THE COUNSELLOR.  
Exactly pourtraited in two Books. WHEREIN THE OFFICES OF Magistrates, The happy life of Subjects, and the felicity of Commonweals is pleasantly and pithily discoursed.  
A GOLDEN WORK, REPLENISHED with the chief learning of the most excellent Philosophers and Lawgivers, and not only profitable, but very necessary for all those that be admitted to the administration of a well-governed Commonweal.  
Written in Latin by LAURENTIUS GRIMALDUS, and consecrated to the honour of the Polonian Empire.  
Newly translated into English.  
LONDON Imprinted by RICHARD BRADOCKE.  
Anno Salutis Humanae M. D. XC. VIII.   

❧ TO THE MOST excellent and most mighty Prince Augustus' King of Polonia. etc.  
AS every man well knoweth those commonweals be most blessed where men do live in peace: so are those country's miserable where people are not maintained in security. And as every commonweal is happy wherein subjects are good, so in good commonweals no subject can be unfortunate: yet what doth work the welfare of commonweals and people, is and hath been (even among the most learned,) long disputed. Some suppose it proceedeth of goodlawes: others have thought that civil education doth inform it: others imagined that the temperature of the heavens doth make men apt for civil life: some also do think it proceedeth from the endeavour of good kings: because subjects by imitation of their Prince's virtue, do (for the most part) become like unto them. Which opinion I verily think to be most true, so persuaded by observation of your majesties example, Neither do I judge the great quietness and blessedness of this commonweal and kingdom, doth proceed from other cause, than the excellent splendour of your princely virtues, which are such and so great, as do not only incite all subjects to behold them, but also with exceeding admiration and imitation to love them. Sith every man endeavouring (above all things,) to honour your Primcelie example, your justice, and your clemency, is no less enforced to obey, then to love; and the greatness of your authority is such, as your majesty is not only a moderator and disposer of laws, but also (which in a free state is most) a just judge of each man's virtue, praise, and dignity: and therewith also have framed a kingdom so perfect, as on earth none more perfect can be. Moreover, this kingdom is come to your majesties hands not by inheritance, not by blood, nor by usurpation (as are many uthers) but by public consent of all the Polonian Nation, thereunto persuaded by the ancient virtue and wisdom of your Majesty, and your most noble ancestors. For (to confess truth) the house of jageloni, hath been a Seminary of Kings so plentiful, as not only our commonweal, but also divers other nations did desire to be thereby governed; and would to God that most noble raze had still in Bohoemia, and Hungary continued. For by the valour thereof, the Turkish empire should have been restrained of that greatness whereunto it is now aspired. All which things as they are admirable, so are they also the more noble, that holding in hand the Rains of so great a government, your Majesty by your own judgement hath called unto you a Counsel both for nobility & wisdom excellent, by whose moderation & prudence the quiet & glory of our kingdom hath been greatly preserved. I Omit to speak of other magistrates by whom the felicity of our commonweal is not only ornified, but also enlarged: so as Polonia may be well called the habitation of liberty, and seat of just government. And that your highness is author and doer of these things, who doth not see? I in my youth did behold them, & in mine elder age found them agreeable unto the rules of excellent philosophers and ancient well governed commonweals, which moved me to think it were no lost labour, if by mine own endeavour or the observation of other men's works I should somewhat say of that matter to the profit of all posterity. This work therefore I determined to dedicate unto your Royal Majesty, as chief causer of mine endeavour. Not meaning thereby to inform you (for such is your excellent wisdom as needeth not the instruction of any) but that by reading, your Majesty may be delighted to behold your own virtues, and as a Prince of that government, be glad, that the same is most just and respondent to other ancient and praisable commonweals▪ Yet do I well know that to discourse of qualities appertaining to an excellent Counsellor, is not only of great importance, but also accompanied with many difficulties▪ But my hope is, that albeit my skill cannot therein merit praise, yet (as I hope) my earnest desire of public utility, shall hold me excused, assuring myself, that your majesties wisdom and princely Counsel (a virtue proper to all the house of jageloni) will take my humble endeavour in good and acceptable part.   

❧ THE FIRST BOOK.  
WHO so wholly apply himself to those studies which concern not only private pleasure, but also public commodity, doth (as I think) seek a knowledge perfect and most worthy commendation. For to be skilful in that whereof others receive profit, doth above all things best become a wise man. Among such sciences as were wont to bring with them both profit and pleasure, there is not (in my judgement) any more profitable or pleasing, then is the skill of government, being a guide of humane happiness, and tutoress of public commodity, and common life. Which I by the example of many others, and no small experience knowing to be true; being also assured that the knowledge whereby commonweals be governed, is certain, and the proceeding of all things directed by reason and judgement▪ not by fallible conceit, chance, or fortune; have determined to discourse what ought be the duty, virtue and dignity of a perfect Councillor, to the end that those that shall be called to government, or take delight in such wisdom, may be thereof partakers. For performing of which intent, I have thought good to sound the depth of civil knowledge, and with great diligence have searched the secrets of most excellent Philosophers, not meaning to set forth any feigned conceit, but that which accordeth with authority of wise law makers and grave Councillors. I do therefore think expedient, that in the person of our Councillor, there should be such ripeness of age as might exercise the virtues beseeming so honourable a parsonage, and in his calling, hold so great a gravity and reputation, as all other Citizens and subjects may hope at his hand to receive comfort, quiet, & council profitable to the whole commonwealth. My intent is not to frame an Idea, or Councillor imagined, such a one as cannot be seen but only in conceit, or that the heavens have scantly any so perfect, or the earth doth not contain any shadow of such a man; (as did Plato in his common weal and Cicero in his Orator) but our speech shall tend to things possible, not exceeding the ordinary use of men. Yet my meaning is to gather into this book, whatsoever hath heretofore been spoken, known, or found, either by learning of schools, by Counsels in commonweals, by policy, in government, by foreign experience by the Histories, touching the quality and perfection of a Councillor. And as Plato hath set down those things which he thought fittest for the felicity of his City, the like will we do in the description of our Councillor: and imagining to have met with wise men of all nations, Cities and commonweals repairing to a market of wisdom, we will take from every one, such virtues, customs, laws and duties, as seemeth to us most excellent, and therewith furnish our Councillor. But for so much as through the diversity of commonweals, it seemeth that the quality and offices of Councillors be divers, we have judged that form of commonweal to be of all others most just and indifferent, where the kings authority and the people's power, by the councillors wisdom and advise is qualefied. We have therefore thought fit, first to discourse the diversity of commonweals, as well in kind as form, of their felicity, of the happiness of subjects, of the education and instruction of a Councillor, to the end he may the rather understand the state where he governeth, and be skilful in the precepts of virtue. So as in that sort furnished, he may direct his life in all honesty, and deservingly be advanced to a charge of so great honour and reputation. And we will, that the virtues of our Councillor be such, as are not only profitable for the government of one state, but shall be of that excellency as the same may be practised in the proceed of all others. For we have learned of Plato, that those commonweals be most happy, which are governed by Philosophers, or where the governors are wholly disposed to the study of Philosophy. Therefore from such a wise man, and such a civil science, we have determined to take matter, whereof to frame our excellent Councillor.  
Among all creatures contained within the circle of the earth, that which we call man, is the chiefest and of most reputation. For he alone, of all other living things of what nature so ever, is made not only an inhabitant and Citizen of the world, but also a Lord and Prince therein. Which authority, honour and greatness, from God the supreme governor of heaven and earth is given, who hath also vouchsafed to receive him, as it were a companion in the government of this universal City common to God and men, adorning him with divine understanding, to the end that through his godly reason and council, this worldly Empire, might be wisely, holily and justly governed. The cause of this society betwixt GOD and men, proceedeth from reason, which being perfect, doth make men like unto God, and seem as it were mortal Gods: whereof may be conceived, that betwixt God and men, some affinity, alliance or kindred remaineth. Notwithstanding, without the presence of God, no reason is good and perfect, for the divine seeds being sown in men's bodies, so much thereof as happeneth into the hands of good till-men, doth bring forth fruit according to him that did sow them: but of the rest being handled by evil husbandry, doth (like unto corn sown in barren soil) become brambles, and within short space decay and die. Man therefore knowing himself, and conceiving that within him all things are divine, shall be persuaded that his mind and reason doth represent an holy Image, and must therefore continually endeavour to do and imagine things worthy so heavenly a grace. Thus being made of God his society, and reputed of his race and progeny, it must needs be, that in the government of this world we have from him 
The science of government proceedeth from God.  him the authority of rule and commanding. Sith than he is the author and director, and that our being proceedeth from him as the creator of all things; every council, law, and ordinance is at his hands to be required, to the end that this divine world may be known and governed not by men, but the will, wisdom, and providence of God. For as brute beasts cannot without a herdman, of other beasts be governed▪ Even so men by men, without the guiding of GOD▪ cannot be ruled. For if it so happen, that any man doth take in▪ hand to govern without GOD, that is to say, without his divine will, wisdom and knowledge: It must needs be that every commonweal so governed, and the life of every private Citizen therein, shall become unhappy and miserable. For in vain it were to study the welfare of any state, if God be not the defender and keeper thereof. It may then be conceived; that all virtue and wisdom of man proceedeth from God, which was the cause that our ancestors in times past, were wont to dedicate public temples to virtue, faith, concord, wisdom, and peace. But are the Counsels of goverment to be asked of God? or aught all requests and prayers, aswell for small as great graces, ascend unto his heavenly hearing? Yea surely. So that our suit and prayers do not discente form reason. Good laws therefore are obtained at God's hands by intercession of wise men, and not by holding up the hands of fools, or be their loud cries, or prostrating their bodies upon the earth. For God is only present with wise men, and as ovidius saith well. 
Est Deus in 〈◊〉 agitant calescimus illo  
Spiritus hic sacrae lumina mentis habet.   
The wisdom of GOD doth enter and possess their minds, 
Wherein a wise man is like unto god  and as they do honour it, so doth it honour them, whereby they are made (as it were) Gods. Without GOD no good or wise man liveth: For he only is providente, politic, and full of council. The wise man by his virtue resembleth the likeness of God, which proceedeth of perfect reason. It behoveth us therefore, (not as some men teach) only to be men, and understand things humane and mortal, but also if possibly it may be, excel all mortality, 
The best thing in man is reason.  and live according to that part which is in us most excellent. But what is that which in man is most excellent? surely reason, by mean whereof we know God, use virtue, embrace good and eschew evil. This is that which maketh men perfect, wise, valiant and just. Thus it appeareth, that through divine reason the world is governed by man. It shall therefore behove him in all his proceed of government, to follow the direction thereof, and as of a divine Oracle in all his counsels, laws & cogitations, to pray for the grace and assistance of the almighty, whereby he shall govern all things wisely, godly & justly. For as the reason in God is the law most supreme: So the reason of a wise man being perfect may be called God or law. In respect whereof the Lacedæmonians called those men Gods, whom for wisdom & justice they thought to excel all others. And as such a one Homer describeth Hector, saying. 
Non hominis certe mortalis filius ille  
Esse videtur, sed di●● semine natus.   
Who so therefore obeyeth reason, and by her in all his words and works is governed, ought be reputed as a God among men. He only for King, Prince and Ruler of the universal world is to be accounted. And finally he knoweth what is to be done, what to be thought, what to be determined, and what proceedeth from divine reason and council. Now for as much as this Prince and Governor shall live in the society and company of men, which society consisteth partly in the universal conversation of the whole world, and partly of private Cities: It behoveth him for preservation of the common society and love among men, that he endeavour the whole force of his capacity, reason, and council, to gain the good will and favour of 
Public government to be considered in two sorts.  men. We will therefore commit unto his charge two divers countries, or common weals, to be governed. The one is that which containeth both God and men, not confined within the bounds of Africa, Asia, or Europa, but is by the course of the Sun, described. The other is, the place where our mortal condition hath appointed our birth and being, as Greece, Italy, Germany, France, Spain, Polonia, or such like. To●●hing government of common weals: It shall behove the governor with reason and understanding, to comprehend the order and nature aswell of the universal world, which the Latins do call maiorem mundum, as of the other wherein we have our life and abode: which they likewise do name maiorem mundum. For whensoever the mind hath shaken of the bondage of body, it presently recovereth the perfect nature thereof, performing the true offices; embracing these things which be good, and rejecting the ●uill, It loveth virtue, and loatheth vice, it suppresseth lust, and commandeth itself. What Empire or government can be said or thought more divine or godly? Moreover, when the mind hath discovered the nature of heaven, earth, seas, with every other thing, and knoweth whereof they be made, what beginnings, cause, and end they have, what is the disposition of Stars, what is the reason of the suns rising and going down, what moveth the Moon, what is the destruction of all things, what the nature of Elements, of living creatures, and the virtue of herbs, when all these things (I say) be known, and God the supreme governor of all, well near comprehended, the possessor of such wisdom and knowledge of nature, shall he not deseruinglie be accounted a Citizen and dweller of any town or place, or rather a Prince of the world universal? Socrates being asked of what country he was, answered, A man of the world; imagining himself to be, not only a Citizen and inhabitante, but also as it were a 
The world a City common to all creatures.  Prince universal. What doth La●rtius report of Diogenis other, than he was such a one. This City yieldeth no obedience to Tyrants, nor is subject to laws invented by men, nor can be environed with walls, but is contained within the universal circle, with motion and order natural, as it were by law certain and everlasting, constantly governed within walls made of Elements. The Citizens of this town, are by a name divine called Philosophers, commanded only by themselves, bearing about them minds invincible, and armed against the force of all misfortune. Such Princes no force of enemies can depose, no violence of arms remove, nor fury of fire disturb, for they be always invincible, valiant, happy, and free from fears and dangers.  
When King Demetrius the son of Antigonus had surprised Megara, in which City S●ilpho the Philosopher lived, he caused him to be brought to his presence, and asked what had been taken from him, offering restitution of all his losses. Whereunto S●ilpho answered, that he never had seen any man that could offer violence to Philosophy, much less take the same from him that was thereof possessed, imagining himself to be only owner of such riches, accounting the rest of his goods to be no more his, than the enemies that besieged Megara. But seeing the science of Philosophy consisteth 
Philosophy of two sorts.  partly in contemplation, and partly in action, it must needs be that the skill of government, doth also consist upon two. Those that apply themselves to contemplation, do only labour to attain the knowledge of truth, and not desiring, to proceed further, stay their imaginations wholly in considering by what means the world might be guided with the rains of wisdom. This sort of men were wont to delight in private and solitary life, careless of authority, house, or family, as Homer doth describe them. From which rest or rather idleness, we ought first by desire to persuade them, and that not sufficing, by enforcement to draw them to action of government, which is the second part of civil duty. For the knowledge 
Contemplation without action improfitable.  and contemplation of nature proveth improfitable, if no action thereof do follow, which appeareth in the preservation of all commodities belonging to men. Who is there so studious in natural knowledge, that being informed, his friends, his neighbours, his kinsfolks, and country shall perish without his present help, but will prefer the safety of them, before the contemplation of all the Stars, Elements and world universal? We therefore do exhort all wise men to action, and recommend unto them the commonweal, not that common weal containing all the world, & is bounded by the perambulation of the Sun, but that which is subject to ordinances and laws, and composed of the congregation and society of men: hoping that through them (possessed 
Philosopher's men most fit to govern commenweales.  of divine knowledge) this worldly government may with more wisdom and justice be directed. The contemplation of things divine do teach and inform the mind of a wise man, and he being accustomed, to the cogitations of heavenly reason, wisdom and law, doth become as it were an other God. Solon endued with such knowledge, governed the Athenians. Lycurgus' the Lacedæmonians, and Parmenides the Eleati.  
The like laws and ordinances Lycis the Pythagorean invented for Epaminundas, Plato for Dion, Aristotle for Alexander the great, Anoxagoras for Pericles, Pythagoras for the Princes of Italy, and Agrippa for the Emperor Octavianus. Which examples have moved many writers to affirm, that those commonweals were most happy where Philosophers governed, or where the governors were accompanied and counseled by Philosophers. Cato that most excellent Senator, for the love he bore unto wisdom, entertained Athenodorus; Ulysses (as Homer sayeth) embraced Caritus. Pyrrhus' esteemed Artemius. trajan desired Plutarch, and Scipio was counseled by Panetius: A man (as Plutarch writeth) learned in all sciences both good and evil. But if this diviue knowledge do hap unto any man, that delighteth only 
Phiosohy in, private men improfitable  in rest and idleness, not endeavouring to do other then lurk at home, as it were within the compass of a magical circle, stretching himself in the sun, accompanied only with staff & wallet; careless of all action & desire to do good to others▪ surely such wisdom proveth to no purpose, and with himself in short space utterly perisheth. Where contrariwise, if the same be possessed by any Prince or person disposing himself to the affairs of government, he becometh thereby divine, noble, wise, and provident. But happily some man may demand what common weal that is which should be committed to this wiseman or Divine Philosopher? which doubt doth not arise from the name of 
What a commonweal is.  common▪ weal, being a certain order among the inhabitants abiding in one city, but of the diversity and difference of the common weals. 
The government of commonweals divers.  For as men's manners, delights and estates be divers, so also is the government of common weals manifold. And though the end of every of them is but one thing, that is to say, good, or well being, which consisteth in the felicity of men, and every state doth labour to attain, yet are the means of aspiring to that happiness divers, and so consequently laws and customs of sundry sorts are by them used. For who so shall confer the laws of Hipp●d●mus framed for the Miletians▪ with those of Mi●●s made for the Candians, or will compare the ordinances of lycurgus with the decrees of Solon, the one writing the government of the Lacedæmonians, the other of the Athenians▪ shall easily conceive their laws to be most divers, their Magistrates unlike, and the form of their states far discrepant. The seven wife men also (Thales except who refused to intermeddle in the common weal,) brought in sundry exercises, sundry laws, and sundry governments according to the quality of the people's capacity, and their own fancies, & by sundry orders and ●ses did execute them. Which variety of governments, have ministered matter of much controversy & contrariety of opinions. In so much as the learned men both in our universities & foreign schools, have presumed to dispute how many sorts of commonweals, there are, and which of them ought deseruinglie, to be most● commended and imbra●●ds Plato and Aristotle in that matter do seem to have excelled all others. For they with great judgement, and respect to the nature of men and the Regions of the world; have learnedly allotted laws and governments agreeable with the disposition and humour of the places! Following therefore the opinion of these Philosophers, we 
The division of commonweals.  will first frame three sorts of common weals. The first is called Monarchia, the second Aristocratia, and the third Democratia. The Latins have named them R●gnum, Optimatum principatus, and Popular is resp●●●▪ God by his heavenly providence hath appointed, that the powers of man's mind should rest in three sundry parts of his body; seeming thereby to represent three Ideas or forms of commonweals, appointing reason as King to have his abiding in the head & highest part, as only Lord and Prince to command all. The second part as vigilant and ready to obey, he hath placed near unto it in the breast, making the same as a companion and helper unto the head. Plato calleth it vis irascendi, and affectuum sedes. The third resembling a multitude, witless, froward, and full of sensual desires, he hath harboured beneath the heart, secluded far from both the other. In these parts of our soul (as in an image) we may behold three forms of commonweals. The highest hath the place of king, as destined and appointed to command all, the second though in place inferior, yet in quality is of no less regard, being well obeyed. For where reason ruleth without the guard and aid of the affections, all actions are weak and 
Reason without the affections, feeble  without force. Even so a Senate not assisted by reason, which partly as Captain, and partly as Soldier in all actions and consultations is used, becometh fearful and effeminate. Aristotle hath therefore divided the power of reason, making one part absolute and standing upon itself▪ the other as it were depending and serving, like unto a son that obeyeth his Father. Which Titus Livius hath well expressed in setting forth the error of Minutius in his unadvised fight against Hannibal, which Fabius doth reprehend in these words. O soldiers, (quoth he) I have often heard that who so can by himself rightly judge, is to be most honoured▪ next unto him are they that obey the good advise of others. But he that can neither council himself, nor knoweth how to follow an other man's advise, is of all others, of least wisdom and capacity. As touching the optimaty, it hath not only the force of reason, but in all actions is helped and encouraged by the affections, as the Poets have written. 
Non hic ●ine numine diwm, furit.   
The third part of man's mind resembleth a popular government: wherein the multitude hath authority to hear all matters, and determine all laws, many contentions and discords do there ensue, like unto the nature of men licentions and prone to lust, containing such life 
Commonweals resembled to private families.  as accordeth with reason and virtue. Aristotle doth also write, that the image of commonweals, may be found in private families. For the authority of the father over his children, may be likened to principality: because the children are the father's charge. He alone must provide for them all, and their faults are by him rather chastised then severely punished. In like manner ought a good king to behave himself toward his subjects. Therefore jupiter the God of Gods and men, is by Homer called Father. The husbands authority over his wife may be compared to the optimaty. For the husband ought to govern his wife according to justice, and command her to do things honest. The popular state is likened to brotherly society. For they ought to live in equality, differing only in the degrees of age. But as the Father that useth his children wickedly, cruelly and unnaturally, is reputed a tyrant and no father: Even so a king that studieth for private commodity oppressing his subjects, contemning his laws, and living dishonourably, doth lose the name of a King and is called a Tyrant. Also a husband and wife living in discord, either through negligence or wilfulness rejecting the care of their children and household, do thereby abuse their authority and become unworthy the name of natural parents. In like manner brethren disagreeing and quarreling, neglecting the common profit, and giving 
By evil government, commonweals are changed.  themselves to sloth or lascivious life, are not to be accounted brethren. Thus it appeareth that through the default and imperfection of governors, true commonweals be converted into false and contrary governments. The Monarchy or kingdom, becometh a Tyranny. The optimaty, is reduced under the authority of a few. The popular common weal is converted into plebeiall insolency. Policy (which the Grecians call Politeia, and is by Plato and Aristotle sometimes called Respublica popularis,) may be referred to all kinds of commonweals well governed, because that word is universal and includeth all civil government. Plato addeth a seventh kind of government, 
The opinion of Plato touching kings.  that is to wit, A King subject to his laws▪ making a Monarchy of two sorts, and consequently framing two Kings, the one bound and confined, the other free and not restrained to any law. This is the opinion of Plato touching Monarchy. The power & authority (saith he) of one Prince governing with good laws, is among the six kinds of commonweals, the best and most perfect. But such government being without laws, is heavy, & hard to those that live therein▪ Yet if the other states be also without laws, that is the best, the seventh except. For a King governing in that sort, is of all other governors to be obeyed and honoured as a GOD among men. The diversity of commonweals doth not proceed from fortune, nor the disposition of the heavens, but every government is framed according to the minds of 
Every government ought be framed according to the men, and place.  men, their wits and education. Also the variety not only of men's inclinations, but also the nature of commonweals is made divers, through the diversity of countries, their climate and being. What shall I say of seditions, war, and factions? for they oftimes do utterly subvert commonweals, or change them into states contrariwise governed. Such is the condition of worldly things, that mischance standeth next to good fortune, and vice is mixed with virtue▪ so as with facility men fall from good into evil. Sometimes it also happeneth, that commonweals well framed, through evil ministers are either extinguished, or altered into other forms of government. Hereof it cometh that kingdoms become Tyrannies; Optimaties are made the government of a few, and popular states are converted into licentious liberty, and from that, brought back unto Tyranny. Plato writeth that the change of commonweals is fatal, through disposition of the heavens and planets. The variations of states do also otherwhiles proceed from the variety of 
What sorts of men are fit for every kind of commonweals.  men's minds and order of life. For in some state there be many rich men, in others many poor, in others plenty of noble men, soldiers and ploughmen, in others plenty of merchants, crafts men and artificers. Then whensoever the number of merchants, artifizants and ploughmen do surmount the rest, that state most commonly beeommeth popular: But where rich men are most plentiful, there groweth the government of a few great men. Where the most part of Citizens be good men, wise and virtuous, that state is apt to be governed as an optimaty. There are three things (as Aristotle thinketh) which contend for the government, Liberty, Riches, and Virtue. For nobility, (which holdeth the fourth place) is companion both to virtue and riches, because the equal mixture of rich and poor men, is called a popular state. A faction only of rich men▪ is named the government of a few, and the consent of all three, that is to say, free men, rich men, and good men, is accounted an optimaty. Such a one was the Carthaginian commonweal for rich men, good men, and noble men, were therein equally esteemed. Thus have we discovered all kind of common weals, which either by man's experience have been found, or by the industry of law makers or Philosophers could be devised; but which of them is most perfect and excellent, cannot (as hath before been said) easily be determined. For there is no man that preferreth and praiseth not the state wherein he 
What people do most willingly obey the king.  was borne and bred. Some more willingly do live in kingdoms then any other state, who are chiefly such men as are naturally apt to honour those, that be virtuous and fit for action. The Cappadocians having many ages lived under kings (whose race was extinguished) were offered by the Romans', to have their state converted into popular liberty, but they refused it. Then the Romans' appointed Ariobarsanes their friend to be King of Cappadocia. The contrary course was followed by the Athenians, for they affecting a popular state, would neither consent to be governed by one nor many. Yea some there are that do most allow the Tyrannical government, as in old time the Siculi, whose state was always accustomed to tyrants, and so are 
The people of Asia naturally servile.  well near all the people of Asia, who being by nature servile, are even till this age subject to tyrannical government. Such as are fittest to be civilly governed, are men accustomed to honest riches and glory for their virtuous enterprises in war. For they not forgetting the 
The best common weal is, where the people be best ordered.  condition of their government, are content by turns aswell to obey as command. But let us now discourse of the best common weals. Whosoever shall take in hand to speak thereof, it behoveth him first to understand what is the best kind and order of life. For being thereof ignorant, a perfect commonweal cannot be conceived. It standeth him also upon to understand, by what means men be brought to good order of living. For the state is always like unto the men that live therein, but which kind of life ought be accounted best the Philosophers have not by consent determined. The Stoics, the Peripatetics & the Epicures do diversly judge of that matter, and into divers sects and opinions have divided the world. But our intent is to concur with the Perepatetickes, because their schools have brought fourth men of most perfection, and to their virtues they have joined the use of external things, wherewith the felicity of man is not only ornified, but also perfected. We therefore account their precepts to be most profitable, aswell for men as common weals. The Stoics loving austerity of life, do ground their felicity upon virtue only, which we mislike not, so as therewith they consent, that to the use of virtue men have need of external goods, which both nature and fortune have made for use of man, to the end he might become the more happy, better and perfect. For seeing that felicity of man, is numbered among things of perfection, and that thing is only perfect, which wanteth nothing: surely whosoever desireth to be happy, must of force be furnished fully, so as his felicity may be absolute and without want. It behoveth him therefore to be wise, just, temperate, valiant, rich, honourable, 
The felicity of man wherein it consisteth.  comely, healthy and strong. And sith the happiness of man's life consisteth in his felicity, and that he is made of body and mind, it is necessary that he be no less happy in mind, then in body: For being in any of them infortunate or disabled, he cannot be called perfectly happy. Moreover if all good things do tend to man's felicity, it is requisite to have of them abundance, which whosoever hath, must understand, that only for himself he was not borne, but (as Cicero saith) his country, his friends, his kinsfolk and alliance do claim their share in the fruits of his felicity, because to every of them, if he will be thought happy, it behoveth him to give part, not only of his treasure of mind, as justice and wisdom, but also of all other things bestowed on him for the use and life of man. The liberal man needeth money to perform the actions of liberality, and the just man therewith must reward, and make satisfaction. The valiantman requireth force and power, to be thereby enabled to execute somewhat worthy his virtue. The temperate man asketh authority and liberty, whereby he might show himself to be such a one. The 
Man's life of three sorts.  Philosophers affirm, that there are three sorts of life. The first consisteth in action, the second in contemplation, and the third in pleasure, which being exercised in lusts and licentiousness, is beastly and proper to men of basest condition. That which resteth in action▪ unless it be also accompanied with wisdom and virtue, proveth improfitable, and is subject to great vices and imperfections. That which is employed in contemplation, not beieng joined with some action, becometh vain and without effect. For as men that earnestly behold the brightness of the sun, with the vehement heat and light thereof are made blind: Even so the mind of man continually wrought with imagimations & speculation of high mysteries, doth become dull, heavy and languishing. Who so therefore desireth to live virtuously and happily, must participate both of the civil and philosophical lives, which are action and contemplation. The mixture of which two, doth make man to be like unto GOD, blessed and fortunate. For he that useth his mind to the cogitation of things divine, is thereby made most acceptable to GOD, who doth greatly esteem of those men, that live according to the spirit and reason; because it appeareth thereby, that they labour to be like unto him, who is also a spirit, and things of one nature do willingly conjoin in love. They that unto speculation do add honest action, may also be called divine and happy. 
Reason the most precious gift.  There is nothing more apparent, then that GOD among many other graces, hath given reason unto men, as a gift most singular, to the end that through virtue thereof, he may behold the nature of all things aswell celestial as terrestrial, and therewith honour reverence and love him. Who so therefore being mindful of GOD and natures benefits, doth well employ this heavenly gift of reason, and both in action and contemplation, imitate the eternal GOD, doth thereby become as his child, and is holden as a God among men. Contrariwise, such as do forget nature and humanity, delighting only in sensuality, neglecting or utterly forsaking reason, are accounted to have of men nothing but the face and name: because the true and proper nature of man, is in them wanting.  

