OF THE INTERCHANGEABLE COURSE, OR VARIETY OF THINGS IN THE WHOLE WORLD; AND THE CONCURRENCE OF ARMS AND Learning, through the first and famousest Nations: from the beginning of Civility, and Memory of man, to this Present.  
MOREOVER, WHETHER IT BE true or no, that there can be nothing said, which hath not been said heretofore: And that we ought by our own Inventions to augment the doctrine of the Ancients; not contenting ourselves with Translations, Expositions, Corrections, and abridgement of their writings.  
Written in French by Loysle Roy called Regius● and Translated into English by R. A.  
Inest rebus omnibus quidam velut orbis, ut quemadmodum Temporum vices, ita Morum vertantur; nec omnia apud priores meliora: sed nostra etiam aetas multa Laudis, & Artium laudanda Posteris tulit.  Tacitus. 
AT LONDON Printed by Charles Yetsweirt Esq. at his house in Fleetstreet near the Middle Temple gate. 1594.  
CUM PRIVILEGIO Regiae Maiestatis   

TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE MY SINGULAR GOOD LORD, Sir john Puckering Knight, Lord Keeper of the great Seal of England.  
Having heretofore (for the great liking which I saw generally conceived of this work) perused, allowed, and at my better leisure translated it into English, for the benefit of such as were not sufficiently acquainted with the French; I was bold, ere the Translation were fully finished, to acquaint your L. with the Argument: who concurring with the rest in good liking and judgement; my intent to publish it under your Ls. Patronage, was thereby fully confirmed.  
SO that the Picture, which it pleased your L. to like of heretofore, being in his first lineaments but rudely shadowed; is now presented with all his principal colours perfected and accomplished. I have been careful to perfect it by the Pattern, and to limb it according to life: yet when I have all don, it is but a Counterfeit; which wanteth much of the perfection of the Principal.  
THE substance is none of mine; I challenge nought but the shadow: wherein if the substance be truly represented, I hope it may be allowed of, though it be not curiously beautified.  
I CONFESS, it were better to put forth his own Inventions, for him that hath means to do it: and that, which this Author affirmeth, namely, that Translations are more painful than praiseworthy, is by me also acknowledged. For diligence assisted with judgement is herein chiefly requisite; and not any excellent knowledge thereunto required: which appeareth more in inventing of itself, then in translating out of others. Which though it be done never so faithfully and elegantly, yet cometh always short of the good grace of the Original: as this Author acknowledgeth, notwithstanding Theodore Gaza an excellent Translator affirm the contrary.  
BUT mine own wit and Invention, being unable to write or invent any thing worth the reading, yet my will being a wellwisher to all good Inventions; I thought it more commendable, to commend and communicate to others, that which other men have excellently invented (being not able myself to attain to so much excellency) then in publishing any fabulous fancy of mine own, or matter of mean account, (as many do now adays) to show some arrogancy joined with my insufficiency.  
THIS work is a Comparison of this later age, with all antiquity in Arms, in Learning, and all other Excellency. There was never any mighty Empire or Monarchy, Kingdom, or Commonwealth, but is here represented; no famous Founder or Governor of State, no learned Lawmaker, or worthy Warrior, but is here mentioned; and each of them to the other in all conveniences and contrarieties compared: which being done by a man of great learning and judgement, to men of much business and employment (as to your L. especially) who have no time to fetch every thing from the Fountain, search all Antiquity, and read the Histories of all nations, must needs be much available; and the pleasure thereof to all sorts of men accordingly answerable.  
MY duty to your L. (to whom this hath been long intended) hath at length commanded an Intermission of mine ordinary studies and exercises for the reviewing and publishing hereof; under whose favourable protection it is now communicated unto all: who, continually partaking of your L. equity, goodness, and benignity, are bound with me to pray for the continuance of your honour, health, and happiness everlastingly.  
From the Middle-Temple the 6. of October. 1594. Your Ls. in service humbly devoted Robert Ashley.   

THE SUMMARIE OF THIS WORK.  
BECAUSE the Discourse following is long, and somewhat difficult to comprehend, by reason of the diversity of matters contained therein; I have gathered, and set down, first: The Summarie of the whole work; Then of every Book in order; to give more light unto the Readers, for the understanding thereof. In the whole work therefore are represented, the successive, or rather alternative changes of the whole world, aswell in the higher or superior, as lower and inferior part thereof; and how by the concurrence of Arms and Letters, through the most renowned Nations of the world, all liberal Sciences, and Mechanical Arts, have flourished together, fallen, and been restored, divers times in process of Age: With a comparison of such Nations as have excelled, both in power and knowledge; of the great Empires, and renowned monarch, under whom these notable mutations of mankind have happened; and conferring of this our present, with the famousest former Ages, to know wherein it is either inferior, superior, or equal to any of them.  

THE FIRST BOOK.  
THE Interchangeable course, or Variety observed in the motions of Heaven, and the Heavenly Spheres, (whereon are depending the Changes which happen in this inferior World) are declared in the first Book. The Vicissitude which the four Elements have one with an other, and every one by himself. How all things in the World are tempered, and conserved by others, that are contrary, and dislike. The Intercourse of Shadows, Days, and Seasons of the year; and the Diversity of habitations of the Earth: and other things, according to the difference of places. The Variety and Vicissitude of Men, of Nations, Cities, Common weals, Kingdoms, and Empires.   

THE II. BOOK.  
THE Variety of Tongues used through out the world; both Learned, and Vulgar. The Beginning of them, Continuance, Perfection, Corruption, Change, and Loss of the old; Introduction of new; Translation out of one into an other; Imposition of Names to things; Invention and profit of Letters; Diversity of Characters, and Writings, Instruments and Matters to write with. Of Printing, Orthographic, and Pronunciation.   

THE III. BOOK.  
THE Vicissitude, and Invention of Arts: And how Men from their first simplicity and rudeness, have attained to the Commodity, Magnificence, and Excellency of this time.   

THE FOUR BOOK.  
THe Intercourse of Arms, and of Letters, concurring in the conjunction of Power and Wisdom, amongst the most renowned Nations of the world: And who have been the first, and Ancientest of all, that have excelled in both. The Power, Knowledge, and other Excellency of the Egyptians, Assyrians, and Persians. A Comparison of the great Monarchies, the Egyptian, Assyrian, Median, Persian, and Parthian, in their situations, beginnings, largeness, revenues, riches, mightiness; & of such famous Monarches as founded them; and under whom they perished. Of the Egyptian Priests or Prophets; of the Chaldees, Mages, Brachmanes, druids, and others of Religion and Learning amongst the Ancients. Nobility amongst the Egyptians, Persians, Assyriansi, Indians, Scythians, Thracians, and other ancient and modern Nations. The exquisite Artisans, and workmanship of the Ancients.   

THE V BOOK.  
OF the Learning, Poesy, Eloquence, Power, and other Excellency of the Greeks'. A Comparison of them with the Egyptians, Assyrians, Persians, Indians. The Empire of Greece. A Comparison of Alexander the great, with Cyrus, Agesilaus, Themistocles, Pericles, Achilles, Ulysses, Diomedes, Bacchus, Hercules, and others. A Comparison of the Grecian Philosophers, with the Chaldees of Babylon, and the Priests of Egypt. The Nobility of ancient Greece. The Artisans and works of the Grecians.   

THE VI BOOK.  
OF the Power, Warfare, Learning, Eloquence, Poesy, and other Excellency of the Romans'. The fall of their Power, Learning, and Eloquence.   

THE VII. BOOK.  
A Comparison of the Romans with the Egyptians, Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, and Parthians; in Power, Warfare, Learning, Language, Eloquence, Poesy; and in the workmanships of other Arts: of the Roman Empire with the Assyrian, Median, Persian, Macedonian, and Parthian. The birth of Rome, and continuance thereof, and conferred with the 4. Ages of man's life. A comparison of Rome with Babylon, and Constantinople; of the Roman common wealth, with the Lacedaemonian, and Carthaginian: of the power of Alexander the great, with that which the Romans had in his time: and if when he had conquered Asia, he had turned his forces against Europe, what might have happened by the judgement of Livy. Of Pompey the great with Alexander, Hercules, & Bacchus, according to Pliny: Of julius Caesar with Alexander, according to Appianus Alexandrinus; of julius Caesar and Augustus, with Romulus, and Numa; of Romulus with Cyrus, Theseus, Arsaces, and Semiramis, who founded Cities, or Kingdoms, or Monarchies. A Comparison of the Roman warfare with the Parthian, Carthaginian, & Assyrian: Of the Roman Learning, and other excellency, with the Grecian, Egyptian, and Chaldean: Of the Latin Authors with the Greek; namely of Cicero with Demosthenes. The Civil Law of the Romans. A Comparison of the Latin tongue with the Greek.   

THE VIII. BOOK.  
OF the Religion, Power, knowledge, and other excellency of the Arabians, or Saracens, and other Mahometists. A Comparison of Mahomet with Lycurgus, Minos, Numa, Zoroaster, Charondas, Zaleucus, Trismegistus, and other heathen Lawmakers, or Founders of Cities and Empires. The Power of the Arabians, or Saracens, compared to the Roman, Macedonian, Persian, Parthian, Assyrian, & Egyptian. A Comparison of the Arabian learning with the Greek, Egyptian, Chaldean, Persian, Roman, or Latin: Of the Arabian tongue, with the Greek, Latin, and Hebrew.   

THE IX. BOOK.  
COntaineth the sequence of the Power and Religion of the Mahometists; as of the first Turks, Corasmians, Tartarians; of the soldan, of the Ottoman, of the Sophi: where there is mention made of the estates of the great Cham of Cathay, of the king of Narsingue, of the Moscovite, and of Presbyter john; because they began, or grew up at that time; notwithstanding they have other Religions.   

THE X. BOOK.  
HOw that in this age have been restored the tongues, and knowledges, after they had surceased about almost twelve hundred years, having newly received great light, and increase; where are considered, the marvels of this present age, through Europe, Asia, Africa, The newfound lands, in the East, West, North, and South: beginning at the great, & invincible Tamberlan, whose power, valiancy, and felicity is briefly represented. During whose reign began the restitution of Learning & of Arts: By what persons & means it hath been continued in divers nations: The Princes that most have favoured it. Moreover how that many goodly things unknown to antiquity have been newly found out, especially Printing, The direction to sail by the needle of steel rubbed on the Loadstone, carrying always the point answerable to the place where we imagine the pole Arctic, by means whereof the whole Sea hath been sailed over, and the whole world known through out. Then the skill of Ordinance, and Artillery, which hath made all other ancient military instruments to cease, which by this one are all surpassed in impetuosity, swiftness, and violence. Also how amongst the marvels of this age have risen new and strange Diseases unknown heretofore, and divers Sects have sprung up in all countries, which have much altered the common quiet, and weakened the mutual charity of men.   

THE XI. BOOK.  
THis Age is compared▪ unto the former ages most famous in deeds of Arms, conduct of States, excellency of Learning, perfection of Workmanship, novelty of Inventions, Navigations never attempted heretofore, & discovering of New lands, unknown to Antiquity: to know wherein we are inferior, or equal to the Ancients; and wherein we ought to be preferred. First of all is conferred our modern Warfare, with the ancient Greek, and Roman; Tamberlan is compared with Ninus, Sesostris, Cyrus, Darius, Alexander, Arsaces, Hannibal, julius Caesar, Constantine, Attila, and Charles the great. Then followeth the Comparison of our modern Kingdoms, Empires, Monarchies, and Common weals, with the Ancient. Of Military Nations, Armies, Battles by sea and by land, Sieges, & Assaults of Fortresses. Of Navigations, and discoveries of Countries, Peregrinations, and Voyages by land. Of the Wealth of the present time, with that of the time past. Of the Manners of this Age, with the former. Finally of the Learning of this age with the Ancient; in Philosophy, Eloquence, Law, Policy, Physic, Poesy, Astrology, cosmography, and the other Mathematics. Then cometh the Conclusion of the work, by the which there is a vicissitude resolved on in all matters: And how it is to be feared, that Power, Wisdom, Learning, Sciences, Books, Industry, Workmanships, and the Knowledge of the world, being now come to so great Excellency, should fall again: as they have done in times past.   

THE XII. BOOK.  
COnsidering then, that the variable disposition of human things, is to be ready to fall, when they are at the highest; and that virtue & vice are come to their top, and perfection; doubting lest among so many Partialities, and Heresies (whereof the world is full) and the Wars which threaten us on every side, that Learning might come to be despised; and be as loosely left off, and neglected, as heretofore it hath been diligently followed, and regarded: To the end to prevent such a mischief, and to advise the studious to remedy it, as much as they may; I have added an Inquisition on the common speech of men, by which they have always maintained, and do yet maintain, That nothing can be now said, which hath not been said heretofore. Wherein I endeavour to show, that there remaineth yet much to be said; and that the truth hath not been thoroughly discovered, neither all knowledge forestalled by our forerunners: Admonishing the Learned, to add that by their own Inventions, which is wanting in the Sciences; doing that for Posterity, which Antiquity hath done for us; to the end, that Learning be not lost, but from day to day may receive some increase.    

OF THE VARIETY OF THINGS. The first Book.  
INtending to represent according to my ability the interchangeable course and alteration of all things in the world, together with the causes of the principal changes and varieties, to be perceived as well in the superior, as in the inferior part thereof, sithence the time that the first memory of man began even to this present, I most humbly acknowledge the divine providence of God to be above all, believing assuredly, that God almighty, maker, and governor of this great work so excellent in beauty, so admirable in variety, and so singular in continuance, (to whom I pray to aydeme in this so high, so long, & so difficult an enterprise hitherto never attempted of any) is careful of all affairs happening therein, even to the least: containing in himself the beginning, the end, and the means of them all, and pursuing the order which he hath given to the world, from the beginning in creating it, will that it be tempered by alternative changes, and maintained by contraries, his eternal essence remaining always one and unchangeable.  
First of all then the heaven, notwithstanding it hath received of God the maker thereof many excellencies amongst other creatures, being round, and having throughout his extremities or utmost parts distant or removed from the middle or inmost part, which is the most perfect figure, and most like unto itself; on which he hath also bestowed convenient circular motion, exempted from the wandering and inconstancy of others, turning it by the same, and in the same, and to himself; wherein he doth persever: yet nevertheless since it hath a body, it can not wholly warrant or preserve itself from alteration & change. The Ancients made eight spheres in it; of the firmament, and of the seven Planets; but since have been observed the ninth, and the tenth: our later Astrologers affirming that the tenth doth turn round about the world in 24. hours, going by the right side from East to West, and by this so swift and impetous motion, doth force and carry with it all the other inferior spheres, and doth make them make the same turn in the self same space of time, although that their proper motions be contrary unto it, drawing on the left side from West to East: namely the ninth being the slowest, in 49. thousand years; The eighth to have two, th'one of 36. thousand years; tother of seven thousand. The sphere of Saturn in 30. years: of jupiter in 12: of Mars in two: of the Sun, Venus; & Mercury in one year: of the Moon in 28. days.  
Time also was made with heaven, and with the stars, so that having had the self same beginning they shall also have the same end, when the world shall be dissolved, returning into their ancient Chaos, and former darkness. For the days, months, years, and ages, which were not before that the heaven and the stars were created, incontinently began with them, and number was distinguished and observed by their course: That is, the intercourse of days and nights by the daily motion of the firmament; The month, after that the Moon hath gone over her whole circle, and attained to the sun; The ordinary year, when the sun hath accomplished his course; The great year, when the seven Planets, and tother fixed stars, return to their first places, representing the same nature which was at the beginning. The lives of all things and the prefixed time of their continuance, being determined by lesser or greater numbers, according to the disposition of the matter whereof they are made: springing, growing, flourishing, diminishing, perishing, in certainetimes, and by unequal spaces, being reduced to the self same end, every one ceiling his corruption to be the cause of another generation. Insomuch that it seemed unto Plato that the world was nourished by the consumption, and decay of itself, producing always new creatures unto the old, and raising up of others like unto them in the places of those that were perished: without suffering the kinds to fail, or surcease, which by this means do always remain as it were immortal. But howbeit the world is round, and hath not in it either high or low; considering that the place which is in the midst ought not to be termed high or low; nor that which compasseth about be called the midst; neither hath in it any part differing from the other, if regard be had unto the midst, and every other opposite thing: notwithstanding in respect of ourselves we say that it hath high & low, right and left: That Pole which we see being termed low according to Aristotle, & tother which is hidden from us, high: And the East, whence the first motion proceedeth is the right side; The West, is the left; whence cometh a motion contrary to the former: Then the Astrologers and Philosophers affirm, that from the superior part of the world there descendeth a certain virtue accompanied with light and heat, which some of them do call the spirit or soul of the world; others say it is nature, which mingleth itself with the mass of this great body, penetrating, quickening, nourishing, and moderating all these variable things under the Moon, which being of such efficacy, beginneth first with the fire and the air, which being moved by the celestial movings, do afterwards move the water, and the earth, and consequently the natures compounded of these four Elements, as well men, beasts, birds, and fishes, as plants, trees, herbs, and metals: That there is the first moving, whereof do depend all other inferiors motions, and all essence whatsoever. That there hence do proceed divers temperatures of bodies, inclinations of minds, manners of men, properties of nations, vices and virtues, health and sickness, force and feebleness; shortness and length of life, mortality, riches and poverty, prosperity and adversity. That there hence all estates and sects do take their beginnings, their course, continuance, and their ends: In brief, that all this inferior world doth obey the superior, & is governed by it: Especially that all humane affairs do depend thereon, and yet are to be prevented by deeds: not that such effects do necessarily come to pass, and inviolably by a fatal Law: but that they may be avoided by wisdom, or turned from us by divine prayers, or augmented or diminished, or moderated by nurture, custom, and instruction.  
First that the Sun lightning all things with his beams doth give evident proof thereof, who rising and setting maketh the day and the night, by coming towards us, and going from us, causeth the years continually to be renewed, and by the obliquity or crookedness of the Zodiac with the help of the twelve signs which are in it, doth distinguish by his Solstices and Equinoxes, the four seasons of the summer and winter, of the spring and harvest: In the which consisteth the vicissitude of life and death, and the change of all things: by the mediation of the first qualities, hot and cold, dry and moist, being duly tempered for generation, and unproportionably distempered for corruption.  
Secondly the Moon every month increasing, decreasing, or at full, doth diversly dispose those humours over which she is predominant, showing amongst other marvels her manifest power over the ebbing and flowing of the tides in the Ocean. Then the other stars both wandering and fixed do breed in the air changes of heat and cold, winds, thunder, rain, hail, & snow; and by their aspects, eclipses, oppositions, conjunctions, distances, apparences, obscurities, greatness, swiftness, slowness, do bring forth great, and divers general, and particular events; of wars, dearthes', famines, plagues; of inundations, of drouthes, and heats; according to the correspondency of the parts of heaven and earth, the disposition of the matter which they meet with all, and diversity of the time in which they work their effects. So the causes both of these cotidian, menstrual, annual, and other the rarest mutations happening here below, are attributed to the celestial motions, and to the quality of the matter whereon they work. Considering, that in the world, the elements, and their compounds are as the matter; the celestial bodies, & superior intelligences, as efficient causes which by their heat, & light in proceeding, give motion to all inferior things. First the daily motion which the firmament maketh is cause both of living and of dying; and the annual course of the Sun assisted with the Moon & other stars, of the continuation and successive change: But the most rare and admirable mutations in states, sects, and arts, aught to be referred to the ninth and eight sphere: the diversity which is found in them proceeding of the variable motion of that sphere, sometimes to the East, sometimes to the West, now to the South, then to the North which is called the motion of trepidation. The Arabians also have divided this long space of time, by the great conjunctions of the Planets, namely of the three superior Saturn, jupiter, and Mars: which they maintain to have more power over the principal alterations of this inferior world, according to the qualities of the triplicities in the which they happen, as fiery, airy, watery, or earthly. That there have already been seven, in the space of five thousand, five hundred and thirty years, (for so many the Hebrews reckon from the beginning of the world,) and that the eight shallbe in the year of Christ 1604. The Chaldees, Persians, Egyptians, and ancient Grecians judged of the notable events of the world by the Eclipses of the Sun and Moon, and by those Stars, which have their aspects, toward the places of the Eclipse, or which arise together, or which are in the midst of heaven. Belus the Babylonian, (as Seneca allegeth) appointed the times both of the deluge, and conflagration of the world, affirming that then all earthly substances should be burnt, when all the stars having now divers courses, should meet together in the sign of Cancer, under the same place, in such a position as a strait line might pass through all their circles: And then should all be drowned, when the same stars in the like sort should meet in Capricorn, both signs of great efficacy, & power, in changing of the year. The ancient poets under the fables of Phaeton, & of Deucalion, and Pyrrha, have represented these two ruins of the world, the one by fire, the other by water. Also the Egyptian priest in Plato his Timaeus discoursing with Solon, saith that many ruins have come unto the world & shall come hereafter, the greatest by fire and water: the lesser by earthquakes, wars, famine & pestilence.  
And that the tale of Phaeton the son of the Sun is not altogether estranged from truth, that is, that being mounted on his father's chariot, & not able to guide it aright, he burned things on earth, and was slain himself with lightning: for as much as in long space of time do happen many such destructions by fire, by reason of the disorder happening about the earth, & in the celestial motions. That then those which inhabit in the mountains, & in dry places, are sooner destroyed then such as dwell by the seaside or near the rivers. But contrariwise when it pleaseth God to cleanse the earth by inundations, than the dwellers on plains, and valleys, to be forcibly carried into the sea by the impetuosity of rivers, while the inhabitants of the hills remain in safety. That those which remain after such tempests are ignorant of that which is past, and unfurnished of learning, which by little and little they recover afterward.  
Others say, that in long space of time there are certain periods appointed for the world, which while they endure, all things do come to their vigour; and which being ended, they do all perish: but that all of them end their course within the revolution of the great year. And that when the one cometh to end, and the other is ready to begin, there are many strange signs seen both in earth and in heaven. Wherefore many are of opinion that some great alteration doth approach, considering the signs which within these few years have appeared in heaven, in the stars, in the elements, and in all nature. Never were the Sun and Moon eclipsed more apparently; never were seen so many Comets, and other impressions in the air; never did the Sea and the rivers so violently overflow their banks; never have been heard such earthquakes; never were borne so many and so hideous monsters: Neither hath there ever been seen since the memory of man, so many and so often changes to come to pass in Countries, Nations, Manners, Laws, Estates, and Religions. The course of the sun is no more such as it was wont to be in old time, neither are there the same points of the Solstices and Equinoxes: but within this fourteen hundred years since Ptolomey lived, who was a most diligent observer of the course of the world, it is come nearer unto the earth then at that time it was, about twelve degrees. Moreover they say, that all the parts of the Zodiac and the whole signs have changed their places; and that the earth is removed from his first situation, being not entirely & absolutely (as afore it was) the centre of the world. Some also (as Hipparchus a famous ginger amongst the Grecians) have given out, that the celestial motions in time to come, shall go a contrary course, and that the course of the stars shallbe changed, the East becoming West, and the South, North. In the mean time, the continuation of the successive alteration which we see here below, consisteth in the moving cause, and in the first matter. The cause that moveth is of two sorts, th'one being the first and chief mover immovable, tother the first mover movable, by whose virtue and influence (governed by the divine providence) the corruptible things in this sensible world, are incessantly restored & renewed, through the means of generation: while the first matter subjecteth itself continually to all movings & change in the same perpetuity, that the first mover, moveth & formeth, & never faileth to produce these transitory things.  

OF THE VICISSITUDE WHICH THE four Elements have amongst themselves, and every one by itself.  
THat successive alteration which is in the inferior part of the world, consisteth principally in the four Elements, of which it is compounded, which do receive continual change both amongst themselves together, and each of them severally. First when the water is thickened, it seems to become a stone, or a piece of earth; when it vapours away, to be breath or air. Also the air enlightened is converted into fire: the fire extinguished and thickened is turned into air: again, the air thickened, into mists and clouds, whence proceedeth water. Also we see of water, earth and stones to be engendered, in such sort that they give one to another, by turn and course a continual generation. Seeing then they never remain in the same estate, it is hard to discern th'one from the other: But that which we see to be now of one form, then of another, and like unto fire, we must not call it fire, but like unto fire; neither water, but such a thing as water; and so likewise in the rest, as things which have not any stability. We ought not to signify them by names, such as we use to demonstrate any thing, as when we say this or that, for they fly, and will never abide this demonstration, being only appliable to things which are stable: but each of them ought to be called such and such, according to his similitude, as the fire, and whatsoever else hath generation. But that wherein they seem to be form and fashioned again, ought only to be designed by this, or that; remaining alway the same without diminishing either power or faculty, and continually receiving all, without retaining ever any semblable form. It is the first matter exposed to all nature, to receive any form, and being stirred and form by those things which happen on it, sometimes it seemeth to be of one sort, and sometimes of another. But the matter that is subject to such à formation, should not be well prepared or ordered, if it were not of itself without form, and naturally despoiled of all the forms which it is to receive: for if it were like to any of these things, when his contrary or any other nature should come, it could not well represent it having the other already: wherefore it behoveth it to be exempted of all shapes figures and forms, which must receive into itself all kinds. We will not say than that the mother and receptacle of this inferior world, is the earth, the air, the fire, the water, or anything which is made of them, or whereof they are made: but that it is an invisible nature without form, yet capable of any; to be comprehended only by the understanding with reason, and not to be perceived by the senses: that the fire seemeth to be somewhat that is heated, and the water somewhat that is moistened, likewise the air, and the earth according as it receiveth their forms, suffering the other passions which depend of them, by means whereof it seemeth to be of all forms. But because it hath not forces or faculties, neither of the like quality, nor of the same weight, it keepeth not any equality, but is unequally moved, or stirred of these kinds which again are moved of it: by which motion they are carried hither, & thither, and discerned the one from the other by kinds & qualities, observing the order which is given them, to the end, that by the coherence of different bodies, there should not remain that confusion, which was before the constitution of the world.  
These four Elements so different in natures and qualities, and contrary one to another, are assembled by such à proportion, that those which are light are held down by weight lest they should mount higher, and contrariwise the heavy, lest they should fall, are hanged on the light ones which tend always upward, remaining all by à like force constrained, & kept in their places, by the perpetual circuit of the world, which turning always in itself, holdeth the earth balanced in the midst, as the lowest of all, which again in counterchange doth balance the other Elements themselves, which hold it as it were ballaunced and hanged in the midst of them. The water is diffused round about it. And the air is carried over them both making but one globe. The fire is seated highest, which being placed between the heaven and the air, is pure on that part which toucheth the celestial body, and impure in that which is next to the air, receiving many changes in divers forms. And although in that part next unto heaven, it have no contrary to corrupt it, remaining in his natural place apt for the conservation thereof; nevertheless, the parts of it do not always persever in their purity, by reason of the difformity or diversity of the motion which turneth it, and shaketh them, and forceth them downwards towards the air even to the earth, where they perish & are consumed. Likewise, the air is diversly altered by the others which are next unto it, for being divided into three parts, the highest, the middle, and the lowest, the highest part next unto the fire, to the celestial movings, and the stars, is thinnest, and purest; the lowest next unto the earth, is thickest, and grossest; the mean or middlemost is temperate betwixt both; yet colder notwithstanding than either of them both: for the highest doth participate with the heat of the stars, the inferior is warmed by the vapours proceeding from the earth, and then again by the repercussion of the Sun beams, and also by the artificial fires used amongst men, and the natural which are hid in the earth. But the mean being secluded from both extremities doth continue in his coldness. The air then being thus divided, is for the most part variable, inconstant, and changeable, especially near unto the earth, where it doth and suffereth much according to the divers situation of the places, and according to the aspects, and different course of the stars, which by their contrary rising, and falling, do raise exhalations and vapours, from whence proceed the winds, clouds, showers, tempests lightnings, thunders, hail, frost, snow, and other calamities of the earth, with great strife of natural things amongst themselves: some striving upwards, which are forcibly kept down by resistance of the stars: others being violently carried away: the rain descendeth, the clouds ascend, the waters are dried, the hail and snow do fall, the Sun beams reflexed do heat, the winds whirling about blow unequally th'one against tother, being sometimes calm, and sometimes stormy. And the Northern winds are raised by jupiter, the Eastern winds by the sun, the Southern by Mars, the Western by the Moon: Or else by the four triplicities of the twelve signs of the Zodiac, those three which are of quality hot and dry, moving wind from the oriental part under the equinoctial line called East: the three other cold and dry, raising the Southern wind coming from under the Pole antarctic; the other three hot and moist, the West wind being also under the equinoctial line: the other which are cold and moist, the North wind coming from under the pole arctic: which winds have their different properties according to the places from whence they proceed, and where they blow, moving about the water and the earth, even as the stars by which they are raised. The four principal winds have four other collateral: all which eight together are called entire or whole winds: betwixt whom are placed eight half winds, and sixteen other quarters of winds, and by these is all navigation ordered.  
But the water, on which they sail, being contiguous or joining to the air, receiveth no less variety than it, and maketh but one globe with the earth: For as the earth being dry of his own nature cannot endure without moisture, neither should the water have any where to abide without resting itself on the earth; they have therefore been thus by nature joined together: the one opening the veins and conduits of the earth, the other passing through it both within and without, to serve instead of a band unto it. All water of his proper motion descendeth down from on high, but in the Ocean sea which environeth the earth, are found three motions: th'one from East to West, another from the North towards the South, the third of the daily ebbing & flowing: for from six hours to six, it advanceth, and enlargeth itself; than it abateth and retireth. The which motions are seen also in the Mediterranean sea towards the banks.  
The cause of the first motion from East to West, is, the daily moving of the firm ament, by whose impetuosity all the Spheres are moved, with a good part of the fire and the air. The other from the North towards the South; is, because that the Sea is higher in the North parts, then in the South; in respect that the Northern cold engendereth more water, than the Sea can contain within the space, distance, and height of his banks; and the water which is in the South part is consumed and diminished, by the heat of the same: So one part of the water in the North, forceth down an other on that side which is lowest, and moveth accidentally from the place of his generation.  
The third followeth the revolution of the Moon, which always increasing, and decreasing, appeareth sometimes horned, sometmes half round, some times almost round, and sometimes spotted: then by and by clear & great, when she is at full, and anon she is not seen at all: Sometimes she shineth all night, sometimes ariseth late, sometimes she shineth all day, supplying the brightness of the sun; and coming to Eclipsie, yet appeareth notwithstanding: and at the months end hideth herself; when she is said to travail. Sometimes also she is low, and sometimes high, which never happeneth after one sort: for sometimes one would say that she were fixed to the firmament, other whiles that she touched the top of the mountains, so low she is abased; she is sometimes found in the South side of the heavens, and sometimes we must seek her in the North.  
Since than that she is so variable, it is no marvel if the ebbings and flow of the Tides in the sea, which are caused chiefly by her, are also variable: First in the daily motion which the Moon maketh with the heaven in twenty four hours, there are two tides ebbing, and two flowing, the sea increasing by the space of six hours, and diminishing six others, which are twelve: And it doth as much in other twelve hours, which are twenty four. Their augmentations are not always alike in all times and places, for by the space of seven days, the waters do increase, when they call them live waters; and seven other days they decrease, when they are called dead waters. In such sort, that from the first day of the change of the Moon, until the eight, which is the first quarter, the waters are diminished; and from the said quarter until the fifteenth, which is full Moon, they are still augmented: and from thence till the third quarter, they go still decreasing; and from that to the conjunction, they are increased again. So the first day of the Moon is chief of the waters, and the second day the waters are yet very great, and the third in like sort; but the fourth day they begin to wax less, and so go diminishing from day to day, until they come to the eight: for then are the low waters: and on the ninth likewise: and the tenth almost the same: then on the eleventh is the rising of the waters, when they begin a little to augment. And from that time forward they increase every day until the fifteenth when it is full moon, and then it beginneth again to be head water, and on the sixteenth it increaseth likewise, and almost unto the end of the seventeenth. But on the eighteenth it decreaseth, and goeth so diminishing every day until the thirtieth, when as she is in conjunction: And so on the first day it beginneth again to behead water, and proceedeth thus increasing and decreasing as hath been said.  
Yet in these increasings the waters are not so high at one time as at another; but greater at one time and less at another. Also the ebbing and flowing of tides are not equal in all places. Nevertheless when the moon is at North-east, it is full sea; and when she is at Southeast, it is low water. Also there is nothing perpetual in the earth; sometime the sea or some other water enclosed within it, breaking out forcibly, doth cover a part thereof; sometimes again it retireth. The Rivers and fountains are dried up, and there arise new in other places. Some Countries are turned into standing pools and marshes, others into sandy deserts, others into woods: then being husbanded and laboured, they become fertile of barren: and again on the contrary, barren of fruitful. The Mountains are made plain, and the plains are lifted up: some places are swallowed by Earthquakes, or scorched by exceeding heats. When it hath long been manured, it waxeth weary; then by rest and cherishing it recovereth vigour. In tract of time it waxeth old, if not wholly, yet at the least in his parts; then is renewed and becometh young again. We see every year at the spring time, and beginning of Summer, how being watered with small rain, caused by soft winds, and moderately heated, it openeth the seeds of all things which before were shut up, and putteth some of them into herbs, stalks, and ears, others into stems and husks, others into buds, others into tender tops▪ the garden trees yield buds, flowers, leaves, and fruit: the forests and woods are clothed with green, bearing on their branches and boughs, the birds pricked with a desire of engendering, which record by themselves their melodious songs: The Fishes leap; and the beasts amidst the green pastures skip up and down, being inflamed with love. In brief every thing springeth, groweth, embelisheth, flourisheth, and fructifieth: all things are renewed. On the contrary, when Autumn and Winter do return, all is full of horror, and of sadness, cold, rain, dirt, sleet, hail, snow, frost, ice, foggy mists, long nights, and almost continual darkness. We travail the earth day and night, more to satisfy our pleasures, then for our necessary nourishment. And notwithstanding that which it endureth superficially might seem tolerable, if we did not pierce it so far, as to seek gold and silver, brass, copper, lead, tin, iron, stones to build, and others accounted precious in the entrails thereof. Neither is it only thus vexed by men: but it seemeth that the three other Elements have conspired the ruin of this one alone; without speaking of the heaven itself, which by his untemperate disposition, hath cut off a great part thereof. Might it not have sufficed the Sea to have compassed it, and to have cut off a great part thereof, without stretching itself into it, in so many gulfs, little distant the one from the other, breaking through mountains, and making violent ruptures, as though it would spread itself over all. Then so many rivers, lakes, marshes, so many standing pools, as are throughout, so many springs, and little brooks, so many swift and raging streams. The air shaketh it, causing it to lose that natural property of being immovable, overwhelming not only fields, houses, towns, cities, but whole nations, and countries, oftentimes not leaving any appearance, whereby one may see, that there have been such. Then the fire being so fertile, that it engendereth of itself, and groweth of little sparks becoming in an instant, great and impetous, burneth it in many places, both without and within, being dispersed about the chimneys, arising out of billets and sticks-ends beaten together, appearing through the clouds, or coming of lightning, kindled by burning glasses opposed to the sun, which also with the other stars doth dry and scorch it excessively in some seasons and countries.  
It is a marvel, that being so vexed on all parts, it is not already consumed, but so far are these great and violent calamities from destroying it, that they rather help to the conservation thereof. For the Earthquakes by the openings which they make, draw out the corrupted winds which were kept in the entrails of it, and caused within such disordered noise: the inundations do cleanse the filth; the heats digest those humours which they find too gross; as the colds and frosts do moderate that which is inflamed.   

HOW ALL THINGS IN THE WORLD are tempered and conserved by unlike, and contrary things.  
IN like manner is the Earth, and every other thing in the world tempered and conserved by things of dislike and contrary quality. It is not then without cause, that nature is so desirous of contraries, making of them, all decency, and beauty; not of things which are of like nature. This kind of tempering is the cause, that such things as before were divers and different, do accord and agree together, to establish, entertain, and embellish one an other, the contrariety, becoming unity; and the discord concord; the enmity amity; and contention covenant. Wherefore Heraclitus said, that discord, and concord, were the father and mother of all things. And Homer, that whosoever spoke evil of contention, did blame nature. Empedocles maintained, not of discord by itself, but that with concord, it was the beginning of all things: meaning by discord, the variety of things that are assembled, and by concord, the union of them: But the union in this assembly ought to exceed the contrariety: Otherwise the thing should be dissolved, the principles dividing themselves: So we see in the Heaven contrary movings to preserve the world: Venus placed in the midst near unto Mars, to assuage his fircenes, which of his own nature is corruptive: And jupiter next unto Saturn, to mitigate his malice. The inferior world composed of contrary elements to maintain itself by the proportion which they have together; and the natures made of them to preserve themselves, by the temperature of different qualities, which being simple in their nature without any manner of mixtion or composition; and contrary one to the other when they are compared in their qualities in the highest degree, yet of them are all things compounded, and by their commixtion, is the beginning of all generation. There are found in the body of the world, Earth, Water, air, Fire; Sun, Moon, and other stars: There is matter, form, privation, simplicity, mixtion, substance, quantity, quality, action, and passion. In man's body, blood, phlegm, choler, melancholy; flesh, bones, sinews, veins, arteries, head, eyes, nose, ears, hands, feet, brain, heart, liver, and spleen. In the economical body, husband, wife, children, Lord, slave, master, and servant. In the politic body, justice, Fortitude, Prudence, Temperance, Religion, warfare, judgement, counsel, magistrates, and private men, noble, and base, rich and poor, young and old, weak and strong, good and evil, labourers, artificers, merchants, retailers, and carriers: which are all dislike parts, and the most of them contrary, conjoined together by due conveniency. Art imitating nature in the painting of black, white, green, blue, yellow, red, and other mingled colours, representeth the portraitures convenient to those things for the which they are made. And in Music, of high and low, long and short, is made an accord. Grammar consisteth of letters, vowels and mutes: The Sciences can not well be taught without comparing of contraries, th'one being considered principally, and in regard of that one, tother accidentally, that it may be avoided. As Physic doth accidentally treat of sickness, to the end to be the better able to preserve health, and to avoid the other. The Ethicke, and Politic science do not only show what is honest, just, and profitable; but also that which is dishonest, unjust, and damageable. Insomuch that we may say in all cases, that contraries when they are put near, one to the other, they appear the more clearly: Even as want maketh riches to be the more esteemed; and the obscurity of darkness commendeth the clearness of light: The sweetness of the spring-time is more esteemed by the sharpness of Winter: the happiness of peace, by the calamities of war; and fair weather after long rain: So it seemeth, that the good can not be known without the evil: and although they be contrary, yet have they such a conjunction, that in taking of one, both are ta'en away. For the good can not be understood, nor esteemed, but by conferring of it with evil to avoid it, neither the evil shunned and eschewed, except that which is good be throughlie known. Plato saith the like of pleasure, and sorrow, that although they be two things contrary and repugnant between themselves, and can not be together in one person, yet nevertheless, if any one follow and receive the one, he is for the most part ever constrained to take the other: as if they were both in one point and extremity conjoined and knit together. Moreover it is certain, that Nature hath not created any thing, unto which she hath not given a contrary to withhold it and keep it back, where hence proceed the Antipathies, or contrary affections in all things, aswell animate as inanimate, living as without life: In beasts, as between the Cock and the Fox: in fishes, between the Mullet and the fish called Lupus, which some take it to be the Pike: in birds, betwixt the Crow and the Kite: Amongst trees, the Chestnut and Olive: amongst stones, the Adamant and the Diamant. What then shall we say of men, which are so passionate and inconstant? Truly, that all in all ages, and all kinds of life, public, private, solitary, contemplative, active, are inclined to contentions and partialities, even so far, as every one to be at variance in himself, having in his body and soul a perpetual combat between reason and concupiscence: And in this manner is the strife amongst children, which yet have no knowledge, and amongst the Savages, which have nothing proper or peculiar. There are Sects in the schools of Law, Physic, Divinity, Philosophy, and in the convents and monasteries amongst the Reclus and Recluses. No marvel is it therefore if there be seditions in Cities and Countries, which make people of divers estates even to run headlong, as was sometimes in Rome, that of the common people and the Nobility: If there be wars between Lordship and Lordship, kingdom and kingdom, which respectively keeps them both in fear: So were anciently in Greece the Lacedæmonians to the Athenians; so to the Romans', the Carthaginians; and afterward the Parthians.  
So are at this day opposed the Scots to the English; the English to the French; the French to the Italians; The Almains to the Suitzers; the Africans to the Spaniards; the Turks to the Christians; the Persians to the Turks; the Zagathaines to the Persians; being divided amongst themselves by colours red and green, and of that are called Caselbas, and Cuselbas: the Moscovites to the Polonians; the Tartarians to them both. In the Indies Cochim to calicut: in high afric the Moors to the Abissins; through out the country of the Arabians, the inhabitants of the Mountains to those that dwell in the Plains: The Blackmoors amongst themselves: And in Brasil the Sauluages even to the eating of one another when they are taken in war. And it might seem that these divisions were in some sort necessary throughout the world, and such contrarieties as God hath given to every estate, & almost to every person profitable to keep them in fear and humility: for men will soon wax proud, and are easily puffed up with prosperity and riches: and especially when they misconceive from whence such grace proceedeth, God is wont to send them adversities for their chastisement. Wheresore it is ordinarily seen, that every mighty estate, having no foreign enemy findeth some within itself: and when it is come to such greatness, that it cannot be brought under, or kept down by any strange or foreign force, then is it afflicted with partialities, and oftentimes destroyed or translated into some other nation, with alteration both of justice and politic government. Moreover, when the Countries are to full of inhabitants, and that the malice and subtlety of man is come to the highest; then are they purged and empted by famines and pestilence: to the end that the people which are in it, being reduced to a less number, and chastised, may live better. But if herewith they amend not, but wax worse and worse: then either are they exterminated by fire and water, or by Earthquakes overwhelmed. God using always such rigours against those which persever in their wickedness, as he is always ready to receive to mercy such as are truly penitent, which turn to him, and pray to him with their hearts.   

