THE ART OF RHETORIC CONCISELY AND COMPLETELY HANDLED, Exemplified out of holy Writ, and with a compendious and perspicuous Comment, fitted to the capacities of such as have had a smatch of learning, or are otherwise ingenious. By I. B. Master of the free-school of Kinfare in Staffordshire. ECCLES. 12. 10. The Preacher sought to find out acceptable words. Printed for Nicolas Alsop, and are to be sold at the Angel in Popes-head-alley. 1634. TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE JOHN LORD POULET Baron of Hinton Saint George, All sanctified prosperity. Much honoured Lord, THose reckonings that are daily added to the score, and run long on without computation, swell insensibly to an height incredible: of such nature are my obligations towards your noble self, standing bound not only for the principal, but the interest, the times and conditions of my lot being such, that until now my utmost studies and endeavours could never purchase an opportunity, in person to render the grateful acknowledgements of your Lordship's bounty towards myself, and to present the due homage of mine own observance: yea, I am by experience sensible of much difficulty to pick out the times and means of dutiful demonstrations, unless vicinity of place, and other conducing circumstances befriend us. Wherefore (my Lord) having with the long travel of grateful thoughts to your Honour, and desire of public good, brought forth these two-languaged twins; I have ventured to deliver them into your Lordship's hands (if they may be welcome) and through them into the hands of others (if they may be worthy) aiming by them to acquaint the world with my personal obligations, and thankful cogitations towards your Honour: and if they (by reason of their subject) shall discover any thing that may redound to the benefit of many or few, that that also may be reckoned to your Lordship, as the means of my abilities: unfeignedly withal desiring, that this your bounty, and all your virtuous actions may be summed up to the glory of God, the author of every good and perfect gift, both in us, and to us. To whose gracious tuition my constant prayer shall earnestly recommend your worthy person and noble family. Your Lordships in the manifold obligations of dutiful observance, JOHN BARTON. To the Reader. THe sacred Scripture (howbeit altogether eschewing, 1. Tim. 6.4. and 2. Tim 2. 14. and utterly condemning the impertinent use of frothy criticisms, yet) in beautiful variety, majestical style, and graceful order, infinitely and incomparably transcends the most pithy and pleasing strains of humane Eloquence. From this authority therefore I have made the art of Rhetoric exemplary; whereunto for the satisfying of the reader, I have premised these several instructions, partly as apologies to the skilful, for those additions, contractions, alterations herein made; partly as directions to the studious. First, Rhetorica est ars orationis confirmandae, & habendae, etc. Keck. Rhet. Aristot. Cicero, & alii● quinque parts Rhetor. constituerunt; Inventionem, Dispositionem, Memoriam, & Pronunciationem● sed malé. Di●tericus Rhet. Grammatica purè, Rhetorica ornarè, Logica cum ratione, etc. Molina 〈…〉. I say not (according to the received definition) that Rhetoric is the art of pleading well, howbeit I was about to define it the art of Oratory, which is equivalent with the former: but I consider, that to an Orator (besides Rhetoric) Logic and Grammar essentially belong. For together with the cooking, that is, the dressing and serving up of an oration, wherein Rhetoric consisteth, an Orator must have matter and method from Logic; purity of construction, and words accustomed from Grammar; or he cannot be perfect. Indeed it is very rare to find a man skilful in Rhetoric, who is not so in Logic and Grammar; yet I have read some sermon-books stuffed with Tropes and Figures, which doubtless with a good delivery would please, yet were very barren of solid matter. Now because these arts commonly met in a professed Orator, those that formerly wrote Rhetorics, Common places to help invention. Qui figuras grammaticas Rhetoricâ tradunt, distincta ●rtium praecepta confundunt. Dict. put in the Topics of Logic and Figures of Grammar, as essential parts of Rhetoric. Therefore must the learner, in any pleasing passages of words, diligently consider to which of these several arts every virtue in them is to be ascribed. For whose help herein, if this work take, I will annex in future editions an Appendix of all grammatical figures. Again, I say not, the parts of Rhetoric are Elocution and Pronunciation; for both these are but utterance, and neither imply the gesture: as for that their common acceptation is equivalent with the terms I give, this were tolerable in case of necessity, not where more significant may be had. Secondly, I presume, I need not excuse giving of English names, having put the known names in the Margin, and used them in my Comment: as for changing those names, good reason. For Tropes and Figures were distinguished by names that had no difference, Metaphora & Tropus idem sunt apud Aristot. as Metonymia and Metaphora are both Translation, which is a name general enough for all the Tropes: neither can I think it but preposterous, to speak of affections of Tropes before the Tropes themselves; which perhaps they did, that the examples wherein affections were, might be more fully apprehended, though I suppose so much at once would rather puzzle the learner. Thirdly, I thought it strange, that Rhetoricians should be fain to define Metonymia and Synecdoche, as Plato did a man, Homo est animal bipes absque pennis, latis unguibus. Substitution is a proper name unto them both; neither can any name be given to Substitution, which will not as well serve for Comprehension. by couching the particulars: nor yet do●h their definition of a Metonymy directly teach Elliptic Substitution, nor of the other comprehend the putting of one kind for an other; yet indeed I found it very difficult to distinguish them. The truth is, that these two are but one Trope; and but for avoiding censure of singularity, I would have made them one, as I have annexed them in regard of their affinity. Fourthly, whereas I have made Metonymy twofold, Perfect and Elliptic, I say boldly, that nothing in all Rhetoric doth more puzzle scholars, than not being made acquainted with this difference of metonymical examples, how that in some, a borrowed word supplying the place of a proper, we do no more but change again, that is, cast away the borrowed word and assume the proper, and they are resolved: But now again some examples will not suffer a change of the tropical word for another, but must be resolved by an addition of some word, containing the Cause, Effect, Subject, or Adjunct in a general term. Instance in this speech, That rock was CHRIST: They say truly, In the word CHRIST is a Metonymy of the Subject for the Adjunct. Well, then say I, Resolve this Trope, put out the word CHRIST, and render the Adjunct, for which it is put, That rock was— what? If they say, CHRIST is put for the sign, than I should say, That rock was the sign. But this resolution you see is defective: therefore I must lay both together, the general term SIGN and CHRIST, and say thus, That rock was the sign of Christ. Now in this example, The Pope spurns Emperor's KINGDOMS off their heads, I need not fetch in the general term to resolve it by spurns the SIGN of their KINGDOMS, etc. but change for the adjunct itself, which is ready and complete, Spurns Emperors CROWNS off their heads. Fifthly, I aver that I have truly referred Pronominations to Metaphors, for they all carry the force of comparison. Instance, I call an Archtraitor, a JUDAS: Now say Rhetoricians, This is by a Synecdoche: for here is judas, a particular word, put for the general, TRAITOR. How unlawful this predication is, and how insufficient the resolution, any scholar will discern; For judas by a Synecdoche cannot signify an Archtraitor, but simply a Traitor. Now make it a Metaphor, and I have the full meaning. But I will give a more useful answer: I say therefore, that if this be a Synecdoche, we need no Metaphor; for I can, by as fair a semblance as this, reduce every Metaphor to a Synecdoche or Metonymy. Instance, Luk. 23. 43. To day shalt thou be with me in PARADISE Shall I say this is a Synecdoche, 〈◊〉 saith 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, Luk. 16. 24. 〈…〉 ve●e●●●ti do●●●●● 〈…〉 lib. 1. cap. ●. I thi●k 〈…〉 it is a 〈…〉 they build 〈…〉 o● wood. one place of felicity being put for another? Yet why may not I as well as Butler, call this speech, They BUILD an horse, a Synecdoche? One kind of structure (saith he) is put for another. Again, Psal. 34.1. The young LION'S lack. Shall I say, LIONS for FIERCE and GREEDY men, is a Metonymy? For Lion is the subject, and fierceness and rapine the qualities of a Lion. Y●t why not as well as Keckerman calls this speech, K●ck. Rhe●● pag. 153. Every day is an HOLIDAY to the idle man, a Metonymy? Because HOLIDAY is put, says he, for a time of leisure and sport, which are appurtenances to an holiday. Now undoubtedly all these are Metaphors, though Butlers 〈…〉 catachrestical. But it would save much 〈◊〉 and prevent a deal of error, no more but to observe when the words bear the force of comparison; for all such are Metaphors. All Relation in Substitutions and Comprehensions, which is not true and real, turns to Metaphors. Examples are, Hosea 7.9. Rom. 12. 20. Psal. 41. 3. 1. Cor. 14. 