblies are available (Fig. 6a) . We could locate putative centromeres in several fungal species of the Clavispora/Candida clade of Metschnikowiaceae based on the conserved gene synteny and other conserved centromere properties of C. auris and C. lusitaniae as references (see Table S4 ). Two possible chromosome number states were detected in the Clavispora/Candida clade, and the analyzed genomes were classified into two groups: (i) species which have eight AT-rich putative centromeric loci of comparable sizes and (ii) species with seven AT-rich putative centromeric loci with an eighth locus that had undergone sequence loss despite synteny conservation around the orthologous but presumably inactivated centromere locus. C. lusitaniae has eight AT-rich, ORF-free centromeres of comparable lengths. Candida fructus Centromeres in Candida auris and Related Species ® was found to possess eight loci syntenic to each of the eight centromeres in C. lusitaniae. The identified regions are also depleted of ORFs, are GC-poor, and harbor GC skews as reported in the case of C. lusitaniae and C. albicans centromeres (34, 42) (Fig. 7) . Each of C. auris, other species of the C. haemulonii complex, and Candida heveicola has seven ORF-free loci, which are GC-poor. The eighth locus, though syntenic to CEN8 of C. lusitaniae, has undergone sequence attrition in each of them and is likely to be inactive, like the inCEN of C. auris. We could identify loci in other related species, including Candida intermedia, Candida blattae, and Candida oregonensis syntenic to each of the seven centromeres of C. auris. All the predicted regions are ORF-free, AT-rich, and constituted by unique, repeat-free sequences (see Fig. S5a and b) . We also identified an eighth locus syntenic to C. lusitaniae CEN8 in these species. Unlike the inCEN in C. auris with a drastically reduced sequence length, the eighth locus is of similar size as other predicted centromeres in these three species (see Fig. S5a and c) . The conservation of sequence length suggests that they may have eight functional centromeres. Exceptionally due to a possible assembly error, two putative centromeres identified in C. intermedia map to the same scaffold. Our in silico analyses collectively suggest the existence of two chromosome number states and remarkably similar centromere properties shared by these closely related organisms of the Clavispora/Candida clade. While all these putative CEN loci show similar gene synteny, ORF abundance, sequence length, and GC content, further experimental validation is required before assigning them as authentic CEN loci of the respective organisms.

Clade 2 of C. auris follows a unique evolutionary trajectory. We posit that C. lusitaniae and C. fructus might have shared an immediate common ancestor CA1 with eight functional CENs, one on each chromosome (n = 8). Chromosomal rearrangements placed regions syntenic to ClCEN2 and ClCEN8 of these two species on the same chromosome in the C. haemulonii complex species as well as three clades (clades 1, 3, and 4) of C. auris, out of which ClCEN2 is active, and ClCEN8 is inactive (inCEN) (Fig. 8a) . This finding indicates the existence of an immediate common ancestor (n = 7), CA2, with a ClCEN2-inCEN configuration shared by C. auris and other species of the C. haemulonii complex. Synteny analyses enabled us to reconstruct CEN-based ancestral genomes of the immediate common ancestors of C. lusitaniae-C. fructus (CA1) and C. haemulonii complex-C. auris (CA2), representing chromosome number states of n = 8 and n = 7, respectively (Fig. 8a) . We also hypothesize parallel evolution of the geographical clades of C. auris, at different time scales, diverging from a common ancestor CA3, which was derived from the ancestor CA2. Out of the four clades, clade 2 has a remarkably rearranged genome. The location of inCEN serves as a useful index for representing interclade differences. The synteny block containing C. lusitaniae CEN8 is conserved in C. haemulonii, C. pseudohaemulonii, and C. duobushaemulonii, as well as in C. auris clades 1, 3, and 4. The genes in the block are found distributed in two chromosomes in clade 2, indicating that a break occurred within the block, followed by a downstream reciprocal translocation event ( Fig. 3b ; see also Table S5 ). The terminal chromosomal translocation (TCT) event in which Chr4 and Chr7 of CA3 exchanged chromosome ends might have repositioned inCEN resulting in a ClCEN5-inCEN configuration (Fig. 3b and Fig. 8b ), exclusive to clade 2. This structural change further confirms the divergence of clade 2 from the common ancestor CA3 along a different evolutionary trajectory (Fig. 8c) . On analyzing the whole-genome synteny conservation, we observed that the chromosomes of clade 2 are more rearranged with respect to C. duobushaemulonii chromosomes, compared to the chromosomes of the other clades (see Fig. S3 ), supporting the inference that clade 2 is uniquely rearranged. Also, the conservation of the C. lusitaniae CEN8-containing synteny block among the C. haemulonii complex species and all of the C. auris clades except clade 2 further suggests that clade 2 underwent major karyotype changes different from all the other clades and related species. These observations prompted us to reject an equally possible, alternative model of clade 2 being the ancestral unique strain where the event leading to chromosome number reduction happened. In this case, clade 2 would have shared higher similarity with C. lusitaniae with respect to the synteny block harboring inCEN. Other rearrangements causing CEN relocations provide additional lines of evidence for the clade-specific divergence. 