Why some are free, and others borne to bondage.  Hereof proceedeth the diversity of men, that through the exercise of reason and virtue, some are borne free, noble, wise and fit to govern: others slaves, rustical, and witless, destined to servitude and bondage. Every society of men doth also willingly obey 
Diversity of men's natures  the wisest, advancing them to offices and honours with great respect and reverence. Plato writeth that God in the creation of men's natures hath taken such order, as in the generation of those that are apt to govern, he hath mixed gold; To them that are destined to assist the governors, he hath put silver; And with the nature of Plowemen and Artisans, Brass and Iron is compounded. Which similitude, Aristotle doth apply to the manners, virtues, and capacities of men. For albeit that every man naturally desireth his children might resemble himself: Yet doth it often happen, that of gold cometh silver, and of silver some metal of other nature. God hath therefore commanded Princes to undestande the nature of their children, to the end tha● they, whose disposition is like unto Iron, should be converted to gold, or that proving impossible, he hath willed the government should be to others allotted. It hath been also oraculously prophycied, that those Cities which are governed with Brass and Iron, should perish and come to confusion. Xenocrates appointeth the first part of man's life to the exercise of virtue, the second to good health, the third to honest pleasure, 
How man's life is employed.  and the fourth to the gathering of riches justly. As without virtue man's life is vile, so is it without health, weak and feeble: For the mind shut up within a sickly body, doth languish and become disable to perform his own duty. All men therefore through force of good laws, ought be trained unto happy life, for by such means, commonweals become good and blessed. Let us now consider with which of these three states first remembered, the divine and happy life doth best agree, which being known, the face and form of a perfect commonweal 
What things are chief considered in the election of kings.  is easily discerned. To the election of kings men are induced, by their virtue, and beholding their egregious acts. For whensoever we see a man to excel in those things, we account him as a God among men, and forthwith consent to make him king, following the common proverb. Rexeris, sirecte fancies. Because that government is just, where the governor is virtuous, commanding himself, and ruling his subjects, not as as Master governeth his servants, but as a father ruleth his children. The Athenians (as Demosthenes in his oration against Neaera writeth) when Theseus had framed their commonweal, were wont to choose some one of the virtuous number, and by holding up their hands elected him King. In old time, the election of kings was among all people holden a thing divine and holy. Romulus after the sight of twelve Ravens, (as Livius sayeth) or rather because the lightning had pierced his body, from the left to the right side; (as Dionysius writeth) was by divination chosen king, which was the respect, that by law it was provided, that no man should take upon him any magistracy or be made king, without divination. In so much as that ordinance called Ius Auspiciorum was obeyed and religiously observed. The authority of kings hath ever been accounted a thing divine, for Homer 
The authority of kings divine.  and Isocrates affirm, that he who governeth alone, doth reprepresent a divine majesty. The kings of Persia were honoured as Gods, and the people believed their authority to be the only defender and mainteynour of the commonweal. The ancient Latins called their Kings Indigetes, that is to say, deified, (as Aeneas and Romulus were) whose bodies after death could never be found. The election of kings, was in time passed proper to the most virtuous people, unto whom the government of Tyrants was odious. Yea the ancient law of God, doth as it were allow, or rather commend 
Optimacy.  the government of one. An optimaty consisteth of virtuous Citizens, who deserve commendation in respect of virtue, because they govern the commonweal, as becometh good men, in no 
Popular states.  wise digressing from the rule and line of law. In popular commonweals all things be contrarily handled: for liberty being the end thereof, the state is ruled according to will, and popular fury, most commonly without virtue and reason. In such City's men are called good, because they are profitable to the commonweal, not for that they are endued with honesty, which consisteth in action of virtue: So as virtue is measured, not by honesty, but by common profit and liberty. For popular justice (called Ius populare) is, where the honours are given, not according to virtue of him that receiveth them, but the number of those that give them, who think those things not to be just which by justice ought be, but that which to the greatest number doth seem just, esteeming that also to be honourable, which by popular fame is accounted glorious. Therefore although in all sorts of commonweals the laws of virtue are sometimes perverted, yet doth the same most commonly happen in popular states. For if any good man living there, shall happen to mislike the plebeyall life, and doth labour by admonishing, reprehending, and correcting the Citizens, to reduce them to honesty and virtue, he is forthwith judged an enemy to liberty, and by the law Ostracismo arrested, and many times put to death. With this kind of persecution, many notable Citizens inhabiting the popular states of Graecia were afflicted, as Cymon, Aristides, Thucydides, Socrates, Themistocles, and Damon: also in Rome, Camillus and Scipio were in like manner handled. The fame of Aristides is of all posterity worthy to 
Aristides.  be remembered▪ he being a man singularly virtuous & wise, for his integrity of life & honest conversation was with the assent of all men surnamed justus. At such time as the law Ostracismas was used in Athens, a certain rude & rustical fellow, bearing a scrol of paper in his hand happened to meet him, & with great earnestness required, that the name of Aristides might be therein written. Aristides much marveling thereat, asked whether any man had ever been by him injured, no, (quoth he) but I cannot in any wise endure thy surname of justus. Cicero reporteth, that at such time as the Ephesi banished their Prince Hermodorus, they pronounced this sentence, Let none of us excel an other, but if any so do, let him no longer here dwell, but inhabit elsewhere. O most strange customs of popular commonweals▪ Plato useth that speech before of us remembered, that no state doth continue, being governed with Iron or Brass, that is to say, by foolish men, borne rather to obey then command. For they after some fortunate success of war, taking unto them lofty minds, have at hand tutors and popular Captains to extol and commend their virtue. Then after long hunger, alured with the sweet bait of glory▪ they reject the authority of their leaders and all wise men, taking the government wholly into their own hands, directing the same by their 
The original causes of states popular.  own wills and discretion, which is the cause that such commonweals are not of long continuance. For through diversity of minds, those men become void of council, and after much insolency, contention, and faction, they yield their obedience either to a few, or some one mighty parsonage. So did the people of Athens which being author of the victory by sea, against the Medians, puffed up with pride of that fortune, stirred great troubles and seditions in that state, and all good Citizens laboured in vain to prevent that mischief. Also the original of popular states, doth sometimes proceed of Rebellion attempted against the nobility: as it many times happened in Rome: when the people took arms against the Kings and Senate. Sometimes also the cause of such popular government, proceedeth through good success of some action enterprised by the people. Who taking upon them the mind of Lords, do usurp the state, as did the Athenians when they had vanquished the Medians, and as the Romans' having overthrown the Carthaginenses. The same also otherwhiles chanseth, when the people is made desperate, by tyranny of their Prince and governors, for then by force of arms, or oppression of their king, they frame a form of government among themselves, which in our days the Swisseis have done. A popular state established with good laws is many times governed justly and poletiquelye, but the same wanting laws or consent of the people, doth not merit the name of a commonweal. Of the Oligarchia or Tyranny I mean not to entreat, 
The virtue of every people known by the laws and government.  because such government is in all respects unjust, contrary to virtue and civil life. The excellency of every people or commonweal, may be known by the goverment, laws and liberties thereof. For those people are accounted the best, which within a good commonweal do live with justice and liberty, and they deserve the more commendation, that do continue the same with most constancy and long preseverance, which things are thought chief to appertain, to the antiquity of men living in honour 
Lacedæmonians.  and nobility. The Lacedæmonians are highly praised, for having continued seven hundred years without any alteration of their customs, 
Venetians.  their laws, or their government: But the Venetians have in that respect deserved greater glory, because they, till these our days, have constantly lived in one form of government, by the space of a thousand years, or more. Thus have we discoursed the divers forms of commonweals, with the natures & disposition of men there living. Among them (as easily appeareth) the Principality and optimaty are the best. This, for that therein most good men do exercise the public functions: and that, because the public commodity is preserved by one with general consent of mind. So as if any do excel the rest, to him the commonweal is committed. In these two states men do live best, because the order of them doth not only preserve Cities, but also make the Citizens happy. Some men have thought the most perfect commonweal, should be tempered and framed of all the three estates. Which is the cause, that they prefer the Lacedaemonian government 
The form of the Lacedaemonian commonweal.  being compounded of the nobility, (which was the Senators) of the authority of one, (which was the King) and of the people (which were the Ephori.) For they were always chosen among the 
The Roman state.  number of popular men. Polybius extolleth the Roman state, because it consisted of the King, the Nobility, and the people; supposing that the king for fear of the people, could not become insolent, and the people durst not disobey him, in respect of the Senate. Which form of commonweal was with good reason accounted most just. For as perfect harmony is compounded, of triple, mean, and base tewnes: even so a good commonweal, and the surest agreement amongst men, is (as Cicero saith) made by mixture of the best, the mean, and the base people. We are also of opinion, that commonweal is perfect, which containeth good and virtuous▪ subjects, and is governed by a king, a Senate, and consent of the people; wishing the King should observe his laws, and do those 
A perfect commonweal.  things which be honourable, and agreeable to the advise of his council. For the law is most perfect reason, whereunto whosoever obeyeth, doth seem a God among men. We wish likewise, that all Councillors should be men of much virtue: for they being a mean betwixt the king and people, may the rather give council, by what means the state may be safely governed. The authority of Councillors 
The authority of Councillors.  consisteth in consulting, judging and commanding. The king useth these men as friends and Councillors, employing their virtue and advise in matters of most difficulty, which is the cause that men say, the king hath many hands, many eyes, and many feet. Moreover, for that it seemeth a thing rather divine their humane, that one man alone should govern the whole state, it is necessary to have the aid of many others; yet referring the determination to the king alone, all things are like to proceed well. But he that doth manage all matters without Council, trusting only to his own judgement, is thought rather a selfe-liker, than a wise man. As therefore the advise of Councillors is profitable in commonweals, where the resolution is reserved to the king only. So where the determination resteth in many, the same becometh unprofitable. For as a man having many servants, and commanding somewhat to be done, every one runneth, & yet nothing is done; but committing his business to one alone, findeth the same performed: So happeneth it in commonweals, where many have authority, one trusting to another, they become careless, & the affairs of the commonweal receive prejudice. The multitude of governors ' doth (as experience teacheth) prove unprofitable, & therefore the proverb saith, Rex unicus esto. And as the head, without peril of life, cannot be taken from the heart, so may not the king be removed from his Council, because such disjunction breedeth discord to the common 
The necessity of Councillors  weal, and in the end confusion and destruction may follow thereof. In every commonweal a Council is of great necessity, for it giveth advise, not only to the king, but unto the state also; not unlike unto the vital part of man's soul, which being in the heart, giveth life to that which is partaker of Reason, & is placed in the head. The king also through advise of the Senate doth more profitably direct the commonweal, because he only doth govern, although in government he useth to be counseled. For as reason doth in all proceedings thereof, employ the service of the senses: Yet is it that alone which determineth, and aught above the rest to be honoured. A Prince therefore content to be counseled, becometh of all other men the wisest, because he beareth about him a judgement perfect and fully furnished with the instructions and advise of many. Thus doing, a King shall well govern all things, not only through his own opinion, which may many ways be deceived, but also by the common advise and council of others, whereby his reason and judgement is brought to perfection. Of which two things who so ever is possessed, may deseruinglye be thought a GOD among men. Even as the hand divided into many fingers, is thereby made strong and apt to lay hold of all things. So he that governeth with the assistance of Councillors and ministers, shall do all things with better discretion and wisdom. For one man is not fit to perform all actions. Alexander of Macedon with his small hand conquered great enemies. Pyrrhus' excelled in choosing places of fortification. Hannibal was often victorious, yet ignorant how to use the victory. Philopemen was skilful in the wars by sea. Cleon could manure lands and possessions. Cicero was an excellent Orator, Pompeius a Captain, Cato a Councillor, and Scipio skilful both in war and peace. So were divers others: for every man (as saith the proverb) is Roscius in his own 
Orde popularis.  faculty. We will, that the popular order or mean officers of this our commonweal (who ought also to participate of the government) shall be chosen amongst the better and most virtuous sort of subjects, wherein an optimaty is resembled, for they are as a Seminary of Councillors and other magistrates. Betwixt which two sorts of men, this is the only difference, that those which are placed in the sovereign offices, being both for age and dignity the worthier persons, shall be most esteemed and honoured. As for the rest of the people, it shall suffice, that they be maintained in civil life, and obedience of the Magistrates. For our meaning is not, that any of the multitude, as ploughmen, Artisans, and other persons of vile occupation shall aspire unto the offices, which ought be given unto wealthy Citizens, Gentlemen, and others of good education and wisdom. Moreover, for so much as, all our discourse tendeth to describe a perfect commonweal, which is that wherein the people do live happily: and happiness proceedeth of virtue, it behoveth that men being borne in that state should be capable of virtue, felicity, and honesty. We may not therefore permit, that any Artisan, Merchant, or bondman shall exercise the government, because their trade of life is vile, and void of 
Merchants, Artisans, and servants repulsed from government.  virtue. And albeit they are necessary for the society of men, yet in respect they be occupied in actions unfit for free men, they are not to be admitted to govern the commonweal. Which was the reason that moved Constantinus the Emperor to determine by law, that none of the base multitude, or mechanical people should bear office in the state, because it is presumed, that Cities were builded aswell for the habitation of wise and honest men, as persons of necessity. Yet are not such men to be contemned or reputed miserable, for it were unjust, and against the unity of a commonweal, to deprive them of all honour and reward, being partakers of every burden, and also of such condition as without them, the state cannot be maintained. It is therefore necessary, that they do participate of such offices as are fit for their callings, and receive rewards according to their quality. For as the noble and wealthy subjects be honoured in their vocation, so these having virtuously deserved, ought to be advanced. Aristotle and Plato his Master, do affirm there are six things wherewith every City should abound, 
Six things in all states required.  and that without them it cannot be. The first is victual or food, the providing whereof belongeth to husbandmen and herdsmen: The second is necessary handy crafts, which is performed by the Artificers: The third is Arms to resist foreign enemies and repress civil disorder. It is therefore expedient to have Soldiers prepared, and exercised, to the end that the commonweal may be defended from foreign invasion, and conserved in liberty and in peace. Fourthly the state hath need of money, both for civil and military uses. fiftly it requireth ministers of divine sacraments. sixtly judges and Councillors are needful, because every commonweal is governed by good Council, to the end that injustice, and the iniquity of men may be extirped. By mean whereof iniurers, contemners of law, and all injust persons 
The come. consisteth of six sorts of men.  be punished. Thus it appeareth, that every commonweal consisteth of six sorts of men, to wit, husbandmen, Artisans, Merchants, Soldiers, Priests, judges, and Councillors. Of this number we will leave aside three, as men unfit to govern, which are husbandmen, Merchants and Artizantes, being borne rather to serve, then command. For to the happiness of every commonweal, the council of wise and free men is required, and the state needeth liberal, quiet, and honest aid, which wanteth in men that are occupied in 
Two sorts of men only fit for the places of government.  unclean and illiberal arts. Two sorts of men therefore are only to be employed as governors, that is to say, Soldiers and Councillors. For seeing that in all commonweals, two time are looked for, that is to wit, a time of peace and a time of war. It behoveth, that those only should be accounted governors, unto whom the care of peace and war is committed. For in time of war the commonweal is defended by Arms, and in time of peace the same is preserved by Council. Therefore to Soldiers and Councillors the conseruatition and authority of government ought to be committed. To the 
The office of mean subjects.  inferior officers, which we call Popularis ordo, we give power to elect the great Magistrates, with other rights belonging to public liberty and felicity: Yet not to all men in general, but to every one in particular, according to his virtue and office. The younger sort shall be employed in war, because they are the strongest and of most force, and the elders must govern and direct, as men of more wisdom and experience. Of such distribution, this good will ensue, which in every commonweal is commendable and holy, that men of gravity and wisdom shall without injury to others exercise the sovereign offices, and the younger sort wanting experience, shall not in those places intermeddle 
The office of Priests.  nor deal in the affairs of most weight and greatest importance. Among these degrees and sundry sorts of men, the order of Priesthood hath the precedence, because the same is employed in the administration of divine ceremonies. The dignity of that office hath always been holden most holy, for in AEgypte it is unlawful for any King to govern, unless he be also a Priest. Their duty was to sacrifice to GOD for the people's welfare, and pray for those things which were profitable, aswell for private persons as the weal public. When Alcibiades was condemned by the Athenians, order was taken that the religious people of either sex should curse him, which one of them refused to do, saying they had entered Religion, not to make unjust but just prayers. Plato 
Ordinances of plato touching Priesthood.  in his common weal willeth, that the election of Priests should be left unto GOD, to the end that those whom he thought fittest might by lot and fortune aspire unto that dignity. He commanded moreover, that those which were in election to be chosen, should be examined whether they were persons honest, sound, of good education, and borne of noble parentage, and whether they were free from murder, and all other vices, contrary to God's commandments. He ordained likewise, that no Priest should exercise that function longer than one year, nor be of less age than thirty years. These and such like ordinances of priesthood, Plato the wise Philosopher (as it were by divine inspiration) hath written.  
For they seem to have been gathered rather from the Law of Moses, than the discipline of Socrates. This Philosopher had his education among the Priests of Egypte, where he learned such instructions as made his Philosophy so perfect, that whatsoever proceeded from the mouth of Plato, was accounted divine. Aristotle excludeth this spiritual minister from the administration of civil policy, giving that authority, to the well deserving Citizens. Seeing then it is nessarie that GOD should be served, and that the Citizens of authority (as is aforesaid) are of two sorts, that is to wit, Soldiers and Councillors, it appeareth no bondman, Artisan, Marchante or other person of base profession ought be received 
Among what sort of men Priests should be chosen.  into the ministery, but that every Priest shall be elected among the number of Soldiers or professors of learning, and that with respect of age and quality of body, to the end they may be fit to exercise the office of that divine calling. For it seemeth reasonable, that those who in their youth have carefully & manfully employed themselves in the service of their commonweal, being become wearied and unable for action, should in their age be admitted to live contemplativelie, and die in God's service. Among those kind of men therefore he commandeth, that the ministery should be distributed. Of the Athieste, we will say nothing, neither will we discourse of the Philosopher's religions, who though not so impiously, yet otherwise then we, do honour God. Because ours is the true God, the true religion, and our ministers far unlike to theirs. It hath been also determined in schools and Universities, that the most ancient and sincere religion should be known to all men. But in what sort the Priests of our commonweal ought to be chosen, our intent is not here to discourse, nevertheless let us consider, whether they ought to be admitted to govern in the state or no. It seemeth apparently, that the Priests in most ancient time were made by the author all good, and first lawmaker jesus Christ, who being himself before all others, a Priest according to the law of Melchisedech, did thereby declare he was the head and foundation of that order, & that nothing was in heaven more holy, nor in earth more divine, nor in the whole world better, and to those men he gave the knowledge and judgement of that divine law and ordinance. It was therefore thought expedient, profitable, and necessary, that the Princes of every commonweal should be accompanied and counseled with spiritual ministers▪ and that not without cause. For what is more worthy, or in government more just and godly, then that those who be endued with wisdom (not learned in the temple of Delphos but received from the heavenly spirit,) should execute the laws thereof justly and holily. Who so then doth banish those men from the commonweal, seemeth unjust, barbarous, unexpert, and no Citizen of our Christian state. And i● every commonweal be conserved by the religion of God, wherein the ministers have most knowledge, those states seem to do most godly and justly, that in their governments have employed such council; as the Romans, the Egyptians the jews, and many other have heretofore done. To such men therefore God hath committed the welfare and felicity of men. Who is then so simple or senseless, that thinketh not their council necessary for the conservation of liberty, goods and fortune? Heetherto we have declared which is the best commonweal, and what order of life the Citizens thereof ought to embrace. A commonweal then so framed, accustomed to virtue, and plentifully furnished with fortunes gifts, doth seem of all other things to be most noble, most holy, and most fortunate. In the description whereof, lest we be thought to have one self conceit with Plato, so as what hath been said of his commonweal, may be likewise affirmed of ours, (that never any such thing is, hath been, or can be,) it seemeth necessary to produce examples of those forms of government. And although our intent is not to abandon the reason of Philosophers, yet whensoever they rely over much to their own wisdom, (as sometimes they do) esteeming more their private judgement, than the opinion of others, our meaning is not to believe them. For there be many things in their books and sayings, which with the times present, and use of civil life, are not in any wise conformable. For if the Venetians, the Scoises or Gene●oies, should imitate the government of Plato his commonweal, in vain they should do it, or if we did follow the ordinances 
Plato his commonweal.  of Cyrus written by Xenophon, happily the same should not much inform our Princes. Of other commonweals I speak not. The description of that state which we intent to frame, shallbe ordinary, reasonable, and according to the custom of men, yet accompaining the fame with Philosophical histories. The form of our perfect commonweal was described in the ancient Athenian Monarchy. That people being dispersed▪ 
The Athenian commonweal.  and like unto beasts wandering in the field, were first by Cecrope, and after by Theseus constrained to inhabit a City, which was then called Cecropiae, and since named Athens, and at length (reduced to a kingdom) descended to their posterity. But what authority the Senate, under those kings had, (which order did represent the optimaty) by reason the time is long since passed, and few writers have thereof written, cannot be to us apparently known: yet must we believe, that those kings had about them wise men, whose council they employed in governing. The kings of that age (as Thucydides affirmeth) did rule by consent of the people, and with their suffrages determined many things, whereof themselves were doubtful. Yet that government endured not, but was through tract of time (which altereth all things) committed to the multitude, whose force and power utterly subverted the commonweal. The Lacedaemonian state (as is before said) seemed 
The Lacedaemonian commonweal.  to contain all three sorts of government, that is; the King, the Nobility, and people. What should I say of the Romans? Shall I not 
The Roman Monarchy.  call those times golden, when kings were content to be counseled? Romulia▪ as Liui● writeth, being by consent both of Gods and men elected king, notwithstanding the state was then little, refused to govern the same alone; calling unto him an hundred Senators for his assistance, whom either in respect of their age or virtue, he called fathers. And lest the people should hold themselves ill satisfied, and defrauded of all honours, and thereby hatred might ensue, either towards the King or Senate, he made them capable of the judicial offices, and suffered them to have voices in determining war, and concluding of peace, with many other privileges. And would God that form of commonweal had still continued in Rome: For then so great effusion▪ of blood had not been made▪ in the aspiring to liberty, and extending the bounds of the Roman Empire. Neither should the happiness of that state have been with so many seditions disturbed, whereby scarcely at any time it hath lived in peace. But let us now consider of 
The Empire of Germany.  commonweals in our age: we see that the Empire of Germany consisteth of the Emperor, the Princes and the people. That state being governed by divers potentates, and the policy drawn into sundry govermentes, 
The French Monarchy.  cannot easily be described. The french Monarchy, hath in it a king who ruleth at his own discretion, and although his authority be not confined to law, yet against law and honour he doth not anything, but liveth as a just and honourable Prince. In that kingdom, the noble men whom they call pears, represent an optimaty, the people is divided into three sorts, Gentlemen, Priests, and popular multitude, and a choice number compounded of these three, and assembled by the king's commandment, do determine of matters, which in the commonweal are of most importance. This Council was anciently called Pauceltium, as the Aet●oli named their general assembly Panaetolium▪ or as the universal Counsels of jonia was termed Panionium. 
The Monarchy of Spain  In Spain the king hath authority sovereign, the Council royal resembleth the optimaty, and the three chief orders of knighthood, may be likened to the popular state. For the order of S. ●ago, Callatrava, & Al●antara, assembled with the king, do determine of matters most important▪ 
The Monarchy of Polonia.  The kingdom of Polonia doth also consist of the said three sorts, that is, the king, nobility and people: But it is to be noted, that this word people includeth only knights and gentlemen. The liberty & fellowship of those orders is so great, as the king, without advise of his council & their authority doth not any thing, neither ca● the council determine without the allowance of the King, and consent of the people. In that kingdom the laws are of so great force, as every man religiously sweareth to keep and observe them, and ifcontrarie to that oath any thing be done, the same is accounted injust and impious. That oath which they swear for the observation of their laws and liberty is in their language called Captue, which signifieth in Latin Tegmen capitis, for as the head is kept from cold by being covered, so through virtue of that oath, their laws, liberty and welfare is conserved, because in maintaining thereof, no good man feareth to adventure his life against Tyrants, and all others that labour to violate the bounds of public liberty and happiness. That people therefore do live in great liberty, being persuaded that to live according to law, is indeed perfect freedom. In that kingdom, the Prince governeth by laws, and proceedeth not according to will. In making of war or concluding of peace, he useth the advise of his Council, never transgressing the laws; which worketh this effect, that among the people the kings person is not only highly honoured, but also for a God rightly reverenced and adored. For who is he that would not entirely love, honour, and reverence that Prince, who in governing, is of one self mind with the law, contented to be led by the line of reason, directing his doings, according to the expert wisdom of his Councillors. If authority be thus used, what consent, love, and mutual affection doth it make among subjects? To conclude, the king of Polonia seemeth such a Prince, as Plato, Aristotle, Xenophon, and other lawmakers have wished to be in commonweals, & as nature and God himself doth allow. The Senate doth in that state represent the optimaty, and hath (as is aforesaid) great authority. For being chosen amongst the most grave and wise gentlemen, they only with the king do consult of the commonweal. Their authority is not unlike to the Homotim● in Persia, or the Ephori in Lacedemonia. The gentlemen of Polonia do represent the popular state, for in them consisteth a great part of the government, and they are as a Seminary from whence Councillors and Kings are taken. The 
The kingdom of England.  kingdom of Brytannie now called England, obeyeth one King, who chooseth his. Councillors, unto whom the rest of the Nobility and popular order being joined, do make one common Council: which in their language is called Parliament. The Venetian state, seemeth framed 
The Venetian state.  after the same fashion, but they within the name of people, do only include Gentlemen and Citizens, taking great heed, lest any other should usurp that title, because they only are capable of the magistracy. Out of that number the Senate is chosen, which representeth an optimaty, and is as foundation of that state. The Duke is also elected of that number resembling a king. And surely there is no Monarchy or commonweal that can compare with it, for quiet government and long continuance; whether the cause thereof proceedeth from God, from fortune, from the observation of justice, or from the natural seat of that City, I need not now to discourse. But true it is, that all occasions of civil dissension and subversion are removed. Of good commonweals, let this we have said suffice: and consider what are those things that do chief make them perfect and happy.  

In every con▪ monweale three things required.  In every good and perfect commonweal, three things are specially required, that is to say, Magistrates, laws, and civil discipline: for without these, no City nor society of men could ever be preserved▪ 
The office of Magistrates.  The office of Magistrates is, to rule and command the people to do those things, that be just, profitable and agreeable to law and reason. Cicero no less learnedly then eloquently saith, that as the laws govern the Magistrates, so the Magistrates ought to govern the people: and the Magistrate may be justly called the living law: and the law a dumb Magistrate. He therefore in all commonweals is of great necessity: for without his wisdom, council, fidelity, and discretion, no state can stand nor be governed, whereof also the state and order of every commonweal may be known. As the ship in tempestuous seas is endangered, and many time drowned unless by the labour and industry of the mariners it be saved: So the commonweal tormented with tempest of seditions and discord, must perish, if through the diligence and wisdom of the Magistrates it be not preserved. Or as man's body is ruled by reason▪ so every City and 
Law, the soul of commonweals.  society of men must of necessity contain a soul (which is the law) to be thereby governed, and that law proceedeth from the reason, council and judgement of wise men. For where no laws nor Magistrates are, there no God, no men, nor no society can be continued. The true law of man is reason, which wisemen do give unto themselves, & others receive from the Magistrates, persuading them to eschew things forbidden by law, no less then if the same were contrary to reason. They therefore that in wisdom & discretion do excel others, & are (as is aforesaid) made of golden or silver nature, because they can deserve best of man's society, are to be above others advanced. For as Cities well walled and fortified, are thereby defended from the fury of enemies: So tranquillity and happy life is by the council of wise men preserved. Therefore 
What knowledges ought be in Councillors.  it behoveth them first, to be endued with such virtues as may make the commonweal happy, then, that they be affectionate to the state, and live therein contented, to the end they attempt no innovation, and lastly that they be authorized to execute those things, which they think profitable for the commonweal. For so shall they command with more reputation, and the subjects more willingly obey them. Surely whosoever shall without indignity aspire to the place of supreme government, hath need to use great art and singular wisdom. For such a one is to govern, not one only house, not one only family, not one only wife, not one only race of children, but the commonweal, divided into infinite and contrary humours of men, which by his wisdom must be reduced to one consent, equality, and concord. Moreover 
What magistrates are most profitable in the state.  for somuch as in commonweals, there are three degrees of magistrates, among whom the king holdeth the most supreme place, next unto him is the Senate, and the third is distributed to the people, what profit may be reaped of every of them, let us now consider. The kings 
The office of Kings.  authority containeth great virtue, high understanding, and divine wisdom; for as God is prince of the universal world, so is the King Lord of the whole commonweal. It behoveth him therefore to govern justly and godly, because in the commonweal he is accounted the Lieutenant of God. For the Council, wisdom, and knowledge of kings is not their own, but given them of God. Also, for somuch as, no king can with his diligence and only wisdom, equally govern the whole state, (for it is rather the virtue of God than man, exactly to know all things appertaining to good government) they have therefore used to call unto their assistance some wise men, whereby the commonweal might be the better governed. Those men being as a mean betwixt the king and the people, do on the one side, know the office of the king, and on the other, what are the customs and laws belonging to the people: thereof conceiving, what ought be done for preservation of the kings honour, and what appertaineth to the profit of the commonweal & people. We thereof infer; that these magistrates or councillors, are of all other most able to stand the commonweal in stead. The king being but one only man, cannot look unto all things, and sometimes it happeneth that either by giving liberty to his appetites, or yielding to his affections, he is seduced from true reason: and the ignorant multitude, being (as they say) without head or discretion, cannot be capable of that knowledge. Yet the Senate being 
A Senate in all commonweals of much necessity.  chosen, and made of virtuous, wise and expert men, may from their place (as from a watchtower) look about, and provide things needful for the state, preventing all seditions, tumults, and perils that can be attempted: which is the respect, there is not scantly any commonweal, which useth not to commit either the whole, or the greatest charge of government to the Senate. For albeit they were indeed called Kings, who first assembled the habitation of men into Cities, living before savagely, dispersed in woods and fields; yet with that course of government, the kings could not alone retain them in obedience. Neither did the authority and wisdom of one Prince suffice, when the minds of men were reduced to civility, and their 
The original of Counsellors.  wont bestiality rejected. It therefore behoved kings to be accompanied with the Council of wisemen, to the end the commoweale might be the better governed: which we read, was done by Romulus. For he supposing that the government of one without advise of Counsel, would prove either perilous, odious, or without gravity, did call unto his assistance a hundredth Senators, whom either in respect of their age, or wisdom, he named Fathers. The like was done by Theopompus, king of Sparta, who appointed the Ephor●, giving them great authority in the state: whereat his wife offended, and saying, that he ●ad thereby diminished the power of his posterity in that kingdom, answered, that it was enlarged and strengthened, being persuaded, that through Counsel and authority of the Senate, the state would be exceedingly increased and enforced. Whereby it appeareth, that the advice of Counsellors were from the beginning by kings embraced, and all men have thought those resolutions to be most firm and assured, 
What a Senate is.  which were by Council and wisdom of the Senate digested. I call that a Senate, which is the chief magistracy appointed to give Counsel 
What sort of men ought to be made Senators.  and govern the state. And consequently, the Senator is a man lawfully elected into the number authorized to counsel, & govern the commonweal. It hath therefore always been, that the order of Counsellors was framed of the most discreet, wise, and noble sort of subiectes● because there is not any society of men so barbarous, but desireth the government should rest in men of such virtue, and thinketh it a thing honest and just to obey them. Among all sorts of men, there is not any so wise, and of such perfect and absolute virtue, as is the Senator, because all others, either through want of years, lack of experience, or inconstancy, are (for the most part) withdrawn from the best course of life; but a Counsellor is not by any affections troubled, by appetites transported, nor by youth inveigled, but by reason governed, by Counsel directed, and by ag● made perfect. Counsellors also in respect of their capacities, reason, Counsel, judgement, and 
Whereof the Senators be so named.  ripeness, may be called Senators, because in them all youthful appetites and furies be decayed, and the force of reason increased▪ which being grown to perfection in men, doth make them like unto Gods. Furthermore, for somuch as there are (as the Philosophers affirm) in all things three degrees, Great, Small and Indifferent, that is thought most perfect, which doth participate of either. So the Senator being 
The duty of Senators.  as it were a mean, betwixt the king and people, may the better find the perfection of all things, and consider, what are the offices of Kings, and what the duty of people, with the right, liberties, and laws appertaining to either, lest the people, for want of good government, do coue● immoderate liberty, or the King lacking advise, do fall into tyranny. It behoveth the Counsellor to be of high wisdom, great understanding, and much experience▪ endeavouring himself to ●e careful and vigilant, for the well doing, quiet and happiness of all the commonweal, which ought be the study of him that is of high capacity and supernatural understanding. Scipio saith, that as the end of the sailors endeavour, is good passage▪ the Physicians travel tendeth to health; and the captains labour to victory: so the happy life of subjects, their wealth, their glory and virtue, aught to be the endeavour of our Counsellor; and from him, as one amongst the rest, of most singularity and perfection, the same proceedeth. We shall now therefore discourse, what foundation of great wisdom hath, and what exercises, knowledge and virtue ought to be in a Counsellor: which being known, the ways and degrees, whereby he may attain to so excellent qualities, shall be the more easy. For as much as the foundation and root of every commonweal, is the inhabitants thereof, we will first above all things 
The Councillor must be of natural birth.  determine, that our Councillor shall be naturally borne within that state where he governeth. Because that birth and being, doth not only bind him, but also lead him to believe, it is honourable, just and necessary, to spend his blood in defence of his country: for the only love which men do bear unto their country, doth exceed all other piety. And how is it possible that any man should not love that country, wherein he hath his parents, his children, his neighbours and friends; 
The love of our country natural.  and that which hath freely given him life, name, and honour, with every other thing requirable, either for delight or necessity? Surely Nature hath so deeply and firmly planted in the minds of men the love to their country, as never any good subject did fear, at necessary occasions, to adventure his life. Yea we have found the force thereof to have been such, as even the wicked and most unnatural subjects, attempting the subversion of their country, at the only sight of their natural soil, have stayed their hands from performing so wicked an enterprise. Did not Veturia dissuade her son Martius besieging Rome? only by reducing to his memory, the love he ought to have unto his natural country, calling him impious and audacious, for daring to disturb that City wherein he was begotten and bred, forgetting that within the walls thereof his mother, wife, children, famelie and friends lived? Great was the love of Veturia towards her country, and no less was the piety of Martius in pardoning his country: which through the cruelty of the Tribunes; at that time persecuting the Nobility, had been to him unthankful. Sertorius in like manner desired Pompeius and Metellus to procure his revocation, saying, he desired rather to be called an obscure Citizen of Rome, then else where an Emperor. Therefore ovidius Naso the Poet saith truly. 
Nescio qua natale solum dulcedine cunctos  
Ducit, & immemores non sinit esse sui.   
Great is the obligation which bindeth us to our country, whereunto our goods and persons are (as it were) impawned. Pythagoras (as Plato saith) being asked in what sort a man should be ungrateful to to country, answered, as to his mother, because all injuries are to be pardoned for our country's sake: neither is there any offence so great, which the love of our country ought not delay and diminish. Let our Councillor therefore be a subject naturally borne, 
Strangers suspected in the commonweal.  sith no man of foreign birth ought be preferred to that dignity, because the Council of strangers, is accounted suspicious, perilous and dangerous. The Athenians therefore did not only seclude all strangers from their Counsels, but also suffered them not to dwell within their City: least by such means they might aspire unto the magistracy, and induce the Citizen's minds to innovation, whereby change of laws, customs, manners and seditions might grow. Which manner of proceeding, we see the Venetians have carefully observed. For among them great heed is taken, lest any under false tide, should intrude himself into that number; which is capable of the government. Whereby all foreigners and strangers be utterly excluded. But happily it may seem considerable, who those are which ought be called Citizens. This word 
What a Citizen is.  Citizen, hath been aswell among Philosophers as lawemakers, diversely defined. Some have called the whole number of Inhabitants by the name of Citizens. Others, only those that are descended of Noble and free Citizens. Others have called them Citizens, who have one of their parents free borne within the City. And some would that the Citizen should fetch his Pedigree from his ancient grandfathers. Some do also think that strangers received into the society of Citizens and naturallized, should be called Citizens. Aristotle doth call them by the name of Citizens, that are capable of the offices in the state, and are descended of free and honest parentage. Surely the opinion of every of these touching the name of Citizen is not to be thought strange, seeing that custom and law doth in every place give direction what is to be done, framing their reasons according to the quality of the state wherein they live. In popular states all they are commonly 
Who is called a Citizen in states popular.  called Citizens that do inhabit the City, aswell poor as rich, bad as good, wise as learned, not being bond men, for every one is capable of the government, and live all in one equality. Of this nature was the Athenian commonweal, so long as it was popularly governed, and in our days the Cantons of Switserlande do observe the same customs. divers other cities in Germany are called free, where the inhabitants do live popularly, secluded 
Who is called a Citizen, in A Monarchy, or an aristocraty.  from gentlemen & noble citizens. In Monarchies, & Aristocraties those are named Citizens that live according to virtue. And in the one, only good and virtuous men do exercise the government, and in the other, one alone for bounty excelling the rest doth command all, who 
Whereof the king is called Rex.  either a regendo, or recte agendo, is called Rex. Those people which are naturally slaves or wicked, do for the most part obey Tyrants, and that government is called Imperium despoticum, because they govern by will without law. Such people are servile, barbarous, and without virtue or honour. Yet are not they to be accounted slaves, that be oppressed with power, ambition and covetousness of Tyrants, if that therewith they be not base minded and vicious. For we may read of many such, that have revenged the servitude, both of their own persons, and of their country, by slaying or expelling the Tyrants, or not being able so to do, have chosen rather to lose their lives then their liberty: as in Rome, Brutus, Cato, and many other had done. In an 
Who is a Citizen in an Oligarchia.  Oligarchia, because men are chief respected for their riches, they who are most wealthy will only be reputed Citizens; which kind of men ought be holden dishonourable, because they are careless of all virtue, and study for nothing else, then how to become rich by what mean soever, to the end, that not as wise and virtuous; but as rich men, they may aspire to the offices and honours in the 
Who wear Citizens in Rome.  commonweal. Among the Romans', there were divers kinds of Citizens: for some were called, Municipes, some Col●●i, and some Latini, every one retaining those conditions that were granted them by the people of Rome, some were free, some confederate, and some stipendary. Some were made Citizens pleno iure, which was by consent of voices, and they were capable of all honours: or jure honorario, which were they, that were only admitted into the City without suffrage, and for honour's sake called Citizens, as were the Company and Equiti. He was also accounted a Citizen of Rome, whose name was written in the Censors book, and was an householder in Rome. By these things we have said, it appeareth, that in all commonweals those are properly called Citizens, that in their City have right to bear office, and give suffrage in the state, which privilege who so wanteth, is rather to be called an Inhabitante or Cliant, than a Citizen. In other things, requisite to the perefction of a Citizen, as virtue, natural birth, riches, and Nobility; the custom and law of every state, is to ●e observed. Of all these we will only allow of two sorts, the one Noble, 
Two sorts of Citizens.  the other plebeiall. For every City consisteth of the people, and the multitude; within the name of people (as Caius the Doctor writeth) all principal Citizens, noblemans, Senators and Gentlemen are contained. The word plebeiall, includeth the rest of the inhabitants, and others that have being within the state. So as the one sort ought be called Citizens properly, and the other so termed by imitation and courtesy. But our Councillor shall be of the number of noble and free Citizens. A noble Citizen taketh his title of that nobility which 
The Councillor must be of the number of Noble Citizens.  hath the original of virtue, which is partly his own, and partly as ornified and increased by the virtues and riches of his ancestors. They therefore, that aswell by their own as their ancestors virtue be made noble, are to be preferred, honoured and reverenced before others, because of good parents good children are begotten: as the Poet saith. 
Forts fortibus creantur & bonis,  
Est in iumentis, est in equis patrum  
Virtus, ne● imbellet feroces  
Progenerant ●q●ilae●o ●●mbam.   

To the perfection of a Noble Citizen three things required.  To the perfection of a Noble Citizen (as Aristotle saith) three things are chiefly required; good parentage, riches, and virtue. Who so possesseth all those, wanteth nothing appertaining to true and perfect nobility, and such men were ever wont to be called most Noble Citizens. But because it seldom happeneth that one man can be owner of them all, virtue alone doth challenge, (as her right) power to make men noble. Touching riches and honour of ancestors, as 
Nobility for virtue.  they do ornifie Nobility, so do they greatly disgrace the beauty thereof in those, that live not virtuously. For such men do make the name of their ancestors obscure, and through the vices of their posterity, they become utterly unknown. It is therefore better (as Tullius saith) to be noble by a man's own virtue, then by the opinion conceived of his ancestors, because the beginner of Nobility 
Nobility by descent.  is most praise worthy. Who so is descended from Noble parents, doth deferne undoubtedly to be commended and honoured, so that he doth endeavour himself to equal, or excel the glorious acts and virtue of his ancestors. And who would not greatly commend them for so doing, declaring themselves thereby thankful towards their ancestors▪ by not burying the fa●e of the dead, and increasing the 
The Rhodian law.  same by their own virtue yet living? The law of the Rhodians seemeth commendable, for thereby it was enacted, that those sons which followed not their father's virtue, but lived viciously▪ should be disinherited, and their lands given to the most virtuous of that race, not admitting any impious heir whatsoever. It is an office of our f●ith and piety, to leave unto the posterity of men, a declaration how mindful and thankful we are towards our ancestors, whose heirs we are; not only of their worldly goods, but of their virtue, glory, faith▪ & religion; which is the true inheritance, and may indeed be called the true possessions. For it is not a Hall painted full of proud Arms or badges, but virtue which maketh a man Noble. As ●uuenall saith▪ 
Tota licet veteres exornent undique cerae  
Atria, nobilitas sola●st●●; que unica virtus.   
For wheresoever virtue abideth, in all estates the same is more praise worthy then fortune, because it refuseth no man, but may be by every one embraced. Cleantes was a poor water drawer: and virtue found not Plato ●●oble man, but made him noble. We c●●ld also tell, that of divers bondmen, kings have been descended, and of kings of● spring, some have become bondmen: such variety long tract of time bringeth, and fortune turneth all things upside down. Was not Ag●thocles from a potter advanced to be a king? what was Romulus, Tullius Hostilius, Tarqvinius Pr●s●u●, and all the progeny of Romans? whereof Iwenall writeth thus. 
Et tamen ut long repet●● longè que revoluas▪  
Nomen ab infami gentem dedu cis Asyl●.   
Who is therefore a Gentleman? he that by nature is made virtuous. If any goodness be in nobility, it is as Boetius thinketh, a certain necessity imposed upon Gentlemen, that they should not degenerate from their ancestors. Moreover, as the exercise of our qualities and actions are divers, so are the degrees of Nobility proceeding of virtue, likewise divers. The Nobility of private men, and all such as live in contemplation, may be called Philosophical nobility, but the same in those, that either gain glory by counseling the commonweal 
Nobility civil.  wisely, or that show themselves valiant in the war of their country, is called civil nobility. The force of this nobility extendeth to all posterity, and the memory thereof to be recorded by portraitures, badges and monuments, wherewith men are incited to imitate and honour the virtue of their ancestors. For the badges of nobility do represent 
Badges and Arms of Nobility.  nothingelse, but the title or claim to nobility, and is a monument of ancient virtue and dignity, wherewith we are (as by a pledge of honest life) bond to follow the ancient virtue and actions of our forefathers. As in every commonweal, there is two times, the one of peace, the other of war, so be the noble Citizens of two sorts: the one for war, the other apt for peace. The first of them by Arms do inlaige, or at the least defend the confines of our country, the the second with counsel and wisdom doth govern and preserve it. They ought therefore be mixed, to the end the commonweal may receive the more profit. For in all things consultable, action followeth 
Consultation to be preferred before action.  Counsel, which was the respect, those men whose counsel in time of peace, governed the commonweal wisely, peaceably and happily, were preferred before them, that either defended or enlarged the same by arms. For as the soul is more worthy than the body, and peace more precious than war, so is the one sort of men to be preferred before the other. Homer induceth Agamemnon saying, he could more easily surprise Troy▪ with the Counsel of ten Nestor's or Ulysses, then with the force of twice so many A●aci or Achilli. Pyrrhus' was also wont to say, the eloquence of Cyneas had conquered more Cities, than he with all his soldiers. But who excelleth both in wisdom and martial knowledge, is deservingly above all others to be esteemed and honoured. For who so possesseth most virtue is to be reputed most worthy and honourable. We will therefore that our Councillor shall not only be a good Citizen, but also a good man. For the virtue of 
The virtue of a good Citizen, and the virtue of a good man, is divers  a good man differeth from the virtue of a good Citizen, in that the one useth all virtues agreeable to honest life, the other observeth only the laws made for preservation of civil commodity. And as sometimes we see a cunning Artisan an evil man, so a good Citizen in service of the state, may be politic, diligent, and stout, yet otherwise injust, intemperate, and cowardly. It is said that julius Caesar was such a one, because his manner of life was not unfit for a good man, yet such as did differ from the quality of a good Citizen. But we will that our Senator shall be such a man as hath been described.  

