key: cord-1031151-fjbmu5gq authors: McFee, R.B. title: HUMAN PATHOGEN CORONAVIRUSES – AN OVERVIEW date: 2020-07-28 journal: Dis Mon DOI: 10.1016/j.disamonth.2020.101066 sha: 38315ffb8213b3d5ebd281cc6dcd986bd00223e1 doc_id: 1031151 cord_uid: fjbmu5gq nan Coronaviruses (CoV) are a diverse group of viruses capable of infecting humans, and a wide range of animals. CoV affect multiple systems, and can cause respiratory, gastrointestinal, hepatic, and neurological illnesses, ranging from mild sickness to death. CoV are classified into multiple genera, including Alpha, Beta, Gamma and Delta coronaviruses. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) . Of note, CoV seem to be able to adapt to new hosts and changing environments; this may be related to CoV ability to mutate and recombine (1, 3, 5, 7) , perhaps contributing to novel viruses with varying human pathogenicity. Coronaviruses (order Nidovirales, family Coronaviridae, genus Coronavirus) are large, enveloped, single stranded, positive-sense RNA viruses, capable of infecting a variety of animals, including bats, mice, birds, dogs, pigs, cattle, and humans. Identified many decades ago, Coronavirus ( Figure 1 ) (9) -from the Latin corona (translation "crown" or "halo") represents the appearance of CoV virions as they are viewed through an electron microscope (2, (7) (8) (9) (10) . The virus appearance is created by viral spikes (S), peplomers that populate the surface and determine host tropism ( Figure 1 ) (8-10). Typically CoV are considered to be highly species-specific. In immunocompetent hosts, infection elicits the immune response of neutralizing antibodies and cell-mediated immune responses that attempt to kill infected cells (1, 10, 11) . Coronaviruses, members of the Coronaviridae family were identified and grouped based upon their serological cross-reactivity, and genomic sequence homology. Host ranges are diverse, and can include canines, felines, swine, mice, camels, bats, birds, and humans. (1, 2, 7, (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) Across the four genera of coronaviruses are Alphacoronavirus, Betacoronavirus, Gammacoronavirus, and Deltacoronavirus (2,5,10,11) there is a high frequency of recombination and rate of mutation which are believed to allow CoVs to adapt to new hosts and environments (3, (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) . SARS Cov (2, 5, 6, (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (28) (29) (30) (31) (32) (33) (34) is a good illustration of this; studies revealed it originated from animals -bats as the natural reservoir (5 -8, 10, 11, 25,26,27) , and palm civet as the intermediate host (11) (12) (13) . This underscores the infection risk in human animal interactions -occupational, or adventure or travel, as well as environmental incursion and changing habits expected with climate change, which can pose significant risks to human, as well as animal health. As an animal pathogen, coronaviruses can lead to highly virulent respiratory, enteric, and neurological diseases, in addition to hepatitis, resulting in epizootics of respiratory diseases and/or gastroenteritis. As a human virus the range of disease is broad, from cold like to severe multisystem involvement (These CoV infections are associated with short incubation periods (2-7 days), such as those found in SARS (2, 5, 6, 17, 18, 24, 25) . Several coronaviruses are capable of causing fatal systemic diseases in animals, including feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV), swine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus (HEV), some strains of avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) and mouse hepatitis virus (MHV). These particular CoV can replicate in liver, lung, kidney, gut, spleen, brain, spinal cord, retina, as well as other tissues (2, 7, 13) . The biology of coronaviruses Coronaviruses post SARS: update on replication and pathogenesis Delayed induction of proinflammatory cytokines and suppression of innate antiviral response by the novel Middle Easst respiratory syndrome coronavirus: implications for pathogenesis and treatment Virus Taxonomy; Ninth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses Disocvery of seven novel mammalian and avian coronaviruses in the genus deltacoronavirus supports bat coronaviruess as the gene source of alphacoronavirus and betacoronavirus and avian cornnaviruses as the gene source of gammacoronavirus and deltacornavirus Evidence of the recombinant origin of a bat severe acute respiratory synddrome OSARS) like coronavirus and its implications om the direct ancestor of SARS coronavirus Molecluar epidemiology of human coronavirus OC43 reveals evolution of different genotypes over time and recent emergence of a novle genotype due to natural recombination Isolation and characterization of viruses related to the SARS coronavirus from animals in southern China CDC/National Institutes of Health Public Domain Coronavirus Image Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus like virus in Chinese horseshoe bats Viruses and bacteria in the etiology of the common cold Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases Spectrum of clinical illness in hospitalized patients with "common cold" virus infections Coronavirus pneumonia following autologous bone marrow transplantation for breast cancer Survival of human coronaviruses 229E and OC43 in suspension after drying on surfaces: a possible source of hospital-acquired infections The SARS coronavirus: a postgenomic era SARS coronavirus: a new challenge for prevention and therapy A newly discovered human pneumovirus isolated from young children with respiratory tract disease Identification of a Novel Coronavirus in Patients with Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Severe acute respiratory syndrome: identification of the etiological agent Coronavirus as a possible cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome The Genome Sequence of the SARS-Associated Coronavirus Characterization of a Novel Coronavirus Associated with Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Viral Zoonoses -A Threat under Control? Comparative full-length genome sequence analysis of 14 SARS coronavirus isolates and common mutations associated with putative origins of infection Comparative analysis of the SARS coronavirus genome: a good start to a long journey Coronavirus genomic-sequence variations and the epidemiology of the severe acute respiratory syndrome A Novel Coronavirus Associated with Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Clinical progression and viral load in a community outbreak of coronavirus-associated SARS pneumonia: a prospective study Update on SARS research and other possibly zoonotic coronaviruses The severe acute respiratory syndrome Vaccines to prevent severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-induced disease