Centromere identification revealed a typical centromere landscape in multiple species of the Clavispora/Candida clade-small regional CENs constituted by AT-rich unique sequences and embedded in ORF-free regions that are devoid of any detectable pericentric heterochromatin, DNA motifs, or repeats. These closely related species either contain seven chromosomes or eight chromosomes. We propose that a centromere inactivation event in a common ancestor with eight chromosomes led to this diversity. The inactive centromere, in a pseudodicentric chromosome that might have formed at an intermediate stage, underwent substantial but differential attrition of centromere DNA sequence. This process might have played a crucial role in the emergence of multiple species with seven chromosomes. Inactivation of centromere function mediated by DNA sequence deletion has been suggested previously (43) (44) (45) . Several synteny breakpoints mapped to the identified centromeres, compared to representative species of the eight-chromosome state, add to the growing evidence that suggests centromeres as a hub of fragility in different systems (46, 47) and downstream chromosomal rearrangements. Spatial proximity of clustered centromeres in fungal species facilitates intercentromeric recombination, possibly mediated by replication fork stalling and higher chances of double-stranded breaks, thus contributing toward karyotype evolution (17, 48, 49) . The role of AT-rich sequences and poly(A) stretches in these events, owing to their melting features and potential propensity to form non-B DNA, warrants further study as centromeres in many fungal species coincide with GC or GC3 troughs (16, 28, (50) (51) (52) (53) .

Whole chromosome and segmental aneuploidy are correlated with drug resistance in other fungal pathogens (54) . The C. auris genome is known to be highly plastic (33) . Considering the multidrug resistance and karyotype plasticity of C. auris, it is likely that gross chromosomal rearrangements are taking place in different clinical isolates, contributing to their drug resistance or virulence. Mapping of centromere loci should help trace such genomic rearrangement events. Centromere sequences in different geographical clades were found to evolve rapidly and differentially than the rest of the genome, suggesting that centromeres are potential candidate loci to study evolutionary trajectories emerging within a species. C. auris clade 2 has the most rearranged genome and consists of atypical isolates that differ from the other clades in terms of drug tolerance, as well as pathogenicity (40, 55, 56) . The unique nature of centromere sequences can be used for accurate species-level and clade-level identification.

In this study, we reveal that the genome of clade 2 differs from the rest of the clades in the position of orthologous centromeres on the chromosomes and the location of the inactive centromere. Chromosome-level comparisons also reveal that karyotype of clade 2 is more rearranged and hence different from C. duobushaemulonii than the other clades. These observations directed us to conclude that C. auris clades diverged from a common ancestor that shares ancestry with the C. haemulonii complex species, and from which clade 2 diverged along a different trajectory during the parallel evolution of the geographical clades. Significant karyotype alterations, evident from the centromere and inactive centromere locations are likely to have contributed to the distinctiveness of C. auris clade2, compared to other clades and the C. haemulonii complex species. Ascomycetous pathogens such as C. albicans and C. glabrata exist as clades that exhibit geographical specificity and clade-specific phenotypic features (57, 58) . Rare or no interclade recombination is observed in these species, and little is known about the genomic rearrangements or the variations at centromeres operating at the clade level, which can, in turn, affect the recombination frequency.