OF THE VARIETY AND INTER course of Shadows, Days, and seasons of the year, and diversity of habitations on the Earth.  
HItherto hath been declared how the world is not only conserned by the intercourse of the Heavens, and Elements; but also tempered by contraries. Now to the end we may the better consider the difference which is found in respect of the diversity of places, and aspects of heaven, aswell in plants, trees, fruits, metals, savours, colours, and tastes: as in beasts, fishes, birds, and even in men themselves, and all their affairs: we will briefly touch as far forth as shall belong to our present purpose, the five Zones of the habitable earth; the seven Climates; four limits, East, West, North, and South; the two sides or hemisphers, longitude, and latitude; the three parts thereof, Europe, Asia, and Africa, unto which is also added America: the variety of shadows, days, and seasons, with the divers manners of inhabiting: because that all these considerations serve to the knowledge of the world, and the changes which in times past have happened therein, and do every day come to pass. The Ancients divided the Heaven, & consequently the earth, into five Zones, thinking that those two that are uttermost about the two Poles, North and South, did make those two parts of the earth which are subject to them unhabitable by their extreme & continual cold. Also that that part of the heaven which beholdeth the middle of the earth under the Equinoctial, made it likewise unhabitable, by reason that the Sun having there his continual course, burneth with his beams, beating on it so near, and perpendicularly, all the country lying under that Zone; That the two others which are between the burning Zone and the Poles, were temperate, as also those parts of the earth which are answerable unto them: But that one could not pass very well from the one to the other, because of the burning Zone being in the midst.  
But by the latter voyages and navigations, the whole earth is found to be inhabited, yea, even under the Poles themselves, being both in the midst and in the utmost parts frequented with men, and with singular commodities, the heat of the middlemost accounted burning hot, being less under the Equinoctial, than the Tropic, not a whit hindering the passage from one of the temperate unto the other. For although that under the Equinoctial, the sunbeams are perpendicular twice in a year, yet do they but little harm, by reason that they stay not long there: the Zodiac being straight, and not obliqne or crooked in that place: Then the nights being there continually equal in length unto the days, do mitigate with their cold the heat of the days. But under and near unto the tropics, the Zodiac being crooked, the Sun stayeth longer there, and descendeth not so swiftlle under the Horizon, making the days longer, and the sun hotter; yet sufferable notwithstanding, as we see by innumerable people dwelling under the Equinoctial, and between the tropics.  
In the uttermost part of the North dwell the Livonians, Norwegians, Lithuanians, Swedens', Moscovites, Lapians, and Brarmians last of all, having in their depth of winter the air full of fogs, and great clouds, with much snow, and frost: In such sort, that both by water and by land, they make their traffic and wars on ice. But when summer returneth, the country is uncovered, and made more temperate, by the light which the Sun giveth there longer in one place, then in another; according as it is nearer or farther removed from the Pole: Even as in the hot quarter, some places by the presence of the Sun are disinhabited, or at least incommodiously inhabited, which by his departure do recover an habitable temperature.  
The superficies or upper face of the Earth hath been also otherwise distinguished: for by how much any country declineth on one side or other from the Equinoctial, so much is their day the longer in Summer, and their night in Winter. In such sort, that according to the divers increase of the days, the spaces of the earth have been distinguished, attributing to every Climate half an hours increase. And the places subject unto these Climates have been noted out, either by famous Cities, or rivers, or mountains: as by Meroe, Sienna, Alexandria, Rhodes, Rome, Borysthenes, and the mountain Ripheus, fabulously invented: where the longest day is of 16. hours, and a quarter; and the Pole is elevated 50. degrees. The Ancients stayed at this seventh; not knowing the Regions, Countries, Seas, and Isles that are beyond it. At this day by the same reason there may others be added.  
The four limits or bounds of the world are, the East, West, South, and North; differing in this, that the South and the North are stable and immovable; But the East and West do never remain in one estate, by reason of the ascent and descent which the Sun maketh in the signs of the Zodiac. Wherefore Eratosthenes following nature, divideth the world chief into two parts, the South and North, imagining that from them proceeded the diversity of all inferior things, according to their nearness or distance from the sun. True it is, that thereby ariseth some difference; but all consisteth not therein, as hereafter shall be declared. Moreover, nature hath endued every one of these extremities, or utmost parts with some singular excellency: For toward, the East, there India brings forth Rubies, Emeralds, Pearls, and many other precious stones, both out of the earth and the sea; the great and mighty Elephants, the high palm-trees full of wine, and laden with nuts: And Serica in that quarter hath first given us the Silk, which is had of worms bred in Mulberietrees: Arabia in the South yields incense, ebony and cotton: jewrie next unto it the balsme, and the cedar: Ethiopia, Cassia and Civet: The Moluccaes in the farthest parts of the West, Pepper, spice cloves, cinnamon, ginger, nutmegs, and other drugs. The North, the Alces, Bears, Ounces, and other beasts which are not seen elsewhere: honey and wax, without the industry of man, throughout the large forests; exquisite skins of Martin's, Sables, and others of great account in the other parts of the world, to make furs for great Lords. Cornelius Tacitus saith, that Amber groweth only in Borussia, and is fished there: as in the South comes incense, and balsme. Also the earth being spherical or round, is parted into two equal sides, called Hemispheres; and by the roundness of it from East to West, it cometh to pass, that there it is sooner day and night; and by the roundness of it from South to North, that there are always seen some stars about the Pole Arctic; not about the Antarctic, which remaineth hidden from us which are one this side the earth, as ours is also unseen of those on the other side. The longitude or length of the earth, is taken from the West to East: the latitude or breadth from the South to the North. The ancients, as Isocrates divided the earth only into two parts, Europe and Asia, afterwards they added Africa for the third, this division taking his beginning at the strait of Gibraltar, where the Atlantic sea engulfeth itself within the land, making the Mediterranean or midland sea, by which these three are divided, Africa remaining on the right hand, Europe on the left, and Asia in the midst. On the other side the rivers Nilus, and Tanais, made these divisions long agone. But as for Tanais, it cannot now stand for a bound, so many innumerable people and countries being known now on this side, which heretofore were unknown to the Ancients. To these three also it is necessary to add a fourth taken of America, and other lands newly discovered towards the West and the South, of which it is not yet known, whether they be joined or no to Asia: that is to say, whether they ought to be reputed main land, or Isles.  
These things premised as necessary to the understanding of this discourse that followeth; we will entreat henceforward of the variety of shadows, inequality of days and nights, intercourse of the seasons of the year, according to the divers habitations; and will propose the diversity of things, according to the difference of places. Then coming to the shadows, we find that they change with the Sun, and from Country to Country: for by how much the Sun is higher, the shadow is the less; and by how much he is the lower, the shadow is greater; in such sort, that always it is greater in the morning and evening then at noontide. Under the two tropics there is no shadow at noon on the days of the Solstices, nor under the Equinoctial, in the days of the Equinoxes. The inhabitants on the one side and the other have their shadows opposite, the one on the right hand, the other on the left. To those that dwell under the Poles, they are round about them in manner of roundels, or millstones. The Sun then going always either towards the North, or on the Equinoctial, or towards the South, maketh five sorts of shadows through out the world: that is, to the East, to the West, to the North, to the South, and one strait shadow. Towards the East it maketh shadow when it setteth; to the West, when it riseth; towards the North, when it comes from the South; and when he whose shadow is made, is nearer to the North, then is the Sun; and towards the South when he that makes the shadow, is nearer than the sun is to the South. Also, the strait shadow is when the Sun is on our Zenith. All these five sorts of shadows happen only to those which dwell between the tropics, and they which inhabit under the Equinoctial have but four, towards East, and West, They that are under the Tropic of Cancer, have their shadow towards the North, and those that are under the Tropic of Capricorn, towards the South; And once in the year direct when the Sun entereth into that Tropic. Those which dwell without the tropics have but three shadows, towards East, and West; and those which dwell in the North have their shadow towards the North, and such as inhabit the South part, have their shadow towards the South; and never have it direct, or strait. Concerning the days and nights, they are always alike under the Equinoctial, but thence they go continually increasing and diminishing, either by the opposition of the earth which maketh the night, or by the roundness thereof which bringeth the day. They then which inhabit Northward from the Equinoctial, have their days increasing when the Sun returneth from the Tropic of Capricorn, to that of Cancer; and those which inhabit the South, have the contrary: namely their nights increasing in length, and their days decreasing by reason that the sun goeth every day farther & farther from them towards the North. Also when he cometh into Aries on the eleventh of March, he treadeth the Equinoctial line, and maketh the days equal with the nights on every side; but when he hath passed the first point of Aries, the days become longer than the nights, to those on the North; and shorter to those on the South. And the eleventh of june when the Sun enters into Cancer, is the longest day, and the shortest night; and on the other side the contrary: for the Sun is then nearest to the one, and farthest from the other. Also from thence forward he beginneth to descend; and returning by little and little, maketh the days shorter, and the nights longer to them which inhabit Northward; and contrariwise to the inhabitants of the South. Moreover, when he is in Libra, the thirteenth of September, he traceth again the Equinoctial line, and then are the nights, and the days equal. But from thence he descendeth towards the sign of Capricorn; and the nights become longer than the days, to them that dwell in the North; and the days longer, and shorter nights to those of the South. Finally, being come to the Tropic of Capricorn, he maketh to us here the shortest day, and the longest night; and in the South the longest day, and shortest night. For this is also a place where the sun is nearest to the one, and farthest from the other. And by how much the Pole is elevated above the Horizon of every habitation, the days and nights are so much the longer: In somuch that they which have their Zenith under the Circle arctic, and to whom the Pole is raised above their Horizon 66. degrees and a half; when the sun cometh into the first point of Cancer on the eleventh of june, they have a day of 24. hours; and their night is almost as an instant: because the sun toucheth their Horizon but a moment for that day. And on the thirteenth of December when the Sun is in the first degree of Capricorn, they have then a night of 24. hours, and in a manner but a moment of day, by reason that the sun toucheth their Horizon in an instant, and by and by setteth, and they account this small touch for a day. They which are under the Antarctic circle have the clean contrary. And those which have their Zenith between the Circle and the Pole of the world, while the Sun is going towards the North, that which their Horizon discovereth of the Equinoctial shallbe unto them for one day. And if it be the quantity of one sign, their day shall endure one month, and if of two signs, it shallbe of two Months, and so for the rest. And he which shallbe under one of the Poles, shall have all the year long but one day, and one night. In such sort, that if he were under the Pole artic, those six Months in which the sun is going towards the North, shallbe a day unto him without night, and the other six Months while the Sun is going towards the South, should be a night unto him without any day. And on the contrary, to those which are under the Pole Antarctic: In so much that half the year shallbe unto them a day, and the other half a night; by reason of the roundness of the world, which waxeth less and less toward the Poles. So their Horizon which are nearest to the Poles, discovereth the greatest part of the day which the sun maketh when he goeth on their side; the earth and water not hindering them of the sight of the sun, all the time that he ascendeth and descendeth, until he cometh to that place where their Horizon doth not discover any thing of the Circle or course which he maketh about the world; and also by how much that part is greater, so much shall the day be longer.  
Many do err, thinking the increasing and decreasing of days to proceed equally throughout the year; because that in deed they increase as much in the one only month of March; as they did in the months of januarie and February together. And on tother side, they are shortened as much in the one only month of September, as they were afore in july and August. The cause is, for that the Sun on the twelfth of March parting from out the Equinoctial, and returning towards the North until the twelfth of April, maketh twelve degrees: and from the twelfth of April until the twelfth of May, eight: and from the twelfth of May to the eleventh of june that he cometh into the Tropic, three and a half: which are together 23. degrees and a half, which is the greatest declining of the sun. In such sort that he separateth himself the first month by th'one half of his declining, and the second month a third part, and the third a sixth part. And so the length of the day is equal with the night, on the eleventh of March; and from thence unto the eleventh of April, the day increaseth th'one half of his whole increase; and from the twelfth of April until the twelfth of May, it increaseth a third part; and from the twelfth of May to the eleventh of june, it increaseth a sixth part. In the uttermost North of Moscovia, the day and the night, are each of them three months in the time of the Solstices. During the Summer time, in May, june, and july; there is day continually; In the Winter time, in November, December, and januarie, continual night; In February, March, and April, first the day is short, the night long: and on the contrary, in August, the night short; in October, long.  
Of the diversity of Shadows; there fall out three sorts of habitations, which we are constrained to express in Greek words, because we have no other: They are, the amphiscian's, Eteroscians', and periscian's. amphiscian's are they which have their shadows on both sides of them, Northward and Southward; such as are the inhabitants between the two tropics, and under the Equinoctial; as the Ethiopians, Arabians, and Indians: Eteroscians which have their shadows turned on th'one side, inhabiting the temperate zones, between the Polarie, and Tropic circles; such are towards the North, the Spaniards, Frenchmen, Englishmen, Italians, and Greeks': periscian's are they which have their shadows round about them in form of millstones; such are they which dwell under the Poles, having but one day and one night in the whole year, and always the same six signs above the earth, and the six other underneath.  
Again, the inhabitants of the earth compared one to the other, are called Periecians, Antecians, and Antipodes. Periecians may be called collateral, and are they which dwell under the self same climate, paralelle and Meridian drawn through the Poles. They have this common with us: First, that they inhabit the same temperate Zone; secondly, that at the same time they have winter, and summer, and the other seasons, & the increasing of days and nights; but differ in this, that they have not the same East, and West, and that when it is high noon with us, it is midnight with them: Such are the inhabitants of the Canaries, with the people of China. Antecians are they which inhabit tother temperate zone towards the South, turning their backs towards us, distant equally from the Equinoctial on their side, as we are on ours; Having then a contrary latitude, they have also the seasons of the year contrary; The Autumn in Aries, when the Spring is with us: The winter in Cancer when we have summer; the spring in Libra, when harvest is here; the summer in capricorn, which to us is winter; But because they are in the same longitude they have at the same instant with us midday and midnight: Such are the Egyptians with the farthest Africans. The Antipodes so called, because they go with their feet opposite to ours, having the Horizon & Hemisphers opposed: unto whom all things are contrary, winter, summer, day and night; East & west.   

OF THE VARIETY OF THINGS AC ACcording to the difference of places.  
HEnceforward, following our purposed order, we will speak of the diversity of things according to the difference of places: Where then the heat is neither to extreme and fervent, nor the cold to excessive and sharp; where there are neither unmeasurable rains, nor too violent winds; but the seasons of the year continue in moderate disposition there is found a convenient temperature of the air, wholesomeness of waters, and fertility of grounds: by means whereof the Country is made pleasant, healthsome, apt to bring forth corn and pulse, to nourish all kind of plants, as well others as wild, bearing fruit abundantly in their seasons; The beasts, birds and fishes are better form, more fruitful, and of better taste, than elsewhere: But where as hot or cold, dry or moist do exceed, they hurt every thing and make it worse. The Ethiopians being near unto the Sun, which burneth them with his beams, are black, having their hear and beard frizzled, or curled. On the contrary they which inhabit the cold and icy countries, have their skin white and soft, their hear yellow and united: both the one and the other being naturally cruel by reason of their excessive cold and heat. They are in both countries of high stature, which proceedeth of the abundance of heat in respect of the Ethiopians; and of the abundant moisture in regard of those which inhabit the cold countries. But the regions of the mean temperature are very good and fertile; the people which inhabit there, of mean stature, quick witted, and well tempered of colour. They are delicate in their manner of living, and have a good sharp and quick wit, ready to comprehend any thing. And commonly the great Empires and famous monarchies, are in their hands; which are not found amongst people removed from this temperature, by reason of their beastly savageness, and brutish immanity. Likewise the beasts which are bred in the cold countries, are lumpish and heavy. And on the contrary, they are light, that are in the hot regions: the one sort very much differing from the other, both in form, shape, colours, and properties. The fishes from sea to sea, & the birds from country to country, do differ much one from tother as may be known by the sight of them, & understood by the books, which are written of them. There is no less difference amongst herbs & trees, according to the place where they are brought forth. For they which grow in the hang of hills, cold, dry, & exposed to the wind, are of greater virtue, than the others: on the contrary such as grow on plains and shadowed places, and watery, being hid from the wind are not of such efficacy. Also the soil, and season maketh them oft times to shoot forward, or to be backward. We see better trees, fuller of leaves, and better stored with fruit in one territory then in another: because they like the place better. Those trees which love the hills are very great and fair: as Cedars, Fir trees, pynetrees, boxetrees, and plaintrees: In the Forests, the oaks, beech's, corketrees, lotetrees, elms, ashes, and haseltrees do grow; The alders, poplars, willows, and reeds on the rivers sides, and in watery places. Some come not any where but in the South Countries; as the orange tree, the citron or lemon tree, palm or date tree, and the sicamore: Others in the cold Countries as appletrees, and pearetrees. The same difference is found both in herbs, and lesser plants th'one not growing but in hot countries, the other in cold, others in those that are meanly temperate. Some grow in marshes, others in standing waters; There are some which are found ordinarily in moist places, and some in dry; others love the fields, others the vines, and others the meadows. Some do better in the valleys, then on the sides of hills; others love the high places exposed to the wind. There are that find nourishment along the walls of Towns and Castles, and betwixt the closures and ruins of houses. Corn comes better in one place; the vine in another, and cattle in an other. The air is so temperate in calicut, that there is never any plague, but continual greenness in the herbs and trees, and there are every month new fruits differing altogether from ours, yet good nevertheless, and marvelous pleasant. The country of Syria chiefly about Damascus, aboundeth with all sort of corn, flesh, and fruit, especially with new grapes all the year long; Also pomegranates, quinces, almonds, olives, and roses of divers colours, very fair and odoriferous; But their apples, pears, and peaches are of an evil taste. In the west Indies as well throughout the Islands, as in the Main there are wild vines that bear good grapes without industry or care of man: But the kernels of the peaches, plums, & cherries, sown in divers places there do take no root. Olive trees being planted there bring nothing but leaves without fruit. The country of Babylon is most fertile in corn; but the vine and figtree will not grow there. In Moscovia, there is great abundance of honey and wax, rich skins, and exquisite furs: but not any fruit worth the reckoning. The Tartarians, and Arabians have nothing but cattle. The Moluccaes yield the aromatical drugs of spicery, and in all things else are barren: In one place are the Emerauds, Rubies, Turkoises and Pearls: In another is Coral, Ambor, and Crystal; in one place there is gold found; in another lead, tin, and silver. Pliny esteeming the wheat of Italy above all others, both for whiteness and weight, saith that nature hath showed herself so friendly towards the Italians, that she hath not only made them excellent, in laws, government of states, and manners of life, customs and fashions; but also hath given them corn, and many other things more excellent than they are in other countries. In such manner hath every country his particular gifts, and singularities so distributed by the divine providence, which is careful of the universal good of the world, that it cannot persever in his perfection without such variety; to the end that the one having need of the other they might communicate together, & secure each other.   

OF THE VARIETY, AND ALL teration in man..  
But the Variety, and alteration is greater in man, then in any other thing; as soon as he is borne he beginneth to die, and his end dependeth of his beginning. During the time while he liveth from his infancy, even till his old age, he hath never the same things in him, neither is the same: but is still renewed, subject to change as well in his body, his hear, flesh, blood, & bones; as in his mind: changing his manners, customs, opinions, appetites, pleasures, sorrows, fears, and hopes. We learn, forget, and remember the sciences. We receive food into our bodies, and cast out the excrement by the ways and conveyances prepared for that purpose: always repairing the incommodities of such egestion, by new nourishment, and by respiration or breathing of the air. The little children are foolish, and old men are dotards; others are either always foolish, or now and then at the least. Others become mad, either in continual fevers, or by some other accident: others with too much drinking lose the use of their reason. Some are naturally more heavy and dull; others more quick and ingenious; others wiser & better conditioned: But seeing that they do all participate of one reasonable soul, & have their bodies made of the self same matter; it is a marvel from whence should come such variety, as we see particularly in every one from his birth and generally throughout the nations. Wherein it seemeth that nature taketh pleasure, to supply the indigence of man, not only producing every one more apt for one thing then another; as learning, arms, and the other liberal and mechanical Arts: but also making the people borne in divers parts of the habitable earth, to differ in inclinations, and complexions.  
MANY learned men have assayed to render a reason of this so admirable a diversity. First the natural Philosophers, are of opinion that it proceedeth of the mingling of the four humours of which men's bodies are compounded, the which according as they agree, or disagree one with another, do change the complexions, in disposing the natures diversly according to their predominant qualities: But principally according to the proportion of the heart, being the fountain of the vital spirits, and of the blood, and governor of the affections as it is diversly affected or altered: also by the disposition of the melancholic humour; which is mother of the arts, and of all good inventions; unto whom they attribute all the dexterity, perseverance, and perfection in them. From thence comes it (according to this opinion) that men are merry, sad, diligent, slothful, tractable, opiniative, gracious, merciful, envious, fearful, audacious, foolish, light, wise, true, false, liars, quarelours, deceivers, with the other like, and ordinary affections of men; more or less, according as one humour exceedeth another. To this helpeth much the corrupted estate of common weals, & the talk which is held both openly & secretly, and that from their youth few do think on remedying of it by good nurture, discipline, and studies. Whereunto the Physicians do add eating, and drinking, with exercise, showing that they are sufficiently serviceable to the disposition of manners. Besides the waters, winds, and air environing; and that there is great difference in the places which are inhabited: So that commonly the Spaniards are proud and haughty; Egyptians light; Africans disloyal; Englishmen and Scots courageous; Greekes crafty and subtle; Italians wise and wary; Frenchmen bold and hardy: And thence is it, that amongst the Scythians there was never but one Philosopher; and in Athens have been many.  
THE ASTROLOGERS affirm all these inferior natures to be governed, and disposed by the superiors, And that by the moving of heaven all things here below, are engendered, and destroyed; or enter changed one into another: Moreover that by the revolutions, and influences of the Planets assisted with the other stars, there cometh such a diversity of bodies and minds unto men: some being stirred up to one action, others moved to another, even as ships in the sea by the winds: so that they cannot of themselves either move or stir any ways: Likewise the humours of the bodies to be moved by the irradiations of the stars, of whom they receive divers dispositions, which the soul representeth afterward in her actions: Insomuch, that in their opinion, none can learn any art, or disiplin whatsoever, nor become excellent therein, if he have not the original, and cause of his excellency, from the heaven, and constellations. They say moreover, that howsoever the poverty, situation, nature, and customs of countries, laws, and statutes of government, religions, and manners of people do often contrary their fatal destiny; nevertheless, that the destiny be it to good, or evil, doth ordinarily return to his course, and accommodate itself as near as is possible, to his first order, not denying notwithstanding, but that by good education and laudable exercises it may greatly be helped: even as it cometh to pass in grounds, which by care and diligence are made more fertile: but being left waist, do soon return to their first nature.  
SOME ancient Philosophers considering, that in the minds of men do appear the seeds of all disciplines, with some knowledge of God, of virtue, and of vice, without any former teaching, or institution; have thought, that the reasonable souls were taken and extracted from the Godhead: And that before they came down from heaven to the earth (which place is contrary to their divine, and immortal nature) they were full of universal intelligences, and of sciences, which they forgot by the contagion of the body, as soon as they came to dwell therein: But that afterwards by care, study, and exercise they recovered the remembrance of them: Thinking these first sparks and faculties of the mind, to be quickened and revived again by learning and use; which for that respect they called remembrance. That discoursing, teaching, learning, providing, numbering, inventing, judging, and other actions of the understanding soul, did not proceed of any elementary matter in any sort disposed, affected, or ordered by the heavenly bodies; but of a more noble and sempiternal coming from without, and being separable from the body; as the eternal from the corruptible.  
THE CHRISTIANS, being better instructed in the truth, have not sought the cause of this variety, either in complexions or constellations; nor yet posted it over to the inconstancy of fortune: but rejecting all such dedestiny, fatal necessity, & hazardous chance, acknowledging truly the world to be governed, by the divine providence; and reducing all thereunto do firmly believe, that God according to his good pleasure, and one only Spirit which doth all things in all men, distributeth to divers persons, distinct and different graces, respecting still, the common good, and preservation of human society: which cannot endure without many and divers estates, charges, administrations, offices, callings, and works: in such sort preserving itself by mutual succour, and reciprocal aid. But that the true virtue, ought chief to be required & hoped for of him, without rejecting either natural inclination or good education. And that therefore it behoveth that this natural instinct, of which we have spoken, should be provoked and stirred up by virtuous institution, which correcteth the ill if there be any, and augmenteth the good in such as are of a good natural disposition, guiding by wise precepts and counsels, this natural aptness and inclination unto true perfection. Since that nothing in the beginning is perfect: but that there goeth always before some toward disposition, and after followeth the accomplishment; As at the point of day break there is first a certain glimmering before the light appeareth: In trees the bud, and the flower come before the fruit: In corn that is sown, the blade, and the ear come before the grain. The goodness of nature alone without discipline is not well assured, and discipline without nature altogether unprofitable. Even as in tilling of the land to have good profit thereof, it is not enough to have good ground, but it behoveth also that the husbandman be skilful in his trade & have good seed. After to confirm them both, and to take a good custom which may always remain, perseverance, & continual exercise are requisite, in such works and actions as concern that vocation whereunto one is called. As the dyer being desirous to give some fine dye unto a cloth which shall long time keep his colour, doth first wash it and prepare it carefully, and after dieth it again and again: So to the obtaining of perdurable praise in any calling we must use necessary preparatives, and even from our youth imprint virtue in our hearts, and our manners by diligent instruction; that it may long remain with us. These means are seldom found altogether: but where they meet fitly and agreeably they make men accomplished, and admirable, such as those have been in times past, which at this day we so highly commend and esteem. Such are the opinions concerning the variety which is amongst men; having all of them a great appearance of truth: But here we will follow the celestial and natural as the most common, and that which Ptolomey writeth thereof in these words. The properties of people (saith he) have usually been distinguished either by all Parallels and all Angles, or by their situation towards the Ecliptic and the sun. For the inhabitants of our land situated in an aquilonarie quadrant, which are subject to Souther parellels; that is to say, which are described by the equinoctial unto the tropic of Summer; as the sun goeth over them, their bodies are black and in a manner burned therewith, their heir thick and curled, their faces scorched: they are slender of stature, hot of nature, and cruel of disposition by reason of the great heat which reigneth in their country. We call them Ethiopians being so disposed as we have said, and having such constitution of air, wherein do agree with them all the living creatures, and things growing of that Country. But those which are under Aquilonarie Parallels, that is to say, which inhabit such places as are under the North, because their vertical point is far removed from the Zodiac, and from the heat of the sun, they abound in cold and moisture: in which there is much nourishment which is not drawn up by the said heat. By means whereof the men there are white of colour, with long hair; great of stature, and well made: but of cold nature, and cruel manners through the vehement cold of those places. The sharpness of winter is agreeable hereunto and the greatness of all things which grow out of the earth, and the wildness of their beasts, we call them generally Scythians. Touching them which inhabit between the Tropic of Summer and the North, because the sun goeth not on their Zenith, nor yet to far towards the South, they live in a very temperate air, joining their houses together, & being of gentle, and sweet manners. And such of them as are nearest the South are most ingenious, and wise, and have accustomed to be best skilled in heavenly matters, for as much as their vertical point is nearer the Zodiac, and the wandering stars which are under it: by the familiarity of which, they have their minds prompt, & ready for the comprehending and understanding of affairs, & of arts; especially of the Mathematics. Also such of them as are toward the East, are more vigorous and firm of understanding, concealing nothing. For by right we say that the East is of the nature of the sun: and therefore that part of the day ought to be esteemed as the right side, the better, and more manlike; as we see in living creatures, the right side to be stronger and harder than the left. On the contrary they which are towards the west are more effeminate, soft and secret; for that part belongeth unto the Moon, which is seen always towards the west between the interlunary spaces: And therefore as the nocturnal, worst and left side is reputed opposite unto the East. Aristotle affirmeth that those nations are barbarous which dwell under excessive cold or heat, for as much as the good temperature of the air doth better both the manners and understandings. For the extreme Northern or Southern people are not civil by nature, nor governed by discipline, nor conjoined in habitations, neither do they sow nor plant; help themselves little or nothing with manuary trades; exchange in their bargaining one thing for another; not knowing the use of money: but living without houses, towns, and cities; wandering continually by great troops representing great walking Cities, guided by divers heads and Lords, and trailing or drawing after them their little lodges, or hovels, covered with leather, mats, canes, or course wool, to defend themselves against heat, cold, and rain. And without long abode in any place, they follow the commodities of the herbage, and water for their beasts and cattle, which they bring with them innumerable of divers sorts; as Horses, Camels, Sheep, and Kine; wherewith they sustain themselves, and with venison: being destitute of Corn, herbs, and fruits. Such were, of ancient time in the Northern Countries the Scythians, and Sarmatians, or Sauromatians dwelling in fields or Champaigns infinitely large, and spacious, open, without wood, trees, or bushes, without ways or bounds, on Chariots whereon they placed their wives, and children, which were therehence called Nomades, and Hamaxobites. Being ignorant of till age they nourished themselves with flesh and with milk, their land, which was plain and united being fit for such manner of living, and being helped by sundry great rivers which running overthwart and watering the ground, made it fat and fertile. Unto which Scythians, the Tartarians, have succeeded living at this day (as is said) in the same manner. Out of this quarter and this kind of people never came but two Philosophers, Anacharsis, and Zamolsis, both of them brought up elsewhere: how be it that in Greece there have been innumerable.  
ON THE other part, towards the south were the Numidians, living in the open air without houses, always in labour and travail, not drinking any wine, and faring simply and poorly, seeking only to satisfy nature, and not to serve pleasure. Who by reason here of were very strong, whole, lusty, and able men, and long lived. The Arabians or Alarbians live now in such manner since the coming of Mahomet, leading with them their houses, villages, and towns which they carry on Chariots; or on the back of Camels, following the commodity of pasturage from Arabia, and the river Euphrates, even to the Atlantic sea, being very hurtful to the bordering plains of Suria, Egypt, and all the nearer Africa: especially about the time of gathering corn, and fruits, for they go down then by troops close, and thick: Then having taken what they can, they retire with such swiftness that they seem rather to fly, then to run: and it is not possible to overtake them, or to follow them through places destitute of waters. It is a vagabond people and innumerable, yet diurded by Nations, and Lords, called Schez evil agreeing together, and having no firm habitation: They dwell commonly under tents and pavilions made of course & bad wool; They live with flesh and milk especially of Camels, putting thereunto a little rice, honey, dates, raisins, dry figs, olives, and Venison when they can catch it, going often with dogs and hawks, to hunt red dear, fallow dear, Ostriches, and all other sort of wild game. They are commonly misshaped, maugre, and lean, of small stature, of tawny, and duskish colour, black eyed, with a weak and feminine voice; wearing no other garments but shirts, saving some chief of them. They ride the most part, without saddles, spurs, or shoes on their horses. Their arms are great India canes of x. or xii. cubit's long, with a little iron at the end, and a little taffeta in manner of a banderol. Notwithstanding living in this poverty and misery, they glory that they are first nations and chief of the world, in that they were never mingled with others, and have still preserved and kept entire the nobility of their blood. joannes Leo an African historiographer writeth that they have many goodly observations of Astrology, which by tradition they deliver from hand to hand to their successors, and increase them daily.  
BUT those nations which are in the mean habitatio of the world, are well disposed, and instructed both in arms and learning: having by nature both courage and understanding together. They live in good policy, inhabiting houses, hamlets, parishes, villages, towns, cities, common weals, kingdoms and Empires: they have universities, and public schools, in which all sciences are taught; they have variety of trads and occupations, serving not only for necessity, but also for pleasure, ornament, and magnificence of buildings, victuals, habits, and arms; they have judgement, revenue, warfare, and religion well appointed, and maintained.  
AMONGST these of the mean, they which dwell nearest the South being naturally melancolick do give themselves willingly to solitariness, and contemplation, being sharp witted and ingenious: as the Egyptians, Lybians, Hebrews, Arabians, Phaenicians, Assyrians, Persians, and Indians. Wherefore they have invented many goodly sciences, unfolded the secrets of nature, found out the Mathematics, observed the celestial motions, & first known religion. Amongst them have been found learned Philosophers, divine Prophets and famous Lawmakers.  
THEY which draw towards the North, as the Almains, through the abundance of humour and blood (which doth hinder speculation) do apply themselves more to sensible things and to Mechanical arts, that is to say, to the finding of metals, and conduct of mines, to melt and forge works in iron, steel, copper, & brass, in which they are admirable; having invented the use of Ordinance, Artillery and Printing.  
THOSE which dwell in the very midst, are not so naturally fit for the speculative sciences, as the Southern nations, nor so apt for the mechanical works as the Northern people are; but are best seen in handling public affairs; and from them are come many good institutions, Laws, manners, the art of government or Imperial, military discipline, and politic ordering of a common wealth, the regiment of a Ship or Pilots art, Logic, and Rhetoric. And as the Meridional nations have not been much exercised in arms, nor the Septentrional in learning, th'one excelling in understanding, tother in force; they of the mean being both ingenious, and courageous, embracing both letters, and arms together, and joining force with wisdom, have established flourishing, and durable Empires, which the other could not do; for although the Goths, Huns, and Vandals, more hardy than wise, have by arms invaded Europe, Asia, and Africa, nevertheless for want of Counsel they established not any power of continuance. Contrariwise the Romans being both valiant and prudent, have surmounted all nations by the glory of their deeds, establishing the greatest Empire and of longest continuance that ever was. And yet have not been deprived of the excellency of disciplines, or of mechanical works. Amongst whom have flourished famous Captains, good Lawmakers, learned Lawyers, just judges, severe Censors, grave Senators, ingenious and pleasant Poets, eloquent Orators, true and elegant Historiographers, wary Merchants, and exquisite Artificers.  
CONCERNING the East and West, all do agree, that the Oriental or Easterly situation, in the same aspect of heaven, and seated in the like place, is better than the Westerly or Occidental and that all things grow fairer, and greater in th'one then tother. Notwithstanding we see the Western people to excel in force of body: and the others in vigour and sharpness of understanding. In so much that the West seemeth to have some affinity with the North, and the East with the South. The Gauls or Frenchmen have often sent great armies into Italy, Greece, and Asia: The Italians never overcame France till they brought their Empire to his full height and force, and that under julius Caesar who found them divided into factions. The Italians overcame the Grecians without great difficulty. The Grecians who by their arms had penetrated into the farther Asia, came not far into Italy, but under King Pyrrhus who was shamefully beaten back. Xerxes came down into Greece with an innumerable army, yet nevertheless was overcome by a few Grecians, and driven back again with a reproachful, and ignominious loss.  
INREGARD of the parts of the habitable earth, many excellent men of war have been renowned in Europe, few in afric, fewer in Asia: which is come to pass, by reason that these two last parts of the world have had one or two sovereignties, but few common weals. But Europe hath only had certain kingdoms, but infinite common weals. Men become excellent, & make show of their virtue, according as they are employed & advanced by their Prince, or common wealth. It is then likely that where are many potentates, there will also be found many valiant men: and few, where there are but few potentates. In Asia are found Ninus, Cyrus, Darius, Artaxerxes, Mithridates, and a few others to bear them company. In Africa are named (leaving out the antiquity of Egypt) Masinissa, jugurtha, and the Captains bred by the common wealth of Carthage: the which yet in respect of Europe are but few; For as much as there are excellent ones in Europe without number, and more would be, if those other were named which by the malignity of the time are forgotten. For the world hath been there most virtuous, where there have been most great estates favourers of virtue; either for necessity; or some other human passion. There have been therefore few excellent men in Asia, because that province was wholly under one kingdom, which by the greatness thereof remaining for the most part idle, they could not there become excellent men for managing of affairs. The same is also in afric where likewise there have been few, save only in the common wealth of Carthage. This being also observed, that there are more excellent personages found in common weals, then in kingdoms; in the which virtue is honoured, and in kingdoms suppressed: whence cometh to pass that in a common wealth the virtuous are cherished, and in a kingdom not regarded.  
Wherefore he that shall consider Europe shall find it to have been full of common weals, and principalities, which for the fear they had one of the other, were constrained to keep in vigour the military orders; and to honour, and esteem of such as were best skilled therein. For in Greece besides the kingdom of Macedony there were many common weals, & in every of them were bred most excellent men; In Italy were the Romans, Samnites, Toscans, and Gauls Cisalpins'; France, and Germany were full of common weals & princes: likewise Spain. And although in comparison of the Romans there are few others named; that comes to pass by the malignity of writers, which follow fortune, and honour none but the vanquishers: But it seemeth not likely that amongst the Samnites, and Toscans which maintained wars 150. years against the people of Rome, before they were overcome, there were not many excellent men; and likewise in France and Spain. But that virtue which the writers do not celebrate in particular men, they extol generally in the whole nations; exalting even unto heaven their obstinate defending of their liberty. It being true then, that where are most estates, there arise most valiant men, It followeth necessarily that where there are fewest, there virtue from hand to hand diminisheth: because there remaineth lest occasion to make men virtuous.  
Wherefore the Empire being since increased, and having extinguished all the common weals and signiories of Europe, and Africa, and the greatest part of those of Asia; it left no way nor means unto virtue any where but at Rome; so that there began to be few excellent men in Europe, as in Asia; which virtue came since even to his last overthrow; forasmuch as all virtue being reduced unto Rome; when it was once corrupted, even almost all the world came to corruption therewith. And the Northern nations were of power to come, and spoil this Empire, which had extinguished the light of others virtue, and could not maintain his own. Although then that by the inundation of these barbarous nations, it was divided into many parts; yet the former virtue could not yet spring up again, by reason of the difficulty which there is for a time to resume the former orders being overthrown; & also because the manner of living at this day (considering the christian religion) doth not imposeth same necessity of defending ourselves, which was in ancient time. For then, those men that were over come in war were either slain, or else remained in perpetual bondage, leading a miserable life: The conquered lands were left desolate, or else they drove the inhabitants, being spoiled of their goods, like fugitives throughout the world. Insomuch that those which in wars were overcome endured all extremity of misery. Being moved with this fear, men always held military exercise in vigour, & honoured such as excelled therein. But at this day this fear for the most part is taken away: for there are few of the vanquished slain, & they remain not long prisoners, the way being easy to deliver them. And although Cities should a thousand times revolt, yet are they not destroyed, but the men enjoy their goods; and the greatest evil they fear is an impost or tax: wherefore they will not submit themselves to the military orders, and entirely bear the charges of the war, to prevent these dangers, which they do not much fear; since the provinces of Europe are reduced to so few heads in respect of the time past: All France being subject to one king, Spain to another, and Italy divided into parts. In such sort, that the weak Cities are saved by associating themselves with the vanquishers; and the other estates by the foresaid reasons do not fear their utter overthrow. Touching the Almains and Swissers, because there were amongst them many common wealths, and signiories, being jealous of their estates, and constrained to maintain them by exercise of arms, they have brought forth whatsoever is good at this day in Military discipline, in these parts. Moreover men in their food and nourishment, are no less different, according to the diversity of countries then in other things; each country having his peculiar meats, and a several kind of dressing, preparing, savouring, saulcing, roasting, and boiling them: And in each season of the year nature yieldeth new meats both by sea and land. As then there are found divers sorts of food; so are there also divers manners of living, both of beasts, and of men. For being not possible for them to live without nourishment, the difference thereof maketh their manner of living to be divers, and different. So that of beasts, some live in herds and flocks; other separated here and there, as is most expedient for purchase of their living: And some of them feed on living creatures, others on fruits, others on every thing; so that nature hath severed their lives according to the commodity and choice of these things. But for as much as naturally every creature hath not pleasure in the self same, but some delight in one thing and some in another: for this cause do the lives of them differ which eat living creatures, and which feed on fruits. Likewise there is a great difference between the lives of men; The Idler sort give themselves to pasturage, feeding on tame beasts, without pains; or travail: but because it is needful for them to remove their cat-tail from place to place for pasture, they are constrained to follow, exercising as it were a lively kind of husbandry. Some live on hunting in divers sorts: as some on their prey; others on fishing, as they which live near unto lakes, ponds, and rivers; and such as border on the sea; others on birds, and wild beasts, which inhabit near unto the woods; The poor throughout the wide forests, and high mountains, live on roots, acorns, and wildfruits: notwithstanding the greatest part of men live of the earth, and of such fruits as they find at home. So that the manners of living used amongst them, are pasturage, tillage, hunting, hawking, fishing, and fouling. Others by mingling of these do live better at ease, helping their life (which hath need of many things) with that which it wanteth, to th'end to have sufficient: As some use pasturage and hawking, others join tillage with hunting; and so the other kinds of living according as necessity constraineth them, or delight and pleasure provoketh them.  
The Cannibals even at this day do eat man's flesh roasted; likewise the other Savages eat their enemies which they have taken in wars: The Arabians feed on Camels, and Ostriches, bread of Millet and rapeseed peeled. The Tartarians on raw flesh indifferently, of dogs, horses, cats, snakes, and such other beasts: which they do only press between two stones to draw out the blood thereof, or else do mortify it on the back of a horse when a man is on him. They drink mares milk, preparing it in such sort that it resembleth white-wine, & it is not much unsavoury, nor of ill taste: The Cathayans also eat raw flesh, cutting it first in small pieces, than they conserve it in odoriferous oils, with good spices, and then do eat if so prepared. Their drink is made of rice, with divers spices; which hath a taste more delicious & pleasant then wine, and they which drink more then enough thereof, are sooner drunk then with wine. The Medites having neither corn nor wine, use great hunting in the summer time, & taking both of wild beasts, and birds: whereof they make their provision to live in winter. And in some places they make biscuit of fishes, dried and cut in small pieces, which they beat, and bray into powder or flower, than they temper it with water, make past thereof, mould it, and make it into loaves of bread, which they dry in the sun; & live thereof all the year. The people of calicut live on rice, fishes, spices, & fruits altogether different from ours. They drink wine of palms, and of dates mingled with rice, and sugar. Throughout all the western Islands they make bread of a kind of wheat called Mahiz, and of a root named juca: which are ordinary feeding aswell in the Islands, as in the main land. They make drink of certain Pine apples which the call Ya yama, which is wholesome; but because it is to sweet, it is not so pleasant to drink as the drink of our countries. It would be too long, & tedious, to recite here and set down severally all the kinds of living, received of men either for necessity, or for superfluity, and delights.  
Therefore these already rehearsed as the most strange, and most different from ours shall suffice at this time. But besides the commodities and discommodities of living, which men have in their several Countries; some abstain from certain meats, either by opinion, as the Pythagoreans did, from a cow, and from a bean: or else by religion; and that either for a time; as from flesh in Lent, and on fasting days amongst the Christians; or always, as the Charterhouse Monks, and Carthusian Friars. On the contrary the ancient priests of Egypt, thought it a great sin to eat fish, as Herodotus hath wrtiten. The Egyptians abstained also from swines-flesh, as the jews do at this day, and the Mahometans, who moreover will drink no wine: The Malharbians, and Guzeras do eat nothing that hath blood, neither kill they any thing that hath life: Therefore they neither eat green herbs nor new fruit, thinking that there is life in them, and that it is a great offence to make them die: They worship Oxen, and abstain from eating them as the jews do from swine: The others being not so scrupulous do use indifferently all kind of meats which they can come by.   

OF THE VARIETY of People.  
IT seemeth that there is in men some natural desire to change their habitations, and dwellings; having a mutable mind, impatient of rest, and desirous of novelties: By reason whereof, they cease not from going one to an other, changing of manners, tongues, letters, lordships, and religions: Few countries are inhabited by the true originaries: almost all Nations are mingled. In ancient time the Egyptians dwelled in Babylon, Colchis, Syria, and Greece; The Grecians in that part of Italy, which is next the lower sea; the Tyrians in Africa; the Africans in Spain; the Phocians in Gaul; the Gauls in Greece, and Asia; the Macedonians in Syria, and Egypt: So have the Arabians passed into Persia, Syria, Africa, Italy, and Spain: So the Tartarians into Scythia: So the Spaniards into America, to Peru, and into the East, and West India: The excessive heats, and colds, the deep seas, and large rivers, the high mountains, the great woods, and deserts, can not let them from changing their dwellings: Notwithstanding, they remove commonly out of cold Regions into temperate; as the Parthians and Turks have done on the side of Asia; and in Europe the Cymbrians, Sicambrians, Saxons, Goths, Lombard's, Burgundians, Frenchmen, Vandals, Normans, Alanes, Huns, Hungarians, and Slavonians: which at divers times going out of the North, have possessed the principal regions of Europe. Others having long strayed and wandered, do not make choice of their habitation, but stay at the first place where they find themselves wearle; being not able to go any farther: Others get it by force of arms: Some straiers perish bythe way; others dwell where their poverty leaveth them; and they have not all the same necessity to abandon their Country, and to seek a new. Some by strange armies being beaten out of their own, invade some other: others being oppressed with civil sedition; others being increased to an overgreat multitude; others by pestilence; or by barrenness of their land; and others hoping to recover a better. Howsoever; all usurpers have accustomed, to abolish as much as lay in them, the dignity, and memory of their predecessors, aswell for envy, hatred, and contempt, as for ambition, to th'end to make their name only from that time forward to flourish: as the Medians did, usurping the Lordship over the Assyrians; the Persians over the Medes, and Egyptians; the Romans over the Gauls, Spaniards, and Africans; the Goths and Vandals over the Romans; the Arabians over the Persians, Egyptians, & Africans: which at this day also the Spaniards do in the new found Lands; and the Turks in those places which they get on the Christians; destroying their buildings, titles, letters, books, histories, and sciences.   