The felicity of commonweals and men, as one thing.  Those commonweals have ever been accounted fortunate and happy, wherein the subjects be also blessed. For every City is such as are the manners of the Citizens. The felicity of men and commonweals doth seem to spring from one fountain, from one self cause, and through virtue they do become both happy. Yet all states and 
By what means the commonweal is maden happy.  men are not only happy by the benefit of virtue, but do also need the aid of fortune. For that state only is happy, which is good. It behoveth therefore, that therein be the goods of mind, the goods of body, and riches▪ The goods of mind are gained by virtue, by aid whereof 
By what mean the commonweal is made wise.  only, the City is wise, strong, temperate and just. That state is wise, which is endued with wise and good Counsel, understanding what belongeth to knowledge and learning: which wisdom or knowledge, cannot be in base people and men mechanical, but in civil persons destined to honour and virtue: as Princes, Councillors, judges, generals and governors: in respect of whom the state is called wise. For if those sorts of men be foolish, unexpert and unlearned, the same 
By what mean the commonweal is valiant.  doth cause the whole commonweal to be vain and simple. The valour of the state consisteth in Captains and Soldiers, whose industry, courage and expertness in causes military, doth make the commonweal valiant. Such men be formidable to foes, and defend the commonweal from dangers, whereby it becometh assured and quiet. It greatly behoveth every state to have expert and well trained soldiers, whereby the same continueth quiet from terrors and tumults. It is therefore necessary, that in time of peace the use of Arms be not discontinued, and that soldiers be exercised for virtue and not for violence. For to employ Arms against friends, or the commonweal, seemeth not only the part of a bad soldier, but also of an evil man. Wherefore 
The office of Soldiers.  the chief virtue of a soldier ought be, to show himself towards those of his own country, modest, courteous and merciful, and towards enemies, fierce, courageous, and cruel. For while fury of war reigneth, and enemies do assault subjects, into their hands, the common welfare, religion, fidelity and liberty of the commonweal is committed: because they only do support the lives and goods of all other subjects. Every soldier than that deserveth to be called a defender of his country, doth know, his delight ought not to be in pleasure, idleness, or domestical delicacy, but Arms, weapons, lances, labour and sweat. A soldier ought also to avoid, private quarrel and factious enterprises; neither shall he intermeddle with civil conspiracy or rebellion, but at all times be careful to withstand the perils attempted against his country. Dost thou delight to hunt the Buck, the Boar, the Bear and Hare? or take pleasure to teach thy Dogs to kill them? why shouldest thou not likewise study to assault Castles, lead soldiers, and vanquish thine enemy? If in these things thou be ignorant, and care only to fill thine own paunch, than thou makest war with savage beasts only, and liest in wait for thy neighbour's goods or life, whereby certainly thou livest a seditious, ignoble and idle life, not worthy to be called a soldier, but a sluggard; not a Gentleman, but a juggler; and therefore as a slave, unworthy thy dignity we do repute thee. Is the war proclaimed? then must thou without delay be ready, least in long thinking what pay is prepared for thee, thy enemy hath fraught himself with spoils, and is escaped, whereby thy country shall afterwards too late lament thy slooth. It is therefore more profitable speedily to take arms, then with long musing to mar all. Buthappely no wages is given, what then? wilt thou rather sell thy service, or give it to thy country; which hath given thee life, honour, riches, with all other things, in hope of this only duty, that thou shouldest hold it most dear, and as a faithful and voluntary soldier freely defend it. God forbidden thou shouldest think, that thy virtue were to be made Noble with money, or that thou would be called rather a covetous soldier, than a true servant to thy country. Be persuaded that the duty of a soldier is, to know how to handle Arms and be fit for the war, to live justly and equally with other subjects, not offending their quiet or reputation. For if thou fight for peace, having peace, why dost thou make war at home? Certainly it standeth the commonweal upon, to provide by law, that soldiers may be compelled to honest life, and feared from offending others: For there is nothing more terrible, than injury armed. The boldness of soldiers not bridled by law, doth pass on so far forward, as may either subvert the state, or enforce the good and modest subjects, yea justice itself to obey Arms; which we read heretofore happened among the Romans', where the soldiers for divers years having authority to choose the Emperors, usurped the State, when neither the Senate, the people, nor the law, could by any means resist their insolency. But of soldiers we have perhaps to long discoursed.  

By what mean the commonweal is made temperate & just.  That commonweal is temperate and just, where the Prince and Citizens therein do live temperately & justly, which things are brought to pass by the execution of laws. For they only are the directors aswell of life as honest living. From this fountain are sprung laws to reform superfluity in building, apparel, and feasting, with all others apertaining to excess. Also from temperancy, other ordinances do proceed belonging to judgements: whereof the foundation, is justice: a 
By what means the commonweal is made strong and fortunate.  virtue, giving to every man that which is his own. As touching the goods of body and fortune, they shall be plentiful in those commonweals, where the subjects be healthy, strong, valiant, rich, honourable and glorious. Of all which things, in the end of this work we will more at large entreat. Thus have we already discoursed what a commonweal is, and wherein the felicity thereof consisteth. It remaineth now to speak of the Citizens happy life; whereby shall be conceived, in what arts and sciences our Counsellor ought be instructed 
To the perfection of man three things required.  to enjoy both private and public felicity. To the perfection of man three things (as the Philosopher affirmeth) are required, that is to say, Nature, Custom, and Reason. As touching Nature: to be thereby good and happy, it resteth not in our power, but in the gift of God. For whomsoever he blesseth, is by the instinct of Nature good, wise, and of perfect judgement. It many times also happeneth, that as one man begetteth an other, & one beast an other, so of wise and good ancestors, wise & good posterity doth descend, which nature always endeavoureth to bring to pass, but not therein prevailing, appeareth how corruptible our nature is, either through education, or (to speak in Christian wise) through the sin of our forefathers, whom the bad Angel diverted & corrupted. Wherefore nature hath only left in us certain sparks, wherewith to kindle our inclination to virtue & become apt for all things, the rest is performed by reason, art, & use. It behoveth man therefore to cleave fast unto that nature (which 
The office of man.  is good) & at his hand desire felicity & perfection. The chief duty of man, is to know that his original proceedeth from God, & from him to have received reason, whereby he resembleth his maker. But for that the reason of man is shut up within the body, as a prison, whereby it knoweth not itself; It behoveth the mind to break forth from that place of restraint and win liberty, whereby it may behold, know and perceive, how much it resembleth God. For man is most properly so called, when he liveth according to that part of the mind which is partaker of reason, and is furthest removed from pleasing & obedience of the body. Learning therefore is to be desired of men, sith thereby reason and the perfection 
Wherein the perfection of man consists  thereof is chief obtained. For as nature, unless it be perfect, wanteth her good, so the good of man is not absolute, unless therein be perfect reason: which being in man is called God, Nature, Law, Virtue and goodness. Whereupon may be inferred, that such learning 

By what studies the perfection of man is attained.  
Philosophy.   is requisite, as bringeth with it understanding and knowledge of God, Nature, Laws, Virtues and all good things. This learning is called Philosophy, the eternal and immortal gift of God, instructing us in the knowledge of all things both divine and human, and containeth the skill whereby to know, the beginning of virtue and vice, with the nature of all other things. So that, whosoever shall (as in a glass) look therein, may see, the forms, the Images, and Ideas of every thing, & ●hal well near behold the counterfeit of his own body and mind. It was therefore not without cause of Cicero called the universal knowledge, the guide of life, the searcher of virtue, the expulser of vice, the medicine and health of the soul. For there is nothing in this world to be done or 
The profit that proceedeth of Philosophy.  thought, either in Court or judgement, be it great or small, which proceedeth not from Philosophy as mother of all Counsels, actions and resolutions; whom, if in all thy words and works thou dost follow, whatsoever thou shalt speak or do, will be wise, discreet, divine, and in all respects perfect. For in whatsoever commonweal, the Prince that reigneth is a Philosopher, or counseled by Philosophers, there is seldom any war, sedition, hate, discord, or violence of evil men. But now me thinks, I hear some one saying; dost thou Sir Philosopher think, that the felicity of commonweals, and the wisdom of Kings & Princes, doth proceed from thy lazy discipline? For that art of thine is rather to be termed the science of prating, than a knowledge whereby men attain unto felicity. How dost thou dare infect the commonweal with those things, which will be the destruction thereof? and as thou hast filled the schools with contention and scolding, so wilt thou divide the state into sundry seditions, which discord in schools may be without blood disputed, yet thinkest thou that in a commonweal they can be without blows determined? How shall the happiness of commonweals be conserved by Philosophers, whose opinions are divers▪ doubtful and contrary? Whether shall our state trustunto the Epicure, the Peripatetic, or the Stoic? Who contend not only for the confines, but the very possession of felicity? And they that are not agreed what is the chief good, do they not descent upon the whole substance of Philosophy? For who so knoweth not what is the chief good, must of force be ignorant what course o● life to lead. I do therefore think, that the teachers of such doctrines (who trust only unto Philosophy as the Tabernacle of their life,) are rather to be removed, then received to govern the commonweal. For what dost thou think will be said or done, where Philosophers consult of war and peace, of laws and judgements? Surely they will imagine themselves to sit in Counsel of Cyclops and Giants, and think Arms already in hand, so soon as they hear the war●● consulted upon. Is it reasonable that he should be a lawemaker, that obeyeth no law but that which he prescribeth to himself? using only his own reason, or rather his own private opinion, accounting all others as beasts, himself only excepted? I● not this the guise of your philosophical flock? What think ye of Diogones, Zeno, Epictetu● and many others? would you wish such wise men to be Princes and Governors of 
What kind Philosophers are unfit to govern.  the commonweal? Whereunto may be answered. There are two sorts of Philosophers, whom I think in deed unfit to govern the commonweal. The first are they who have scantly tasted of Philosophy, whereby the thirsting heat of vices and desires, is not with virtue quenched: So as, those men do lead a life divers from the grounds of true Philosophy not yet well rooted in them. For the knowledge thereof doth make men no less good than learned, and by knowledge they become learned, and through justice, Temperance, and Fortitude, they are made perfect. Surely there is not any thing in Philosophy more notable, than the iustitutions and precepts of virtue, whereof who so hath the understanding, doth lead a happy and blessed life. another sort of Philosophers there is contrary to these, who having in their youth learned Philosophy, do (as it were) unto the Siren rocks cleave thereunto▪ even the whole course of their lives. Such kind of contemplation and Philosophy which concerneth not the profit, nor civil affairs of men, is in truth improfitable for the state. For albeit those Philosophers be learned and wise, yet only applying their thoughts to Philosophy, not having experience of court or civil affairs, are utterly unfit for government. Therefore Plato commandeth that those solitary worshippers of wisdom, being by nature apt for action in the commonweal, should be found out, and compelled thereunto, thinkng them fit to govern Cities, and appease the sedition of people. And touching the rest, which are not apt for that purpose, he suffereth them to enjoy their rest, and were out their life in contemplation. Wherefore neither they that be lightly learned, nor those that are become overmuch in bondage to Philosophy, ought be admitted to govern the commonweal, because the one have not by Philosophy attained any end of honest life whereunto to lean, and the other, being persuaded they have a life much better than civil, do pass their age solitary (as they think) among rocks of the fortunate Islands. For there is not any life (as Plato writeth) which hath civil magistracy in more contempt, then that which is exercised in true Philosophy. The mean sort of Philosophers are therefore (in our judgement) 
What Philosophers are fit for government.  most fit for government: because they do not by the study of Philosophy search deeper than the knowledge whereby men may attain to happy life, and become fit to govern the commonweal. To which kind of Philosophy we exhort our Counsellor. For thereby not only the knowledge of humane happiness, but also the science of government is attained. First we will that his nature be apt for philosophy; that is, temperate, docible, and just: because there is no man that can well exercise himself therein, if naturally he be not of good memory, docible, courageous, a and lover of truth, justice and temperancy, which disposition being bred only by good education, it is necessary that from his childhood he be so trained. The 
Good education the root of wisdom.  ground of all wisdom, Plato saith, is good education, for thereby as it were in sport, we profit in all kinds of virtue. Men must therefore from their tender years be instructed to rejoice or be sorry for those things, which ought justly to glad them, or sad them. It is therefore a virtue to know how to rejoice, or to be sorry, for such knowledge, as Aristotle thinketh, is true education. And as it behoveth a perfect commonweal to have good subjects whereby it may also become good, so ought 
The Com. must be careful in the education of youth.  there be great diligence in their education. For as a good husbandman diligently proyneth his plants, to make them grow the faster: So the commonweal which is the mother & housewife of subjects, aught 
The Lacedaemonian education.  to be exceeding careful for the education and virtuous instruction of young people. The Lacedæmonians were wont for the education of their Citizens, to elect Magistrates among the number of their most ancient and grave Citizens, and them they called public Tutors, for which respect, they were holden virtuous men in action, valiant and excellent in military discipline. It is written that Diogenes returning from Sparta to Athens, was by the way asked from whence he came and whither he went: Whereunto he answered, he came from men, and was going to women, noting thereby the effeminacy of the Athenians, who were for that vice, by the Lacedæmonians and the other Grecians mocked to scorn. Upon which occasion, Agesilaus then King of Sparta, hearing an Athenian boasting the thickness of Athens walls, said, that the same did well become them, because high walls were wont to be built for women. But let us return to education, whereof in these days to small care is taken: for children, are neither by their fathers taught any liberal or honest science, nor committed to the tuition of any skilful 
The Roman education.  instructors. I cannot therefore but commend the diligence of Cato in the nurture of his son, for he disdained not to be present, and look upon his wife, at such time as she washed and swathed his young children, and so soon as years had abled them for learning, he took them into his own tuition, and taught them. At that time he kept Chylo the Grammarian in his house to instruct children, who was in deed learned, yet thought he not fit that Chylo being a servant should correct his son, and when he erred pull him by the ears, also he disdained to be beholding to a schoolmaster for the education of his son. He therefore himself did teach his son learning, laws and manners, and likewise instructed him how to dart, to handle weapons, ride, swim, and suffer heat and cold. It is said moreover, that with his own hand he wrote an History, and gave it to his son, to the end he might therein see the Acts of his ancestors, and learn the skill how to govern the commonweal. In his sons presence he never uttered any unclean, foul, or angry speech, but used so great respect, as if the vestal virgins, or Priests had looked on him. Such was the domestical discipline of Cato, and the most of the Romans, in education 
The education of Graecia  of their children. The Philosophers in Graecia made plays for the instruction of young men: which discipline, eternal memory hath preserved till these ourdays. From them is also come the understanding of virtue and knowledge, which we have taken by tradition. Those Philosophers were not only Tutors of good and happy life, but also teachers of civil government. Yea this present age, hath (according to the Grecian custom) universities, which are as Seminaries of learning and virtue. Thither young men (as unto a harvest of good science,) may daily resort, and gather the fruits of good discipline and virtue. Would God the Masters of those schools, would frame the wits of young men there, rather to live well, then dispute well: for happily, so should they both of the commonweal and life of men deserve better, and their scholars not desire (as they say) rather to hear a lester than a Philosopher. In ancient time Philosophers taught their pupils first to be silent, but now their chief instruction is to speak a pace, which breedeth so many prattling Orators and witless Philosophers: For they study not to fill their breasts with virtues and honest discipline, but teach their tongues plenty of words: So as, we see them commended of their teachers, for wrangling & strength of wit in argument, not for modesty, wisdom, and justice. But all learned men 
The office of learned men.  ought know, that they should not keep schools for such drowsy and slothful Philosophy, but teach civil knowledge, the commendation whereof consisteth in well doing and thinking truly. The ancient Academies of Graecia were the nurseries of all commonweals, & out of them (as from the Trojan horse) came forth most excellent kings, singular Captains and governors. Alexander and Scipio (two most noble Chieftains) were brought up in schools. I omit many others. Thus it appeareth, that men ought to be trained in schools, and there to learn honest life & the skill of government. Also every state should be careful to have schools, as shops filled with all sorts of virtue. In such a one therefore as shall become a Counsellor, we wish good nature, & education. For that being evil, is not only to be bettered by Philosophy, but becometh much the worse: for man's nature is most prone to evil, & being strengthened & instructed with science & Philosophy, gaineth thereby more force & skill to do evil: sith the best knowledges possessed by a man of perverse nature, are depraved, & changed into a contrary disposition, whereof evil counsel proceedeth. The cogitations of an angry mind in an evil man, do increase fury: which is the cause, that a subtle spirit moved to collar, is converted into madness. It may then be concluded, that a good nature evil instructed, becometh worst of all, and evil nature well instructed, is also oftentimes abused and employed in wicked actions. For every good evil used, becometh worse than evil itself: not unlike to good seeds sowed in evil soil, which do for the most part change their nature. Great is the force of education, which changeth, and rechangeth the tender mind of youth, aswell to good as evil. Diogenes being asked, how man might lead a quiet life, answered. First he must honour the Gods, who are the makers of all felicity: Secondly, he must bring up his children in virtue, for being evil instructed, they become the greatest enemies to their aged fathers: Thirdly, he must be thankful towards his friends. The saying of Apollo is true, that the unthankful 
Education of children.  man is most hurtful, and odious to the whole world, Moreover, it behoveth for the better institution of children, that they be instructed in the property of speech, eloquence, and knowledge of the truth, whereunto he attaineth by the sciences of Grammar, Rhetoric, and Logic. For these knowledges, are as it were gates and entries of wisdom. From them he may receive the rules of speaking, which are confirmed by use, domestical exercise, and the reading of ancient Poets and Orators. For being instructed in these, he will leave the cogitation of common and known things, and call unto his consideration matters of more importance. Because the mind beginning to know itself, doth then seek for true food, whereof to feed and be satisfied. The true food and medicine of the mind is Philosophy, because it healeth all sorts of sickness and sorrows therein, making a perfect path unto happiness; and by virtue thereof, our minds are stirred to more worthy cogitations. The reason thereof is, that the mind abandoneth the body and all terrestrial thoughts, and studieth upon things high and celestial. 
Philosophy of two kinds.  This knowledge of Philosophy is of two sorts, the one consisteth in the subtlety of nature & is subject to the universal contemplation of the whole world: the other showeth the true institution of man's life, & manners, how commonweals should be governed, and private households maintained. To the first appertaineth these parts of Philosophy, called Physica, Metaphysica, and Methematica, & to the other; Ethica, Politica, and Oeconomica. The end of both those knowledges is not divers. For as by the contemplation of things divine, the mind disjoined from the body, by itself is made blessed & like unto God. So doth it come to pass in honest actions, that reason being guarded by virtue, doth withhold the mind from the unclean actions of the corrupt body. The mind by these two means dissevered from the body, becometh like unto God, and may justly be accounted happy & blessed. In this only, those two knowledges do differ: that the one by action, the other by contemplation representeth the similitude of God. Whereof a double felicity followeth, the one 
Two kinds of felicity.  private, the other public. Those that put their felicity in the exercise & action of virtue, are at all times most profitable for the commonweal, & that which is good, the more common it be, the better & more profitable it is accounted: So that felicity whereby many receive benefit, is reputed better than that, which is contained in one only head. Yet must we confess, that the contemplative felicity, hath the precedence & more noble place, because it showeth the causes & occasion of all things to be done. God allo without action, by his perpetual contemplation, forcing all things, doth by his example, move Philosophers to prefer the contemplation of things divine, before all humane action & felicity. Now forsomuch as, the felicity 
What 〈◊〉 is 〈◊〉 for a Counsellor.  of every Counsellor, & all knowledge consisteth in action, to the end lie be not ignorant what is the best course of good & honest life, what is required in the administration of matters both private & public, & may know how to govern people, ordain laws & correct judgements, it behoveth him to be studied in that part of Philosophy, which containeth the rules of men's actions, & the science of government. Let him therefore be perfectly instructed of that part which entreateth of manners, whereby he may attain the skill, not only of life, but also of well living & counseling. For how should he speak of man's life agreeable to virtue, that knoweth not what virtue is? Or what discourse can such a one make in Counsel touching justice, fortitude, temperancy, or wisdom? How should he appease seditions, or qualify laws, unless he partly knoweth the precepts of justice & prudence? What counsel can any wise man give of war, peace or contracts? if he beignorant what war is just & unjust, what honourable or disonorable peace, what treaties are godly & what ungodly? For all the precepts & force of honesty & virtue ought be to him known, not only by name but in mind exactly conceived. The sum of which knowledge, in the book of Ethics, Politics & Economics is contained. Fron them as treasure houses, he may take the knowledge of virtues, the skill of government, the manners of men, and the order of domestical life. Moreover that discipline shall furnish him with knowledge, whereby to judge of all things, and inform him, what is in every thing honest, and what the contrary. It 
The knowledge of histories.  behoveth him besides these, to know and consider deeply, the notable sayings and acts of men that heretofore have lived. Which things are not so plentifully found any where, as in the monuments of annal and histories. This was the cause that Tullius called an history, the witness of time, the light of truth, the memorial of life, and the report of antiquity. For can any man describe better the virtue of fortitude, justice, continency, frugality, and contempt of pains and death, than the acts of the Cornelu, Valerii, Fabritiis, Curi●, Dec●i, and Mutu? what may likewise be said of our own countrymen? was there not singular virtue in the L●skies, Piasties, Boleslias; & jageloneys. This knowledge is not only to be gathered from late & present times, but from the memory of all posterity, honest life, & acts most praisable. From thence he may draw the precepts of civil knowledge, & the imitation of virtues and valiant actions. He ought also to know all those things, which appertain to the use of subjects and professions of men. What accidents 
Political knowledge.  do happen in man's life, in the commonweal, in civil societies, in the common humours of men, in their natures and manners. It is also more than necessary, that our Senator be perfect in all ordinances, concerning war, peace, provisions, the quality of subjects, the administration of the state, and natures of men, knowing also those things, wherewith their minds be exalted or dejected, what virtue is, what ought be the discipline of youth, what the education of subjects, what customs should be confirmed, what honour belongeth to God and religion. Besides those, let him not be utterly ignorant, in contracts, leagues, and aliences with other Princes and Potentates. For we see all these things laid before the eyes of men, and daily used in their proceed and in Court. And it were very unseemly, that a Counsellor should be a stranger in customs of state, in examples, in laws, and the disposition of that people he governeth, It seemeth therefore that Antonius hath well described a Governor or Councillor saying, he should be such a man as understandeth, by what means the commonweal is pro fited or enlarged, and at occasions to use them. For (saith he) such were in Rome the Lentuli, Gracchi, Metelli, Scipioni and Lelii. In this our age, there are many, that aspire to offices of state, without sufficiency, without knowledge, and without wisdom. And if any man seemeth sufficient for Counsel, the cause thereof is, either one years experience in war, practise in the law, riches, or domestical authority: but in all good and honest sciences, and and in the knowledge of virtue, they are utterly ignorant. And in mine opinion, no Counsellor deserveth true commendation, who knoweth not, or wanteth will to think well, and do justly. For it were unseemly, that he should swear others to the execution of law, unless himself be a man for high Wisdom and Counsel most perfect: because he ought be just, indifferent, and praise worthy: which proceedeth from virtue, law, and perfect reason. All wisdom doth assuredly come from the knowledge of things, which unless man attaineth unto by experience in great matters & learning, he shall never think, speak, or do any thing worthy a Counsellor or wise man. A great part also of wisdom required in a Counsellor, consisteth in the knowledge 
Travel in foreign nations.  of manners, laws and customs of divers nations, which is best attained unto by foreign travel, as Homer writeth of Ulysses. 
Di● mihi Musa virum captae post tempora Troiae  
Qui mores hominum multorum vidit, & urbes. 
What to be observed in travel.    
But in traveling, great respect ought be used, to learn those manners and foreign customs which are honest, eschewing others, that be evil and ungodly. The traveller shall likewise carefully inform himself, what laws, jurisdictions, liberty, what order of life, what discipline of war, what civil government, what domestical life is in every nation used. He shall also note the scite of every region, the building of Cities, their fortification and munition. Let him also understand the virtue of each Prince, and how their people are effected towards them, the wisdom of their senate, the form of their judgements, the nature and wit of the people, what virtues they delight in, what vices they follow, what learned men, wise men, soldiers and chieftains are in every country to be found. Many other things there are which a man of judgement can well discover and report: so as if the use of them be necessary in his country, they may be observed and exercised. Nevertheless great heed must be taken, that by using foreign fashions, our countrymen be not made newfangled, effeminate, or careless of their own ancient virtue, customs or laws: for the nature of base people, is desirous of novelties, which being pernicious, may greatly molest the commonweal. Such things therefore as are honest, agreeable with the nature of our country people, profitable for the state, or not contrary to the earth and air where we live, may be received from foreign Nations: for such fruits of travel, and no other ought be commended. Many most notable men have taken pleasure in travel: as Nestor, Menelaus, and Alexander the great. The words which Diodorus Siculus reporteth to be written upon the tomb of Osiris are rightnotable, 
Osiris.  containing this effect. Osiris' rex sum, Saturni antiquior filius, qui nullum orbis locum reliqui, quem non attigerim, discens ea omnia, quae generi humano utilia sunt & necessaria. But if he wanteth means to travel, let 
Geography and Cosmography.  him read histories, Geography and Cosmography, endeavouring himself to know all things. We think also very convenient, that he have some taste of natural Philosophy, but to consume much labour in that study, we account superfluous. For among the manifold actions of man's life, it is lawful to be ignorant in somewhat. The field of knowledge is immeasurable and infinite, which was the cause that men applied themselves 
Things to be known of three sorts.  to particular studies, as impossible for one man to excel in all. And for so much as things to be known, are of three sorts: that is to say profitable, pleasant, and honest; the knowledge of things pleasant and honest, is not for government of the state so necessary, as to him that knoweth them, sweet and contenting. Yet is such science very fit to recreate the mind of him that is wearied with hearing, thinking, & consulting of causes concerning the commonweal. At which times, knowing how to entertain himself, it will greatly content him. This kind of Philosophy therefore is very profitable in the commonweal, chief if those that be therein learned, do lead a civil life, being conversant with other Citizens, and not lurking within their private houses or solitary places. Nevertheless if either for lack of health, or other impediment they be known unfit for the government, then do we permit them to live according to their own nature, pouring oil upon their heads & crowning them with wool, & dismiss them to their studies, schools, 
In what sort private Philosophers be profitable.  and caves of contemplation. This kind of Philosophy although it be private, yet may it greatly profit the commonweal. For they are not only to be allowed whose knowledge doth govern the state, but those also that in writing do leave eternal Monuments of their wisdom, or that by their precepts do instruct others in virtue and the knowledge of government. For out of their books we gather many things touching the laws, customs, and felicity of the commonweal, so that their studious quiet, seemeth greatly to aid our action. Such kind of men were Theophrastus, Heraclides Ponticus, Dicaearchus, Socrates and Pythagoras. The scholars of Dicaearchus wrote a book of the commonweal, requiring, the same might every year be publicly read in Sparta, and commanded that all the youth of that City should be at the reading present. The precepts of Philosophy are to bring virtue and knowledge into the minds of men, and not to maintain disputation and contentions. For in my judgement, all strife, wrangling, anger, and evil speech, are things unworthy of Philosophy, and I hold him unwise that thinketh Philosophy to consist in words. For constancy, felicity, 
Which is the true Philosophy.  and honesty, are in deed the true Philosophy, because the other sciences are not virtues, but the instruments and ornaments of virtue. Neither do I think it good, that the minds of men should be drawn into fectes. Wherefore first we will utterly extirp all Epicurism out of our minds, because that knowledge supported of sensual pleasure, ought not to be in him, whom we seek and desire should be a Cheiftiane in public Counsel and government. With the Stoics I find no fault, yet do I think them worthy to be dismissed, as unfit for the company of our Counsellor. Because (as Cicero saith) they affirm only Philosophers to be wise, and all others to be thieves, enemies, barbarous and mad men. Neither will they consent, that there is any wise man living. It were therefore absurd, to admit him a Counsellor, that thinketh no Counsellor to be wise, a Citizen, or a Freeman. Betwixt the sects of Stoics and Peripatetics touching this summum bonum dissension hath ever been, but our intent is, to concur with the Peripatetics: because they are the more true Tutors of manners and virtue, and out of that family, perfect Citizens, Emperors, Kings, and Philosophers (as out out of the Trojan horse) have issued. These most 
Eloquence.  noble sciences and arts in a Senator, shall be greatly beautified and graced by eloquence, which is is the true ornament of wisdom. For without that we see all other things (though commendable) are as it were drowned. An eloquent and excellent Oration, made good and of honest conversation. For men are not only to learn the skill of commanding, but also the order of obeying, and that they ought aswell to honour and love the Magistrates, as perform their commandments. Which thing proceeding from the due execution of law, the Counsellor must in that point endeavour himself to become a skilful and learned lawyer. The first degree to the attaining of virtue and honesty, is to obey the laws and Magistrates. For 
What law is.  the law of every state, is nothing else but virtue and good order of life, reduced into rules certain. Theopompus king of Sparta being told that the Lacedaemonian commonweal flourished because the kings thereof were skilful in governing, answered, no. But the reason thereof is, that the subjects know well how to obey. Among many other 

The Lacedaemonian discipline.  
The Grecian discipline.   Lacedaemonian disciplines, the chief was (as Plutarch reporteth) to obey the laws and magistrates, to endure all travel patiently, and be persuaded to fight manfully, and die willingly. The like discipline was observed in all other places of Graecia, and therein the youth were exercised: to the end that through such instruction, they might learn, in time of war to defend their country, in time of peace to govern, and such as lived in private life, to employ their leisure honestly, that is to wit, in learning, well gracing their gesture, music, painting and swimming: deriding all those that were ignorant both, in good letters and the skill of swimming. A certain Ciiizen of Thebes being asked how the state of every commonweal might be preserved? answered, by the observation of justice, and chief where is discipline among young men, and no covetousness among old men. Great assuredly is the force of civil discipline in every commonweal, for through it, every subject is made apt for all kind of virtue. Yet is it a thing notable, that some men with little or no study, utterly void of art, nothing learned, and such as never tasted of Philosophy, nor scarcely ever heard thereof, do nevertheless seem wise, good, just and valiant, bearing office & governing civil affairs with great reputation. Which so being, may happily move some men to require an other kind of Philosophy, rejecting that we have spoken of, supposing those precepts unfit for their years and capacities, alleging the saying of Physicians, that, Art is long, but man's life short. And Plato also, that he is commonly called happy: unto whom in age, or rather in the declination of life, knowledge and true opinion of all things is granted. Experience trieth what is best, and time doth teach us to be more wise. I confess wisdom is hardly gotten, and (that which is most to be lamented) the frailty of man's life doth cause many impediments, which hinder the attaining thereof. Many there are, whom fatal death in the midst of their life, or rather sooner, have taken away. Some also more willing to follow the delights of body, than the virtue of mind, do (as it were from Scylla and Charybdis) flee from knowledge, as a hard and unreasonable life. What should I say of those that in despite of Minerva, are not content to do or think any thing worthy Philosophy? All which reasons, albeit they do in some sort cut of our hope, to attain Philosophy and perfect wisdom, yet ought they not utterly discourage and make us desperate: For the length of man's life is not to be measured by number of days, but by virtue, which wanting, although thou survive the years of Nestor, or the Phoenix age, thy life shall be short, miserable, and unhappy. What harm is it for thee to die young, if after this death, virtue doth give thee an other being? Silenus' the Poet taken by thieves, and brought before King Midas, wanting money wherewith to redeem himself, desired the king to grant him liberty; offering in recompense thereof, to give him a thing for his Majesty more precious than any silver or gold, which gift, pleasantly and truly, he 
Man's life miserable.  described in these words, saying. The greatest good that God can give man, is not to be borne, the next is, to die soon. Which after he had by divers reasons proved, the king did not only deliver him, but also reward him. Who is he that desireth more this frail, miserable, and incertain life, than the other blessed happy and eternal? the possession whereof is gained by the exercise of true virtue? we live to die, why should we not rather die to live? virtue hath given thee happy life, thou shalt then die happy. Therefore our whole endeavour & study ought be, to attain unto virtue; whereof Philosophy is the nurse & Tutoress, for thereby we shall either aspire highest, or at the least, behold many under us. It shall suffice, that albeit we are inferior to the first, yet we are equal to the second or third, so shall we be chief of those that come after us. Among things excellent, those which be next the best are accounted great, for he that cannot aspire to the martial glory of Achilles, needeth not be ashamed to receive the praise due to Ajax or Diomedes: or who so attaineth not the knowledge 
Vulgar & ordinary wisdom.  of Plato Lycurgus or Solon ought not therefore to be reckoned without learning. Many (as is aforesaid) have gained the possession of wisdom and skill of government, not by reading the books of Philosophy, but by the observation of their ancestors, example, custom, experience, domestical discipline, law, manners, and a certain sagacity of nature, being somewhat graced with honest and liberal education. Of such men, in all commonweals many examples have ever been. The Court is their learning; and use, law, ordinances, which the customs of their forefathers have taught them. Demades, a man very wise and well practised in state, being asked what Tutor he had to instruct him wisdom, answered: The Tribunal of the Athenians; thinking the Court and experience of things to excel all the precepts of Philosophy. Neither did the ancient Romans frame their just and honest form of government, so much according to the books of Philosophers, as their own natural wits. What should I say of our ancestors? who devised a commonweal, not unlike to the Roman state. The discipline of Plato, Lycurgus, Solon, Aristotle, and other most notable Philosophers, and lawmakers, do differ from the Polonians, whose greatness grew only by the virtue they received from themselves, and not from books. Their wisdom was to honour virtue; and contrary to it, neither to do, or think any thing. Therefore they used not their Kings and Senate, to compound controversies, suppress contentions, or pronounce judgements, but to receive from them examples and rules of virtue, and as cheiftaines in war follow them in defence of their country. 
The golden world.  That old world (which the Poets called Golden) produced a race of men, of themselves most happy and wise: and truly not unlike, for in that time of man's first age, (virtue only reigning) the misery of vices and wickedness was not known, for they loved an upright, just and simple life, whereunto virtue and reason consenteth. They were therefore enforced to virtue and honesty, even by the spur of their own nature, fleeing vice, which because it was to them unknown, might more easily be eschewed. Of that time ovidius Naso writeth most excellently. 
Aurea prima sataest aetas, quae vindice nullo,  
Sponte sua, sine lege, fidem rectumque colebat:  
Poena metusque aberant, nec supplex turba timebat  
judicis ora sui, sederant sine judice t●ti.   
But so soon as the son of truth declined, and with the clouds of vices began to be darkened, forthwith the minds of men fell into wickedness, as desirous rather to know vice then virtue, delighting in the one and shunning the other. Then every man armed himself against virtue, thinking it was lawful to offend others, to live ungodly, abusing reason, and employing it in evil exercises, as the same Poet saith. 
Protinus erupit, venae peioris in aewm  
Omne nefas, fugêre pudor, verumque, fidesque;  
In quorum subiére locum, fraudesque dolique,  
Insidiaeque, & vis, & amor sceleratus habendi.   
And surely that flood and rage of wickedness, had utterly drowned all mankind, had not the force of nature and reason which remained in a few; opposed itself against the fury of so great calamities. Those few then (as it were proclaminge war with vice) persuaded other men, 
Who those were that restored the golden world.  (who then lived as bruit beasts) to reduce themselves to humanity, informing them not only by words, but also by writing, what was civility, virtue, and honour, whereof grew laws in Cities as a tutoress to good life. So as men might there learn to think and do those things which were honest, just and godly: and to the end those laws might never perish, they caused them to be written in books which are records of immortality, and preservers of eternal memory. From hence the precepts of virtue did take their beginning, and many volumes of manners and duties of men have been written. After them followed others, who aspired not only to knowledge of the offices and duties belonging to men, but also searched the nature of all things. This consideration of humane nature and world universal, was in one word by the Grecians called Sophia, and the inventors thereof were named Sophi: who afterwards more modestly (by example of Pythagoras) called themselves Philosophers. By this mean, the light of reason, and humane nature which lay hidden, and was made dark with clouds of vice, did recover his virtue, and brought unto us the knowledge both of divine and humane things. Which knowledge is called Philosophy: by the benefit whereof, mortal men recovered the ancient virtue, simplicity, innocency and happiness. Whosoever in those days desired to live honestly and well, flee vice, and know virtue: applied himself to read the Philosopher's books and mark their sayings, as men that utterly mistrusted their own nature and wit infected with knowledge of vice, evil education, sloth, delicacy, Idleness, opiniatry, and wicked conditions. Thus was that golden world by Philosophers restored, and the old estate, nature and felicity, was recovered. Therefore, whosoever doth receive from thence the precepts of virtue, honest life, and that ancient and golden humanity, is made not only civil and wise, but also happy and 
Who is without Philosophy wise.  most blessed. All those that without Philosophy and learning are indeed wise, do attain to their wisdom by one of these two ways. The one, by being endued with divine nature, the virtue whereof comprehendeth, foreseeth, and understandeth all things. In old time, amongst the Grecians, Theseus and Cecrops: and among the Latins, Romulus and Numa governed commonweals, not with Philosophy, but were instructed by the celestial Muses. The second mean to govern without learning is, to be perfect in foreign experience, and a vigilant observer of civil cautions. Such men if they be good, and permit all things to be directed by law, are praisable, albeit their wisdom is imperfect, and subject to many perils and mutations: but if they be evil, then are they so pernicious and hurtful to the commonweal, as nothing can be more. Therefore Mitie said well, that there was nothing more unjust than ignorant man; for he not knowing the true rules of government, thinking that the experience of one court is the whole sum of civil discipline, doth fill the state full of tumults and seditions, not conceiving by what means, reason, cunning or counsel, such mischief is happened: and so being, wanteth-both wisdom and judgement. Of which two things, ignorance the mother of vice and all evil, hath bereft him. Sith then by the benefit of nature only, we cannot be made happy and wise, our minds being overcharged with burden of body, endued with the knowledge of things evil, and that we live in such an age, as doth not (as in old time) bring forth plenty of good men: It behoveth to devise good means, whereby the mind may shake of the incumbers and vices of body, so as cleared from the rage of time present, we may be revoked to the ancient divine and perfect life of men: which thing may be done, by the help of art and exercise, the one is attained by labour, the other gotten by Philosophy. For the name of 
Philosophy.  Philosophy includeth all things humane & divine, the knowledge of all arts, all virtues, all government of state, and every other thing which is either in heaven or in earth contained. This is that, which delivereth the mind imprisoned in the body, from all affections, & teacheth it counsel, to live well, command, and govern. Our Counsellor then instructed in the precepts of Philosophy, shall not from thence forth be shut up, lurk unseen, be solitary, walk unaccompanied, avoid the sight of men, nor cover his sloth with keeping himself within doors: but shall converse with the multitude and Citizens, and with his presence honour and aid the society of men. For no virtue, wit, or wisdom, can 
The Counsellor must not be solitary.  be famous, being shut up within the walls, but of force it must come forth and show itself. And the wisdom of a solitary Citizen is no more profitable, than the treasure of a covetous man buried in the ground, which ferueth him no more, then if he possessed it not. What can be so great or noble, as that the virtue of every particular man should be seen, and brought forth, to be heard & seen of all men. For it is not easily known of what capacity, wisdom, and judgement man is, unless proof be made thereof. As the strength of wrestlers is known by the fall, and the swiftness of the horse by his career: so the virtue of a Senator, is by his actions tried. Thus have we (as I hope) sufficiently spoken of that discipline, whereby a Counsellor becometh happy, and fit to govern the commonweal according to justice. And sith only by the virtue of nature, that happiness & knowledge cannot be attained, the same is to be supplied by use. For we ought to learn, & so long to learn, as we are ignorant, or (as Seneca saith) so long as we live, & repent not that we have profited. The most assured sign that we have profited in virtue, is, if we find in ourselves, that the force of our reason & virtue hath suppressed unreasonable desires and affections, and if among men, we have lived justly, wisely, and temperately. But let us now discourse of the manner of choosing our Counsellor, determining therein chief to observe comeliness and equity. Among other things which do preserve the commonweal 
The election of magistrates.  & happiness thereof, there is nothing better than to elect such men for magistrates, as be endued with greatest wisdom, judgement & virtue: and such as aspire unto honour, not by power, not by force, not by ambition, not by corruption; but by law, virtue, modesty & worthiness. Magistracy in all commonweals is a thing of most reputation, because the magistrates are called the best, wisest, and most honourable men Magistracy, is as it were an ornament of virtue, bestowed on the best sort of men, for their virtue and well deserving of the state. It is therefore the part of a good Citizen and good man, entering into magistracy, to 
The duty of a good magistrate.  prefer the welfare & honour of the commonweal before his private reputation and domestical commodity, not imitating Sylla, Cinna, Carbo, Marius, Pompeius, Caesar and such other Senators, whose ambition, sedition and factions, brought there commonweal well near to utter destruction. For they would not live with equality, preferring the fruit of private glory, before the profit and tranquillity of their country. As Lucanus writing of Pompeius and Caesar saith. 
Impatiensque loci fortuna secundi.  
Nec quenquam iam ferre potest, Caesarue priorem:  
Pompeiusque parem.   