We conjecture that such centromere-associated clade-specific differences might not be restricted to C. auris. Further exploration of centromere sequences and associated structural changes within a species and species complexes will yield deeper insight into the role of centromeres in generating diversity in primarily asexual fungi.

Strains, media, and growth conditions. Strains of various Candida species used in the study (listed in Table S1 in the supplemental material) were grown in YPD (1% yeast extract, 2% peptone, and 2% Centromeres in Candida auris and Related Species ® dextrose) at 30°C. The identity of the strains was confirmed by amplification and sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and D1/D2 regions, followed by BLAST analysis (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih .gov/BLAST/Blast.cgi). The clade status of different C. auris isolates used was confirmed by amplifying and sequencing regions of three housekeeping genes (TUB2, EFB1, and RPB1) harboring polymorphic sites (TUB2, bp 534; EFB1, bp 698; and RPB1, bp 552 [with respect to clade 1]).

Construction of C. auris strain expressing CENP-A Cse4 -protein A fusion protein. The homolog of CENP-A Cse4 in C. auris was identified by BLAST using C. albicans CENP-A Cse4 sequence as the query against the C. auris genome. It was distinguished from the canonical histone H3 sequences by confirming the presence of CENP-A Cse4 -specific amino acid residues (59) . For tagging CENP-A Cse4 with protein A at the C terminus, approximately 900 and 800 bp were used as upstream and downstream sequences, respectively, to construct the tagging cassette. The 900-bp fragment (including the complete ORF and native promoter sequence) was amplified from the genomic DNA and cloned as a KpnI-SacI fragment in the pBS-TAP-NAT plasmid. The downstream sequence was cloned as a SpeI-NotI fragment. The 3.7-kb tagging construct, as a KpnI-NotI fragment, was used to transform Cau46R. The transformation of the strains was performed as previously described (60) . Nourseothricin (Jena Bioscience) was added at a concentration of 100 mg/ml in the media for selecting transformants. The colonies obtained were subcultured in the presence of nourseothricin and integration of the tagging construct in NAT 1 transformants was confirmed by PCR.

Western blotting. Cells were grown overnight in YPD until mid-log phase, and 3 optical density (OD) equivalent cells were harvested for protein lysate preparation. The cells were suspended in 400 ml of ice-cold trichloroacetic acid (12.5%), vortexed briefly, and stored at 220°C overnight. The samples were later thawed and pelleted by centrifugation at 14,000 rpm at 4°C for 10 min. The pellets were washed twice with 400 ml of ice-cold acetone (80%), air-dried, suspended in an appropriate volume of lysis buffer (0.1 M NaOH and 1% SDS), and boiled for 10 min. The proteins in the lysate were separated on 12% polyacrylamide gels. The separated samples were transferred from the gels to the nitrocellulose membranes, which were then probed with anti-protein A antibodies (Sigma, P3775; 1:5,000 dilution in 2.5% [wt/vol] skim milk powder in 1Â PBS) and horseradish peroxidase-conjugated goat anti-rabbit secondary antibodies (Abcam, 1:10,000 dilution in 2.5% [wt/vol] skim milk powder in 1Â PBS). The blots were developed using Chemiluminescence Ultra substrate (Bio-Rad) and imaged using the VersaDoc system (Bio-Rad).

Preparation of spheroplasts. Cells were grown in 50 ml of YPD until reaching an optical density at 600 nm (OD 600 ) of 0.8 and washed with water by centrifugation at 3,000 rpm for 5 min. Cells were then incubated in 10 ml of 2-mercaptoethanol solution (5% in water; Himedia, catalog no. MB041) for 1 h at 30°C at 180 rpm. The cells were pelleted, washed, and resuspended in SCE buffer (1 M sorbitol, 100 mM sodium citrate, 10 mM EDTA [pH 8.0]). Lysing enzyme from Trichoderma harzianum (Sigma, catalog no. L1412) was added at a concentration of 2.5 mg/ml, and the suspension was incubated at 37°C at 80 rpm for 2 h. The cells were examined under a microscope to determine the proportion of spheroplasts in the suspension. The prepared spheroplasts were further processed based on the corresponding experimental design.