11. Gal. 4.19. Which some would thus re●olve, Grey hairs, for sorrow's sorrow for misery, a metalepticall Metonymy of the Effect; Barbarian, for any stranger Synech. of the kind; Heap coals of fire● for overcome him; Make his bed, for give him ease, Travail in child, for long after, Metonymies of the Cause. Unless the Example be Metalepti●all, and the Lu●er Trope a Metaphor, as thus, Ye are God's circumcision, which word is a Metonymy put for CIRCUMCISED, which is a Metaphor. But the learner will find thi● intricate, before ●e hath compared it with the Tract. Rhetoricians have been deceived by a relation Metaphorical in stead of real. For instance, They PRICK UP THEIR EARS: Let us BREAK THEIR BONDS ASUNDER. In these examples, would Rhetoricians say, are Metonymies of the Adjunct. For, PRICKING UP THE EARS is a sign of HARKENING; BONDS, an Adjunct to AUTHORITY: But say I, Pricking up the ears, is a sign of harkening in beasts. So God hath no CORDS, but comparatively; therefore these are Metaphors. Sixthly, I say also, that those examples which I have referred to an Irony in the latter end of the chapter, are truly referred. And either an Irony must be made so large (as it well may) to comprehend them, or we must invent another Trope. Synechdoches they cannot be (though some make them so) for they have no relation. Seventhly, I aver also, that Hyperbole and Tapinosis are as flatly different as the names I give them, although the * Modern or late Writers. Nonnulli Rhetores, etc. Keck. lib. 2. pag. 17●. Neotericks make them one. But saith Keckerman, Some Rhetoricians call Tapinosis Hyperbole in defect, but it is better to distinguish them. What? when I call a MERE FOOL a SHALLOW FELLOW; a WICKEDNESS, an ERROR; when I say that is WARM, that shrewdly BURNS, etc. do I hyperbolise? do I overreach, and speak beyond my compass? Moreover, they were too short in not observing that these Affections were often found without being in other Tropes: and so where they found speeches that were merely hyperbolical or tapinosicall, they would refer them to some Trope, though without reason. For this speech, I made my bed to SWIM, Dietericus takes for a Metaphor: but I pray you where is the comparison? For put case his bed were born up with waters, it were a plain speech; which being impossible, what is it else, but a notable Hyperbole? Eighthly, I dare profess, that whatsoever Rhetorical excellency is or can be in words, is comprised in the Tropes and Figures which I have set down. I have deliberatively read the most eloquent books, besides diverse Rhetorics; yet all the commendableness of words I could pick out, would not yield a new Figure. As Gemination and Reduplication etc. come into Repetition: so Concession, ● Permission, etc. fall into Insinuation, and so of others. How all their examples come within compass of my Figures, will easily appear. But some examples I have, which they never paralleled, and some things their Rhetorics touch not. It had been easy to have made my book confused and intricate with prolixity, to have showed much reading and little wit, and needlessly to have wearied and perplexed my reader. If it be objected, that specially in those figures of Repetition, Variation, Allusion, there are various examples, which might have had several names: I answer, if every phrase, whereunto I could have given a proper term to express the form thereof, should have been a Figure, Quintilian makes 13 Tropes which Isidore reckons in his Grammar, pag. 847. ●ot in his Rhetoric, wherein ●e blames the Ancients for prolixity, ut eam lectori admirari in promptu sit, comprehendere imp●ssibile. Isid. 858. cap. 2. de ●he●. I should have run in infinitum. And doubtless the copious variety of words (especially in the Greek tongue) hath begotten that difference among authors that sought to open the arts, which being read by the unskilful, they took them for so many several Figures, as they found names, and the species of them for distinct Figures: the confusedness whereof was by the diligence of the studious amended by degrees. And why should not we contract and refine late writers, as they did the former? I have given general terms whereto all kind of pleasing speech may be reduced, so that I know no reader, wheresoever he meets with whole heaps of Figures together, shall find any thing but the spice or composition of what I have mentioned. Ninthly, whereas Rhetoricians give diverse rules about delivery, for the turning of the eye, carriage of the hand, setting of the countenance, framing of the voice, etc. I dare say, they are needless, insufficient, absurd: for this varies according to a multitude of circumstances, person, subject, place; and these particulars are also various. Only I have mentioned the Emphasis; and truly, if mine observation fail me not, look what faculty a man hath in giving a graceful Emphasis, in like degree he hath the gift of the whole delivery. Lastly, I expose my Treatise to the view and censure of the learned, as I have been bold in some things to censure other men's. Whoso will, may examine the matter; and whoso can, may undertake the patronage: although I have imputed faultiness to theirs, I do not warrant there can be none in mine own. I have spared to mention the worst I found, and think it might be judged pride and envy in me to reckon up the contradictions, curiosities, coincidencies, impertinencies, which are among them. I arrogate nothing to myself in detecting or amending them. I hold it a duty of this age and nation, As Mr. Harris taught in that eloquent sermon of H●zek●●●s recovery. to leave arts more refined to posterity, having so abundant helps. For what I have altered, I think I could pick my apology out of several authors, whom I found to be hammering upon those very matters, though (not finding a way out) they were fain to come again into the common road. Indeed I had, besides the advice of my learned friends, the joint assistance of my brother; and that candle, which we have lighted, we set up to others. Sure I am (Reader) that this facile art hath been found by good wits so imperfectly discovered, that some things were very intricate, some things very frivolous. How difficultly and defectively young scholars have apprehended the notions of this art, all schools have complain●●● That from the ignorance of Rhetoric (besides many other inconveniences) gross misconstructions of Scripture have sprung, experience, justifies. I was opposed with that place in Dani●l, Dan. 4. 27. Break off thy sins by righteousness, and thine INIQUITIES by showing m●rcy unto the poor. I answered, that in th● word INIQUITIES was a Synechdoche● the general word Iniquity being put for Oppression, one kind of iniquity, whereby I clear●● the place from seeming to confirm the Popish doctrine of making satisfaction for our sins by our works, for which purpose that place was alledged● and showed, that it did import no more then th●t speech of Isaiah, Cease to do evil, learn to do well. I will not multiply examples. Reader, thi● Tract having been proved and approved, as a sufficient mean to instruct any indifferent wit, that will bestow pains in serious meditation and conference with a scholar in the knowledge of the art, I am bold to commend to thy use, if tho● shalt need it; and commit unto thy love, if tho● shalt esteem it. Farewell. If thou sayest I ha●e made my gates too big, know I did it that my book might have the better passage. But now I shut them up, resting thine in the hope and endeavour of better services, JOHN BARTON. THE Art of RHETORIC. CHAP. I. Sect. I. RHETORIC is the ᵃ skill of using dainty words, and comely delivery, whereby to work upon men's affections. It hath two parts, Adornation and Action. Adornation consisteth in the sweetness of the phrase, and is seen in Tropes and Figures. A ᵇ Trope is an affecting kind of speech, altering the native signification of a ᶜ word. In a Trope are to be considered, 1. The Kinds, 2. The Affections. There be four kinds of Tropes: 1. Substitution, 2. Comprehension, 3. Comparation, 4. Simulation. The Comment. a) That is to say, It is the Art of trimming, decking, garnishing the Oration, with fine, witty, pithy, moving, pleasing words, cla●ses, and sentences in the passages and style of speech. b) This word Trope, is as much as to say, a borrowed speech, so that when any word leaves his native, that is, his proper signification, ●●d assumes a borrowed, we say it is Tropical: Although some speeches are grown so common, that they are taken to be proper; as, Correct me, O Lord, for Chastise me, O Lord, the Effect for the Cause: but so usual, that few perhaps would note it. c) See Note 6. Sect. 2. Metonymic. SUbstitution is a borrowed speech, by an accidental ᵃ relation. It is either Perfect or Elliptic. ᵇ Perfect Substitution is, when the word wherein the Trope lies, is cast away in the ᶜ Resolution. And it is fourfold. 1. First, of the Cause. 2. Of the Effect. 3. Of the Subject. 4. Of the Adjunct or Accident. Substitution of the Cause, is two ways: 1. First, when the ᵈ Efficient cause is put for the effect. Gen. 4.7. * 2. Cor. 9.5. Micah 7.9. ᵃ Sin lieth at the door. Ezra 4. 7. The writing was in the Syrian ᵃ tongue. 1. Tim. 6. 6. Godliness is * Isa. 60.17. ᵃ gain. So when the Author, ᵉ Principal, or Famous in a thing is used for that which is wrought or brought in by him, or named from him. Act. 21.21. They are informed tha● thou teachest to forsake ᵃ Moses. Psal. 14.7. * Psal. 6●. ●. ᵃ jacob shall rejoice, and ᵃ Israel shall be glad. 2. Secondly, when the Material Cause is used for the Effect. Psal. 105. 8. He was laid in● * E●cl●●. 