THE VICISSITUDE of Towns  
SOme Towns and Cities begin, others end, others increase, & others diminish: coming of little to be great; & of great little: some are overthrown by wars, others by sedition, others by long peace turned into looseness; or by pomp and prodigality, pernicious to great riches; or by casual chances of fire, inundation of waters, or Earthquakes; or else by old age, which consumeth all things. Ninive so great, so fair, and sumptuous, was destroyed by Arbaces, and the Medians; Carthage by Scipio, and the Romans'▪ By tract of time the greatest part of Babylon hath been turned unto tillage, and at this day is nothing; or else hath changed his name: Athens is reduced into a little village; Troy into champaign: jerusalem so famous throughout the scripture, hath been often destroyed, and re-edified: Thebes was sometime the fairest City, not only of Egypt, but of the whole world; the magnificence of which was diminished by the increase of Memphis: And that of Memphis, by the edification and augmentation of Alexandria, holden for the chief or second City in the world. Rome began when Babylon ended: and Constantinople is grown up by the spoil of Rome; the Empire being transported thither with his chief forces, and riches. Lion's first situated on a hill, was burned, then re-edified below: Elice and Buria drowned. In ancient time there were in Candie 100 Towns, which are now reduced unto three. On the contrary, in Germany there were no Towns: there are at this day the fairest, the strongest, and best governed that are any where. The Arabians and Tartarians march by great troops, representing great walking cities. In other places are seen veriefaire Cities, which were not in former time: As Cair, Alep, Tauris, Mosko, Prague, Cracovia, Nugradia, Antwerp, London, Lishbon, Paris, Rouen, Mexico in Temistiten, Venice, Cambalu, Quinzay, Meace in Gyapan, Malach, and Ormus.   

THE VICISSITUDE OF COMMON Weals, Kingdoms, and Empires.  
THe first and chiefest form of Civil government is a Monarchy erected naturally, which by good establishment begetteth a Kingdom, or Royalty; but when a Royalty falleth into those vices which are nearest i●; as into Tyranny: of their abolition ariseth aristocraty, which is commonly changed into oligarchy. And when the Commonalty revengeth the injustice of the Governors, there followeth a Democraty; by the outrages, and iniquities whereof, is again erected the ochlocraty. Such is the natural revolution of governments, according unto which the estate of the common wealth is changed and translated; and again returneth to the same. If the virtue of commanders were always alike, the affairs of men would go better, and more certainly without being transported to and fro, and incessantly altered; for authority is easily maintained by the same means, by which it is gotten: but where for diligence idleness; for continency and equity, covetousness and pride do take place: there the fortune changeth with the manner of their living. Wherefore the Kingdoms and Empires are translated continually from the less apt and able, to those that more; changing from family to family, and from nation to nation; As by the variable course of the Moon is governed the great Sea, moving or appeasing his waves; advancing or withdrawing the flowing, and the ebbing of the tides: so are by the unstability of fortune, and men's want of wisdom, public states increased, diminished, exalted, abased, changed, destroyed, converted, and put over, from some unto others: those that are best governed, having their power more assured, and durable than the rest: and yet none being perpetual; for as much as they are corrupted in length of years, whatsoever good orders there are at the beginning: if heed be not carefully taken in reforming them often, and reducing them as much as is possible to their first integrity. We see that a Lordship well founded doth prosper a time, by the goodness of the government, and goeth from good to better, drawing in a right line towards the midst, or the highest of his true politic course: afterwards declineth from high to low, or from the midst to the extremity. True it is, that where th'one endeth, tother beginneth; and is advanced by the ruin of the former: or many small are reduced into one great; and that great one divided into lesser.   

THE VICISSITUDE AND variety of Tongues.  
LIkewise the Tongues, words, writings, and Characters, are continually changed, having no better hap, than other humane things, which do change ordinarily, with their words: namely, manners of living, both public, and private; customs, meats, laws, habits, and garments, edifices, buildings, arms, engines, and instruments. They have a beginning, continuance, perfection, corruption, and alteration. Some are altogether lost; others do spring out of the former, being corrupted, and mingled: others after they have been long time disannulled, are restored. They are maintained with their propriety, sweetness, and elegancy: with the sciences which are written in them, through the power and greatness of Empire; and by religions: with which means they are largely spread abroad in divers Countries, and endure long: as also they are lost by the contrary.   

THE VICISSITUDE of Artes.  
BY the same order and interchangeable course, the Arts and Sciences being small at beginning, do augment by little and little, and come up to their perfection: whether after they are once come, they fall eftsoons, and finally perish through the sloth of men, or by the calamity of wars long continued, or by the tyranny of barbarous people: Then when they have been a while let down, they arise again, and successively recover their former strength. Which hath given occasion to some excellent Philosophers, and Astrologers to think, that the same Sciences have sundry times been invented before, time out of mind, and lost again; as they may be again also in time to come: seeing that power and wisdom leave not long each other; but ordinarily keep good company together. As I have observed within these three thousand years to have fallen out five or six times at certain seasons, finding the excellency of arms, and learning, to have been first in Egypt, Assyria, Persia, and Asia the lesser: consequently in Greece, Italy, and Sarasmenia: and finally in this age, in which we see almost all ancient, liberal, and Mechanical arts to be restored with the tongues: after that they had been lost almost twelve hundred years, and other new, invented in their places. Wherein shallbe employed all the discourse ensuing, depending on the former: which we will begin with the Tongues, with which are preserved and lost, all humane arts and affairs.   
The end of the first Book.   

OF THE VICISSITUDE AND variety of Tongues. The second Book.  
GOD creating Man, gave him for a great and excellent gift, the use of Reason, and Speech; and by these two prerogatives hath separated him from other Creatures: But reason would little help him, and would less appear in him, if he could not by speech express that which before he had conceived in his mind; for the beasts seem to yield unto him rather in speech then understanding; doing finely and curiously many works which he can not imitate: which because they can not speak, are called mute or dumb, and unreasonable creatures. And although men are more sociable, yet little would the similitude of nature which is amongst them, avail them unto this society, if they did not understand one an other; and would rather choose to converse with the dumb creatures, of divers kinds▪ then with other strange men which they understand not. Speech then being so necessary to a civil man; who by reason alone can not have the company of an other, and being naturally given him to declare the conceits and affections of his mind; notwithstanding it cometh to pass, that the words are not always, and every where the same, as the things are unto which they are imposed: but do change from country to country, and from time to time; according to the use and custom of those that speak; being received, and understood amongst them by their own agreement, and consent: From whence proceedeth this variety of Languages amongst men dispersed over the whole habitable earth, being so spacious in length, and breadth, th'one not understanding tother but by signs, or interpreters. But if, as there is in all men one first principle of reason, and one common interior intelligence, it were possible that there were also but one common tongue to serve in arts, and contracts; they would love one another better, by the ceasing of that discord, which cometh by the diversity, and ignorance of tongues; and employ that time in knowledge of things, which they are now constrained to bestow in learning of words. Diodorus the Sicilian following the ancient Philosophers hath written, that men at the beginning had the sound of their voice confused, and not to be understood; but that by little and little, making distinction, they named every thing by his name: And for as much as they were then dwelling in divers parts of the world, they did not use all one speech and language; whence it came to pass, that they had also different Characters, and letters. Moses declareth in Genesis, how the language of all the earth was confounded in the building of the tower of Babel; wherehence hath proceeded the division of Nations, and the beginning of the diversity of Tongues, by the pride and presumption of men. As in truth it is a punishment for sin that we have so many, which are changed uncessantly at the pleasure of the common people, forging daily new words; by the birth of which the former must needs decay: Even as the seasons of the year do spoil the earth of her flowers and fruits; and do after clothe it a new with others. Likewise time maketh words to fall; and use maketh new to spring in their places, and graceth them, making them to be in request; until that, being by age consumed by little and little, they come also to die: because that in the end, both we, and all things that are ours are mortal. But such change and variety cometh ordinarily of the mingling of divers Nations, and of great fairs, and armies; where are people of divers languages, who assembling, and communing together, do continually forge new words; which do either endure, or perish, according as of custom they are accepted, or rejected.  
And howbeit that speech is natural unto men, yet do they not speak but artificially; nor do they learn it, but in hearing others speak: first their mothers, and their nurses; and afterwards the common people. Wherefore it behoveth, that the first which imposed names on things, having no other of whom they might learn them, did miraculously learn them in that tongue, wherein the nature, and truth of things agreed with their originals, and etymologies: which men even to this present have endeavoured to seek in all tongues, in the significations of words. The Hebrews attribute this honour to their tongue, which they account the first and most ancient of the world. Herodotus writeth, that Psamneticus King of Egypt, being desirous to know which was the first language, gave two young children of poor parentage to a Shepherd to be kept, forbidding any word to be spoken in their hearing: but commanded they should be kept a sunder; and that at certain hours there should goats be brought to give them suck: which he did for a desire he had to hear what word these children would speak first: And it happened after two years, when the Shepherd opened the door to come in to the children, they fell down both at his feet, and holding up their hands pronounced this word, Bec, which is as much to say as Bread, in the Phrygian tongues. And so it was found, that the Phrygians were more ancient than the Egyptians, and their language the first. vitrvuius the Architect, speaking somewhat grossly of this matter, saith, that while men dwelled yet in the forests, in some of the thickest places, the trees shaken by the force of the winds, and beating violently one against an other, stroke fire, whereat those that were near being astonished, fled; and afterwards coming near again, when the noise was stilled, they found that great commodity came to the body by the heat of the fire; and putting wood into it, so maintaining it, they called the rest, and showed unto them by signs, the good that came of it: In this first assembly, their voices issuing diversly out of their breasts, the words were made as they offered themselves, by the which signifying oft the same things, they began to speak at adventure; & so form the languages amongst them. Pythagoras did attribute sovereign wisdom to him which first found out names for every thing. And Plato affirmeth in his Cratilus, that it was done by a power, more than humane: for in truth man could not of himself, without the help of God discern innumerable things contained in the world by their proper names, which otherways had remained unknown: I say, the Heaven, his parts, and movings; the fixed, and wandering Stars; the Elements with their qualities; winds, rains, hail, snows, thunders, and other meteors; birds, beasts, fishes, herbs, plants, trees, grains, minerals, stones, pearls, their natures and properties; seas, gulfs, climates, havens, ports, isles, rivers, lakes, pools, lands, countries, people, nations, villages, hamlets, towns, and cities: The inward and outward parts of the body; senses, and their objects; odours, savours, smells, and tastes; maladies, and their remedies; infinite humane actions; victuals, garments, laws, magistrates, judgements, governments, ceremonies, warfare, revenues, monies: so many arts and occupations with their instruments: so many persons with names, and surnames, the affinities and alliances betwixt them. The controversy also in times past hath been great amongst the learned, whether words were imposed at the will and pleasure of them that speak, or else by art, and natural reason. The variety and continual mutation which is seen in tongues, made some think that this imposition was casual, and arbitrary, founded on the consent and custom of men: Others said, that since the names are as instruments ordained to present things unto us, which do not change through our opinions; but according to their nature remain always in the same order; also that the true names did not change after our pleasure: but were agreeable to the things signified, whose essence, and similitude they did imitate; being first conceived in mind, afterwards expressed in sound, and voice, and then written by letters and syllables. Which opinion some have so far believed, that they have gone about to inquire, and search out the propriety of things, by the propriety of words; and to insinuate so far, by the secret virtue which they deemed in them, as to do miracles in pronouncing them; and to heal the diseases both of body and mind therewith: And that which is more, they have affirmed, that there are some invented by divine inspiration, meaning amongst others the name of GOD, which is pronounced by four letters only in most languages: In which they say so many Nations could not agree, without some marvelous mystery of the divinity.  
If the imposition, property, and virtue of names be admirable, the invention and use of Letters is no less; and to have found a mean to comprehend in a few notes, such a multitude, and variety of sounds, and voices of men. By them are written the things of greatest profit unto the world; as the laws, sentences of judges, testaments, contracts, and other such things necessary for the understanding of the life of man: Those which have been long time dead, are revived in the memory of the living; and they which are many miles distant a sunder, common with their absent friends, as if they were present: The sacred Books of the holy Scripture, and word of God, are preserved by them; the sentences of wise men, philosophy, and generally all sciences are delivered over from hand to hand to the survivors. Some have caviled at this invention, as Thames king of Egypt (in Plato's Phaedrus) who made answer to Theut (boasting himself thereof) that he had not found, a remedy or help for memory, but for remembrance. Therefore, the Pythagoreans, and the French druids did write nothing; but delivered one to another their mysteries without writing; to th'end that they should not exercise their memory the less, through the confidence of letters: Notwithstanding, experience (which is Mistress of things) hath manifestly opened their error; for as much as by writing nothing, the memory of their doctrine in process of years through man's imbecility is utterly lost, no appearance, or ancient mark thereof remaining at this day.  
In like manner the Hebrews say of their Cabal, that it was first given by God to the patriarchs, and to Moses, afterwards to the Prophets: not written, but revealed successively, and given from hand to hand, by the one to the other. But after they were delivered from the Captivity of Babylon by Cyrus, and that under Zorobabel they had re-edified the Temple: then Esdras who already had restored the books of Moses, foreseeing, that his nation amongst so many calamities, flights, banishments, and mortalities, unto which it was exposed; could not at length preserve and keep the secrets of that celestial doctrine revealed to them from above, and preferred before the written Law; except they did write them: he gathered what he could of the wise men then surviving, and reduced it into seventy Volumes.  
Letters then being most necessary; after they were invented, they which considered them nearest, divided them into Vowels, and Consonants; then into half vowels, mutes, and liquids: calling that art Grammar, which served to know, to discern, and to assemble them; to make syllables, nouns, verbs, and speech. And although Pliny, building on the authority of Epigenes, thinketh the use of letters to have been eternal (that is to say, without beginning) nevertheless, he is gainsaid in that, by other Authors. Philo the jew imputeth the invention of the Hebrew letters to Abraham; Eusebius to Moses; and others unto Esdras. josephus saith, that the children of Seth, the son of Adam, erected two Pillars, the one of stone, tother of earth, in the which they wrote the arts invented by them: and that th'one of stone was yet in his time remaining in Syria. Cicero attributeth the Egyptian letters to Mercury, and the Phrygian to Hercules. Livy ascribeth the Latin to Evander the Arcadian, whom he calleth venerable by the miracle of letters. Cor. Tacitus the Hetrurian letters to Demaratus the Corinthian: The Slavonians attribute theirs to S. Iherome, who they say translated into their tongue, the old & new Testament. The Bishop Gordian gave letters to the Goths. The ancient Frenchmen which first possessed both the Gauls, had three sorts of letters, differing th'one from tother: The first invented by Wastald; the other by Dorac; the third by Hiche. The Normans had theirs also described by Bede. In like manner many Nations have invented new Characters, have changed, and corrupted the old; as the Slauons those of the Greeks; the Armenians of the Chaldees; the Chaldees of the Hebrews; the Goths, Lombard's, Spaniards, Germans, and Frenchmen those of the Romans. The other Hetrurian letters which are seen yet at this day in the ancient sepulchres, are altogether unknown: Others searching the same yet more deeply, and fetching it farther off, affime that they were first invented by the Ethiopians, who delivered them to the Egyptians; the Egyptians to the Assyrians; the Assyrians to the Phoenicians; the Phoenicians to the Pelagians; the Pelagians to the Latins; the Latins to the Italians, Frenchmen, Spaniards, Almains, Englishmen, Scots, Norwegians, Suecians, Polacques, and Hungarians.  
The Characters of the letters are no less different than the tongues; & can not serve any tongue but that whereunto they were ordained; nor represent the entire, & natural pronunciation, no, not of their own; which changeth not only from town to town, but almost from village to village; for Greek could not be written in Latin letters, nor the Latin in Greek letters: and the Greeks and Latins do not always pronounce as they writ; but to make the sound of their words softer, do change the pronunciation of some letters, taking th'one for tother: whereof there is a complaint made in Lucian to the judgement of the vowels. Suetonius writeth of Augustus, that he observed not the Orthography set down by the grammarians, but seem rather to lean to the opinion of those, which think that we ought to writ as we speak: In the which howbeit he were followed, yet could he not with his imperial authority, and inestimable power prevail against custom: And therefore I wonder at some Frenchmen, who not considering that in Grammar, there is more observation than reason; & that it behoveth in such things as are speaking, writing, & pronouncing, with nature to mingle custom (which as Quint. saith, is the most certain Mistress thereof) have of late intruded themselves, assaying to reduce the writing of that language (which they have clean turned upside down) wholly to the pronunciation; without thinking that the French do use strange letters; which if they could never thoroughly satisfy their own tongue, but because of their defect have been often changed, and augmented; how should they then satisfy another? In somuch that it seemeth to some to be a thing impossible, that a people having a peculiar tongue of their own should use strange letters, but with great difficulty; as we see in the Dutch and English, using Latin letters; and in the Turk, and Persian, which use the Arabian. As also they are of opinion, that the history of one Nation, can not conveniently be written in another language, then that of the same country; induced to think so by the Roman history, which being written in Greek, seemeth no more to be Roman: especially where there is question of customs, laws, magistrates, moneys, revenues, and ceremonies: wherein the Greek tongue being otherwise rich and plentiful, seemeth rude, & barbarous; where the latin is fine and eloquent. The same is befallen to the Greek History, written in the Latin tongue: and likewise to the French made by Gaguinus, Paulus Emilius, and others, representing little, and ill to the purpose, the affairs of France in a strange language, used only now a days in schools: whereas Froissard, Monstrellet, Philip de Commines, Guill. and Martin du Bellay, are found large and convenient. But to th'end not to digress from our commenced purpose, I will return to speak of Letters. The Hebrews and Latins have twenty and two; The Slauons, and jacobites two and thirty; The Armenians 38; The Abissins or Ethiopians 47; The Arabians 31; The Chaldeans 28: The Latins, Greeks, and other inhabitants of Europe, and the Indians of Malabar, having peculiar letters of their own, do write from the left side towards the right; The Hebrews, Chaldees, Arabians, and generally all the Asiatickes, and Africans, from the right to the left, imitating the moving of the Heaven, which is from the right hand to the left, and is most perfect according to Aristotle, approaching nearest to the unity, which of Plato is called the motion of similitude, or of uniformity; The Cathayans, or people of China, & japania, from above downwards, saying that therein they follow the order of nature, which hath given to men their heads placed above, and their feet below. Diodorus the Sicilian writeth, that in a certain Island found towards the South by jambolus, th'inhabitants did not write from one side to tother as we do, but drew their line strait from above downwards, having 28▪ letters in number, according to the signification which they give them. Other manners of writing there can not be; except one would write a cross, or overthwart. The Eastern, and Southern nations do use points; the Greeks' their abbreviations; the Latines their titles; the Egyptians in holy things did use the figures of beasts for letters, which they called hieroglyphics. The most Ancients did write, in the rind or bark of trees, and in tables, and leaves of wood: others in Palm-leaves, according to the commodity of their country; others in lead. Their missive letters, or Epistles were written in tables or wax; the Laws, and other durable things were engraven in brass, or copper: They did write also in fine linen cloth. Themperor Commodus used the fine bark of the Linden tree, called of the Latins Tylia, or Philyra: Others the rinds of a little tree called Papyrus, (growing in the marshes of Egypt) which were thicker: from whence came the name of Paper used at this present: which is made of old rags of cloth, steeped along time in water, and brayed in the mill; after brought into a kind of past, which being stretched out on a gridiron of brass, to th'end to dry it, & being put between locks of will, and pressed; after it is a little dried, becometh fine, smooth, thin, & white paper: we use Parchmin also more strong, & durable then paper, which is made of sheepskins, goatskins, and calueskins, coried and dressed by the Leatherdressers, and parchminmakers. Herodotus in his Terpsichore witnesseth, that they used these skins to write on in his time. And josephus saith, that the holy Scriptures were first written in them. M. Varro thinks they were first found out at Pergamus a City of Asia, (from whence they yet take their name) at such time as the two kings, Ptolomeus, and Eumenes erected their Libraries; envying one the other. Diodorus the Sicilian writeth, that the letters of the Ethiopians were made after the likeness of sundry beasts; and the extremities of divers members of man; and of divers instruments and tools of artificers, and their intentions, & words were not expressed by composition of syllables or letters; but by forms, and figures of Images; whose signification remained unto them by use in the memory of men: for they would set down a Kite, a Crocodile, a man's eye, a hand, a face, and other such like things: The Kite signified a thing soon done, because he is one of the swiftest birds; and this character is properly applied to home affairs which are speedily dispatched; the Crocodile did note some evil thing; the eye, an observer of justice, and a guard or watchman of the body; the right hand with the fingers stretched out, betokened liberty, or liberality; and the left hand closed, was hardness and greediness. After this manner the figures of other parts of the body, & forms of certain instruments, did notify some other thing amongst those Ethiopians, who retaining it through long practise in their memory, did readily understand what the said figures meant, and signified.  
Those of Malabar, and other Indians dwelling between the river of Ind, and Ganges, do yet at this day write in palm-leaves, either greater or lesser, according to the matter which they intent to write: In whole ones they writ such things as they would have to endure long; as the affairs of their Religion, and their Histories; the other things of less consequence, in a quarter, or half quarter, aswell on th'one side, as tother. And when they have written a great number, meaning to join them in books, they fasten them between two boards, in steed of those forels or covers which we use; after, as we sow our leaves, so do they tie theirs with strings to the said covers. For their missive letters, it sufficeth that the leaf be written, and rolled up in itself, & in steed of sealing of it, they bind it with a thread of the palm itself: They use to writ with an instrument of iron or wood sharpened, passing lightly over the leaf not piercing it, and imprinting the characters of their letters in such sort, that they may write on both sides: Tother writings more permanent, as foundations of Churches, are ●●t in Copper, or graven in stone.  
Peter Marty●a Milanois historian, writing of the difcoverie of the new found lands▪ made by the Castilians; saith that the inhabitants of Collacuan, brought into Spain amongst other gifts, certain books written in the fine inner rinds of trees, which are found between the wood, and the thick uttermost bark: And that they are taken sometimes of willows, or of Alders, which they covered with course cloth, and fastened together with cement, and rubbed over with fine plaster; which when it is dry, they writ what they will on them. There books are not made by leaves, but they stretch them forth many cubits in length, and bring them into square pieces, joined in such sort with cement, or solder, that they are easy to turn, and seem to be made of boards, or tables of wood: and wheresoever they are opened, there appear twosides written, in manner of two pages: as much there is underneath, if they be not stretched out in length, because that under one leaf are many leaves written. The letters and characters are like unto hooks, gins, files, stars, and other such forms; where with they writ in lines after our fashion, representing in some sort the ancient manner of the Egyptians, and Ethiopians; and they paint between the lines figures of living creatures: namely of men as is aforesaid, as of Kings and princes, reciting their acts. They writ also their Laws, sacrifices, ceremonies, observations of the stars, and of husbandry: Both the upper, and under side is of fine workmanship, and such as when they are folded up, they seem nothing different from ours. They make little table-books also of boards of figtree, to write common things on; which they can easily deface again. The said Martyr saith also, that there have been found in Darienna, books made of the leaves of trees sowed together; and that at Mesira they use figures, by which they signify their affairs, aswell as by writing. Moreover, that in Hispaniola, there is found a tree called Coppeia, whose leaf is as fit to write on as paper, with a needle, or pin, or a pointed stick: and that it is to be thought, that this is the tree, in the leaves of which the Chaldees, the first inventors of Letters, did write their conceits, before the use of letters was invented. The leaf will abide writing on both sides, aswell as our paper; it is about twelve fingers broad; and almost round; thicker than double parchmine; and very tough: When it is wet, the letters appear white in the green leaf; but when it is dried, it becomes white, and hard as a wooden board; but then the letters are yellow: it is never marred, nor defaced for wetting; if it be not burnt. Paulus Venetus writeth, that in the province of Arcadan (which is subject to the great Cham) there are neither letters, nor characters: but that men there make their contracts, and obligations, by little boards or tablets; which they divide in the midst; and compare afterwards together, and confer their marks and signs one with the other, and so do acknowledge the cause of such contracts. The simple people of the new found land, not knowing the use of Letters, did marvel much to see that Christians by means of them, understood one an other; and thought that the written leaves did speak by their commandment, and reported their secrets: in such sort, that they touched, and carried them with fear; as if there had been some spirit in them; and that they had spoken by some divinity, and not by industry of man.  
THE most common kind of writing, which we use at this day in these parts, is with black Ink: which heretofore was made of the sweat of baths, and furnaces; but now of galls, gum Arabic, and rinds of pomegranates; being all steeped in water of victriol or copperis beaten into powder. There is used also red ink, made either of Vermilion, or of the shavings or filings of Brasell steeped in strong Lie, being yet warm, and putting a little Alum to it: and Azure made of some blue stone or earth; yellow, of goldsand or powder. Also one may write with the juice of Mulberries, Cherries, and other such fruits: And that with pens made of reeds or canes, such as Erasmus used; or of brass, gold, or silver: or of goose-feathers, swans, peacocks, or ostriches: Without speaking of the subtleties of writing with Ciphers which Princes use; and notes which Cicero invented; or with Alum where the letters do not appear; nor can not be read, except they be dipped in water; or with salt Armoniac, juice of an orange, limon, citron, or onion; to be discovered only when they are held near the fire; or with grease, cinders, and coals. But the manner to write by imprinting hath excelled all the rest in readiness, and diligence, dispatching more work in a day, than many speedy or swift writers are able to do in a year. And since it cometh in so fitly to our purpose, we will intermeddle here a little; and say briefly, as much as we shall think fit for this present discourse, of that which we have heard, and learned of the most expert, touching this so rare, so profitable, and admirable Art: to the end, that if by wars, or other humane mischiefs, and casualties, the use thereof should at any time be left off, yet it should not be altogether lost, but be faithfully kept and preserved by books, as it hath saved and preserved many books.  
TO MAKE Characters for imprinting, it is requisite first to have ponchions of steel, softened by the fire, on the which they grave with counter-ponchions hardened, or graving irons steeled, the white which is within the letters: perfecting and smoothing the bodies of them with files, where they are eminent, or uneven; not at the right ends, but at the contrary: after they wet these ponchions in water to harden them, and then polish them, and do strike them into little pieces of fine copper, that have been in the fire: which being so engraven, do naturally represent the form of the letters: which the artisans do call, striking of the matrices: Then do they justify their matrices on moulds of iron, and in the white thereof make their castings, with lead, tin-glass, antimony, and other mixed matters; to the end to harden them: and that they may endure the longer. The Letters being thus cast & made, are put in a great case or box of wood, full of little boxes, in to which they are distributed, according to their several sorts. From whence the Compositors (having laid before them the writing which they are to imprint) do take them one by one, & dispose them by pages and forms, which they put again into other chasies or frames of iron, with one or two crosses, locked or shut fast with furnitures of wood. Then the governor of the Press taketh these last chasies or forms, and layeth them on the marble of his Press, then beateth them with balls of wood filled with will, covered with white leather, and soaked or rubbed with ink well mixed and distributed, placing the leaf that is to be printed, on a double tympan or parchmin (having a woollen cloth betwixt them) and a moist linen cloth to keep the leaf from mackling, and putting down the frisquet of parchmin, which covereth the white or margin of the leaf, he maketh the train of the press to roll▪ (which resteth on the carriage) till it come under the vice or spindle, unto which the plattin is fastened; and taking the bar in his hand, he pulleth as hard as he can until the leaf be imprinted on one side, on which they bestow half the day; and the other half, on the other side; yielding in a day twelve hundred and fifty sheets, or thirteen hundred imprinted. But before they do this, they make two or three proofs, which are reulewed: and on this correction continue the rest. Two men are requisite about the press, one to take, to gather, and order the sheets, o● leaves; tother to beat on the form which is on the press, and to distribute or bray the ink on the stone or block: which could not serve the turn by reason of the great travail required therein, if they did not draw the press one after the other, and by turns. Two presses also are needful; th'one for the ordinary work; and tother to make the proofs, and reiterations: More or less Compositours (that is to say Collectors of letters together) according as they are great, or small, or in a mean between both; and sometimes a Founder or melter is requisite to renew the letters. The ink is made of the smoke or sweat of oil, and dissolved in oil which must be beaten, and distributed, because of the thickness; and it would not stick on the paper if it were not wet. Others have thought it better to make letters of copper, saying that they are of less cost, and yet will endure longer. But experience hath found that they are not so commodious, and that they pierce the paper. This is that which we have understood of this Art unknown heretofore amongst the ancient Greeks' and Romans; whereof the Almains attribute the invention to themselves. Notwithstanding the Portugals traficking on the farthest parts of the East, and the North, into China, and Cathay, have brought therehence books printed in the languag, and writing of that Country, saying that they have used it there a long time: which hath moved some to think, that the invention hath been brought out of that country through Tartary and Moscovia, into Germany, and so after communicated to the rest of Christiandome: and yet not received of the Mahometistes; who superstitiously account it a great sin to write their Alcoran by any other mean but by the hand of man.  
Almost all nations have remained a long time without letters, which hath been a cause of making the antiquities and originals uncertain. Touching those books which we have, there are none of them written above 3000. years agone, except the Hebrew, neither is there found amongst the Gentiles any author more ancient than Homer. Therefore the Egyptian Priest in Plato's Timeus, reproacheth unto Solon, that the Greeks' were all young of understanding, having no old opinion derived from antiquity, nor any aged science. And Herodotus in his Terpsichore writeth, that the Phoenicians arriving with Cadmus at Berce, brought in the letters with them, which the Greeks' had not before: and as Livy writeth, they came but lately into Italy: The Germane tongue was not written in ancient time; and the Hongarian began not long since to be written. The Nomedes of the great Tartary, and some Savages of the newfound Lands do use no letters at all: But they have amongst them, some matters touching their antiquities not written nor represented by notes which they give by word of mouth successively the one to tother. As the jews kept a long time the memory of the antiquities, which Moses afterward set down in writing, continued by the successors of Adam, and of Noah, even to his time. And the verses of Homer, before they were gathered in the form which we see by Aristarchus, were learned and sung only by heart. And so used at the first the Egyptians, Chaldees, Babylonians, Greeks', Latins, and other nations.  
WE have said enough of the imposition of names, the invention, diversity, and antiquity of Letters; the manners of writing, and matters which are written on, and with what instruments, and of the Art of Imprinting: now coming again to our speech of tongues: I say that they get reputation by their property, elegancy, and sweetness: by the sciences which are written in them; by power and greatness of Empire; and by the religions, by which means they are enlarged in many Countries, and endure long; as also they are soon lost and decayed by their contraries.  
THE GREEK tongue came in estimation by the elegancy, sweetness, and richness thereof, by Philosophy which hath been handled therein; and all Arts and Sciences. It hath been propagated by the navigations, and Colonies of the Athenians, and by the arms of the Macedonians, which ruling far in Asia, and namely in Syria, and Egypt, made their language to be understood in many Countries: In so much as by the saying of Cicero, it was in his time red almost in all nations. Also the new Testament first written in Greek hath made it known in many places.  
THE ROMANS no less ambitious in amplifying their tongue then their Empire, constrained the people which they had overcome to speak Latin; and did not negotiate with strangers in any tongue but their own; to th'end to spread it over all, with more veneration: as Valerius saith in his second book of ancient Institutions. They made their Provincials to change not only their language, but also their manners, and customs; to make them more tractable. Afterward the Christian religion passing into the West, and using Latin in the Churches, and Schools; and consequently in public instruments, and sentences of sovereign judges; hath preserved it throughout Italy, France, Spain, England, Scotland, Germany, Poland, Prussia, Sweden, Hungary, Bohemia, and part of Slavonia. The Christians in the East, and South Countries, as the Nestorians, jacobites and Maronites use the Syrian tongue, as we do the Latin: The Abyssins or Ethiopians use the chaldaic, in the which they have all the holy Scripture; not giving credit to any other language whatsoever. The jews, wheresoever they are throughout the world, would never consent, that the old Testament which they use should be translated, but do read, and sing it in Hebrew; practising in their contracts the tongues of those Countries where they dwell. Likewise the Mahometists have not suffered their Alcoran, to be red, or understood in any tongue but the Arabian; in which it was written: which resembling the Hebrew, Chaldaicke, and Syriack is at this day largely spread abroad. For although the Tartarians, Corasmians, Persians, and Turks, have a divers language from the Arabian; the Syrians, modern Arabians, and Moors, a tongue somewhat like it; yet so is it that the Arabian-grammer tongue in religion, and sciences, amongst the learned, the judges, and Priests is common to all the inhabitants almost of Asia, Africa, and the third part of Europe. Amongst all the languages of Europe there is not any more ample, and large than the Slavonian; understood, and spoken by the servians, Mysians, Bosnians, Dalmatians, Croatians, Slauons, Carnians, Bohemians, Moravians, Slesites, Polaques, Mazovites, Pomerans, Cassubites, Sarbians, Ruthenians, and Moscovites. Moreover the Lythuanians, Nugardians, Plescovians, Smolnians, and Ohalicians begin to speak Slavonian. It was also familiar amongst the Mammelucs, as it is at this present in the Turkish Court. In Asia, the Tartarian is understood throughout the north, and a part of the East: The Moorish throughout Africa; and the Brasilian in the new found Lands.  
YET have not tongues any better estate than other human things; but even as buildings, habits, manners, customs, laws, Magistrates, manners of living both public and private, arms, engines, and instruments are changed: so are words and languages; which perish at length not leaving by succession of time any appearance of their manner of writing. We have now no knowledge at all of the Oscian, and Hetrurian tongue. The Provencal in times passed so much celebrated amongst famous writers, is not understood of the Provencals at this day. The ancient Gaulish, Spanish, Persian, and Punic languages are lost.  
THE HEBREW hath lost much of his integrity by the calamitous exiles, and often mutations happened to the jews under divers Lords: For the Assyrians, Egyptians, Greeks', and Romans reigning over the jews, assayed for the hatred they bore to their religion, to destroy the Hebrew tongue, and the books of the Law; which they caused all to be burned, as many as they could get into their hands; & namely the Assyrians. But they were miraculously restored again by Esdras, or jesus his son the high priest, which knew then by heart; and changed the Hebrew letters to hinder the jews from being mingled with the Samaritans; which came of the Gentiles in jury as Eusebius reporteth. These letters which the jews have sithence used, differ only by figures, and points from those of the Samaritans; which are those that were given afore time by Moses.  
But being so many times dispersed hither and thither, into divers Countries, and mingled with strangers, whose Captives, and tributaries they were: (as they are yet at this present in what part soever they dwell) they have kept few words pure; amongst which are found some ambiguous, signifying contrary things, not to be understood but by continuance of the speech; or by the addition, detraction, or inversion of the points, holding the place of vowels. Their phrases are obscure, and full of metaphors, parables, and riddles to be construed diversly: Nevertheless it is profitable for Christians, and especially for Divines to know this tongue, as well for the better understanding of the scriptures; as to refute more certainly the jews, if they happen to dispute against them: As also the Arabian is necessary for the conversion of Mahometistes; by reason whereof it was ordained at the Counsel of Vienna, that these two tongues should be publicly taught in the chief Universities of Christendom.  
THE SARACENS spreading abroad by arms with their religion, & lordship the Arabian tongue, first they destroyed the Persian, with the letters, and learning thereof; and by the commandment of their Caliphs, they caused the books written therein to be burnt; imagining that while the Persians contending before with the Greeks' in arms, and learning, should have these books containing natural sciences, laws of the Country, and ancient ceremonies, they could not be good Mahometists: as before the Christians had endeavoured, to abolish the books of the Gentiles, and utterly to deface the memory of their divinity. After these Saracens going into Egypt, they banished out of Alexandria the Greek with the disciplines written therein, and out of afric the Latin; as the Romans' before had banished the African tongue, with the learning and letters thereof. So that nations passing out of one Country into another, do change the manners, tongues, religions, and dominions, the victors spoiling whatsoever they think good in the land of the vanquished, defacing their titles, and destroying for envy that which they cannot carry away: to th'end to abolish the honour and virtue of others; and that none but their own may be celebrated and spoken off. So do the Turks at this day to the Christians they rule over: and so did in ancient time, the Goths, Alans, Huns, Vandals, Seruiens, Turules, and Lombard's; who divers times conquering Countries whose languages they disdained, neither understanding them, nor knowing how to read them, corrupted them, in making new by mixtion of their own with those which they found: insomuch as the poor people remaining after such transmigrations, did learn the languages of the cruel, and inhuman usurpers, to use in speech unto them, that they might be thought the fit subjects. Moreover these barbarous people referring all unto war, and contemning all other disciplines; burnt the libraries and all the books in them, unto which the learned had recommended all their memorial: in so much that with the loss of the tongues, there ensued also the loss of the sciences which were written in them; from whence there arose great ignorance in the world which lasted a long time. In this manner of the Grammatical Greek, proceeded the vulgar; Of the Latin, the Italian, French and Spanish; in which are found many Arabian words, by reason that the Saracens held Spain a long time: Of the grammatical Arabian, the Vulgar, and Moorish, used from Syria, unto the straits of Morocco; and coming as near unto it, as the Italian doth to the Latin: Of the almain, and French, the English: The Moor which cometh of the Arabian, and the Turk of the Tartarian, understanding on an other as the Italian, and spaniard. And so of those which are now in use are others made, and of them others will be made in time to come.  
But howbeit they change uncessantly, and that in the same Country and language, there appeareth in short time a difference both in speaking, and pronouncing: yet every where there are somethat speak finer, and purer than the rest: such as were the Athenians in Greece, the Romans in Italy, and the Tuscans there at this day; The Castilians in Spain; the Saxons in Germany; The Persians in Asia; The Nobles, and Courtiers in France; whereby the question is decided which hath been debated between some learned men: namely whether the ancient Greeks', and Romans' had two languages, and whether Plato, Aristotle, and Demosthenes in Greek; and Cicero, Sallust, and Cesar in Latin, did write in their mother-tongues. It is certain, that in Athens there was but one language, and in Rome one other, yet the speech of the common people was not so pure, as that of men of calling, and the civiler sort; as one may see by the Latin of vitrvuius, who was a chief Mason, and Cicero who was Consul: Which elegancy, and purity of speech is preserved longer amongst women, which converse not so much with strangers as the men; and commonly are more curious to speak well▪ Tully in the third book of his Orator, writeth that in his time, the learning of the Athenians was lost in Athens; only remaining in that town the school or house of studies; which was not cared for of the Citizens; and the strangers enjoyed it, which were drawn thither in some sort by the name and authority of the city: notwithstanding that an unlearned Athenian excelled the most learned of Asia, not in words but in sound of the voice; and not so much in speaking well, as in pronouncing sweetly. Likewise saith he there is a certain voice or accent peculiar, and proper to the Roman kind, & to the City, in the which there is nothing offending, or displeasing the ear, or savouring in any sort of peregrinity, & strangeness; in so much that the Romans with less study than the Latins, did excel the most learned amongst them by sweetness of voice.  
THE GREEKS' dwelling in true Greece, in Italy, Asia, in Sicily, and other Islands, had four tongues or speeches; The Attic, Doric, Eolike, and Ionian: and in choosing out of every of them throughout the Poet's words, and figures, as came fittest to their purpose, they made another tongue which they called the Common: and after under one name only, called them all five the Greeketongue. And although the Athenian, were finer and more fruitful than the rest; yet the learned which were not Athenians by nation, did write only after their natural manner, fearing peradventure that they should not attain to the Attic purity, unto which but seldom and by leisure attained those which were borne elsewhere. For Theophrastus who had long abode in Athens, being reputed most eloquent, was known by an old woman of Athens to be a stranger by his speech; Pollio objected Paduanisme unto Livy; and unto Virgil who was a Mantuan, it was reproached that he spoke not Romain: so every tongue by how much the farther it is from his natural spring, is the less pure. As in old time the Syrians and Egyptians, speaking Greeke did not speak it so purely as the Athenians; nor the Gauls, Spaniards, or Africans, Latin as the Romans: for although their words were Greek or Latin, yet they retained the phrase of their own Country. Insomuch that speaking Greek or Latin they were always known for strangers: as it happeneth to the English & Scots, Flemings, Almains, Italians, and Spaniards, when they speak French, if they have not learned it very young.  
But the tongues as all other humane things, have their beginning, progress, perfection, corruption, and end: and being rude at first, do afterwards polish themselves, with civility of manners and knowledge; And when they have endured a time in purity, and elegancy, they are corrupted, and do finally perish: and by process of time no appearance of their writing remaineth. The Greeks' at the first were but rude, and gross, as Thucydides, Plato, and▪ Aristotle affirm: and the first which became civil amongst them were the Athenians, who polished their language, which they also brought unto perfection; where it remained not long: but was corrupted, and lost, together with the liberty of the Country, being supplanted by the Macedonians, Romans, and other strangers which have ruled there. In such sort that never since could be restored, the true propriety, and natural elegancy of the Greek which was spoken by Plato, Aristotle, Isocrates, Demosthenes, and Eschines: but in steed of that tongue (which may be said to have been the best in the world) there is at length come an other used at this present in Greece, and in the Isles adjoining, mingled of many other languages: which is every day falling to decay under the Turkish Empire, wherewith the Country hath been already more than a hundred years most miserably oppressed.  
If the first Romain writings had endured till this present, we should see that evander, and Turnus, and the other Latins of that time, spoke otherwise then did afterwards the last Roman Kings, and the first Consuls. The verses which were song by the Salian priests were scarcely understood; but because they were so ordained by the first founders, they were not changed for reverence of the religion. Polybius writeth that the language was so much changed from the first Punic war to the second, that with great difficulty were understood the treaties made before between the Romans and Carthaginians: And it remained rude about five hundred years, having no writer in it worthy of memory. From that time forward the people gave themselves to learning, and some became learned: yet hard in their speech; commended only, for having been the inventors; and first teachers of the Latin tongue: which was after made most pure, and perfect, by Cicero, Caesar, and other eloquent men, which flourished then in great number: in whom indeed the purity there of is to be acknowledged. For afterward the common wealth being changed into a monarchy, and the manners corrupted; the speech was also changed and corrupted, losing his natural grace, & goodness under the Emperors. Then the Empire being translated from Rome to Constantinople, many strange nations coming into Italy, altered the tongue, so that men left speaking it, & it remained in books only: which were not red, nor understood by the space of eight hundred years; some of them lost, others eaten by worms, and devoured by age: till such time as some Greeks' and Italians, did by study make these two ancient tongues to revive when they were almost dead: by copying out, publishing, and correcting the books that remained in some libraries, such as had been preserved from the rage of those barbarous nations; which hath so happily succeeded, that the said tongues have recovered great light, with the arts written in them; which we see restored with them; and many inventions added to antiquity as shallbe declared hereafter.  
Then the Roman Empire declining to the West, as the Ostrogoths, and Lombard's, had possessed Italy; the Visigoths, and Saracens the Country of Provence, Languedoc, Aquitaine, and Spain. The Burguignons, and Frenchmen, the Gauls, Belgic, and Celtic: the Vandals, Bethick, & afric; by their conversation the Latin was corrupted: Of which corruption, came the Italian, French, and Spanish. The Italian remained long time unpolished, because there was none that took care thereof; or endeavoured to give it any polishment, until Dante, Petrarch, and Boccace; who have much embellished it by their conceits ingeniously expressed, and elegantly couched in prose, and verse: Where in they have been seconded by others no less learned, and eloquent; who have likewise enriched this language with many fair works, and translations. As much is there happened to the Spanish, & French, which have been made within these fifty years more elegant than they were before, by the diligence of some excellent men which have translated a great number of books not only Greek, and Latin, but Italian also into them; showing that all sciences may conveniently be handled in them.  
CERTAINLY it is a great Comfort, and ease found out in this variety of languages, which cannot be understood, nor learned of all, to translate out of one into another. By this means the old Testament hath been translated out of Hebrew into Greek, and into Latin; the new Testament out of Greek into Latin; and consequently both Testaments into Syriack, chaldaic, Egyptian, Persian, Indian, Armenian, Scythian, Sclavonian, Germane, English, French, Italian, and into all languages used by men: without which benefit the greater part of them had remained in perpetual ignorance of God. And that there is in the same some divine working, it appeared then, when Ptolomeus Philadelphus desiring to put into his excellent library the holy books of the Pentateuch, and of the Prophets translated into Greek, and having procured out of jury 72. Interpreters skilful in both languages: to make proof of their fidelity, he caused them all to work apart severally; and yet nevertheless found in them such consent and agreement, that there was not one differing from the other in the sense of the Scripture: having received this so marvelous a gift of God, to th'end the scripture might be acknowledged to be divine as it is; and that the translation might be of more authority, as being done, not by the diligence of men, serving but for the words; but by the spirit of God, guiding and governing the understanding of the Translators. Moreover by such means Philosophy, Physics and the Mathematic, were translated out of the Greek into Arabian, and out of Greek, and Arabian into Latin: many arts, infinite histories communicated by one nation to another. Varro, and Columella, say that the Romans understanding the profit which was contained in the books of husbandry made by Mago the Carthaginian in the Punic tongue, ordained by decree of the Senate that they should be translated into Latin: whence may manifestly be known the profit of translation, favoured by God in the exposition of his word, and holy scripture; confirmed by the consent of all nations, in the communicating of arts: and approved by the authority of the sage Senate of the triumphant Seignory of Rome. Yet can I not deny but that it is more painful than praiseworthy; where diligence assisted with judgement is more requisite, than any excellent knowledge; which appeareth more in inventing of itself, then in translating; that is to say, writing out of one book into another; observing the propriety of both tongues without adding any thing of his own, or taking aught from the author: whom it is not possible to translate so faithfully, & elegantly, but there willbe always more grace in the original than the translation; where the words are always tied to the phrase, savouring more or less of the tongue out of which one translateth, in divers strange words belonging unto the religion, state of government, laws, magistrates, or sciences, which it is not lawful to change; and hard or uncouth to make new in their places: and again in the metaphors, allegories, comparisons, similitudes, and other figures, and ornaments of speech: each several tongue having I know not what proper, and peculiar, unto itself, not to be expressed in an other. In such sort that there is no means to bring a tongue to perfection by translation; and there was never translator how sufficient soever, that deserved the like praise as his author; whatsoever Theodorus Gaza list to say, the most excellent that is known in this quality. Cicero, Father of the Roman eloquence, translated into Latin Xenophon his economic; the contrary orations of Eschines and Demosthenes, the Timaeus of Plato, and the Astronomical poem of Aratus. But S. Hierome found great difference between his writings, and translations; in which he found wanting his wont elegancy and facility. Wherefore it were better to put forth his own inventions for him that hath means to do it. Notwithstanding if one do it to help the ignorant of the tongues; or for his own particular study, to th'end to fashion his style, and to settle his judgement on the best authors, as Cicero himself did, and I have assayed to do after his example and exhortation in accommodating the virtues of the most esteemed ancient writers to the manners, and affairs of this time; I reckon translation very commendable. And he that with a mediocrity of understanding, and knowledge should be the first that had proposed to his nation, the lights or lamps of learning, namely Isocrates, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Aristotle, Plato, and the Schoolmasters of mankind, as they are termed by Seneca, which have long time lain hidden in Schools, or buried in libraries, without being put in ure, were not altogether to be rejected; especially travailing in a tongue not yet polished, nor accustomed unto arts: which will be much amended by travailing therein, even as the Greek and Latin came by little and little to their perfection, by handling of good matters in them, as Philosophy, matter of state, or public government, deeds of arms, and other honest & profitable sciences; not by writing of fabulous Romances, or amorous Sonnets, or such kind of stuff wherewith the vulgar tongues are all pestered. But there is need of learned and eloquent men, such as hardly and rarely are found in many hundreds and thousands of years worthy of admiration: of whom we have always had no less want than other Countries: or if some such have at any time been found here, they have for the most part been delighted instrangetongues more than in their own. But it is great reason that the learned should exactly know their own tongue, and that they should write in it sometimes to make it better; and do good to their own Countrymen rather than to strangers: so that the Greek, Latin, Hebrew, chaldaic, and Arabian which are common to many nations be not thereby forgotten or laid aside: wherehence would arise great obscurity to those disciplines, which are written in them, confusion to the world, and ignorance unto men deprived of the communication which they have by means of them, not understanding one another afterward, nor conferring together. Notwithstanding I would never counsel to employ so many years on these learned tongues as men have accustomed to do, and to consume the time inlerning of words, which ought rather to be bestowed in knowledge of such things, as they have not afterward the means nor leisure to intend: which error bringeth great backwardness and damage to the sciences.  
But let it suffice hitherto to have spoken of languages, and let us come now following the order set down by us, to the invention and vicissitude of Arts.  
The end of the second Book.   