Ambitious men punishable.  In every well governed commonweal, this insatiable desire of honour must be bridled, which the Romans did, so long as their state flourished: oppressing practices, and punishing the ambition of such men as contrary to law and honesty, either by force, corruption, or any other dishonest mean aspired to office. Some men distrusting their own virtue, do by bribes, advance themselves unto the most sovereign dignities, which thing is more than any other, fowl, and pernicious to all estates. For such men in respect of riches, do despise both virtue and honesty: and think that honour or virtue doth not 
Covetiousnes perilous to the commonweal  become any man, but him that is rich: which is the cause, that they attend too their private, not the public commodity; because they know all honours and dignities, are given to rich, and not to virtuous men, whereof proceedeth, that in every such state reigneth covetousness & immeasurable desire of wealth: and of them, groweth voluptuousness, deceit, fraud, enmity, contempt of God, Law and Magistrates. Insuch states, men embrace not that which is honest, but that which is profitable: 
Magistracy ought be given to virtuous men, with out respect of riches.  for finding no reward due unto virtue, every one holdeth the virtuous man under, by fraud, deceit, and power: so as the poorer sort do live in the commonweal oppressed with misery, and are forced to serve the rich, as more worthy persons: not in respect of virtue, but of power, fraud, and subtlety. For they do always prefer private utility, before honesty and virtue, selling, coarsing, and rejecting all laws, liberty, rights and justice itself. jugurtha, seeing great store of corruptible Senators in Rome (as it were exclaiming) said: That that City was saleable, and would quickly perish, if any buyer could be found. The Lacedæmonians consulting of the continuance of their state, were by Apollo answered. That Sparta should be destroyed by no means, but only by avarice: and to avoid that fatal prediction, they rejected the use of all gold, silver, and brass, making a coin of iron, wherewith men should be less delighted, and in keeping thereof more cumbered. Great care therefore must be taken in every commonweal, that the offices should not be given rather to the rich then the virtuous men, and that those may be punished, that seek with money to oppress virtue. For it is a most ready mean to bring that state to ruin, where more regard is had to riches then virtue, because the subjects will labour rather to attain wealth then virtue, disposing themselves wholly to heap up coin, which maketh them effeminate; fraudulent, desirous of other men's goods, lascivious, and abounding in all kinds of vices. Where virtue is not esteemed, the Priest contemneth piety, the soldier layeth by his sword, the Senator seeketh not wisdom, fidelity and diligence, and the people make no account of civil discipline; which so being, into their places entereth, audaciousness, violence, injustice, lasciviousness, and barbarism, the sink of all vices. It is therefore necessary, that good order and form be observed in the election of magistrates, so as in the choice, chief respect may be had to the virtue of good men. As touching the mean offices of state, by what order they should be bestowed, it is not our intent to discourse. It shall suffice, that the laws and common custom be therein observed. But for so much as among all sorts of magistrates, the place of him whom we call a Counsellor is of most reputation, upon him (as it were a foundation) the whole weight of all other Counsels, and welfare of the commonweal resteth. It behoveth therefore that the choice of 
Evil magistrates the confusion of commonweals  him be made with great care and circumspection. Every state having evil Counsellors, is most evil governed, and no sign of equity, justice or religion, will therein appear: But fraud, deceit, injustice, and impiety reigning in magistrates, shall easily, by imitation, corrupt others. For we see by experience, that through the vices of governors commonweals be changed. Monarchies become Tyrannies, Aristocraties are altered into Oligarchias, Democraties converted into Ochlocraties: 
In the election of Counsellors three things to be considered.  Therefore in election of Counsellors, these three things are chief to be observed: of whom, to whom, and how they ought be chosen. To the first we have (as I hope) already sufficiently spoken, when we said that in the number of natural subjects the Counsellor ought be elected, and thereof a little before we discoursed: Now are we to tell to whom, and how Counsellors are to be chosen. Wherein we have thought good to recite the customs of other commonweals, which being known, we may the more easily conceive what kind of election fitteth with every state, and which of them ought be accounted best and most profitable. In the election of all Magistrates, and chief Counsellors, all people in every state were wont to respect three things, liberty, riches and virtue. For what doth depend of those three, and every of them, is to be considered. Those that desire the form of a popular state, do chief respect liberty, for there is nothing that l●●deth them to like and desire popular government so much, as the sweet 
Popular liberty.  desire of liberty. Because they think liberty consisteth principall●e in commanding and obeying by turn, judging it reasonable, that all Citizens should command, or at the least sometimes to command & sometimes to obey. Therefore in all such commonweals, the Magistrates are chosen by lot, wherein Chance & luck do help more, than Reason or Wisdom. Which order was invented for the preservation of liberty. For all men desiring to be thought and accounted equals, do use therein the aid of fortune & chance, to the end that the rich & poor, the eloquent and simple, the mighty and weak, the wise and foolish, should be equal, & that no one by wealth, eloquence, wisdom or friendship, should oppress an other, and consequently usurp the state with the liberty thereof common to them all. husbandmaning moreover, that the common good, profit, and liberty, may be preserved, better by many then one, or divers. In those states therefore the condition of all men is a like, and it maketh no matter whether they be rich or poor, learned or foolish, so long as they be borne free men. In commonweals governed by a few, the order is, that a small number of wise, discreet, or rich men should govern, but in popular states it is contrary, for there the ignoble, poor men and artifizers, have equal procaedence with the rich men. We read that the popular state of Athens 
The Athenian commonweal.  was governed in two sorts: the one, by few Magistrates, which were either rich men or wise men, the other consisted of all the whole number of free Citizens. The first was instituted by Theseus, who assembled the people into Cities, living before dispersed savagely in the field, persuading the most potent personages, that the Democraty ought be preferred before the Monarchy; to the end the sovereignty should rest in the people, and he himself would be but as a Captain general in war, and defender of the law: but in all other respects every of them should be his equals. Moreover he instituted a convocation of the whole people, making this difference betwixt the Noble men and Artificers & husbandmen; that is to wit, that the noble sort should have the ministery of the Church, the sovereign offices, and judicial places: but otherwise to live in equal honour and dignity with the rest. This first Prince (as Aristotle saith) would not frame any kingdom, but conforming himself to the disposition of people, contrived such a commonweal, as in the judgement of all men was thought most allowable, most just and most contentful. In like manner he devised such a popular state, as should not be governed by violence and fury of the multitude, but all things to be qualified by judgement and reason, so as by honest living and obedience of law, the commonweal might enjoy her happiness. This commonweal begun by Theseus, was after governed by Draco, who gave thereunto certain bloody laws. Then Solon through sedition & discord of the Citizens, reduced the government into the hands of a few, somewhat altering the laws and magistrates. Last of all, that Democraty came unto the hands of Clisthenes, Aristides and Pericles, and after all them, to Demosthenes. These men being pleasers of people, reduced all the Citizens to equality, increasing the tribes, entering servants and strangers into the company of Citizens. Clisthenes' invented the law called Ostracismus, which was executed upon those of whom there was any opinion conceived, that their wisdom or virtue might hinder the popular liberty. Aristides judged it a thing reasonable, that banished men and the basest multitude, should be capable of magistracy. Pericles diminished the authority of the Senate, and weakened the dignity thereof. Demosthenes' finding the state fully in possession of the multitude, by a solemn oration allowed and commended 
What kind of Democracy is just.  thereof. Aristotle and his Tutor Plato, with other political Philosophers, do think that the popular form of commonweal is not unjust, being accompanied with good laws, and a people willing to obey the same. For who is he that can mislike that state, wherein each man hath a law, to be as king and keeper of his liberty, and of the law, himself is Prince and Lord. Surely I could well allow of such a commonweal, where it not subject to great tumults, 
Democracy inconstant.  seditions and sudden mutations. First, who is he that knoweth not the nature of common people is mutable, and will use liberty immoderately. For indeed, the multitude either obeyeth slavishly, or doth command cruelly: being also enticed or rather filled with the sweetness of liberty, so soon as it hath by some action aspired to greatness or glory, it becometh insolent, desiring to be thought chief, and holding equality unjust, doth use most intemperately to bear hate, sedition, and ambition. So as, of such a commonweal groweth an insolent plebeyall domination. It also sometimes happeneth, that men blinded with love of riches and wealth, do chose rich men only to be governors and keepers of common liberty, supposing them to be most worthy and fit to bear office in the state. Such a commonweal is called the authority of a few, or an Oligarchia, for those Citizens do bear the soucraigne offices, who are above the rest of most wealth and substance. The Senators and other Magistrates in that state, are 
Who are chosen magistrates in an Oligarchia.  partly by election, partly by lot, and partly by general consent, and sometime by a few created. And because the choice is made according to men's riches, each man endeavoureth himself not to attain virtue but wealth, knowing the offices are as it were thereunto due. In such commonweals, so great veneration and worship is given to riches, as there is nothing so holy, so godly or religious, that covetousness, (the fatal plague of all govermentes,) cannot violate and subvert. They that in the election of Magistrates do only respect virtue, and by it do measure the felicity of the state, do 
What kind of magistrates are chosen in Monarchies and Aristocraties.  inhabit kingdoms or Optimaties. For those that obey Kings, whether they be by election or natural descent, the people believe them above all other men to be most divine, most wise and most worthy. And they that desire to be governed not by one alone but divers, do in election of their governors observe the like reason. Because among those men choice is made of the best, most just, and sufficient persons to be Magistrates, without attributing any thing to lot or fortune: for each man examineth his own judgement touching the virtue of them, whom they desire to advance, which is a respect of singular commendation in the bestowing of honours. For (as the Poet saith) it is a great matter to be pointed out with the finger, every one saying, this is he. Wheresoever chance hath more power than reason, there is little place left for virtue. Yet do I not, in a free state mislike the suffrage of chance, that goeth 
What kind of lotting is best.  before or followeth the judgement of good men, touching particular men's virtue. For in that commonweal where is most plenty of good men, there to admit chance for judge of each man's worthiness, may be thought reasonable. By that means men in office shall account themselves the most worthy Citizens, knowing they are advanced aswell by the judgement of good men, as the sentence of fortune. This order of election is observed by the Venetians. The like institution Solon did make in Athens for choosing the 500 Senators. For out of every Tribe was chosen so many, as were thought fit to become Senators whose names they used to put into one Pot, and into an other▪ pot as many beans, the one half white, the other half black, then so many as happened upon the white beans were pronounced Senatos, and those that lighted upon the black beans as repulsed, returned home without office. Therefore Thucydides called that Counsel Senatum a Faba.  
Among the Romans' (sometime Lords of the whole world) the Senators were chosen divers ways, according to the diversity of times. 
What considerations the Romans had in the election of Senators.  For either they were chosen by the Kings, Consuls, Dictator's, Tribunes of the people, Censors or Chieftains. In all which elections till the time of Augustus' no mention is made of lotting, but the virtue, fame, family, age, order, office before borne, wealth, and profession were chief respected Now for so much as there is nothing more excellent, nor more divine than virtue, we think expedient, that in the choice of Counsellors chief regard must be had thereunto, because through it, Counsellors be made just, valiant and wise. It behoveth all Magistrates, in every well governed commonweal to be endued with virtues, and chief those that are aspired to the dignity of Cousellors. For Counsellors be reputed the defenders of laws, the moderators of liberty, and conservers of the whole commonweal. And as the commonweal is many times infected and corrupeed, by the vices and wickedness of Magistrates: 
The evil example of magistrates worse than their vices.  so is the same corrected and repaired by their virtues: Neither is the mischief of their faults so great, as that many others will imitate those evil examples. Such are the people of every state, as are the manners of those that govern; and what mutation of manners the Prince useth, the same is by the subjects followed. Plato most excellently and wisely saith, that the estate of commonweals is changed, like unto the alteration of musicians voices. But it was better said of one other, that the change of a Prince's life, & the alteration of manners in great Magistrates, would also change the manners, customs, institutions, rights & the commonweal itself. And truly I think that evil Princes do deserve worst of the commonweal, not in that they do evill-themselues, but that thereby all others become infected▪ and therefore the vices are no so hurtful, as are their vicious examples. Such men therefore as not only with their own actions, but their examples do prejudice the state, are most severely to be punished. How is it possible, for any man to persuade others to virtue and observation of law, himself living otherwise? The Romans' laughed Scylla to scorn, that being a man most intemperate and delighting in licentiousness, did notwithstanding use to exhort and compel others to sobriety, temperance and frugality. 
Lysander.  Who would not also find fault with Lysander, though he did contrary to Scylla, allow those vices in the Citizens from which 
Lycurgus.  himself refrained. But Lycurgus is in deed justly to be commended, because he never commanded others to do any thing, which himself would not first do and firmly observe. Therefore they, unto whom the commonweal hath given authority to choose Counsellors and other Magistrates, aught to be of great judgement, and high wisdom. For they should elect those whom they think to excel all others in wit, wisdom, judgement, virtue and good action. I do therefore greatly dislike the popular order of lotting, to find out men fit for this purpose, because the people by help thereof, desiring to preserve their equality and liberty, do incur such error, as they commonly choose men most unworthy the name and virtue of a Senator. Wherefore they ought in preferuing of liberty, to be most careful of that which might chief profit the commonweal, not giving (in respect of commanding and obeying by turn) the government to the slothful and foolish sort: for every man liveth with equality enough in the state, so long as the same be governed 
What election of Magistrateses most perfect.  by the wisest, discretest and gravest Citizens. We therefore determine, that election of Counsellors is most perfect, which proceedeth from men excelling in wisdom and justice, because they being virtuous, 
Whether Senators ought be chosen by one or divers.  cannot permit any thing injust, either in themselves or in the commonweal. In this our estate being governed by a King, a Senate, and people, some man may doubt whether the Senators ought be chosen by divers or one alone? Where divers have authority to choose, either all subjects are included or part of them: as in a popular state the one, and in an optimaty the other is used. Which so ever of them doth claim right of electio▪ must of necessity disdain the other; for the people do affect liberty, & the noblemen desire authority. Wherefore, either they fall into sedition one against the other, 〈◊〉 agree by law, or consent that either of them shall enjoy the liberty of election. And though it so do ●●●ne to pass, yet will if not be long, before they return to their former dissension. For every one knowing he hath gotten a partial judge of his virtue & wisdom's, & believing himself to be disdained of the contrary faction, practiseth ●a●red & conspitacy in the state, & rejecting the ornaments of ver●ue (trusting to ●o●●ed friends) studieth ambitously by followers & corruption to aspire unto authority, & what cannot be attained unto by virtue he extorteth by force and violence. So as good subjects are by evil oppressed, and in place of justice, virtue and wisdom, 
The multitude no 〈◊〉 judge 〈…〉.  deceit, fraud, vice, & injustice do govern all. Surely it is a thing most perilous, that the magistrates of any state should be chosen by the multitude, which is no reasonable of indifferent judge of menworthines. For many times, either it envieth or favoureth those unto whom they give their liberty, not judging according to reason, but is often moved by favour, or drawn with desire to honour those that ambitiously labour to aspire. And to conclude, whensoever the multitude do make choice, the same is not performed according to discretion, knowledge, and judgement, but fury and rashness. There is not (as Tully saith) any Counsel, Reason, judgement, or diligence in the base people, and wise men have ever thought good to suffer those things which the people do, but not ever to commend their doings. The multitude have always had the desire, but not the judgement to bestow the dignities, for their voices are won by flattery, not gained by desert. This custom being by law or use allowed in other commonweals, 
The election of Counsellors appertaineth to one.  shall not be admitted in our state; forwe recommend the election of our Counsellor, to one alone, being of all men judged for virtue, wisdom & knowledge most worthy: thinking, that one may more easily than many, eschew those perils, which happen in choosing Counsellors. But let him to whom this authority belongeth, receive the same as given him by law or consent of the people, & not aspire thereto by force, corruption or Tyranny. The custom of free people, in the election of their Senators, unto whom they commit their welfare, is to choose them among themselves, or else to give that authority of election to an other▪ which we read the Romans' sometimes to have done, who did not themselves choose the Senate, as they did other magistrates, but committed the doing thereof to one man alone, of most excellency, good life, manners, authority, wisdom, and judgement. Romulus the first father of that City, elected a hundred Senators, which custom was used by the other kings succeeding. But when the kings (through the insolent government of Tarquintus) were removed, this power of election (according to the quality of time) was somewhat altered, yet not given to many. For till the state returned to a Monarchy, the Senators were chosen either by the Consuls, the Censor, the dictator, or cheiftaine. Our ancestors have most discreetly brought that custom of the Romans' into this commonweal, giving unto the King power and authority to make choice of Counsellors, and be an only judge of each man's virtue; electing those whom for age, wisdom, and nobility he thought worthy. We therefore do determine the power and right of electing Counsellors, to appertain only unto the king, wherein, his greatest wisdom and judgement ought be employed, not calling any to Counsel for skill in domestical affairs, for riches gained by agriculture, nor for skill in architecture: but for wisdom in government of the commonweal, for preservation of Subjects, and knowledge in good and wholesome laws. If our bodies be diseased with sickness, we consult with learned Physicians, or if we want garments or houses, we seek for skilful Artificers: why should we not also (as a thing of most importance) look out and choose such men to govern the people and commonweal, whose wisdom can conserve the same in peace and tranquillity. It therefore behoveth a Prince in the choice of such men, to use the whole force of his capacity, wisdom 
What things are to be respected in choice of Counsellors.  and diligence. For he is not only to see, that in the Counsellor there be those parts whereof we have spoken; to wit, that he be a natural subject, well borne and bred, and endued with those arts and disciplines, which are thought worthy a civil man destined to govern the state, but he must also consider the quality of his manners, fame, family, age and virtue. It is moreover to be known in what office or services the Counsellor (before his election) hath been used, and with how much endeavour, fidelity, wisdom, and diligence he hath served: For from some other place of employment, the Counsellor ought be chosen: which the Romans' used, electing their Senators only out of that number, whom they called Patres, which was as it were, the nursery of Counsellors. To be short, whosoever chooseth Counsellors, aught above all, to lay before his eyes the profit of the commonweal, whereby he shall easily conceive, what men and Counsellors the state wanteth, and how much or little every one can help, how great a burden each man can bear, and what is to weighty for his force. Let us hereafter discourse wherein all these things consist, what good the state receiveth by a Counselor's wisdom, and what duties he is bound unto. By that which hath been already said, the King may sufficiently conceive what things are considerable, to know a perfect Counsellor, and likewise a Counsellor shall find what is to be observed and used in governing. But lest the discourse of this institution should seem over long, we think fit to speak of those qualities in one other book following, for not werying the reader's mind with many words, and thereby become over tedious.  
Finis Libri Primi.   

❧ The second Book.  
WE have (as I hope) in the former Book sufficiently at large discoursed of the first principles appertaining to the Counsellors dignity, how many kinds of commonweal there is, and which of them ought be accounted most perfect. We have also laid the foundation of civil felicity, which is in the society of men, a thing most notable and divine. Now our intent is in this book, to set down those virtues which are required, not only in a new magistrate, but an old and expert Counsellor, so shall the science of government be complete perfect and fully finished.  

The knowledge of commonweals, necessary in a Counsellor.  First, it behoveth a Counsellor to know the form of that commonweal wherein he is to give counsel and be a minister, what people, what laws & liberties are thereunto belonging: what manners are there used, & by what discipline, use, and custom, the state is governed; he ought likewise to know, not only those means whereby the state may be ornified, increased & preserved, but also how the same may be weakened, hindered, or subverted. For as that Pilot is not accounted perfect & skilful, who knoweth only how to sail & keep course in quiet seas but he that by his Art understandeth the nature & force of tempests, winds & storms, how to eschew perils, & by his art save the ship tormented with fury of wind & water, leading her to ha●borow & haven of safety: even so the wisdom of a Counsellor, governing a quiet and peaceable state deserveth praise, yet much less than he, who finding the same wrought with winds of sedition, and afflicted with storms of great dissension, restoreth it unto good and desired pacification, making the people contented, tractable, peaceable, and void of perturbation. Themistocles is much commended, for reducing the Athenians (being then savage and simple) to live in the City, and subject themselves to laws. But much more ought Solon to be praised, who finding the City, disturbed with rebellion and civil war, reduced it to union, re-establishing the law, and confirming the Magistrates. Neither do I think that Camillus for having delivered Rome from the Galli is less to be honoured, than Romulus that first builded the City. Or is not Cicero to be preferred before the Fabiis? he having recovered Rome from the wicked hand of Catiline, and they undertaking a domestical war against the Veienti. Pompeius loved the commonweal, but Cicero preserved it, so as Pompeius might say, that unless Cicero had preserved the state, he should have wanted place where to triumph. Therefore Cicero would sometimes gloriously say, that others had done things honourably, but the thanks for conservation of the state was due unto himself. Who thinketh the virtue of Caesar or Pompeie, to be compared with the virtue of Scipio Africanus? yet did they most notable acts for their country, but he finding the same broken, weak, and as it were within one days space to become subject to the Arms of Hannibal, did not only rescue and recover it, but also increased and enlarged it; which proveth the saying true. 
Non minor est virtus, quam querere, parta tueri.   
Cyrus' in conquering kingdoms was happy, but in holding them unhappy, he knew the art to win, but was ignorant how to keep. And surely those days wherein we are preserved, ought be to us more dear, then that wherein we were borne. Likewise they do better deserve of mankind, whose wisdom hath devised the welfare of men, than they, from whom their generation or conception proceedeth. I do therefore wish the Counsellor to be endued with such knowledge, as consulteth not only upon things present, but also foreseeth things to come, comprehending in mind the whole state, diligently considering all the chances, perils, mutations and inclinations thereof, whereby he shall with more facility conceive the mischiefs which happen, and 
The knowledge of sundry states very profitable.  either by foreseeing divert them, or being grown, extirp them. Neither do I think fit, that our Counsellor should be igorant in the government of other states, for by such examples he may conceive the laws wherewith they are governed, the manners they have used, in what sort they have been altered, amended, and preserved. Likewise with what authority each law is made, what is the order of their public Counsels, with the duty belonging to every of them, what liberty, dignity, authority and jurisdiction appertaineth to every commonweal. In this our state, for so much as the Senate is a mean betwixt the king and people, it behoveth every Senator to know, what is the 
The state of Polonia.  majesty of a king, his greathes and jurisdiction, and likewise what is the right and liberty of subjects, because the king and people many times contend one against the other, the one desiring immeasurable liberty, the other affecting oppression. The intemperate contention of those humours do greatly afflict the commonweal. For if the one doth prevail, he putteth on the person of a Tyrant, or if the other be victorious, thereof are engendered as many thousand Tyrants as heads of men. The tyranny of many, is always more cruel then of one. For the one taketh end either by death, or by satiety of commanding, but the insolent and insatiable licentiousness of the multitude, doth feed the vain of tyranny; the venom whereof, doth long after infect their posterity. Therefore the Senate ought be exceeding diligent in preserving the liberty due and common to every one, and from that mean place, (as from a watching house or tower) to foresee the welfare of all, and take order that through sedition or contention the commonweal be not indemnyfied. For the Senate is a judge betwixt force and fear, liberty and servitude, the 
The art of Tyrants.  king and people. Tyrants were wont to use certain sleights, in arming themselves against the liberty of people. First by removing all good and wise men, with every other person having power in the state (because the virtue of good men is to Tyrants suspected) and that one, compel the rest either by fear or force to become servile, and they themselves to do all things according to their own lust and pleasure. Such counsel Periander gave unto Thrasibulus, persuading him to cut of the highest spikes of corn, meaning be should put the most noble Athenians to death. The like subtlety was followed by Sextus Tarqvinius the son of Lucius. He being suborned by his father, pretending to be banished, fled fraudulently unto the Gabii, where having so much acquaintance and friendship as he thought sufficed, sent secretly unto his father to know what his pleasure was should be done, who leading the messenger into the garden, there walked, and in his presence with his staff struck of the heads of all the Dazzles, which being reported to his son, he put the chief noble men of Gabia to death, by force and injustice usurping the commonweal and liberty. The Tyrants do also oftentimes inhibit the society of Subjects, their meetings, their conferences, conventions, feastings, and the study of honest disciplines. tyrants also many times, do sow discord among the people, to the end, that filled with hate and private displeasure, they may dispose themselves to war and sedition, and thereby be impoverished, and being poor, and the war ended, the offenders are forced to pay for pardon, so that every way fleeced of their riches and made needy, they do become base minded and unfit to defend both liberty and well doing. These and many such like things the Counsellor ought endeavour himself to know, and by foresight provide that the commonweal be not by those means afflicted. 
The office of Kings.  Let him likewise understand, that the office of a king is not to care or study so much for his own private profit, as the common commodity of his subjects, to observe his laws; to preserve the rights and liberty of the people, and to maintain the authority and reputation of his counsel. For kings were instituted to aid good men against the wicked and ungodly, and to them was given absolute power to revenge injuries, preserve liberty, and beiudges of each man's virtues and vices. A good king ought therefore to have no less care of those he governeth, then hath the shepherd of his flock, that is, to make them blessed and happy. Homer calleth king Agomemnon the shepherd of people, whom Plato doth imitate, calling him shepherd and keeper of mankind. Moreover a king ought to govern his people: Not as masters do their servants, but as the father ruleth his children. Wherefore, as it is the part of good parents sometimes to rebuke their children, sometimes to admonish and cherish them; and sometimes also to correct and punish them. So should a Prince behave himself towards his subjects, as well for the people's preservation, as the safety of the commonweal, showing himself sometimes severe, sometimes gentle and placable, defending and enlarging the common profit with no less care, than a father provideth for the sustentation of 
The difference betwixt kings and Tyrants.  his children. Thus appeareth the difference betwixt kings and Tyrants, the one doth care for the common commodity, the other studieth only for private profit. The end of the Tyrant's endeavour, is voluptuousness, but the end of a kings study is honour. To excel in riches is proper to Tyrants, but a kings chief desire, is honour. A Tyrant desireth the aid of strangers, but a king is guarded with his own subjects. Alfonsus' king of Arragon being asked which of his subjects he held most dear? answered, I love them better that wish me well, than those that fear me: which seemeth reasonable, because fear is accompanied with hatred. A King therefore should be no more safe by defence of Arms, than love, good will, and fidelity of subjects. He is also to be honoured as the minister of public Counsel, the defender of laws, and conserver of common right and liberty. For better performing of all which offices, he shall do well to hearken to the advise of his Counsellors and (as his parents) love and honour them. Traianus that great Emperor of the world, used continually to call the Senate his father: For like as the father doth foretell his son of those things he thinks profitable: so doth a Senate Counsel the king how the state may be preserved, and by what laws and orders it should be governed. Of these and other things appertaining to the office of a king, or that have been received by law, use or custom, a Counsellor 
The popular sort inconstant.  ought to be fully informed. The popular sort of men, is for the most part mutable, by reason of the diversity of their ages. For of them, some being young, some old, and some of middle age, it must needs be, that great dissensions should arise, every man having a will and opinion divers from others, and because they are all free men, each man frameth his life and manners according to his own fancy, supposing there is liberty, where all men do that which they lust and like. The diversity of manners doth breed among them variety of minds, and thereof doth follow sundry judgements touching the state, law, and liberty, whereof hate, displeasure and seditions do ensue, so as all men are not equally affected to the commonweal.  

Who are good subjects.  Those that be honestly brought up, naturally good, and well trained in learning, not surious, nor voluptuous, not womanish or licentiously given, are most willing observers of laws, rights, concord, and civil society, not swerving (as men say) one inch from the rules of virtue, fidelity, & glory of their ancestors, because they keep and retain all those things as inheritance descended from their forefathers. That sort of men is in the commonweal to be reputed good subjects: But they whose folly hath been nourished by domestical liberty, being borne at home and not trained up abroad, whereby they have never seen, done, or 
Seditious subjects.  heard any thing notable, magnificent or noble, are to be thought persons seditious, crafty and perilous subjects, yet would they be called and thought good, honest, quiet and modest, notwithstanding the contempt they have to imitate honestmen. And to the end they should not be thought blockheades and fit for nothing, devise some new practice to gain themselves fame, glory and commendation. And it cometh many times to pass, that pretending the patronage of liberty, by public persuasion and fury, they take matters in hand in appearance godly, but in truth profane. And if any of them be by birth or education apt for sedition, and excel the rest in wit and eloquence, they offer themselves unto the ignorant sort to be captains and reformers of laws, religion, and order, conspiring against the King, the Counsel and all good subjects, as men that had taken in hand the renovation of the whole commonweal: Such men were of the Romans called Plebicolae. who to save themselves from some punishment which before they deserved, do take upon them the name of defending liberty, stirring new troubles and alterations in the state; either else moved by some sudden fury of mind, doeperswade the people to discord and sedition, or else having entangled or rather prodigally consumed their inheritance and substance, (desirous to have fellows in misery, and perish rather publicly then alone,) were always wont to attempt rebellion. Of such disposition were the Romans' called Gracchus, Clodius, Catiline. And in Athens Calistines, with many others.  
As the body of our commonweal consisteth in the conjunction of three estates, whose universal consent and temperature doth make it most perfect and happy: so if the same body be divided or dismembered, that state becometh of all others the mostlame, imperfect, and infortunate. For all other commonweals are subject to one only mutation, because they rest upon one only simple government: But our state being mixed and made of three, must of force be subject to as many conversions and inclinations. If the king abuseth his office, the state hath one Tyrant, if the Senate so do, there are divers Tyrants. But if the power of people doth surpass the authority and force of both the other, than the commonweal is afflicted with an infinite number of most pernicious Tyrants. Wherefore if in such a State, the office, liberty, dignity, authority and jurisdiction of every of them, be not confined and bound by laws certain, so as both by fear and punishment they be compelled to observe law and live honestly, all good men shall there in vain look for quietness.  