Indirect immunofluorescence. The C. auris CENP-A Cse4 -protein A strain was inoculated to 1% (vol/ vol) from an overnight culture and was grown until reaching an OD 600 of 0.8. The cells were fixed by adding formaldehyde to a final concentration of 1% for 15 min. Spheroplasts were prepared from the fixed cells (as described above), washed with 1Â PBS, and diluted in 1Â PBS to a density appropriate for microscopy. Slides for microscopy were washed and coated with poly L-lysine (10 mg/ml). Portions (20 ml) of the diluted cell suspension were added onto slides, followed by incubation at room temperature for 5 min. The suspension was aspirated, and the slide was washed to remove unbound spheroplasts. The slide was treated with ice-cold methanol for 6 min, followed by ice-cold acetone for 30 s. Blocking solution (2% nonfat skim milk powder in 1Â PBS) was added to each well, and the slide was incubated for 30 min at room temperature. The blocking solution was aspirated, and rabbit anti-protein A antibodies (Sigma, P3775; dilution, 1:1,000) were added. The slide was incubated in a wet chamber for 1 h. The antibodies were aspirated, and the slide was washed 15 times, incubating the slide for 2 min for each wash. Secondary antibodies were added (Alexa Fluor 568-goat anti-rabbit IgG; Invitrogen, A11011; dilution, 1:1,000). The slide was incubated in the dark in a wet chamber for 1 h at room temperature. The washes were repeated, and mounting medium (70% glycerol with 100 ng/ml DAPI [49,69-diamidino-2-phenylindole]) was added. Clean coverslips were mounted onto the wells, and the slides were imaged using an inverted fluorescence microscope (Zeiss Axio observer; Plan Apochromat, 100Â oil). Images were processed using Zeiss ZEN system software and ImageJ.

Chromatin immunoprecipitation. C. auris CENP-A Cse4 -protein A strain was inoculated to 1% (vol/ vol) from an overnight culture, grown until reaching an OD 600 of 1.0, and cross-linked by the addition of formaldehyde to a final concentration of 1% for 15 min. Quenching with 0.135 mM glycine for 5 min was followed by preparation of spheroplasts (as described above). The following buffers were used to wash the prepared spheroplasts: 1Â PBS (ice-cold), Buffer-1 (0.25% Triton X-100, 10 mM EDTA, 0.5 mM EGTA, 10 mM Na-HEPES [pH 6.5]), and Buffer-2 (200 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, 0.5 mM EGTA, 10 mM Na-HEPES [pH 6.5]). Then, 1 ml of lysis buffer (50 mM HEPES [pH 7.4], 1% Triton X-100, 140 mM NaCl, 0.1% sodium deoxycholate, 1 mM EDTA) was added to the pellet obtained after the final wash, along with protease inhibitor cocktail (1Â). The resuspended spheroplasts were sonicated to obtain chromatin fragments in the size range of 100 to 400 bp. The lysate was cleared by centrifugation at 14,000 rpm for 10 min at 4°C. One-tenth of the lysate volume was separated to be used as the input DNA. The remaining lysate was divided into two equal fractions: anti-protein A antibodies were added to one of the fractions (immunoprecipitation [IP] fraction) at a 20-mg/ml concentration. The other fraction served as the antibody-minus control. Both the fractions were incubated overnight on a Rotaspin at 4°C. Protein A-Sepharose beads were added, and the samples were incubated on a Rotaspin at 4°C for 6 h. This was followed by collecting the beads by centrifugation and sequential washes with the following buffers: twice with 1 ml of low-salt wash buffer (0.1% SDS, 1% Triton X-100, 2 mM EDTA, 20 mM Tris [pH 8.0], 150 mM NaCl), twice with 1 ml of high-salt wash buffer (0.1% SDS, 1% Triton X-100, 2 mM EDTA, 20 mM Tris [pH 8.0], 500 mM NaCl), once with 1 ml of LiCl wash buffer (0.25 M LiCl, 1% NP-40, 1% sodium deoxycholate, 1 mM EDTA, 10 mM Tris [pH 8.0]), and twice with 1 ml of 1Â Tris-EDTA (10 mM Tris [pH 8.0], 1 mM EDTA). For each wash, the beads were rotated on a Rotaspin for 5 min in the corresponding buffer, followed by centrifugation at 5,400 rpm for 2 min. The beads were suspended in 0.25 ml of elution buffer (0.1 M NaHCO 3 , 1% SDS), incubated at 65°C for 5 min, and rotated on the Rotaspin for 15 min. The supernatant was collected after centrifugation. The elution step was repeated to obtain a final eluted volume of 0.5 ml. The elution buffer was also added to the stored input sample to obtain a final volume of 0.5 ml. Decrosslinking of the three samples (input, IP, and antibody-minus) was done by adding 20 ml of 5 M NaCl and overnight incubation at 65°C. Proteins in the samples were removed by adding 10 ml of 0.5 M EDTA, 20 ml of 1 M Tris (pH 6.8), and 2 ml of proteinase K (20 mg/liter), followed by incubation at 45°C for 3 h. An equal volume of phenol-chloroform-isoamyl alcohol (25:24:1) was added to purify the samples, and the aqueous phase was extracted by centrifugation at 14,000 rpm for 10 min. DNA was precipitated by adding 3 M sodium acetate (1/10th of the volume [pH 5.2]), 1 ml of glycogen (20 mg/ml), and 1 ml of absolute ethanol, followed by incubation at 220°C overnight. The precipitated DNA was collected by centrifugation at 13,000 rpm for 30 min at 4°C and was washed once with 70% ethanol. Air-dried pellets were resuspended in 20 ml of sterile MilliQ water with 10 mg/ml RNase. ChIP-DNA from duplicates were pooled for ChIP-seq.