OF THE VICISSITUDE, AND INVENTION OF ARTS, AND HOW men from their first simplicity and Rudeness, have come to the present Commodity, Magnificence, and Excellency. The third Book.  
PLato a most renowned Philosopher amongst all that ever were celebrated for the knowledge of learning, representing under a fable the first estate of mankind, feigneth, that at the beginning the Gods were alone afore there were any mortal Creatures: but that the fatal destiny of generation being come; they framed them in the bowels of the earth, and made them of fire, and of earth, with other things mingled with them; And that being willing to bring them into light, they gave the charge to Prometheus, and Epimetheus to distribute to every one his forces, and proprieties: Then Epimetheus prayed Prometheus to let him make the distribution in his presence; And so goeth about it alone, giving to some, force without lightness, to others lightness without force: he armed some, and for those which were without arms he invented other succour: Those which he had enclosed in a little body, he lifted them up into the air with feathers; or commanded them to crawl on the earth: He fortified such as were grown into a great Mass with their Mass itself: And likewise he proceeded with the rest giving to every one his virtues. After he had so furnished them, to th'end they should not destroy one another, he gave them means to defend them th'one from the other; and to remain abroad without covert. Clothing some of them with thick hear, little houses, or shells and scales of divers sorts, with feathers, or hard skins, against the untemperatenes of Winter, & Summer: and of the same things made them beds, and natural couches: joining to their feet, claws, nails, and callosites: to their heads, horns, teeth, and tronks: then distributed to them food, making some to eat grass on the earth; others to feed on fruits, & roots of trees; & others more greedy to devour one another. Provided that they which lived on pray should be in some sort barren, and the others that were subject to be devoured, more fruitful: to th'end that the kind should continue. For the divine providence hath been wise therein, making all fearful beasts, and such as are good to ●eed on, very fruitful, lest by being often eaten there should fail of the kind: even as hurtful, and harmful beasts are of small increase. Therefore the hare is very fruitful, and alone of all kind of venison, surchargeth the burden in his belly, because that men, beasts, and birds, do prosecute him to death. Likewise the Coney is sound so full of rabbits that some of them are yet without hear, others somewhat riper, and others going out of the belly. But the Lioness which is the strongest, and hardiest of all beasts, never bringeth but one; and but once in her life. But Epimetheus being not very wise, he gave all to the brute beasts, reserving nothing for man, whom he left alone without force, without power, without property, stark naked, without armour, without clothing, unhosed, and unshood, without convenient food, and wanting all things: In such sort that he could not resist other creatures being then more excellent than himself. For the stags ran swifter; the bears, and Lions were stronger; the Peacock was fairer; the fox was craftier; the Emmet more diligent; and the snail better lodged than he: Every beast found a medicine fit for his malady and hurt; whereof man was ignorant. Of this came such a confusion that men perished by little and little through divers sorts of cruelt●e: In such sort that their kind had soon been consumed, without the advise of prudent Prometheus; who seeing so great a fault, to redress it, stole from Vulcan, and Minerva the artificial wisdom, together with the fire: being not possible to obtain it, or to use it without fire; and so did distribute it to mankind: by means whereof men began for their common commodity to assemble together for fear of the be astes, and to th'end to resist them, helping one another, and seeking here and there after safe places for their habitation, they learned to make houses, and garments to avoid the sharpness of cold, and the force of heat; to reserve fruits for their necessity; to prepare arms for their defence; and to find out other commodities for their life. Which finally necessity itself being inventor of all things maketh known particularly to the understanding of men; unto whom were given for helps, their hands, speech and reason; Reason to invent, speech to communicate▪ the hands to accomplish that which they should either invent themselves by reason, or learn of others by speech: for no other creature doth speak in deed, for as much as speech proceedeth of reason; nor hath hands; though peradventure somewhat like unto hands. Wherefore man hath first found out by reason the most necessary things; as food, clothing; and arms: and afterward such as serve for pleasure, ornament and magnificence: he hath imposed names on every thing, invented letters of divers sorts, and sundry kinds of writing; made all arts both mechanical and liberal: proceeding so far as to measure the earth, and the sea; to reduce by instruments the mighty mass of heaven, scarce to be comprehended by understanding, and to propose it before our eyes. Moreover the same Plato affirmeth that before men lived in company, and spoke together, or that they had begun to invent; and exercise arts; for as much as they alone of all other creatures did participate of the divine nature, being endued with an immortal soul; that they by reason of this divine affinity, did think first that there were Gods, and so honoured them; and prayed to them: from thence, had religion her beginning, public government, judgement, negotiation and traffic by Sea, and by land, laws were established, magistrates created, innumerable trades invented, houses, villages, and towns builded, consequently cities, castles, and fortresses; and then kingdoms, and Empires erected: Wherehence hath succeeded, the greatness, and excellency of mankind such as we see it at this day. From thence I say began religion which is more natural to men then all their other arts, and inventions: no nation in the world having been found so rude, so cruel, & barbarous; but that it had some appearance of religion. For howbeit that the greater part is ignorant, what God, & how they ought to worship him; yet all notwithstanding do agree that we ought to honour, pray, and fear one God the author of all things: which is confirmed not only in the first, and most ancient nations, as the Ethiopians, Indians, Armenians, Chaldees, Hebrews, Assyrians, Egyptians, Greeks', Romans, and Gauls: but also in the Goths, Vandals, Saracens, Tartarians, Turks, Persians, Cathayans or Chinoys: And not only in our hemisphere; but also amongst the Antipodes; and Savages of the new found lands: of whom heretofore we never had any knowledge. They which have navigated thither, have found many people living yet as the first men, without letters, without Laws, without Kings, without common wealths, without arts; but yet not without religion: who believe, that the souls of the dead go into other places according to such works as they have done in this life. To entertain it, have been appointed ceremonies, prayers ordained, temples edified, oratory's, chapels, hospitals, almshouses, cloisters, and covents: Sacrificers or priests have been instituted, and much respected in all Countries. And if it pleased God that he would be worshipped throughout all the world in one self same manner, men should be delivered of great hatred, and cruel discord, happening amongst them through the diversity of Religions.  
AT THE beginning men were very simple and rude in all things, little differing from beasts. They did eat in the fields and mountains, the raw flesh of beasts, or herbs, with their roots, stalks, and leaves, which the earth brought forth of his own accord; and in the woods the fruits of wild trees; or venison: on the banks of the Sea, Rivers, Lakes, Pools, and Marshes, they fed on fishes and birds: They clad themselves with skins, in steed of garments; to be defended from heat and cold, from wind, rain, and snow, they withdrew themselves into great hollow trees; or under their thick leaved branches; or into low dyches, hideous caves, hollow vaults, cabins, and lodges made of great logs of wood, and lightly covered with boughs, stalks, canes, and reeds. Then having strong bodies, they nourished themselves with strong meats, and also lived longer. They abode ever almost in the open air, in continual travail, and lying on the hard ground, wheresoever sleep overtook them. When they waxed weaker; and could not digest such meats, nor dwell in the open air naked, and uncovered, they were constrained to seek by little and little, to soften this wild and savage manner of living, which they could no longer endure: learning to sow Corn, which before grew up unknown amongst herbs and weeds; and to dress the vines, which likewise the earth brought forth amongst other plants; to transplant, and to graff fruict-trees, to th'end to make the fruits better; and to dress and season both flesh and fish: and then to build, and to assemble themselves in companies, that they might live the more safely, and commodiously. In such manner were they reduced, from that brutish life which they led, to this sweetness, and civility; beginning from that time forward, to feed, cloth, and lodge themselves in better sort, and more commodiously.  
Now whereas men have taken nourishment, first of tame beasts, before either of grain, or of fruits: there is no doubt but that pasturage, grazing, & shepheardrie, were before husbandry and tillage; as it appeareth by the most ancient nations, who having so lived from the beginning, have taken their names there hence, as the Hebrews, and the Italians, which is to say shepherds, and that many Nations use it even at this day, exercising (as may be said) a kind of lively tillage. The tilling and planting of the earth have been both invented after pasturage, and unto both have been added hunting, fouling, and fishing. On the one side they have found out the use of Wheat, which in these parts is found the best and most commodious nourishment: as also Barley, Millet, Rye, and all other known kind of grain. On the other side, they have found rice, Mahiz, and juca: the manner to sow, and gather them, to thrash, fan, and winnow, to boult and sift flower, to knead it, and to make dow, to mould it, and raise past, to make loaves, and to bake them in the oven: whereunto are appointed and do serve, the Millers and Bakers. Then have they added pease and beans, and other sorts of pulse, both new and old: Herbs of diverse sorts, and roots; as parsley, lettuce, spinach, time, pepperwort, marjoram, bugloss, maloes, beets, endive, succory, purslane, sage, coleworts, melons, cucombers, gourds, artichokes, sperage, mugwort, onions, garlic, leeks, chibols, carrots, parsnebbs, navets, radishes, and turnepps, mingling with them salt, oils, butter, and suet, to give them a better taste, and make them the more savoury. Moreover the fruits of trees, cherries, plums, pears, apples, peaches, apricocks, mulberries, meddlers, quinces, raisins, figs, olives, citrons, oranges, dates, chestnuts, and marrons. And not content with grain, fruits, herbs, and roots, they have been given to eat the flesh, first of themselves, which they have left for the most part with horror; them of other creatures both tame and wild; of the land, of the water, and flying in the air; neither leaving inward nor outward part of them, which they have not found mean to season, boil, & seethe, roast & fry, or put in past & bake with saulces, and spices, brought from the farthest parts of the earth, making puddings, saulciges, haggasses, tripes, and chitterlings, which they serve at the beginning of meals with pottages, broths, and salads; and at the end thereof cheeses, tarts, and creames; wafers, junkets, and marchpanes, prepared and dressed by Cooks and pybakers': Neither hath their pomp and riot been any less with fishes, both of the sea, and of freshwater. In somuch, that Plutarch in his Symposiacke proposing this question, whether that the Sea or the Earth brought forth most delicate and delicious meats, findeth business, and difficulty enough in the decision thereof. Moreover being not pleased with milk, nor fair water to drink; they found out a way to brew Beer, and Ale; to draw and press out Cider of apples and pears; wine out of grapes, and palms; and to make sweet drinks, compounded with honey, as bragget, meath, and metheglem, which they call Medons in Moscovia, and Polonia; and infinite other artificial drinks, which they have drunk in cups of gold, silver, crystal, and glass, spicing them in divers manners. Besides, to make their drink fresher, they have found means in some places to keep snow, and y●e, all the year. At the first sitting on the ground they took their repast on the grass, & under the shadow of leaves: after they made stools, forms, benches, tables, and trestles: Table clothes, table napkins, trenchers; saltseller's, cupboards, vessel, and utensils of divers sorts, and fashions; appointing officers fit for these charges: as Stewards of the house, pantler's; cellerers, carvers, cupbearers, cooks, boilers, and rosters. Sallust blameth the Romans, which sought in his time by sea and by land, after all sorts of delicacies, not expecting hunger, nor thirst, nor cold, nor weariness; but preventing all these things by disordinate appetite. Livy telleth how after the Conquest of Asia, all sorts of superfluities and delicacies came unto Rome, and that then the Romans began to make banquets with more curiosity, and cost: And a Cook, which before was held amongst them for a servile drudge, began to come in reputation. Seneca complaineth, that the kitchens were more celebrated, than the Schools of Philosophers, & Rhetoricians. Who would not wonder to hear tell of the excessive feasts of Antonius and Cleopatra? or of the Emperor Caligula, who consumed on one supper the revenues of three provinces? of Heliogabalus; of Lucullus; or of the prodigality of Esope, and Apicius, who shortened his life, fearing least goods would fail him to the maintaining of his sumptuousness? In one feast made to Vitellius by his brother, were served two thousand dainty fishes, and seven thousand birds. Good God, how much pain hath been procured unto men by their insatiable gluttony and gormandize! how many sorts of workmen, and their servants hath it set on work! But their curiosity in apparel hath not been less; to the furnishing whereof many occupations have been applied: as the spinner, carder, tucker, weaver, clothworker, fuller, sherman, dyer, tailor, cutter, hosier, doubletmaker, linen draper, sempster, capper, and feltmaker, feathermaker, lacemaker, embroiderer, fell-monger, skinner, furrier, leatherdresser, tanner, currier, cordwainer, and shoemaker. They have spon and woven flax, hemp, will, cotton, silk, made of worms, and of it have made Velvet, Satin, Damask, Taffeta; and of goat's hair, and camels hair, Grogram, and Chamlet: whereunto have been added fustians, bombasies, sarges, cloth of Gold, and Silver, purple, and scarlet, with other infinite colours: making of these stuffs▪ shirts, rochets, wimples, doublets, caps, hats, hoods, gowns, coats, cloaks, cassocks, jerkins, & jackets, enriched with ornaments, trim, embroideries, and laces, after divers fashions, which change from Country to Country, and from day to day, through the lightness of persons. Of tanned and coried leather they have made jerkins, buskins, boots, shoes, and pantofles, and lined and faced them with velvet. They have applied Carcanets and Chains to their necks, brasselets to their hands, rings to their fingers, spectacles to their eyes, painting to their cheeks, jewels to their ears, tires and borders of gold to their heads, and garters to their legs: distinguishing by the habits, the Princes from the subjects; the Magistrates from private men; the noble from the base; the learned from the ignorant; and the holy from the profane. What shall I say of the skins of Wolves, Sables, martin's, and other precious furs, fet from the farthest parts of the North, which they buy for excessive prices. Plinietelleth it for a wonderful strange thing, and full of great superfluity, that he had seen Lollia Paulina a Roman Lady, widow of the Emperor Caligula, at a wedding banquet, having her head, neck, and bosom covered, and her hands likewise, with pearls, and Emeralds, joined together, and interlaced: which jewels were esteemed to be worth a Million of crowns.  
The Queen Cleopatra coming to meet Antonius in Cilicia, put herself on the river Cydnus, into a boat, whose stern was all of gold, the sails of Purple, the oars of Silver, which kept stroke in rowing with the sound of Music: Touching her person, she was laid under a pavilion of gold tyssued, decked like the Goddess Venus, and round about her were marvelous odoriferous and sweet smells, and perfumes. Heliogabalus slept on a tike full of hares hears, and partridge-feathers. The bed of Darius the last King of the Persians, was sumptuously garnished, and covered with a vine of gold, in manner of a grate or lettuce, enriched with raisins and grapes hanging in it, all of precious stones: And at his beds head, there was in Treasure five thousand Talents of gold; at his beds foot, three thousand Talents of Silver: So much and so dearly he esteemed and valued his night's pleasure, that he would have his head rest on so great chevisance.  
But yet, the excess in building hath been more outrageous, for coming out of hollow trees, hovells, bowers, cabins, and lodges, covered with straw, and reeds, and going into houses builded with bricks, stones, and marble, cut, squared, and fastened with mortar, plaster, lime, and varnish, hanged with tapistry and painted, covered with slats and tiles, the roof hollow with arches and vaults, and the flower curiously paved and wrought, divided by halls, upper and lower chambers, utter chambers, inner chambers, with-drawing-chambers, bedchambers, wardrobes, cabinets, closerts, stairs, entries, galleries, and terraces: They have accommodated arts and artificers for the building and furnishing of them: as Architects, masons, plasterer, tilers, carpenters, smiths, glaziers, tapisters, painters, gravers, cutters, carvers, melters, casters of Images, goldsmiths, gilders, locksmithes, and others: building palaces, castles, towns, cities, bridges, conduits, pyramids, sepulchres, theatres, amphitheatres, baths, and porches; turning the course of streams, and raising of mounts, and throwing down mountains, with prodigality exceeding all bounds of reason; hoping thereby to make their names immortal. And whereas it was necessary for them, entertaining that variety and magnificence, to traffic by sea and by land, and to have carriers on them both; to th'end to receive from other places, such commodities as they wanted, or to send abroad such things as abounded with them; to navigate, they hollowed first the bodies of trees after the manner of the Indian Canoes, and afterwards made boats, schiffes, pinacies, and galleys, with three, four, five, six, seven, eight, and ten Oars on a side, yea; to thirty on a side: foists, brigantines, barks, carvels, ships, hulks, galleons, galliass, armadoes, and argosies, with their tackling, and furniture, of anchors, cables, masts, sails, artillery, ordinance, victuals, and compass, or box: To receive, keep, and repair them, arsenals, ports, and havens; To guide, and to man them were appointed Pilots, mariners, sailors, rowers, and gallyslaves: even as carters, wagoners, coachmen, and horse-keepers were ordained for traffic, and travail by land. And for both carriages, cursitours, regraters, porters, balencers; Masters of ports, customers, controllers, revisitors, and searchers. To serve which turn with more ease, it was needful to coin money of gold, silver, brass, and copper, defined in value by the quantity and weight; marked with diverse figures, according to the diversity of the Country where it is made: being not possible to use permutation in every thing: and therefore were brought in money-tellers, and changers. Moreover it was necessary to have Notaries or Scriveners, to pass the contracts of Markets, sergeants, huissiers, solicitors, proctor's, informers, auditors, judges, counsellors, precedents, registers, criers, and executors of sentences. For the expedition of royal letters, Secretaries, Masters of requests, chancellors, or Keepers of seals. The Physicians, Chirurgeons, and Apothecaries do serve for health, using drugs, coming for the most part out of strange Countries: as rhubarb, Cassia, Aloe, agaric, and such others. Gymnasts, pedotribes, athletes, fencers, wrestlers, runners, swimmers, lepers, and tumblers, for the exercise of the body. For pleasure, and recreation, singers, minstrels, musicians, players on instruments, organists, dancers, and ballad-makers, rhymers, jesters, jugglers, barbers, perfumers, drawers of flowers, and curious works. Also not contented with sticks, and stones, which the simplicity of nature furnished unto their Choler, they have invented infinite sorts of arms, and weapons, both offenssive and defensive; longbows, and crossbows; with arrows and quivers, slings, darts, javelins, lances, pikes, partisans, halberds, swords, bucklers, rapier's, and daggers, shields, targets, cuyras●es, brigandines, headpieces, helmets, casks, morions, and salads: gorgets, pauldrons, vantbrasses, tasses, gauntlets, cuisses, and greves: engines to shoot in the field, or to batter walls, catapults, and rams in old time; and of late canons, double-canons, demy-canons, basilisks, culverins, sakers, falcons, minions, and chambers: and for smaller shot, and maniable, muskets, calivers, harquebuses, daggs; and pistols: Serving for the wars, armourers, furbishers, spurriers, saddlers, riders, horsebreeders, horse-keepers, smiths, and farrier's, founders, and mounters of great ordinance, saltpeter-men, powder-makers, canoneers: Colonels, Captains, soldiers, with their Ensigns, trumpets, drums, and other Officers. Going farther yet, they have found out other estates, offices, and exercises, employing some about conducting and managing the public revenues: as Receivours, treasurers, Masters of accounts, Auditors, Controllers: Others about the counsel of Princes, and of States: Others to the establishing and preserving of the Laws, seeing to the public government, to discipline, and correction of manners.  
Then amongst so many commodities, idleness increasing with ease, and wealth, they applied themselves to the study of learning; by reason that all naturally desire to know new things, strange, admirable, fair, and variable, and to understand the causes thereof; cherishing principally amongst all their senses, their sight and hearing, which do help them to have knowledge, but the sight most of all, where hence hath begun this knowledge by admiration; for seeing the Heaven, the Sun, the Moon, the Stars; and having known by their eyes the difference of days, and nights, the revolutions of the months, and the years; they applied themselves to contemplate the disposition of the world, and to seek out the secrets of nature: First, necessity (as hath been said) taught them the arts necessary unto life; after followed those which serve for pleasure, ornament, and magnificence: And after they had gotten opportunity and leisure, they began to consider all things contained in the world, being innumerable in multitude, and admirable in beauty; enquiring after their properties, agreements, and differences, whereof they were made, what they became, when, and how they perished, what in them was mortal, and corruptible, and what divine, and perpetual. They were so desirous to learn, that dwelling and living here on earth so little while, they durst undertake to know, not only what is above, under, and in the earth; as the nature of all sorts of living creatures, and qualities of metals: but also the nature of the Ocean, and of all waters, and fishes that live therein: Then mounting into the air, they inquired of the winds, of the rains, hail, snow, thunder, lightning, and other accidents appearing in the middle Region thereof: they ascended by understanding and by art even into Heaven, which they have endeavoured to compass round, imagining two Poles, and one axle-tree to sustain it, distinguishing the planets from the fixed stars, inventing the Zodiac, observing the Solstices, and Equinoxes; the causes of the equality, shortness, and length of days, and nights; the reasons of shadows; the manner of describing, and measuring the world; of sailing out of one Country into an other, guiding the way by the winds, and stars: whose movings, conjunctions, and oppositions they have diligently observed; their greatness, quickness, or slowness, colours, shinings, serenities, heats, colds; and the power which they have on these inferior things, and the good or ill which they signify: And wholly and altogether the agreement, and sympathy of heaven, and earth; from whence as from a perpetual spring floweth this universal abundance, by which this world is uncessantly restored, and renewed. Their industry hath pierced through all; neither the thickness of the earth, nor the depth of the Sea, nor the variety of the air, neither the heat and brightness of the fire, nor the spacious largeness of Heaven, could amaze their understanding. Moreover, they which were most speculative, considering the feebleness of the senses, the multitude of sensible things, so small that they can not be perceived; or so movable, that they are without certainty; that our life is short; all full of opinions, and customs; and all environed with darkness, and hidden; have thought that by human discourse, nothing could be certainly known, nothing understood, and comprehended: but that, separating ourselves from sight, and hearing, and from the whole body, we ought to take the thought of the mind, and by the understanding (which is in the Soul, as the sight is in the body) to endeavour to know the reason of every thing, and that which is in it pure and clean, always simple, and uniform, without ever being changed by generation, and corruption. These have passed the vault of heaven, so far distant from the earth, and came to the place above; withdrawing themselves by contemplation from the world towards God, from darkness to light, from corruption to eternity, from ignorance to wisdom, satisfied (as they say) of all their desire; and enjoying the knowledge of the truth: which is of things that are always alike, not receiving any mutation; wherefore they have called this inferior part of the world, (where there is almost nothing certain, and few things certainly known) the region of falsehood, and opinion: and the other superior known by reason, and intelligence (where are the forms, and exemplaries of things) the seat of truth. In this progress of knowledge, they have known some things by natural instinct, without learning; others by observation, use, and experience: others by reasonable discourse, and demonstrations; and others by divine inspiration. But there is such pleasure in this contemplation, that they which with a good will give themselves to it, do easily forego all other delights, and are so constant, and perseverant, that they admit them not at any time; neither fearing damage, nor loss of goods, nor the blame of the people, and ignominy but are ready to endure all kind of crosses, and calamities, even to the suffering of voluntary poverty: which gave occasion to people in times past to say, that Atlas sustained heaven on his shoulders; and that Endymion had long time slept with the Moon; and that Prometheus was tied to the high mountain Caucasus, with a Vulture feeding on his liver: Meaning by such tales to signify unto us, the great and marvelous study, which these excellent persons bestowed, in contemplation of celestial and natural things. Democritus having begun to withdraw his mind from his senses, put out his own eyes. Anaxagoras forsook his patrimony. What exceeding pleasure had Aristotle, teaching not only Athens, and all Greece, but also the universal world, discovering the secrets of nature, before unknown, and hidden in profound obscurity, magnifying and boasting himself with good reason, that he had attained thither, whereno other Greek nor Egyptian had ever come? What contentment received Plato, who did write at 90. years of age, and even the very day that he deceased; who was for his excellent knowledge honoured in Greece, Sicily, and Italy, above the common estimation of men, esteemed by Kings, admired of people: and hath always been reverenced by all such as desired to have knowledge of divine and humane things. So men moved by nature with a desire of knowledge, and of the pleasure which is found therein, have invented Grammar, Rhetoric, and Logic; for speech, Oration and disputation: Poesy for composition of verses, and rhymes: Arithmetic to number; Geometry for measure and weight: And passing farther have come to Music, consisting in concord of voices and sounds; and in observation of due proportions; Astrology which serves for consideration of celestial things; Physic of natural things; and metaphysic of supernatural: Theology of divine things; Ethicke for institution of private manners; Economicke for household; Politic for governments, and states; and Nomotechnicke for knowledge, exposition or interpretation of Laws. Such hath been their dexterity in the inventing of liberal, and mechanical sciences.  
But although there are every where found people, capable of knowledge, so that they be duly instructed; yet notwithstanding, there are some more ingenious, and inventive than the rest, and more apt to certain sciences, either by natural inclination, and influence of the heavens, or by the situation of the Country wherein they are borne, or by exercise which they use while they are young, or by honour which is nurse of all arts whatsoever, and the rewards which are proposed for the learned and expert therein.  
THE Babylonians dwelling in spacious plains, and having nothing to hinder them the whole sight of the heavens, they placed all their study in observing of the Stars: The like hath been done by the Egyptians, who have always their air clear without clouds: And by reason of the yearly overflowing of the river Nilus, which covereth and watereth their Country, they were constrained to bestow some time on Geometry. The Phoenicians being given to merchandise, invented Arithmetic; and dwelling near the Sea, began first navigation; which the Castilians, Portugals, and Englishmen, bordering likewise on the sea, have brought to perfection. It was unseemly amongst the Arcadians not to be skilful in Music; which they learned not for pleasure and delight, but for necessity, to th'end to make sweet and gentle by custom, that which was rude in them by nature, by reason of the coldness of the air, whereof we participate in our birth, and by their continuance of travail, in tillage, pasturage, and brutishness of life. Eloquence flourished at Athens, and at Rome, because that by means thereof they were advanced to honours and wealth. In Augustus' time, who took pleasure in Poetry, every one made Verses: and all were musicans, under Nero. The nations which desired to be great, and grow up by arms, have directed their Laws and exercises to dominion, honouring and recompensing valiant men, and dishonouring and punishing the cowards: Such were the Scythians, Egyptians, Persians, Thracians, Lacedæmonians, Candians, Gauls, Iberians, Macedonians, and Indians, accounting all noble and gentle that made profession of arms; and the artisans base, and servile. At this day in Turkey, where all is reduced unto force, every one apply arms, being assured, that in well doing they shall be advanced in pay, revenue, and public charge: as also the punishment is certain there for cowardice. The greatest part of good wits in France apply themselves to the Civil Law, and to the practise of it, for the profit which they find therein; and for the honour of innumerable offices of judgement ordained both in the sovereign, mean, and inferior jurisdiction; being both profitable and honourable. The Etrurians, which had their air gross and thick, subject to thunders, invented the divination by lightning. The Arabians, Cilicians, and Phrygians, being great shepherds, invented that divination which is made by entrails of beasts, or by the voice of birds. Philosophy hath been professed in Greece, full of subtle and sharp wi●ts. Architecture began in Asia, by the abundance of wealth, and leisure of the great Kings there, having need of large and ample houses for entertainment, and magnificence of their Courts: Afterwards it flourished in Greece, whence it was banished; and from thence passed into Italy, recovering his ripeness there: namely, under the Emperors; who as they had subdued the rest of the world by arms, would also surmount them in wonderful buildings with incredible expenses. The Ethiopians, by the abundance of all good herbs, and vigorous simples, which grow in their Country, invented the natural Magic, observing by it, the wonders hidden in the secret proprieties of things; their agreements, and contrarieties. Plato in his Charmides, and his first Alcibiades maintaineth, that Zoroaster the Bactrian, and Zamolsis the Scythian, made profession thereof: Then it was transported into Persia, where it remained long; as we will declare hereafter when we speak of the Persians, and of their Mages.  
BUT as following the general disposition to virtue, there have always been here and there some making profession of wisdom, as the Druids in Gaul, and in great Britain; the Chaldees in Assyria; the Brachmanes, and Gymnosophistes in the Indies; the Mages in Persia; the Priests in Egypt; the Philosophers in Greece; the Pharisees in jury; the Theologians or Divines in Christendom: yet antiquity hath given the first praise of Letters to the Ethiopians, attributing the invention to them, which they communicated with the Egyptians their neighbours; where they have been augmented: from thence they came to the Libyans, Babylonians, and Chaldeans; consequently to the Greeks; then to the Romans; the Arabians, Italians, Frenchmen, Almains, Englishmen, Spaniards, and Polonians. ON which course of letters, if we think attentively as far forth as is possible to consider all the time past, and to call to mind again the memory of so many years overslipped, repeating from thence where in histories, beginneth the age of people, and of Cities; that is to say, about three or four thousand years since men began to write books; we shall find that there hath not been any Author amongst the Gentiles, more ancient than Homer: And that letters have not been sithence with like earnestness followed; nor in all times and countries equally esteemed: but only in certain famous ages, which we may term Heroical. In the which (humane power and wisdom, keeping company one with the other) men have commonly seen, the art Military, Eloquence, Philosophy, the Mathematics, Physic, Music, Poetry, architecture, painting, carving, and graving, to flourish together, and to fall together: as it hath especially happened in the kingdoms of Sesostris, Ninus, Cyrus, Alexander; of Augustus and trajan; of the Arabians and Saracens; and in this age, in the which after they had been long time a sleep, they have been wakened again, and have recovered their former strength: which is not to say, that there have not happened many other admirable events in other seasons; but these are most notable: in the which many extraordinary marvels have met together in matter of arms, and of letters; and which have most similitude between them; as it will appear in reciting of them.  
WHEREFORE is it so come to pass, rather at these times then at others? and what reason can we give thereof? to th'end the better to understand the present consideration, being of so great weight, and long deduction: It seems to some, that we ought not to marvel, that in an infinite space of time, as fortune turneth, and varieth diversly, there happeneth by casual chance, some accidents like unto others. For be it that there is no certain number set down of accidents that may fall out; fortune hath fruitful matter enough to produce effects resembling one an other: or else be it that humane chances are comprehended in a determinate number, there must needs sometimes happen like cases, considering that they are brought to pass by the same causes, and by the same means: Others say, that in length of years are certain periods of the whole world; and in th'one, that all arts do grow in reputation, and in the other do fall, and come to be neglected. Others attribute it to honour, and to rewards, which are more proposed at one time then at an other: for 〈…〉 such as by good entertainment all men are induced to virtue. And assayi 〈…〉 nder a reason wherefore many notable personages meet in the same 〈…〉, or little distant th'one from tother, and travailing in divers exercises do obtain alike excellency, and reputation; they think that men's wits are nourished by emulation, and that sometimes envy, sometimes admiration, doth stir them up, and maketh them mount by little and little to the highest; where it is hard to remain, since every thing that can not go forward, or upward, doth naturally descend, and retire, yea commonly much faster than it ascended. And as they are provoked to follow or imitate the first, so after they despair of going beyond them, or attaining to them, they lose their courage of travailing, and labouring with their hope; leaving the matter as already possessed: which falleth after by negligence, and cometh to contempt. Aristotle, who affirmeth the world to be eternal, and Plato, who said that it had a beginning, but that it should have no end, do both affirm, that infinite things have been in one, and the same kind, and should be infinitely; that there is nothing whose like hath not been; that there should be nothing which had not been; and that nothing hath been, but should be again: That in this manner the Arts and sciences, and other humane inventions cannot be perpetual (those Nations being destroyed where they flourished) by reason of extreme heats and inundations, which must needs happen at certain times by the moving, and progress of the stars: either by the fire and water, descending from above in exceeding quantity; or fire breaking out of the earth; or the sea forcibly overflowing his banks, or by the increase and swelling of rivers, which can not run into the sea; or that the earth trembling and quaking open itself, and violently cast forth the water before enclosed in his entrails.  
But howbeit the Stars have some power towards the disposing of inferior things; the situation of places; and temperature of the seasons of the year do help, concerning understandings and manners; the reward and honour proposed unto man's industry; the learned ages, and liberal Princes, give great advancement unto Arts; and emulation serveth for a spur thereunto: Notwithstanding for my part, I think that God being careful of all the parts of the world, doth grant the excellency of Arms and of Learning, sometimes unto Asia, sometimes unto afric, sometimes unto Europe; establishing the sovereign Empire of the world, once in the East, another time in the West, another time in the South, another in the North: and suffering virtue and vice, valiancy and cowardice, sobriety and delicacy, knowledge and ignorance, to go from country to country, honouring and diffaming the Nations at divers times: to th'end that every one in his turn might have part of good hap and ill; and that none should wax proud by overlong prosperity: as it will appear to have fallen out unto this present, by particular recital of the Nations accounted the first or chiefest of the world.  
The end of the third Book.   