The office of Counsellors.  The proper office of a Consellor (as Cicero saith) is to imagine he beareth the person of the state: the reputation whereof, he is bound to maintain, to observe the laws, set forth the proceedings, and be mindful of things, committed to his fidelity. Also it becometh him 
The duty of private persons.  as a private man, to live in equality with other subjects, neither debasing nor extolling himself, and to desire only those things in the commonweal, which be peaceable and honest: so shall every one perform the true duty of a good and loyal subject. It also becometh subjects moderately to use their liberty. For as Quintius said, temperate liberty is profitable to every City, but overmuch liberty is evil, and maketh men headdie or desperate. To suppress the licentiousness of evil subjects, severity of law is required: Therefore it behoveth the state to foresee, that through not punishing of evil men's offences, the good subjects be forced to suffer at their hands. For the commonweal ought be accounted the possession of good and not of evil men. Moreover, it cannot be, but in every commonweal, seditions and motions will arise, and (Hannibal said) there was no great City that could live long in quiet, unless it had some enemies abroad, because otherwise, domestical foes would therein arise. And as mighty bodies 
Great states most subject to trouble.  seem assured from external harm, so are they ever bourdened with their own weight. Besides that, sith we are men, we must not (as the Comedian saith) think ourselves free from any misadventure that may happen to mankind. For although we be wise, provident and good, yet are we men, and by instinct of nature less prone to virtue then vice, and in like sort there is no City that wanteth wicked, vicious and disorderly people. Therefore whensoever the flood of troubles doth 
In appeasing sedition, what order is to be taken.  happen to arise in the state, the office of a Counsellor (as Cicero saith) is patiently to endure the people's wilfulness, to win the hearts of those that are unasiured, keep them that are already won appease the offended, and above all provide that the worst sort may not in any thing have the advantage: It is not also amiss that sometimes he wink and seem not to see, so that those faults whereat he winketh do proceed rather of error than wilfulness. But to pardon such as voluntarily have offended or committed any impious act against the commonweal, the honest orders of men, or the law, is not only to be thought pernicious, but also wicked and detestable. Wherefore in suppressing so great a fury and rashness of men's fancies, the Counsellor ought to employ great wisdom and diligence, and let him therein chief use those two precepts which Cicero reciteth from 
Precepts of Plato.  the mouth of Plato, the one is, that always he look well unto the common profit, referring thereunto all his actions, and forget every private respect: the other is, to be careful for the whole body of the commonweal, lest in taking the protection of part, he doth abandon the rest. For who so defendeth one only sort of men, doth induce hatred and sedition: which two plagues, do debilitate and subvert the state. He ought therefore to be as careful of the people as of the King, of the nobility as of the meaner sort, of the rich as of the poor, of the wise, as the simple, and so consequently of all sorts and estates of men. The omission of which rule, was that which afflicted the Athenians, and filled Rome with sedition, tumults and civil wars. Let him therefore in all things observe indifferency and equality, for thereby the commonweal shallbe assured, and the people in good will, love, 
Equality of commonws. of great necessity.  and peace preserved. In that state where small respect is borne unto equality, there quarrel, contention, and enmity do daily arise: which cometh to pass, for that men equal do aspire to things unequal, or unequal men to things equal. But men of one fortune do best consort together, and like will to like as the proverb saith. They therefore that excel others in riches or birth, are not to be preferred, neither are they to be equally esteemed who are equal in liberty, but those that excel 
Wherein equality consisteth.  others in virtue, are to be accounted both superiors and equals: that is, in respect of law or number, (as the Arithmetricians call it) they are equal, but in dignity, they are superior, because in the bestowing of honours, virtue is chief respected. For who so is most virtuous dedeserueth most honour and glory, and this equality because it is measured by reason and judgement, is called Geometrical. I do therefore think fit that the Senator should observe both equalities. In the distribution of justice and conservation of liberty, he is to be towards all men indifferent. For whom the law hath made equal, aught to live in rule and liberty, neither giving nor taking from one more than an other, as the line of law doth direct him. The rule of which equality 
Equality Arithmetical.  is easily observed. For the condition thereof is in all commonweals prescribed, which is, that each man should enjoy so much as by law, custom, or convention to him appertaineth, wherein heed must be taken, that neither wealth, power or parentage be respected, but that aswell the poor as rich, the noble as ignoble may be equally judged. As touching equality, according to the judgement of reason, whereby men 
Equality Geometrical.  would be preferred and honoured more than others, is not so easily discerned. For to judge of each man's value, wisdom and virtue, with the honours to them due, is rather proper to a divine, then humane wit. The reason thereof is, we are often deceived in our opinion of that which is accounted good, neither be we ever upright judges of other men's deserving. Herein therefore resteth the difficulty, for who so can truly judge of men's virtue, shall thereby show himself rather a God then man. In conclusion, the commonweal is not preserved by any virtue more, than that: who so then in governing is a just judge of each man's value & virtue (for it resteth in his censure,) & knoweth also, unto whose hands to commit or not commit the state, whom to love and whom to hate whom to reward and whom to punish, shall make the government most quiet: but not knowing so to do, the same becometh of all other the most wicked▪ corruptible and disordered. Therefore in popular commonweals where the multitude is rude and ignorant of discourse and reason the people are rewarded and punished by lot, for they pray God that each man may find fortune according to his merit. Notwithstanding for so much as the temerity of lotting, obeyeth rather to fortune then reason, in the conservation of equality we allow of wisdom and humane policy to be judge, rather than fortune. With which virtues if the Counsellor be endued, he shall easily discern what ought in all things to be done. And therein he shall imitate the duty of a good husband. For he having within his house diverse honest persons, esteemeth one for his age, an other for his virtue, & a third for his condition: So the Counsellor in the commonweal should have respect to each man's age, virtue, condition and calling. He must also understand the 
Wherein law and popular liberty consisteth.  right & liberty of people, (which as they think) do consist chief in being capable of the offices, to have power to make & correct laws, to speak freely in matters that concern liberty, law or injury, not to be arrested or imprisoned without order of law or authority, nor be unjustly judged, rob or forced to pay tribute. They desire moreover not to obey officers contrary to law, not to be hurt of those that be more mighty, nor be oppressed by force, to have liberty to desire and do allthinges that is not by law and reason forbidden, to defend their law and liberty from Tyrants, to be partakers of the Parliaments, to believe the King of highest authority, & the Council of greatest understanding. For where the Senate is Lord of public Councils, and all things by it determined, are of other estates of men obeyed, where liberty is in the people, authority in the King, the Council in the Senate, there is the best temperature of liberty and equality, chiefly if the laws be always obeyed. The Counsellor ought likewise to foresee, that the commonweal be not molested with any sedition, for in times of such troubles, the life of men is miserable and unhappy. There is nothing 
Sedition the po●son of Commonws.  so divine, humane, holy or religious that sedition doth not contataminate, disturb and subvert: That is the poison of all states, which maketh the greatest dominions, small and mortal. The causes of sedition in all commonweals are more than the wit and reason of man can imagine. Wherefore continual watch ought to be, lest the mischief begun, should more and more increase. The minds of great men much honoured in the state, must be reconciled, for the discords of mighty personages do draw the whole commonweal, & of small beginnings most miserable events do follow. In appeasing sedition two things are chief to be observed, that is, in what sort men are disposed 
What to be considered in appeasing sedition.  to rebellion and for what causes. It happeneth sometimes that men's minds are moved with fury, desire, fear, anger or such like affections: either else they are drawn with covetise, gain, contempt, injury, disdain, honour, and sometimes with religion. Sedition doth also follow, where one part of the people doth gain great reputation and authority over the rest, and by some prosperous success being insolent, desire to be advanced above others, as the Areopagis among the Athenians, and the noble men of the Argivi, who having victory of the Lacedæmonians, sought to reject the popular government. Also the multitude of Siracusa puffed up with pride of their prosperous war upon the Athenians, changed their state from a Democraty to an ochlocraty. In Rome likewise the multitude not enduring the dignity of the Senate, made many motions, and in the end created Tribunes, by whose fury and insolency, the authority of the Senate was diminished, and by sedition and troubles brought the state to utter destruction. Sedition doth also sometimes happen in the commonweal, by reason one man doth exercise divers offices, which thing is perilous in every state, for that others do seem thereby defrauded, and judged unworthy of honour. Let each man therefore content himself with one office, so shall the state have many ministers with diligence to attend the well doing thereof. Yet is it sometimes profitable, that in small commonweals, one man should exercise divers offices, but in great states the same useth to 
In preventing of sedition what the Counsellor ought do.  move sedition. A Counsellor therefore ought foresee, chief in extirpation of seditions, that nothing be done contrary to the ordinances, laws and customs, preventing all disorders in due time: for mischief growing by little and little is not easily perceived, but having gained force, it showeth itself and cannot be lightly suppressed. He ought also not to be over credulous of persuasions craftily invented to abuse the people, which are many times devised by popular men and flatterers, who loving innovation, dare enterprise any thing to make them owners of their desire, and resting in that mind, they conspire against the prosperity of good men, cloaking their vice with the rashness and fury of people▪ which flame and insolency not being quenched in time, doth commonly run so far, as with the fire thereof, the whole state is consumed. The commonweal therefore requireth the Counsel of some notable and divine man, in whom it may reposethe care of her happiness and welldoing. By his directions and government, all perils, seditions, discords, mutations and inclinations may 
In a perfect Counsellor four virtues chief required.  he suppressed, and thereby enjoy a happy peace and tranquillity. Whosoever endeavoureth himself to be such a one, it behoveth him to be prudent, just, valiant and temperate, for from those four virtues, all humane things, words, and works do proceed. Surely wisdom is a great & singular virtue▪ & so great, as I know not any thing in this world that may be thereunto compared. For without it, the other virtues can neither be exercised nor comprehended, which is the cause that Socrates 
Prudence.  (though therein he d●●enteth from Aristotle) doth call Prudence the only virtue: meaning, as I think▪ that without Prudence no virtue can be, or continue. Bion thought that Prudence excelled all other virtues, as far as the sight doth exceed all the other senses, affirming moreover, that virtue to be as proper to old men, as strength or courage was to young men. Wherefore we will that our Senator should be endued with this virtue, for he can neither say or do any thing worthy his commendation and age, if the same be not, (as with a sauce) seasoned with wisdom. But what this prudence is and wherein it consisteth, it seemeth necessary we should 
What Prudence is.  here declare. The Latins have called this virtue Prudentia, of providendo, because through it, the mind doth foresee things to come, disposeth of things present, and remembreth things passed. For he that thinketh not of things past, forgetteth his life, and he that foreseeth not things to come, is subject to many perils, and unadvisedly falleth into every misadventure. Prudence (as Cicero saith,) is the knowledge of things good, evil, and indifferent, consisting wholly in the choosing and knowing what is to be desired or eschewed, and (as Aristotle thinketh) it is an habit coupled with perfect reason, apt for good action, and is exercised in those things which may happen to men, well or evil. Therefore 
Theorical wisdom. differeth from Prudence.  Theorical wisdom, doth differ from Prudence: because that passeth not the bounds of contemplation, and this is wholly given to action and humane business. Moreover this kind of wisdom needeth counsel and fortune, to defend those things wherein it delighteth, because it is occupied in certain and no variable sciences, which is the cause that Geometricians, Mathematicians, (with all the crew of natural and solitary Philosophers) are men learned, and skilful, but not 
Contemplative Philosophers, called rightly Sapientes, but not Prudentes.  prudent. In like manner Diogenes, Zenocrates, Chrysippus, Carneades, Democritus, Metrocles, Aristippus, Anaxagoras and Thales were men of great knowledge, but not prudent; because their manner of wisdom or Philosophy was different from true prudence, being ignorant in those things which were profitable for themselves and others, delighting in matters secret, hidden, and obscure; which sciences, although they be good and notable, yet unprofitable and impertinent to humane felicity. Because prudence consisteth in those things whereof deliberation and counsel is to be taken, but if those contemplative Philosophers, had not estranged themselves from the conversation and actions of men, but been employed in the affairs of government as was Pericles, Solon, Lycurgus, Plato, Demosthenes, Cato, Cicero and others, they had (no doubt) 
The original of Prudence.  been men in wisdom most excellent. For true wisdom proceedeth from perfect reason, which if the Counsellor attaineth, either by Philosophy, civil discipline, or experience, he shall thereby know how to foresee things to come, govern well and wisely things represent, and when trouble or doubtful accidents happen, speedily resolve, and give present counsel; according to the time and occasion. Plato said there were two things most notable in the life of man: the first was, a wise man to know all things, the second to know himself. Therefore with this most notable, great and divine virtue, let our Counsellor be fully furnished, for without it no reason, no virtue, no action nor cogitation can be good or perfect. The chief property or force of this wisdom (as wise men affirm) it to be wise for ourselves: because the prudent man doth first settle his own affairs, for wanting wisdom to govern well his own private estate, he may be rightly called foolish. Under Prudence is contained the skill of well handling matters domestical; the knowledge of making laws, civil wisdom, and the cunning of consulting and judging. Therefore Prudence in a man's own affairs, is 
Prudence of two kinds.  by Cicero called domestical wisdom; and the same used in public matters, is named civil wisdom. For the perfect conceiving of all these things, it behoveth him to understand what is true and just, because the knowing of truth, is proper to Prudence. For if we abandon truth, all things said or done, will be false injust and evil. Wherefore who so wisely & with a sharp conceit seethe & knoweth what in all things is 
A wise man.  comely and true, performing the same speedily & wittily, is in my judgement to be reputed a wise man. And to the end the wisdom of a Counsellor may have certain grounds, whereunto his imagination may resort for reasons to lead him to the truth, let him keep in mind these two things: that is, honesty and profit. Then whatsoever he speaketh or doth, either in private or public, the same must be, (as at a mark) directed and leveled by honesty and profit. For all things which are conceived by reason or expressed by speech, within the bounds of these two are included. We therefore require a sharp and sound conceit in finding out what is honest and profitable, lest the mind blinded with affections and desires, doth seduce the judgement of our Counsellor and lead him from the path of true reason. Many men there are, who finding themselves to have a little abused reason by giving head to their affections & lusts, do fall forth with into opinions, from wisdom divers and contrary, whereof followeth, that they are not only deceived in their opinion of things honest & profitable, but are also with the love of dishonesty & improfitable desires blinded. For avoiding whereof these 
What is to be eschewed in Prudence.  two errors must be eschewed. First not to take things unknown for known and rashly assent unto them; next, not to yield unto that which is evil, and contrary to virtue and honesty. A thing most easy it is for the Counsellor, to comprehend the ends of honesty and profit, if he layeth before his eyes the good and welfare of the state, which is the end and scope whereunto all wisdom and prudence of every 
The end of Counsellors wisdom.  Counsellor ought be referred; because neither God, the people, his country, nor wisdom itself, can at his hand require more, then that the commonweal may be preserved in safety and happiness. And 
The felicity of commonweals.  every state is happy, which doth abound with all good things, and if the people therein be just, temperate, valiant, free, wise, and therewithal rich, healthy, united and void of factions. The office of a Senator is also, not only to take care of those things which tend to the felicity of the commonweal, but he ought be much more careful to know by what means it may be therein continued and preserved. For it oftimes happeneth, that by negligence of magistrates, the subjects (as each man is by nature prone rather to evil then good) by little and little do decline from virtue, infecting the state with divers mischiefs, wherein the commonweal must of necessity be drowned. For preventing 
Law the conserver of virtue.  whereof, it behoveth, those evil accidents to be met with and removed by law. For the nature of law in all commonweals is a bond to tie each man to his duty, and defend them in virtue and fidelity. But it sufficeth not only to make laws, whereby men are rewarded 
What is to be considered in making of laws.  or punished according to their merits: but it behoveth (as the Lacedæmonians did) to prescribe examples, customs, and exercises of virtue, wherein the people may take delight. Thereunto civil discipline is to be added: which both in time of peace & war shall make men apt and obedient to all exercises of virtue. I wish also above all things, that in making of every law, such judgement should be used, that therein all occasion of offending may utterly be removed. And as the Physician doth heal the sick body by medicine, so ought the Counsellor by good laws to cure the mind. Yet can I not allow of those, who finding an inconvenience begun and growing, doth forthwith execute punishment, without devising a reason how the same mischief 
Occasion of offending to be removed by law.  may after be extirped. For I think it more expedient by Counsel and reason, to provide how men may be made just and honest, rather than how they might be put to death or punished. What man is so cruel, that would not take away occasion of these, rather by making provision of corn for the poor, then through want thereof enforce them to become thieves and put them to death? And who is he that seethe the commonweal inclined to vice, and the people spoiled with licentiousness, but would reform the same rather by pecuniall then capital laws? Therefore Tullius said, if thou wilt take away covetousness, thou must first remove her mother excess. A counsellor ought to have ever before his eyes, all the commodities & discommodities of the 
The commodities and discommodities of common●.  common weal, which being to him unknown, it is impossible to cure the sores and wounds wherewith it may be grieved. He ought therefore to be informed, what life every notable subject leadeth, how he is affected to the state, whether he obeyeth the laws or be inclined to faction, whether the magistrates be faithful and diligent in the public affairs, whether they be covetous, cruel and unmerciful, or whether they be just, gentle and pitiful. Also whether the judge be wise and learned in the civil ordinances, and whether they determine according to law, or their own pleasure. Let him also so well comprehend in mind the whole commonweal, as to know all rights, liberties & laws belonging to the people, & as (Cicero doth counsel) what munition 
Knowledges necessary in Counsellors  the state hath, what soldiers, what treasure, what confederates, what friends, what stipendaries, and by what law, condition or compact every of them is bound: he must also be perfect in the custom of judgements, and the precedents of times past. All these things it behoveth a Counsellor to know, and continually to think of them, for he is the man at whose hand the people and country do look for their welfare: and he failing of his endeavour, or refusing to work the well-doing thereof, doth commit an error not only reprovable, but also impious. The chief duty of our love and fidelity (next unto God,) is due unto our country: which who so loveth not, is perhaps to be holden inferior to beasts: many of which kind, drawn only with love to their natural soil (as captives to their country) do choose rather to die then abandon the place wherein they had their birth and education. This love to our country joined unto high wisdom, doth make such an universal agreement 
Love to our country.  among men, as nothing can be in counsel said or done offensively, unwisely or unjustly, but every thing in the balance of perfect judgement equally and indifferently examined. Thus we see the force of wisdom is great, sith through it (as by a gate,) we pass unto all the other virtues, and without it no virtue can defend itself, because only by benefit of it, we become just, temperate and valiant. Also by it, we are instructed where, when, and how to use all other virtues.  
Prudence hath also under her certain other virtues, which are as it were followers and companions, by which mean, her power becometh enlarged and ornified, which if the Counsellor doth carefully remember and diligently observe, he shall thereby in his actions and counsel gain great praise and glory worthy the wisdom of so great 
Companions to Prudence.  a parsonage. Wherefore first it behoveth him to be witty, docible, of good memory, of sound understanding, circumspect, provident, wary, and wily: For these virtues (as Plato and the Peripatetics affirm) are the followers and servants of Prudence.  

Witt.  Wit is a certain natural force, by nature incident to reason, having power to conceive things proceeding from reason, which although many times it be not nourished by industry, art and memory, yet is it alone of force, and without use or learning, doth make many men very commendable. Lot the Counsellor therefore know his own wit, and become sharp in the excogitation of reasons, eloquent in delating and ornifying his speech, and firm in memory. This wisdom whereby we first conceive all things, doth spring from the quickness of wit, and is increased by memory and aptness to learning, of which two, men are called ingenious, and is confirmed by learning and experience. That wit is most laudable, which is constant, strong, sharp, immutable, noble, pleasant, gallant and liberal.  
The sharpness of wit is much ornified by docility and memory: by the one, we be taught to conceive those things which are laid before us, by the other we retain in mind whatsoever is either by ourselves invented, or by others uttered. In the exercise of those things, it behoveth a Counsellor to be most diligent: for not to conceive quickly and remember what hath been spoken of others, is the property of a dull and foolish wit, which was the cause that Demosthenes, Alcibiades, Mithridates and divers others most notable men, have been (as we read) in those things much practised. Furthermore we must know, that as wit is the grace of every Counsellor, so understanding 
Understanding  is the light of wit, by virtue whereof, thinking and understanding, we conceive all things, or their Ideas, as well true as false. For by common understanding we comprehend the knowledge of things, and through it judge, that every thing honest ought be referred to virtue, and whatsoever is dishonest must be included in vice; which understanding is not disjoined from the senses, who are, as it were interpreters and reporters of knowledge, yet must we take heed not to be deceived by sensual judgement: and therefore all feebleness, dullness, and insensibility ought be eschewed. For it often happeneth that either by art or subtlety, we become shamefully deceived, which error in all things (and chief in the knowing and judging of good and true from bad and false) is to be avoided.  

Circumspection.  We will also that our Counsellor should be ciscumspect, not only in those things which do happen privately, but also in every other that may be hurtful to the commonweal. For he must endeavour himself in the safety of subjects, to foresee all storms that can happen unto the state, and provide for the preservation of every member thereof. This virtue called circumspection, is a careful consideration of things to be done, and both in war and peace of much importance, because through wise circumspection, the force and fury of fortune is diverted, and we yield rather to reason and counsel, then trust to the rashness and fierceness of fortune. In this virtue Quintus Fabius did excel, for he (as is reported) by delays and protracting time, saved the Roman state: but contrariwise, Flaminius incircumspectilie trusting to his courage & strength assaulted Hannibal, to his own great disadvantage. I omit to tell how Q. Scipio the Consul with divers others was through want of circumspection, by the Cimbri distressed. In time of peace it is also most needful & profitable that the Counsellor should use circumspection, and be as an Argus or Lynceus in the commonweal, to spy out those things which appertain to the concord, peace and welfare of the people. for not so being, he cannot foresee what seditions, wars and unlooked for accidents, do daily happen to the prejudice of the commonweal. Some there are so ignorant, so unwise or blinded with abundance of pleasure, as scarcely they can discern things before their faces: much less foresee them, which (by the event of things and time, become perilous to the commonweal) are an occasion of many misadventures; which kind of men, (as more careful of their own private, than the public commodity) might deservedly be removed from government. For notwithstanding they see the threatenings of war▪ the people carried away captive, the country spoiled, women and children sold for slaves, towns burnt, fields wasted, and temples profaned, and moreover behold the commonweal with most extremity affected by barbarous enemies; yet use they no circumspection, counsel, nor medicine, wherewith so great a fury of misery may be cured or cooled. For perhaps they more willingly behold the people troubled and weakened with sedition, the meaner sort of the more mighty oppressed, 
The circumspection of a Senator.  and the religion of God neglected. But the good Senator, with all his force embracing the commonweal, studieth by what means the common saveftie and welfare may be made happy and perpetual. He provideth that the fury of enemies, may by garrisons and fortresses be restrained: that castles and bulwarks may be builded, the places of defence may be repaired, and that passages may be stopped: all which things are commonly great obstacles and impeachments to enemies. It is also requisite to have some subjects well trained, ready, and exercised, for by such preparation the commonweal being as it were fortified, disdaineth the force of foreign enemies, and diverteth their minds from offering violence. The Lacedæmonians were wont to call the bodies of men, the walls of Sparta. The felicity of subjects is preserved 
By what mean the felicity of subjects is preserved.  by giving to every man his right, uniting them by favour, by severity of laws and justice: In all which things it behoveth the Counsellor to show himself wise and circumspect; for to neglect those things which appertain to the conservation of peace and repressing of rebellion, is not only foolish & ignominious, but also impious & wicked. And who is he that may better prevent these mischiefs than the Counsellor? for he being placed amidst the people, seethe not only the order of each man's life, his right, liberty, licentious and seditious disposition, but is, (as it were purposely placed in a tower,) diligently to behold both things present, and also foresee things afterwards to follow. And as the Physician findeth the disease increasing, the Captain conceiveth the subtlety of his enemies, and the shipmaster preventeth the tempest of the seas: So ought the wise Counsellor to foresee the perils, inclinations, chances and mutations of the commonweal. For his office is not only to see things present, butalso foresee things to come, which virtue of foreseeing, is called Prudence: 
Providence.  and they that are therewith endued, be named provident and prudent. Because Providence (as Cicero writeth) is that, whereby things to come are scene before they happen: Yet true it is, that to foreknow things, is rather proper to wits divine then humane, because God only knoweth things to come, and such knowledge is the proper virtue and condition of minds divine. Notwithstanding, for that we have in us a certain shadow or likeness of divinity, it happeneth that we also do conjecture and foresee things to come, which may be by two means: either by inspiration and will of God, or by our own proper instinct. To the first kind, belong prophesying, divination, & such 
Providence divine.  like knowledges, which are in men by inspiration and revelation from God. Secondly the soul being separated from the body, remembereth things past, beholdeth things present, and foreseeth things to come. And of that providence this our present speech entreateth. For those things which are written touching dreams, entrails of beasts and fowls, lots, monsters, stars, soothsayers, Aaguri, Ar●oli, Astrologers, spirits, and infinite other means, whereby the Achei judged of things to come, seem not to appertain to our purpose. But if the mind of our Counsellor be holy, pure, and undefiled with dregs or spot of vices, and that his body be an habitation of that celestial spirit and divine mind, absolute and perfect, by virtue thereof he may prognosticate and foresee things to come, and may be called not only prudent, wise or provident, but also holy, divine, godly and religious. Such men were the prophets in our law, and the Sibille and soothsayers, with all those (whom they say) were instructed by the Nymphs and Gods: as Tircsias, Mopsos, Amphiaraus, Calchantas. But how this celestial providence is attained, our intent is not here to discourse. This skill of prophecy being put into men, and by divine inspiration shut up in our bodies, is most strong, when the soul divided from the body, is by divine instinct moved. But let us return to humane providence, the 
Human providence.  exercise whereof is also to be accounted divine. For when the mind of a wise man, is endued with the knowledge of all humane thoughts and actions, and understandeth also the beginning, event, mutations and declinations of things present and future, comprehending likewise in mind, the Idea and form of things to be done, which nature or reason doth govern by a certain and involuble course, being I say in all these things studied and informed, having sharpened the edge of his wit, and conceived the state of men's actions and affairs of the commonweals, he may by such means foresee and foreknow what is 
Dem●nium Socratis.  in them good, what evil, what infirm, what durable, because in such men there is somewhat divine, called a spirit, which Socrates had, and was therewith always accompanied: which spirit is nothing else then the mind of a wise man, chaste, undefiled and exercised in the judgement of things: for such a one by every small conjecture may (at occasions) conceive what is hereafter to come. A certain providence is also also learned by use and examples, which the Counsellor shall do well not to contemn. In which knowledge, he shall be chief helped by reading Histories: because examples are of great force to divert or remove in convenients, sith every man flieth that willingly, which he hath found most dangerous in others. Therefore a Counsellor ought be wise in foresight and conceiving evils long after to come, and omit none opportunity to forewarn and consult what is fittest for the state: because, looked for mishaps; are with more patience endured. Sudden mischiefs are for the most part with difficulty or great danger eschewed, because in things sudden, our minds are dismayed and void of counsel, but those things which are naturally looked unto, are well avoided. We must therefore take heed in time, lest our wisdom be learned to late, and it were a shame to say in vain, had I witted. If the Pilot before the tempest provide not that the ship may sail in safety; when winds do rage, his providence proveth to no purpose: So the Counsellor should think how the state may be preserved, before the same be hurt, offended, or assaulted with enemies. For it is better to be wary by foresight of perils past, then make proof of misadventures present: because (men say) errors by past, may be reprehended, but not amended.  
Providence is always accompanied with caution, whereby we eschew 
Caution.  those present evils which may happen unto us: for nature hath so framed us, as naturally we desire good things and shun evil. Which shunning of evils (if it proceedeth from reason) is called Caution, and therewith only wise men are endued. The profit of this virtue is chief seen in words and works, for to utter thy conceit warily, and work that thou art to do advisedly, is the part of a wise and well experienced man. Wherefore in all consultations it behoveth the Counsellor, to be in speech not only grave and short, but also wary and heedful, as Horace doth well warn him, saying. 
In verbis etiam tenuis, cautusque serendis.   
It happeneth also, that so often as any thing be spoken rashly we repent the unadvised utterance of that speech, and many times ourselves and the commonweal also are brought to disaduantake, when foreign affairs be done rashly, or any consultation of public causes be carelessly performed: because in sudden speech we powreforth many things, which ought to be concealed. Therefore the Comedian 
What is to be observed in speaking.  warneth us well, saying, It is folly to discover that which ought to be concealed. In speech a Counsellor must always remember, to speak nothing in anger, in fear, in mirth, in haste, or unpremeditated, which things observed, he shall declare himself both grave and wise. Having also occasion to confer or speak with the enemies, neighbours or ambassadors (the endeavour of whom is to discover secrets) he must be most wary; for therein they use great cunning to vent our thoughts by conjectures, and gather our meaning by signs. In those actions therefore a Counsellor must have a settled mind showing the constancy thereof in gesture, countenance, words and moving of his eyes: For they are the bewraiers of men's thoughts. He must be also nothing hasty in believing other men's words, for there is nothing more profitable for a wise man then incredulity: Yet let him so use the matter as not to seem hard of belief, or be altogether incredulous, unless the reputation or troth doth otherwise require. For against apparent truth to maintain any thing, is very unseemly. Neither would we have him so silent, as thereby to be thought dull or effeminate, for the one is imputed to want of kuowledge, the other to a certain maidenly bashfulness which in men is always to be reproved. Therefore a certain mean is to be used aswell in silence as speech, yet so, as he be a 
Silence.  greater hearer than speaker: which was the respect, that nature gave unto man two ears & one tongue. Surely it is a singular wisdom to know in what sort to be silent, & every man ought to consider well what, how, where, to whom, & in what place to speak. Also in all negotiations business & counsels great cawtion is to be used, which may be done by such as search wisely what is in every thing comely or uncomely, what profitable or unprofitable. Let his counsel be sound, provident and prudent, and in utteting thereof, he must use great sagacity and be wary. How necessary wariness and cawtion is in war, needeth not here to be discoursed: for our intent is frame to a Counsellor of state in counsel, in court, in judgement, and in peace, gowned not in war armed. Yet this I say, that wars have not been better governed, nor armies more safely preserved, nor the subtlety enemies of more wisely discovered, then by the virtue of caution, which if a chieftain wanteth, he is ignorant in all other virtues belonging to a Captain general.  
We will also that our Counsellor should be quick witted to conceive 
Sagacity.  and search out the reason of matters propounded to consultation. For in deed sagacity is a sharp and present conceit: and as it is the property of a wise man to consult well: So is it the property of a quick spirit, wittily to understand, and sound to judge of that which an other man speaketh.  
Moreover I wish him to be not only sharp in conceiving, but also 
Wiliness.  crafty and subtle in searching what subjects do think, what they desire, what they hope for, and what they aspect. By that means he shall retain the multitude in obedience, and by knowing their counsels and cogitations, direct those things which be in them evil. Some lewd subjects do use to conspire the destruction of good men, either induced thereunto by hate, fury or insolency, sometimes also they so do of will, having the government in their hands, sometimes for that they find themselves inferiors to others in riches, honour & authority: and sometimes, because they think themselves disdained & lightly regarded in the state. So as for these causes they bear displeasure to others, moving war, and sedition, practise their death (& if their force doth so suffice) they adventure to bring the state into apparent hazard. 
The means to suppress sedition.  In suppressing of these motions and cogitations of evil men, the counsellor must show himself wary and subtle, not ever dealing openly, or by direct opposition, but rather charging the force of such men, either behind, or on the side, and by persuading, admonishing, desiring and courteously chastising, reduce them to be better, more tractable, and more persuasive. He must also, at occasions threaten them with authority, & by severity divert them from such wicked & execrable enterprises: always considering & deeply pondering in mind, by what art and means, the quiet and tranquillity of subjects may be preserved, and how sedition & discord, with their causes should be extirped. For that is a thing which appertaineth chief to the conservation of commonweals. 
Consultation.  For bringing of which thing to pass, prudent consultation & deliberation must be used, because consultation is the scholar of good counsel. It therefore behoveth a Counsellor in this & all other things to be careful that whatsoever is determined, may before execution with great wisdom, and found judgement be considered and examined. The force of all consultation consisteth in those things which appertain 
Whereof to consult.  to the common life of men and conservation of a commonweal. He ought not therefore to consult of things eternal or celestial, as of the world, or of things which cannot happen, or of them that do happen by nature, chance, or fortune, as of findings treasure and such like, neither shall he consider of trifles, as of emptiness, nor of things past: for what is done, cannot be again to do▪ But all consultation should be of things to come, and that which may happen or not happen after this or that sort, the reason whereof seemeth to belong unto the profit of men. Of which things, Aristotle reckoneth five kinds: Of getting money, of peace and war, of conservation of our country, of commodities to be brought in or carried out, and making of laws▪ If consultation be for levying money, then must the revenues, customs 
Consultation touching money.  and imposts of state be seen and known, to the end they may be increased or diminished. Yet unless great necessity so requireth, the imposts would not be enlarged. For all new impositions (although reasonable) are commonly offensive to the subjects, and breed much occasion of trouble. Tiberius' the Emperor being persuaded to increase the tributes of his people, said it was the property of a good shepherd to shear his sheep, but not to fleae them. He shall also persuade necessary charges of state to be continued and remove superfluous expenses. For the better knowing whereof, let him aswell imitate the examples of other nations as his own country, wherein the knowledge of histories will greatly help him. If consultation be of war 
Consultation of war.  and peace, it is to be considered of what force the enemy is or may be, what kind of war is to be made, and against whom. It is also good to know the strength of neighbours, whether their force consisteth in footmen or horse, whether it be equal or unequal to ours, in what respect they be stronger or weaker, to the end that peace may be made with the stronger, and war with the weaker, which thing must be performed with great judgement & sound deliberation. Moreover he shall consider whether the cause of war be just, and whether without arms our desire may be brought to pass. For a wise man ought to prove all means before he taketh arms, because honest peace is ever to be preferred before cruel war. Touching the defence of our 
Consultation of defence.  country, it behoveth to know how much force is required, how it is guarded, and what places of strength is thereto belonging. It is also 
Consultation of merchandise  necessary to remember the order of our war and service. But if we consult of portage and reportage of commodities, above all heed is to be taken, that the commonweal may not at any time want things necessary, and that whatsoever is superfluous may be sold and carried away. Care must be likewise taken, that in exchanging merchandise the prizes of things may be considered, to the end that the state be not ●●bbed of money, and in lieu thereof, such needle's merchandise brought in, as do make the people's minds vain and effeminate. In 
Consultation of laws.  the ordaining of laws also, great wisdom is required: For in them resteth the well doing of the whole commonweal. Therein it helpeth much to understand the course of the state, what laws have been received, and by which of them it hath been conserved, and by what new ordinances it may be assured. Whereof may be inferred that the laws ought be framed for the commonweal, not the commonweal for the laws: because one kind of laws are not fit for all countries. Neither are these knowledges only profitable, but it is also necessary to know all the confines of our country, the better to forsake those foreign things which be evil and receive the good. In consultation of matters of most importance, it is many times good to use the advise of others, for one man foreseeth not all, which proveth that saying of Homer to be true. 
Bini ubi conveniunt, melius rem perspicit alter.   
For of good and prudent consultation wise counsel doth commonly proceed: which is the chief foundation to perform things commendable. It therefore behoveth a Counsellor to excel all others in Counsel. For Counsel is a certain advised reason touching the 
Counsel.  doing or not doing of things propounded, which a Counsellor must of necessity at all occasions be ready to give, gravely, wisely and honestly. For sith in all matters three things are required, that is counsel, reason and success, it is requisite, that good consultation should aswell go before action, as good success follow good consultation. And as a man fight doth devise how to hurt his enemy: so must the Counsellor in counseling accommodate his counsel unto the time and persons. The things whereof we are to consult (as Cicero teacheth) are of three sorts, 
Matters consultable of three sorts.  either we consult of things honest, things profitable, are of those things wherein profit and honesty do contend. These three being exactly known to a Counsellor, do fully inform him how to give Counsel in all matters whatsoever. Yet is great wisdom required in knowing what is honest and what is profitable, and it is a matter of no less virtue to understand of two honest and profitable things, which is the most honest or most profitable. We use sometimes to take counsel of the matter, the time and occasion, wherein (as in all other things) we must never fly from honesty or profit, for we fly that which offendeth, embrace that is profitable, and among many evils, choose the least. Furthermore in every good Counsel we should resort to that which of all other good things is the best, as well in the particular good of our own life, as the public good whereon common felicity dependeth. Herein all the original causes of our cogitations and Counsels ought to consent. For all Counsels are vain, which tend 
The end of good counsel.  not unto this end of public felicity, as no wind is prosperous for him, that knoweth not in what haven he desireth to arrive. In taking counsel, great wisdom, and in giving counsel, fidelity and religion is desired. For evil counsel is worse in him that counseleth, but wise and faithful advise, is accounted most commendable. Let the Senator also take heed least in giving counsel he attribute any thing to fortune or chance, for they do seldom or never perfectly follow the truth: Even as the man is not valiant, who doth valiantly by chance or unadvisedly: So he that followeth fortune or hap without reason and judgement, is not wise. The Counsel of a senator must be wise, 
The quality of counsel.  good, faithful, mature, deliberate, and free: not foolish, crafty, hasty or pernicious. All crafty and audacious Counsels are in appearance pleasant, in execution hard, and in event dangerous. Let him also know, that there is nothing so great an enemy to good counsel as haste, being always followed by vile and shameful repentance: 
Hasty counsel dangerous  which is proved true not only in ordinary actions, but also in martial enterprises. Nevertheless we persuade not our Counsellor to trifle the time, but execute speedily. For celerity tempered with wise counsel, is always profitable, many things there are also, wherein a wise Counsellor should not intermeddle, but if he happen so to do, they may not be abandoned. Therefore we commonly say, that, advise should be slow, but execution speedy, for the end and not the beginning of every Counsel must be considered, and all things referred to necessity. Neither have commonweals appointed meetings and assemblies of Counsellors for other purpose, then that of aged and wise men, all matters might be first pondered, and after maturely performed. At which deliberations and consultations of great matters, we will that these men should be present. For it proveth greatly expedient and profitable, that matters propounded in Counsel, should be much and long considered, & it were folly in one hour to determine matters of most importance.  
After Counsel followeth sentence, which is nothing else then the 
Sentence.  plain demonstration of a man's mind and counsel. For it behoveth in words and speech to express what we have thought, to the end we may know what lieth hid in the mind and reason of man. This secret, seemeth to proceed of nature, that divers men who are not wise, yet in uttering their sentence and concept, do seem ready witted, of good understanding, and subtle: all which gifts they commonly attain unto by a certain habit of age, whereunto Prudence is an handmaid and follower. 
Old men most apt to utter sentence.  Old men are therefore most perfect in uttering their conceits, notwithstanding they be unlearned: for by use and experience they have (as it were) a third eye wherewith they easily discern the beginning and events of things. As every man is by speech discovered, So a Counsellor by uttering his opinion declareth how wise and prudent he ought be accounted. Socrates, upon a time, beholding a young man never before seen, said unto him, speak, that I may know thee, as though a man should say unto a Counsellor, by gravity of thy speech let me know thee for a good Counsellor. And we commonly say, speech 
The end of sentence.  is the touchstone of men's minds. Therefore a Counsellor ought in uttering his sentence, employ all the force and strength of mind, to speak things profitable for the state, which is the end of sentence. Some men do use certain cunning and plausible speeches set forth with painted words, which seem more than true, yet trial showeth, that in them there is no sincerity, fidelity, or gravity. And indeed it is not ever necessary that the Counsellor should speak to the wiser sort eloquently, nor to the foolish truly. Others there be swelling with privy grudge, anger and hate, so soon as they have caught occasion to speak, do forthwith fall into blaming and slandering others, hoping by that means to win good will and reputation. Which kind of men, do no ways profit the commonweal, but rather by hatred, displeasure and discords hinder the state. For if they were good men, in causes concerning their country, they either would not or should not be angry, hate or grudge at others. Some also being scarce of counsel in pronouncing their sentence do follow the footsteps of other Counsellors, saying after them, and therefore were among Romans' called Pedar●j Senatores: Yet i● they so do not through ignorance, ought be allowed: for it is reasonable and profitable for the state, to imitate and follow the opinion of wise and good Counsellors. And sometimes it happeneth, that all Counsellors are of one mind and meaning, which so being, it is better to affirm that which was spoken by others, then with many words, as it were of one effect, consume the time. A Counsellor must also beware that in speaking his sentence, there appeareth in his speech not selfe liking or ostentation. And albeit diversity of opinions, will sometimes occasion contention in Counsel, yet therein all slander, offence and other perturbation, (which may pervert or disturb the state) ought be eschewed. And in reconciling of opinions, let the greater number prevail, for that which seemeth good to most men, must be thought just and most agreeable to reason. The order of speaking in Counsel, is 
The order of pronouncing sentence.  in divers states diversly used: for in some the eldest men do speak first, in other the younger Counsellors, and in some also they that are of most experience and wisdom, are preferred. In that matter the custom of every place is to be observed, and that order to be reputed good, just, profitable, & convenient, which reason & common use among men from time to time hath received. Yet doth it seem best that the opinions of the most aged and experienced men should be first hard, to the end the younger sort may have the more time to deliberate of their speech. Besides that, the younger Counsellors opinion, being first pronownced, do sometimes divide the elder; and draw them into sundry conceits. Therefore the best is that every one should speak, not when he would, but when he is asked. For by such means order shall be observed, and all occasion of contention removed. In speaking, it is lawful sometimes to speak doubtfully, because the difficulty of the matter may excuse the speaker, also by the diversity of other men's opinions, the mind is distracted, not knowing to which side to yield, where in the suspicion of rashness must be eschewed, lest of set purpose or affection more than of judgement, we yield to the opinions of other men. For the censures of other men are to be pondered not numbered, 
Sentences to be pondered by weight not by number.  and ●eede must be taken, that the greater part do not oppress the truer.  
Aristotle doth permit that a man in saying his sentence may twice speak doubtfully: But if the third time he trip or fail, he shall not aster be suffered to speak in that cause. We must also take heed lest our speech be over long, for therein a double fault is committed: by making ourselves weary with speaking and others with hearing. 
The 〈◊〉 of the Counsellors speech  Which error Caesar sometimes reproved in Cato. Let the Counsellors speech therefore be short, sincere and not obscured with enticing terms, not unadvised, not doubtful, or deceitful, but grave, simple, holy, and true. And it is fit each man should speak sworn, to the end God may be the witness of his mind. It importeth not much whether his sentence be written or rehearsed in words, yet the reasons written are commonly set down with more diligence, chief if the matter requireth a long oration. His voice would be manly, and 
The voice of a Counsellor.  framed rather to gravity then effeminacy, clear and audible: not soft, nor so low as cannot be well heard. In conclusion, the Counsellor ought to observe three things by Cicero prescribed; that is, to be 
Three things specially to be observed by Counsels.  present in counsel, (for the ordinary meeting of Counsellors doth add thereunto a gravity,) to speak in place unto that is asked: and in good sort or use measure, which is, that this speech be not infinite. That the Counsellor which absenteth himself is blamable, wherefore being called he must obey. Neither is it fit that any Counsellor, should go into foreign nations, unless he be publicly sent as Ambassador, Governor, or Commander in war, least by such absence the commonweal be damnified. The chief substance and ground of a Counsellors wisdom, is, that in all his words and works he perform the part of a good and just man, which chiefly consisteth in the comeliness of his life. For it sufficeth not, that we be wise, unless we are also good. For prudence without justice is mere subtlety, and holden rather a vice then virtue. By the benefit of virtue we are made good, that is just, courteous and honest, but by wisdom we become only wise. Besides that in respect of virtue we are called good, but for wisdom alone we are not. Therefore he is indeed (as 
Who is a good man.  Plato also affirmeth) to be named a good man that embraceth the virtues, living accordingly, and feareth not to die for his country, whensoever the same is assaulted or oppressed, and be content to suffer all things, rather than that the state should be changed: which is commonly brought to pass by men of the worst condition. Wherefore the Senator must be careful to be no less good and just, then prudent or wise. For wisdom without justice is evil, sith of justice men are called good: Some men in authority do prove themselves eloquent 
Abuse of authority.  and wise, but therewith full of subtlety and dishonest sleight. For they having in hand the patronage of liberty and law, do in speech and appearance seem careful thereof, but (their actions well examined) dee detect them for men unjust, unworthy, and dissembling. And being endued with a false kind of wisdom, having their tongues but not their minds instructed, do commonly endeavour to alter and not amend the public policy. There is not in any commonweal a worse mischief than the authority of such men. For they do always advance persons licentious, subtle, deceitful unjust, and seditious, and in practising subtlety, do somewhat whereby to be thought good 
justice.  men. But as a man come to his perfection is of all creatures the best: So if he forsake justice and law, is of all other accounted the worst. For extirpation of which sorts of subjects, we ought pray unto God, and every Counsellor careful that his life be well exercised and employed. But men being wise must also be just, therefore what justice ought be in a Counsellor, we are now to discourse.  
Whosoever will with an attentive mind behold and search the condition of things divine and humane, shall see that nature hath given to every thing a firm, stable, and constant course, which of itself cannot be changed, but by a certain and determined way doth pass and return. First we behold the celestial orbs, the Elements, beasts▪ fowls, and creeping creatures have their properties, not received by chance, but by such natural instinct, as leave them they will not; or if they would, they cannot. What should I say of men? do not we see a certain way to felicity, prepared of GOD for good men, and likewise destruction made for evil men. Also the path which leadeth to virtue is narrow, wrong, and hard to be disoerned, but the way unto vice on the left hand to be large, plain, and open to many. But to speak of the government of Cities and states, if their courses of life and administration, be certain, perfect, and absolute of nature, that is to say, proceeded from God or reason, they do never abandon them, but are of long continuance, but otherwise become of no force, weak and decaying. I speak not of all. Let it suffice that nature hath made all things we see, to be good, certain, perfect, and in all respects absolute: 
Natural 〈…〉  which moved the Stoics to affirm, that to live according to nature, was the chief felicity of man: for nature is in deed the Conductrix and Tutoress of perfect life, whereby we follow and obey the Author thereof. This harmony of nature, may righty be called justice: For this is that virtue which defendeth law and consent of nature: sith whatsoever consenteth with nature is just, and whatsoever dissenteth with it, is called unjust. Such men then as live according to nature and in all things obey her, are of all others most just. For it is a thing contrary to nature to do or think against God or man: Whereupon justice is thought to be of three kinds natural, divine, and humane. The first foundation of justice 
justice. of three sorts.  natural, proceedeth from nature itself, which doth inform us what to embrace, and what to eschew. Natural equity commandeth us to abstain from injuries, and therefore we ought to do nothing whereby an other may be offended. By this virtue men are so fast bound one unto another, as every man wisheth well to all mankind. In that ancient age, which the Poets called golden, through the benefit of justice, no deceit, fraud, or injury was known. Then were no seditions, no tumult, no hate, but benevolence, fidelity and love. Then needed not they any lawmaker, any judge or pleader: For equity and goodness determined all things, and every man thought his own things to appertain as much to his friends as himself. By which instinct, we love our parents, our children, our alliance and kindred. The justice due unto our Parents is called piety: with which virtue (we read) that above others the daughter of Cymon was endued. For she by giving her own milk unto her father, (in prison condemned to die) thereby saved his life, and won herself immortal fame. This property also is with men common to other creatures, that every kind do naturally conspire to defend themselves. justice doth also require at our hand, that each man should nourish, defend and govern himself: for he that by wilful hunger, negligence, or death, is destroyed, ought be judged injust and an enemy to nature. We are also bound by nature, to relieve our friends with our goods, and by generation of children to continue a posterity. In fine, those that obey nature, are reputed just, and those that do thecontrarie, are judged unjust: for nature 
justice natural.  abhorreth evil, and embraceth that which is good. Socrates, and his scholars, defined this natural justice, saying it was the science of good and evil according to nature: which if a man doth exercise alone, (following nature as guide) he ought be called a good man: and communicating it with others, deserveth the name of a good Citizen, because than he is not only profitable for himself, but others also. To be just after this manner, in living according to nature, doth not only become a Counsellor, but also every other man. Moreover, they that by nature are endued with more singular gifts, aught to be above others most just. And therefore sith nature hath advanced a Counsellor before other men, it behoveth him to excel in justice, for being inferior herein, is reputed dishonourable & ignominious. These are those things which in the conversation & manners of men ought to be observed.  
That justice which belongeth unto God, and whereby we are by 
justice divine  nature bound to acknowledge, worship, reverence, love and honour him, is only proper to men. And it hath pleased nature, the mother of all things, that in the mind of man only the knowledge of God should be impressed: leaving all other creatures to eat, feed, and pamper their bodies. Man only is that creature among enumerable others, to whom the honour, reverence, ad worship of God is committed. No people therefore inhabiting the circle of the earth, but honoureth some God: which they think a thing honest, just and necessary. The society of God and men is by a certain natural necessity and benevolence conjoined, and cannot be broken, as though men were borne of God, and therefore him they worship and reverence as a father. It behoveth that the honour given to God, should be most pure, most holy and full of piety, that is, we should honour him with a chaste, entire, and 
What teligion is.  incorrupt mind. All the substance and force of holiness and piety, consisteth in religion: which is a virtue containing the knowledge how God should be honoured. By it we are also informed how to render unto him thanks with true honour and holy mind. Hereof men are called religious and holy, because they love, and (as it were) bind themselves to do divine honour. God favoureth piety and faith, and in respect of them extolleth kingdoms. All things do prosper with those that obey God, and every thing decayeth in the hands of others, that honour him not. Moreover, religion is of such force, as through it, men are endued with all virtues, and in retaining them, are made no less constant than religious. In him that honoureth God, there groweth a constant, true and inventable harmony of virtues: For whosoever doth honour him religiously, is prudent, and temperate, which virtues are so tied unto religion, as by no possible means they may be sundered. A constant religion doth work a firm continuance of laws, customs, virtues, and commonweal itself. It behoveth our Counsellor therefore, to have no wavering or mutable, but a stable and certain belief of God and religion, for that is the foundation of his wisdom, virtue, and dignity. Neither should any Senator be admitted to counsel, whose religion is inconstant or unsettled. For in counsel nothing ought be done contrary to religion, or a-against God: but every thing performed with constancy▪ sincerity, holiness, and religious meaning. Therefore a Senate is called sacred▪ because all things in it done, are reputed holy: not only among men, but before God also. The place also wherein the Senate doth assemble, is accounted holy: sith every Senator ought (with reverence,) to lay a side all unlawsull counsels and evil cogitations. The Romans going to Counsel offered Frankincense, to that God in whose temple the Senate was assembled. But the Christians ought observe other customs, for all their prayers and supplications, should be to obtain grace and goodness from the almighty God, because their prayers only are holy, and religious. Thus it appeareth, that false or unsettled religion in Counsellors, is not only accounted evil and unworthy but also 
Civil justice.  impious and wicked. But of divine justice, let this we have said, suffice.  
The knowledge of humane justice, which is also called civil, is a thing secret and hidden. For albeit hath original from natural justice, and therefore the precepts and use of it seemeth easy and common: yet is it not truly conceived or exercised but of such men, as are either endued with some divine nature, or that have been employed in all kinds of virtue and good studies. For that justice requireth a learned and wise man, who endeavoureth himself therein, not casually, or against his will, but advisedly, reasonably, constantly and willingly. Such a one we will our Counsellors should be, possessed with so noble and experienced a judgement.  
All force and use of civil justice consisteth partly in the preservation of society among men, and is partly exercised in court and place of judgement. And there is no virtue more fit or profitable, to establish, conserve, or amend the Senate, than this▪ All other virtues are referred to their particular ends, and may be well without man exercised: but justice resteth in the tuition of man's society, which is the cause we call it Reconciler and conserver of mankind. This virtue alloweth of no foul, cruel, barbarous, or unseemly thing, but embraceth things honest, quiet, and peaceable, caring for nothing more, than that men should live together lovingly, free from injuries, seditions, hate, and enmity▪ not desiring the goods of others, but giving to every one that which to him appertaineth. With this virtue, we will that our Counsellor should be endued, for thereby he becometh the defender of common profit, the protector of innocents, weak and humble persons, a repressor of proud men, a lover of the good, an 
The office of a just Counsellor.  observer of truth, an enemy to evil men, and so to vice. The foundation of this virtue is fidelity, which (Cicero defineth it) to be a constant and true performing of more and promise. A just Counsellor therefore doth affirm things true, not doubtful, observeth his promises, standeth to compacts, restoreth what he borroweth, and to the performing his faith is not compelled by law, by witness, or oath, but by his own willing consent▪ free-will and word, which he accounteth as a law. Moreover, being called from the private life to govern in state, he laboureth by counseling, caring and providing that injustice be kept under; and that by the stronger, the weaker sort be not oppressed▪ ever eschewing the desire of riches. Whatsoever ought be given for virtue, or well deserving, he bestoweth upon honest and well deserving subjects.  
Furthermore, he judgeth valiant men worthy to be rewarded, and slothful subjects to be punished. For by these two, pains and preferment, the welfare of every common weal is preserved. In the bestowing of offices, he declareth himself upright▪ reputing those worthy of most honour, that are men of most merit. And in every state I think it fit, that care should be had of the distribution 
To whom honour ought be given.  of offices: because honour is the reward of virtue, and every good man accounteth it the fruit of his labour, and service. Neither ought that state be commended, where offices and honours are given without respect, aswell to the evil, as the good, the fools as the wise men. It ought therefore be provided by law, that the honours may be made due to those, whose virtue and industry is recommended by good men. In the commonweals of ancient time, Images of metal, arches triumphal, public sepulture, open praise, and such like honours were given to men of service and good deserving▪ In company and conversation, regard must be had to each man's age, degree, and condition: and diligent consideration, what is in every man of necessity, virtue, or use. We account those most worthy honour, who are men well borne, virtuous, in authority, and rich: because they are most profitable for other men and the state also. We likewise use to honour & reverence our elders, by bowing our bodies & giving them place. Moreover, for so much as the good in men, is of three sorts, that is, goods of the mind, of the body, and of fortune, they are all in the bestowing of honours to be justly respected. Therefore the goods of mind must be preferred, next unto them the goods of body, and last the goods of fortune ought be regarded. To every of these somewhat belongeth, according to the worthiness 
Equality to be observed in the bestowing of honour.  thereof and each man ought to have his right and honour due. All these things a Counsellor ought to know, and in bestowing offices, honours and gifts observe equality; for that is the balance of justice wherewith each man's manners, virtues, and actions, are weighed and examined. In which, heed must be taken, that by overmuch leaning towards one side, we seem unequal judges and esteemers of other men's virtue. For he that giveth overmuch to him that deserveth it not, doth giveto little unto him that is of better desert, and consequently no rightful or just judge. Whereupon, this justice is defined by the Philosophers, to be an habit of the mind destined to common utility, giving to every man the honour he deserveth. Among the virtues which challenge interest in the conversation of humane society, equality is not the last, beingthe handmaiden, servant, and follower of justice: because it doth not (as men say) remove one hai●e breadth from her. This equality in just pondering and esteeming things and 
Equality of two sorts.  persons, useth a double manner of proceeding: the one ordinary and common, judging by number, weight, and measure: the other more difficile and secret, that is, weighing every thing by reason and judgement. Which knowledge is only understood of wise men, and those that are practised in great affairs: and the other chief known to such as are occupied in barrating buying and selling. Let the Counsellor therefore have the skill of that equality which proceedeth from reason and judgement, whereby he may conceive what is due to each man, what honours should be given, what gifts bestowed, what offices dstributed, what is just, indifferent, good and wise, in all things, in all persons, and in all places. This equality is assuredly a notable thing, and for the service of every state, exceeding necessary. And in deed we see many therein dull and incapable, whereby matters are handled at all adventures and contentiously, greatly disturbing not only the society of men, but the commonweals also. Thus much we hope shall suffice, to have been said of justice▪ which consisteth in use, society, and conversation of men; not intermeddling with courts of judicial seats.  