1●. ●. iron. The Comment. a) Relation is, when a thing in any respect hath reference to another. An accidental Relation I call that, which continues only while they are Tropes, or otherwise they are not necessarily considered together; as, Sin is put for horror & punishment, Tong●● for language, Gain for gainful, Moses for the Law, jacob and Israel for the Israelites, Iron for fetters. Now, there may be sin, where there is no horror or punishment considered. Gain may be considered abstractively, that is, by itself, and not in a subject: as there may be virtue, justice, though there were none just; so there may be a tongue without language, as in beasts: jacob might have been, though no Israelites after him; Moses, though no Law; Iron, though no fetters. But in Synechdoches there is a true Relation considered, Metonymia ● consentanels fit, Synecdoche Logicâ oritur. 〈◊〉 whether they be Tropes or no: the Genus must have his Species, and the whole his parts, and contrarily. These do subsist one in another. In a word, Substitution is from things that have but an affinity; Comprehension from things that have a consanguinity. b) Note from this example, Note 1. that in some metonymical Relations, the Cause and Effect, Subject and Adjunct may perhaps be hard to conceive: for unless to scholars, it is not so ready to be apprehended, Though this would be mor● readily resolved elliptically, the bringer of gain. And so i● should be Substitution of th● Effect. See Sect. 5. that gain is the cause of gainful, though indeed it is: for what makes gainful but gain? c) The resolving of a Trope is the changing of it to a plain speech: for instance, The writing was in the Syrian language. This now you see is made a plain speech, by putting away the borrowed word tongue, and resuming language, whi●h was meant by tongue. This I call a Perfect Resolution, because I come directly to my word again. d) The Efficient Cause is, whereby a thing is made or done; & the Material Cause, whereof. Note 2. e) Note that it is one thing when the Principal is considered as the Cause, another as the Subject, another as a Part. Instance, Israel fought with Amalek. If here by Amalek and Israel I mean their succeeding race, themselves being dead, ●● Imperator consideretur ut causa, etc. est Metonym. Referri au●em possunt hac exempla ad Synech. Diet. Rhe●. lib. 1. it is a Metonymy of the Cause: but if I mean by them their armies, themselves being at home, it is a Metonymy of the Subject. If I mean by them the Israelites and Amalekites, led by them into the field, themselves being partners in the battle, it is the Part for the Whole. Sect. 3. SUbstitution of the Effect is, when the Effect is used for the Cause. 2. King. 4.10. ᵃ * Deut. 28.61. Psal. 53.5. Eph. 5.11. Death is in the pot. joh. 11. 25. I am the ᵍ * 1. joh. 5.4. Ezek. 18.30. resurrection. Substitution of the ᵇ Subject is, when the Subject is used for the Adjunct. Eph. 4. 22. Cast off the old ᶜ man. Thus the place, or seat, and container, are used for the placed, or contained thing. Psal. 78. 87. Their ᵈ heart was not right. Gen. 6. 11. The ᵉ * Act. 18.18. earth was corrupt before God. 1. Cor. 11. 26. As oft as you drink this ᶠ * Prov. 1.14. cup, ye show the Lords death. The Comment. a) Death is put for poison, which is the effect of poison. b) The Subject is that thing, whereunto something is said to appertain or belong: and the said appurtenance is called the Adjunct or Accident. c) Man is put for nature. d) Heart, for the affections there seated. e) for people. f) for wine. g) I think good here to note, Note 3. that it will perhaps be difficult sometimes to hit upon a term whereby to resolve a Trope perfectly: for indeed when I first considered of this example, I could resolve it with addition thus, I am the cause or causer of the resurrection; but the term Raiser I could not think on a good while. And at first view I thought these Elliptic also, Exod. 21. 21. Eph. 5. 16. Sect. 4. SUbstitution of the Adjunct is, when the Accident is used for the Subject. 1. Tim. 4. 16. Neglect not the gift given by the hands of the ᵃ * Rom. 11.7. presbytery. Gal. 6. 14. God forbid that I should glory save in the ᵇ cross of Christ. Thus the Adjunct of time is put for the subject measured by it. job 32. 7. I said ᶜ days should speak, and the ᶜ multitude of years should show wisdom. So the sign or ᶠ circumstance is used for the thing betokened. Rom. 13.4. He beareth not the ᵈ sword in vain. So also the quality is put for the subject. Ecclus. 10.6. ᵍ * job 15.34. Follie is set in great dignity. The Comment. Note 4. a) First let me note, that in some examples it skills not, which you call the Subject, which the Adjunct: for instance, Let their table be a snare, that is, Let their meat be a snare. Table may be either the Subject or Adjunct. And let me note further from the first example set down, Note 5. that some Tropes may be variously resolved, according to men's several judgements. As some may think Presbytery, here being put for Presbyters, to be the Effect for the Cause; for what makes the Presbytery, but the Presbyters? though I rather take it to be an Adjunct to Presbyters. b) Cross, for sufferings. c) Day's and multitude of years, for the aged. Whence note, Note 6. that the borrowed speech lieth sometimes in more than in one single word. For there is a single word, which Logicians call Vox incomplexa, as Peter, an horse, virtue, gentle, etc. And there is a double word called Vox complexa, as Peter the Apostle, an horse all white, despised virtue, gentle in behaviour. These you see run into one, and do of diverse single ones make up double ones; so that having said, A Trope is always in one word, I mean not that it must always be in one single word, but sometimes in a double word, which, upon the matter is but one word; as here the double word multitude of years, is in purpose no more than the single word Days. And as the words of the Trope are sometimes complexive; so also are the words of the Resolution, as in Proverbs, or otherwise. d) Note hence, Note 7. that a choice word may best befit a Trope, where in the Resolution the same word cannot serve: as Sword is put for Authority, being a sign thereof; yet we cannot say, He beareth not the Authority, but he hath not the Authority in vain: so that in Resolutions sometimes there must be alterations in some joint words of the clause, which yet agree well to the Trope. e) By sign is meant any token, or resemblance, as the ornament, habit, title, ceremony, etc. f) See the tenth note. g) That is, the Fool. Sect. 5. Elliptic Substitution is, when the Cause and Effect, or Subject and Adjunct do meet in the Resolution. This is also, First in the Cause. Heb. 11. 39 They received not the * Acts 8. 28. ᵇ promises. 2. In the Effect. Gen. 25.23. ᶜ Two * Leu. 17. 14. nations are in thy womb. Thus when an Epithet implies a Cause. Psal. 100 1, Make a * Luk. 11.14. Isa. 17. 11. ᵈ joyful noise. 3. In the Subject. 1. Cor. 10.4. That rock was * Exod. 12.11. Christ. And so when that is spoken of the Subject, which is intended of the Adjunct. Deut. 32. 10. He found him in the ᵉ howling wilderness. Also when the Subject is put for the Subject so qualified. 1. Cor. 16.13. Quit yourselves like * Matt. 6. 24. ᶠ men. So when an Epithet implies the sign. 1. Sam. 14.2. Put on * 1. Tim. 2.9. ᵍ mourning apparel. 4. In the Adjunct. Deut. 9.21. And I took your * Psal. 71.5. ʰ sin, the calf that you had made, and stamped it to powder, etc. Thus when that is spoken of the Adjunct which is intentionally referred to the Subject. Mal. 2. 15. She is the ⁱ wife of thy * Ezek. 23. 3. ⁱ covenant, and the wife of thy ⁱ youth. Deut. 33. 2. From his right hand went a ᵏ fiery law. The Comment. a) Ellipsis is as much as to say, a leaving out: I call therefore those Ellipticall Substitutions, wherein some word is left out, and in the Resolution therefore must be added again. It is true, that the defect of words in the language is the cause of some Ellipticall Substitutions: as if there were any word promiseds, the first example would be perfect. It is true also, that a man may resolve some perfect examples Elliptically, if he please; as, Death is in the pot; that is, the cause of death is in the pot: but Ellipticall examples are such, as must of necessity be resolved with addition, so that in the Resolution both the Substituting and the Substituted word are mentioned together, as in the examples following. b) Promises, for fruits Effect. of the promises: Cause. for they did receive the promises; but the fruits or accomplishment of them was in the time of the Gospel. c) Two nations, for the fathers. Cause. of two nations Effect. d) joyful, for joyful Effect. - making. Cause. An Epithet is any Adjective joined to a word to express his signification. So here joyful signifies making joyful, and so implies the Cause in the word making: for noise itself cannot be said to be joyful. e) Howling is here attributed to the wilderness, and meant of the wild beasts, which are an Adjunct to the wilderness: as if you should say, Wilderness Subject. of howling beasts. Adjunct. f) Men, for valiant Ad●●●c●. men. Subject. So we say, Will you come to supper with those hands? meaning those foul Adjunct. hands. Subj●●●. g) Mourning, for sign Adjunct. of mourning. Subject. h) Sin, for the subject Subject. of your ●inne. Adjunct. For it cannot here (though otherwise it might) be resolved perfectly thus, I took your calf, etc. because of the subsequent clause. i) Here wife is attributed to covenant and youth, which are but accidents to the person: as if he should say, the wife of thee Subject. by thy covenant Adjunct. in thy youth. Adj●●●●. k) Fiery is here given to the law, which is intended of the Subjective place of delivery; as if he should say, The law Adjunct. from fiery Sinai. Subject. So you see that Ellipticall Substitutions are but a kind● of half Substitutions, one word being put for more, not one word for another, as in perfect Substitutions. This ex●●ple was forg●t to b●●xpl●ined in 〈◊〉 place. l) For sign Adjunct. of Christ. Subject. CHAP. II. Sect. I. synecdoche. COmprehension is a borrowed speech by a natural relation. It is fourfold. 