OF THE VICISSITUDE, OF ARMS, AND OF LETTERS concurring in the Conjunction of Power and wisdom, through the most renowned Nations of the world: and who have been the first and most ancient of all that have excelled in them both. The fourth Book.  
INtending to begin our discourse by the most ancient Nations of the world, I find myself hindered by the different, which hath been between some of them, touching the honour of antiquity, and of precedence.  
THE INDIANS inhabiting Countries of marvelous largeness, did boast, that they were the true Originaries; having never received any strangers among them; neither sent any of theirs to dwell elsewhere: But that the first amongst them used such victuals, as the earth brought forth of itself, and skins of beasts for their garments: and then found out by little and little, the Arts, sciences, and other things necessary to live well: That their land is so fertile, that they never found want of victuals. For whereas it bringeth forth twice in a year all manner of Corn, they gather one Harvest in winter, at such time as they plant roots; and tother in summer, when they sow Rice, sesame, and millet; whereof there cometh great abundance from thence, for as much as the grains and fruits grow there, without any help of man; and that the roots growing in the marshes of singular sweetness, serve men in steed of other victuals very sufficiently: and that the customs do help that fertility much, which they observe in time of wars, not to hurt the husbandmen, nor endamage the labourers in any thing; but to leave them in peace, as ministers of the common profit; and not to burn the farms, and villages of their adversaries themselves; nor to cut their trees, or corn which they had sown.  
THE strength of the Indians appeared then, when they were assailed by Semiramis Queen of Assyria: for being a woman exceeding covetous of honour, and of glory; after she had conquered Egypt, and Ethiopia, she thought yet to make one war more, the memory whereof should last forever. Understanding then that the people of the Indies, was the greatest of the world, and their Country above all others, excellent in beauty, and fertility: where the earth (as is said) carried twice in a year fruits and seeds; and where there was great quantity of gold, silver, brass, precious stones, and all other things, both for profit and pleasure: she employed all her forces against the Indians, over whom reigned Staurobates, and assembled her Army, in the which there were three Millions of foot, five hundred thousand horsemen, a hundred thousand chariots, and as many fighters on camels-backs, with sword of six foot in length; two thousand barks or ships, and made or feigned Elephants in great number, whose counterfeits were carried on Camels. Which military preparation being understood by the King of the Indians, he assayed to exceed her forces; and having ordained all things in a readiness for the resisting of her, he sent his Ambassadors before, reprehending her of great ambition, that without being provoked by any wrong, or injury of them, she made war against them: blaming her beside in many and divers respects, and calling the Gods to witness, he threatened her, that if she were over come in battle, he would cause her to be hanged and crucified. Whereunto Semiramis answered smile, that they must fight with prowess, and not with words. The battles then approaching one against the other; Semiramis had the better in the first encounter: and in the second was overthrown, with her counterfeit Elephants; in such sort, that almost all the Assyrians being put to flight, Staurobates by chance meeting with Semiramis, hurt her first with an arrow i● the arm, and then with a dart in the shoulder, and as she was getting to horse, she was almost taken; the King's Elephant pursuing her. The Assyrians in this manner overcome, took the way to their ships, and the Indians pursuing their victory, slew many of them at the straits, and narrow ways, in the which the footmen and horsemen being intermingled, hindered one an other: in so much that there was no means to fly, nor to save themselves; but they killed one an other with their press and disorder. And when the greatest part of such as had escaped this overthrow were passed over the bridge, which was made with boats on the river Indus, Semiramis caused it to be broken; and the king being warned by prodigious apparitions not to go beyond the bridge, ceased the pursuit: Such was the proof of the Indian power.  
Touching their wisdom, the Brachmen made profession thereof amongst them naked, and austere; being holiemen, living according to their Laws: intending altogether the contemplation of God, without making any provision of victuals: for the earth furnished them always with new and fresh; the rivers gave them drink, and the leaves ●●lling of the trees, and the grass yielded them lodging. And there was not on● amongst them reputed a holy or happy man, if while he was yet living of perfect memory and understanding, he did not separate his soul from his body with fire, and did not go pure and clean out of the flesh, having consumed whatsoever was mortal in him. And whereas the people were divided into seven sorts and degrees, they were the first in dignity, being exempted from all charges, not subject unto any man, nor ruling over any; but as men acceptable unto the Gods, and reputed to know all that is done in Hell; they received of every one his oblation made for sacrifices, and took the care and charge of the dead, receiving great jousts by occasion thereof. Assembling and gathering themselves together at beginning of the year; they foretold, of droughts, rains, winds, diseases, and other things: the knowledge whereof brought great profit to the people. Their Artisans were very good as being brought up in a pure, and clean air, & drinking nothing but good and wholsomewaters. The governments of the Indians, being divided into many parts, it was not permitted unto any to change his manner of living, not seeming reasonable unto them, that a man of war should till the earth, nor that a Philosop should become an Artisan.  
On the other part, the ETHIOPIANS vaunted themselves to be the first created of all the men in the world, & that they were brought forth by the earth: for considering that the heat of the sun in drying the earth when it was moist, had given life to all things, it was also consequent that in places nearest unto the sun, there were procreated from the beginning all kind of living creatures. They said that religion & adoration of the gods was first sound out amongst them; and the sacrifices, processions, pomps, solemnities, and all such things, by the which honour was given them of men: of the which they had such recompense, that they were never vanquished nor overcome by any strange king; & that always they had remained in liberty. And howbeit divers princes had assayed with great armies to bring them in subjection, yet none of them had enjoyed their Empire. Moreover that they were the first that had invented the forms and use of letters, and given themselves to the study of Astrology, as well by reason of their quick wits, and sharpness of understanding, whereby they exceed all other nations; as by the opportunity of the Country which they inhabit: and that therefore they have continual serenity, and tranquillity of the air, and have not the seasons of the year, disordered, and variable; but live always in one temperature. Moreover that the Egyptians were descended of them; the Priests of both nations observing the same order and manner of doing their sacrifices, & using the like vestures, and ornaments.  
For the prerogative of antiquity there was in times past great contention between the Egyptians, and the Scythians. For the EGYPTIANS said; that from the beginning when the world was created, where other lands burned on the one side by overgreat heat of the sun, & others on tother side were frozen through the extremity of the cold, in such sort that they could neither bring forth new men nor receive strangers, if any had come thither: and especially before garments were invented to keep men from cold, and heat; and the artificial remedies to correct the ill disposition of places: Egypt hath always been so temperate, that the inhabitants thereof are not molested with the great cold of winter; nor with the heat of Summer. Also the land is so fruitful there of all thing necessary for the life of man, that not any where else is found a land so plentiful. Wherefore reason would have it, that men should be first borne in that Country where they might best, and with most ease be nourished.  
On the contrary, the SCYTHIANS said that the temperateness served to no purpose to prove the antiquity; for when nature parted, and divided extreme heat, & extreme cold into divers regions; it is to be thought that the land which first remained uncovered & unclothed of these two extreme qualities, did incontinently bring forth men, and beasts, which might there be nourished. And concerning trees, and other fruits they were varied according to the estate of the Countries. And for as much as the Scythians have a sharper air than the Egyptians, so are there bodies and their understandings harder also than theirs. Nevertheless, if the frame of the world which is now divided into two parts hath been sometime all one, whether the whole earth were enclosed and environed with water, or that the fire (which hath engendered all things) held and possessed the whole world, in both cases the Scythians were the first: For if the fire possessed all, it must needs be that by little & little it was quenched to make place for the habitable earth; In which case it is to be thought, that it was first quenched on the north side, because it is the coldest region, and the Scythians are seated there: whence it cometh to pass, that even at this present it is the coldest country that is known. And in regard of Egypt, and all the East, we must think that the heat was there but lately remitted; For yet at this day they have marvelous heat there when the sun is at highest. Also if the whole earth were at the first environed with water, it is to be thought that the places that are highest were first discovered; and that where the earth is lowest, there the water remained longest; and by consequent, that there where the earth was first discovered, and dried, there began first all living things to be engendered: But the country of the Scythians is higher than all other lands, as appeareth by this, that all the rivers which do arise there descend to the pool Meotis, and from thence do take their course into the Pontic Sea, and into Egypt: which Country of Egypt is so low, and so subiéct to waters, that although so many Kings throughout so many ages, have with great diligence, and expense, made so many rampires, so many banks, and dyches to keep the land from being overflown by the impetuosity of rivers: because that when they held them in on oneside, they ran out on the other, they have so little prevailed that yet at this present, they are not able there to till the land; except the river Nilus be held in by Causwais, and banks. And it is not possible that this country did first of all bring forth men, which notwithstanding the banks and causeys, yet by means of the mud and dregs which the river Nilus bringeth in and leaveth there, appeareth yet all watery. By these reasons both th'one, and tother nation maintained their antiquity.  
But as concerning Egypt it is certain that a part thereof was sometimes covered with water. All that which is above Memphis, towards the mountains of Ethiopia, hath been Sea by the opinion of Herodotus. And Strabo thinketh all the land which is from Sienna unto the Sea watered with the river Nilus, to have been at the beginning called Egypt, which was much increased, as one may see by the verse of Homer, saving that the Isle of Pharos was a days journey distant from firm land: which is now even almost joining to Alexandria. If these things be true, they show sufficiently that this land is not ancient. Neither can the Scythians prove their antiquity: If it be true that Herodotus saith, that they began but a thousand years before the reign of king Darius over the Persians. But as both regions by the reasons debated, have not been very apt for habitation of men: so is it better to believe that land to have been first inhabited, which hath the air most temperate: by which means the Egyptians said that they were most ancient. But as they by reason of the waters cannot allege any ancient habitation, so neither can the Scythians because they dwell in a quarter which is afflicted with continual cold. Wherefore it is more conformable unto truth to say that the middle region between them both, where the territory of Damascus is situated, hath borne the first men: (as the holy Scripture witnesseth) which is exempted from the discommodities of Egypt, and of Scythia, and by reason of the situation is naturally more temperate then either of them both. Otherwise it is hard by humane knowledge, to know in what place, what people, or what nation hath been the first; by how much space, or how many years it was afore the rest. Yet the opinion in times past touching the beginning of people was such; that at the beginning of all things the heaven, and earth had one only essence, and form; but that afterward the Elements being separated one from the other, the world took that order in which we see it now. Amongst which elements there befell into the air that continual motion which it hath; and to the fire for his lightness that place which it hath above the air; and for the same reason to the Sun, & stars, the course which they naturally keep. That which was mixed with moisture by reason of his heaviness remained in the same mass. wherehence was created of the moistest the sea, & of the hardest the earth being soft in itself, and miry. Which when it was first dried, and made thicker by the heat of the sun, after by force of the heat lifted up, & made to swell upwards, there grew together in many & divers places thereof certain humours engendering rottenness, covered and hid with thin and tender skins. As generation then is made in moist things by adding heat unto it; and the air blown abroad by night feedeth it with moisture, which is strengthened in the day time by the power of the sun: finally these rotten things being come as it were to their extremity, brought forth (as if the time of their childbirth had been come) the figures of all sorts of creatures and living things, after those little skins were broken. Of which living creatures such as had received most heat were made flying birds, and mounted into the higher regions; those which had most earth remained as serpents, and such other beasts, below: they which retained the nature of water, were put in the element of their complexion, and called fishes: Then the earth being made drier from thence forward, as well by the heat of the sun, as by the winds, left bringing forth any more such creatures. But those which were already made, begot others by continual commixtion. Men being thus form sought their living in the fields leading a savage life without any order: unto whom the herbs & trees brought forth of themselves that which was necessary for their life. But the wild beasts became against them, and their enemies: in such sort, that to resist them and for their common profit, they began to assemble together, giving aid one to the other, and seeking here and there safe places for their habitation. And these first assemblies were the true beginning of every people and nation.  
THE CHALDEES very skilful in Astrology, held opinion that the world had always been, that it had no beginning nor should have no end. Aristotle hath been of the same opinion, and that all living creatures were sempiternal. Plato in his third, and twelfth book of laws doubteth of the world, and of mankind, whether they were from the beginning or no; saying that the generation of men either had no beginning, or that it began an inestimable length of time before us. The same author in his Timaeus, Critias, Menexemus, and his Politic, is of opinion, that by long tract of time, the vigour of men's minds, and fertility of their bodies diminisheth by little and little, in such sort that our understandings find themselves as it were deprived of their divinity & the bodies void of their accustomed fertility: Then God meaning to restore mankind into his former dignity, drowneth or burneth the earth, tempering in such sort the celestial motions by himself which is their mover, that the heavenly destiny giveth place and concurreth always with his divine providence. And that the earth being abundantly watered with fresh humour, and made fruitful by the heat ensuing doth bring forth: or else that the rain falling more plentifully after excessive heats & droughts, there are engendered, or regenerated not only little creatures, but great ones also, being borne of the earth as of their mother: Of which opinion also were many Egyptians, Greeks', and Arabians, namely Algazel, and Avicen, with whom Aristotle agreeth in his Problems, when he saith, that in little mutations of times little creatures are brought forth, and so in the great greater, and very great in the greatest mutations.  
THE JEWS, CHRISTIANS, AND SAR AZENS, following the divine prophet, and Lawgiver Moses, believe that God hath made the world of nothing, and created Adam the first man, after his own likeness, of the dust of the earth, and breathed in his face that spirit of life, and that he was made with a living soul; afterwards meaning to give him help, and company, made a profound sleep to fall on him, and being a sleep took one of his ribs, and made Eve there of the first woman: That they were placed in an earthly paradise, where was plenty of all good things without pain or travail, and were driven from thence for their disobedience; and that of them two joined in marriage, have proceeded all men dispersed over all the habitable earth. But Saint Augustine considering, that of the five zones set down by the ancient Astrologers, and Cosmographers, there were but two esteemed temperate, and inhabited, and that from the one it was thought they could not pass to the other by reason of the heat, which was in the midst called the burning zone, and that if it were so, it must follow necessarily, that the Antipodes came not of Adam; he chose rather to deny that there were any Antipodes, then to fall into any absurd impiety; or to gainsay learned antiquity in this point. But it is certain both by the ancient and modern navigations, that there are Antipodes, as those of Taprobana are to the Spaniards: which is known by the aspect of heaven, appearance of the stars, hiding of our pole, and elevation of theirs, having (as hath been said) every thing contrary unto us, Summer, and Winter, day and night, East and West.  
THE GREEKS in their fables said, that Vulcan being amorous of Minerva, shed his seed on the land of Athens, from whence sprung the Athenians: who therefore vaunted themselves, that they were borne of their own land without taking any original elsewhere: understanding by the earth all matter, and by Vulcan the fire, which moveth the earth, and quickeneth it: and that Ceres after the ravishment of her daughter Proserpina, having wandered long throughout the world, came into their Country, where she showed them the use of wheat, wherehence afterward it was manifested to all men: that their City hath not only communicated such means of living to the indigent; but also was the first that established laws; and set down government: and that in part it invented the arts serving for necessity, and pleasure; and in part hath approved them, or made them better, and more exquisite: obtaining the honour of Philosophy, by which all these things have been either invented, or amended; and of eloquence which first took beginning in Athens, and hath there been brought to perfection: that City having gotten by wisdom and eloquence such excellency, and reputation, that her Scholars were Masters of others; and that the name of Greeks was no more a name of a people or nation, but of reason and understanding: and that the partakers of their learning were more esteemed Greeks', than those which participated of the same nature with them.  
At this day the wandering ARABIANS boast themselves to be the first of the world, having never been mingled with other nations, and having kept entire (as they say) the nobility of their blood.  
BUT OMITTING all these dispute, and boastings of nations, all fantasies, and humane reasons of Philosophers; we will rest ourselves on the certainty of holy scripture, touching the creation of the world, and of mankind. And concerning the discourse of arms, and of letters which are here in question, we will begin it by the Egyptians: who being ingenious and valiant, seem to have been the first that have excelled, in wisdom, and power: from whom the Greeks' drew almost all their knowledge, which we use at this day: having not only in estimation, but also in admiration both Egypt, and the Egyptians.  

OF THE POWER, LEARNING, AND other excellency of the Egyptians.  
AMongst others, Isocrates, that most excellent orator, praising Busiris, who made choice of that Country to reign, in as the most commodious of all the world, writeth thus: for considering other places not to be conveniently situated in respect of the nature of the whole world, but that some are too much subject to rain, and others otherways molested; and that region to be in the fairest seat of the earth, and most abounding in all sorts of good things, and environed with the river Nilus, as with a natural wall, which not only keepeth, but fatneth it, being inexpugnable to strangers that assail it, and much profitable to those which dwell near it, by the waterings and other commodities which they receive of it, whose industry also he hath made almost divine in matter of tillage. For by his means they have both rains and drouthes in their disposition: which are bestowed by jupiter elsewhere. Their felicity is so great, that if one consider the excellency, and goodness of the Country and their spacious fields, he will think they inhabit the main land; if the commodities wherewith it aboundeth which are carried out, and those which not growing there are brought in thither from other places, he will think that they dwell in an Island. For the river running here, & there, and watering it thoroughly, doth furnish them with two marvelous commodities. Busiris then began where wise men ought to begin, choosing a fair place which supplied all things needful for the inhabitants abundantly. Then dividing them by orders, and estates, he appointed some for sacrifices, others for handy crafts, and others for warfare; thinking that ordinary necessities and commodities ought to be furnished by tillage, and by trades, but that the protection of them was most assured by the exercise of arms; and devotion towards the Gods. Accomplishing then all the perfection required in a good law maker, he ordained that every of them should always exercise one trade, knowing that they which change oft, cannot understand any thing well, nor do any thing perfectly; but those which are always conversant about the same things, do commonly excel. Whence it is come to pass, that the Egyptians in every art do excel so much all other Artisans, as good workmen are wont to excel the unskilful and ignorant. Moreover they observe so good order in administration of their kingdom, and all other public government, that the most famous philosophers disputing of such affairs, prefer the government of Egypt above all theirs. Also to him we must refer as to the principal author, the study and exercise of wisdom: for he so advantaged the priests first that they might maintain themselves in chief place with the holy revenues: that afterwards great holiness being by their laws required of them, they might live temperately, and being exempted from warfare, and other charges; they might rest in quiet.  
THEY enjoying then this commodity, have invented Physic to help the body; not that which useth dangerous medicaments, but those which may as safely be taken as the daily meats; and nevertheless are so profitable that they which use them are seen to be lusty, and able of body, and to live long. And for medicine of the mind, they have proposed the exercise of Philosophy, which can make laws; and search out the nature of things. He committed to the ancienter sort the best charges, and persuaded the younger, leaving pleasures to, give themselves to astrology, Arithmetic; and Geometry: which faculties are thought by some to be profitable in many things. The others endeavour to show that they follow virtue earnestly. Their piety, and devotion towards the Gods is worthy of great praise, and admiration. For they which disguise themselves in such sort, that they may be the more esteemed through a show of knowledge, they hurt those whom they deceive: But they which intermeddle in divine matters, in such sort, that they make the rewards and punishments of the other life to appear more certain than the present, they profit men much. For they which at the beginning put such fear into us, have been the cause of ceasing amongst us all brutish wildness. Wherefore they rule these affairs so holily and reverently, that oaths are more religiously observed amongst them, than in other places; thinking the punishment to be incontinently proposed for every offence, except it be hidden for the present, and the avengement reserved for the children and posterity: wherein they do not err; for he hath ordained them many and different exercises of religion, setting down by Law certain beasts to be honoured and worshipped by them, which are despised amongst us: not that he was ignorant of their small power; but because partly he thought the common people was to be accustomed to do what soever the prince commanded them; and partly, because he would make trial in manifest things what they would do in those that were hidden: judging that such as would contemn them, would peraventure contemn greater also; and they which observed order indifferently and equally in all things, did make proof of their constancy in observing of religion.  
Many other things remain to be said touching the holiness of the Egyptians, which have not come to my knowledge alone, nor to me afore the rest: but many notable persons have understood them heretofore, and do understand them now, of which number was Pythagoras the Samian, who went into Egypt, and was their disciple, and first brought Philosophy into Greece: having more care than any other of sacrifices, & consecration in the Temples, thinking that if by it he obtained nothing the more of the Gods, at the least that he should be in a greater reputation amongst men: as it happened unto him. For he hath been so much esteemed, that all the young men desired to be his Scholars, and the ancient choose rather to have their children in his school, then at home to look to their household; whereof we must not doubt. For even at this day, such as say, they are his disciples are more esteemed holding their peace, than others that speak eloquently.  
PLATO in his Timaeus, telling of the voyage which Solon made into Egypt, and how informing himself touching the ancient things of the priests of that place, who understood them marvelously well; writeth that he found by experience that he, and the rest of the Greeks understood nothing in respect of them: and that they were all young of understanding having no old opinion taken from antiquity, nor any hoarheaded science. Then is summarily described the Egyptian government: In the which first the priests were separated from the common people; and then the Artificers kept their occupations severally by themselves, and not indifferently mingled one amongst another. The like did the shepherds, hunter's, and labourers. Also the men at arms and Soldiers were separated from the rest, having no other charge, nor commandment by the Law, but to follow arms. And moreover what care the law had of prudence, and temperance, of divination and of Physic to preserve the health of the inhabitants; and of all other sciences agreeable.  
ARISTOTLE in his politics confirming this, saith that it is not newly, or lately come to the knowledge of Philosophers, touching matter of state that a City ought to be divided by exercises; and that there should be a difference between the Soldiers, and Labourers: For, this order, saith he, is observed yet in Egypt at this day, being so ordained by Sesostris.  
PLUTARCH in his discourse of Isis and Osiris writeth, that in Egypt the kings were chosen either of the order of the priests, or of the men of war: because th'one order was reverenced and honoured for valiancy; and tother for wisdom: and he that was chosen from amongst the men at arms, presently after such election was also received into the order of priesthood, and to him were communicated and discovered the secrets of their Philosophy, which covered many mysteries under the vail of fables, and under tales which obscurely showed the truth; taking heed warily lest they should profane their wisdom, in publishing too much that which appertaineth to the knowledge of the Gods: which is witnessed by the wisest & most learned men of Greece, Solon, Thales, Plato, Eudoxus, Pythagoras, and as some say Lycurgus himself; which went of purpose into Egypt to confer with the priests of that Country: That Pythagoras was well beloved of them, and he also esteemed them very much; In so much as he would imitate their mystical fashion of speaking in hidden words, and hide his doctrine and his sentences under figured, and enigmatical words, those letters which in Egypt are called Hieroglyphic being almost all like unto the precepts of Pythagoras.  
HERODOTUS the historian speaking in his Euterpe of the Egyptians affirmeth those which inhabit the fruitfullest Country to be the most polished, and of the best understanding of any that ever he was acquainted with. And that in truth they were the most healthsom next to the Africans, because the seasons of the year change but little; diseases being bred in men by sudden changes; and especially by the changing of those seasons. That it was given him to understand by the Priests, that in three hundred forty and one generations they had so many Kings, and high Priests, and that in the space of one thousand three hundred and forty years, the sun had four times changed his accustomed course, arising twice in the west part, and setting also twice in the East; and that yet notwithstanding Egypt had not changed any thing, neither in the fruitfulness of the ground, nor in the nature of the river: nor yet in diseases, nor term of life and death. In such reputation have the Egyptians been amongst the best learned of Greece.  
TOUCHING themselves they boasted that they had invented Astrology, Arithmetic, Geometry, and many other sciences; and that the best Laws had been invented by them: especially the Thebans, the situation of their Country helping them greatly being plain and without clouds to know the movings of the stars which arise, and fall. And they have so diligently observed the eclipses of the sun, and moon, that by them they have first prognosticated many things to come, foretelling often (to th'end men might the better prevent it) the scarcity or abundance of Corn, and fruits, the imminent maladies both of men and beasts, the earthquakes, appearing of Comets, and other things that were hard to be known: which were certain unto them, by long and continual experience. This was the true and proper office of their priests, who were in great authority as well because they had the charge of divine things: as for that they were full of knowledge, and taught others. And whereas the whole public revenue was divided into three parts; they took the first portion, to th'end to employ it in administration of sacrifices, and on their necessities: They were called near unto Kings to give counsel in matters of consequence, both they and their children being exempted from subsidies: and holding the second place to the king in honour & dignity. Tother portion of the revenue appertained to the Kings, who employed it on the wars, and on maintaining their estate, and train, and in recompensing such as deserved: whence it came to pass, that the people was not any way oppressed with tributes, and new subsidies. The third part was received by the nobles, and other men of arms; wherein they were all exercised, to the end that by such entertainment they should be the readier to undertake all military hazards, and that living better thereby, and more at ease, they should be the more inclined to beget offspring of their bodies: whence it came to pass that the Country being peopled by these means had no need of foreign Soldiers. They never learned any base or mechanical science, but gave themselves wholly to arms: which exercise was taught from hand to hand, by the father to the son. Concerning their arts and handicrafts; the Egyptians works were very well wrought, and even come to their perfection; for the Artisans of Egypt employed themselves only about works which were permitted by the Law, or which they had learned of their fathers: And it behoved every one to show to the governor from year to year whereof he lived: Otherwise for default of so doing, or not showing his manner of living to be just, and reasonable; he was led presently to death. And whereas that Country was more stored with people than any other of the world, and furnished with such excellent Artisans; their kings have built such great Cities as Thebes, and Memphis, and erected and made marvelous pyramids, temples, labyrinths, ●epultures, colosses, obelisks, and other like works the greatest amongst men; which envious age through so long tract of time amongst so many changes of Lordships could not yet consume.  
Furthermore the country of Egypt hath always seemed to be the most excellent of all others; as well for that it is marvelously strong, and well bounded; as for the pleasing beauty of the whole Country. For on the West side it hath the great deserts for defence, and a part of the wild Lybia; which is not only difficult to pass over, but very dangerous also for want of waters, and barrenness of all other things: Towards the South it is environed with the scluses of Nilus, and with the mountains adjoining. And to come down from the higher Ethiopia, for the space of three hundred leagues, the river is not easily navigable, nor the way by land easy to be undertaken: if it be not by a king; or with great provision of victuals. On the East side it is fortified with the sameriver, and with a deep and hollow marish ground, more than twelve leagues in length being betwixt Syria, and Egypt. On the North it is enclosed with a Sea which hath no havens, and where it is very difficult to find landing. Being by this means very safe and strong, it was first groverned by the native Kings of the Country: after by the Ethiopians, Persians, Macedonians, Romans, Greeks', Caliphs, Soudans, and at this day by the Turks.  
Amongst all the Kings borne in the country or aliens, which ever reigned there SESOSTRIS was the most mighty & most magnificent; having excelled in valiancy, and felicity, not only the Assyrians, and Persians, but also the Macedonians, and Romans'. His father being advertised by revelation of his greatness to come, to the end to make him worthier to rule the Monarchy of the whole world, he assembled together all the children that were borne on the same day with his son, & caused them all to be instructed in the same discipline with him: thinking that being so brought up together, they would love one another the more; & be the better help to one another in the wars. First of all then, going against the Arabians with an army of these, being hardened with pain, & accustomed to sobriety, he brought under his obedience all that nation which was free & at liberty before; then the greatest part of Lybia, being yet very young: & lifted up in courage by the success of this expedition, he applied all his fantasy to make himself Lord of all the world, gathering together an army of six hundred thousand foot, four and twenty thousand horse, eighteen thousand chariots for war, & four hundred ships on the red sea; finding out first the use of galleys: over all whom he appointed Capitains' the most part of those which had been brought up with him (as is said) accustomed unto war, and from their youth given to virtuous exercises. With this great force he conquered on the one side Ethiopia, and all the Isles of that Country, and all the Sea-coast towards the Indies; on the other side Asia the great: overcoming not only those nations which were afterward overcome by Alexander; but also many other whom Alexander never came unto. For he passed the river Ganges, marching here and there through out all the Country of the Indians, unto the great Ocean; and traversed all the Scythians country unto the river Tanais, which divideth Asia from Europe. Then going therehence into Thrace, he was constrained by the difficulty of the places, and through want of victuals to make an end of his enterprise, setting up divers pillars in the conquered Countries; some with the likeness of a man, others with the secret parts of women; signifying thereby the valiancy, or cowardice of the vanquished people. Returning into Egypt with all the prisoners whose number was infinite, and the spoils of the conquered Countries, he decked the Temples of Egypt with the most precious things which he had brought: and having recompensed his soldiers which had well followed and served him, from that time forward the whole Country was much enriched. Being at quiet he did also many great and excellent things, serving for the ornament, and safety of Egypt: as to raise mounts, on which the towns were placed, which before were low seated; to th'end that the men and beasts might remain in safety during the increase of the river: make great ditches and channels in the Country going from Memphis to the Sea, to carry victuals more easily and readily: fortify those places where the enemies might enter on the land of Egypt making their entrance more difficult by multitude of ditches: build a great wall toward Syria, and Arabia, from Peluse to the City of the Sun, fourscore and fourteen leagues in length. But he exceeded all other magnificence in this, that when the nations which he had overcome, and those to whom he had given kingdoms; as also the Captains which he had ordained for the guard of his provinces, were come into Egypt, at the time appointed to offer their gifts & tributes which they ought him; if it happened that he went to the temple, or passed through the town, he made four of them to be tied and fastened to his chariot in steed of horses: declaring thereby that none of the other kings or famous Captains, was to be compared to him in virtue, seeing he had overcome them all. His glory and renown was so great, that long time after he was dead, when the Persians held the kingdom of Egypt, and Darius the father of Xerxes would have placed his own statue above that of Sesostris in the City of Memphis: the high Priest of Vulcan gainsaid him publicly, saying that yet his acts were not like to those of Sesostris, who had subdued as many nations as he; and amongst others had overcome the Scythians, whom Darius could not any ways endamage; and therefore it was not reason that his offering should go before that of a King whom he had not gone beyond in great exploits. Which words Darius taking in good part, and rejoicing at his so liberal speech, said that he would endeavour not to be inferior to Sesostris in any thing, if he lived as long as he had done; praying the priest to compare their years with their deeds, and that it should be a testimony unto him of his virtue. After Sesostris, in my opinion Ptolomeus Philadelphus deserveth greatest praise, by the favour, and advancement which he gave to all arts: founding that most famous school in Alexandria the head City of his kingdom, to communicate to all students the sciences, (which before were only managed by Priests, and handled in the Egyptian tongue) which he caused to be translated into Greek; where he assembled from all parts learned men to teach them, proposing them honourable rewards: there built he that magnificent Museum, which he endued with good revenues, for the entertainment of Scholars; and erected in it that most famous Library, furnished with seven hundred thousand volumes: which foundation was after augmented by the Roman Emperor; and continued even till the Mahometans usurped that kingdom; whence they banished both the Greek tongue, and the ancient Egyptian with their sciences; though they had been there continued almost three thousand years, especially the knowledge of celestial motions, and of natural things: amongst the variable accidents of so many monarchies as of the Ethiopian, the Egyptian, Assyrian, Median, Persian, Macedonian, Parthian, and Romain.   

OF THE POWER OF THE Assyrians, and learning of the Chaldees.  
IN ASSYRIA reigned in old time many Kings borne in the same Country, whose names and deeds are both abolished by long course of years. But he amongst them which first got learned men to writ his deeds, was NINUS, who being by his nature inclined to war, and greedy of glory, subdued the first nations by force, and invested himself with the monarchy, stretching out his dominions far and wide through out Asia with an incredible army of seventeen hundred thousand foot, 2. hundred thousand horse, ten thousand six hundred chariots armed with hooks: by means whereof he subdued in seventeen years all the nations bordering on the banks of the East sea, and their neighbours; as the Egyptians, Phoenicians, those of the inner Syria, Cilicia, Pamphilia, Lycia, Caria, Mysia, Lydia, Troada, Phrygia, which lieth on the Sea Hellespont, the Country of Propontida, and Bithynia, Capadocia, and the other nations which border on the great Sea; not leaving any unconquered, from Nilus to Tanais. He added beside to his estate the Cadusians, Tapyres, Hyrcanians, Dranges, Deruices, Carmanians, Coronians, Rombians, Vocamians, Parthians, Persians, Susians, Caspians, Bactrians, and many others, which, it were too long particularly to recite. Then his army returning into Syria, he chose a commodious place to build a City, which (as he had surmounted all other Kings in glory of his great deeds) he purposed to make so great, that there was never afore the like thereof in greatness; neither could there ever since be found such another. And assembling from all parts great number of workmen, with the provisions necessary for such a work, he built his City on the river Euphrates, making it not altogether square, nor equally compassed on all sides, of alike length; but longer on two sides, then on the other two; and each side of the long wall was twenty miles in length, and a side of the lesser wall not much less than twelve miles, so that it had in all three score and two miles in circuit: And without doubt Ninus was no whit deceived of his intent: for there hath no City sithence been found of so great compass; neither of such sumptuousness, beauty, and magnificence. Then to make it populous, and well inhabited, he compelled the Assyrians, especially those of the richer sort, to make their abode there: and of other neighbour nations received such as would come thither: ordaining that the City in memory of him should be called NINIVEH.  
After whose death SEMIRAMIS his wife held the kingdom of Assyria, showing herself as magnificent in riches, conquests, and triumphs, as ever any man had been: It is said, that being a little girl, she was cast into a desert full of rocks, where there was a great number of birds, which by gods will nourished and preserved her; bearing up the child with their wings, and feeding her with milk, and after with cheese, which they stole from the shepcotes adjoining: which being discovered by the shepherds, who found their cheeses to be gnawn, and perceiving the child to be of excellent beauty, they offered her to their governor: who having no children, brought her up carefully, as if she had been his own; afterwards being grown, by reason of her beauty, and good behaviour, she came to the knowledge of king Ninus, having helped him by her dexterity to take the City of the Bactrians; so that he fell in love with her, and married her: Yet was not her death less admirable than her strange nourishment; for after she had made great Conquests, builded sumptuous edifices, assailed the Indians with an army of three Millions of foot, five hundred thousand horsemen, and a hundred thousand chariots, (as hath been said) and at her return given order for government of her kingdom, she vanished away, and was transported suddenly (as hath been believed) amongst the Gods. Some feign, that she was turned into a Pigeon, and that she flew away with a great number of birds, which came into her chamber. Desiring to match, or to go beyond her husband in glory and magnificence, she undertook also to build the City of BABYLON, assembling artisans from all parts: as Cutters, Carvers, Masons, and workmaisters for this effect; and making provision of stuffs necessary for so great a building; which to make up and finish, she caused from all Nations to come to the number of three Millions of men; and built her City on both sides of the river Euphrates, which passed through the midst of it; over which she made a bridge half a mile in length, and of thirty foot in breadth, and two palaces at the two ends thereof: The walls were forty five miles round about, having many towers of equal distance one from the other, which were threescore and one fathom in height; and a hundred gates all of brass, with their hinges and pillars. The City was divided into streets, the most part strait, full of houses of three and four stories high, of palaces, castles, and temples, correspondent to such greatness and magnificence, with altars, statues, tables, and other ornaments of incredible riches: which the succeeding kings augmented, until the usurpation of the Persians, which took away part, and overthrew the rest. Herodotus affirmeth, that it was the greatest and strongest of all others next after Niniveh; and that it was the fairest that ever he saw. By such works of Ninus and Semiramis it appeareth, that Architecture, and all manual sciences were then in great perfection, and estimation. BELUS the father of Ninus was the first obseruour of the Stars in those parts, and ordained the Priests, Naturalists and Astrologers. ZOROASTER king of the Bactrians, whom Ninus overcame in battle, was the author of Magic. And according to the supputation of Eusebius, ABRAHAM was the first founder of true Religion, the first that fulfilled the Law of nature, and thought of the divine Law; the first that persuaded men to worship one only God against the Pagans, and Idolaters; & the first that drove away the darkness of error, & undertook wars against the wicked: for this cause he received so much honour, that God spoke unto him, and promised to multiply his posterity, above the stars of heaven, and sands of the sea, and that in his seed all Nations should be blessed; coming thereof the redeemer of the world, which before was utterly lost and overthrown: of which promise, both the Mosaical and Christian Law took their beginning: And Mahomet himself to cover his deceit, and win the more people, said; that he preached no other thing, but the belief of Abraham, which he pretended to restore.  
BUT young NINUS their son, taking the kingdom after them, and making peace with all his neighbours, lived in pleasure, and idleness out of the sight of men, shut up for the most part in his palace: But for the safety of his kingdom, and that he might be feared of his subjects, he levied every year a certain number of soldiers, and out of every province ordained them a Captain. And when all his army was assembled without the City of Niniveh, he appointed over every Nation an other Captain of the wisest and skilfullest of those that were about him. The year being ended, he sent home his first soldiers to their houses, and had others out of the provinces: whence it came to pass, that his subjects were the readier to obey for fear, which they had of the soldiers remaining always in the field: And if any had failed of their duty, or rebelled against him, they were readier also to make satisfaction for fear of punishment. Thinking also that such changing from year to year, might serve to this end, that his soldiers and Captains might not so readily knit themselves together to conspire against him: for to be continually in the field exercised in the art military, maketh the soldiers harder and stronger, and the Capitains' wiser, which hath often been an occasion to them of departing from the obedience of their common wealth, or service of their Prince: which point was ill considered of the Romans, when they lived in a common wealth; and afterward by their Emperors. For the prolongation of general charges in war, by succession of time destroyed the common wealth by two inconveniences: The one, that by this means less number of people was exercised in military charges, and offices; and by consequence the reputation restrained to fewer persons: The other, that one man always commanding over an Army, made it partial and affectionate unto him, so that in time it forgot the Senate, and acknowledged no head but him: So did Sylla, and Marius find soldiers to follow them against the public weal: So julius Caesar by the continuation which was made him of his charge in Gaul, had means to seize on his own Country. Likewise the ordinary armies which the Emperors entertained, aswell near unto Rome, as on the frontiers of the Empire, overthrew many of them, and the Empire also; setting up Caesar's, and pulling them down at their appetite, having sometime chosen many of them in divers places, at the self same time; whereof great wars arose. This king then, to the end to provide for such inconveniences, established (as hath been said) the Captains of his army, the Governors of provinces, the Stewards of his household, and other officers of his house; and also the judges of every province, and other charges of his estate: thinking as for the rest, that the Prince his unknown manner of living, made his pleasures secret, and that none dared to blaspheme him; as if he were God invisible.  
Wherein he was followed by the other succeeding Kings, even till SARDANAPALUS, in whose time this kingdom was translated to the Medians. He was the most effeminate that ever was borne, so that he abode always amongst women, handing the distaff, and spinning in womanish apparel; more wanton in looks, in apparel, and gesture, than the most wanton of them; to whom he divided their works, clothing himself sometime with a crimson gown, and sometimes with fine Tissue: He painted his face, and his whole body, and counterfeited his speech after the imitation of women: He did not only desire to have every day meats and drinks to provoke him to lust, but gave himself wholly to pleasure, abusing sometimes the office of a man, and sometimes of a woman; without all honesty, without regard of sex, or of shame; in such sort, that being altogether drowned in delights, he scarce showed himself abroad at any time. These fashions were the cause, that two of his Lieutenants, Beloch the Babylonian, and Arbaces the Median, had him in disdain; and conspiring against him through contempt, made war against him, after they had defamed him as lose, and effeminate: who at last presented himself against his will in battle in the field, with his effeminate company, without order: but having had the worst, he withdrew himself hastily into his royal palace, in the which he caused to be raised in a back and secret room, a piece of timber work; being of great pieces of wood, four hundred foot high, in manner of a Pyramid, and within left a great space void: In such sort, that in the midst there was an other place made of Carpenter's work, furnished with great and long tables, and was large a hundred foot square, which is four hundred foot round: Therewithin he caused to be set four hundred couches of gold, which served to make magnificent banquets, after the old sashion; and above over against them as many tables of gold. But the ●ower was girt in such sort, and compassed with great and heavy stuff, that there was no going out, nor opening, but only to have light from the top: This being done, he made his wife, and his Concubines, and the women of his Court which he loved best, to enter into it; not knowing, nor doubting any thing what he meant to do; then went he in himself, and there caused himself to be shut in, without hope of ever going out: But before, he had caused to be brought thither a thousand myriades of gold, and a myriad of myriades of silver, and a great number of royal vestures, and precious stones. Then his Chamberlains, and eunuchs (in whom he put all his trust, and of whom he had taken oaths to do it) put fire in this pile, which endured fifteen days: So Sardanapalus burned himself with all his riches, doing in that thing only the act of a man. Budeus valuing it all after our manner, accounteth that he spoiled the earth, or would have spoiled it, of the value of fifty Million of gold. These two Lieutenants divided afterwards the Monarchy betwixt them; Beloch was king of Babylon; and Arbaces of the Medians. Aristotle in his politics, doubting of the end of Sardanapalus, and of the Kingdom of Assyria, saith, that if that had not happened unto him, which is reported, yet that it might befall to any other king, governing himself after that sort. Moreover, the Chaldees in Assyria were appointed to have care of holy things; and did nothing but study all the time of their life, being reputed very skilful in Astrology. Many among them did prognosticate things to come, as if they were Prophets, and were wont to know how to divert evil fortune coming towards men, and to bring them good by sacrifices, and prayers. Besides they expounded dreams, soothsay, and prophecies: wherein they were very expert, as having been brought up therein; and taught by their fathers; still continuing and persevering in the same: for dwelling in plain countries, where the air is commonly without clouds, or rain, and where there are no hills to hinder the sight of the heavens, they had means to apply themselves wholieto contemplation of the Stars, observing their mutual concursions; how they approach or recoil th'one from tother; what are their conjunctions and oppositions, and what becometh of them, in what seasons, and how they are hid, and then appear again; the signs of good or ill fortune to come, which they bring in particular to every person, and in general to towns, and to peoples. In which observations they affirmed that they had employed CCCC lxxiij. thousand years: from the time when they began them, until Alexander the great went up into Asia: which space is incredible. Nevertheless, all agree in this, that the Chaldees were most skilful in the doctrine of the heavens, because they had continued the study thereof longest. Plato in his Epinomides, acknowledgeth Astrology to have been begun in Syria, and Egypt, where by the serenity of the summer season, almost all the stars are clearly seen; and that time out of mind the observation of stars had been there continued, and there hence brought over to the Greeks. Notwithstanding, Simplicius a Greek Commentator on Aristotle witnesseth, that Aristotle did write unto Calisthenes, being in the army of Alexander, that while others were busied about the spoil, and pillage of Babylon, he should diligently inquire of the antiquity of the Chaldees; and that Calisthenes answered, that after having employed all diligence therein, he found their history not to exccede the term of one thousand nine hundred and three years. Others do not only attribute to the Chaldees the praise of Astrology, but also of many other Arts; and that Prometheus of that nation, for having showed the movings of the Planets, and opened the mysteries of nature, was accounted under the coverture of a fable, to have stolen out of heaven the sacred fire of Pallas; and to have given a soul unto man, which he had fashioned before of earth: After that in revenge hereof, and punishment of this boldness, he was had by Mercury to the high mountain Caucasus, and fastened to a great rock: signifying his great assiduity in contemplation of Heaven, and of nature. Now the Chaldees held opinion, that the world had always been, that it had no beginning, and should have no end; the order and form of all things being made by the divine providence: and that the celestial affairs are not casually or naturally guided; but by the firm and determinate will of the Gods: saying, that the greatest force, and influence of heaven, doth consist in the planets; and that the knowledge of such events is known, aswell by their ascendants, as by their colours. Sometimes they showed visibly, to peoples and countries, to kings and private persons, such things as might help them, or harm them; gathering the certainty thereof by the winds, or by the rains; sometimes by the heats, and by the Comets, by the Eclipses of the Sun, and Moon, and by many other signs serving greatly for the birth of men, to have good fortune or bad; and that by their nature and propriety, especially by their aspect, one might easily know things to come: having told unto Alexander, that he should fight with Darius; and after to Antigonus, Nicanor, Seleucus, and other Kings; and likewise to private persons so evidently, that which was to happen unto them, that it seemed a miraculous thing, and above the understanding of man. But when the reign of the Assyrians failed, the Medes on the one side, and the Babylonians on the other, ruled in Asia: who followed the manners and customs of those which were their Lords before; having no peculiar singularity either in arms or letters: and therefore I will dwell thereon no longer. Besides that, these affairs are so ancient, and so far from us, that many esteem as fabulous whatsoever is written thereof: Wherefore I will come to the Persians, who are better known; and to the reign of Cyrus being the founder of their Monarchy: where beginneth the history of the Greeks'; and in whose time also philosophy was first manifested.   