The same protocol was followed to determine canonical histone H3 and histone H4 occupancy at the centromeres in C. haemulonii, C. duobushaemulonii, C. pseudohaemulonii, and different clades of C. auris, with some differences. Anti-H3 antibodies (Abcam [ab1791], at a final concentration of 13 mg/ml), and anti-H4 antibodies (Abcam [ab10158], at a final concentration of 13 mg/ml) were used for immunoprecipitation. The bead washes were performed for 15 min.

ChIP-seq. (i) Library preparation. ChIP DNA obtained from CENP-A Cse4 -protein A (4 ng) was used to generate a sequencing library using NEBNext Ultra II DNA Library Prep kit for Illumina (catalog no. E7645S). In brief, the fragmented DNA was subjected to end repair followed by A-tailing and adapter ligation. The product DNA was enriched by PCR amplification using Illumina index adapter primers and purified using AMPure beads to remove unused primers. The library was quantitated using a Qubit DNA high-sensitivity quantitation assay, and the library quality was checked on a Bioanalyzer 2100 using an Agilent 7500 DNA kit.

(ii) Data analysis. ChIP-seq yielded 20,816,547 reads for the input, and 20,959,149 reads for IP. Based on the FastQC (v0.11.8) report, adaptor sequences and orphan reads were removed using Trim Galore! (v0.4.4) (http://www.bioinformatics.babraham.ac.uk/projects/). The output file was mapped onto the GenBank reference assembly for C. auris clade 1 (GCA_002759435.2) to obtain the sequence alignment map in SAM format. Conversion to BAM, sorting, and indexing was achieved using SAMtools (v1.9) (61). Identification and excision of duplicates were made using MarkDuplicates scripted by Picard tools (v1.119) (http://broadinstitute.github.io/picard/). The processed binary alignment map was used as input for MACS2 (v2.1.1) (62), along with the genome control reads (processed in the same way as the immunoprecipitation sample) to generate peaks. The peaks were then sorted based on the P value, the false discovery rate value, and the fold change. The peaks were visualized using Integrative Genomic Viewer (v2.4.1) (63). Enrichment peaks were curated (fold enrichment, $2.6), and the coordinates of the peaks obtained from MACS2 post-peak calling were used to extract sequences from the genome assemblies. The extracted sequences were scanned for repeats using SyMap (v4.2) (64), and the result was depicted as a dot plot.