1. Of the Genus. 2. Of the Species. 3. Of the Whole. 4. Of the Part. Comprehension of the Genus is, when the ᵃ general word comprehends the particular. Psal. 72. 8. He shall have dominion from the * Ph●●●. 13 river to the ends of the earth. Comprehension of the Species is, when the particular word implies the general. Matt. 23. 24. They devour ᵇ widows houses. Isa. 2. 13. The day of the Lord shall be upon every ● cedar of Lebanon, and every ᵇ oak of Basan. The Comment. a) A General word is that which comprehends singular words under it: The G●nu● here is tak●● sometimes for the logical Species, though Keckerman be more curious. as a Beast comprehends an Horse, a Cow, a Lion, etc. A Stone comprehends an Adamant, a Flint, a Pebble, etc. So River here, which comprehends Thames, Trent, Tiber, etc. is put for Euphrates. b) They did not only devour widows houses, but any sort of poor people; and not only houses, but any kind of goods. The Prophet meaneth every Cedar, and every Oak, though he addeth a seeming limitation: Quoties limitatio additur, Tropus tolli●ur. Keck. & commonly when to a general word a limitation is added, Rhet. But it is where the limitation is intentional also, not merely verbal. it makes it particular. If I say, The disciple, for john, it is a Synecdoche of the Genus; but if I say, The beloved disciple, for john, it is a Particular, and no Trope. Note, Note 8. that sometimes in English, though I cannot directly find it so in Latin, one particular word is put for another: as Matt. 5. 33. Whosoever putteth away his wife, except it be for fornication, etc. where fornication, being one manner of Incontinency, is put for another, viz. Adultery. For the married by uncleanness are guilty of adultery properly not fornication. So also one part is put sometimes for another. Psal. 16. 11. Thou wilt not leave my soul in hell; where soul is put for body. Note also, Note 9 that Rhetoricians make such speeches belong to this Trope, as we find 2. King. 5. 27. He went out of his presence a leper as white as ●now. He might (say they) have said● As white as wool, milk, chalk, etc. so that by ●now is meant any white thing. But I rather think this is no Trope, because he is not tied to mean any other thing; nor need I seek any such Resolution of the word to understand his me●●ing. Sect. 2. COmprehension of the whole is, when the whole implies the part● Acts. 2. 2. It filled the whole ᵃ house where they were sitting. Thus the plural number for the singulary Ma●t. 27. 14. The same ●hings also the ᵇ thiefs cast in his teeth. Comprehension of the part is, when the part implies the whole. And this is five ways. 1. When a piece or member is put for the whole bulk or body. Ephes. 4.9. He descended into the lower parts of the ᶜ earth. 2. When a set number is put for an uncertain. Levit. 26. 8. ᵈ Five of you shall chase an ᵈ hundred. Rev. 12. 5. Of the tribe of judah were sealed ᵈ twelve thousand. 3. The singular number for the plural. Num. 24. 22. The ᵉ Kenite shall be wasted. 4. One circumstance for another or more. Deut. 28. 30. Thou shalt marry a wife, and another man shall * john 12. 32. 1. Sam. 14.26. Deut. 16. 9 ᶠ lie with her. 1. Sam. 24.3. Saul went in to ᵍ cover his feet. 5. One or few of a company, band, sect, etc. for many, or all. Exod. 17.13. ʰ josuah discomfited Amalek. The Comment. a) House is put for chamber. b) Thiefs for thief. See Luk. 23.39. c) Earth for world. d) He means, A few of you shall chase manies and by twelve thousand, S. john understands a great number. This may also be referred to a Synecdoche of the Genus; one number being put for another of the like kind. Much ado there is about the reference of these Synechdoches, whereas indeed it is more trivial than deserving a controversy, there being little excellency in them, unless when they are Hyperbolical. Some of them need not to be reckoned for Tropes, for like reason that I gave of others in the last note of the last section: as, Twenty good turns will not win the ungrateful; for I may mean just twenty. e) Kenite, for Kenites. f) Not only tie with her, but defile her: for both these circumstances are intended by that one. g) The action of covering the feet is not intended itself, but expresseth another circumstance, viz. doing the office of Nature. Note, Note 10. that if that circumstance which is put for another, be a natural, that is, a necessary circumstance, which always accompanies the action it intends, than it belongeth to this Trope: but if it be but an accidental circumstance, with which, or without which the action useth to be done; then is that circumstance an Adjunct, not a Part, and belongeth not to a Synecdoche, which is by a natural Relation, but to a Metonymy, which is by an accidental Relation, as I have said: Instance, Prov. 17.18. A man void of understanding striketh hands, and becometh surety. Here by striking of hands is meant, gives his word. This circumstance is accidental, and therefore an Adjunct unto promising: for without it a covenant may be made. h) josuah is put for himself and his army. Note, Note 11. that sometimes those that are but a part by Relation, are put for all; as, Gen. 20. 7. God healed Abimelech: the plague that was removed was barrenness, so that the women only could be healed; he was of their number by relation merely. So the Lawyers speak in the cause of their Client, as if it were their own, though mere relation make them a part. And if this seem rather an accidental relation than a natural, you may refer it to a Metonymy of the Adjunct, as some Rhetoricians do. Note also, Note 12. that there is an Ellipticall Resolution in many Synechdoches: as, Paul puts the palace indefinitely for Nero's palace. Note again, Note 13. that there are Synechdoches in Epithets, when that is attributed to the whole, which is intended of the part, or chose: as, What naked and curled gallants are these? that is, What gallants are these with curled hair and naked breasts? So, I opened your letter with doubtful hands. CHAP. III. COmparation is a borrowed speech, Metaphora. carrying the force of a ● comparison. jer. 5.8. Every mana * job 1.10. Heb. 12.29. Deut. 32.14. neighed after his neighbour's wife. Hereto appertain all ᵇ Anthropopathies. Gen. 6.6. It ᵇ * Mal. 3.16. Act. 17. 3●. repented the Lord that he had made man, and it ᵇ grieved him at theb heart. All Pronominations either from the Person, Nation, or Place. Matth. 17. 12. ● Elias is come already. Ezek. 16.3. Thy father was an ᶜ Amorite, and thy mother an ᶜ Hittite. Rev. 18. 2. ᶜ Babylon is fallen. parabolical and Proverbial speeches, and all of ᵍ like nature. Mark 4.3. The ᵉ * 2. Sam 12.2. sower went out to ᵉ sow. Ezek. 18.2. ᵈ The * Eccl. 4.12. fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the children's teeth are set on edge. The Comment. a) A Metaphor is nothing but a comparison drawn into a word. His comparison is drawn from horses, which neigh for lust. b) Anthropopathies are speeches attributing to God according to the manner of men, as properly God hath no heart, neither can be said to repent or grieve; but these things being said of men, God is expressed to us by them. c) Pronominations are proper names that are borrowed, as john Baptist hath the name of Elias for the likeness of their gifts, being such an one as Elias was. So Israel is said to have the original from the Amorite and Hittite, from the similitude of their conditions with these nations. ●ue pertinent omnes Parabolae in Evangelio propositae, Fabulae AEsopi & Poeti●●●, quae nihil ●liud sunt quam Metaphorae allego●icae. Di●t. glib. ●. Rhet. So Rome takes the name of Babylon, from the parity of their manners. d) The fathers have sinned, and the children are punished. e) A preacher went out to preach, etc. g) By such like speeches, I mean any that have a comparative exposition; as mystical speeches. S. john calls War the red horse, Famine the pale horse, Death the black horse. So types, emblems, riddles, fables, when we use them comparatively. Note 14. Note that sometimes a speech is borrowed, though but supposed of the thing from whence it is taken: as Psal. 78. 25. Man did eat Angel's food. Angels have no food, but as supposing they had, of the daintiness it was so called. CHAP. FOUR SImulation is a Trope, Ironia. whereby under colour of one thing a man insinuates another, or else derides. 1. King. 22.15. ᵃ * 1. Sam. 25. 3● Go & prosper. 1. King. 28.27. Either he isa * 1. Cor. 10.12 Insinuation and Derision are both in that example job 12.2. talkking, or he is ᵃ pursuing, etc. joh. 9.25. Whether he be a sinner or no, ᵇ * Gen. 3.22. I cannot tell; but this I know, he hath opened mine eyes. 1. Cor. 3. 