Fortaine justice.  another kind of justice there is, not far unlike to this, and that concerneth judgement: the foundation whereof is law and the judgement of wise and just men. Before such time (as is beforesaid) that the skill of written laws was invented, each man prescribed a law unto himself, and sought not the same in the books of lawmakers or Doctors. For in those most ancient times, that chaste and pure virgin (justice I mean) had her habitation within the minds of men, giving them laws and precepts how to live justly, and uprightly: for she being present, suffered not among men any thing to be done, unjustly, deceitfully, or wickedly. But so soon as men grew weary of justice, beginning by little and little to covet other men's goods, offer injuries, and take overmuch to themselves, not restoring that they borrowed: forthwith arose hate, dissimulations, enmities and war: and thereupon martial instruments were devised, having in them so great fury as might force not only justice, but jupiter himself to give place. justice with fear of these terrors driven away) left the earth to be governed by humane licentiousness, and fled to heaven, making her house of habitation there betwixt Leo and Libra the celestial signs. Ever since which time those that desired to govern justly, were forced to look 
justice to be sought in heaven.  for wisdom from heaven, because the precepts of true justice, defiled with our vices, cannot without the special grace of God be conceived. Homer not without cause, was wont to call kings and others inspired with the wisdom of governing, Sons of jupiter. Therefore this gift of divine justice must be desired of God, that through the precepts and laws thereof, men may be reduced to their ancient and golden perfection, and such effect be wrought in the tuition of man's society and in government of commonweals, as in old time that celestial and incorrupt virgin (during her presence on earth) was wont to perform. Whereby we may suppose to have called her from heaven to dwell with us again upon the earth. And sith reason cannot prevail in us so much, as thereby to live justly, godly, & holily, by justice it must be obtained, sith she by her laws forewarneth, exhorteth, and correcteth us, preparing rewards of virtue for the good, and 
What is justice.  punishment for the evil. This justice, (as Vlpianus teacheth) is a constant and perpetual desire to give unto every man, that which to him belongeth. The ordaining of laws is proper to Counsellors, because they are of all other men, accounted the wisest, and so the Lacedæmonians, Romans', and other people have ever thought them. Also in the making of laws, these things (as Plato teacheth) ought be observed, that is, the lawmakers should write them with a certain fatherly love, and no Lordly intent or tyrannical meaning, framing them to the terror of others, and with threatenings cause them be proclaimed to the people, themselves neither obeying, nor regarding any order or law at all, but practise the common speech. Sic volo, sic ●ubeo, sit pro ratione voluntas. The lawmaker ought also be careful that the laws contain not more prescription 
The end of laws.  of commandments, than discipline of manners. The intent of every lawmaker is, that by the laws men may be made good and happy, and that offenders should be punished rather for necessity, than set purpose. For which cause the Emperor justinian divided the commandments of law into three. To live honestly, 
Law commandeth three things.  to hurt no man, and give to every one that which was his own. And sith laws do proceed from true reason, it must needs be, that they do only respect virtue, and from it descent nothing▪ because they are (as it were) rules of honesty, reason, nature, and good life. Who so therefore doth abandon laws, is wicked: and to contemn them is no less evil, then to despise nature, God, virtue and reason. Heràclitus the Ephesian was wont to say, that free men ought as manfully to defend the laws, as the walls of their City, for without walls a City might be preserved, but without laws it cannot. In all commonweals therefore the laws ought be observed, and from them the rules of life, good customs, and of all things to be done or not none, must be taken. Lycurgus and So●o● are commended for making such laws as prescribed not only what was presently to be done; but also what was after to be eschewed. Which our Counsellor must consider, and do to the end he may know by whatmeanes and exercises men be made good, and what is the end of perfect life in every commonweal. By this mean each man will apply his mind to such studies, as be agreeable to his own nature, thinking it praisable to excel, and for excellent men the rewards of virtue be prepared. And in truth there is nothing so hard which men leave unattempted if great gifts and rewards be thereunto due. Which only thing doth remove and drive away all sloth and idle life, the mother of every vice. For by idleness we see the minds of men to grow wanton and perish, and as Cato said truly, by nothing doing, the people did learn how to do evil. Diodorus writeth of a certain law among the Egyptians, 
The Egyptian law against idleness.  whereby every subject was compelled to give his name to the magistrates, therewith declaring, what kind of life he liked, how he lived, and what art he exercised.  

The law of Draco & Solon  And if any did tell untruly or not perform his duty sufficiently was put to death. Draco seeing the Citizens wasteful, provided by law, that who so was found idle▪ should be put to death, which law (as to extreme) Solon did qualify, punishing that offence 
Imperial laws.  with infamy only. By the imperial laws, it is provided, that some idle, slothful, and vn●hriftie subjects should be deprived, and either be whipped to death, or employed in public slavery. In every state, there are certain exercises aswell for 
Discipline of war and peace in every commonweal.  peace as war. The one education, doth breed Priests, Counsellors, and judges: The other Chieftains, Captains and Soldiers. By which means, the commonweal shallbe furnished with subjects, aswell for war as peace, and by their virtue, services both divine and humane may be performed, the country from invasion defended, 
Change of laws dangerous.  and the bonds thereof enlarged. Great care must also be taken that the laws may notby any means be altered, for such mutation is always accompanied with change of men's manners, & disposition. And as the nature of people is always apt to innovation, so soon as one law is altered, forthwith they desire the alteration and subversion of all the rest. Which thing breedeth not only contempt of laws, but also sedition, and mutation of the state. The ancient laws therefore ought be observed, and sometimes wisely corrected, and reform. For every mutation in the commonweal, (be 
The ordinance of the Locrensi against the change of laws.  it never so small) is a thing most perilous. Among the Locreuses it was provided, that if any man did invent a new law, he should first propound the same to the people, wearing a halter about his neck, to the end that if it were thought pernicious or unprofitable, as an author of evil, he might forthwith be hanged. Periander was wont to say, that old laws ought be observed, and they being grown 
The prince's life a law to the people.  from use, new might be received. It doth also greatly profit the state, that princes and others having authority to ordain laws should aswell observe them in their own persons as compel them to be obeyed by others. For there is nothing which subjects so much behold as their Prince, whose life is looked upon and followed as a law. Seleucus made a law, that whosoever were token in adultery should lose both his eyes. Afterwards his own son being found in that fault, was desired by all his subjects to pardon him: but that suit prevailed not otherwise then that first he caused one of his sons, an other of his own eyes, to be taken out, to the end the severity and reputation of law might be observed, and that the force thereof might be 
Laws are made for two ends.  more regarded than the authority of men. The ends why laws be ordained in every state are two, the one that justice may be entered into men, the other to continue it in them. The first appertaineth to the lawmaker, who frameth the people fit for virtue, the second belongeth to the judge, for he represseth the desires of offenders, and conserveth all the right appertaining to the commonweal. The judge (as Aristotle thinketh) ought from the lawmakers to receive the laws whereupon he should give judgement. First for that it is intended one lawmaker is of more wisdom, than many judges. And next because he foreseeing things to come, doth determine without perturbation. Which the judge doth not, being subject to affection, in that he dealeth with things present and judgeth of persons certain. Even as to make good laws and observe them, is profitable for the state, so to determine and end contentions by law, is thought a thing commendable. Among men sometimes contention of doubtful matters doth arise, whereof it behoveth the judge to determine. The judge therefore is no less necessary to compound controversies in the commonweal and administer justice, then is the soul in a living body. For being indifferent to both parties, he reduceth that to equality which he thinketh unequal▪ not unlike unto a line cut into unequal parts, that part which is to long is cut shorter and added to the other: So doth the judge being the living law, and as it were an Oracle in the commonweal. The judge ought also to account himself an interpreter to lawmakers, a minister of justice & his chief virtue must be to know what is just and true. He ought therefore not to swerver from law and the meaning thereof, but give judgement as the laws, equity, and justice doth command: For which respect it behoveth him to be sworn, to the end God may be present to witness his intent and conscience, which of all other things God hath made in man most divine. Let the judge likewise be free from ire and all suspicion of hope, love, and hatred, not corruptible 
Qualities required in a judge.  with gifts, not fearful of threats, nor by flattery abused or seduced. For where judges are subject to these passions, justice is far removed both from the judicial seat, and the judge himself: and there is nothing that infecteth the commonweal more with seditions, hate, and injuries, than the corruption and injustice of judges. By good and equal judgements, the love universal of men is preserved, quarrels, enmity, war, and sedition are thereby appeased: because they are in every state of so great force, as by good judgements the whole commonweal doth seem maintained, and by evil judges subverted. This justice which concerneth judgement, hath greatest power to extirpate vices in all states: for if offenders be punished, there will be no place left for violence, fraud, and audaciousness, presumption or injury.  
The person of justice was by the ancient Pholosophers painted like unto a fair virgin, having a severe and fearful aspect▪ piercing eyes, chaste and modest countenance, inclined to grau●tie▪ which Image seemeth to represent, that judges ought be incorrupt and chaste, severe, sharp witted, good conceivers of all things, grave, constant, & inexorable. Cambyses king of Persia, caused the skin of one unjust judge 
Cambyses correction of judges.  to be flayed from his body, and hanged up in the place of judgement, to the end that thereby all other judges might be warned to be just and upright. In like manner ought our Counsellor, to take heed that his justice (which extendeth to all sorts of people) may be most dutiful, and that both in making and executing of laws, he may declare himself a man of singular justice, for it were shame to him not to observe laws, who is the executor and maker of them: he commandeth others, and the law commandeth him: not that law only which is written in books and tables of brass, but the living law of reason which remaineth in our minds. Solon being asked how the commonweal might be preserved, answered, if the people obey the magistrates, and the magistrates obey the law. Bias also said, that commonweal might be best assured, where all men feared the laws, no less than a Tyrant. It were a thing most inconvenient in all states, that the laws should be reputed like the spider's web, to take hold of the weak or simple, and suffer the strong and mighty to pass. Of which error our Counsellor shall be heedful, endeavouring himself to love, observe and continually be careful how the laws may in violablely be preserved.  

The office of a Counsellor.  For it is the true office of a Counsellor to know the laws, and honour justice: yetdo we remember him, in the execution of law, to avoid over much severity & cruelty. Because extreme justice is accounted extreme injury, he must therefore so behave himself, as the subjects may more fear his severity, then detest his bitterness and cruelty. Conformable severity (as Cicero saith) doth overcome the vain hope of clemency. Cruelty is proper to tyrants & barbarous people, neither is there any vice in the commonweal more vile, cruel, and detestable. Let the Counsellor be neither extreme, nor over pitiful, so as in punishing, the punishment shall not be greater than the offence. We read that in 
In Rome viii. sorts of punishments.  Rome, there were eight sorts of punishments, that is, damage, imprisonment, stripes, recompense, ignominy, exile, bondage, and death. In punishing he ought to resemble laws, which are not disturbed or moved, but executeth revenge upon all offences, moderately 
What is to▪ be observed in punishing.  and peaceably, as hating the fault, not the men. He shall also remember, that the more authority a man hath, the more moderately he ought to use it. Albeit that justice in aiding the society of men doth employ the service of all other virtues, and is therefore called their Queen: Yet hath she her peculiar companions, handmaidens, and followers, which are not so common to all other virtues. The 
Companions of justice.  chief of them is petty, goodness, innocency, courtesy, gentleness, clemency, friendship, and concord. With these whatsoever Senator is endued, furnished and ornified, is in all respects an absolute and complete professor of justice. 
Piety.   
Through piety we gain the good will not only of God but men also, by it we are counseled to imagine no vain, foolish, or deceitful thing, thereby our words and actions do purchase credit, because the godly man is accounted in the favour of God, and by his counsel to be governed▪ Numa Pompilius to gain himself credit in the religion which he devised for the Romans' (dissembling piety) brought them in belief, that he with his wife Aegeria used to meet the▪ Gods in a certain place sacrificed to Camena, and there received the laws and religion, which the Romans' were to live in. They therefore who neither by persuasion nor force could be reduced to religion, by colour of piety were drawn to be most religious. That religion (though feigned) was profitable for the Romans': but how much more profitable shall the same be in our Counsellor whose religion is true, holy & sincere? What rights what ceremonies, and what works of piety ought be in a Senator, is not in this place to be discoursed. It sufficeth (I think) that each man is instructed in the rules of true religion, whereof we have said somewhat in our treaty of divine justice. In the observation of piety, two things are chief 
What to be eschewed in Piety.  to be eschewed, that is, heresy, and superstition: which vices do many times in weak minds pervert true piety. We own also a certain piety to our parents which is performed by love & reverence. For to them we are bound to to do all honour, service, & duty: and being aged, (if need so requireth) we ought with our own hands to help them, and defend them from all misadventures, Goodness requireth we should be good, which is to perform the actions of virtue. Our Senator 
Goodness.  therefore shallbe a just and goodman, and attain to such perfection of mind, as he will not only refrain evil doing, but also though he would do evil, yet he could not: so as, the proverb of country people which Cicero speaketh of, may be in him verified. Where it behoveth that in all his actions he do follow virtue as a Captain, which doing, he shall rightly perform all things belonging to the duty 
innocency.  of an honest just man. For nothing, recommendeth a Counsellormore then innocency of life, seeing thereby he shallbe evil willed of no man, fear no man, norbe enemy to no man, but live happy, without suspicion, fear, force, and subtlety; sincere, perfect, true and without reproach. Of the innocency required in a Counsellor this is the foundation: to do good to all he is able, and to hurt no man. This virtue joveth simplicity, conjoined with prudence, allowing of nothing that is cloaked, dissembled, feigned or shadowed: therefore sycophants, dissembles, liars, tale-bearers, and slanderers must be excluded from the number of Senators. It behoveth him in all his actions to deal liberally: For dissimulation is a servile thing. As he is not rightly called innocent that hurteth a little, but he that offendeth not at all: so is he to be accounted no dissembler, that in deed is void of all dissimulation. And like as no man entered the temple of Ceres Elucina unless he were innocent: being written upon the door: Let no man enter, but he that knoweth his own innocency; so into the holy counsel, which is temple of justice and truth, I wish that only Counsellors innocent, and men of integrity should come. Let the Counsellors mind be open and sincere, not hidden, obscure, or deceitful, saying one thing and meaning another: but his tongue must be a true interpreter of his mind, and his face, countenance and eyes free from disguising, and full of natural sincerity: for such customs be common to light persons, and barbarous people, who know not how to be good men, but abuse both the office & name of men, & therefore to them either little or no credit ought to be given. Our Senator therefore shall not only disallow these vices, but also contemn all those that allow them, rejecting them from his presence & company, not having to do either privately or publicly with any light, vain or babbling companion. Our Counsellor shallbe also courteous to the good; for courtesy, & affable 
Courtesy.  speech do greatly win the good will of all men. Let him then be willing to answer, & contented to hear, avoiding all sowernes, & insolency in words, gesture & motion. Let him also contemn squirrilitie, & irreverent mirth, moderately, or seldom using vain sports and youthful pastimes. For speech not merry but grave, not subtle but true, not ridiculous but constant, becometh a Counsellor. Unto courtesy, gravity beseeming a Counsellor, ought be joined, yet such as containeth no pride, disdain, or insolency, but that which is modest, mild, and gentle. Also for that kindness or benignity is necessary to lead an honest life, 
Benignity;  the example of god doth show, that through his benignity we are just & happy. For as God is to us kind, so ought we be gentle & courteous to others: because man should be (as is commonly said) a God unto man. Gentleness, privately containeth in it humility, temperateness, mildness, and a certain sweetness of manners and speech: and publicly it hath clemency and moderation. Wherefore it shall become the counsellor in conversation to be gentle, courteous and sweet: not sour, austeare and (as Timon was) a hater of men. Let him therefore dispose himself, to love others, profit, and help them. For as we own unto God religion and piety, so is love and benevolence due unto men. Clemency belongeth only to magistrates and men in authority, for 
Clemency.  by force thereof their displeasure towards offenders becometh qualified. The opposite to this virtue, is cruelty and bitter extremity in punishing, a thing proper to Tyrants, and men void of all humanity. Draco was so cruel, as by his laws he ordained the punishment of death to be due aswell for idle life, as murder: And being asked for what cause he made the penalty of the least offences, to be equal with the greatest: answered, that he thought so great a pain due unto the least faults, and for the greatest he could not devise any great enough. But with much more clemency Scipio was wont to say, he had rather save the life of one Citizen, then slay a thousand enemies. There is no virtue that maketh men so much loved as clemency, and chief those that have authority: For that virtue is most noted, which is accompanied with authority, and it is a thing against nature for great men to hurt others. It is therefore no less reproachful in magistrates to be common punishers, then for physicians to to bury many patients. Also the governors clemency, doth breed in men a bashfulness and fear to offend. Yet do I think that clemency and mildness are so to be used that severity (at occasion) be not neglected. For without it no commonweal can be well governed. To overmuch clemency there belongeth a certain superfluous pity conceived of the adversity of others: which the Stoics would every wise man should want, saying it is the imperfection of a base mind yielding to the nature of other men's offences: and therefore such may be resembled to foolish women that would have thieves delivered, because they see them shed tears in prison. Moreover the Stoics affirm, that mercy ought to respect the cause, and not the fortune wherein clemency is used, for that proceedeth of reason, the other should be eschewed. But omitting their opinions, we will that our Senator shallbe endued with clemency & mercy, employing them in all things that are honest and just.  