OF THE POWER OF THE Persians, the learning and Religion of their Mages.  
THE PERSIANS were first shepherds, bornin a hard country, which made them strong; enabling them to remain in the open field, to watch and travail in the wars: They did eat nothing ordinarily but bread and herbs, with some venison; having neither figs, nor any other fruit, by reason of the rudeness, and barrenness of their country: They drank no wine, but contented themselves with water, every one carrying his dish to drink it in, when thirst came upon him. They took no refection nor repast, without doing of some exercise before, which was principally hunting: Their children went to school to learn justice; as they do in other Countries to learn Letters. All their habit or raiment was of skins; aswell for their legs as for the rest of the body.  
HERODOTUS bringeth in ARTEMBARES speaking thus to the Persians; Seeing that jupiter hath given you the Monarchy, and to thee CYRUS, power to destroy Astyages; go yet further: for the land which we hold is little, hard, and barren; and we must go from it, to win a better elsewhere. There are many near about us, and many farther removed from us▪ of the which, if we once possess but one; we shall be admirable to many others. And surely men that rule, aught to think on these things: for when shall we have better occasion, then when we are Lords over many men, and over all Asia? CYRUS hearing these words, commanded they should be put in execution: but in commanding, warned them also to prepare themselves not to rule; but to be overruled: for it is so, that soft Countries make soft people; because it is not proper to one land, to bear both delectable fruits, and valiant warriors: Then the Persians repent them, choosing rather to rule dwelling in an unfruitful land, then to serve others, sowing and labouring of the fair fields. The same CYRUS in Xenophon, showeth his people, that watching, and travailing, enduring of labour, and using of diligence, had enriched them: Wherefore saith he, it behoveth also that hereafter you be virtuous; holding for certain, that great goods, and great contentments will come unto you, by obedience, constancy, virtue, pains-taking, and hardiness in virtuous, and perilous enterprises. CYRUS then is he, which first put the Persians in reputation, making them Lords over the Medes; whose vassals and tributaries, they were before.  
But as in all the great effects of nature, and notable mutations of mankind, God raiseth up ordinarily great, and excellent Princes, adorned with rare virtues, lifted up in great authority, to found Kingdoms, and empires; to bring in good laws, and manners of living in Religion, and politic government; and to further the arts and sciences: whose birth and death are foretold long time before, by oracles, prophecies, and signs in Heaven and earth: and after their death, reverenced with divine honours. So GOD meaning then to establish in Asia a most mighty Monarchy, and to bring Philosophy into the world, at the same time; he raised up CYRUS, as praiseworthy a Prince, as any other hath been either afore, or after him. It is he alone amongst all the great Lords and Captains, of whom histories do make mention, that could observe modesty in all his prosperities, and victories; and bridle his absolute power and authority, with equity and clemency. But from whence may we have a more certain testimony of his excellency, then from the Prophet Esay, where he was named two hundred years before he was borne; and is called of GOD his king, promising to hold his right hand, that he might take strong Towns, and subdue mighty Nations, and humble the great Kings of the earth. And he chose him amongst all the Princes of the Gentiles, to re-edify the Temple of jerusalem, and deliver the jews from the Captivity of Babylon, in the which they had long remained; restoring them to their full liberty, and use of the true Religion.  
The words of Esay are these. The Lord saith thus to CYRUS his anointed: I have taken the right hand, that I may subdue the Nations before his face, and that I may weaken the rains of Kings, that the doors may be opened before him, and that the gates be not shut. I will go before him, and make the crooked ways strait. I will break the gates of brass, and will bruise the bars of iron, and will give the treasures laid up, and the things hid in secret places: that thou mayst know that I am thy Lord the God of Israel, calling thee by thy name, for my servant jacobs' sake, and for Israel my chosen. I have named thee by thy name, though thou never knowest me. But though fortune were very contrary to him at the beginning; yet did GOD never forsake him: but following the prophecy, delivered him from many dangers, and inconveniences. ASTYAGES king of the Medes had a daughter called Mandana, of whom he dreamt in his sleep, and it seemed unto him that he saw her make water in such abundance, that she filled all the City of Ecbatane, and from thence watered and overflowed all Asia: He proposed this vision to some of his Mages, expounders of dreams, and was afraid with that which he learned of them: Wherefore, when Mandana was of years to be married, he would not give her to any Median Lord, but gave her to a Persian, whom he found of a good house, and of sweet and peaceable manners; though he esteemed him less than a Median of mean estate. Mandana being married to this Persian, called Cambyses, the first year of their marriage Astyages had an other vision, and dreamt that he saw a Vine coming out of the womb of his daughter, and spreading over all Asia: which he proposed to the deviners, as before, and hearing them, sent into Persia for his daughter, being already with child; who being come, he commanded she should be carefully kept, purposing to put her child to death: because the Mages had told him, that the son of his daughter should one day reign in his place. Wherefore, as soon as she brought forth a child (who was called CYRUS) he appointed Harpagus his greatest favourite, and trustiest servant, to put him to death; who gave him to a Shepherd, to be exposed for a pray to wild beasts: which the shepherd did, and left him in the midst of a forest, wrapped in a blanket of cloth of gold, and a mantle of divers colours: whither returning afterward, he found a bitch by the child, which gave him suck, and defended him from the beasts. Wherefore, being moved with the same pity which moved the bitch, he brought the cradle into his Cabin, and nourished the child as his own, till he was ten years of age; when he was chosen king amongst the children: In which charge, bearing himself more bravelier than the estate of a shepherds son yielded, in appointing to every one their offices, and estates; some to build him houses, and castles; others to be of his guard; one to be as the eye of the king; another ordained to make report unto him of the government of his affairs; and chastising roughly such as disobeyed him; he became known, and was brought back again to Astyages: who brought him up, thinking his dream to be accomplished in this childish royalty.  
But being waxed greater, he became most warlike; and having at the beginning of his conquests but thirty thousand fight men; afterwards as he increased in Lordships, he augmented his forces, and gathered together six hundred thousand footmen, six score thousand horsemen, and above two thousand chariots, armed with hooks: His Empire being the greatest and the fairest that ever king had in Asia: bounded towards the East with the red sea, towards the North with the sea Euxinus; on the West with Cypress and Egypt; and on the south with Ethiopia. He conquered first the Country of the Medes, and the Hyrcanians, which yielded themselves unto him of their own free will; then subdued by force the Assyrians, the Arabians, and Capadocians, the inhabitants of th'one, and tother Phrygia; the Lydians, Carians, Phoenicians, and Babylonians: He overcame the Bactrians, Indians, and Cilicians: Moreover also the Saques, Paphlagonians, Magadides, and many other Nations. Likewise he made himself Lord of the Greeks dwelling in Asia; and passing the sea, he vanquished the Cyprians, and Egyptians. He besieged and took Babylon, which, it was incredible that it might either be built by man's workmanship, or destroyed by human power: And nevertheless, he assailed it as an enemy, spoilt it as vanquishour, and disposed of it as Lord. He brought under his obedience so many Nations, which were not of his language, nor understood not one an other: and stretched his dominion over so many Regions, by the fear of his name: In such sort, that he astonished all the world, and none durst resist him. This notwithstanding, he made himself so much beloved, that they desired never to have any other Lord; and they reverenced him as a father, governing so great an Empire, and of such largeness, by a marvelous order which he set down when he was in peace: Providing for his residence, counsel, audiences, his guards, the estate of his house, the service, exercise, and health of his person; the train and followers of his Court; division of his provinces, and governments of garrisons in fortresses, and frontiers; his revenue, justice, and soldiery: Showing himself religious, venerable, magnificent, liberal, and worthy to be imitated in all actions, by the Princes that followed after him. It is said that Alexander, having found the sepulchre of Cyrus uncovered and defaced; caused him to be put to death which had done it: And having read the inscription, which was in Persian letters, and words; he willed hit also to be written in Greek underneath; and the substance of the inscription being this: O Man whatsoever thou art, and whence soever thou comest, (for I am assured that thou wilt come,) I am Cyrus, he which conquered the Empire for the Persians, and I pray thee, do not envy me this little earth, which covereth my poor body. These words moved greatly the heart of Alexander to compassion, when he considered the unstability of things.  
XENOPHON understanding Cyrus to have been a Prince so admirable in his deeds, and excellent in government of men, he chose him to express in his person the image of a just and moderate reign, writing of his institution: which is one of the best books that is to be read in Greek. Plato acknowledging him for a worthy and valiant Prince, said that he failed greatly in bringing up of his children: for beginning from his youth to make war, and being busied all his life therein, he never thought on the government of his house; but left his two sons, CAMBYSES and SMERDES to the Ladies of the Court, and to the eunuchs to bring up: who brought them up as children that were borne happy, not suffering any to gainsay them in any sort; and constraining all to praise whatsoever they did or said. As Cyrus then was a Master of a great multitude of men and beasts, and of many other things, he did not consider that they to whom he was to leave so many good things, were not brought up in the ancient Persian discipline, but in the corrupt discipline of the Medes: which was the cause of making them such, as commonly they are, which are brought up with so much liberty. Succeeding their father then after his decease, first th'one slew the other, not being able to endure an equal, and then like a mad man through drunkenness and ignorance he lost his estate, by reason of the contempt which men had of his folly.  
Then DARIUS the first of that name, came to the Empire, who was no kings son, nor brought up in Courtly delights: who governed himself by the Laws, bringing in a common equality, and making friendship amongst them all, whom he won with good deeds: So being beloved of his subjects, he conquered no fewer Countries than Cyrus had left him; ordaining through out all the Countries, lands, and Lordships, under his obedience, twenty governments, called in the Persian language Satrapies; and taxing the annual tributes, which every of them ought to pay in silver, after the weight of the Babylonian talon; or in gold, according to the Euboick: for during the reign of Cyrus, and his son Cambyses, there was no tribute imposed; but the Countries brought certain presents, and gave certain gratuites and gifts to the king: by reason of which imposition, the Persians said, that DARIUS was a Merchant, CAMBYSES a Lord, and CYRUS a father: because that Darius was too good a husband, & drew profit out of every thing▪ Cambyses proud and cruel; but Cyrus' soft, kind, gentle, and gracious: having procured all good things unto the Persians.  
The first satrapy comprehended the jovians, the Magnetians which are in Asia, the Eolians, Car●ans, Lycians, melians, and Pamphylians: all which made but a tribute of forty talents of silver. The second was of the Mysians, Lydians, Alysonians, Cabalians, and Higennians, which paid fifty talents of silver. The third of the Hellespontins, Phrygians, Paphlagonians, Mariandines, and Syrians, taxed at Ccclx talents. The fourth of the Cilicians, which were bound to furnish every year Ccclx white horses: which was for every day in the year a several horse: paying moreover five hundred talents, whereof a hundred and forty were appointed for the finding of the said horses; and the other three hundred & three score went into the king's coffers. The fifth began at the City of Possidea, situated in the mountains of Cilicia, and Syria, and stretched out unto Egypt, except Arabia which was exempted: This parcel of land wherein were comprehended Phenicia, Palestina, and the Isle of Cypress, yielded CCCL. talents. The sixth consisted in all Egypt, and the bordering Africans, with Cyrene, and Barce, which contributed with them: so that the annual revenue was of seven hundred Talents; besides the fishing of the pool Meris; and without reckoning of the Wheat which was provided for six score thousand Persians, and their auxiliaries keeping garrison within the white walls of Memphis. The seventh was of the Sattagidians, Gaudarians, Dadiques, & Aparites, which was Clxx. talents. The eight contained the town of Sources; and an other portion of the Cysses, yielding CCC. The ninth consisted in the City of Babylon, and the rest of Assyria, finding a thousand talents of silver, & five hundred gelded boys. Of the tenth ordained for Ecbatane, & the rest of Media, with the xj. consisting of the Paricanians & Orthocorimbantes, were received CCCCL. talents. The twelfth reached from the Bactrians to the Eagles, and was charged with Ccclx talents, The thirteenth began at Pactica with the Armenians, and other bordering lands; and was bounded with the greater sea, being taxed at CCCC. talents. The fourteenth consisted in the Sagarties, Sarangres, Thamanee, Thiries, Meces, and in the people of the Islands of the red sea: the tribute amounting unto six hundred talents. In the fifteenth were the Saces and Caspians, which yielded CCL. In the sixteenth the Parthians, Chorasmians, Sogdians, & Arians: taxed at CCC. In the seventeenth the Paricanians, & the Ethiopians of Asia CCCC. In the eighteenth the Manineans, Sarpites, & Atlarodians CC. In the nineteen. the Mosches, Tibarenes, Macrosians, Mosinicians, & Mardians CCC. In the xx. were the Indians; which because they were a very great multitude, paid more tribute than all the other nations: namely, Ccclx talents of gold. All these sums which were paid in the Babylonian talon of silver, being referred to the Euboick talon, came to nine thousand, five hundred, and forty talents: And the gold of the mine being multiplied by thirteen; to four thousand, six hundred, and four score Euboick talents: and was levied on Asia, and some part of afric. Then he raised an other tribute on the Isles, and Nations of Europe; having stretched out his dominion as far as Thessaly. Persia was freed from all payments; and the Ethiopians sent only certain presents: as from three years to three, a bushel of gold from the mine, two hundred faggots of Ebony, five hundred black boys, and xxij. Elephants, the greatest that could be found. The Cholchois and Caucasians, from five years to five, one hundred young boys, and as many girls. The Arabians, every year a present of incense, weighing a thousand talents. The means which he used to keep his Treasures, was thus: He caused the gold and silver to be melted, and cast into earthen barrels; then when the vessel was full, he made it be removed up and down with his Court: and whensoever he wanted money, he broke, or cut out thereof as much as he would. Touching his husbandry, and care for the entertaining of such power, and riches: first this king was most careful of Arms, ordaining himself in each government, both the victuals, and pays, which were to be distributed to his soldiers, aswell strangers, as his natural subjects, throughout his garrisons: and seeing the musters in person. Where such as were found to have fulfilled the appointed number of their men; and had best mounted, and furnished them with arms, were advanced in honours, and enriched with great gifts: On the contrary, he chastised such as failed, or were given to picory; putting others in their charges: Moreover, he visited himself (as much as he might) the Countries under his obedience, endeavouring to understand their estate, and those which he could not see, he caused to be visited by some trusty persons, sent for that purpose. Where he found the Countries well peopled, and the lands diligently husbanded, full of corn, trees, and fruits; he rewarded the Princes, or Governors, with great gifts, and augmented their charges: But those whose countries were found desert, or evil inhabited, by reason of their rudeness, insolency, or negligence; he punished or discharged them: being no less careful to have his Countries, well ordered by the inhabitants, then to have them kept in safety by the garrisons; and caring no less for his revenues then his arms; and proposing as great a reward to the diligent labourers, as to the valiant warriors.  
We read, that then when the king of Persia was in his greatest glory, and reputation, that his Majesty was highly exalted, and magnificently adorned with august and venerable authority; that his royal seat being established at SUSA or ECBATANA, he retired himself out of the sight of men into his palace, being very fair and richly decked, with gold, silver, ivory, and other exquisite things: In the which were many galleries and halls, one within an other, many doors compassed between them, and separated by spaces, and the come to them shut and closed with gates of brass: That there were many Princes and Lords appointed in their several places, and some guarding, and serving his person, some looking to those that came in and out at the gates, some receivers, and treasurers; others Captains, and men of war: some hunters and falconers; and others ordained unto other offices, as ●se and necessity required. Moreover the satraps or Princes went and came to and fro, governing the whole Empire of Asia, beginning in the West at Hellespont, and ending in India toward the East. Herodotus showeth by journeys and lodgings, that from Sardes in Lydia, to Susa in Mennonia, which was the kings seat, it was three Months journey. It is written also in the book of Hester, that ASSVERUS king of Persia reigned, even from the Indies unto Ethiopia, over an hundred twenty and seven provinces, writing to every province according to the Style thereof, and to every people in their own language. In the mean time the king termed by them, their Lord and God, saw and understood all things, by means of posts ordained in all the Countries under his obedience; and spies dispersed here, and there, and secret Intellegencers: so that being so many Officers, they did every one in his charge endeavour himself in such sort, that their Lord knew incontinently whatsoever new thing happened, even from the frontiers of his government to the place of his residence: which was in the midst of his kingdom, dwelling the winter in Babylon, because the air there is very mild and temperate; the three months of the Spring-time, in the Town of Susa; and the two months of great heat in the City of Ecbatana: In such sort, that by this changing of Countries, what season of the year so ever it were, he was always in a time like unto the spring. He was warned every morning when he waked, to fear God, and to see to those affairs which God hath committed to his charge.  
The entertainment of the Queen was correspondent to this greatness, and magnificence: for many provinces were allotted her for the furnishing thereof, which were called diversly, according to the use whereunto they were appointed: As one was the Queen's girdle; an other her vail: and so likewise the rest, according to those ornaments which they furnished. As soon as his first son, which was to succeed in the Crown was borne, all his subjects celebrated this day; and afterwards every year through out Asia, they solemnized the feast of his nativity. Then the child was given to be nourished to the eunuchs, which held very honourable places in the Court; and their principal charge amongst others was, to make him fair, and well proportioned, by composing and ordering his parts conveniently. Then when he was come to seven years, he learned to ride, and began to go on hunting. At the fourteenth year of his age, he was instructed by Masters called the royal Paedagogues or Tutors, which were four chosen amongst all the Persians, the chiefest of age and sufficiency, that is, the most wise, just, temperate, and valiant: The first taught him the Magic of ZOROASTER, consisting in the service of the Gods, and kingly manners. The second warned him to be all his life true, and veritable. The third, that he should not be supplanted by any cupidity or desire. The fourth, was to make him without fear, to the end he should not be subject to cowardice and pusillanimity.  
But howbeit these things were well, and religiously instituted; yet were they ill observed. For after Darius his son XERXES coming to range, which had been brought up in the same Kingly delicacies as Cambyses, he likewise fell into the like inconveniences. For possessing together whatsoever Cyrus and Darius his father had gotten, and seeing himself exceeding rich and mighty, he purposed to conquer Greece, and came thither with an inestimable army, having by Sea five hundred and seventeen thousand, six hundred men; by land a million and seven hundred thousand foot, and fourscore thousand horsemen, with twenty thousand Arabians and Africans; unto whom there joined of Europe three hundred thousand; the whole multitude coming to two million, six hundred & seventeen thousand fight men: the greatest that ever was in field after those of Ninus and Semiramis: at the least, of which we have knowledge by histories. Insomuch that we need not to marvel, at that which is said, that running rivers were dried up by the infinite number which drank of them, and that there were so many sails that one could not see the Sea, by reason of them. But therein the riches of Xerxes was more to be admired, than his conduct to be commended; because he was always seen to be the first in flying, and the last in coming to fight: being fearful in dangers, courageous and stout in security, and before he came to the hazard of the wars. Trusting in his forces, as if he had been Lord over nature, he leveled mountains with the plains, filled and raised up valleys, passed over arms of the Sea on bridges which he caused to be made, and turned the course of others by new channels to sail at his pleasure. But by how much more his coming into Greece was terrible; his departure thence, was so much the more dishonourable: For being astonied by the discomfitures of his people, both by Sea and land, he went back into Asia, even almost alone, in a fisherboate. Which retreat deserveth well to be considered with admiration, for knowledge of the truth of men's deeds: to see him hidden in a little Schiffe, whom, but a little before the whole Sea could not suffice; and to see him destitute of servants, whose army all Greece could scarce entertain. In this manner Xerxes who had been the terror of the world began to be despised of his own people: after he had been so unhappy in the expedition of Greece. In so much that Artabanus an Hyrcanian a man of great credit with him, and Captain of his Guard slew him, and Darius his eldest son after him; hoping to make himself King: but setting upon Artaxerxes the second son, and having given him a stroke with his sword, ARTAXERXES feeling himself wounded, but not to death, est 'zounds took his sword in hand for his defence, and stroke Artabanus such a blow that he fell dead to the ground. So ARTAXERXES being almost miraculously saved, and having also therewith avenged the death of his father succeeded him in the kingdom, and Empire of Persia, where there hath not been since any king that hath been great in deed as Plato saith: nor of any reckoning or renown. For taking away from the people to much of their liberty: & introducing a more absolute authority of ruling over them, than was convenient, they lost the amity and communion of the state. Which things being lost, the Princes looked no longer to the profit of the subjects, or of the people: but for the conservation of their authority, whatsoever little profit was offered them, they razed the towns, and consumed with fire the nations that were their friends: and hating spitefully, and without mercy; they were hated in like manner. And when it was needful that their people should fight for them, they found them not of accord, to hazard themselves willingly, and to fight: but ruling over almost innumerable men, they made them unfit for war; and as having need of men, they hired others; thinking to preserve themselves, and their state by mercenary and strange Soldiers: who likewise forgot themselves, showing by their deeds that they preferred riches before virtue. The tyrannies which they used towards their subjects for their pretended conservation are recited by Aristotle in his Politics, but not approved: as to abase and pull down the highest, and to take away the most courageous, not to permit their banquets, assemblies, disciplines, nor any such thing: but to take heed to whatsoever is wont to engender these two; highness of mind, and confidence: to forbid them Schools, and all other companies and meetings; and to provide in any case that they came not acquainted one with another: considering that knowledge and acquaintance maketh men to have more affiance one in another. That all the archers of the Guard being strangers, should show themselves in the streets, and walk before the doors of houses; whereby that which the subjects imagined or practised, should not be kept secret: and they would come to have less courage by being continually kept under. Moreover to endeavour to discover what they said and did, and to have spies, listeners, and referendaries, dispersed through out the Countries, and wheresoever there were any assemblies: for they become less hardy by fearing such manner of people, and if they should wax hardy, they be yet less secret. Also that they should accuse and slander one an other, and friends fall to debate with friends, the common people with the Nobles, and the rich amongst themselves. And to impoverish the subjects, serveth that they be not constrained to keep a guard; and that being every day busied, they may have no leisure to conspire; and that being urged with some war they may always have need of their king; as their head and Chieftain. Not to suffer about him grave persons, and free of speech; because that such diminish the excellency, and authority of the Lord: which would only seem to be such a one himself. All which means, and such other like, being drawn out of the government of the Persians; are tyrannical, and most pernicious; gathered by Aristotle, not to the end to teach them unto others; but rather to beware of them by knowing the misery of tyrants which are constrained to fly to such evils, thereby to assure their parsons, and estates: which when they think by these means to be surest and safest, are then soonest overthrown at unawares through the hate which their tyrannies have engendered.  
By which rough and hard usage the Persians being degenerated, suffered themselves to be overcome in many parts of Asia, bordering on the Sea; and having passed into Europe, they were beaten back; some of them perishing miserably, and others flying shamefully; as they were worthy, and had well deserved. For it is impossible (saith Isocrates in his Panegyric speaking of them) to find in people so brought up, and governed, any virtue or prows to triumph over their enemies. How should there be amongst such manners, either valiant Captain, or good Soldier; the greatest part of them being but a confused multitude, and not accustomed to perils; being too soft for war, and fit to make slaves and drudges then our own servants? The most honourable amongst them never lived equally, familiarly, or civilly, but continue all their life to do outrage unto some and service unto others; as people of depraved natures. By their abundance of riches, they deck their bodies magnificently, having their minds base and vile, by their Monarchy: And being resident in Court, they learn to humble themselves, and to have a cowardly heart, worshipping a mortal man, and calling him God; and making less account of Gods then of men. Those also which inhabit towards the Sea who are called satraps, do not dishonour the Persian discipline, but persever in the same manners, behaving themselves disloyally towards their friends, and cowardly towards their enemies; and humbling themselves on one side, and swelling on the other, they despise their allies; and honour their adversaries.  
XENOPHON comparing the reign of Cyrus, and of his successors, and rendering a reason of the change of manners which happened in that nation; saith that before time; not only the king, but all private men also were wont to keep faithfully, and constantly their promise, made either by oath, or by touching of hands, yea even to those which had done some offence worthy of death: but this faithfulness was afterward lost. For before, if any one had hazarded himself in perils for the King, had subdued some nation, taken a Town, or done any virtuous exploit, the King raised him unto honour: but since; traitors, and such as to creep into favour kept neither promise nor faith; were most reckoned of in Court. After whose example all the inhabitants of Asia, have run into all injustice, and impiety. Also afterward they became more licentious in ill doing, and more covetous, and so consequently more wicked. For they ransomed and constrained to pay money, not only such as were culpable of crimes, and guilty of great misdeeds; but also those which had not done any injust or dishonest act: wherehence it came to pass that not only malefactors, but all those of the richer sort were in continual fear, and would not yield themselves to the most mighty; and durst not approach or trust to the king; neither be of his bands of ordinance; neither go to war under him. By means whereof it was more than lawful for those which made war on them, to forage and spoil their Country without fight; and to the people to revolt without fear of punishment: as well for their impiety toward the Gods; as for their injustice towards men. Moreover they became more faint of courage, and untoward of mind and disposition, not using any discipline either of body or mind: having lost and left off that manner of exercising themselves which was commanded them; and all rules of good life. For before there was a law amongst them, that they should not spit nor blow their noses; which was not ordained to make them retain the humours within their bodies; but to th'end that by exercise all those humours should be consumed, and they have their bodies stronger, and livelier: now the custom not to spit, nor blow their noses, remained still; but to take pains at any labour or exercise, there was no such matter. They had also an other Law to eat but once a day, to th'end to have the rest of the time free to bestow on their business; and it is true that they did eat but once a day; but they began it early in the morning, and so continued eating and drinking till night when they go to bed. Before, they drank no wine, and abhorred all drunkenness; but sithence, they gave themselves to wine; and thought it no shame to be drunk. They were wont to go so oft on hunting, that it sufficed to keep them in breath, and their horses also: but they left off that, as they did other good things. Moreover the order for their children to frequent the Court remained; but the discipline of riding horses, and vaulting was altogether lost. And whereas in times past the children learned justice, by seeing causes judged according to right and reason; that was altogether abolished: because that none overcame in judgement, but those which gave most money. They used before in their living, the discipline, and continence of the the Persians; and did only wear the magnificent habit of the Medes: but they afterwards suffered the Persian constancy to be extinguished; and observed curiously the delicacy of the Medes. It sufficed them not to have their beds made very soft; but their feet also trodden upon tapestry: lest their going on the pavement should make any noise: The service of the Table, and things invented for magnificence, were augmented from day to day with new licourousnes, and delicacies. In the winter it was not enough for them to have their head, body, and feet covered; but they used to wear double gloves: In Summer the shadows of the trees could not content them, but they had men about them, which invented other kinds of shades to cool them, after a strange fashion. Their ancient custom was to be always on horseback, and never on foot; to th'end to make them good men at arms: but now they had more clothes and coverings on their horses, then on their beds; and cared not so much for matter of arms and horsemanship, as to be sat at their ease. How should they not then become more effeminate, and faint in matters of war, than they were before? For than it was the custom of the Country, for those which held lands to furnish men at arms, and to send them forth to service; likewise to give good pay to garrisons, whensoever there was occasion for defence of their country: but since that time porters, cooks, bakers, cupbearers, tasters, waiters on the baths, servants of the table, riders, horsekeepers, such as carry and recarry meat, grooms of the Chamber for their downlying and their uprising, barbers, and trimmers, persumers, and painters, and others of such like occupations, were they which the rich men sent in steed of men of arms to the war, to th'end that they should bring them their pay. Even those which seemed the best, showed themselves cowards, knowing the evil recompense which they were to look for. And finding in themselves their own cowardice, they went about no expedition without the Greeks, whether it were to make war in their Country, or that the Greeks' assailed them; thinking that they could not overcome without their help: and that which is more, they holp themselves, with the Greeks themselves, to make war against the Greeks'.  
They were indeed a great multitude, but unprofitable in fight; as it was clearly known by the valiancy and hardiness of the Macedonian ALEXANDER, who with xl. or l. thousand fight men at the most, overcame three times DARIUS the last King of the Persians, who led four or five hundred thousand, and brought him into such extremity, that thinking to reunite himself in the third overthrow, he was traitorously taken by BESSUS governor of Bactria, which had the principal charge under him, who put him in a golden cage, and cast him on a chariot, meaning to carry him to Bactria; then seeing that Alexander approached, caused him to be killed with darts and javelins; and left him dead in the midst of the way. Such was the end of a king so mighty in people, in possessions and revenues; who called himself Lord of all the world from the East unto the West: having reigned only six years in all delicacies, exceeding the common magnificence of Princes. Which luxurious manner of living was cause of his utter overthrow: as human things being variable have their fatal inclination, so ordained by the divine providence to fall then, when they are mounted highest; and that the Lords think themselves to be most assured, sleeping therefore in carelessness and overweening conceits. For he suffered himself to slide so far into deliciousness, and superfluous riches, that he slept always in a chamber between two great chambers, most richly furnished: in such sort that the King's bed being sumptuously spread in his chamber, and covered with a vine of gold, in manner of a grate or lettuce, enriched with precious stones gathered together in manner of hanging clusters of grapes; the bed's head was placed towards the wall of one of the great chambers, in which there was five thousand talents of gold; and this great room was called the king's beds head: whereunto right opposite was the wall of the other great chamber, against his bed's foot, in the which there was always three thousand talents of silver; and was called the king's beds foot: which sums are esteemed after our manner to be worth thirty millions of Crowns. Going to war he carried with him in his host, for his pastime, and delight cccxxxix. women, as Concubines, singers, dancers, and such as were skilful in all kind of Music▪ xluj. workmen to set flowers in order, and to make garlands, nosegays, chapelets, and other sweet smelling things; cclxxvij. cooks, xxix. potters, making every day vessels of earth to serve the kitchen; xiii. bakers of tarts and such other lickerous, and delicate bakemeats: Cellerers, cupbearers, brewers, and minglers of wines, makers of spiced cups, and of all artificial liquors, and drinks; xvij. of th'one sort, and lxx. of the other. Perfumers and makers of sweet smelling savours, and odours, both wet and dry; xl. If then the king of Persia used so much delicacy being in war, and nourished himself with so many delights in the field; what did he when he remained in peace at Persepoli, or in Babylon a city abounding in all superfluities, and in all vices that proceed of great plenty? Yet notwithstanding in the flower of his fortune, he being drunken with prosperity and abundance of goods, was spoiled of his riches, which had been heaped together by many kings his predecessors; losing his life, and his kingdom; which was climbed to the top of the worldy power and felicity: where ariseth the spring of pride, arrogancy, overweening, and extreme insolency. And there is the slippery path whereon standeth the envy of fortune, and where sovereign felicity falleth headlong into great calamity.  
By this so magnificent victory over him, ALEXANDER brought under his obedience almost all the countries of the East: and transported the Monarchy out of Asia into Europe. So the Macedonians took away the Empire of the East from the Persians; and the Parthians from the Macedonians by the conduct of Arsaces' a Captain of an uncertain birth, but of a most approved virtue; and no less memorable amongst them, than Cyrus among the Persians: and Alexander among the Macedonians: by whose name they called the succeeding Kings, because of the reverence which they bore unto him. They became so mighty that for a time they ruled over all Asia, possessing not only the unmeasurable plains, but also the abrupt dounfals of the mountains; and placing the bounds of their Empire, where either the heat or the cold stayed them with snows, or immoderate, and burning heats. They possessed eighteen kingdoms, dividing in this manner their provinces, as having respect to the two Seas, that is the red Sea towards the South, and the Caspian toward the North: where of eleven which were called the superior or higher, began at the confines of Armenia, and at the banks of the Caspian Sea, extending even to the Scythians: Tother seven were termed the inferior or lower. They seemed to divide the world with the Romans', th'one ruling in the East; and tother the West. Their dominion from ARSACES to ARTABANUS, endured cccc. years, which was brought back again into Persia by ARTAXERXES, and after cccxviij. years, was taken again from the Persians by the Arabians or Saracens. Amongst whom the Caliph's residing at Bagdet, reigned in the East ccccxviij. years; after them the first TURKS from the year of Christ M.L.I. until M.cc.xj: when the Tartarians came out of their country, who in a little time seized on the greatest part of the north; the East, & the south: of whom came the invincible TAMBERLAN, who made the whole habitable earth afraid. And since (they being retired) the Persians, who are reputed the civilest people of the East; being ingenious, & valiant: and there are amongst them excellent Philosophers, Physicians, Astrologers; & very good Artisans in all mysteries & occupations. Their king is called SOPHI, which is as much to say as wise, and the Interpreter of God: because that ISHMAEL, the first that was so named, under the colour of expositions, & new ceremonies brought in by him into the religion of Mahomet, got no long time since, a great Empire in the East, having driven away the race of Vsun-Cassanus king of Persia, to whom he was allied by his mother's side; and made many Princes, and Lords of the East his vassals or tributaries. The chief provinces under his obedience were Armenia the great, Persia, Media, & Assyria: with iiij. capital or head Cities, Tauris▪ in Armenia, Samach in Persia, Scyras in Media, & Bagdet which was sometimes Babylon in Assyria. There are gentlemen amongst them after the manner of Italy, France, & Spain, which use barded horses in the wars: unto which they go welarmed, bearing great lances and good cymeters; being also very good archers. The Sophi is opposite on the one side to the Ottoman, & to the Zagathain on tother. Thus have the kingdoms of Asia & of the East varied.  
But before we go out of this quarter, we must speak of the MAGES, which were far different from other nations in their religion, & wisdom. They had no temples, Images, nor altars; neither was it permitted by their law to make any; esteeming them fools which had them; & accounting it impiety to enclose the Gods within walls, which ought to have all open & free; & whose temple and house was the whole world. For this cause they persuaded Xerxes' warring in Greece to burn all the Temples, which he should find there. And when they would sacrifice, they went up into high mountains; where it was not lawful for him that sacrificed to pray only for himself; but he must also pray for the prosperity of the king, and generally of all the Persians: being himself by this means comprised in the prayer. Every one of them when they would sacrifice, brought his offering into a place that was not contaminated; then having his attire on his head made for the most part of myrtle, he called on that God to whom he sacrificed. They would neither, piss, spit, nor void their noses into the rivers, but reverenced them above all things. They suffered their dead bodies to be bitten, & prayed on by dogs, and birds, before they would bury them; others anointed them over with wax, & then put them into the earth. They and the Egyptians did not burn them, because the Persians said it was not fit that a God should feed on a dead man; & the Egyptians thought the fire to be a living creature, eating, & consuming whatsoever he seized on; & dying with his meat when he was full: & in their Law it was not permitted to cast the dead bodies to birds and beasts to devour them, or to any living Creatures: and therefore they embalmed them with salt, that they should not be eaten of worms. The Egyptians would never kill any thing that had life: The Mages killed with their hands every living creature, saving man: whom also the DRVIDES of Gaul did not spare to kill, and sacrifice; divining by soothsayings as the MAGES, whom they resembled in many things: showing themselves so ceremonious in observing of Magic, that they seemed to have taught it to the Persians; and not to have learned it of them, as Pliny saith. These Mages gave out that the Gods appeared unto them, and foretold them of things to come; affirming that the air was full of spirits, which did subtly insinuate themselves into men's eyes: that there were two princes; namely one good God which they called Herosmades: and the other evil whom they termed Arinan. They clothed themselves with white garments, lived of herbs, cheese, and course bread, slept on the ground, carried canes or reads, in steed of staves: They assembled in a holy place to communicate, and talk together. Their authority was so great that Cambyses when he went out of Persia left the government of his house to one of them, who in the absence of the king conspired with a brother of his against him, and went about to make himself king. Their Magic consisted wholly in the religion and service of the Gods; To whom they offered prayers, vows and sacrifices, as if they only were exalted; believing the resurrection of men, and that they should be immortal: Aristotle witnesseth that they were ancienter than the PROPHETS of Egypt; & Clearehus affirmeth that the BRACHMANES, or GYMNOSOPHISTS of India came from them. ZOROASTER without doubt was the first inventor, whom somethinke by the etymology of his name, to have been an observer of the stars; and to have understood natural things. Plato in his first Alcibiades, saith that the Magic of ZOROASTER is a knowledge of divine mysteries, which was wont to be taught unto the children of the kings of Persia; to th'end they might learn by example of the whole world's common wealth, to govern their own. And in his Charmides, he saith that the Magic of ZAMOLSIS was the physic of the mind causing it to use temperance; as the other is cause of bodily health. Pythagoras, Empedocles, Democritus, and the same Plato, sailed and went far to learn it; and having learned it, did celebrate it at their return, and kept it secret: and many other virtuous amongst the ancients have travailed carefully therein; getting great authority, and reputation thereby. For observing by it, the marvels hidden in the secrets of the world, in the bosom of Nature, and mysteries of God, they have discovered the concord's of the world, and agreement of the heaven with the earth; accommodating the superior things to the inferior, after they had once known their virtues how they agree in doing and suffering; which the Greeks' call Sympathies, and Antipathies: which hath moved Plotinus to call such MAGES making profession of natural MAGIC, the ministers of Nature. It is at this day much used in CHINA and CATHAY which are Countries inhabited by most ingenious and industrious people; where they are not permitted to come to Offices, and Honours in the Common wealth without being learned, namely in this MAGIC: which signifieth to speak simply according to the ancient Persian language, perfect, and sovereign wisdom, and MAGUS an expounder, and observer of the divinity. Since that, men have abusively transferred this name to enchanters, who do wickedly abuse the simple; making them believe that they know the secret and future things, by strange words, by signs, and characters, by devilish deceits and impostures, and other superstitious observations of Necromantie, Geomantie, Hydromantie, Aeromantie, Pyromantie, & such other of long time reproved both by divine, and human laws. wherehence may be understood that there are two sorts of MAGIC, th'one natural, & tother superstitious. The natural in contemplating the virtues of celestial, and terrestial things, & considering the convenances & contrarieties, discovereth the powers which are hidden in nature; & mingling th'one with tother in due proportion, & under certain constellation, and applying the active to the passive, draweth them one to another by the similitude of nature. So the elements do draw th'one the other; so the loadstone draweth the iron to it; amber the chaff; and brimstone fire; the sun many flowers, & leaves; the Moon waters; & Mars the winds; many herbs draw unto them many living creatures, and have marvelous secret properties, by the which this Magic naturally worketh great miracles. The other superstitious Magic is by invocation of evil spirits; which is a manifest Idolatry; and hath always been forbidden by well ordered common weals. Such were the MAGICIANS of PHARAOH which counterfeited devilishly whatsoever MOSES & ARON divinely had wrought, till such time as the rod of MOSES turned into a serpent did eat up theirs which they had turned also into serpents. Such was SIMON MAGUS, and such the Pythoness was that called up the soul of Samuel the prophet, such also was Circe, & such a one was Medea. Plutarch writeth that the spirit of Antony being bound by magical verses, and love drenches; that his liberty being lost he was fixed in the face of Cleopatra. The Euthydemus of Plato compareth Oratory, and Magic or Enchauntery together, and saith that as Oratory is a delighting and appeasing of the judges, and assemblies of men, so that Enchanting is an assuaging of vipers, spiders, scorpions, & other venomous, and cruel beasts; as also of diseases. The vanity of this superstitious Magic appeared especially in the Emperor Nero, who gave himself to it as much as ever any man did, having neither want of goods, of power, nor of understanding: and desiring nothing more than to command the Gods, and the dead. Notwithstanding after he had called unto him, Tyridates king of Armenia, who excelled in Magic, to learn it of him; and had employed long time, great labour & infinite treasure thereon (not omitting also to do such abominable superstition as was presciibed him) yet in the end he found all false which had been told him, and so gave it over. This notwithstanding it hath been dispersed throughout the world which is so divers in other things; under the colour of fair, but yet vain and frivolous promises, associating itself with religion, Physic, and Mathematics; which three have a marvelous power over the understandings of men: And thus being fortified with a threefold virtue, it could never yet be altogether exterminated, & rooted out; but there remain here and there still some relics, and remainders thereof: but in secret notwithstanding, for fear of the punishment which is appointed for it; and the shame which cometh unto those that abuse themselves therein.   

A COMPARISON OF THE INDIANS, Ethtopians, Egyptians, scythians, and Athenians, in their Antiquities.  
THE Indians, Ethiopians, Egyptians, Scythians, and Athenians, did all boast that they were the first created, of all the men in the world: alleging divers and different reasons of their antiquities. As the INDIANS the fertility of their country bearing twice a year both fruits and grain: where there was never any want of victuals. The ETHIOPIANS allege their nearness of situation to the south; thinking it must needs be that in places which are nearest the sun and therefore hottest, that all living creatures were first created which take their beginning of heat. The EGYPTIANS, the temperature of their air, which is neither excessive hot, or cold; dry, or moist: and the goodness of their territory; which bringeth forth abundantly whatsoever is necessary for the life of man. The SCYTHIANS the height of their country, which was the first freed from fire, or discovered from water: & therefore soonest made apt before any other to produce both man and beast. The ATHENIANS saying they are Aut●cthones (that is to say) issued out of the earth, without having any other beginning. The Indians, Ethiopians, Egyptians, and Athenians, that they have invented all arts, and means of living well, & easily. The Scythians dwelling under a sharper climate, say that they have always exercised arms: as having their bodies and minds more hardened: amongst whom were never found but two persons renowned for learning Zamolsis and Anacharsis.   

A COMPARISON OF THE GREAT monarchies, the Egyptian, Assyrian, Median, Persian, and Parthian, in their situations, beginnings, largeness, revenues, riches, and power: and of those famous monarches that founded them, and others under whom they ended.  
THE Monarchies of the Egyptians, Assyrians, Medians, Persians, & Parthians, agree in this, that they have been established chiefly in the fertile and temperate countries of Asia; where the men are gentle and tractable, or naturally servile; as Hippocrates and Aristotle affirm. For the inhabitants, which are removed from all temperature, will not easily be brought under subjection, and cannot well be governed; not enduring any long or durable government, except it be altogether tyrannical: as is that of the MOSCOVITE in the north; and of the ABYSSINE in Ethiopia; where the great KNES commandeth th'one, and PRESBYTER JOHN the other most rigoronsly; to th'end to keep their subjects in obedience: who are all generally of opinion, that whatsoever their Princes do, they do it by the unchangeable will of God.  
The circuit, and compass of their Monarchies were very great; SESOSTRIS the Egyptian conquered all Arabia, and a great part of Lybia; Ethiopia, with all the Isles of that country; all the sea coasts even to the Indies; passed the river Ganges running hither and thither, even to the great Ocean, and over came all the nations of the Scythians, even to the river Tanais: & coming into Europe, went through the country of Thrace; where he made an end of his enterprise, & returned into Egypt. NINUS brought under his obedience all the nations, which inhabit on the sea-coast toward the East, and their neighbours, as the Egyptians, Phoenicians, those of the inner Syria, Cilicia, Pamphilia, Lycia, Caria, Phrygia, Mysia, Troada, and the other Phrygia which is on Hellespont, the country of Propontida, Bythinia, Cappadocia, and other barbarous nations which inhabit on the greater sea, even to the river Tanais: He added more over to his estate the Cadusians, Tapyres, Hyrcanians, Dranges, Deruices, Caramanians, Coronians, Rombes, Vuocarnians, the Parthians, Persians, Susians, Caspians, and Bactrians. SEMIRAMIS his wife the greatest part of Lybia, and Ethiopia. The limits of the Empire of CYRUS, were on the eastside the red sea; on the North the sea Euxinus; towards the west Cyprus & Egypt; on the south Ethiopia: CAMBYSES his son added Egypt, & Ethiopia. And DARIUS the first of that name subdued no fewer countries then the two former had conquered: & consequently the others which came after, augmented and enriched it from hand to hand; making that kingdom one of the greatest, most mighty, & most renowned that was ever in the world. The PARTHIANS possessed xviij. kingdoms, whereof the xj. which were called the superior, began at the Confines of Armenia, and banks of the Caspian sea, and reached unto the Sythians: the other seven inferior kingdoms, stretched out even to the red sea, dividing their Provinces, as respecting the two seas, the red sea toward the south; & the Caspian on the north. As the spaciousness of these Monarchies, was very large, so the revenue was also great; the riches infinite; and power incredible. SESOSTRIS erected two square pillars of hard stone, each of them thirty sadom high; in which he commanded to be portrayed the greatness of his Empire▪ and the value of his demeine, and revenue engraven: adding thereto the number of the nations which he had over come. He gathered an army of six hundred thousand foot, four and twenty thousand horsemen, eight and twenty thousand chariots fit for war: and four hundred ships on the red sea. The riches, and power of the Assyrian Monarchy, is known by the great and magnificent towns that were built by NINUS, and SEMIRAMIS; and by the wonderful armies which they had: namely NINUS going against the Bactrians, with seventeen hundred thousand foot, two hundred thousand horsemen; ten thousand and six hundred armed chariots. SEMIRAMIS against the Indians with three Millions of foot, five hundred thousand horsemen, one hundred thousand chariots, and two thousand ships: unto which STAUROBATES then King of India, opposed like forces or greater. Moreover the unreasonable riches of Assyria, appeared in the end of Sardanapalus, who would have consumed with himself by fire, a thousand Myriad of gold; that is to say, a thousand million: and a myriad of myriades of silver, which are a hundred million: endeavouring to spoil the earth of so great quantity of gold, and silver; coming to forty Million of Crowns in our money: besides the beds, and tables of gold, precious stones, garments of purple, and other royal movables, and stuff that was there: and besides three thousand talents of Gold, which he had sent before with his children to be safe kept, to the King of the City of Ninivy.  
Concerning the PERSIAN Monarchy, CYRUS who founded it, had infinite wealth, having spoiled all Asia; where he got five hundred thousand talents of silver; which is the greatest sum or quantity of silver, that was ever found gathered together at one time: rising to three hundred millions of crowns, and a sixth part over, which are fifty million. And it is not to be marveled that he had so much; for he got into his power, the treasure of CROESUS; of DAVID and SALOMON; the ancient riches of Assyria; which were translated into Media; and of many other Countries. As DARIUS the first of that name ordained the tributes, they might come to ten million of gold every year; besides the gifts of great value, which were given by the nations subject unto him: and without speaking of such as were exempted. The Queen had certain towns and provinces assigned her, for her entertainment: one furnished the attire of her head, another this or that ornament: which wealth was always augmented by the Kings that followed, even to Darius the last: in so much that in his reign it was already become intolerable in destiny, and to luxurious; and was therefore the ruin of him and of his estate. For in the conquest which Alexander made, he found marvelous great Treasures in divers Countries, of his kingdom; namely at Susa, and Persepoli (as Quintus Curtius writeth) one hundred and seventy thousand talents of silver in mass; six thousand in Damascus; an other sum in Babylon; and fifty thousand talents of purple. Strabo writeth that the most common opinion was, that there were found forty thousand talents in Persia, besides that which was elsewhere; and that some esteemed the whole at nine-score thousand talentes: which is an incredible sum: and as great as hath ever been numbered or gathered after that foresaid treasure of CYRUS. For the hundred thousand talents are esteemed at threescore million of Crowns; and the fourscore thousand remaining would come by this estimation to more than forty millions, which would be in all about a hundred millions. This king used to make banquets to such as were of best reckoning in his Court, to the number of fifteen thousand; and for every supper, he appointed in expense of table, four hundred talents, valued at twelve score thousand Crowns. The bed whereon he slept was sumptuously set forth, and covered with a vine of gold, in manner of a grate or lettuce enriched with precious stones, hanging like clusters of grapes: He had at his beds-head in treasure five thousand talents of gold; and at his beds-foote always three thousand talents of silver. Such was the dominion, and riches of the Persians; whereunto their power was correspondent: for CYRUS assembled an army of six hundred thousand fight men on foot; six thousand on horseback, and about two thousand chariots of war. Darius the first of that name, going to fight against the Scythians, led eight hundred thousand men. XERXES came into Greece, having by sea five hundred and seventeen thousand, six hundred men; by land a Million, seven hundred thousand foot, and four score thousand horsemen: with twenty thousand Africans & Arabians, to whom there joined of Europe three hundred thousand; the whole multitude coming to above two Millions six hundred seventeen thousand fight men. Since that time the PARTHIANS obtaining the Empire of the East, and ruling over all Asia, between the red sea, and the Caspian, came not to so great riches and power, as the PERSIANS (for the greatest force which I find they ever had, was of Cxx. thousand men on foot, and horseback) notwithstanding they found themselves so strong, that being in three wars assailed by great Roman Captains, in the vigour and flower of their Empire, amongst all the Nations of the world, they not only remained equal; but also were sometimes superiors.  
The length of all INDIA from the East unto the West, is of seventeen hundred Leagues; and from the North to South of two thousand Leagues. It excelleth above all others in beauty & fertility; being divided into many parts, by the rivers which do water it: Where is found great quantity of Gold, Silver, Brass, precious stones; and all other things concerning riches and delicacies. STAUROBATES reigning there in the time of SEMIRAMIS (who invaded it) endeavoured to exceed the forces of the ASSYRIANS, opposing as mighty an Army against her, as she had brought with her; being three Millions of foot, and five hundred thousand horsemen; and constrained her to retire, with great loss of her people, and without doing any thing. The ETHIOPIANS believed, that by reason of their devotion towards their Gods, they were never wholly overcome by any stranger: and therefore remain always free. At this day PRESBYTER JOHN reigneth there far and wide; having forty kings tributary: and commanding over infinite people of divers colours; of whom shallbe spoken hereafter in due place. The SCYTHIANS feign, that in old time in their Country there was borne of the earth a virgin, which was a woman from the navel upward, and the rest a snake; who begat a son called SCYTHA, which named the SCYTHIANS after his own name, having made himself the most triumphant Prince of all that ever were before him: And that amongst the successors of this king, there were two brothers of great virtue, who did many things worthy of praise; whose line being long time greatly increased, by virtuous acts, and military adventures, subdued the Countries beyond the river Tanais, even unto Thrace. And turning afterward their armies on the other side, came as far as the Nile of Egypt, making themselves Lords of all the people between them: & stretching out their dominion from the great Ocean, which is toward the sun rising; even to the Caspian sea, and to the pool Meotis. Of these people thus fortified and increased, many Nations have descended, and amongst the rest the Sares, Massagetes, Assyrians, Medes, and Parthians: Then the Lordship of the SCYTHIANS, failing through length of time, that the women called AMAZON'S began to reign there: whose power and virtue was so great, that they subdued not only the Nations near unto them, but also a great part of Europe, and of Asia.  
The greatest, fairest, and most magnificent Cities of the world, were NINIVEH, and BABYLON in Assyria: THEBES, and MEMPHIS; and afterwards ALEXANDRIA in Egypt. But the Medians transferring to themselves the Empire of the Assyrians, destroyed and razed the City of Niniveh; carrying to ECBATANA a city of Media, all the gold and silver, and other ornaments which they found there. In like sort the Persians, taking the Empire from the Medes, carried away all the riches which they found in Babylon: and the castles, palaces, and other ornaments and singularities were either destroyed by them, or consumed by succession of time. The same Persians in the time that Cambyses conquered Egypt, did not only transport the ornaments of the singularities of Egypt into Asia, but also their artisans, by whose industry they built their magnificent palaces, both in PERSEPOLI, and in SUSA. And the Macedonians under Alexander, burned Persepoli to the ground, and took away all the treasures, precious, movables, & other ornaments of Persia.  
But as these great Lordships were begun, and maintained by virtuous Princes, accompanied with men at arms on horseback, and on foot; hardened unto all labours, accustomed to watch, to endure hunger and thirst patiently, to drink water, being skilful and exercised in arms: so ended they under lose and voluptuous Lords; having their subjects depraved and corrupted by deliciousness, proceeding of too much riches. NINUS interprising the Conquest of Asia, exercised the strongest and lustiest young men of his kingdom, long before unto arms, to the perils and dangers of war, and to endure patiently all pains and travails. The father of SESOSTRIS, being advertised by revelation, that the son which should be borne unto him, should be King of the whole world, gathered together out of all Egypt, all the children that were borne the same day that he was; and caused them all to be taught and brought up in the same discipline, and exercises; accustoming them to pain, to make them endure it continually; and to abstain from eating and drinking; and to make them by such bringing up, both stronger of body, and hardy of courage than the rest: of whom as being from their youth given to virtuous things, he was in all his conquests served valiantly, with fidelity and affection. CYRUS being by nature noble and valiant, was brought up after the ancient Persian manner, with the young Persian gentlemen (called Omotimes, because they were all equal in honours) in all sobriety, and laborious exercises: afterwards when he went to war, making choice of them to accompany him, they were a great help unto his greatness. ARSACES' being accustomed to live on pray in the mountains and forests, with people of like bringing up; established the kingdom of the Parthians.  
Such were the Authors or promoters of these Monarchies, alike in virtue and education: even as they also in whose reigns they ended, resembled one another in pleasure and pusilanimity, and died wretchedly. SARDANAPALUS burning himself; with all his treasures. ASTYAGES vanquished and taken in war; afterward bound with chains of gold. DARYUS the last, having lost three great battles; and seen prisoners, his mother, his wife, and two daughters; as he thought to gather together his forces, taken prisoner by them in whom he had most confidence, being in prosperity; then miserably slain with javelins, and left dead in the way.  
As then these later Princes ran by their vices into most piteous fortunes, and little differing th'one from tother: so the other by their virtues got great praises. NINUS was the first that established the greatness of that domination, which was gotten by continual possession; where the former sought not the Empire for themselves, but for the glory of their people: and being content with the victory, let alone the Lordship and signory. CYRUS is thought alone amongst all the Lords that have suddenly grown great, to have known how to observe modesty in his prosperities; and to bridle his absolute power and authority with equity, and clemency. SESOSTRIS was so brave and haughty, that whensoever he went to the Temple, or any whether in public, he caused his chariot to be drawn by four tributary kings, or other great Lords, in steed of horses: showing thereby that none of the other Kings or Captains was to be compared to him in virtue and prowess. Also the doings of CYRUS out of his palace, which have since been imitated by the kings his successors, were most magnificent: and serving much to the honour of a Prince, and his government. SEMIRAMIS as soon as she was borne, was cast out into a desert place, and full of rocks, where there was great store of birds, by whom through the will of God, she was nourished almost a year, then found by the Shepherds, and brought up by them. In like manner CYRUS, even in his cradle was exposed to the beasts, and left in the midst of a forest; where a bitch gave him suck, and kept him, till such time as a shepherd finding him, brought him to his Cabin. SEMIRAMIS purposing to conquer the Indies; and knowing how great an enterprise it was, and that to put it in execution it behoved her to levy great forces; she assembled an army of three Millions of foot, five hundred thousand horsemen, and one hundred thousand chariots: with which going into India, she was put to flight, and lost many of her people, returning without doing any thing. XERXES also going out of Asia into Greece with two Millions three hundred seeventen thousand fight men, (whereof there were four score thousand on horseback, five hundred seventeen thousand on sea) was constrained shamefully to retire himself, seeing his Army discomfited in many places. Likewise DARIUS his father assailed the Scythians, accompanied with eight hundred thousand men; without reaping any praise of that voyage. And CYRUS warring against the Massagetes, was by THOMYRIS their Queen discomfited with two hundred thousand Persians, and slain the thirtieth year of his reign. SEMIRAMIS and THOMYRIS, amongst the women of this former age, deserve to be accounted chief; th'one having ruled the kingdom of Assyria, tother, that of the Massagetes: and they having surmounted in glory and great deeds, all other Queens that ever were.  
SESOSTRIS divided Egypt into six and thirty Provinces; establishing in each of them a Governor, aswell to receive the revenues of the Crown and royal tributes, as to take careful heed of the affairs concerning the good, and conservation of them. Darius the first divided the kingdom of Persia into twenty Satrapies; and in every of them established a Satrape or governor: parting between them his yearly tributes, where, and how the contribution should be made. This Darius going about to set up his statue above that of Sesostris, in the City of Memphis, was put back by the high Priest, saying, that his deeds were not yet equal unto those of Sesostris. The armies of Cyrus and Sesostris were equal in number of footmen, each of them having six hundred thousand: But Cyrus exceeded Sesostris in horsemen, assembling together six score thousand, where Sesostris had but four and twenty thousand: but he had xxviij. thousand armed Chariots; whereas Cyrus had but two thousand.   