4. ᶜ Who is Paul? who is Apollo's? The Comment. a) As under colour of saying, Go and prosper, the Prophet means the contrary, Go and perish. And that was but a pretended speech of Eliah: for he meant not as he spoke, but spoke in mockage. b) The simulation which lies in this speech, is apparent from the 31 verse: for the blind man contendeth to prove, that Christ could not be a sinner: and the speech is like unto this, I know not whether this iron be hot, but I am sure it hath burnt my fingers. So there are Ironies in contradictions, O holy idolatry! O prodigious virtue! He blushes like a black dog. He quakes like an oven. c) The simulation that lies in this speech is this, that whereas the Apostle, to avoid exception, nameth himself and Apollos, his intent was (as appeareth chap. 4. vers. 5) under colour of those names to touch those Ministers whom the Corinthians did too much applaud, and to whom they did ascribe above what was meet: for Paul and Apollo's were not magnified amongst them, but rather despised: under colour of these names doth the Apostle tax the preachers they extolled. So that there are Ironies in a Person, as in a Metaphor, when I call an hypocrite a Nathanael, a coward an Hector: or by an Inversion, as, How chance you beat your master to day? Or by Insinuation, as, I am so proud, none of my neighbours may speak to me: or by insinuative Interrogation, as, Was I e'er burnt i'th'hand? or by Negation, as, I never took money to forswear myself, meaning it still to him or of him we speak: or by St Phil●●. 19 Preterition, as, I will not tell you how drunk you were yesterday, how you swaggered and staggered, and the boys flocked about you, etc. when yet I do tell him thus. So in these speeches, Perhaps you may find him from the Alehouse. So, He is the wisest man in the town, when all the rest are out; when I mean, He is the veriest fool in the town. So, They were alive, They were rich; when my purpose is not to say what they were, but thereby to insinuate what they are now. So when I say, If I had said so, I had lied; when I intent that he lies in saying so. CHAP. V. THe Affection of a Trope is the quality, whereby it requires a second resolution. These Affections are five: 1. Abuse. 2. Duplication. 3. Continuation. 4. Superlocution. 5. Sublocution. Abuse is when a Trope is very far fetched. 1 Catachreses. Heb. 12. 1. Seeing we are compassed with a ᵃ * Deut. 32.24. Luke 12.50. Host ●4. 2. cloud of witnesses. Exod. 13.19. Thou shalt not seethe the kid in hisa mother's milk. Duplication is, 2 Metalepsis. when there is a plurality of Tropes in one word. Matth. 21.10. All the ᵇ * Phil. 1. 16● city was moved. Mal. 4. 2. The Sun of righteousness shall arise with healing under his ᶜ wings. ᵈ Continuation is, when Comparation is continued. 3 Allegoric. Matt. 3.10, Every ᵈ * Ma●●●. 3. 1● tree that bringeth not forth good fruit, shall be hewn down, and cast into the fire. 4 Hyperbole. Superlocution is, when a Trope is stretched beyond moderation. By way of amplification, Psal. 119. 136. ᵉ * Num. 23. 10● Rivers of waters run down mine eyes, etc. Or by way of extenuation or restriction. 1. Sam. 24.14. After whom doth the king pursue? After a ᵉ * Psal. 22.6 dog? After ae flea? 5 Tapinosts. Sublocution is, when a word speaks below the intention. Matth. 25.24. Lord, I knew thee an ᶠ hard man. Note 15. Note that these two latter Affections are found without Tropes. 2. Sam. 2. 18. Azahel was light of foot as a * john 21. 25. Heb. 11. 12. ●ud. 20. 16. ᵍ wild roe. Isa. 49.2. I have laboured in ᵍ * Psal. 105.15. Hyperbole and Tapinosis being ●found● without T●opes, are to be judged Tropes themselves, because they bring in a borrowed sense. vain, I have spent my time for ᵍ nought. jude 14. Behold, the Lord ʰ cometh. So also in Sublocution, 1. Cor. 10.5. But with many of them God was not ⁱ * Psal. 68.8. well pleased. Host 4. 4. This people are ⁱ as they that strive with the priest. This Sublocution either in a Trope, or out of a Trope, is when we mean a thing by way of eminency. Mal. 2.14. She is thy ᵏ * esther 3.10. companion. The Comment. a) Which you may understand by resolving the several examples following: for there is found in them not only the borrowing of the word, but that joined with a further Rhetorical virtue: as a cloud of witnesses is not only to be considered as a Metaphor, but as an unusual, strange, and strained Metaphor, not obvious and congruous. The like is to be said of mother, which is very abusively given to a dumb creature; yet these abusive speeches skilfully drawn, do adorn much. b) City is first put for jerusalem, by a Synecdoche of the Genus: and then jerusalem for the jerusolomites, by a Metonymy of the Subject. c) Wings is put for beams, a catachrestical Metaphor; & beams for merits, another Metaphor. d) Rhetoricians teach that Tropes of any one kind coming together make an Allegory; yet again they give this rule, that the term of the same comparison may not be changed: as to say, These plants may become corner-stones one day. Now I say, if it spoil an Allegory, only to change a piece of it, how can words of no dependence at all make an Allegory? Therefore an Allegory is, when Metaphors are continued, or else heaped together in the same comparison; as here tree, that is man; fruit, that is works; hewn down, that is, condemned; cast into the fire, that is, thrown into hell. All these are in one comparison. And in the 12. of Eccles. From the second verse unto the fifth, there are diverse Metaphors, but all upon the same subject, to wit, the description of old age: yet if any will contend, that the prosecuting of particular Metonymies, and will not say of Metonymies or Tropes in general (a● Rhetoricians have affirmed) do also make an Allegory, I will not altogether gainsay them: for it is indeed comely to continue still Metonymies also of the same kind: as in this example, it is more pleasing to say, The sceptre as well as the sheephook must go to the grave, then to leave out one of the Adjuncts, and say, The sceptre as well as the shepherd must go to the grave. But I leave it to the judgement of the reader. e) Rivers is a Metaphor; so dog, and flea. f) And Hyperbole and Tapinosis are directly contrary: for that is when we do over-speak, and is ever discerned by a limitation, or restraining, whereby to resolve it in such like words, Nay not so; as, Nay not rivers, though abundance of tears: Nay not a dog, or a flea, though a mean person. But a Tapinosis is an underspeaking, when we mince, or forbear to speak to the full; and is discerned by an assenting, or an enforcing to resolve it by, in such like words, With a witness, At least, I may well say: thus here by hard he means a rigorous and austere man, as Luke expresseth it, chap. 19 21. Therefore well might he say hard. And as there is Amplification, and Extenuation in an Hyperbole; so there is in Tapinosis: as this, A living of an hundred pounds per annum is worth thanks, is Extenuation: But this, This Cure is not worth above an hundred pounds, is Amplification. g) For there is many times this Affection of over or underspeaking, when otherwise the words are all plain: As swift as a wild Roe; there is none of the words borrowed, only there is an overreaching in them: he was very swift, but so swift he could not be. So, not altogether in vain, though for little good. h) Here also is an overreaching speaking in the present time. i) Here is only an underspeaking. He might well say, Not well pleased; for he was highly provoked. So he might well say, They were like those that contended with the priest; for they were very those. k) The wife is the companion indeed, for she is the man's chief, principal, and nearest companion. CHAP. VI THus much of the Tropes. Now follow the Figures. A ᵃ Figure is an affecting kind of speech without consideration had of any borrowed sense. A Figure is twofold: Relative and Independent. ThebRelative figures are six. 1. Repetition. 2. Variation. 3. Gradation. 4. Correction. 5. Allusion. 6. Composition. Repetition is the recitation of somewhat in the sentence, sometimes by Continuation, judg. 5. 12. ● Awake, Awake Deborah, ● Awake, Awake. By Transition, Hose. 2. ●1. I will hear the ● heaven's, and the he●●ens shall hear the earth, and the earth shall he●re the corn, etc. By Amplification, Psal. 145. 18. The Lord is nigh to ᶜ all that call upon him, to all that call upon him in truth. By Connexion, Isa. 3. 24. ᶜ In stead of sweet smell, there shall be a stink; In stead of a girdle, a rent; In stead of well-set hair, baldness; In stead of a stomacher, a girdle of sackcloth, and burning in stead of beauty. Variation is a pleasant fruitfulness of words, added only for variety's sake. Psal. 14.7. ᵈ * Psal. 7.16. jacob shall rejoice, and Israel shall be glad. Isa. 1.4. ᶠ A sinful nation, a people laden with iniquity, a seed of evil doers, children that are corrupters. And verse 17. ● Relieve the oppressed, judge the fatherless, plead for the widow. ●●nax. Gradation is, when the immediate succeeding clauses transcend each other in signification. 1. john 1. 1. That which we ʰ * Exod. 15.9. ●udg. 5. 27. ●ude 12. have heard, and that which we have seen, and our hands have handled of the word of life. judg. 5. 30. To Siserah, ● sides● Correction is the reenforcement of the clause last uttered, ●panosthes● by the subsequent. Gal. 3. 4. Have ye suffered so many things in vain? ⁱ if it be yet in vain. Allusion is a delightful harping upon words. 1. Tim. 6. 6. ᵏ But godliness is great gain. Matt. 8.22. Let the ᵏ dead bury the dead. 2. Tim. 4. 2. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ᵏ * Rom. 12. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. 2. Cor. 4.8. ᵏ 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. 2. Cor. 6.10. As ᵏ poor, yet making many rich; as having nothing, and yet possessing all things. 1. Tim. 3.16. God was ᵏ manifested in the flesh, justified in the spirit, seen of Angels, preached unto the Gentiles, believed on in the world, received up into glory. Composition is a smooth linking together of select words and clauses. Psal. 3. 