〈…〉.  Furthermore as the society of men is preserved by those good gifts which proceed from a just, sincere, and merciful mind, so ought it also be assisted with external furniture of fortune, as riches, possessions; 
In what sort things ought to be common.  and money, sith thereby aswell our own, as other men's lives by giving and taking are maintained. Also whatsoever nature hath made for the commodity of man, It willeth that the same should be common for all men, yet not so, that each man should have therein property, but that by imparting, giving, and lending, it should (so much as reason requireth) be made common: Of which conjunction of minds, necessities, amities, and inward good will should grow. This virtue whereby we are persuaded to give and supply the necessities of other men, is called liberality, because it is a thing worthy a free man, and requireth a free mind. But for that there are diverse degrees of men's society, whereof some ought be preserved before others, the offices of liberality 
In what sort to be liberal.  shallbe observed, if we become most liberal, and beneficial to those that are to us nearest and most dear: wherein the order of nature is to be followed, preferring our parents, children, and kindred 
What to eschew in liberality.  before others, and our friends, before men unknown. And likewise our countrymen before strangers. In liberality heed must be taken, that we give not more than our power suffereth, nor less than the office of dignity and humanity requireth. For those that have no stay in giving, are prodigal; and they that give nothing, be called niggardly and miserable, which vices, who so desireth to eschew (for all vices are indeed to be eschewed) let him look to whom he giveth, when, how, what, in what place and time. For to give unto him that hath enough, (unless ye believe he needeth more than he hath, or do it to show magnificence) by so doing, liberality is abused. We must therefore know, what is fit to be given to each man, for it were unfit to give a target unto a priest, a book to a soldier, a gown to a ploughman. We ought therefore to give, first things necessary, than things profitable, and lastly things pleasant and durable. For necessity & profit are the causes of giving. In giving chief respect must be had to honesty, to the end we abuse not the office of liberality, by giving evil things, or to evil persons: For benefits evil bestowed, are (as Ennius thinketh) reputed evil deeds: sith (as men commonly say) he that giveth to a person worthy, receiveth a benefit. Some men become liberal moved thereto by a certain fury of mind: whose gifts do merit no praise, because they are not given as they ought be, deliberately, and with judgement: Such gifts are commonly bestowed by vain and unadvised persons. These customs are therefore to be eschewed in liberality, and the other to be observed. There is no virtue that winneth the good will of men more than this: For through it we relieve others, and make proof of our own liberal, just and well disposed mind. To be liberal, what is it else, then to imitate God? For as he is liberal towards us, so we should be liberal to others. We must moreover be wary lest our liberal deeds be not performed with the spoil of other men, for that liberality 
Whereof to be liberal.  which is done to harm other is greatly unjust. We must therefore give of such goods which are justly gotten by our own or others industry: and chief to those, that by our giving shallbe the better, either in study of liberal sciences or in the discipline of war, which are things most profitable to commonweal. Among many errors which men commit, those are most perilous, whereby we are so blinded, as we neither know how to give, no of whom to receive a benefit.  
Therefore difference of men is to be made, also the manners & disposition of each man towards us with his worthiness ought to be weighed: for nothing is done liberally, but that which is done justly. Neither is the office of liberality exercised only by money: for some are helped with the presence of friends; others with credit, others with favour, others with counsel, others with authority, others with labour, and such like: which kind of benefits are most honourable, & fit for a counsellor: for the one, cometh from the coffers of the liberal man, & the other from his virtue, which cannot be exhausted or diminished. Among many other virtues in Scipio Africanus, this is not the least: that he never returned home, but before his return, he made some one or other man beholding unto him. The Son of Titus Vespatianus was wont to say, that the day wherein 
Laws of liberality.  he bestowed no benefit, was time utterly lost. It is also the office of a liberal man to acquit a benefit with more abundance than it was received. In giving, these two precepts must be observed: to forget the benefit we give, and remember well that we have received: for the commemoration of a good turn received, is a kind of exprobration, and a mind unthankful is odious both to God and men. We must also in giving not be miserable, as though we were both unwilling orsory to give, but do it willingly and with a frank mind, for be it money or other thing, whatsoever is given, the same is not to be called the benefit, but the sign of the benefactors mind: Neither shalt thou observe what, but how willingly it is given, for liberality is measured chiefly by the will of the giver: and therefore a certain man receiving a benefit of an other that gave it unwillingly, called that gift a loaf made of 
Magnificence  stones. Next liberality, Magnificence followeth, which virtue consisteth in great expenses and gifts, differing from liberality in this only, that the one is employed in small and mean gifts and the other in great. Magnificent men were wont to show their virtue in building Churches, erecting cities, towns, villages, and doing all things whereby either God might be honoured, or their own good same increased. In which actions, comeliness must be observed, and respect must also be had to the person, place, time, and matter, wherein the magnificent charge is bestowed. For it were folly for him to seem 
What to be eschewed in magnificence.  magnificent, that wanteth both power and judgement to perform great matters. Let him also beware of that which is commonly said, that each man's coat must be cut according to the quantity of his cloth. And albeit that parsimony is reputed a great revenue, yet ought we not be so sparing as to seem void of liberality, covetous, miserable, & careless, both of others and ourselves, also▪ we must not only be fillers of bags, or hoorders of coin, as men that study more to enrich a lascivious heir, then profit the commonweal, friends or kinsfolks. Surely covetousness is a sickness incurable, which (as Salustius 
How money ought be used.  saith) doth effeminate both body and mind And it taketh delight in two things, that is, to give nothing, and receive much. Money therefore is to be used liberally, moderately, and in good and honest uses: always reserving somewhat, not only for friends, physicians, and foes, but also for our country the necessity whereof is to be preferred before all other. They that are delighted in feasting, gluttony, and play, therein consuming their substance, the memory whereof lasteth but one only day: are devourers not only of private but also of public riches: they are also holden men of light mind and prodigal not only of money, but also of their fame, reputation and honour. Truly it behoveth the state to provide, that no 
Excess i● commonws ought be restrained by law.  man should abuse his own riches: and therefore I think it good, that such men were compelled by law, to spare their money from vain expenses & matters of no moment. In Rome it was provided by law, that no Senator should be indebted above a certain sum prescribed. Which order was taken to remove excess and superfluous charges. P. R●finus was deposed from the Senate by the Censores, for having ten pounds weight of silver. Also Aemelius Lepidus having built a house which cost six thousand pound was for that cause deprived from the Senate. A Counsellor ought therefore to live so, as he may be magnificent and liberal, 
What Magnificence is in a senator.  not only of money, but also of reputation, counsel and good will: which virtues do conjoin the people's minds, breeding friendship and concord, wherewith all Cities and common places be united. Furthermore nature hath so ordained, as without friendship no man hath ever lived, notwithstanding he were so abundantly furnished with riches, as he wanted nothing to lead a desired life. For seeing man is 
Friendship.  a civil creature and lover of society, he cannot in any wise want the use of other men's conversation. From this fountain all natural amities, as marriages, consanguinities and affinities do proceed. Nature is a lover of men, conjoining them not only in conversation and good will, but also binding them with obligation of blood. We see that all lawmakers have studied for nothing more, then that by the benefit of laws men might live in love & friendship, because wheresoever the rights, of amity are esteemed, their injury, sedition, and hatred cannot have force: sith in all such places, peace, tranquillity, love, and affection do rain, by which means the inhabitants are made happy and blessed. Who so taketh away friendship from the commonweal, doth (as it were) remove the Sun from the world.  
Therefore commonweals receive great good by friendship, for where it is, no civil dissension can arise, and all men with one assent (as it were one particular man loving his wife) will (as Pythagoras saith) join in love▪ and become as it were one man: for so much is the force of friendship, as of many it maketh one only mind. Which friendship is, 
What friendship is,  by Leliu● defined, to be a perfect consent of things di●●ne and humane, in all love, charity, and affection. diverse kinds of amity there are, whereby men are drawn to love one another some do love in respect of confanguimitie▪ some for alliance, some for a●f●it●. 
Civil friendship. 〈…〉  But of civil amity (whereof virtue is the foundation, and groweth among men unacquainted) the observation is not easy: for the diversity of delights doth cause that good men do seldom concur in friendship, sith thereunto time and conversation is required: because the manners of men are often altered through adversity or prosperity, age profit, loss, and honour. Each man at the first meeting is not to be received into friendship, for (as the proverb saith) men must ear many bushels of salt together, before they become true and perfect friends. The honest manners of men are to be diligently considered, and what fidelity and love we find in ourselves must be bestowed upon 
The best kind of friendship.  our friends. The Philosophers think that amity is most assured which is bred by likeness of conditions: for where men's delights be one, there desires cannot be diverse. Such friends were Theteus and Pericheu●, Achilles and Patroclus, Orestes and Pylades, Damon and Pythias. Of which two, the love was so great, as Diontsi●s desired he might join therein, and become a third. In choosing friends chief respect is to be had unto virtue, for the nature of virtue is such as virtuous men do not only refuse the friendship of evil men, but also deem them unworthy to be looked on. Few friends are better than many: for perfect friendship cannot remain in the mind of great numbers. They that are delighted with familiarity of many, are not accounted friends, but men compinable and fair conditioned: for it is one thing to be conversable and gentle in the entertainment of all men, and an other thing to be a friend to one whom we make a perpetual fellow and continual companion of our cogitations and life. Epaminondas was wont to say, a man ought not go from court, till such time as he had won some new friend to be joined unto the number of his old. Which rule seemeth to serve better to gain the common goodwill of men, then perfect friendship. Those things which for the love of friends ought be done, should be just, 
Friendship requireth three tgings.  not having more respect to love, than honesty. True friendship requireth three things: first virtue, from which we may never be removed then pleasure▪ which consisteth in familiarity and sincere conifer sation of life: and lastly profit, whereby one friend helpeth an other with things necessary. Peri●●● being desired by a friend to and him with false witness, answered he would friend him as high as the heavens, 〈…〉 that men should aid their friends so farce as justice, equity, land the laws of God do permit. Also it is more 〈…〉 friends from evils things, than therein to incou●rage them. So●●ime also concentions do happen between friends, because the one content 〈◊〉 the other, and each of them doth ●o 〈◊〉 for more respect at the others hand, than reason requireth: which things do vitterly 〈…〉 
How to employ friends.  amity. Wherefore in friendship let ●his be sp●ci●●ly 〈…〉 that we require of our friend, not that which would 〈…〉 that which he may lawfully do for 〈◊〉 Which obsegua●i●● is▪ ●●●●ned in the honour due to God and parents': unto ●hom, we 〈…〉 means able to render honour and tha●●s equal to 〈◊〉 deserts▪ yet he that doth honour them to his power, is commonly called 〈◊〉 and godly. Moreover the friendship of fools is 〈◊〉 to be desired, for the familiarity of such men breedeth contempt. The ●●seruations as Counsellor ought hau● in the choice 〈◊〉 friends, whereunto himself shall add diverse other, as comprehended rather b● 〈◊〉 and custom, then by precepts: always remembering never to 〈◊〉 from justice. He must also provide, that by the friendship 〈…〉 the quiet of other subjects may be preserved: for there is nothingmore noble, then that the governors of state, should show themselves friends, companions, fellows, and well willets. For what concord or consent of subjects can be in that commonweal, were the governors and magistrates do disagree? Aristides and Themistocles 
Friendship of senators.  were enemies, yet when soever they joined in public ●●bassage or commission of war, being come to the confines of the athenians land, they laid down all contention and st●ile, though after their return home, many times old displeasure was pursued. It is the property of a noble & great mind to forget ini●ries & cont●●●e them: which whosoever doth for love to the commonweal, ought be called a good & just man: and not so to do for the safety of friends, is a part of inhumanity, barbarousness, and rusticity: because friendship should be immortal, and enmity mortal. To friendship hospitality is a companion, for it receiveth and courteously intertaineth not only 
Hospitality.  men known, but also persons unknown, and strangers. This virtue gaineth us not ●●ely great praise and glory, but also reputation and honour. The privileges belonging to hospitality are so great, as the 〈◊〉 observed the rights thereof to their enemies, and would never sighed till such time as the prisoners to whom they were indebted for meat, were set at liberty. The Counsellor therefore shall not only make estimation of friendship in himself, but also exhort others to do the same. The use of friendship in every commonweal is great, and much greater than of justice, if therein all men constantly would persever. Plato finding he could not bring the commonweal to happiness by any virtue, reduced all laws and customs to friendship, devising that all things should be made common, for by mean thereof men should be retained in continual society, affirming that two only words that is is to say, m●ne and thine, we●● the things which disturbed the society of men.  

Concord.  Of amity groweth concord, being nothing else then civil amity: and is as it were a conspira●ie of all degrees of men, to maintain liberty, law, justice, fidelity, religion, and quietness in the commonweal. The chief hope to continue quietness in the commonweal, is when all men consent in all times and all things to the preservation thereof, and do in counsel consult with unity and concord. Wherefore let our Counsellor be a defender and champion of concord: For discord is the poison of all commonweals. Seeing there was never any Emperor, Tyrant or governor that prevailed against consent. Therefore the Senate of Rome did most commonly inhabit the house of concord, to show thereby that in counsel, nothing should be done seditiously or contentiously, but all things performed courteously and peaceably. Agesilaus king of Lacedemonia, keing asked why Sparta was not environed with walls, informed the asker, that the Citizens lived united and armed, and showing him the men said, Lo, here are the walls of Sparta. Scilurus having fowrescore sons before his death offered them a bondle of arrows to be broken at once: they answering it were a thing impossible: he took the arrows one by one, and broke them all, thereby warning his sons, to live in concord, saying that by force thereof they should be invincible and happy. In like manner Mycypsa king Numedy being ready to die, assembled his children, and admonished them in any wise to be lovers of concord, alleging the saying which never ought be forgotten, which is: that by concord small things increase, 
Discord of Couns: dangerous.  but by discord the greatest are consumed. The discord of Senators ought above all to be eschewed, lest by such example the other subjects be infected. It were dishonourable for them to spend time in chiding, and not in counseling, for there is nothing so agreeable to their calling, as love, peace, concord, and good will: and that state is in apparent peril, where the Senate is divided. For how should those that contend one against the other consult of peace, concord, or quietness in the commonweal? Wherefore, either the contendors minds must be reconciled, or without respect to say their minds: for those ought be removed from Counsel and punished, that prefer private hate, before public peace and tranquillity. In Counsel nothing should be done contentiously, unwillingly, or seditiously. Of concord and justice let this we have said sustice. Now, forsomuch as the condition of life is subject to sundry perils and misadventures, so as it behoveth us either to suffer, or mansully reu●nge, it therefore seemeth necessary to 
Fortitude.  discourse of Fortitude, with whose weapons all assaults of the mind and fortune are vanquished. That kind of life which is quiet, peaceable, and assured from all perils and discommodities, is most commonly of men desired: esteeming that as singular virtue which worketh such an effect as the professors thereof may be delivered and made free from continual molestation, cares, ttoubles, and discontentations. Notwithstanding, all men (in my opinion) be greatly deceived, that think the life of man may be pleasantly passed without the mixture of perils & perturbations. Fornature hath so provided that our lives should be subject to many mischances, and that as our bodies are disquieted with labour and toil, so the mind should be traveled with discontented imaginations. Neither can there be any taste of virtue or happiness, if without mishaps we always did live. For sorrows being passed (like rest after labour) do make the fruit of felicity much more pleasing. Virtue is not a Lady of solatarie or idle life, but loveth labour, rejoiceth, and triumpheth in times of peril which was the cause that Hercules contemned the way to pleasure, because it was large and wide, and made choice to seek virtue, whereunto the passage is hard, and full of difficulty. Who so desires to enjoy the possession of perfect virtue and happy life, must of force despise pleasures, disdain worldly things fly idlenesnd be persuaded that to fear and be irresolute, is a thing, most reproachful. Also it becometh us not only to overcome all toils and dangers in aspiring to virtue: but being thereof possessed, we ought with much more courage and greatness of mind, endure all calamities, sorrows and dangers whatsoever, wherein by virtue itself we are much aided, sith through it we are made constant, courageous, strong, and mighty: and there is nothing so hard or difficult, which the force of virtue doth not withstand, and with her power bring under. This excellency of mind is called Fortitude; an affection obeying virtue by constant suffering and enduring: which is an ornament to all 
〈◊〉 an 〈◊〉 to 〈◊〉 virtues.  other virtues. For the substance and nature of Prudence, justice, and Temperance, is of itself without fortitude soft, and effeminate: For the property of them is to think and do only; but the quality of this virtue is, to think and execute constantly, manfully, and valiantly. This virtue is assuredly most requirable in a Counsellor, for without it he shall never imagine nor perform any thing noble or worthy memory. 
What to eschew in fortitude.  Yet therein we must take heed neither to be foolish, hardy, proud, rash, timersome, slothful, or cowardly. Who so would be valiant, it behoveth him to be so affected, as to do all things for love to virtue, and in attempting perils be lead by reason, and not by hazard, chance, or desperation. All commendation due to Fortitude consisteth partly in Domestical, and partly in Public, and military 
Domestical Fortitude.  actions. Domestical Fortitude doth ornefie the happiness of life: and the quality thereof is to remove all perturbation of mind, desire, fear, sorrow, voluptuousness, anger, and every other affection: possessing our minds with tranquillity, constancy, and comeliness 
Fortitude military.  of life. Fortitude military consisteth in suffering all labour and peril, and chief in disdaining death for cause of honesty, and the quarrel of our country. It is therefore the office of a valiant Counsellor not to be dismayed in time of danger, enduring and suffering all things which to be done▪ are thought honourable, and not doing 
The properties of Fortitude.  them, seemeth vile, and reproachful. The chief properties of a great and valiant mind, are, to fear nothing, to contemn all worldly things, and be persuaded to suffer whatsoever befalleth.  
Moreover it behoveth a Counsellor to be so courageously affected and disposed, that all his gifts of wit & mind, together with his virtues be (as with a certain sauce) tempered with Fortitude: For as our meats without salt, so all virtues wanting fortitude, are judged unsavoury. This is that, which defendeth both body and mind from all furies of misfortune. This is that, which maketh us in Prudence quiet, in Temperance constant, and in justice stout, valiant, and invincible. We ought therefore be always valiant in mind, in enterprises resolute, in disdain magnanimous, and in suffering never dismayed. This virtue called fortitude, wanteth not a flock of mean virtues companions, and followers: As, magnanimity, constancy, patience, confidence, 
Followers of fortitude.  and security. It is the property of men nobly minded, to do and aspire to those things which in every virtue are thought greatest & most honourable. This virtue is chief known by aspiring to honours▪ for it disdaineth those whom she thinketh inferiors in virtue. The noble minded man ascendeth to honour by the stayrs of virtue, and as it were imitating the course of Marcellus, who of the Syracusan spoils builded a temple consecrated to honour, making the passage thereunto in such sort, that no man could enter it unless he first pass through the house of virtue to it adjoining: being persuaded there was no way open to honour but by virtue, which the noble Senator in aspiring and seeking his honour ought assuredly to believe. Moreover, let him contemn small imaginations: for to men of so notable virtue, no blot or touch of infamy can be imputed. He must aswell in adversity as prosperous fortune bear one self same mind, declaring the nobility of his valiant, and honourable heart in great 
The properties of a magnanimous Counsellor.  and extreme dangers, and not in any wise to faint though death should thereof follow: for to such men, honest death is the beginning of life, whereunto a valiant Counsellor must give himself willingly for honour and immortal glories sake. The fame of Codrus shall live for ever, because he, to save his army and country, sacrificed himself. Also the names of Curtius and Scevola, the one casting himself headlong into a devouring pit to deliver Rome from plague, the other burned of his own hand, to make the enemies know that the Romans' were resolute in the defence of their liberty. The memory of valiant men is hallowed with immortal honour, and by record of all chronicles are preserved alive for ever. It is also the part of a noble Senator to judge truly and constantly of all things▪ not following the opinion of common people, who determine by chance, or as present occasion requireth. He shall likewise willingly take upon him the defence of truth, and therein not dissemble, protesting himself an open enemy to all evil men, unless he sometimes think good to disguise (as wise men do) being thereto forced by necessity, respect of persons and time. Let him willingly and freely bestow his benefits, & unwillingly, bashfully and discreetly receive of others following the advise of Hesiodus, who willed, that a good turn received should be reacquited with increase: for he that receiveth is 
Taxilis.  therein inferior to him that giveth. Taxilis one of the Indian kings, meeting with Alexander the great (as Plutarch reporteth) said unto him▪ I challenge thee, not to war nor combat, but unto an other kind of contention: if thou be our inferior receive a benefit, or if thou be our superior, bestow a good turn upon us, to whom (it is written) Alexander answered: thus it becometh us to contend, not who should receive, but who can excel & overcome an other in well deserving, and with those words embraced him, & suffered him to enjoy his kingdom with increase. The Counsellor must also be liberal of his authority & indifferent to all men, but chief to those that be of mean fortune. Among great personages, he shallbe magnanimous & high minded: for in that presence to extol himself, and discreetly speak in his own glory is the quality of a generous mind: but in company of inferiors to do so, would be accounted a light part, for of the one glory, and of the other 
How to take quarrel.  hatred, groweth. In taking quarrel or offence, he shall attend just cause, & honest occasion: therein showing himself neither secret nor crafty, but plain and open. For it is the property of a great mind to hate apparently, & without disguising or dissembling countenance to cloak displeasure. The magnaminious Counsellor shall rather repulse, then offer injury, disdaining those wrongs that be done him, for it is the quality of great spirits to set light and contemn small injuries, and a womanish thing it is to fear with anger, sith some beasts are so silly and of so small force, as neither Elephant nor Lion will vouchsafe to offend them. Let our Counsellor also be an earnest delighter in things honest, and a moderate seeker for profit. His life must be governed rather to his own content, than the fancy of others, and trust rather to 
The Counsellor no follower of each man's fancy.  the counsel of friends, than the examples of other men. Let him be no evil conceivour or speaker, nor willingly hear any man evil spoken of. Neither should he be without just cause angry or offended, for anger is a servile thing, as the Poet saith. 
Quo quisque est maior, magis est placabilis irae:  
Et faciles motus, mens generoso capit.   
Some men through a haughty and proud arrogancy have obscured the brightness of their magnanimous minds: which are chief those, that do not rightly examine the duty of their own virtue or honour, arrogating to themselves more than becometh good and wise men: which vice our Counsellor shall in any wise eschew: following that precept of Tully, which saith, that the higher we are in authority, the more lowly we ought behave us. For indeed arrogancy is both odious and offensive to all men. In like manner, lightness, vilety, and cowardice must be avoided, for he that putteth up injuries, and for fear or want of knowledge doth bear them, doth seem a slave or bondman. Some there are, who being good and wisemen, yet through faint heart and cowardice do think themselves unfit to perform great enterprises, and stand in fear to take in hand the defence of their country and friends. Therefore are to be reputed fools and slothful.  

Constancy.  It also becometh a valiant Counsellor in all speeches, actions, and adversities (if any happen) to be constant: for a movable and unconstant mind more mutable than Proteus, is in such a man no less unseemly than fraud or deceit. True it is, that things are praisable, which be taken in hand with judgement and reason: notwithstanding, if thereunto perseverance be not joined, they be accounted discommendable. The constancy of Aristides meriteth high commendation: for when Dionysius desired his daughter in marriage, he answered that he had rather see her dead, than the wife of a Tyrant: and having slain her, was again asked whether he continued in that mind said: he was sorry for the fact, but glad that he had so spoken. Who would not also admire the constancy of Cato? In whom (notwithstanding the affliction of his country) was never seen any alteration, but had always one cheer, one countenance, aswell being repulsed and accused, as when he was Praetor: continuing the same constancy in country, in counsel, in war, in time of his death, and in that terrible fear, when the state was vanquished, Caesar armed and as victorious usurped the commonweal. Xantippe was wont to say, that Socrates her husband returned always home with the same countenance he went forth: for indeed such was the mind of that Philosopher, as neither with adversity or prosperity it could be disturbed. It behoveth us therefore in suffering sorrow and grief to be firm and stable, repressing all perils of body and cares of mind, like unto Regulus who rather then the prisoners should be restored, delivered himself to the Carthagenienses. It is reported that when Anaxarchus was beaten by Nicorontus' Tyrant of Cyprus, he said unto him, thou mayst for thy pleasure persecute and torment this body, but my constancy of mind cannot 
What to be eschewed in Constancy.  not be harmed. Notwithstanding, the Counsellor shall above all things take heed not to be over constant in matters unjust, for constancy should only accompany virtue. Moreover to defend any conceit obstinately against reason and the opinion of good and wise men, or to persevere in trouble, for an unjust cause, is the quality not of a constant but a self-willed stubborn, foolish, and perverse mind. Constancy is also required in the choice of man's life, for who so persevereth not in that course and trade he hath chosen and embraced, is thought in all other things worthy to want the praise of constancy. Constancy is the conserver of all good counsels and actions: for vain were our wise consultations, if the same should ebb and flow like the river of Eurippus. Also great constancy ought be, to keep secret matters of counsel, for many things there spoken, are neither to be told to strangers nor domestical friends. It is the property of a light and unconstant head, to blab out mysteries done or spoken in counsel: which was the respect, that the Romans' consulting of great matters, would not admit the Pedarij Senators, nor any of the Clerks to be present, but they themselves performed that office. At the beginning, the Senate house was open to all young men that were descended of the number of Patritii, till after that noble & memorable part, of Papirius they were forbidden, lest through inconstancy of youth, the secrets of state should be discovered, 
Papyrius.  and thereby the commonweal damnified. Papirius being one day asked by his mother, of what matter so long disputation was held in Counsel, (dissembling the truth,) answered, merely: whether it were more profitable for the state that one man should have two wives, or one wife have two husbands. Moreover, in fortitude, patience and a certain 
Patience.  suffering is looked for, which Tully defineth, saying; patience is a voluntary and continual enduring of adversity for honour or commodities sake, the use thereof is in war greatest. For they that be soldiers, do often adventure their lives, and patiently suffer all dangers for the love they bear to honour and profit. This virtue is also at some times necessary for the Counsellor, when he is wearied with domestical and public business: for many troubles and cares do happen in the commonweal, which of force must be borne with patience. Surely if Coriolanus in his repulse, aspiring to the consulship, had used patience, he had thereby done more wisely, and his life should not have been followed with so many misadventures. The old saying is assuredly true: that patience is a remedy against all griefs: for things past and not recoverable may be endured, but not amended. Our Senator endued with this suffering shall easily find a mean to digest and contemn both private and public sorrows: he that cannot endure grief, is soft and effeminate, but who so can, is rightly called patiented, yet in the use of patience 
Whatto be eschewed in Patience.  we must take order, least through the multitude & greatness of injuries we become distraught: for patience often offended & moved, provoketh fury. Therefore grief must be qualified with moderation of mind, and whatsoever necessarily must be borne, becometh every man to endure sith all sorrows are overcome by patience. There is also a certain assurance of mind, orconceipt of good success, which many times doth make us valiant. That virtue is called Confidence encouraging us to hope well 
Confidence.  in great & honourable enterprises. Which conceit proceedeth of wisdom, counsel, & perfect hope: For whensoever we have gotten the knowledge & opinion of something, not hastily assenting to reason: that imagination doth draw us on, as that which we think honest, & without fear resolutely we perform it: because he that is confident, feareth not. It is reported, that julius Caesar seeing Caius Crastinus prepared with good hope, to fight in the Pharsalike war, asked of him what (as he thought) would be event of that battle? whereto Crastinus holding up his hand armed, said, Caesar thou shalt be victorious, & have cause either to commend me alive or dead: which indeed came to pass, for fight most valiantly in that exploit he was slain: and Caesar assembling all his army, made an oration in his praise. Aristotle saith that men accustomed to victory do thereby conceive a confident hope of happy proceeding. The like hope we have by fortunate success in other actions. Plutarch writeth that Antonius was always accompanied with an Egyptian Philosopher who only by men's aspect knew the nature, felicity, & destiny of each man: he used to commend much the fortune of Antonius, but much more the happiness of Octavius: saying, that the spirit which followed Octavius was of more power, then that which accompanied Antonius, for besides other conjectures, he so conceived, because in gaming or fight 
Genius vitator.  of Cocks and quails, Octavius had the better hap and was more lucky. It is supposed that nature hath given unto every King, Prince, and great parsonage a certain Angel to be defender of his life, and forewarner of that he is to take in hand: which spirit Homer and Plato doth call Genium, other do name it Laris, Demon, Lemuris, and we have termed it Angelus. Which Angel doth assist valiant men in battle; and many times doth inform them what is to be done. Of them, there are two sorts, the one good the other evil. We read that Vladislaus jagelonus king of Polonia in the war of Prussia against the Germans did see an Angel armed assisting him in fight, whom he religiously called Diwm Stanislaum. By reason of this sight he fought cofidently, was victorous, and in despite of the Tyrants delivered Prussia. Plutarcke writeth of an evil Angel which accompanied Brutus, for he upon a time reasoning of the war, there appeared a man of exceeding greatness: and Brutus ask what he was, answered his evil spirit whom he should see in the Philippian war: which seemed true, for thereby he foretold both the infortunate success of that war, and his death also. The Romans' were wont to have confidence in the predictions of their spirits: as is appeareth by the inscriptions of the ancient Romoine coin, Genio Augusti, Genio Senatus, Genio populi Romani, and thereupon Ovid saith. 
Et vigilant nostra, semper in urbe lares.   
Moreover, there is nothing better in confidence, then to trust unto wisdom and counsel, with which confidence let our Senator be endued, to make him in every action valiant, and courageous, for all other helps and hopes do sometimes fail, because they are not in our 
What to eschew in confidence.  power. Therefore as it is most noble, so is it also most sure to have a confident hope in virtue. In confidence we are to eschew temerity, foolish hardiness, and desperation: which vices do sometimes fill our 
Security.  minds with a false hope of fortitude, casting us unadvisedly into dangers. As security is the end of good life, so is it also the end of a valiant life: sith thereof cometh repose of cares and tranquillity of mind. The man endued with security, is (as Cicero saith) in the same condition wherein he was before his birth. Security is the want of sorrow and sickness wherein some Philosophers did think the happy life consisted. For love thereof, Democritus and Homer traveled Egypt, Babylon and Persia, hoping to attain knowledge, whereby their minds instructed with diverse sciences might become secure, perfect, and contented 
Public secu●ritie.  with there own fortune. The profit of security appeareth in the commonweal, when therein all things are peaceable, quiet, and free from perils, fears, quarrels, and troubles: which every man calleth common happiness. Yet are we to take heed, not to build our society upon light, uncertain, or fallible things: neither shall we hold ourselves secure by being slothful, careless, or negligent. Pompeius' having a 
What to be eschewed in security.  great army and coming to fight with Caesar, seemed secure: yet those Captains who feared the diligence of Caesar warned him to be vigilant; to whom he answered, that all was sure, and willed them to sleep on both sides. But this security deceived him, for he was vanquished by Caesar and forced to fly. This error happeneth to many commonweals: for being used to long peace, they deem themselves in security, which may more rightly be called sloth, cowardice, dullness, or negligence. In such states we see all things neglected, which appertain unto good government: either to withstand public dangers, or make the subjects valiant or just. The Empire of Rome was not enlarged, so much by any means as by the virtue military▪ In somuch as, not only the Roman arms, but also their laws extended far. That City from the time of Romulus till the reign of Octavius Augustus, was never disarmed. But Octavius finding the whole world in peace, caused the temple of janus (which only in time of universal peace stood open) to be shut: as though thereby the state should be ever secure from martial tumults Rome being by this mean made secure, no Emperor succeeding opened the the temple of janus so as from thence forth the people embraced rather an idle industrious life: whereof followed, that with time, all kingdoms, countries, & cities, cast of the Roman yoke, & won unto themselves liberty & Rome itself being utterly disarmed, became subject to the Gotij. We therefore advise our Counsellor to allow only of such security, 
What moveth men to be valiant.  as●āteth not care & provision whereby peril & misfortune may be avoided. For happy is that commonweal which in time of peace prepareth for war. We may not now forget to discourse what reasons do persuade men to be valiant, and willingly employ their persons in actions military. There are many that only lead with love to honesty and virtue, do rather choose to hazard their bodies and lives in fight, then in time of danger to abandon their Country, Prince, or friends. Which commendation our country men may challenge, because they are willing to serve in war, only for honour and virtues sake. We read that the Romans', Germans, and French Captains, at such times as they brought their soldiers to fight, did always animate them with persuasions of their own great forces, the excellency of their General, the virtue of their ancestors, and the spoils of the enemies: but our chieftains do use none other eloquence to encourage their army, than this, Let each man now remember his own virtue and reputation: which only persuasion sufficed the Polonians, whose property is either to be victorious, or die in the field. Who so therefore is so affected, as for love to honesty and virtue will refuse none adventure (the same being performed according to judgement) ought justly to be called valiant: as he that 
The rewards due to soldiers  for desire of glory and praise doth attempt all things valiantly. Which kind of men for their noteble acts, ought be honoured with rewards and badges of dignity. And albeit soldiers do more commonly endeavour themselves to understand how enemies should be vanquished, then how subjects may be governed, yet being wise men, they ought be advanced to the dignity of Counsellors. For it is reasonable, that after much labour in service of their country, they should be clad in long robes, and enjoy the benefit of civil ttanquilitie. In Rome, all such soldiers were adopted Senators, as brought home any spoil that appertained to the person of the enemy, or that did wear a garland, for saving a Citizen by fight. Those that had borne office in the field by the space of ten years, were admitted to civil magistracy. Regulus being removed from the dignity of a Senator, received that disgrace in so great disdain, as he tore his clothes open, and showed the wounds of his body: thereby claiming a place in Senate, and recounted what martial services he had done for thewelfare of his country. Which persuasion prevailed, and he again became remitted to his former dignity.  
Some there are, who loathing their own lives & lead with a certain 
What to be eschewed in fortitude.  desperation, do rashly adventure themselves to dangers, imagining that therein they imitate the actions of valiant men, alleging this poetical speech. 
una salus victis, nullam sperare s●lutem.   
The people of Numantia, did choose rather to slay themselves, then yield to the hands of merciful enemies. The Saguntin● were of like resolution, as Livius writeth. But we ought never to do any thing desperately. For who soever despaireth, doth flee from Fortitude, and it is the sin of an abject mind through fear and cowardice, to seek death. But a valiant man doth contemn life with judgement, & fighteth valiantly, not as void of all hope, but because he thinketh so doing is honest and necessary which is the reason, he maketh choice rather to die, then dishonour his life with reproach, preferring honest death before a shameful life. The Paripatetians affirm anger to be 
Anger.  the wherstone of Fortitude, and men being therewith lightly moved, do attempt all enterprises with more earnestness of mind. Nevertheless in use thereof, all fury and outrage must be avoided, lest we seem rather mad then valiant: which may be done, by making Ire a companion and no Captain to Fortitude. There is nothing more unseemly in men, (and chief in Counsellors) then doing all things angrily: for who so is lead with that passion, seemeth to imitate the condition of bruit beasts whose property is to revenge in fury. In enterprising all courageous attempts, let honesty and reason march before, and anger be ready to assist them. Plato calleth anger the sinews of the mind, because through it the mind is stretched up, and by mildness let down. Who so beginneth a war in heat and anger, is called choleric but not valiant, because he maketh his enterprise, moved by perturbation and not by honour or reason. Therefore the Epicure saith well, that immoderate Ire doth engender madness: and must be eschewed, not so much for love of moderation, as health's sake. Some there are, that attribute so much to Fortune, as armed only with that conceit, do proclaim triumph 
Fortune.  before victory; not fearing any enterprise whatsoever, which error is greatly to be reproved. For albeit the force of Fortune be great, and greatest of all in war (because it claimeth most power in things where reason prevaileth least) yet ought we not yield so much to fortune, as trusting only to her, reject all advise & counsel: sith good Captains being governed by reason, have small need of Fortune. Hannibal desiring peace of 
Hannibal.  Scipio, used these words: I have been taught sometimes by evil & sometimes by good success, that it is better to trust unto reason than fortune. Fortune doth for the most part suffer men to fall, that put their whole confidence's in hit not mixing therewith the aid of good counsel. For nothing is more uncertain, nothing more unconstant nor of less force: and it blindeth the judgement of those that do not bridle her headstrong fury. Therefore let our Counsellor be (as men say) faber ●u● fortunae, doing all things according to high reason and counsel: whereunto fortune will give favour, for she followeth reason as a shadow. Xenophon saith that in war evil fortune followeth evil men, and good fortune followeth good men. Alexander, Scipio, and Hannibal were fortunate, yet not so much through fortune, as the benefit of virtue, wisdom and good counsel. It is the part of a wise and valiant man, to take fortune when she offereth herself, and employ her according to counsel. Some men void of experience, finding things proceed to their own liking, do ascribe the same to fortune: and surely not without cause: for as of beasts, so of fools, fortune hath domination: yet no wise nor 
Temperance.  good man would ever make her the guide or director of his life. Nature hath so determined, that betwixt the minds and bodies of men, there should be a certain fight and contention, suspending & diverting their dispositions from the true offices of virtue. For the alluring and pleasing lusts of the body do labour to oppress the mind, and hold the same under: and the mind being armed and aided with reason, doth resist and repugn, all it is able. That virtue of mind which resisteth the affections and bringeth them under her rule, is called Temperance, commanding us both in desiring & eschewing to follow reason. Temperance is employed in contemning of pleasuresand chief, those that take end by taste and touching. Yet doth it not generally abhor all pleasures, but only such as be contrary to virtue and reason. There are some pleasures by nature honest, and some others dishonest, and either of them as incident to the mind, as the body. The comprehension 
How perfection of man, is attained.  of all these pleasures consisteth in the senses, which are (as it were) their servants and champions. Certainly it behoveth man to be not only sound of body, but also perfect of mind: which perfection must of force be attained by the exercise of virtue. That use of virtue which pertaineth to the body is called Temperance, working such effect that it yieldeth to reason, leading a life honest and worthy a good man. The pleasures of body, be borne and from our birth bread up with us, which is the respect they are with great difficulty reftained: chief for those men that take more delight in the exercises of body then of mind; which among men, is of all other things most beastly and ungracious. Therefore it standeth us upon that the body be bound to the obedience of the mind, and from it be never separate nor removed: for such conjunction doth make men perfect. All virtues do also make the commonweal happy, blessed, and peaceable: but Temperance alone is the keeper and presever of felicity: for it foreseeth that the 
Temperance the preserved of civil felicity.  state be not infected with excess and unreasonable pleasures, whereby many great and most notable Cities have been subverted. Every commweale furnished with good laws and customs, aught to take heed, lest riot, and excess should poison the subjects, for thereof groweth covetousness the mother of all vices. We read that in Rome laws were devised against excess in expenses and apparel, whereby an order of good and honest life was prescribed. The Lacedæmonians also did keep their feasts in public places, to the end that no man should dare to be wasteful in the sight of other Citizens. In old time the magistrates of Gallia Belgica, permitted not any custom that might make the people effeminate. At this day in some Cities of Italy, the liberty of immoderate expenses is by law inhibited. The lust of men is insatiable, and cannot be stayed but only by the bridle of law: for it allureth the minds of all subjects, and consequently moveth them to subvert their own country. The conspirators with Catiline are thereof an example, who being thriftless and licentious people, attempted to make war against the commonweal. Therefore the life of every subject ought be trained to temperance, providing that the state do not abound with excess: for by that mean the common quiet, the happiness of subjects, their welfare, health, and substances shallbe preserved, and they at all occasions be ready to take arms for their country, not fearing either want of wealth, nor excess of pleasure: which two, do many times bring Cities into servitude. It also standeth the state upon, to foresee that the life of subjects be neither in private or public, intemperate, nor that any man should abuse wealth and substance. A temperate & moderate life in private men, is an ornament of common felicity. Insolency of life is therefore to be suppressed, for from thence as the head, all conducts of mischief do take their beginning. And the Counsellor himself ought to be no less free from intemperancy, than he would have others. Wherein let him imitate the severity of the Censors, who in old time were the masters of civil temperance & modesty. He shall therefore aswell by private 
The followers of Temperance  admonition as public correction, reduce them from intemperancy, for the punishment due thereto ought be grievous. By the benefit of temperancy we become modest, bashful, honest, and continent: Through which virtue, the happy life of man is beautified, increased, and enlarged. Modesty (as the Stoics affirm) is a virtue that containeth the knowledge of all things to be done or spoken. For in every 
Modesty.  speech and action a measure ought be observed, lest we do speak more, than necessity requireth, forgetting the Counsel of Solon, ne quid nimis. But therein time is to be observed, and a fit opportunity awaited: for actions not well used, are oft times the cause of many inconvenients. Let comeliness therefore be kept in all actions and speeches, framing our countenance, eyes, gesture, motion, (& in brief) the whole body to modesty: so that thereby we may seem to have an honest, plain, 
Bashfulness.  & stable intent. We are sometimes also recommended by Bashfulness, which is that virtue that conserveth honest life: because in all actions it shuneth reproach & villainy. And as justice commandeth that no man should be spoiled, so bashfulness biddeth that no man should be offended: for a good man refraineth from injury, not only willingly, but is also terrified with bashfulness. Yet do I not require in our Counsellor that bashfulness which is peculiar to young men, or offenders. Because such persons are most 
Two sorts of bashfulness.  commonly against their will bashful, and ashamed. That perturbation of mind doth misbecome a grave & temperate man. But the bashfulness we seek for, doth imitate virtue: and thereby a certain habit and exercise of eschewing evil; so as, if at any time through ignorance error be committed, we are thereof ashamed, which is very commendable. julius Caesar fight with the younger Pompeius at Corduba, and seeing his soldiers ready to run away, passed forth before the foremost rank, & there most valiantly fought in person: which the soldiers seeing, could not for shame but turn face to the enemy, provoked partly with the the valour of the general, & partly with their own shame fastness  

Honesty.  There is in the capacities of men a certain instinct of honesty wherewith they are compelled to perform things honest & fly from their contraries. Also all the means to attain unto knowledge of honesty proceedeth from virtue, & therein her excellency & dignity resteth, which may sometimes proceed of common fame, glory, and opinion. Moreover who so through diligence and observation, knoweth what is measure, order, and gravity, performing in words and works, that beauty, sweetness, and rule, taking heed not to do or think any thing unseemly, effeminately, or licentiously, is thereby made honest. And the force of honesty is so great, as it alone sufficeth to divert men from all shameful life and evil actions.  