OF THE Egyptian PRIESTS, or Prophets, and of the Chaldees, Mages, Brachmanes, Druids, and other Religious and learned people among the Ancients.  
IN ancient time Religion only was counted wisdom; and there were no other esteemed wise, but such as delivered, and interpreted it unto men: for ordinarily three things follow each other, RELIGION, WISDOM, and POWER: and little would either Laws or Arms prevail, if they were not helped by Religion; which is the foundation, establishment, and conservation of every common wealth. RELIGION imprinteth, and retaineth in men's hearts, the reverence of GOD, and love of their neighbour; ruling the exposition of the holy books, and the charges of persons appointed for divine service. POLICY conducteth the affairs of peace, and war; in the which would not be found any justice or fidelity, without the fear of God, and love towards men; which are especially commanded in all Religions. Wherefore in all Lordships, both ancient and modern, the first care hath always been of Religion, and divine service; and such as have had the chargethereof, have always been reputed the chiefest in authority, much honoured and well entertained; being both they, and their children exempted from subsidies, and military labours.  
The PRIESTS or PROPHETS of Egypt inio●ed a third part of the revenue of the kingdom; and had great credit, both with the king, & with the common people: aswell for that they had the care of divine things, & were very learned, and teachers of others; as because they were called by the king, to give counsel in great affairs: foretelling of future things, which they knew by the Sacrifices, and by the stars. The Royalty was mingled with sacrificing, and none could be king, but he were also a PRIEST, as Plato saith in his Politiks.  
The CHALDEES in Assyria and Media, had such authority, as the Egyptian priests in Egypt, being reputed most skilful, and expert in Astrology; by which they did prognosticate of things to come: and by sooth-saying, and sacrifices, turned away evil fortunes, and made good to come.  
The BRACHMANES amongst the Indians held the chief place, to whom great honour was borne; and great gifts were given: as to men that were acceptable to the Gods; and thought to know whatsoever was done in Hell. They foretold at the beginning of the year, droughts, rains, winds, and diseases: And they endure still at this present in those parts, persevering in the ceremonies of their ancient Religion; and holding the chief places in honour: calling themselves BRAHMINS, which go before the NAIRES, that is to say, the Nobles. The King of calicut is their high Priest, and head of his Religion, going for this cause before all the kings of India, and being called SAMORY, that is God in earth.  
The MAGES governed the Religion and estate of the Persians with such authority, that they enterprised sometimes to usurp the kingdom, during Cambyses his absence in his voyage of Egypt; and to make one of them king. It was the custom also, that the king of Persia should learn their Magic, without the which he might not reign.  
The DRVIDES of Gaul being ministers of Religion, and of justice, discoursed of the stars, and of their movings; of the nature of things, and immortality of souls; as also of the divine authority and providence: being greatly respected of all the rest, and very well entertained.  
At Rome the SACERDOTES, ARUSPICES, AUGURS, FLAMENS, SODALES, and virgins VESTALES, which kept the eternal fire, the high Priest, and inferior Priests superintendents of their ceremonies, sacrifices, and superstitions, had knowledge of the Civil law; and managed the public affairs. The first kings of Rome were sacrificers, and the Emperors to make their greatness & authority more venerable; called themselves high Priests.  
The PRIESTS both men and women ordained both in Greece and elsewhere, to see to the observation of the pagan Religion, founded on Oracles, were in great authority, and received mighty offerings. The Royalty in Lacedaemon was a superintendence in war; and pre-eminence in sacrifices.  
The LEVITES in jury, separated from the other jews, to exercise sacrificing; and the office of Priesthood in the race of AARON; received duties of inestimable value.  
The THALISMANS', PARACADIS, CADIS, Priests, and judges in the Law of Mahomet, MENITSSMARLS, and IMANS were well privileged & freed from all subsidies. At the beginning the Caliph's in that religion were Kings and Priests, one in Bagdet, another in Cairo. Since the Sultan's have taken the royal authority, and have brought in the MUPHTIS, accounted as patriarchs, in steed of the caliphs superintendents of the Religion, and judging sovereignly in matters of the Law: by which are not only ordained the prayers, and divine ceremonies; but also the politic and military affairs. They have power to retract the ordinances of the Sultan's, and sentences of their Divans or Counsels, which are not conformable▪ or seem repugnant to the ALCORAN. Every Mahometan Prince keepeth one always near about him, or in his principal City, with great pension. The great CHAM of the Tartarians Zavologues keepeth his at ●●●●rcand; The SOPHI at T●●ris: There are also in afric at Fez, Caroan, ●●●●●ssen▪ and elsewhere. The TURK beareth unto his, greater reverence, then to any man of his Empire.  
The ECCLESIASTICAL persons throughout Germany, France, Poland, England, and Hungary, hold at this day the chief places in the counsel of Kings, and administration of justice. Among the seven Electors of th'empire▪ there are three Ecclesiastical: Amongst the Peers of France, there are six. The chiefest of the Counsel in Poland are the Archbishops and Bishops. The Emperor is confirmed, & consecrated by the POPE. The French king consecrated by the Archbishop of Rheimes. The king of England, by the Archbishop of Canterbury: The king of Poland, by the Archbishop of Gresle▪ For considering that the Archbishops, and Bishops, are established amongst the people, as messengers of God, and interpreters of the Law, and will of God: to their authority being great in itself, have been added great honours in the common wealth; to the end that the public counsels, and constitutions, should by their presence be made more venerable. The POPE commandeth over the temporal of the Church called S. Peter's patrimony, as king; and is reverenced by the rest of the Latin Christendom, as head and chief of the Religion; in those places where he is acknowledged for such.  
But before we make an end of this matter, we will set down, the agreements and differences, which were between the Egyptian Priests, and the Chaldees, Mages, Brachmanes, and the Druids. The EGYPTIANS and BABYLONIANS, dwelling in spacious plains, and having nothing to hinder them from the whole view of the Heaveri, bestowed great study in observation of the stars; in the which both th'one and the other were most skilful, and expert. The Egyptians said that the CHALDEES came out of Egypt, and had learned Astrology of them. The MAGES and BRACHMANES agreed in sobriety and austerity of life; and the Brachmanes were thought to have descended of the Mages. There was also the like similitude between the MAGES and DRVIDES, namely those of great Britain, that they seemed to have delivered Magic to the Persians, and not to have learned it of them. The bodies of the MAGES when they were dead, were left to the dogs and birds to pray upon, before they were buried. The BRACHMANES voluntarily ended their lives by fire. The CHALDEES and EGYPTIANS had fair, great, and magnificent Temples: The MAGES had no temples, altars, nor images. The Mages were common both to the Persians, and Parthians. The CHALDEES to the Assyrians and Medes. The EGYPTIANS and the PERSIANS believed the Resurrection, and that men being raised from the dead, should be immortal: even as the CHRISTIANS and SARACENS believe.   

OF THE NOBILITY AMONGST the Egyptians, Persians, Assyrians, Indians, Scythians, Thracians, and other ancient and modern Nations.  
THey indeed were reputed noble, in Egypt, Persia, Scythia, Iberia, Assyria, India, Thrace, and other ancient Nations, which made profession of Arms; and meddled not with mechanical arts: to whom according to the quality of the Country, were appointed lands, rents, and revenues, out of the public, for their honest entertainment: and to the end they might not be constrained by want, to exercise any other questuarie, gainful, and base manner of living. It was not lawful in EGYPT for men of war called Culasyres and Hermotivies, to use any other art, but military: which they taught, and delivered from hand to hand, and from the father to the son. LYCURGUS forbade the LACEDÆMONIANS, all Mechanical arts and occupations; yea, even merchandise and traficks: accounting such vocations to belong to bondmen, or strangers, or to men of base condition; and putting Arms only in the hands of his Citizens, whom he would have altogether free, and truly military. HER ODOTUS writeth, that the PERSIANS honoured valiant men of war, more than all other Nations; and that they made no account of merchandise. Moreover, that not only the Persians, but also the Egyptians, Thracians, Scythians, Lydians, and almost all the barbarous Nations esteemed artisans, the basest of all men; yea, even their children, and their whole race: That the GREEKS also, and above all, the Lacedæmonians and Corinthians made little reckoning of the artificers. And Plato in the second and eight book of his Common wealth, and in the beginning of his Timaeus, willeth the Nobles and men of war, to abstain from tilling the ground, and from Mechanical arts, and other questuarie occupations. At this day the ARABIANS do utterly detest all Mechanical sciences: And the Nobility or Gentlemen of FRANCE are forbidden by the ancient ordinances of the Country, to exercise merchandise, or any other questuarie art, on pain of being deprived of their nobility, and to pay tax, as those of the common sort.  
The like do the NOBLES and Gentlemen of Spain, Lombardy, Naples, England, Germany, Hungary, and Poland: holding it a thing not only unworthy of Nobility; but also to be an act derogating from the privilege thereof, to exercise in steed of Arms, a mechanical art; or to use trade of merchandise, if it be not of things of their own growing; of which the traffic is permitted them. The Nobles of Persia use it in like manner, possessing fees, and underfees, with vassals relieving of them: also lands, castles, towns, and Countries, which they hold either by succession of their parents; or by gifts and benefits of the SOPHI their Prince: for the which they are bound to serve him in his wars; furnishing a number of men, according to the value of their revenues. And in INDIA, the Naires are held in such reputation, as the Gentlemen in these parts; being constrained ordinarily to bear swords, targets, bows, lances, and such other arms used amongst them: otherwise they should lose the name, and privilege of nobility.  
In TURKEY there is no distinction of Nobility drawn from the ancestors; but he only amongst the Turks is reputed noble, who in matter of war hath given many proofs of his valiancy. When the OTTOMAN conquereth any Country, he extinguisheth the great ones, and the nobility, and sendeth thither his Sangiacques, Subassis, and Spachis; giving them the fruits of the fees, and appointing rents on the revenue of his lands, which are called Timarly. Every SPACHI is bound to have so many horses and men, as he hath five or six Asper's a day to spend, both of his pay, and of his Tymar, or yearly rent. They cannot make over the fees which they hold to their children, without the express permission of the great SIGNIOR. And none enjoyeth the nobility of any father, whose son he is, until by industry he represent the person of his father, and not in word. None there possesseth any villages, castles, or towns, after the manner of the Persians, or of us: or inhabiteth strong houses, or dareth to build above one story, or higher than a dove-cote.  
In ENGLAND at this day, the Nobility do not dwell in castles or houses of strength, closed with motes and ditches: neither have they any jurisdiction over men: which is in the king's hand, be it high, base, or mean. The dignities themselves, as Dukedoms, Marquisats, and Earldoms, are but titles which are given at the king's pleasure: whereas they which have them, possess nothing oftentimes in those places whereof they bear the name: but have their lands lying elsewhere.  
The Gentlemen in FRANCE possess, in high, base, and mean justice, villages, boroughs, towns, castles, fortresses, Baronies, earldoms, Marquisats, Dukedoms, Principalities, and Peereships patrimonial: with vassals holding, and underholding of them, bound by faith, and homage: which jurisdiction notwithstanding dependeth on that of the king; and answereth at the last appeal to his sovereign Courts, or Parliaments.  
In the ROMAN EMPIRE, the lands were first given in reward of service, to the men of war, for term of their lives; as they are at this day in Turkey: after they were made, and became patrimonial and hereditary to their children. And because they were given them to live on in recompense of their services, they were termed benefits; and they which were recompensed in such sort, were said to be beneficed, or benefited. Then by this example, the Church coming to be rich by the almesdeeds and foundations of Princes, and great Lords, they called the Archbishoprics, Bishoprics, abbeys, Priories, and Cures; by the name of benefices: because the Ecclesiastical persons possessed them, after the same manner as the ancient men of war did their fees, and benefices. The Emperor ALEXANDER SEVERUS, was the first that permitted the heirs of those men of war to enjoy these fees: provided that they followed Arms, and not otherwise; ordaining most expressly, that such heritage's should never fall, but into the hands of such as made profession of arms. And a while after him CONSTANTINE the great, at the beginning of his Empire, gave to his principal Captains, and to those by whose means he thought most to prevail against his adversaries, a perpetuity in the lands which were assigned them: Whereby one may know, that the estate of the Turk resembleth in many things the Roman Empire, and the ancient kingdom of Persia: in which the whole government was in the disposition of one only Lord; serving himself with mean fellows, which may without danger easily be advanced to great charges, and honours; and without tumult or envy abased, withdrawn, or put to death. But the FRENCH king is placed in the midst of an ancient Nobility, and company of Princes, Earls, Barons, and other gentlemen; having subjects peculiar to themselves, and holding their pre-eminence in the kingdom, of which they can hardly be deprived without sedition. The estates also of lands which were but for life, were made perpetual under the last kings of the race of Charlemaigne; and shortly upon the coming of Hugh Capet. Then such Lords as held the great fees of the kings, they subdivided them to other persons, of whom they expected service: and both th'one and tother gave their lands to the peasants, with duties of rents; and with condition to receive justice of them. Wherehence are come the terms of fees and underfees, of vassals and undervassals, for a difference from them which relieve directly, and without any mean of the king; Consequently of Ban & arriereban, and of liege or bond men, who without exception do promise all duty of fidelity to their Lords; and of those which are not bond or liege, which do only promise a duty, by reason of superior estate or fee, of which theirs which is inferior dependeth. And although at the beginning it was not lawful for any Roturier or common person, to possess any fee simple, but to meddle only with his traffic, tillage, or husbandry; and to pay his Lords duties: notwithstanding by succession of time, the fees (contrary to their first and ancient institution) fell without any difference or distinction into the hands of men of arms, and such as were estranged from the exercise of arms: of noble, and unnoble, of gentlemen, and ungentle; as merchants, practitioners, and other rich commoners, that had means to buy them. Moreover, whereas many fees with their duties were given by Kings, Princes, Lords, and Gentlemen, to bishoprics, abbeys, monasteries, covents, priories, chanonries, commaunderies, hospitals, spittels, and to other Ecclesiastical persons, which are people of Mortmain; and altogether estranged from arms; the Ban & arriereban, hath been much weakened thereby, and at length is so low brought, and so despised; that even they which are bound thereunto think themselves dishonoured, if they appear there: and so send thither their servants, or other mercenary folks; the most part so evil appointed, and in such poor equippage, that it is a mockery to see them: whereas in times past, the chiefest of France accounted it a great honour to be there themselves in person. So far have these sees and under fees strayed, or so ill been employed; which were erected and ordained for the safety of the Country: to the end that such as held them, should in all occurrents of business, be readily furnished with arms, men, and horses, in such number and order as is requisite; either to resist the approaches of the enemy, or to set upon him if need were. By reason whereof, the forces of the kingdom are lessened; and the Laws military by little and little brought to nought: in such sort, that the Kings have been constrained to ordainè those companies of waged men of arms, called ordinances: and for their entertainment, to impose on the people tax and tallage.  
Moreover, it is seven or eight hundred years, since the Nobility hath taken up the use of Arms, and scutcheons, with figures of beasts, and other things, blazoned with divers colours; with terms fitting thereunto: to th'end to discern and make difference between them of their Nobility, and the antiquities thereof; their alliancies, and kindreds. Which manner was not in use before CHARLEMAIGNE, and hath not gone out of EUROPE, being yet unknown throughout AFRICA and ASIA: where their Religion forbiddeth them, to make the portraitures of beasts. The Arms in the which there are Lions, Leopards, Tigers, Eagles, Kites, Falcons, and other ravenous beasts, are accounted more noble, than those which have but trees, flowers, stars, bars, files; or which are only distinguished with colour; or taken from the names of families: because they seem not to have been gotten by military prowess; or any other virtue. To make them, correct, and expound them, are appointed the Heralds, and kings of Arms; curiously discoursing of the figures, and colours which are in them: even to the mingling, and accommodating (according to the measure of their understanding and knowledge) both Physic, Astrology, and Divinity.   

THE ARTISANS, AND EXQVI site works of the Ancients.  
IN EGYPT, INDIA, and elsewhere, the government being divided into many orders, or estates, it was not lawful for any to take a wife of other estate but his own; nor to change his vocation: because it seemed not reasonable unto them, that a man of arms should labour the earth; or that a learned man should become an Artisan. Then the Artisans there wrought their works severally every one by himself; and not indifferently mingling one occupation amongst the other. The like did the husbandmen, fishermen, and huntsmen: and it was not lawful for one to exercise many trades. As than they applied not themselves, but unto such works as were permitted by the law; and which they had learned of their fathers: continuing the same all their life, they became excellent therein. Especially the EGYPTIANS, whose works were marvelously well wrought; and even come to their perfection. The great and magnificent buildings made at that time, both in ASSIRIA, EGYPT, and elsewhere, do evidently show, the ability of their architects, masons, statuaries, imagers, gravers, painters, carvers, carpenters, and smiths. The same distinction of the multitude by divers orders, and kinds of exercise is used at this day at CAIR, FEZ, MARROCCO, and in many other great Cities of Asia, and afric. Others account the manner of PARIS more commodious, where the Artificers dwell intermingled one amongst the other. At this day the Artisans of CATHAY, and of CAIR, and of PERSIA, are found very exquisite, making works so near approaching unto those of nature, that they seem to be natural.   
The end of the fourth Book.   