24. In stead of sweet smell, there shall be a stink; in stead of a girdle, a rent; in stead of well-set hair, baldness; in stead of a stomacher, a girdle of sackcloth; and ˡ burning, in stead of beauty. The Comment. a) The learner must carefully distinguish between a Trope and a Figure; though in our common speech we confound the Terms, and the difference between them is this, that a Trope cannot be without a borrowed sense; but a Figure may be, whether the words are borrowed or proper. Rhetoricians indeed gave this difference, that a Trope was in a word, and a Figure in a clause or sentence; but observe all the examples, and this will be found false. b) These five first I call Relative figures, because in every one of them there is a reference of words which makes the elegancy. The other Independent, because no part of the clause brings in another; but the whole clause is jointly & independently considered. c) These examples of Repetition, though they be of several sorts, need no explanation. d) This you see is the very same thing, but spoken in diverse terms. f) Here he also expresseth the same purpose with variety of words. g) One of these terms Relieve, judge, or plead for, would have served the several clauses; but to vary terms is far more pleasing, for using the same words breeds satiety. h) Here is a climbing of the speech; To see is more than to hear, and to handle is more than to see. A work of diverse colours is somewhat ; of needle, that is more ; on both sides, that is yet more. i) Here the latter clause is so inferred, that it recalls the former, and causes it to take a deeper impression. But indeed Revocation is more powerful, when there is a direct Revocation; as thus, ●r Harris in ●ezekiahs●●●very ●●●very. We are now redeemed, justified, sanctified, glorified in him. Redeemed, justified, sanctified, glorified? What things are these? And Mr. Smith's personation of Nabuchadnezzar hath in it a pretty Revocation: Did I call it great Babel? I will call it great Babel: Did I say, I built it? I will say, I built it: Did I add, For the honour of my Majesty? Let it go, For the honour of my Majesty. Note 16 Note that some speeches have a spice of Gradation and Correction together. Rom. 8.34. It is Christ that died, yea rather that is risen again. Yea, and in some speeches, two, three, four, or more Figures may be compact together: the same speech may carry both an Exclamation, Diversion, Reservation, Allusion in it, or the like. This thou canst not choose but note in the examples throughout, and wherever thou readest. k) Allusion is a very large and witty figure. Sometimes we allude to what is forespoken: as in the first example the Apostle alludes unto the speech verse 5. So we allude in the mentioning of another's words, or of our own that are known words; as if one should begin a speech thus, If I had not ploughed with your heifer, etc. alluding to Samsons words: so in the inversion of a clause, as, The poor have ever lived hardly, but now they hardly live. Sometimes we allude unto the sense, when the word hath a double construction, as in the second example. So in these, ●ish. Hal●● The Rhei●ists can no more abide that proposition converted, than themselves; The ash is an emblem of unprofitable prelacy, which bears nothing bu● Keyes. The Vulgar ●all this descanting upon words. We are all saints by calling, and some of us but by calling. Physicians live by other men's pains. Sometimes we allude unto the sound, as in the third and fourth examples: yea if it be but the keeping of the letter, as thus, There is a difference betwixt the sins of weakness, and the sins of wilfulness. Labour not to please the ear, but pierce the heart. Sometimes we allude to sense and sound both; as, Those things we ●hould most setby, we most set by. Sometimes we allude in the choice of words, that have a pretty correspondence, answering and suiting with one another, as in the fifth example; and so thus, Go and seek thine entertainment, where thou hast lost thine honesty. How much better were it to be with the sheep of jethro, ●ish. Hall. then with the wolves of Israel! If he had said, with the tigers or bears of Israel, it had been all one for his meaning, but had been nothing so neat. Sometimes we allude to the pace or measure of words, as in the last example; The clauses are all of alike size, which makes them run very pleasantly. Sometimes we have allusions both of the sound, sense, and pace together. l) There are ● virtue's in this Figure; the one intimated in the word smooth, that is, such a collocation and well-ordered disposition of the word, as doth avoid harshness, and pleaseth the ear with a● harmonious consonancy of syllables, as in the example is plain: For if the last clause had keep the form of the precedent thus, And in stead of beauty, burning, it would have sounded more unpleasantly, but that transposition of the words gives a grace unto them. The other virtue intimated in the word select, is a judicious choice of words, sometimes of a monosyllable, dissyllable, or more syllables, sometimes being more full or fit in regard of more consonants or vowels for the place and use intended, although otherwise of equal ●ignification. So that this composure of words is like some frame of joined ware, the joints and parts whereof are so truly proportioned and fitted, that the whole coupleth sightly together, without gaping or unevenness. Note 17 Now true it is, that to teach election of words, when to use long words, when short, where to choose a word that begins with a vowel, where with a consonant, which to make the precedent, which the subsequent, I say, though for this end sundry rules might be given, as also in all other Figures and Tropes, so that the multitude of rules would have swelled a volume too big: yet because little but the Theory of Rhetoric can be learned by Art, and the Practic is the gift of Nature, I have thought it a fruitless, yea an hopeless attempt (as is discoursed in Tully de Oratore) to teach the practice of Rhetoric. For ever when it is not natural but affected in us, to dra● and compose Tropes and Figures, we fall so far short of the goodliness of Oratory, as a forced action from a natural deliver● So that herein only Discretion, Observation, and Exercise must be our guides. And the notions of Rhetoric (as hath been proved and approved) are herein fully discovered, that the ingenuous consulting with any scholar, may attain the exact understanding of them. CHAP. VII. THe independent Figures are six. 1. Description. 2. Diversion. 3. Reservation. 4. Exclamation. 5. Personation. 6. Insinuation. periphrasis. ᵃ Description is a ᵃ complemental dilatation of speech, which is two ways. 1. By ᵃ Circumstance. 2. By ᵃ Circumlocution. Eccles. 10.20. A bird ᵃ of the * Rom. 6.12. judg. 5. 24. jam. 1. 23. air shall carry the voice, and ᵃ that which hath * Deut. 32.25. wings shall tell the matter. apostrophe. Diversion is, when abruptly breaking off the matter in hand, we speak of another. Gen. 49.18. ᵇ * judg. 5. 21. I have waited for thy salvation, O Lord. ●pos●opesis. Reservation is an abrupt breaking off, withholding part of our mind. 1. King. 21.7. ᶜ * Isa. ●. 19 Dost thou now govern the kingdom of Israel●— Arise, etc. Exclamation is a speech expressing some conceived passion or affection of anger, ●epho●o●●●● joy, desire, admiration, doubt, scorn, insultation, objurgation, etc. Psal. 42. 2. ᵈ When shall I come and appear before God Rom. 12. 33. O the depth of the riches, both of the wisdom and knowledge of God How unsearchable are his judgements, and his ways past finding out! Personation is, Prosopopoei●● when we feign a person ᵉ speaking or hearing; or a thing, as a person. Psal. 16. 10. ᶠ Thou * 1. Cor. 15. 32. Eccles. 7. 16. wilt not leave my soul in hell, etc. 2. Sam. 1. 25. ᵍ O * Psal. 11. 1● jonathan thou wast slain, etc. jud. 9 8. ʰ The trees said unto the Olive, Do thou reign over us; but the Olive three said, etc. 1. King. 13. 2. ● O Altar, Altar, etc. Insinuation is a subtle winding into the Affections to beget good liking, attention, or consent. By ᵏ Compellation, ᵏ Occupation, ᵏ Appeal, ᵏ Anticipation, etc. Rom. 12. 1. I beseech you brethren by the mercies of God. 1. Tim. 2. 7. I speak the truth in Christ, and lie not. 1. Cor. 11.13. 2. Cor. 11. ●1. Ac●● 26.8. judge in yourselves, is it comely, etc. Acts 26. 29. I know that thou believest. The Comment. a) Description here I take larger than Periphrasis, for that indeed is but Circumscription; and by Complemental dilatation, I mean ●ine spreadings and fillings of speech either by Circumstance, which is an addition of words in the setting forth of a thing, not expedient for the matter, but for ornament; as in the former of these clauses it had been sufficient, and all one for the matter, to have said simply, A bird shall carry, etc. that addition of the air is but a neat Compliment, or filling of speech: and these circumstances are many times comprehended in an Epithet; as if he had said, A flying bird shall, etc. Flying is but a superfluous circumstance to the mat●er, yet it adorns much. So in these speeches, Blessed shall jael be among women in the tent. David vows to kill all Nabals house, to the dog that lies at his door. Or by Circumlocution, which is a phrase of speech: a fowl is in this wise described, that which hath wings. So that description of dying, by David, I go the way of all the earth; and that of Solomon, Man goeth to his long home, are very fine Periphrases. b) jacob was foretelling what should befall the several tribes: in the midst of his prophecy, he suddenly breaks off into this ejaculation, which depends not upon the precedent matter. Note 18. Note here also that there is an elegant Diversion in the person. Psal. 34. 