ChIP-qPCR analysis. Real-time PCR was used to confirm CENP-A Cse4 enrichment and H3 depletion in the centromere sequences, using primers specific to centromeres and noncentromeric loci (listed in Table S3 ) and SensiFAST SYBR No ROX kit. Dilutions of 1:50 for input and 1:20 for the IP were used to determine CENP-A Cse4 enrichment. Dilutions of 1:50 for input and 1:5 for the IP were used to determine histone H3 and H4 occupancy. The program used the following sequence: 94°C for 2 min, 94°C for 30 s, appropriate T m for 30 s, and 72°C for 30 s for 30 cycles. The adjusted C T values (log 2 of dilution factor subtracted from the C T value of the input or IP) were used to calculate the percentage input using the formula: 100 Â 2 (adjusted Ct of input 2 adjusted Ct of IP) . Three technical replicates were taken for the assay, and the standard error of the mean was calculated. The plots were generated using GraphPad Prism 8.

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/assembly/GCA_900106115.1/) were downloaded from GenBank. Transcription and proteome data of C. lusitaniae were used to annotate the C. fructus (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ assembly/GCA_003707795.1/) genome. C. auris clade 3 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/assembly/GCA _005234155.1/), C. heveicola (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/assembly/GCA_003708405.1/), C. oregonensis (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/assembly/GCA_003707785.2/), and C. blattae (https://www.ncbi.nlm .nih.gov/assembly/GCA_003706955.2/) genome assemblies were annotated using transcriptome and proteome data of C. auris clade 2, using MAKER (v2.31.10) (65) . For all given species, clusters of orthologous proteins were identified using OrthoMCL (v2.0.9) (66). The single-copy orthologs present in all the species were identified and aligned using Clustal Omega (v1.2.4) (67) . All the alignments were concatenated for each species, including the gaps. The gaps and corresponding sequences in all other species were removed. MrBayes (v2.3.5) (68) was used for tree construction, which was visualized using FigTree (v1.4.4) (http://tree.bio.ed.ac.uk/software/figtree/). Orthologs for proteins involved in heterochromatin formation and RNAi was done using phmmer option in HMMER (EMBL-EBI) (69) .

In silico analyses. (i) Gene synteny. Centromere prediction in a candidate species was made by aligning the respective genome assembly to the reference species assembly using Mauve (Geneious v11.1.4; Biomatters, Ltd.), and the conserved synteny blocks corresponding to the ORFs flanking centromeres in the reference assembly were identified. For confirming synteny conservation, candidate species-specific local genome databases were created using Geneious. BLAST analysis of five individual ORFs on either side of the centromeres in the reference species assembly was performed against the local genome database of the candidate species, using the protein sequences as queries. For genomelevel comparison, coordinates of all the synteny blocks conserved between two species were obtained using SyMap (v4.2), and the circos plots were drawn using Circos (v0.69-8) (70) . Scaffold-level and ORFlevel synteny analyses identifying rearrangements were done using Easyfig (v2.2.2) (71).

(ii) Centromere sequence features. Python scripts were written to determine the GC% at the third position of codons. The percentages of G and C at the third position of codons (except the stop codons) were calculated, followed by calculating the average values in a sliding window of 10 ORFs. These values were plotted for each scaffold of the genome. Annotations that are not a multiple of three were not considered for the analysis. GC% was also calculated for the whole scaffolds with a window size of 5 kb and a sliding step of 1 kb. GC skew [(G 2 C)/(G 1 C)] and AT skew [(A -T)/(A 1 T)] were plotted for a region of 10 kb flanking the centromeres using a window size of 100 bp and a sliding step of 1 bp. The skew calculation was done in Julia (v1.2.0), and the plotting was done in R. The "geom_smooth" function with "gam" method in ggplot2 (72) was used to smoothen the curve.

