key: cord-1011643-315pf7w5
authors: Bradbury‐Jones, Caroline; Nikupeteri, Anna
title: Intimate partner violence, stalking and the pandemic: Yet more paradoxes?
date: 2021-02-24
journal: J Adv Nurs
DOI: 10.1111/jan.14820
sha: cadc9f87b07778b34064f58000e1f1e1b9ca9cb6
doc_id: 1011643
cord_uid: 315pf7w5

nan

Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) is a form of violence and abuse that occurs between current or ex-partners/spouses. It is the most type of abuse that falls within a broader category of domestic violence.

It occurs in all relationship configurations, but its most prevalent form is by male perpetrators, directed at their female partners. An estimated one in three (35%) women worldwide have experienced either physical and/or sexual IPV (or non-partner sexual violence) in their lifetime (World Health Organization, 2017) . The reasons for IPV are complex and multifaceted and there is no simple, causal relationship. An explanation held by many is that IPV is underpinned by coercion and control, providing a fundamental means of one person being able to exercise dominance over another. This manifests as a number of abusive behaviours (that frequently co-exist), such as emotional, physical, sexual and financial abuse and stalking.

When the world went into lockdown in early 2020 in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the pervasive message from governments and authorities was to stay safe at home. The problem is, however, that home for many people is far from a safe haven (Bradbury-Jones & Isham, 2020). While it may well have provided a protective factor against the virus, home was a dangerous place for many people (especially women). Being shut-off from family, friends, social circles and work colleagues played directly into the hands of perpetrators.

Lockdown created a fertile breeding ground for coercion, control and isolation tactics. Calls to domestic abuse helplines rose exponentially at that time and there has been a plethora of literature and research reports that have captured the impacts on IPV as a result of restrictive, COVID-related measures. We know then, that the pandemic and different phases of lockdown have had a direct, negative impact on IPV because of victims being literally trapped with their perpetrator, with limited avenues for accessing help and support. Early in the pandemic when the risks associated with lockdown on IPV were beginning to be reported, Bradbury-Jones and Isham (2020) referred to the 'protection paradox', whereby measures to control the virus had the unintended consequence of increasing the control of many perpetrators. Since then, we have come to understand far more about the problem and yet more paradoxes have unfolded. We take the case of stalking and explore technology abuse, paper abuse and the 'old normal'.

The definitions of stalking vary across literature and legislative contexts. Typically, stalking is understood as an intense and pursuit-oriented behaviour that is a pattern of repeated, intrusive actions-such as following, harassing, and threatening-that cause fear and distress in victims (Logan & Walker, 2017) . Stalking can include acts which, taken individually, do not constitute illegal behaviour, such as sending flowers, which may be regarded as 'normal' breakup pursuit. Thus, it is not the behaviours themselves that are violent, but the context in which they are used. It is the unwantedness of the behaviours, the intent behind them and their duration that make them illegal (Logan & Walker, 2017) . If the perpetrator and victim have children, they can be perpetrator's means to get in contact with the ex-partner, but children can also be direct targets of violent acts and even threats of death (Nikupeteri & Laitinen, 2015) . Stalking can take place within a current relationship, but it is important to recognize that a great deal of stalking occurs postseparation. The pervasive nature of stalking as a form of IPV creates a continual risk to many women, even though they may have managed to leave their abusive partner and have physical distance from them. Paradoxically, they remain unsafe, well beyond the act of leaving.

The early evidence on COVID-19 lockdown and stalking victims suggests that even though lockdown might appear to be a time when victims are less accessible to their stalkers (because they are 'safe' within their homes), the victim's vulnerability has increased (Bracewell et al., 2020) . Perpetrators still have a wide arsenal to use that enables them to continue stalking and perpetrating IPV against their ex-partners. When physical stalking and IPV tactics are not possible, perpetrators can continue stalking behaviour enacted through technology. They use technological devices, such as mobile phones, social media or spyware and tracking programs to monitor victim's activities and whereabouts (Woodlock, 2017) . In many respects, technology has been a double-edged sword for IPV victims.

On one hand, it has provided a crucial means of accessing remote support for IPV victims. Yet conversely, technology can become a perpetrator's weapon. Victims of stalking describe a continual fear, and the use of technology may intensify this, by making the stalker 'omnipresent' (Nikupeteri, 2017; Woodlock, 2017 ).

Next to technology-facilitated stalking, perpetrators can continue their coercive behaviour without being in face-to-face contact, by taking legal actions, such as filing frivolous lawsuits or making false reports of child abuse. Miller and Smolter (2011) have termed this procedural stalking as 'paper abuse', where the behaviours occur under the guise of legal proceedings. Legal proceedings are lengthy processes and it is painful for victims to be legally required to be in contact with the perpetrator. Additionally, due to the pandemic, trials are often postponed which prolongs even further a victim's anxiety. Moreover, if there are court-ordered child contact

The consequences of the COVID-19 lockdown on stalking victimisation

The pandemic paradox: The consequences of COVID-19 on domestic violence

An increasing risk of family violence during the Covid-19 pandemic: Strengthening community collaborations to save lives

Stalking: A multidimensional framework for assessment and safety planning

Paper Abuse": When all else fails, batterers use procedural stalking

Stalked lives: Finnish women's emotional experiences of post-separation stalking

Children's everyday lives shadowed by stalking: Postseparation stalking narratives of Finnish children and women. Violence and Victims

Pandemics and violence against women and children

The abuse of technology in domestic violence and stalking

Violence against women