12. What man is he that desireth life? Keep thy tongue from evil: he should have said, Let him keep his tongue from evil: but he turneth to the second person; for the more personal any application is, the more forcible it is. c) Betwixt Israel and Arise, to make the sense perfect, there wants some such words as these, And canst not get a vineyard? and those words are much more forcible by the reservation of these. For it is not every Eclipse that makes a Reservation, as some idly teach. In playbooks, where these Figures are much used, they are noted thus— d) This Figure is plain enough, Note 19 and is commonly noted with this (!) Note that of the nature of an Exclamation is a pithy sentence in the close to wind up the passage, which Rhetoricians call Epiphonema: as, Psal. 49. 20. where the Prophet having discoursed of the licentious folly of self-admiring worldlings, shuts up thus, Man being in honour, and understanding not, is like the beasts that perish. e) Any way speaking, whether objecting, answering, or communing. f) This David speaks not of himself, but personating Christ. See Act. 13.35. g) Here David speaks, as if it were to Jonathan's face. h) Here jothan brings in the trees speaking, as if they were men. i) Here the Prophet speaks to the altar, as if it were a person, and heard him. k) Compellation is loving, sweet, and beseeming language, as you see in the first example. Occupation is not (as many ●each) the bringing in of an objection, for that is rather a personation; (as, O but we are not book-learned: Thus the Preacher objects many times, personating ignorant cavillers) but it is when we slily forestall prejudicated thoughts, as in the second example the Apostle prevents by that protestation, the scruple of misdoubting his callings The other examples be plain. Note 20. Now lastly you must note, that happily there may be some examples added to most of the Figures, that will be found somewhat after another manner, As apples of the same t●ee may differ in colour, figure, bigness, and perhaps somewhat in taste. ●●e the epist. even as there is some difference betwixt the examples given. For instance; To Repetition I might add a repetition in manner of the burden of a song, as in the 136 psalm. To Correction I could add correction by way of counterfeit mistake, as thus, These jebusites, Jesuits I would say. To Allusion I might add allusion by a purposed mistake, as Summer said to King Henry, Your Frauditours, Conveyers, and Deceivers, and such officers, get all your money; for Auditors, Purveyors, and Receivers. To Insinuation I might add insinuation by concession, apology, simulation, etc. And so of other examples and other figures; all which are so plain and so easy to be apprehended, that doubtless the distinguishing of them into so many species would rather obscure them, and puzzle the learner, then be any help to the understanding thereof. CHAP. VIII. THus much of Adornation; a word of Action. Action is a part of Rhetoric exercised in the gesture and utterance. Gesture is the comely carriage of the body; whereof nothing is needful to be spoken. Utterance is the sweet framing of the voice; of which we will note only that which we call ᵃ Emphasis, which is the elevation of some word or words in the sentence, wherein the chief force lies. Psal. 76. 7. ● Thou, Thou art worthy to be praised. The Comment. a) As in every word some syllable is pronounced more acutely; so in every clause some word is uttered with more vehemency than the rest, as the first 2 words in this clause must be. Now when we put many Emphases together, the sentence is very moving. Rom. 8. 38. Neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor things present, nor things to come, nor height, nor depth, etc. all these must be pronounced Emphatically. FINIS. RHETORICES ENCHIRIDION. CAP. I. RHETORICA est ar● poliendae & habendae Orationis, ad incitandos hominum affectus. Ejus duae sunt partes, Exornatio & Actio. Exornatio in Tropis & Figuris lo● cum habet. Tropus est, quo vox à nativa significatione in alienam immutatur. In Tropo considerantur, primò Genus, secundò Affectiones. Genus Troporum est quadruplex. 1. Metonymia, 2. Synechdoche, 3. Metaphora, 4. Ironia. CAP. II. MEtonymia est Tropus, quo vox ex accidentali relatione ad aliam significandam traducitur. Estque vel Perfecta, vel ●lliptica. Metonymia perfecta est, quando vox Tropo affecta in Resolutione abjicitur. Estque quadruplex. 1. Causae. 2. Effecti. 3. Subjecti. 4. Adjuncti. Metonymia Causae fit duobus modis. cum Efficiens pro Effecto usurpatur; ut, Facilè dolorem ex oculis effundunt foeminae. Lacrymas. 1. Sic cum inventor, effector, author, aut primus & clarus in re aliqua, pro inventis, effectis, aut rebus illis quibus nobilitatus fuerit, usurpatur; ut, Vini. Implentur veteris Bacchi pinguisque ferinae. Ignem, & Metalepti- 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 candelam. Vulcanum in cornu gerit. Auditu vestro. 2. Sic, cum Causa instrumentalis ponitur pro Effecto; ut, Haec non sunt digna auribus vestris. cum Causa materialis ponitur pro materiato; ut, Gladio. Quin morere, ut merita es, ferróque averte dolorem. ●atern●. Vulcanum in cornu gerit. Sect. 2. MEtonymia Effecti est, cum ex Effectis causa significatur; ut, Sanguinem inflamm●t ebrietas Vinum. Scipio Africa clades. Vastator. Metonymia Subjecti est, cum ex subjecto res adjuncta significatur; ut, At illum Hesterni capite induto subiêre Quirites. Pil●●. Sic cum locus, sedes, & continens, pro rebus locatis & contentis usurpantur; ut, Nihil cerebri, Nihil ingeni● nihil pruden●tiae. Hispani cum Anglis. nihil cordis habent improbi. Hispania cum Anglia aeternum sancivit foedus. Totum ego ebibam poculum. Potum. Metonymia. Adjuncti fit, cum Adjunctum locum occupat Subjecti; ut, Ne viro dominetur colus. Hunc Battum Vicinia tota vocabant. Foemina. Vicini 〈◊〉. 1. Sic cum nomina virtutum & vitiorum pro bonis & malis viris usurpantur; ut, Quid non ebrietas designat? operta recludit. Ebrius. 2. Item cum tempus ponitur pro rebus tempori subjectis; ut, Aspera tum positis mitescent secula bellis. Asperae generaciones. Est opus ardentem fraenis arcere juventam. juvenes. 3. Postremo● cum signum ponitur pro re signata; ut, Cedant arma togae. Fasces summam apud populum Romanum obtinebant potestatem. Bellum paci. Consules. Sect. 3. ELliptica Metonymia est, cum v●●bum proprium & mutuatum concurrunt simul in resolutione. Estque primò in Causa; ut● Lego Virgilium. Virgilii opus. Secundo in Effecto; ut, Deus est omnium creaturarum vita. Causa vitae. Sic cum Epithe●on causam includit, G●lid●m re●●dens, praecipitem reddens, nobilem r●dden●● ut g●●idus timor, praeceps ira, nobilis virtus, etc. Ubi notandum, Metonymiam Ellipticam per unicum verbum aliquando posse resolvi; ut● Praeceps ira, id est, Praecipitans ira; quae vox includit, Praecipitem reddens. Tertiò, in Subjecto; ut, Reges & Regi●● Britannici Londinense mercatorisi adornant. S●atuae Reg●● & Regi●●r●●. 1. Sic cum illud, quod Adjuncti proprium est, Subjecto attribuitur; ut, Milites radiantes circundant murum. Radiantibus ar●i● instructi. 2. cum Subjectum etiam ponitur pro Subjecto eâ qualitate imbuto; ut, Istis accumbis manibus? ●i● illo●is. 3. Porrò, cum aliquod Epitheton signum denotet; ut, Ingenuum habet vultum. 〈◊〉 in●●●●ium. Denique, cum possessor pro re possessa ponitur; ut, Ego eo die casu apud Pompeium coenavi. Domum 〈◊〉. Quartò, in Adjuncto; ut, Inferna Styx deorum est timor. Objectum ti●●●●is. Sic cum illud quod Adjuncto attribuitur proprium est Subjecti; ut, Mortalia temnitis arma. . CAP. III. De Synechdoche. SYnechdoche est Tropus, quo vox ex naturali relatione ad aliam significandam traducitur● Estque quadruplex. 1. Generis. 2. Spaeci●i. 3. Integri. 4. Membri. Synechdoche Generis est, cum vox generalis pro particulari ponitur; ut, Exire ex urbe Consul hostem jubet. Synechdoche Speciei est, cum vox particularis generalem designat; ut, AEoliam venit loca foetae furentibus Austris. 〈◊〉. Hoc lippis & tonsoribus notum. Synechdoche Integri est, cum totum ponitur pro parte; ut, Aut Ararim Parthu● bibet, aut Germania Tygrim. Sic, cum numerus pluralis pro singulari; ut, Nos populo imposuimus, & Oratores visi sumus. ●go impo●●●, & 〈…〉 sum. Synechdoche Membri est, quando ex membro integrum significatur; ut, Ridiculum ca●ut. Involvens umbrâ magnâ terrámque polúm que. 〈◊〉 1. Sic, cum numerus certus ponitur pro incerto; ut, Heus, tribus verbis te volo. 〈◊〉. Si centum mihi darentur linguae, 〈◊〉 haec dignè satìs explicare non potui. 2. Item cum singularis pro plurali; ut, 〈…〉 Romanus clarus in armis. Hostis habet muros. 〈…〉 3. Tertiò, cum altera circumstantia locum alterius sortitur; ut, Quis hodierno die suggestum scandit? Quot accumbebant hîc? 〈◊〉 est. 4. Postremò, cum primus coetus familiae, 〈◊〉 sectae, etc. universos note●; ut, Caesar Pompeium superavit. ●●●sar & exercitus suus, P●●po●●● & copi● as suas. CAP. FOUR De Metaphora. MEtaphora est Tropus à simili ad simile● ut, Est opus ardentem fraenis a●●●re juv●nta●● Latrant Oratores, non loquuntur. Hic juvenas comp●rantur ●quis indomi●is. Canibus, quia sine ratione. More homi●um● 1. Huc referuntur primò Anthropopathiae; ut, Deus odio habe● impro●●●. 2. Antonom●siae à persona, gente, aut loco ductae; ut, Qualis fuit I●us, & qualis fuit Croesus. Irus & est subitò● qui modo Croesus erat. Hic sanè verè est Crete●sis 〈◊〉 casus— Tendimus in Latium— Illîc fas reg●● Mendax, quales erant Cre●enses. resurgere Trojae. Similia Troja●u● regnis. 