To study trends in centromere sequence evolution in different clades of C. auris, protein sequences were extracted using agat_sp_extract_sequences.pl from the AGAT suite (https://github.com/ NBISweden/AGAT), and orthologous genes found using rsd_search (73) . Intergenic sequence that occurred between the same pair of orthologous genes in pairs were identified as orthologous intergenic sequence and aligned using FSA (74) , which we previously found to have high specificity for true homology in aligning intergenic DNA sequence (75) . In each of the pairwise alignments generated by FSA, sequence divergence was estimated as #mutations/#matches, where #matches is the number of positions where an aligned pair of nucleotides is reported; and #mutations is the number of match positions where the alignment is a mismatch. The means and sample standard deviations over all intergenic sequences were calculated and compared to the observed numbers in centromeres.

If available, the respective genome assembly annotation files were used to report the length of ORFfree regions. Otherwise, all predicted ORFs larger than 600 bp were considered as coding sequences. Motif search was done using MEME in the MEME Suite (76) .

(iii) Gene expression. For determining the transcriptional status of centromeres, the raw sequencing reads (SRR6900290, SRR6900291, SRR6900292, and SRR6900293) (30) were aligned to the reference genome of clade 1 (GenBank assembly GCA_002759435.2) using HISAT2 (v2.1.0) (77) . The aligned reads were then graphically visualized in the IGV to analyze gene expression levels at/around the centromeres on different chromosomes. For studying the transcriptional status of ORFs overlapping with or flanking the centromeres, the abundance of annotated transcripts was quantified using pseudo alignment program kallisto (v0.46.1) (78) . The expression of genes around/overlapping the centromere in TPM (transcripts per million) were compared to the global gene expression level.

Data availability. ChIP-seq data have been deposited in NCBI under BioProject PRJNA612018.

Supplemental material is available online only. 

Ortholog search and phylogenetic tree construction. Available annotation files for S. cerevisiae

Candida auris sp. nov., a novel ascomycetous yeast isolated from the external ear canal of an inpatient in a Japanese hospital

Invasive infections with multidrug-resistant yeast Candida auris

An outbreak due to Candida auris with prolonged colonization and candidaemia in a tertiary care European hospital

First hospital outbreak of the globally emerging Candida auris in a European hospital

Investigation of the first seven reported cases of Candida auris, a globally emerging invasive, multidrug-resistant fungus-United States

On the emergence of Candida auris: climate change, azoles, swamps, and birds

On the origins of a species: what might explain the rise of Candida auris?

Effectiveness of disinfectants against Candida auris and other Candida species

A multicentre study of antifungal susceptibility patterns among 350 Candida auris isolates (2009-17) in India: role of the ERG11 and FKS1 genes in azole and echinocandin resistance

Candida auris candidemia in Kuwait

Candida auris: epidemiology, risk factors, virulence, resistance, and therapeutic options

Candida auris: a latent threat to critically ill patients with COVID-19

Simultaneous emergence of multidrug-resistant Candida auris on 3 continents confirmed by whole-genome sequencing and epidemiological analyses

Potential fifth clade of Candida auris

Fungal genome and mating system transitions facilitated by chromosomal translocations involving intercentromeric recombination

Loss of centromere function drives karyotype evolution in closely related Malassezia species

Spatial inter-centromeric interactions facilitated the emergence of evolutionary new centromeres

Centromere deletion in Cryptococcus deuterogattii leads to neocentromere formation and chromosome fusions

An isochromosome confers drug resistance in vivo by amplification of two genes, ERG11 and TAC1

Formation of new chromosomes as a virulence mechanism in yeast Candida glabrata

Candida albicans: an emerging yeast model to study eukaryotic genome plasticity

Implications of the evolutionary trajectory of centromeres in the fungal kingdom

The molecular basis for centromere identity and function

Five pillars of centromeric chromatin in fungal pathogens

The CENP-A homolog CaCse4p in the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans is a centromere protein essential for chromosome transmission

Rapid evolution of Cse4p-rich centromeric DNA sequences in closely related pathogenic yeasts, Candida albicans and Candida dubliniensis