Continency & abstinency  Among the praises due to Counsellors for their good conversation, continency and abstinency do challenge no mean place. For they command not only to contemn the enticements of desires, but also stay our minds, our eyes, and our hands from following unreasonable affections. There is no spectacle of life more noble, then to see men contented with their own and not covet things appertaining unto others. Paulus Aemilius is commended, for that of all the treasure which was brought from Macedon and Spain, he converted no part to his private use, but delivered all into the public Threasurie, choosing rather to abstain and continue poor, then become rich by deceiving. For after death, his goods being sold under the Lance (as the custom was) there wanted whereof his wife might be sustained. The example of Scipio Affricanus his continency is most admirable: he being but twenty years of age at the taking of Carthage, found there (among many other captives) one maiden of most excellent beauty; yet would he not touch her virginity, but delivered her unto an husband whom she was before betrothed unto: and gave her in marriage all that gold which her friends offered, to redeem her. I omit to speak of Alexander the great, and many others, who gained no less glory by continency, then martial triumphs. We will therefore that our counsellor should be continent, following the counsel which Pericles used to his companion Sophocles and praetor in Rome beholding and commending the beauty of a y oung woman whom they met in their way towards the Senate house: saying. It becometh a Praetor to have not only hands free from corruption, but also continent eyes void of unchaste looks. It was therefore thought to be wisely done of Cato the Sensor, to remove L. Quintus Flaminius from the Senate for his incotinency: Because he being Consul in France was entreated by a harlot, that without offence, she might strike a prisoner condemned to die. Manlius was also deposed from that dignity, because he kissed his own wife in the presence of her daughter. Likewise Salustius for adultery and light conditions, was deprived the Senate. Surely there is nothing that doth more dishonour the dignity of a Counsellor then incontinency & lewd life: because it procureth private reproach and blemisheth the majesty of commanding. Sardanapalus consumed whole days in the nursery among women, sparing no time from incontinent exercises: As appeareth by the Epitaph, which living he commanded to be written on his tomb. 
Ede, Bibe, Lude.   
Aristotle chancing to find the Epitaph, stayed, and read the first part thereof, and smiling said: A man would think, this writing fit to be fixed to the grave of an ox, then written upon the tomb of a Prince? And having perused the three last verses: said further, that Sardanapulus enjoyed that, being dead, which living he never had but so long as he was in feeding his paunch. All pleasures not being reduced to necessity and honesty, are reproachful: and above the rest, those two which are taken by touching and tasting, do draw men most to offend in vice, and uncleanness. A counsellor therefore aught to be careful, that the life of subjects be not tumbled into this mire of voluptuousness and soul delights, but that all things may be done with shamefastness and honesty. All dishonest and unlawful delights should be extirped, and likewise all occasions and opportunities whereby the people are trained to live dishonestly, shamelessly, wickedly, and imtemperately ought be removed. The Lacedæmonians were wont to show their drunken servants unto their children, to the end that they (loathing their vile gestures and bestiality) might avoid the vice of much drinking. But would God we were as willing to follow, as remember those ancient customs. Great was the moderation and temperance which our ancestors used in their diet: for they lived not to eat, but did eat to live. In these days, the plague of intemperance is grown so great, as more men perish by incontinency and gluttony, then by force or fury of war. Also in some nations men take no delight but only in drinking. Who would not then commend M. Curius the Roman Senator, that was content the ambassadors sent by the Samnites should find him homely set at supper by his fire, drinking in a cup of wood: and there refused the gold which they did present him: saying, I had hather command rich men, then be a rich man myself. I speak not of Fabricius, Tubero, Fabius, Cato, and Scipio, whose temperate and sober life hath been by immortal fame preserved. Hortentius was much reproved for that he, at a supper (prepared for the Auguris) set before his gests a boiled peacock: likewise Cassius was deemed intemperate, because publicly he drank water, and could not endure thirst for a short time. Duronius was also removed from the Senate, for that he being Tribune, he cassed the law concerning the restraint of feasting. Surely the Roman state was happy in having such Senators as were not only princes of Counsel, but also masters of good manners and virtues. Whereof may be conjectured how temperate the people of Rome were in those days. It is reported that when the presents which Pirrus king of Epirus (after his overthrow) were brought unto Rome, and showed about the streets: hoping thereby to win good will of the people, there was nor one man seen to put out his hand towards them: foe as that king found himself no less vanquished with continency then force of arms. But when excess, after the victory of Asia, had entered Rome, and that through plenty and idleness, the people's minds began to grow wanton, suddenly that civil discipline of temperancy, parsimony, and society, were extinguished: and in lieu thereof, covetuonsnes accompanied with all mischiefs possessed the City▪ which (as Sallust saith) way the very cause that destroyed the Roman empire. The Counsellor therefore must foresee that in the commonweal excess may not long endure: because it perverteth public peace, and maketh the subjects soft, effeminate, miserable and needy. Diogenes hearing that the house of a certain prodigal man was offered to sale; said, I knew well that house was so full of meat and wine, as (or long) it would vomit out the master. The Counsellor shall also eschew nothing more in his own person, then immoderate eating and drinking: because it consumeth the force both of body and mind. Notable is that law of Solon, which judgeth a drunken prince worthy of death. Philip king of Macedon being disguised with drink, gave judgement against a woman: she forthwith appealed, and being asked to whom? answered to king Philip when he is sober. Certainly the force of wine taketh away all judgement in man; in so much as thereby kings are made servants, old men become children, wise folks are turned to fools, and fools changed to mad men. The Counsellor therefore shall observe measure, and drink for necessity, not for satiety: following the counsel of Anacharsis, who said that the first draft was of necessity, the second of superfluity, and the third of madness. It were most unseemly in a Senator to have a countenance full of fury, eyes full of anger, and speech full of pride, all which do accompany drunkenness: and as evil it will become him being overcharged with meat and wine to consume the whole night in sleeping. But how much good diet helpeth to preserve health, & prepare the body to action, we may learn by experience. For by moderate diet we find not only the mind, but the body also more obedient, but satiety, and fullness of belly, is no other, than a sepulture to a living mind. It therefore beseemeth a Senator not only privately, but also publicly to observe parsimony and frugality. Yet heed must be taken, lest he seem oversparing, hard, or strait in expense: for it is the property of a base and abject mind to abuse comeliness and honour in his living. Therefore private excess shallbe banished, and public magnificence 
Order and rule of man's life.  retained: needless delicacy, but (much more) misery and niggardliness must be avoided. For as immoderate expenses be hurtful, so necessary and convenient fare is honest and wholesome. Respect is also to be had to the place, the time, and persons: weighing therewithal, what belongeth to private and public honesty, dignity, and profit, not neglecting the change of exercises and honest pleasures. L. Tubero making a public feast, covered all his beds with the skins of kids, and for so doing was thought indiscrete, and ignorant in things belonging to public honour and reputation: also for the same was deposed from the office of Praetor. But of Temperancy let this suffice which we have hitherto spoken: Let us now (sith the time and order of our matter so requireth) entreat of the goods of body and fortune, wherewith the felicity of a Counsellor is not only ornified but also made perfect. For so much as the body of man, is, (as it were) a dwelling place, and tabernacle of his mind, it behoveth us and our lives to be furnished no less with the perfections of mind, then of body. For as the actions of virtue cannot be exercised by a weak body, so the body wanteth power to perform his duty, being governed by an imperfect mind. These two are so coupled and conjoined together, that as the Master without a servant, so the mind may not execute his duty without obedience of the body. Therefore the philosophers writing of policy, do conjoin the exercises of body and mind, as though men imperfect either in body or mind were improfitable in the society of men. Even as civil discipline and good laws do work the 
How perfection of mind and body is attained.  perfection of mind: so nature (chief joined with exercise) doth make the soundness of body: which is conserved by physic. Therefore in commonweals well governed certain laws and ages for marriage ought be prescribed & likewise education ordained for children, to theende they may be informed in civil discipline. So as by nature and art, the people may become both of mind and body most perfect. But sith heretofore we have discoursed of the qualities of mind, and the perfections thereof: it resteth now to speak of those qualities of body which ought to be in a Counsellor. For it behoveth him much to be as perfect in body as of mind. True it is, and that truth by learned men confirmed, that the felicity of man, cannot be defended with the virtues of mind only, but needeth also unto the perfection thereof, external commodities. Which albeit are not by themselves laudable, yet because virtue is known in their use and moderation, they ought greatly to be desired. The goods of the body do seem to consist partly in the whole body, and partly in particular members: 
Perfection of body.  for health, beauty, strength and soundness, are required in the whole body: but perfect sense, and nimbleness of legs and hands, are wished for only in some parts. As there is a society and consent of body and mind, so is there a certain liking and correspondence betwixt the virtues of body and mind. Health resembleth justice: because it reduceth the diverse constitution of body to an equal temperance: so beauty is likened to Temperance: and they both conspire in the perfections of body & mind. Strength is compared to fortitude, because in the enduring of labour & danger, the one of them doth aid the other. Soundness of body is likened to Prudence: For as Prudence doth reconcile all opinions and judgements, even so in a sound body, all parts do join and make one perfect body. How much health availeth to lead a good and happy life, experience teacheth. For there is nothing that we can do or think, but therein good 
Health.  health doth help us, and the want thereof doth hinder us. We will therefore that our Counsellor should be healthy, for thereby he may the better attend public affairs, use the exercises of body, & lead a quiet and contented life, free from grief & all sorts of sorrow. The first cause of health, is God, the maker of all bodies: the second good diet and exercise. For great regard must be had, least health be taken away by negligence or intemperancy. Health (as Cicero saith) is maintained by knowing a man's own body, and observing of those things, which agree, or disagree with nature: also by being continent, in diet, apparel, and contempt of pleasures: whatsoever else appertaineth to this matter, must be learned of Galen and Hypocrates. Diogenes was wont to laugh those to scorn that by sacrifice sought for health of the gods, and notwithstanding lead an intemperate life. A good constitution of body is also commendable in a Counsellor. Let him therefore either be (as the physicians do term it) sanguine, 
What temperature of body, is best.  or choleric: for those humours do make men apt for virtue: and such persons are commonly witty, docible, healthy, and of good memories. Aristotle calleth melancholy men witty, for being inclined to anger they are disposed to have in them certain divine thoughts and deep cogitations. Notwithstanding we utterly exclude them from counsel, as men unmeet for affairs of state, because their lives are, for the most part, governed by melancholy and not by wisdom. The humour most abounding in that complexion, is cold and d●ie; which maketh their cogitations to be solitary, inclined to envy, sourness, sadness, and sorrow. Cicero reading that place of Aristotle which calleth melancholy men ingenious, smiling said, that he rejoiced much that nature had made him dull witted and not melancholy. Caesar being warned to beware of a certain fat, merry, and liberal speaker, answered that such men were not to be feared, but those rather that were sad of swarthy complexion and lean; pointing to Brutus and Cassius. We also mislike that any phlegmatic person should be so much as the Romans' called him Pedarius Senator: lest his humour be offensive to all the rest: For as the motion of phlegmatic bodies, is slow, and heavy, so likewise is their disposition of mind. Also good proportion or comeliness doth recommend, not only the body, but also the mind, so as, it seemeth, the Poet said well. 
Gratior est pulchro veniens ● corpore virtus.   
We wish therefore that our Counsellor should be a seemly parsonage. 
Comeliness of person required in a coun.  I call comeliness, a manly & not effeminate body. This virtue is perceived in the features of body, face, and countenance. Let him therefore be neither huge nor small of stature, but of the mean size. In long bodies (as Aristotle saith) there is no great virtue, and in short personages, as little. Moreover, his body should not be exceeding gross, nor exceeding lean and dry, for the one is apt for travel, the other over-weak to endure pain. We also commonly take heed of those whom nature hath marked by defect of any member, as they that are lame of one leg, squint eyed, or deformed in person: for such men are accounted crafty and subtle. Nevertheless, if any such parsonage be known for good, and by the excellency of virtue hath overcome the imperfection of nature; then shall he deservingly be admitted to the dignity of Counsellors. The proportion of face or visage, is much beautified by good colour or complexion, which oftimes bewrayeth the secret conceits of mind. Our inward disposition is also sometimes known by the outward colour of skin. Philopaemen a notable Captain 
Philopemen.  of the Achaeans, was an evil favoured man, and being taken prisoner, was forced to cut wood. Afterwards he became known, and said; that he suffered the punishment due to his deformity. We therefore commend a grave & pleasant face in our Counsellor: and allow most of such eyes as are sweet & not cruel; for that countenance is fittest for men of such quality. Yet is not the conjecture we have by the features of body so certain, as thereby we may exactly judge the virtue of mind: for many there are, whose persons be not beautiful, yet in mind are virtuous men, that is to say, just, prudent, & temperate. The mind is not blemished by deformity of body, but by beauty of mind the body is beautified. Virtue is not bound either to a beautiful or deformed body, but is of itself comely, and doth grace all bodies with beauty thereof. And therefore it behoveth us in knowing of men, to use not only eyes, but also judgement: even so not only the person countenance & eyes of a Counsellor, but also the whole face of a Counsellors mind ought be considered & preferred before all beauty & good proportion of body. All these things may be wished for the perfection of men, but are not commonly looked for. A Counsellor ought also to be comely appareled 
How a Counsellor should be appareled.  according to the dignity of his office: for seemly garments do add a reverence to his person, increasing, and ornifying the worthiness both of mind and body. It is therefore requisite, that by his apparel he should be known to differ from other men, which custom is in all well governed 
Latus claws.  commonweals observed. The Senators of Rome used a garment set full of studs or tufts of gold, and on their hose they wear like unto a moon, which were the cognisants or badges of most honour. That kind of ornament, the Romans' seem to have received from other nations. 
Call ceilunats.  For Esaias the prophet foretold the noble women of judaea, that God would take away those moons and ornaments of hose. Plutarch allegeth sour causes, why the Romans' ware such hose: which to delight the reader, I will recite. The first was, because they thought that the souls of great men should by light of the moon be guided the next way unto heaven. The second reason that moved them, was that the sign of the moon, did show they were descended from the Archadians, who came into Italy with evander, for the Archadians did imagine themselves more ancient than the moon. The third cause why they ware the moon was, to the end, that in prosperity they should remember the inconstancy and mutability of Fortune: For as the moon most commonly is in part lightened and in part darkened, so no honour or felicity of men, can be so perpetual, but is sometimes obscured or extinguished. The fourth cause was, for that the sign of the moon, doth stir up men's minds to modesty and obedience: moving them to pray unto God for wisdom, whereby both to command and obey: even as the moon doth take her brightness from the sun, being a more noble and excellent light, so ought men to seek for wisdom from heaven. Others do fable and affirm, that the Senators of Rome ware not the image of the moon, but the proportion of the letter C, as though the hundredth whom Romulus did choose to be, (as he called them) Patres should thereof take 
The degrees of men ought be known by their apparel.  their title. In good commonweals the use hath ever been, that a difference of estates and degrees of men, should both by law and use be known by the people's garments: and that custom is assuredly of much moment to make them constant in their professions, and in the conversation of common tranquillity. Which was also the reason, that among the Romans' no man might wear purple, but only Senators, Magistrates, Priests, and young men of noble families. I omit to speak of rings, chains, and bracelets which were given to men of virtue, advanced to dignity. How these customs are in these days observed, it sufficiently appeareth: for we may behold a great alteration not only of virtues and manners, but of times also: sith the garments of soldiers, magistrates, and senators, do not differ from the habit of servants, merchants, artisans, and ploughmen. True it is, that the virtue and condition of men is not bound to any badge or ornament: yet is he thereby put in mind, with more diligence to maintain and exercise the office belonging to his dignity. For Sceptres, Crowns, Chains, Rings, Gowns, Robes, and Saddles, are no dignities, but the badges of dignity, wherewith men are stirred up to perform and do honour to the office and place whereunto that badge 
Badges of honour.  belongeth. Romulus (as Livy writeth) intending to govern a new people, appareled himself with an habit of majesty, and called twelve Littori with mazes, to attend upon his person, thereby to appear with more reputation, and reverence. It shall therefore become our Counsellor to be appareled according to his gravity▪ honour, and dignity: taking heed that his garments do not promise any variety, lightness, or inconstancy. He must ever observe therein a certain comely neatness, such as beseemeth men and not women; not exquisite or curious, but comely and manly, yet void of rusticity. Let him also in all motions, gestures, standings, doings, sit & lyings, frame a good grace and gravity beseeming a Counsellor. It is also very necessary, that he be strong of body, well knit, and manly proportioned. 
Strength of body.  Which things because they proceed from nature, he shall be more careful in using and conserving them, then diligent in attaining unto them. Strength is commonly in those men that be sound, nimble, and firm fleshed: which things with age do naturally increase and decrease: for young men are strong and mighty, but old men be broken and feeble. And for so much as, the force of mind is more requisite in a Senator then the strength of body: therefore we desire not in him the force of a giant, but convenient and reasonable strength. Milo being grown old, beholding cettaine wrestlers contending in strength, looked upon his own loins weeping. and called them dead: because (as I think) his whole virtue and honour rested in the strength of his body, We are now to discourse, what 
The age of a Counsellor.  age is most fit for the perfection both of body and mind, and of what years a Counsellor ought be. They that have desired the length of man's life, do confine the same within a certain proportion of time. Plato assigneth eighty one years, Solon eighty, and others affirm the life of man to be determined within seventy years: because they refer all to the number of seven, sith every seventh year some mutation of body appeareth. The first seven years the teeth of children do fall: the next seven years, their hear doth grow, the third, their body is at the longest: the fourth, their breadth▪ the fift, they are strongest: the sixth, desirous of pleasure, the seventh wise, the eight aged, the ninth feeble, and the tenth prepared for death. Others affirm that the change in man's life is every nine years: and some ascribeth alteration thereof at every unequal number till twenty and one. Pythagoras' called the eighty year of man's life, fatal dividing the same into four times twenty: so as childhood should last till twenty, youth other twenty, man's estate other twenty, and old age doth determine all, after the fourth twenty: comparing it to the four seasons of the year: the spring time was likened to children, summer to young men. Autumn to ripe age, and winter to old folk. V●rro maketh five degrees of man's age, including every of them into fiveteene: as though childhood lasted till the end of fiveteene years, for so long children are tender and without hare: youth till thirty, because till that time man increaseth in length and breadth. Ripe age induced till forty five, for so long the strength of body abideth, and men are able for arms and all other public actions: old age beginneth at threescore, for then the body wasteth and groweth ripe. With this opinion we think good to concur: but the distinction of ages by number, 
Critici vel iuditiarii dies.  doth chief appertain to physicians, for they in their fomentations and mede●ines, do observe certain particular and special days. But our opinion is that the forty five year of man's age is most meet for counsel, because about that time, man is of most force both in body and mind. Besides, that age is the midst of man's life, then in the ripeness both of body and mind. At that time (being the midst of man's life) the mind is not drawn with desires, not transported with youthful fu●ie, not subject to affections: but perfect of judgement, counsel, and experience of all things. When Rome flourished, the Senators were chosen of that age: because those years were accounted apt for counsel, in respect the heat of youth was cooled, and the mind attained to perfection: for as the perfection of body cometh by age, so is the mind thereby made ripe in wisdom and experience. Yet deny I not that many men are old at thirty years, that is to say, they be then both prudent and wise, for they desiring to be old long, begin soon to be grave. We read that in Rome divers were made Senators before the thirty year of their life, which we also allow: For men may be reputed old, aswell in respect of virtue, as age. Yet care must be taken, 
The common weal chiefly to be governed by old men.  That the state be chief governed by old men, for Plutarch saith, that commonweal proveth happy, wherein is plenty of young men's Lances, and old men's Counsels. The saying of Euripides is also notable. 
Dictum est vetustum, facta iwenum, ceterum  
magis valent consilia senum.   
In Athens no man was created a Counsellor before fifty years of age, and in Rome it was lawful for any man of sixty years to come into the Senate, although he had never been elected a Senator, and after that year he had liberty to come or not at his pleasure. In that point therefore the custom of each commonweal must be observed, and every Counsellor (though he were in age even with Nestor) ought to endeavour himself at all times and in all places to employ his power for the Commonweal. Plato saith; that men should learn, till they be so aged, as one foot is entered the grave: but why doth it not become them aswell to counsel and serve their country? Notwithstanding we forbidden men much aged, decrepit, and decayed as well in 
The quality of decrepit age.  mind as body, to give counsel. Because their counsels be commonly doubtful, and their judgements are rather conjectures than affirmations, always using these words, perchance and perhaps. The cause thereof is, that they have proved sundry perils, and are afraid to 
Goods of Fortune requisite for a Counsellor.  feel them again. Now for so much as the felicity of man without external goods cannot be absolute: therefore they are for a Senator of much necessity, aswell to ornefie his estate and dignity, as the more commodiously to perform the actions of virtue. Upon this point, the philosophers do grealty contend: for some of them do exclude the goods of Fortune: and others affirm the possession of Fortune's gifts to be of necessity in man's felicity. Both which opinions are true, if we consider the condition and end of each man's life. For they that affect private felicity, have none or very little need of Fortune: but others that do exercise virtue publicly, living in the society of men and govern the commonweal, cannot without the goods of Fortune perform any great, notable, or liberal action. Therefore riches, lands, and possessions are of necessity for a civil man & magistrate: aswell to exercise the offices of virtue, as to relieve the people, and repulse injuries: so as it is apparent, that without external goods every state is▪ miserable and unhappy. Me thinks therefore, the philosophers had done more wisely, if they had disputed of the use of riches, and not of riches itself, dividing felicity according to the condition of persons. For it is not felicity, but the life of man, which needeth things requirable to the sustentation of life. Whereof the condition being diverse, it behoveth each man above all things, to know the state of his life & felicity, possessing so much substance as is thought necessary to live well and happily. For which respect, the felicity of Diogenes was far other, than the felicity 
The felicity of Alexand. and Diogenes divers.  of great Alexander: the one was poor, the other rich: the whole world could not suffice the one, the other was contented with a silly cabin. Their orders of life were diverse, so was also their felicity: yet were they both philosophers, but the one delighted in private felicity, and the other affected public happiness: this ought be commended, the other not dispraised. That course of life is to be followed embraced and retained, whereunto God, nature, election or will hath called us: and the same should be ornified, as virtue, reason, God, and nature itself requireth. Which is the cause, that some had rather be poor then rich, learned them wealthy, private then public, soldiers than priests: for for each man esteemeth the life he best liketh. But for so much as the life and felicity of a Counsellor is laid open to the face and sight of the commonweal: it behoveth him in any wise to be furnished with the goods of Fortune, as, good parentage, honour, glory, fame, friends kinsfolk, children, riches, and money. I wish the parentage of 
Good parentage required in a Counsellor.  a Counsellor should be good, for that many times of honest parents good children be gotten. Let him therefore be borne a gentleman, and descended from a stock or house of nobility or gentry: for that honour left from his ancestors, was given by the commonweal, to the end that at occasions he should with the more fidelity fight for his country. There was a law in Rome, whereby Senators were forbidden to marry women that had been slaves. Neither was it lawful for any gentlewoman to take a husband of base parentage, or that was descended 
New nobility.  from such parents as exercised any mystery or gainful traffic. Yet do I not dislike of those that take the badges of honour from themselves, and make the foundation of their nobility upon their own virtue. For virtue entreateth both new and ancient men after one fashion, for she refuseth none that resorteth unto her for honour. It is reported that Cato being in contention with Scipio Affricanus, said merely, that Rome would become glorious, if great noble men, did not yield the chief part of virtue unto their inferiors: and contrariwise, if the multitude (whereof he was one) did contend in virtue with those that were noble in parentage. Moreover touching the beginning and original gentry is to be considered, who is in deed aspired to honour by the right degrees of virtue, for the new gentleman ought not be accounted inferior to the old, if he be advanced for no light or feigned virtue, but 
How new nobility is Commendable.  is made noble in reward of his great, laboursome, and honest industry. In consideration whereof, the virtue military and the virtue of wisdom & dounsell, be preferred before all contemplative virtues, wealth & riches. In every commonweal two rewards are prepared for virtue: the one 
Honour and glory rewards of virtue.  is honour, the other glory: which who so hath, cannot be called infortunate. Honour consisteth partly in having authority and office, and partly in the reputation which is given by great and notable men for the excellent virtue they think to be in him who is honoured. Tullius saith, that is true honour, which is given to noble men, not in hope to have benefit from them, but for their excellent deserts. Who so therefore desireth honour, must not only attain thereunto by showing old painted arms or images engraved in brass, but by his own virtue; whereunto the true and everlasting rewards are belonging. Cato seeing Rome filled with the portraitures of noble men, refused to have any made of him, saying, he had rather men should ask why he had none, than why he stood there. For the honour due to virtue, ought be perpetual and everlasting: not fading or subject to ruin. Of three hundredth portraitures set up for king Demetrius, not one was by time decayed, nor by negligence defaced; but in his own life they 
Glory.  were all turned upside down. Yet a counsellor ought to desire glory, as the most notable reward of virtue. And he is in glory most excellent, that passeth all others in virtue. Theseus' asked of the Gods three things, that is, good fortune, want of inward sorrow, and such glory as was neither false, counterfeit, nor feigned. Who so seeketh glory for virtue, and noble acts, doth not commit any thing dishonourable, either towards himself or others: because he measureth his fame and dignity by virtue and judgement. It is the property of men well borne 
Fame.  and liberally brought up, to desire the good report of his country, strangers, friends, and leave good fame to his posterity by consent of all honest people. All men therefore (but chief Counsellors) must take heed, lest they make any evil impression to deface their good name or fame, for seldom either in time present, or age to come, by virtue of posterity it can be canceled. For time speaketh, and fame is never silent, also liberty of tongue remaineth to think and pronounce the sayings and actions of other men. Moreover we only do not reap the fruit of good fame, but our neighbours, friends, and children are thereof partakers: in so much as all people and their posterity do commend us, admiring our lives, and extolling the time wherein we lived, the commonweal where we governed, and the laws by us ordained. In our own life time it behoveth us to do the like, least virtue, faith and religion do seem in us altered and extinguished, or that our posterity should imagine that we did degenerate from the virtue of our ancestors, or willingly rejected their precepts. Fame is the ground of perpetual commendation: therefore let each man eschew vice with the danger of disestimation: for the loss of Fame and fidelity, are greater disaduentures than can be imagined. It was provided by law, that no wan of corrupt fame should be chosen a Senator 
The loss of Fame of all others greatest.  of Rome. And he was holden of corrupt fame, that had been condemned for a diser, a deceiver of others, a these, an unjust man, a false performer of testaments, a liar, an heretic, a banished man, or known guilty of any other enormity whereby good fame was bleamished. In Athens there was an order, that the life of every Senator before his creation should be examined. Also Solon provided by law, that no man misliked of honest men, or noted of dishonesty, should be admitted a Senator. Which kind of men we also disallow, judging them not only unfit for the place of Counsellors, but also unworthy the name of men. Therefore the whole life of our Counsellor must be referred to virtue and honesty: for of them all true glory, fame, praise renown and dignity groweth.  

Friends.  Moreover the use of friends and neighbous, doth greatly beautify the honour of Counsellors: sith they do not only make man's life happy, but also comfortable. For it is a singular pleasure to communicate our affairs with friends, using their fidelity, and both in private, & public business, to be helped with their aid and assistance. Alexander being asked where he would have his treasure preserved: answered, among his friends, because he thought, good will to be the owner both of his, and other men's riches. Also to such a Counsellor as is desirous of 
Children.  posterity, a number of good and honest children are an enlargement of felicity. For men have no treceived from God any benefit so great, as is offspring and descent of children, whereby we enjoy immortal and eternal increase of life. Bercilidas a chieftain or governor in Sparta, sitting at meat, did forbid that the younger sort should do him reverence: reproving himself of barrenness, because he had not begotten any children to do them the like honour when they were old. In Rome the custom was, that they who had furnished the commonweal with children should be after exempted from the payment of taxes, and in token thereof, those men were called Proletarij. But let us now speak of riches, the possession whereof is for a Counsellor of singular necessity: for money is not only needed in 
Riches.  private, but also in public affairs, and without it he cannot perform any notable or virtuous action. Majesty without force is slenderly assured, and wisdom without authority, must yield to folly. The opinion of Plato is, that the governors of Cities, should be neither over rich, nor over poor: for the one doth make them cowardly, slothful, subject to pleasures, and desirous of novelties the other maketh them silly, weak, and rustical. Therefore the wealth fit for a Counsellor, should be sufficient for his degree, and gotten without reproach. Aristotle produceth two means of gaining riches: whereof the one is according to nature, and honesty, the other against nature, and dishonest. The natural means of getting, is by agriculture hunting, fishing, fowling, and such like, which contain not in them any deceitful permutation. Agriculture (as Cicero affirmeth) is of all other things the best, the most profitable, most pleasing, and most worthy a free man. Cato being asked by what means a man might soon become rich, answered, by feeding of cattle: and being asked the second time, said: by well and fat feeding. Whereby he seemed to think, that riches gotten by tillage, and nourishing beasts, was of all other the most honest. When the Romans' would commend any man, they used to call him a good man, and a good husband, in so much as the Senators themselves lived in the country, and at occasions, were by pursuivants called to the City. Lutius Quintius Cincinnatus & diverse other notable men were called from the country, to be made Dictator's. But it is to be thought, that their dwelling the villages was rather for solace, and recreation, then for any necessity wherein they lived. Gains against nature, are all kind of crafts for lucre, merchandise, and usury: because men do thereby seek dishonest profit, and be therein only occupied. Cato being asked what he thought of usury, answered. What is it to kill a man? A Senator therefore must in no wise meddle with any dishonest gain, he must also avoid all base and fowl travelingetting his riches: for by such exercises the honour of a Counsellor is defiled. It was therefore provided in Rome, that no Senator should be owner of any ship containing 300. Amphore, because immoderate gains was not in the noble men allowed. Also it must needs be, that those that bind themselves apprentice to base and soul gains, will not think upon honest matters and be careful of the commonweal: therefore such Senators were deposed from the Roman Senate. All honest riches do seem to consist in money, land, houses, household stuff, sheep, slaves, and such like things which are employed in honest and liberal 
Valewation of wealth.  labours. There was a custom in many commonweals (and chiefly popular states) to create the Senators according to their wealth, and for that purpose a valewation was made of each man's substance. Solon divided his valewation or cesments into four. The first was of 100L. Medimn●, the second of 300: the third of 200. and in the fourth were the poor men artificers, and mercenary people. Those that were rated at the second valewation, were called Equites. They that were rated in the third valewation, were termed Zeugitae, as men that deserved one horse, and in the first valewation, all Senators, Magistrates, and great noble men were included. Among the Lacedæmonians, no man was admitted a magistrate, that had not of wealth sufficient to contribute to the public feast called Phidicia. Plato likewise divided his commonweal into four valewations, so as the whole number of Citizens were included in the first, second, third, and fourth valewation. In like manner the Roman state had a certain diverse valewation, for in the one the Senators and in the other the Citizens 
Valewation necessary.  were valued. It seemeth therefore necessary in all commonweals, (for thereby order of state is observed) that customs and taxations be continued, the famelies numbered, the people's manners reform, all excess extyrped, and men made diligent in defending their country. The Censors or valewers of Rome, were the tutors for good manners, and conservers of civil and honest discipline, as were the Nomophilaces among the Grecians. Notwithstanding, it seemeth not good to me (be it spoken without offence) the Counsellors 
Riches without virtue nor worthy honour  should be chosen only in respect of their riches. For to give the government into the hands of the most wealthy sort, doth seem as though the charge of a ship, were delivered, not to the best sailor, but the richest passenger: whereof perils and shipwreck will ensue: Plinius finding fault with the Roman magistrates, their errors and evil manners, doth attribute the cause of all their iniquity, to the respect they bore towards the wealth of men: saying thus: after Senators were created for their riches, judges promoted for substance, magistrates advanced for money: and chieftains elected because they were rich, the price of man's life was trodden under foot. True it is, that riches without virtue it little worth, but being joined to virtue, doth increase a happy life. Therefore Counsellors ought be both rich and virtuous: and if any tich and good man being of sufficiency to govern in the commonweal do refuse the dignity of a Counsellor, he ought by the law of Censures to be thereunto compelled, for it is a shameful thing not to serve that state which begot him, & that country which gave him life, honour substance, & education. But here heed must be taken, that witless rich men, fit for nothing, should not in any sort be made magistrates: for honour given to such persons, doth transform them from fools to mad men. It is very reasonable that rich men of good desert should have some preferment in the state, because they have most substance, chief, if they be just, prudent and learned. Otherwise, to advance men for riches only is against justice: for they are apt to injury the poor, and prone to sedition and innovation. We are now to 
Reward due to Counsellors.  declare what rewards are due to Counsellors, what fruit belongeth to their labour, and what recompense the commonweal ought give to their excellent wisdom and worthiness. For we are all alured and drawn by hope of reward to exercise the actions of virtue. The opinion of Solon was, that commonweals were preserved by two things▪ that is to say, by reward and punishment: which not being bestowed according to the virtue and vices of men, the state might be accounted unhappy and miserable. It is therefore fit that Counsellors should 
Rewards of virtue divers.  receive rewards, not only of virtue, but also of honour, & authority. The reward bestowed by commonweals (as Cicero thinketh) do consist, either in favours, in profit, or in honour. These are therefore to be looked for, either at the hand of the commonweal, or of God. But the most noble reward is glory, for virtue desireth none other recompense of her labour, but the glory and praise thereunto due. All honest travel of Senators ought be rewarded with honour glory, and renown. There is no pleasure among men (as Xenophon saith) which approacheth so near the nature of God, as to enjoy honour and glory. The graces which God hath bestowed on men are so great, as neither in word or thought can be expressed; Yet do we give unto him, honour, praise, and glory, as that which is thought greatest, and most notable. As therefore in all other things, so therein let the Counsellor imitate God, esteeming that reward for his virtue, dignity, and labour, to be greatest, which consisteth in commendation, glory, and exaltation of his name. And every good man setteth his chief glory 
Wherein the glory of a Counsellor consisteth.  in virtue; As the soldier in fight, and the captain in victory: So the whole glory and honour of a counsellor is discerned by preserving the people, well governing the state, and doing things worthy commendation. He must also account the office of a Senator to be the greatest reward of his virtue: For as dignity in a person unworthy is indignity, so the same in a man worthy is a sign of greatest honour and glory. For indeed to great men great honours are due. Our Senator therefore shalt repute himself to be best honoured and rewarded for his virtue: When he is applauded of the people, of all men highly esteemed and by public consent pronounced to be a father, preseruour, and defender of his country. The badges due to such honour are not vain or mortal, but immortal and eternal: for they remain for ever impressed in the Poeples mind, extant in the memory of posterity, and in mouths and the ears of the whole commonweal. Of that praise and honour, our children, our neighbours, and friends do participate: supposing it their duty to imitate such actions, to be equal unto such ancestors, and (if it be posble) surpass them in glory: so as, all good men by this desire of praise and glory, do deserve well of their commonweal, and country. The houses of Senators must be as it were nurseries of virtue, where 
Counsellors ought be honoured.  the commonweal may (as a field replenished with virtue,) reap good fruit. The Senators ought therefore to be highly honoured and reverenced of other subjects, not only in respect of their age (which is due to all aged men) but for their authority, dignity, wisdom, fidelity and diligence in governing the commonweal. Who so therefore shall dishonestly or irreverentely abuse them, is 
Injury of 〈◊〉 counsellors to be punished.  with great severity to be punished. In Rome, the respect and reverence to magistrates was so great, that to offer them injury, was accounted a crime capital. For by law, it was enacted, that his head that did injury to a Tribune, an Aedile, a judge, or a Decemuirat should be sacrificed to jupiter, his family to Ceres, and his children sold. Seruiliu● Isaur●cus after he had been Consul chanced to walk in the street, & in a strait place was met by a horseman, who did not alight to do him reverence▪ for which act the said horseman was bound to appear before the judges, who with great indignation did condemn him. Because they thought, that he who did not honour unto authority and the magistrates, was ready to adventure every mischief. By the law (called Lex honoria) it was provided that no man should do injury to any Senator, for he that so did, should be reputed a traitor, & offendor: 
Ornaments and rewards of the Senators of Rome.  not only against the governors, but also the Senators, being reputed as members of the law. Therefore it was not lawful to offer them any indignity, by deed, word, or writing. The ornaments or rewards of honour due unto the Senators of Rome, were (as Cicero writeth) the place, authority, domestical splendour, fame, and favour in foreign countries, robes of honour, saddles of state, arms, bondels of rods, commandments in the armies, in war, and provinces. I omit to speak of images made of stone and brass, chariots, and diverse other things to long to be recited: which are at large described in a book entitled desenatu Roman lately written by joannes Samoseius, a man not only skilful in the Roman antiquities, but also in every other more commendable learning. Counsellors are therefore to be honoured in the commonweal, not only by having precedence of place, going and sitting, 
How much the Emperors esteemed their Senators  but with all other marks and badges of praise and reverence. So oft as Augustus Caesar came into the Senate, he used to salute every Senator by name: also going from thence he left them sitting in their place, and so without more ceremony said farewell. Adrianus the Emperor, seeing a man of his (whom he greatly favoured) to walk cheek by cheek 
Adrianus.  in the midst of two Senators; commanded an other of his servants to strike him on the face, because he used not the reverence due unto Senators. In Athens a crown was the reward due