3. AEnigmata, fabulae & hujusmodi; ut, Mater me genuit, eadem mo● gignitur e●● me. Gallus gallinaceus, dum vertio s●ercorari●m, offendit gemmam, etc. ●ubius sum u●●ùm inco●●●m teneam, ●eluti qui ●u●um auribus ●ene●. Verum, quale ●utab●tur 〈…〉 ●ipode 〈…〉. Proverbia; ut, Lupum auribus teneo. Eu●●●pode dictum. CAP. V. De Ironia. IRonia est Tropus, Ironia 3. R●latis. quo oppositum ex opposito significatur; ut, Tu mihi pater, ego tibi filius; & pare●o tibi ut par est. Egregiam verò laudem & spolia ampla refertis Nullam● sed potius turp●●●●decus & 〈◊〉 Túque puérque tuus, magnum & memorabile nomen, Una dolo diuûm si foemina victa duorum est. Quid non mortalia pectora cogis Auri sacra fames? Profana. Fit etiam cum nos ea tacere & mittere simulamus, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, Praeteritio. quae tamen eloquimur; ut, Atqui illud tenebricosissimum tempus incuntis aetatis tuae Patiar latere, licèt impunè per me parietes in adolescentia perfoderis, vicinos compilâris, matrem verberâris. CAP. VI De Troporum Affectionibus. AFfectio tropica est ●●terior Tropi virtus. Affectiones autem ●unt quinque, 1. Catachresis. 2. Allegoria. 3. Metalepsis. 4. Hyperbole. 5. Tapinosis. Catachresis fit, cum Tropus est durior aut inaequalior; ut, Vir gregis ipse caper deerat. Si maritus gregis, mitiori Metaphor● uteretur. Allegoria est Troporum ejusdem generis continuatio. Educat discipulos suos e schola sua, u● prodeant rabulae loquace●. Corax Orator excludat pullos suos è nido suo, ut evolent corvi clamosi. Sine Cerere & Libero friget Venus. Sine pane & vino amor friget. Metalepsis est Tropi in uno verbo multiplicatio ut, Pro spica, Syn. spica pro legere, Synleges pro aestate. Met. aestas pro 〈◊〉, Syn. Post aliquot mea regna videns mirabor aristas. Hyperbole fit, quando plus dicimus quam velimus intelligi. Haec fit vel Auxesi; ut, Sulcavit cutem regis: vel Miosi; ut cum homunculum Pigmaeum voco. Tapinosis est, cum volumus plus subintelligi quam dicimus; ut, — Etsi nullum memorabile nomen Foeminea in poena est— Extinxisse nefas tamen, & sumpsisse merentis Laudabor poenas, etc. Hanc autem habere suam Auxesin & Miosin, ex Anglicis constat exemplis. Notandum est praeterea has duas Affectiones in vocibus, ubi nullus est Tropus, reperiri; ut, Me miserum, quanti montes volvuntur aquarum ●ustris Nept 〈…〉 filius. Phalaride. jam jam tacturos sydera summa putes. Saevior es tristi Busiride, saevior illo Qui falsum lento torruit igne bovem. CAP. VII. De figuris. FIGURA est exornatio Orationis, nullâ I● ea ratione habitâ Tropicae alicujus virtu●●● Figura est duplex, Relativa & Absoluta. Relativae Figurae sunt sex; Repetitio, Variatio, Gradatio, Correctio, Allusio, & Compositio. Repetitio est alicujus in sententia recitatio; ut, Heu heu fugaces, Posthume, Posthume, Epizonxi●. labuntur anni. Pierideses vos haec facietis maxima Gallo: Anadiplosi●. Gallo, cujus amor tantùm mihi crescit in horas. Te dulcis conjux, te solo in littore secum, Anapho●●. Te veniente die, te decedente canebat. — Crede mihi, si te quoque pontus haberet, Epis●rophe● Te sequerer Conjux; & me quoque pontus haberet. Hujus ero vivus, mortuus hujus ero. ●panalepsis● Crudelis mater magìs, an puer improbus ille? Improbus ille puer, crudelis tu quoque mater. Variatio est jucunda quaedam verborum ubertas; ut, Quòd si fata virum servant, si vescitur aurâ AEthereâ, nec adhuc crudelibus occubat umbris. Gradatio est, cum clausulae sequentes immediatas praecedentes significatione superant; Climax ut, Veni, vidi, vici. Quod libet id licet his, & quod licet, id satì● audent; Quódque audent faciunt: faciunt quodcunque molestum est. Correctio est, quâ priorem clausulam per posteriorem acriùs urgeamus; Epanorthosis. ut, Filium unicum adolescentulum habeo: Ah I 〈◊〉 dixi? habere me? Immo habui, Chreme; nunc habeam necne, incertum est. Erat hoc mihi dolendum, sed multò magìs illud, quod inimicum meum, meum autem● Immo verò legum, judiciorum, etii, atque t●triae, etc. Pa●ono●●siae. Allusio est, quâ aliquid prius dictum captamus. Aliquando enim ad sonum alluditur; ut, Leve est miserias ferre; perferre, grave● Hoc etiam fit, cum vel nostra, vel alioru● verba antedicta captamus. Ità Ovidius inducit Mercurium facetè rusticam Batti tau●ologiam imitantem: sic Battus, Sub illis Montibus, inquit, illii● Cui Mercurius, Me mihi perfide prodis? Me mihi prodis? ait. Sic si quis poemata scribens● nec non sibi altiora quaedam aut gravior● tractanda proponens, carmine Virgilia● uteretur, Pierides Musae paulò majora●●●●imus. Fit etiam cum voces in s●atentia inv●●tantur; ut, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Alii quod pollicentur tardè praesta●, tu quod praestas tardè polliceris● Aliquando sensum captamus; ut in illo Ciceronis ad Hortensium Oratorem, qui cum defensionis mercedem a Vario acceperat Sphingem argenteam, Marco Tullio obliquias quid atque involutius locuto, dixit, Non didici solvere ●nigmata: Atqui (inquit Cicero) Sphingem habes domi. Nonnunquam etiam numerum sive quantitatem clausularum captamus; ut, Quis in voluptatibus inquinatior? quis in laboribus patientior? quis in rapacitate avarior? quis in largitione effusior? In aliquibus & sonum, & sensum, & quantitatem simul captamus, quod est facile observatu. Compositio est concinna & auribus delectabilis selectarum vocum & clausularum connexio inter se & collocatio; Ingrata esse● auribus ha●c sententia, s● juxta naturalem constructionem ordinaretur. Sed de hac Collocatione Oratoria lege Doctiss. & Ornatiss. illum Dom. ●larkum in suis formulis oratoriis. ut, Doctrinae radicem esse amaram omnes nimis experimur: sed dulcissimos ejus postmodo fructus degustamus. CAP. VIII. De Figuris absolutis. FIGURAE absolutae sunt sex; Descriptio, Diversio, Reticentia, Exclamatio, Perso●atio, & Insinuatio. Descriptio est luxuriosa verborum dilatatio, quâ aliquid vel additione vel circuitu vocabulorum exprimamus; ut, Quid faciam, Pleonasmus. cum parentes mei, qui me genuêre, filium suum non agnoscant? C●ronam● Vidi regium capitis decus cum capite rap●um. Apostrophe. Diversio est digressio sermonis ad ali●d quam instituta oratio requirit; ut, Et auro vi potitur. Quid non mortalia pectora cogis, A●●● sacra fames. Ecphonesis. Irrisionis. Optationis. Desperationis. Imprecationi●. Exclamatio est Oratio exprimens subitu● aliquem animi affectum; vel indignationis, admirationis, gaudii, doloris, etc. ut, O clementiam admirabilem, atque omni laude, praedicatione, literis, monumentísque decorandam! Heu quae me tellus (inquit) quae me aequora possunt Accipere! Et procul, ô miseri, quae tanta insania, cives? Epiphonema. Tantae molis erat Romanam condere gentem! Aporia. Quid faciam? roger, ánne rogem? quid d●inde rogabo? Reticentia est, quâ sententiae inchoat● cursus sistitur, partem aliquam, quae tame● intelligatur, tacendo; ut, Ego te, furcifer, si vivo— Quos ego— sed motos praestat compone● fluctus. P●os●popoeia, ●ictio perso●●●. Personatio est loquentis aut audientis pe●sonae fictio, vel rei alicujus tanquam person●● ut Horatius Satyrâ primâ Mecoenatem inducit audientem. Quí fit (Maecenas) ut nemo, quam sibi sorte● Seu ratio dederit, seu fors objecerit, illâ Contentus vivat, etc. versibus verò sequently bus, fingit multos aliorum vitae rationem suae praeferentes. O fortunati Mercatores, gravis annis Miles ait, multo jam fractus membra labore. Contrà Mercator, etc. Hósne mihi fructus, Ter●am h●c fingit loque●●●●om. hunc fertilitatis honorem Officiíque refers, quòd adunci vulnera aratri Rastror úmque fero, totóque exerceor anno? Parce venturis tibi, mors, paramur; S●●●c● hîc inducit mortem audientem. Sis licèt segnis, properamus ipsi. Insinuatio est, quâ quid praejudicii ab auditorum animis amoveamus, & callidè nobis conciliemus benevolentiam, attentionem, approbationem. At vos obsecro (Auditores benevoli) patientes mihi praebeatis aures dicturo ea quae attentione vestrâ nec indigna, Hîc of●●cios● compellatio● ne sese insinuare videtur. nec Reipub. omnino in●●mmoda fuerint. Cuncta equidem tibi, rex, fuerint quaecunque Hîc ●ect●●●cupatione, ●● non sibi concili●ret ●idem. fatebor Vera, inquit, neque me Argolica de gente negab●. Si ità haberet se tuares, quid consilii aut rationis inires? Hîc ap●ellatione a● ali●●. At si ego idem affirmâssem, mentitus essem. Hîc Ironi●. Et procul, ô miseri, quae tanta insania, cives? Hîc Interrogatione, qua● vocant Er●●●●●●n. Creditis avectos hostes? aut ulla putatis Dona ●arere dolis Danaum? Sic notus Ulysses. CAP. IX. De Actione. ACTIO est decora orationis formatae recitatio. Consistit autem Actio vel in Corporis gestu, vel in Voce. Actio, corporis gestus, est decens membrorum in elocutione moderatio. Actio vocis, est apta vocis in pronunciatione conformatio: ubi imprimis est Emphasis observanda, quae est illarum vocum pronunciando elevatio; in quibus praecipua clausularum virtus perspiciatur; ut, Tu dominus, Tu vir, Tu mihi frater eris. FINIS. Introduction to Learning; OR, A SURE GUIDE To the ENGLISH Pronunciation and Orthography: In plain PROSE for the Ease, and familiar VERSE for the Pleasure, as well as Profit, of the Learner. Containing much more on those Subjects than any other Book, in a Method never before attempted; and by which All who can Read may learn, without a Teacher, to Speak and W●ite English as Correctly as they that have had a Liberal Education. Contrived so as to amuse and exercise the Ingenious, improve and delight the Less-Knowing, clearly instruct the Ignorant, and allure Youth to a Love of Learning; tho' chiefly designed for such GROWN Persons as have had but a ●lender Education, and are desirous of further Improvement. To make it of General Use are added, I. An alphabetical Collection and clear Distinction of above a Thousand Words nearly alike in Sound, but different in S●nse and Spelling. II. A large Table of Words, with their Meaning, made different in Signification by adding E Final III. An Explanation of Abbreviations, Notes of Reference, and other Marks which often occur in Books and Writing. By SAMUEL HAMMOND, Schoolmaster in NOTTINGHAM● Author of the Complete and Comprehensive SPELLING-DICTIONARY. NOTTINGHAM: Printed for the AUTHOR● By SAMUEL CRESWELL.