Long transposon-rich centromeres in an oomycete reveal divergence of centromere features in Stramenopila-Alveolata-Rhizaria lineages

Early diverging fungus Mucor circinelloides lacks centromeric histone CENP-A and displays a mosaic of point and regional centromeres

Polymorphic centromere locations in the pathogenic yeast Candida parapsilosis

Genomic insights into multidrug-resistance, mating and virulence in Candida auris and related emerging species

Evolutionary genomics of yeast pathogens in the Saccharomycotina

Repeat-Associated fission yeast-like regional centromeres in the ascomycetous budding yeast Candida tropicalis

Rapid and extensive karyotype diversification in haploid clinical Candida auris isolates

Regional centromeres in the yeast Candida lusitaniae lack pericentromeric heterochromatin

Transcription and RNAi in heterochromatic gene silencing

Sir2 is required for Clr4 to initiate centromeric heterochromatin assembly in fission yeast

Reinventing heterochromatin in budding yeasts: Sir2 and the origin recognition complex take center stage

RNAi in budding yeast

Evidence of genotypic diversity among Candida auris isolates by multilocus sequence typing, matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry and amplified fragment length polymorphism

Clade-specific chromosomal rearrangements and loss of subtelomeric adhesins in Candida auris

On the reclassification of species assigned to Candida and other anamorphic ascomycetous yeast genera based on phylogenetic circumscription

Epigenetically-inherited centromere and neocentromere DNA replicates earliest in S phase

Stabilization of dicentric chromosomes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by telomere addition to broken ends or by centromere deletion

Mechanisms of chromosome number evolution in yeast

DNA deletion as a mechanism for developmentally programmed centromere loss

Fragile sites at the centromere of Chinese hamster chromosomes: a possible mechanism of chromosome loss

Functional genomic analysis of chromosomal aberrations in a compendium of 8000 cancer genomes

Replication forks pause at yeast centromeres

Centromeric DNA replication reconstitution reveals DNA loops and ATR checkpoint suppression

What makes a centromere?

An AT-rich sequence in human common fragile site fra16d causes fork stalling and chromosome breakage in S. cerevisiae

Cellular dynamics and genomic identity of centromeres in cereal blast fungus

Chromosomal G1C content evolution in yeasts: systematic interspecies differences, and GC-poor troughs at centromeres

Aneuploidy and drug resistance in pathogenic fungi

Clade II Candida auris possess genomic structural variations related to an ancestral strain

Candida auris: a pathogen difficult to identify, treat, and eradicate and its characteristics in Japanese strains

Candida albicans clades

Multilocus sequence typing of Candida glabrata reveals geographically enriched clades

Analysis of primary structural determinants that distinguish the centromere-specific function of histone variant Cse4p from Histone H3

Centromeric DNA sequences in the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans are all different and unique

Genome Project Data Processing Subgroup. 2009. The Sequence Alignment/Map format and SAMtools

Model-based analysis of ChIP-Seq (MACS)

Integrative genomics viewer

SyMAP v3.4: a turnkey synteny system with application to plant genomes

MAKER2: an annotation pipeline and genomedatabase management tool for second-generation genome projects

OrthoMCL: identification of ortholog groups for eukaryotic genomes

Fast, scalable generation of high-quality protein multiple sequence alignments using Clustal Omega

MrBayes 3: Bayesian phylogenetic inference under mixed models

HMMER web server

Circos: an information aesthetic for comparative genomics

Easyfig: a genome comparison visualizer

ggplot2: elegant graphics for data analysis

Fast statistical alignment

Sigma-2: multiple sequence alignment of noncoding DNA via an evolutionary model

MEME Suite: tools for motif discovery and searching

Graph-based genome alignment and genotyping with HISAT2 and HISAT genotype

Near-optimal probabilistic RNA-seq quantification

We thank N. Chauhan for providing the strains, V. Yadav for preliminary gene synteny analyses, L. Sreekumar for reagents, and Clevergene Biocorp Pvt., Ltd., Bengaluru, India, for generating ChIP-seq data.