OF THE LEARNING, POESY, Eloquence, Power, and other excellency of the Grecians. The fifth Book.  
AT the same time that the Persians swayed by their arms in Asia, and that Cyrus founded the Persian Monarchy; good letters and Learning were raised up in Greece, and the Countries there about, aswell in the Isles, as in the main land: and by the learned, and renowned Pythagoras began Philosophy. First of all, men considering the admirable ornament of the whole world; the continual and perdurable motion of the Heaven; the variety and distinction of the stars; the intercourse of days and nights, of months and years continually succeeding; the vital power of fire diffused through out the whole world; the variable air, sustaining with spiration and respiration all living creatures; the sea beating the banks with his reciprocal waves, receiving and casting out the other waters, without overflowing or diminishing the earth; which is heaped together on each side thereof for a bound unto it: The vicissitude and order of things, both simple and compounded; contained in the circuit of the world, being innumerable in multitude, and marvelous in beauty: They endeavoured to search out their properties, conveniences, and contrarieties; as to know whereof they were made and engendered; how long they endured, what became of them, when, and how they perished; what in them was mortal and corruptible; what divine and perpetual: They observed the course of the stars, and the power which they have here below. The Egyptians, Babylonians, Indians, Mages, and Druids, applied themselves to such contemplation, as hath been showed heretofore; Then the GREEKS purposely obscuring their writings with numbers and figures, to th'end, that (by being too much communicated) they should not be despised of the vulgar sort, or wrapping them up in covers of fables, or using measured verses, to make them more durable, by the delectation of fables, and sweetness of verses.  
And when as they that were skilful in such things, and all such as were aught seen in any thing, would arrogantly be called Sophoi, that is to say wisemen: PYTHAGORAS was the first, who by singular modesty took the name of a Philosopher, signifying a lover of wisdom: For coming one day to Phliunta, and having learnedly and gravely talked with Leon Prince of the Phliases about certain affairs: This Lord admiring the understanding and eloquence of PYTHAGORAS; demanded of him, what Art he professed; by whom he was answered, that he was not skilful in any Art, but that he was a Philosopher. Leon wondering at the novelty of this name, asked him what Philosophers were; and what difference there was between them and others. PYTHAGORAS said, that the life of man seemed unto him, to resemble one of those assemblies which were made at the public plays of GREECE: where some by strength, agility, and exercise of body; or by running of horses, sought the price of the victory, and the glory proposed in races; others went thither to make their profit in buying and selling: but that there were some of a more generous spirit, which neither sought applause, nor gain; but came thither only to see: Even so men in this life, as in some famous fair, coming thither, and being of different nature and disposition, some sought after honour; others after profit; and others (which are the fewer and rarer sort) omitting or little esteeming all these things; considered diligently the nature of things: whom he termed lovers of wisdom; that is to say Philosophers. And as in these assemblies it was a goodly thing to see and behold without seeking after gain; so that in this life contemplation, and knowledge is to be preferred, above all other occupations. But PYTHAGORAS was not only the inventor of the name, but also brought first (as hath been said) this learning into GREECE; which he augmented and beautified much: instructing his followers, called after him pythagoreans, by whom he was singularly respected; and no less honoured of others through out the world: even the memory of him remaining at this present most renowned, and reverenced throughout all nations; and will always so remain as long as learning endureth. Being borne at Samos, after he had much profited in learning, he went first into Egypt; after into Babylon, to learn the course of the stars, and the nature of the world: And returned afterwards by Crete, and Lacedaemon, where he learned the Laws of Minos, and Lycurgus; which were then in great veneration: and finally having known all the foresaid things, he came to Crotona; where he withdrew the people by his authority from luxuriousness, and idleness, whereunto they were given, to good manners and honest life: having learning for the women separate from that which was for men, and for children divers from that which was for parents. For he taught women how they ought to live chaste, to be obedient and serviceable to their husbands, and to children how they ought to be modest, and to learn knowledge: and to all people he gave counsel to live soberly, as a thing of which all virtues had their beginning. After he had dwelled twenty years at Crotona, he went to Metapont, where he died; and the inhabitants of Metapont, after his decease had him in such reverence, that they consecrated his house as a temple: and worshipped him as a God.  
In this time also were those seven which were called, and reputed the wise men of Greece, namely Solon, Thales, Pittacus, Bias, Cleobulus, Chilon, and Periander; all which except Thales were either Lawmakers, or governors of states: and got, that renown and reputation of wisdom for being only well skilled in matter of government, and such things as are in the common use of men. The other learned men of this age, and they also which succeeded them, were Astrologers, natural Philosophers, and Physicians; as Democritus, Heraclitus, Hypocrates, Empedocles, Parmenides, Melissus; and in the same age are also reckoned, Stesichorus, Simonides, Alceus, Sappho, Theognis, Anacreon, Archilochus, Alcmeon, and Epicharmus, who were Poets; Epimenides, a devinor of Candie, Anacharsis the Scythian, Charondas, and Zaleucus Lawmakers: Daniel, Aggee, Zachary, jeremy, and Sophonie, prophets of the Hebrues.  
SOLON gave Laws to the Athenians, whereby he got great reputation, and excelled in all knowledge, especially in Poetry; whereunto if he had wholly given himself, he had been no less reckoned of then Homer, and Hesiodus, or any other of the most excellent ancient Poets; as Critias witnesseth in Plato's Timeus. He being desirous to travail, went into Egypt to the king Amasis, and from thence came back unto Sardis, to CROESUS the rich and mighty king of Lydia: who for this cause thought himself the most happy man of the world. But having caused his treasures and worldly felicity to be showed to SOLON; he asked him his opinion: who without flattery answered him, that none ought to be judged happy before his end; Because that many in this present life after great felicities, fall into extreme miseries & calamities: as eft 'zounds it befell unto Croesus, who being overcome in war, and made captive by CYRUS was bound, and set on a pile to be burnt. Then he remembering the speech of SOLON named him thrice, with sighing: and CYRUS understanding the reason thereof had remorse; thinking how he being a man made an other to be burned quick in the fire, which not long sit hence was no less happy, than himself. So fearing the divine punishment, and considering that there is nothing stable in human things▪ he commanded that the fire should be forthwith extinguished, and Croesus be unbound. By this means came Solon to the knowledge of Cyrus, and by his wife advertisement saved the life of Croesus.  
EPIMENIDES was a familiar friend of Solons, and holp him to make his Laws; he was excellent in inventing of divers new things; and excelling in divination. He foretold the coming of the Persians into Greece, a long time before they came: and that they should return without doing any thing.  
THALES a famous natural Philosopher and ginger, was the first amongst the Greeks' that divided the year into ccclxv. days: and found out the points of the Solstices, and Equinoxes; the little bear, and the stars about him. He foretold the eclipse of the sun in the reign of Astyages the uncle of Cyrus, by his mother's side: and kept back his citizens the Milesians from entering into league with Croesus against Cyrus, which counsel was the cause of their safety after the victory. Aristotle in his Politics writeth of him, that he foresaw by Astrology, the abundance of olives that was to come; wherein he might have gained much: showing that it were easy for Philosophers to enrich themselves, if they would; but it is not their study and profession. And Plato in his Theaetetus telleth that as he beheld the stars, and looked upwards, he fell into a ditch: whereof he was reprehended by his maid (who was pleasant, and witty) that he would endeavour to know what was in heaven, being ignorant of that which was in earth, and before his feet.  
DEMOCRITUS is called by Seneca in the seventh of his natural questions, the most subtle of the ancients; and in his book of the shortness of life, he reckoneth him amongst the chief and most excellent masters of the sciences. Cicero in his first Book of the ends of good and evil, calleth him a man learned and perfect in Geometry: and recommendeth his style or manner of writing; unto Brutus in his Orator; saying that albeit it be estranged from verse; yet because it is elevated and enriched, with most clear lights of words, that it seemeth rather to be a poem, than the verses of Comic Poets. Pliny telleth how that he and Pythagoras, travailed into Persia, Arabia, Egypt, and Ethiopia, to the end to learn Magic; and that they two were the first that did celebrate it in these parts. And in an other place, it is manifest (saith he) that DEMOCRITUS, a wise man otherwise, & profitable unto life; hath erred through too much desire which he had to be helpful unto men. And in his seven. Book; he promised saith he to revive others which hath not raised up himself. He was so exceedingly given to contemplation, that his citizens the Abderites counted him frantic, and sent for Hypocrates to heal him: who, when he came to Abdera, found him only wise amongst them all. Seneca writing of the divine providence, saith that he abandoned riches, thinking them to be burden some to a good wit. Some say that willingly with a burning glass, he deprived himself of his sight, that he might see more clearly with his understanding. Tully in his fifth Tusculane; DEMOCRITUS (saith he) having lost the sight of his eyes, could not discern white & black; but well could he the good, and evil; just and unjust; honest and dishonest; profitable and unprofitable: And could live well and happily without the sight of colours; but not without the knowledge of things. This man thought the sight of the mind to be hindered by the sight of the eyes. And as others did not see oft-times that which was before their feet; so he wandered throughout all infinity without consisting in any extremity. Plutarch in his treatise of curiosity affirmeth it to be false. Seneca in his second Book of Anger, saith that HERACLITUS going out of his house, and seeing about him so many living evil, or rather dying in evil, he had pity of them all, and wept: on the contrary DEMOCRITUS was never seen but laughing.  
HIPPOCRATES had his honour, to have been the first that did write perspicuously of Physic, & of the rules thereof. Plutarch witnesseth of him, that having written touching the seams or joinings of man's head in Anatomy, and afterwards finding that he had failed in somewhat, he did publicly declare his fault, for fear lest others might fall into the like error. Saint Augustin after him hath been the only man that hath publicly corrected himself, by setting forth his retractations. Others are commonly so overgon with glory, and so opinative; that they had rather die, then yield in any thing.  
EMPEDOCLES the Agrigentine, a famous natural Philosopher, wrote in verse uj▪ books of the knowledge of nature: whereof Aristotle maketh often mention, especially in his Poetry; where he saith that Homer & Empedocles had nothing one like tother, but their verses: and that the one is a right Poet, and tother ought rather to be called a natural Philosopher, than a Poet. And in his Metaphysics speaking of him and of Anaxagoras, he witnesseth that Anaxagoras was superior in age to Empedocles, but inferior to him in works. And he saith in his problems, that he was of melancholic complexion. Pliny saith that he travailed far to learn Magic; as did Pythagoras & Democritus. And Horace in his art of Poetry, that being desirous to leave an opinion of himself that he was a God, and was vanished secretly out of the sight of men; he cast himself into the burning and smoking hole of the hill Aetna: and that this deed was afterwards discovered by one of his slippers, which being made of brass, was cast up by the vehemency of the fire and wind.  
ANAXAGORAS a Clazomenian gentleman, became a very excellent Philosopher, and was called by those of his time Nous (which signifieth the mind or understanding) were it for admiration which they had of his knowledge and understanding which appeared to be great, especially in natural Philosophy; or else because he was the first which added the intelligence unto the matter; and appointed unto natural things, for their beginning, and first cause of their distinction and ordinance, the intelligence. Pliny writeth of him, that by knowledge of the stars he foretold, that within certain days after, there would fall a stone from heaven: which happened in the parts of Thrace, in the day time. He was the first that published books written by him, and lived in the time of Democritus.  
In ancient time in Greece they which did write first of divine, celestial, natural, moral, politic, and military matters were the Poets: and they were commonly Priests, Theologians, Musicians, Astrologians, and Physicians; as Linus, Musaeus, Orpheus, and Amphion. LINUS the son of Apollo, and of Terpsichore being very skilful in Music, was the master of Hercules, of Tamyras, and of Orpheus. They say that he brought the knowledge thereof out of Phenicia into Greece; as did Atlas the Astrology out of Lybia. Museus was reputed as a Prophet having delivered many Ceremonies to the Grecians: of whom Virgil giveth a very honourable testimony, in the sixth Book of his Aneids, calling him an excellent Poet in great perfection: and making him to seem in the Elysian fields the most eminent amongst all the men of honour, and learning that were there; which have had a memorable name in all ages. ORPHEUS and AMPHION were such excellent musicians, that they were said by their sweet Songs to move trees, and stones; to stop the course of rivers, and to tame the fierceness of wild beasts. ORPHEUS first instituted in Greece the Initiations of the Gods, the purgation of sins, remedies of diseases by charms, and enchantments; and means to appease the wrath of the Gods. They say that of him and of Zoroaster as fathers and authors, came all the ancient wisdom. jamblicus affirmeth that Pythagoras followed Orpheus his divinity as a pattern; on the which he framed, & form his Philosophy; & which is more that the words of Pythagoras, had not been esteemed holy or sacred, but for being derived from the precept of Orpheus. That from thence came the secret doctrine of numbers, and whatsoever is admirable in the Philosophy of the Greeks, which secrets he folded up in fables, and hide them under a poetical coverture. Demosthenes in his oration against Aristogiton calleth Orpheus the author of the sacred ceremonies which the Grecians used. He was accounted holy after his death, and every year there was a solemn feast dedicated unto him, as to the most learned which was ever in Greece, as well in the religion and divinity of those days as in Poetry.  
Unto these succeeded HOMER, and HESIOD, who were of the same time, or near one to another: & got by different virtues very great, & durable praises. Homer wrote the Iliads, and Odyssees; Hesiodus left precepts of husbandry and Astrology, intermingled with advertisements of good life, and the fabulous genealogy of the Gods. Homer without controversy hath gotten the first and chief place amongst all the Poets of all Nations; and ages which ever were. And Pliny giveth him the chief praise of humane understanding, in so great diversity of natures, multitude of disciplines, variety of actions, and of exercises, and works; having deserved it as well by the excellency of his poesy; as by the good hap of his argument so luckily handled. First that which he writeth, he seemeth not to say it; but to represent it before our eyes. Such is the dexterity in him not only to express the bodies; but even the hidden motions of the minds: in such sort that his poesy seemeth as an Image of the life of man. He is so conformable to common sense, and hath so aptly accommodated his words to the things, that after so great mutation come to pass, in the manners, and customs of men, from the time wherein he lived until this present; ke keepeth still from age to age, and from country to country the same grace, as if he came from being newly made; retaining not only the authority of antiquity but also the pleasure of novelty: as if there were in him some spirit continually renewing, and waxing young, and a soul never waxing old which kept him always in this vigour. Such force have the writings which come near unto nature, that they never decay: but so much farther as they go, so much more grace they gain, and so much more authority they obtain. Amongst his singular praises this of all other is most veritable, that he is alone in the world who hath never glutted or cloyed his readers; showing himself always altogether of an other sort unto them, and still flourishing in new delectation: for as much as he leadeth them from one tale to another; and by his variety keepeth them from being weary at any time to hear his fine verses, flowing from him of their own accord without pain or constraint; even almost with a divine felicity, and natural facility: which notwithstanding he hath so conducted, that he observeth gravity in great affairs; and propriety in small matters; and a tempered decency in those of the middle sort: with a delectable variety throughout in his narrations; similitudes, orations, amplifications, arguments, examples, and digressions; in words, sentences, figures, and in the continuation of his purpose, such disposition; that one may well say there was never his like. Aristotle, and Cicero think that he could not possibly come incontinently to such perfection▪ and that therefore there were others before him: seeing that nothing is perfect at his birth, and first beginning. The Greeks had him in such admiration that they attributed to him the knowledge of all things; and thought that all Arts, and all sects which were amongst them, were issued from his fountain. The most renowned Captains read him, finding in him the best that belongeth to art military; The most eminent Philosophers alleged him, proving their reasons by his verses: others founded in him the state politic, and oeconomic, the art of husbandry, the contempt of humane vanities, and the devotion due unto religion. For this cause (whereas he being far from ambition had concealed his original) many nations claimed him to be their Citizen: as the Colophonians, Rhodians, Chiotins, Salaminians; and Smirnians, who erected a temple unto him in their City; and many others contended for him amongst themselves. But he judged best, who considering so many virtues and graces in him, thought it not possible that he could be engendered of man; but that the heaven was his father and Calliope the chief of the Muses his mother.  
Touching HESIODUS (which holdeth among the Greek Poets the second place, after Homer) he gave men to understand, that he became such without study; and that in his young years being sent by his father to keep the beasts, he fell a sleep on the hill Parnassus: During which sleep, the Muses appeared unto him, and inspired him divinely with Poesy. Afterward he was the Priest and Curate of the Muses in Helicon; and wrote of Astrology, and Husbandry. Plutarch telleth how he being wrongfully slain and murdered, and then cast into the sea; was taken up by a float of Dolphins, which carried him to the head of Rhion near the town of Molicria: where being known by reason that he was but newly killed; the Molycrians because of his great renown, buried him honourably; and nothing in more recommendation, then to send presently every where to inquire of this murder: which they did with such diligence, that the murderers were found out: whom they cast quick into the bottom of the sea, and razed their houses.  
But the wise men, and religious of that time, did blame the impertinent fables which Homer, and Hesiod and tother Poets had written of the Gods, proposing their forms, ages, sexes, transformations, vestments, ornaments, banquets, laughters, desires, complaints, lamentations, displeasures, angers, hatreds, differents, discords, combats, wars, and battles; not only when divers Gods defended contrary armies of th'one side, and tother; but also when they warred themselves against the Titans, and Giants: their whoredoms, adulteries, incests, bonds, companies with mankind, and mortal engendered of the immortal; and many other such things transferred to the similitude of humane fragility, and contrary to good manners, and to piety. Pythagoras said that he had descended into hell, and had seen there the soul of Hesiodus, hard bound to a pillar of bras; and that of Homer hanged on a tree: both of them bearing the punishment of that which they had foolishly feigned and invented of the Gods. Isocrates affirmed, that although they had not yet been sufficiently chastised for these impieties; yet not withstanding that they remained not altogether unpunished: some of them having been vagabonds and beggars; others of them blind; and others banished their country; and that Orpheus the chief author of such fables was slain and rend in pieces; and his members dispersed here and there throughout the fields. Plato allowed them no place in his common wealth by reason of such absurd impieties; but would have those only received there, which made divine hymns, or moral advertisements. And therefore I marvel at the Poets of these times, who that they may seem the more to resemble the ancients by imitation, endeavour to bring into use such pagan fictions: not considering the Christian religion, in the which they are brought up, free from all such superstition; & the manners of their time: whereunto all writers both in prose, and verse ought especially to accommodate themselves.  
After the said Poets, came the PHILOSOPHERS, which began in the reign of Cyrus, as hath been touched heretofore: and they wrote at first almost all in verse, as the former; and divided themselves into two sects, th'one being called jonicques, tother Italiques. Thales being born at Miletum in jonia, was the author of the Ionian sect; Pythagoras the Samian dwelling at Crotona, in that part of Italy which was called great Greece, instituted the Italiam, whose sectaries, & followers were called of him Pythagoreans: teaching their doctrines by numbers, and figures. After Thales succeeded Anaximander, and after Anaximander, Anaximenes; to him Anaxagoras, to Anaxagoras, Archelas; & to Archelas, Socrates. On tother part to Pythagoras succeeded his son Telanges, to him Xenophanes; after him Permenides, after him Zenon the Eleatian, and Melissus; To Zenon, Leucippus, to Leucippus, Democritus, & to Democritus many: amongst whom are celebrated Nauciphanes, and Naucides: and other renowned in both sects even to PLATO, and ARISTOTLE; who abolished these sects, bringing in others of the Academics, and Peripatetics: & supplanting the renown of those which had begun them: as the Macedonian Alexander supplanted the glory of Cyrus, and of the kings his successors, by overthrowing the Persian Monarchy.  
But the greatest glory of the GREEKS began, at the expedition which XERXES king of Persia had undertaken against Greece; who by his inestimable power which he brought with him, amazed it much, and put the Grecians in the greatest fear, that ever they were; knowing well that this war was undertaken against them to bring them all in bondage: and seeing that already all the Grecian cities seated in Asia were become subject, and servile; they expected that those of Greece should not escape with any better condition. And on the contrary the war having had a far other end than was looked for, they not only found themselves out of danger of servitude; but got great glory thereby: and there was neither town nor city but was become so rich, that all the world wondered how things were so come to pass, contrary to that which every one expected. For from that time fifty years forwards, Greece always increased marvelously in felicity: & their prosperity and wealth made arts to flourish. In such sort that we find, that the most excellent workmen that ever were in the world, lived in that time there. Also the sciences, & namely Philosophy, went then wonderfully forwards. Eloquence also was much advanced throughout all Greece; but especially in Athens. For in that time were these excellent Orators, Pericles, Gorgias, Thrasimachus, Hippias, Prodichus, Protagoras, Isocrates, Lysias, Demosthenes, Eschines, Antipho, Andocidas, Hiperides, Dinarchus, Iseas, Lycurgus, Demades, & Demetrius the Phalerian: HISTORIOGRAPHERS, Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Philistius, Ephorus, Theopompus, Timeus, & Calisthenes: TRAGICAL POETS, Eschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides; COMICAL, Cratinus, Aristophanes, Eupolis, Menander, Philemon, and Diphilus: STATVARIES, Lysippus, Chares, Phydias, Polycletus, Praxiteles, C●esias, Dinomenes, Cymon & Miron; IMAGERS Lysistratus, & Dibutades: PAINTERS, Apelles, Protogenes, Polygnotus, Parrhasius, Aristides the Theban, Paralius, & Xeuxis. ARCHITECTS, Dinocrates, who built Alexandria in Egypt; Ctesiphon of Crete, the temple of Ephesus: Philon, the Citadel of Athens. GRAVERS, Alcamenes, Agoracritus, Scopas, Briax, Timotheus, Leochares & Pythis. MUSICIANS Timotheus, Anaxarchus, Damon & Aristoxenus. ARITHMETICIANS Nicomachus the son of Aristotle; Euclid, a GEOMETRICIAN; Eudoxus an ginger: for PHILOSOPHERS, the last of the Pythagorean sect, already named even to Socrates, who was the first amongst all the Greek philosophers, which withdrew philosophy from the heavenly & natural contemplation (wherein all the former were busied) & applied it to government of houses, cities, & common wealths: accounting the knowledge of heavenly & natural things to be difficult; and also when it was obtained, to be little helpful unto good life: wherefore he gave himself especially to treat of manners, of virtues, & of vices; & entirely of good, & evil. After Socrates successively flourished, Plato, Aristotle, Theophrastus, Xenocrates, Polemon, Crantor, & others both Academics, & Peripatetics: Zenon, the Stoic, whom succeeded Cleanthus the Epicure: the spirits of the Greeks' every day increasing until the reigns of Philip, and Alexander, in which times all things came to their excellency, and (as it were) full perfection: wherehence eftsoons they fell; and much sooner than they were mounted up.  
Concerning the Art Military, Philip, & Alexander of Macedonia, did not only surpass all the great Captains of their time, in knowledge, & experience of war, prows, magnanimity, fortune, & success of conquest: although there were many famous men in their age; as Epanimondas, & Pelopidas, Thebans; Timotheus, Conon, Chabrias, & Iphicrates, Athenians; & not long before, Pausanias, Lysander, & Agesilaus, Lacedæmonians; & Timoleon of Corinth: but also those of the times of the Persian & Median wars: as Themistocles, Aristides, Cymon, & Miltiades; & afore them Conon, Myronides, Pericles, & some other Grecians: and in Sicily Gelon, the son of Diomenes. For who so will compare the virtues of all them, with the deeds & glory of Philip, and Alexander; he shall find their virtue, and renown more excellent then of thothers: and that they have left them a great space behind. PHILIP at his beginning, having but small means; made in the end his kingdom more mighty and more redoubted, than any other Lordship of his time in all Europe: and finding at his coming to it, the kingdom of Macedon, handmaid, and tributary to the Illyrians; he made it ere he died, Lady and mistress of many Cities, divers Countries, and Nations, bordering about her. He made himself by his own virtue to be chosen Chieftain general of all Greece; the Grecian Cities voluntarily submitting themselves to his government. And after he had overthrown by force of arms those which had sacked, and spoiled the temple of Apollo at Delphos; and had made free, the access of the Oracle: he obtained a place, and voice in the Counsel of the States of Greece called the Amphictyones: which was given and granted him for reward of his virtue and devotion showed towards the Gods. Then having subdued to his will the Illirians, Pannonians, Thracians and Scythians; he undertook to overthrow the Empire of Persia. Following which deliberation, he sent his army before into Asia; where he set at liberty the Greek Cities that were seated there: But being overtaken by death he could not make an end of his enterprise; but left to his son, and successor Alexander such, and so great power, that de had no need afterwards else where to seek any aid or secure to ruinated the Empire of Persia. All which great things he did not with the favour of fortune; but by his own only virtue; being a very wise Prince, especially in matter of war; valiant of his person, affable, and as liberal as any prince might be.  
Touching his son ALEXANDER, he did in a little time many great things; and by his good wit, and valour excelled all the kings that were ever renowned for their great deeds, since the world was first a world. For in the space of twelve years which he reigned and no more, he conquered a good part of Europe; and even almost all Asia throughout: whereby he got of good right exceeding great glory, and not inferior to the greatest Princes of ancient time: who for the greatness and excellency of their deeds and virtues have been reverenced by their posterity as demi Gods. From his childhood he gave evident tokens of his greatness, to ensue; He took no pleasure in women, nor in plays, nor any other kind of pastime: but his whole and only delight was in arms. And the more he saw his father Philip to prosper, the more sorry he was; saying that he would leave nothing for him to do. When the other young Lords of his age invited him to go to the Olympian games; he answered them that he would willingly go, if he thought he should find any Kings there, with whom he might combat and just. The Ambassadors of the king of Persia having talked with him, said that they found in him more magnanimity than his age could bear. King Philip being desirous to know who should be his successor, sent to the Oracle of Apollo, at Delphos; where he had answer that he should succeed him in his kingdom, and enjoy the empire of the whole world, whom the horse Bucephalus would suffer to get up on him: The which fell out to be true in Alexander. For this Bucephalus was a horse of singular beauty, but fierce, and not to be ruled by others; which showed himself so tractable unto Alexander, that he might do with him what he would: who kept him long, reserving him for battles, or dangerous passages. But such was the hap of Alexander, that he never sought battle but he won; and never besieged fortress, but he took it. While he was yet but young and evill-furnished with money, and having but thirty five, or forty thousand men of war; he was so hardy and adventurous as to pass the sea, and to go into Asia to assail the king of Persia, the greatest, and most mighty king of the world, very far into his own kingdom: whom he discomfited three times, putting to flight the armies of his adversary; whereof the least was of four or five hundred thousand fight men. After which overthrows, the king of Persia offered him two thousand talents, and a part of his kingdom, to ransom his mother, his wife and his daughters: but he would not restore them; giving a magnanimous answer, that as the world could not be guided by two suns; so that there could not be two sovereign kingdoms; while the habitable earth remained. Having conquered the whole estate of Persia, he marched with his army even to the extremities of the East, through such rough and long ways for the most part, and amongst so many different nations; that with great difficulty might one go thithen being lightly furnished on horseback or on foot: besides the danger of fight. Then returning out of India to Babylon, he was saluted king of all the world, being about xxxiij. years of age; by Ambassadors, sent from Carthage, and from the rest of Africa: from the Spain's and Gauls, from Sicily, Sardigna, and Italy. Such was the terror of his name, and the reputation of his greatness, and felicity. And having overcome the East, he threatened Carthage; preparing great armies both by sea, and land to conquer the West; having purposed to march through Africa even to the pillars of Hercules; and to pass at the straits into Spain; then from thence to return by Gaul, and Italy into Greece, when he died in the midst of his enterprises and victories. He was so ambitious, that understanding how the Philosopher Democritus affirmed that there were many worlds; he lamented that he was so long in getting of this one: and was sorry that he could not sooner invade the rest. He called himself the son of God, and would be worshipped accordingly; And after he was dead, his body remained seven days without stink or corruption: which confirmed the opinion that was held of his divinity.  
Thus much touching the excellency of arms that was then: and it shall not be besides our purpose to treat a little of that of learning; which will be found to be no less in Plato, and Aristotle according to their quality.  
These two than set Philosophy as high as ever it was; and have surmounted not only the other former Philosophers both Greeks and strangers; but also had never since their equals. In so much that the world holdeth of them at this present; the most part of that knowledge which it hath: those books of theirs which remain, being translated into all languages; and dispersed into all nations: They have known whatsoever it was possible to know in their time, and whereunto the understanding of man could then attain. There is no liberal knowledge, nor art, nor science whatsoever; whereof they have not spoken pertinently & properly. There is nothing in the heaven, in the earth, nor in the sea, which they have omitted. Whereunto the better to attain they chose a manner of living quiet, and peaceable, fit for learning, and contemplation: which as nearest approaching to the heavenly life, they thought worthiest of a wise man. They shunned public charges, full of envy, and of travails: seeking rest that they might study, and write.  
PLATO, after he had long time conversed with Socrates, and having been in Italy, Sicily, and Egypt; although he loved well his Country, and understood well matter of government; yet notwithstanding would not meddle with the common wealth, because he saw the people of Athens even to dote with old age; and to be near their end: but employed all the time of his life, in learning, and seeking of truth; showing by words, by writing, and by deeds, the way of virtue to those that would follow it. There is such majesty in his speech, that it hath been thought, if God would have used the language of men, that he would not have spoken otherwise, then as Plato did. And Cicero calleth him the Father not only of knowledge, but also of speaking well: having a style in a mean betwixt prose, and verse; yet somewhat nearer approaching to that of Homer. And where the Greeks went before into strange countries to study; the strangers began in his time to come to Athens to learn knowledge.  
Likewise, ARISTOTLE was honourably sent for by King Philip, who esteemed it much, that he had such a person borne in his own kingdom, and in his time; And especially for the instruction of his son Alexander: where having remained eight years, howbeit he had great credit in the Court of Macedon, and might have come to great Offices, and riches: he retired himself notwithstanding to Athens, to spend there the rest of his life in learning. And whereas in any one particular science, one shall hardly attain to any excellency, though he use no other exercise all his life; he excelled in whatsoever he would apply himself unto: and never undertook to entreat of anything, but he brought it almost to his sovereign perfection: wherein he was much helped by the quickness of his wit, and sharpness of his understanding, his inclination to learning, and perseverance: the excellent learning of his master Plato, whose auditor he was by the space of xx. years; the happiness of that age wherein he was borne, full of good books, and rich in all arts: and the liberality of his scholar Alexander; who supplied him with goods, to come to his intention.  
Many debate, who was ever of greatest understanding amongst men; the which is difficult to be decided. Notwithstanding if we consider it well, we shall not find any more admirable, then ARISTOTLE: for the excellency of the works which he hath composed; and the worthiness of the matters of which he hath entreated. PLATO hath not given himself so much to natural Philosophy, as ARISTOTLE, but hath been very curious of Moral and Politic: and excellent in Metaphysic: Thone hath entreated of the creation of the world, of the figures, qualities, & motions of the four elements: of which the world is compounded. He set down three principles, God, the Idea or for me, and the first matter; being the nurse of all generation. Tother goeth about to prove that the world is eternal, setting down also three principles, yet different from tother: namely, matter, form, and privation. He disputeth of place, of void, of time, of motion, of generation, and corruption; of the four elements; of mutations happened in the air: he hath declared the birth, lives, figures, parts, inclinations, affections, and actions of all living creatures. His scholar Theophrastus, hath showed the natures, causes, and reasons of plants; & other things growing on the earth. Both of them have written of the soul. But PLATO speaketh more certainly of the immortality thereof, then ARISTOTLE. PLATO hath discoursed of a perfect common wealth, of laws, and of virtues, largely. ARISTOTLE also hath composed many books in Moral philosophy, deducing all the parts thereof even to the Economick. Moreover he hath gathered the institutions, and disciplines, of the Common weals and kingdoms of his time, and of such as flourished before him. Thone and tother have showed the changes which happened in them, and the means how to remedy them. As concerning Logic; Aristotle attributeth to himself the invention, and perfection thereof. He hath also spoken of Rhetoric, and of Poesy so exactly, that there is none found better in these professions. Moreover PLATO hath written in dialogues: in the which commonly he bringeth in SOCRATES, assuring nothing; but disputing much of things both affirmatively, & negatively: inquiring of all things, and ask the opinion of the assistants or standers by; without saying his own, or resolving of anything. Which manner of writing hath great efficacy; and maketh things more intelligible: as if they were then doing, and were not taken from elsewhere, observing the dignity of the persons introduced; & accommodating of apt speech unto every one according to the variety: which causeth an exceeding pleasure. In doing whereof, he hath followed an elegant manner of writing, magnificent, full of majesty; and gravity both in words, and sentences; enriched with translations, allegories, and other colours of Rhetorik; without observing, any certain method of teaching. But ARISTOTLE hath endeavoured to write methodically; he expresseth himself according as the matter requireth properly, & without any exquisite ornament of words: That which he undertaketh to treat off, he pursueth it from the beginning unto the end, not digressing any ways; & leaveth nothing undecided. Many have blamed him for having made himself purposely obscure; and ambiguous, in many places: and that he did it of craft; fearing lest some should handle him in such sort; as he had handled others. PLATO is more copious, ARISTOTLE more pithy; Thone hath mingled many strange opinions in his books, as of the transmigration of souls out of one body into another; of the communion of wives, of children, and of goods: Tother hath more conformed himself to common life; & to civil actions. th'one hath chief stood on intelligible things; & tother on things sensible. th'one hath searched throughout for Ideas, & forms; tother made but a jest thereof; as of the former opinions which he hath sharply reprehended: notwithstanding many have been of opinion, that there was no difference between them in sentences▪ but in words only: & have assayed to reconcile them. Finally, the Greeks reckoned the one divine; and his doctrine hath been much honoured, both whiles he lived, and after his decease. Tother hath been held for a wonderful man, of great judgement, and incomparable knowledge; singularly respected and reverenced of all that have sithence given themselves to learning. In brief, ARISTOTLE learned all the good which he knew, of PLATO, and it was a marvelous great happiness unto him, to have been both a scholar of the most excellent philosopher that hath ever been known; and Master of the greatest King of the world.  
It were not reasonable here to omit DEMOSTHENES, who was a diligent hearer of Plato, and a friend unto Aristotle: being so accomplished in eloquence, that he is accounted the law, and the rule of peroring, and speaking well. There is such force in his words, and he hath so well disposed them; that one cannot well add any thing to them, or take aught from them. It is not possible in those causes which he hath handled, and in the Orations which he hath written, wisely to invent, or subtly to express any thing; but he hath well understood it: Neither on the contrary, to find any thing more stately, more grave, or more beautified; then that which he hath said, and written. For he was so studious and laborious, that even till the fiftieth year of his age, there was never found any Artisan in Athens more diligent to rise early then he. And although he had many imperfections of nature; as being subject to stammering in his speech, short breathed, and timorous: he overcame by diligence and industry, all his hindrances. And used himself in such sort, that there was no Orator in his time (albeit there were then many excellent) that pronounced more cleanly and distinctly, or spoke longer, and bolder than he. Moreover, he was no small parsonage: but had while he lived great authority throughout Greece, being feared and redoubted by the king of Macedon, honoured by the great Signior of Persia, who managed long the affairs of Athens, where he was borne. By reason whereof, he well understood matters of state, the mutations which happen in Lordships, and the causes wherehence they proceed: and there is not any thing necessary for public government; but some appearance thereof is found in him; his counsels tending not only unto profit, but to honour, and honesty. In somuch, that Plato, and Aristotle, have not better played the Philosophers in their schools; then he did in public assemblies, and judgements.  
But as this age was admirable in power and wisdom, and in all arts: so was it also full of wickedness, & extraordinary changes: As if it had been of necessity, that the same age must bring forth horrible monsters, & notable wonders: for it is commonly seen, that where men's wits are most excellent, there are found together men notably vicious, & virtuous; the authors of great good things & of evil: as if virtue and vice (which are things so contrary & repugnant) had their extremities near one an other: In such sort, that where th'one is, the other estsoons accompanieth it; & they leave not one the other: for even as noble & generous natures being duly instructed become perfectly good, & are causes of great good things; In like manner those that are evil brought up, become exceeding evil, and do great mischiefs: by reason that the exorbitant wickedness, and extreme vices proceed not of weak, and simple natures; but of the noble and generous, being depraved by institution. As appeared in this season, replenished with all good arts, and excellent wits, by the extraordinary mutations which happened therein: Whereof the Orator AESCHINES complaining, cried out, that they led not then the life of men; but that they seemed to be born to that end that their posterity might tell of them strange and unlookedfor marvels: And DEMOSTHENES answering him, acknowledged the fortune of his time to be very adverse, and hard; and that there was neither Greek nor Barbarian, but had suffered much: for not only every one in particular; but publicly the kings, Cities, and Nations received great calamities: First of all, what troubles raised king Philip through out all Greece; corrupting by gifts the Magistrates and Governors of Towns; and nourishing amongst the Greeks' divisions and partialities? In such sort, that he himself confessed, that he had much more enlarged his kingdom by gold and silver, then by arms. And albeit the Athenians having always in suspicion his greatness, were exhorted continually by DEMOSTHENES, to take upon them the protection of the common liberty; and to punish with death those Citizens whom they should find to go about to betray the common wealth: Notwithstanding, this great Orator could not with all his diligence refrain the evil inclination of some particulars; which sought but how to sell their Country: Such abundance of Traitors there were found in that season. Afterwards as Philip being become proud by many prosperities, for the greatness of his power, placed himself amongst the twelve Gods, he was killed by Pausanias a Macedonian gentleman, to whom he had denied justice; at the marriage of his daughter Cleopatra, which he solemnized with great triumph, beholding the plays which were made: and even in the midst of his guard, between the two Alexanders, the one being his son, and tother his son in law, whom he had made king of Epirus. The fault of which murder, was for the most part imputed to the Queen Olympias, who being divorced from him, stirred up the youngman boiling before with anger to do it. But there was also some suspicion which touched Alexander, doubting lest he would leave the kingdom to an other: Who likewise after he had turned all topsy-turvy in Europe, and in Asia; because of his insolency, was poisoned by his most familiar friends. Olympias, wife of the one, and mother to the other, was massacred by Cassandra for the great arrogancy which was in her; and cruelties which she had committed. Seneca calleth Alexander a furious young man; having in steed of virtue, a fortunate temerity; and that from his youth he was a these, and a distroier of people: being the ruin both of his enemies, and friends; who placed his sovereign felicity in astonishing, and making himself feared of all men. furor saith he, stirred up the wicked man to undo other men; and made him to march through unknown places: Account you him wise that began with the ruins of Greece, in the which he had been bred and brought up; taking from every one that which was his good? He constrained Lacedaemon to serve, and Athens to be silent. Not content with the ruin of so many Cities, which Philip either bought or overcame; he overthrew others also; and beareth arms through out the world, without satisfying his cruelty: after the manner of savage beasts, which bite being not pressed with hunger. He hath already gathered many Kingdoms into one; already the Greeks', and Persians do fear one king; and notwithstanding, passing beyond the Ocean, he is sorry and loath to bond his victories by the footsteps of Hercules, and of Bacchus: but will force nature; and can not stay; as heavy things which do not cease to roll, until they meet with some stop or hindrance. He saith, that Philip and Alexander, and other such like renowned, through the ruin of people, have been no less plagues unto men, than the deluge, by which the earth was drowned: or then the burning which consumed by heat, and drought, a great part of living creatures. Lucan thinketh, that he gave a pernicious example to the world; showing the means how to reduce so many Countries under one Lord; calling him the fat all evil of the world; and a lightning which struck all Nations: whose insatiable ambition could not be stayed, but by death. Therefore the Scythians spoke thus unto him; What need hast thou of riches, which constrain thee always to desire? Thou art the first, which of abundance hast made indigence: to the end that by possessing more, thou mightst more earnestly desire that which thou hast not. Who would ever have thought that the Greeks' should have ruled Asia? and that so mean a king, as that of Macedon, could have overthrown the Monarchy of Persia, of inestimable largeness and power, both by land and sea?  
In like manner, the Lordship of DIONISE in Sicily, was overthrown by DION with little means, against the opinion and expectation of all the world: which was the greatest and mightiest that was then in Europe: for who could have believed, that he which arrived in Sicily only with two ships of burden, should have overcome a Lord, that had in his disposition four hundred vessels with oars, a hundred thousand foot, and ten thousand horsemen; with provision and munition, of arms, corn, and money, as much as was needful for entertainment of so great power? and who above all the forenamed things, had under his obedience one of the greatest, and most mighty Cities, which was then in all Greece: which hadso many ports; so many arsenals, or storehouses so many impregnable castles? and who besides all this, was allied with many great and mighty confederates? But that which gave DION the victory in this enterprise, was principally his magnanimity, and greatness of courage: with the love and good will which was borne him, of those whom he came to set free: And that which holp him yet more than all the rest was, the small valour; and the cowardice of the Tyrant: with the hate and evil will which was borne him of all those, whom he unjustly detained in bondage, and servitude. All which causes at the same time concurring together; made these things come to effect, which would be otherwise incredible.  
Was it not a strange case to see the Athenians and Lacedæmonians, who had so long time sought for the superiority; to come themselves into the subjection of the Macedonians, who before was tributary to the Illyrians? And the City of Thebes, which had sometimes aspired to that principality, burned, razed, and destroyed in one day; and the Citizens thereof sold as slaves, and brought into bondage? On the other side, there was not then any man excellent in knowledge, but endured much. SOCRATES the father both of moral and politic Philosophy, falsely accused of not believing in the Gods, & of corrupting youth, was condemned and executed by poison: But his condemnation being found unjust, the people repent it soon after; considering how great a parsonage they had wrongfully put to death; and were so mutinous against them which were the cause thereof: that finally they put them all to death also; without hearing their defences and allegations. PLATO was sold by pirates: and in danger of his life in the Court of Syracuse. XENOPHON was banished Athens. ARISTOTLE constrained to departed, fearing lest they would deal with him, as they did with Socrates. DEMOSTHENES poisoned himself with the poison which he carried in his ring: because he would not yield himself to the mercy of his enemy Antipater. DEMETRIUS the Phalerian, retired himself to the king of Alexandria, where he died of the biting of an Asp. EURIPIDES into Macedonia, where he was devoured by mastiffs. So many strange accidents there were in that season. PLUTARCH writeth, that in his time GREECE was so brought to nought, that scarcely altogether could it make three thousand men of war: which the only City of Megara-sent in times passed to the battle of Platea. In such sort diminished it by succession of time, being di●sided into many common weals, ill agreeing amongst themselves; impoverished by seditions, and wars; infected with curious sects in philosophy, and the most of them pernicious: as of the Epicures, Cynics, Cyrenaickes, Eretrickes, Megarians, and Pyrrhonians; sometimes subject to the Kings of Macedonia; sometimes to those of Syria, and Asia; sometimes to Mithridates; sometimes to the Romans, which ruled it a long time: after to the Emperors of Constantinople; and last of all to the Turks: under whom it is brought into miserable bondage, being deprived of the arts, of the ancient nobility, and of the fair Cities which it was wont to have.  

A COMPARISON OF THE AUNCI ent Greeks', with the Egyptians, Assyrians, Persians, and Indians.  
PLATO in his Menexemus, and his Politics writeth, that they called in Greece all the other Nations barbarous: which had not any communion of living, or of language with the Grecians: and that they accounted them all servile. Aristotle in the first of his Politics, allegeth the Poets which said, that the Greeks' should rule over the Barbarians: as if a Barbarian were the same by nature that a servant is. And Demosthenes in his third Olynthiack; that it was fit, that the Barbarians should be subject to the Grecians.  
Plutarch saith, that Alexander did not as Aristotle his Master counseled him; which was, that he should show himself to the Greeks' as a father; and behave himself towards the Barbarians as a Lord: And that he should have care of the one, as of his friends and kinsfolks; and serve himself of the others as of plants, or of beasts: which if he had done, he had filled his Empire with banishments; which are always secret seeds of wars, and factions: and very dangerous partialities. But he accounting that he was sent from Heaven, as a common reformer, governor, and reconciler of the world; those whom he could not bring in by persuasions of reason, he constrained them by force of arms; and assembled the whole world of many estates into one; and mingling together the lives, manners, marriages, and kinds of living; he commanded all men living, to account the habitable earth their Country; and his Camp to be the castle, and dungeon: all the good folks to be of kin one to the other; and the evil, and wicked only to be strangers: And moreover, that the Greek and the Barbarian should no more be distinguished by their cloak, nor by the fashion of their target, nor by the high hat; but should be marked and discerned; the Greek by virtue, and the Barbarian by vice: reputing all the virtuous to be Greeks', and all the vicious Barbarians: accounting moreover the garments common; the tables common; as also the marriages, and manners of living; being all united by the mixtion of blood; and communion of children. Strabo in the first of his Colmographie is of the same opinion, that this difference ought rather to be made by virtue and vice; because there were many Greeks' wicked and evil; and many Barbarians good and civil: as the Romans, and Carthaginians, who governed very well their common weals. Plato in his Epinomides affirmeth, that the Greeks' inhabited a Region most apt of all others for virtue; and that the praise thereof consisteth chiefly in this, that it is in a mean, between heat and cold. Whereunto Aristotle agreeth, saying in the seventh of his Politics, that the Greek nation is both courageous, and ingenious; as inhabiting in a mean, between the North and the South: which made it to persever in liberty; and to be well governed: and that it might command the whole world, if it had but one government. We will compare it then unto the former: and first of all in power; then afterwards in learning: and other excellency, in many arts, and workmanships.   

THE POWER, AND EMPIRE of Greece.  
HE that will read what the Athenians, Lacedæmonians, and Thebans did, from the time of the war which king Xerxes made against them (which was the beginning of their great glory and prosperity) till the reign of king Philip the son of Amyntas; shall find it a long time: during which, they fought more amongst themselves for ambition of rule, one over the other, than they did against strangers to augment their Empire, and to preserve their liberty. And some of them for covetousness of getting a new Lordship in Sicily, overthrew themselves; some others which went into Asia to conquer, got no great thing there; but returned soon again. And in deed although the power of the Greeks' hath been travailed in many great wars, yet did it never firmly establish any Empire out of Greece. The Grecians for a time were mighty enough, and made proof of their forces for keeping of their liberty; and to show themselves invincible. But in the time of the said Philip, and his son Alexander, their estate and affairs began to decline. Before the deeds of the Macedonians were little esteemed; and they were subject always for the most part to other nations. And although Philip by his travails and labours magnified them greatly: notwithstanding his authority never went out of the country of Greece. Touching the Empire of Alexander it is most certain that it was glorious and excellent, both for the greatness thereof, as also for the celerity of his conquests: But after it was once come to an infinite degree, and impossible to imitate; it divided itself soon into many parts: Even as a flash of lightning which giveth suddenly a great light, and runneth hither and thither, and then is extinguished. But if the great God (saith Plutarch) which sent the soul of Alexander here below, had not suddenly called it unto him again; peradventure there had been but one only law, which had governed all men; and all this world had been ruled under one self-same justice: even as by one light. But as soon as he was deceased; his Army and power wandering▪ and hurting itself, was like unto a man, who having lost his sight▪ feeleth every where with his hand, without knowing whether he goeth: so the greatness of his power, he being dead, went astray, and wandered hither and thither, reeling and stumbling at every thing: because there was not any to whom it obeyed; Or rather as the body, when the soul is once out of it, the parts do not sustain one another, neither find themselves united one to the other; but they leave each other, and disjoin themselves one from the other, and withdraw themselves: So the Army of Alexander, after it had lost him, did nothing but tremble and shake in a continual fever, under Perdiccas, Meleager, Seleucus, Antigonus, Eumenes, Lysimachus, Ptolemeus, Lacomedon, Antipater, Philotas, and Leonatus, his successors: which were even as spirits, yet warm, and pulses beating, sometimes here, sometimes there, by spaces and fits; until that finally coming to waste, and perish in itself, it crauled all with worms: which were the chief Captains, being become kings, by usurpation of his Lordships; not like to him in valour, and generosity: Amongst whom, and their offspring arose great civil wars, a long time continued; whereof followed the desolation of their kingdoms: so that by little and little, they fell into the hands of the Parthians; or of the Romans; or had particular Lords.   

A COMPARISON OF ALEXANDER the great, unto Cyrus, Agesilaus, Themistocles, Pericles, Agamemnon, Achilles, Ulysses, Diomedes, Bacchus, Hercules, and others.  
IF we consider in Alexander, his devotion towards the Gods, affiance in his friends, his suffisance with a little, his continency, beneficence, contempt of death, magnanimity, humanity, gracious entertainment, easy access, frank disposition of nature, not counterfeited, nor feigned▪ his constancy in counsels, readiness in executions, his will to be the chief of men in glory, and resolution to do whatsoever his will commanded; we shall find that God who composed him of many virtues, gave him the courage of Cyrus, the temperance of Agesilaus, the sharp understanding of Themistocles, the experience of Philip, the hardiness of Brasidas, and the sufficiency of Pericles in matters of state and government: And in respect of the more ancients, that he was more continent than Agamemnon, who preferred a captive prisoner, before the love of his lawful wife; and he would never once touch a captive, until he had first married her: more magnanimous than Achilles, who for a little ransom sold the body of Hector, being dead; whereas he bestowed a great sum of money in burying that or Darius: and the other to appeal his choler, as being mercenary, took presents of his friends for his hire; and this man being victorious, enriched his enemies. He was more religious than Diomedes, who was ready to fight with the Gods themselves; and he accounted, that all his victories and happy successes, came unto him by favour of the Gods. He was more charitable to his parents then Ulysses, whose mother died for sorrow: whereas the mother of his enemy for love and good will which she bore unto him, died with him for grief of his death. Solon ordained at Athens an abolishment of all debts; Alexander paid his soldiers debts to their creditors. Pericles having taxed the Greeks', of the money which came of this tax, beautified the City of Athens with fair Temples, especially the castle: on the contrary, Alexander having taken the treasure of the Barbarians; scent into Greece the sum of six Millions of gold, to build temples for the Gods, in steed of those which they had overthrown. Brasidas got great reputation of valiancy amongst the Grecians, because he traversed, and passed through the enemy's host, from th'one end to the other, being encamped before the Town of Methona along the sea shore: whereas the marvelous leap which Alexander made in the City of the Oxydraques, to those which hear it told, is incredible, and to those which saw it, most terrible; when he threw himself from the height of the walls into the midst of his enemies, who received him with darts, and arrows, pikes, and swords: Whereunto might one compare this deed, but unto the flash of lightning, which breaketh forcibly out of the cloud, and being carried by the wind, striketh on the earth: even as an apparition shining out of flaming armour. Insomuch, that those which saw him at the instant, were so frighted therewith, that they retired back: but when they saw that it was one man alone, assailing a great many; then they returned to make head against him. That which led Alexander against all Nations, was nothing but a desire of glory, and of rule, having proposed unto himself by jealousy and emulation, to surpass the deeds of Bacchus, and of Hercules; by making his arms to be seen yet farther than they had made theirs. Moreover, it was a great happiness unto him, and such as never happened to any other Monarch; to have in his time the most excellent men in all knowledge, and the best work men that ever were; towards whom he was very liberal: as also to them it was a great advantage to have such a beholder, who knew most ingeniously to judge of that which they had done; and to recompense it most liberally. For even as the humanity, the honour and liberality of the Prince, is that which provoketh and setteth forward the advancement of arts▪ and of good inventions: so on the contrary, all that languisheth, and is extinguished, by the envy, and nigardness of those that rule. Then as Alexander after his Conquests, had in treasure a hundred thousand Talents, and thirty thousand of yearly revenue; which i● eighteen Millions of Crowns by the year: he used these great treasures magnificently, with marvelous and well ordered liberality; having respect to the merits of men; and bestowing his benefits in those places, where he thought the memory of them could not be lost. He gave charge unto Aristotle, to reduce into writing, the natures of all living creatures; and for this effect caused to be delivered to him eight hundred Talents; coming to CCCClxxx. thousand Crowns of our money: commanding many thousands of men through out Greece, and Asia, as hunters, fowlers, falconers, fishers; and all those which had charge of parks, pools, or birdhouses, to bring him beasts and living creatures; or to make faithful report of their natures. He gave to the Philosopher Anaxarchus to set up his School, a hundred talents; and to Xenocrates, a man of great account, fifty. He did singularly admire the Poesy of Homer, which he had always at night under his beds-head with his dagger; and accounted much of philosophy, wherein he had been instructed by the said Aristotle: esteeming no less to surmount others in the knowledge of good, and excellent arts, then in power and force of arms. Wherefore he desired above all, that his deeds might be recommended to posterity, by worthy writers: as in like manner he would not be portrayed but by Apelles; neither have his statue made but by Lysippus: which were two the most excellent workmen, that Greece ever bare; th'one of them a Painter; and the other a Statuary. There is yet to be seen at this day in the City of Alexandria in Egypt, a little house in manner of a church, and therein a sepulture much honoured, and visited by the Mahometans; because they affirm that there do rest the bones of Alexander the great prophet, and king, according as they are taught by their Alcoran; insomuch, that many strangers go thither, out of Regions far distant, to visit this sepulture, leaving in this place great offerings.   

A COMPARISON OF THE LEAR LEARning of the Greeks', unto that of the Egyptians, Chaldees, Persians, Indians, and others.  
PLato in his Timaeus saith, that the Country of Greece, by reason of the temperature of all the seasons of the year did bring forth wisemen; and in the fourth of his Common wealth; that the Grecians, by the situation of their country, were naturally given to the study of wisdom: attributing in his Menexemus this property principally to the territory of Athens, which he upholdeth to be most apt for the breeding of good arts; as in truth there have been more Grecians, and namely Athenians learned, and eloquent, then of all the other Nations of Europe. Yet so is it, that the same author in his Epinomides acknowledgeth, that the sciences came first from the Barbarians to the Grecians, but that they amended and bettered whatsoever they received of others. And Solon in the beginning of the said Timaeus confesseth, that the Grecians understood nothing of antiquity, in respect of the Egyptians. And affirmeth, that by one of their Priests it was reproached unto him: that the Grecians were always children: that there was none in Greece that was old: in as much as they were all young of understanding; without having any opinion taken from antiquity, nor any hoary and aged science.  
josephus against Appion the Grammarian, meaning to show that we ought not amongst the Greeks to seek for the knowledge of antiquity; but amongst the Egyptians, and Chaldees, whose Priests were careful to write histories: saith, that he marveleth at those which attributed all to the Greeks', therein; it being most certain, that the Greecians came into the world, not only after it was come to his full groweth, but even when it was waxing old; and that all their inventions, manners, laws, arts, towns, and cities are but new. Herodotus affirmeth, that Divination and Geometry, were brought out of Egypt into Greece: and that the Greeks' learned of the Babylonians the elevation of the Pole, the use of the quadrant, and the division of the day into hours. Moreover, that the Egyptians found out the division of the year, & divided it into twelve Months, by the knowledge which they had of the stars; where in it seemeth to him, that they behaved themselves better than the Grecians: for as much as the Greeks', to place the time that was superabundant, were constrained from three years to three, to put between them an odd month: And on the contrary, the Egyptians allowed thirty days to every month, adjoining to each year five days, over and above; in such sort, that the revolution of the time, came always to one point, and was found good. Herodotus also writeth in his fifth book, that the Phoenicians which came with Cadmus to inhabit Beotia, brought with them many arts & learn, planting there the knowledge of letters; which the Greeks' had not before: And confesseth, that all the Phoenicians used them before the Grecians; but that sithence by succession of time, the sound of the said letters was changed together with the words. The learned men which went out of Greece into Egypt, to learn their Laws and sciences, were Orpheus, Musaeus, Mélampus, Homer, Lycurgus; and after them, Solon, Plato, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, Democritus, and Inopis, which learned in Egypt, all that made them worthy of admiration. For Orpheus brought therehence the hymns of the Gods; the festivals; the punishments, and rewards of the dead; & the use of statues. In like manner, Lycurgus, Plato, and Solon, brought to their common weals, many laws and constitutions; which they had taken from the Egyptians. Also Pythagoras learned in the holy writings of Egypt; Geometry, and Arithmetic together with the transmutation of souls from body to body. And Democritus in five years which he spent there, understood many secrets of Astrology. Likewise Inopis having long frequented with the Priests and Astrologers of Egypt, brought into Greece the knowledge of whatsoever the sun doth; and the course of the other stars: of the Zodiac, and of many other such things.   

A COMPARISON OF THE PHILO sophers of Greece, with the Chaldees of Babylon, and the Priests of Egypt.  
THe Priests of Egypt, and the Chaldees of Assyria, from their childhood were brought up, and instructed by their parents in the sciences; the care of all other things being laid apart: and they became by means hereof very learned; aswell for that they were so instructed and taught from their young years; as also because they continued and persevered long therein. But the Greeks' did otherwise: for commonly they gave not themselves to philosophy, until they were of good years; and did not study it long: but turned by and by to things of profit. And there were few of them that would bestow their time in philosophy, till they understood it well; but went to other exercises to get gain. And they were not accustomed to follow that science whereunto their fathers were given: but studied at their pleasure, and without constraint many several sciences. But the strangers and Barbarians continued always their first exercises: And the Greeks often changing their opinion for their profit, and disputing one against an other of the greatest sciences, made their disciples so uncertain, that they were forced to fail; and to remain all their life time in doubt: without having certain knowledge of any thing, which was the cause of so many sects, and opinions rising amongst them, the one contrary, and repugnant to the other.   

A COMPARISON OF THE GRECIANS with the Persians, Indians, and the Nomads of Syria and Arabia.  
THe Persians in old time contended with the Greeks' in matter of arms, and of learning: who surmounted the elegancy of the Greek tongue, by subtle brevity of speech, being most ingenious to understand all subtleties and conveyances of talk; and ready to answer to arguments proposed unto them: in discoursing conveniently of great affairs; whereof they gave pertinent resolutions without difficulty, or delay. They used also wise proverbs, and profound riddles: not that they understood the subtleties of Chrysippus, or of Aristotle; or that they had learned this knowledge of Socrates, or Plato, or Demosthenes; for they neither studied Philosophy, nor Rhetoric: but they did it by the natural goodness of their mother wit, and sharp understanding: wherein the Indians were taken to be better than the Persians. And the Nomads of Syria, and Arabia, very apt and exquisite to find out the truth, and to refute falsehood: who even at this time (without having given themselves to learning) do speak very sufficiently of Astrology; alleging very apparent reasons of their sayings: which they have understood by long observation, and deliver them from the father to the son successively; and augment them continually.   

THE ELOQVENCE Of the Greeks'.  
ELoquence was borne in Athens, where also it was fostered, and bred; and brought up to his perfection: In somuch, that in that City were seen at onetime, ten excellent Orators; of whom Demosthenes appeared to be the best. As touching strangers; they used not any Rhetoric to cirumvent the judges; or to turn them from the truth: but decided the causes by the bills or writings of the plaintiff, and defendant, who might make their replication, or rejoinder, without disguising the deeds with fair words; or cloaking the truth with affections. And when it was needful to deliberate in counsel of state on public affairs, they speak their opinions in few: not holding or troubling the assembly with affected and tedious words.   

THE GREEK POESY.  
THere is no Nation which hath had more sorts of Poesy; nor more, or better Poets than Greece. For besides the Heroics which have written of divers matters; of wars; of natural philosophy, Astrology, Physic, Bucolics, and Georgics: there hath been a great company of Tragicks, Gomicks, Elegiacks, Lyrics, iambics, Dithyrambicks▪ and Epigrammatists: such as elsewhere have not been found the like▪ save amongst the Romans and Italians, who wrote after imitation of them. Of whom shall be spoken hereafter, in comparing them together.   

THE GRECIAN HISTORY.  
IT is natural to all Nations, to seek out their antiquities, and to preserve the memory of public affairs: by reason whereof there are histories found every where. But whereas others have contented themselves with bare Annals, or Chronicles, describing simply the times, persons, places, & affairs; the Grecians have added thereunto the ornaments of eloquence. Especially Herodotus and Thucydides, having surpassed all others that ever meddled with writing of histories: except peradventure they oppose unto them Sallust, and Livy, of the Latins; who after them have worthily acquitted themselves in this kind of writing.   

THE NOBILITY OF AUNCI enter Greece.  
THe Greeks' in old time, and namely the Lacedæmonians and Corinthians, accounted the Artisans base; as we have said heretofore: and only those noble which exercised arms. Herodotus doubteth whether they took this custom of the Egyptians; seeing the Thracians, Scythians, Persians, Lydians, and almost all the Barbarians used the same. The Egyptians endeavoured to prove, that the Athenians were descended of a Colony of Scytes, a people of the country of Egypt; as is told in the Timaeus of Plato; and rehearsed by Diodorus the Sicilian: because that in the towns of Greece, the people was divided into three parts, according to the custom of Egypt. For the first order of the city was of the nobles, who being given above all others to the sciences, were the more esteemed; being therein like to the Priests of Egypt. The second was of those to whom lands had been divided, and assigned, to th'end they might the better give themselves to arms, for defence of their Country; like unto those of Egypt, who were invested with fees; and which did wage the soldiers for the wars, at their charges. The third order was of the meaner sort of people, and of Artisans, who being given altogether to Mechanical arts, furnished many necessary works for the whole Commonalty.   

THE ARTISANS, AND WORKS of the Grecians.  
THe Artisans of Greece were no less excellent in their works, than the learned in their professions; and many of them did write of their mysteries: of whom the most famous in divers arts have been before recited. Nevertheless, Herodotus in his second book, speaking of the Labyrinth of Egypt, and of the Pyramids, saith: that if any one would make comparison, of the buildings, fortresses, & works, which were then in Greece, he should find that they were all of less labour and expense, than this labyrinth. And albeit the Temple of Ephesus; and that of Samos, deserved to be reckoned of: yet the Pyramids exceeded tongue, and pen: considering that one of them was equal to all the buildings of the Greeks'; and yet notwithstanding, the Labyrinth surmounted the Pyramids. But that the artificial pool of Meris, near unto which it was seated, yielded yet greater marvels. Moreover Diodorus the Sicilian affirmeth, that the best cutters, & carvers of Images that were in Greece, learned their measures and dimensions of the Egyptians: who amongst all other nations did not measure the composition of statues by the eye; but did them by compass: to th'end that the statue might be made of many and divers stones gathered into one body; observing the measures & proportions. A thing in deed worthy of admiration: namely, that many Artisans in divers places, should so well agree in one measure; that one only Image entire, and perfect, should be made by them being separated one from another; sometimes of twenty, sometimes of forty stones.   
The end of the fifth Book.   

OF THE POWER, WARFARE, LEAR LEARning, Eloquence, Poesy, and other excellence of the Romans▪ The Sixth Book.  
WE will now come to the ROMANS; who in their time obtained the excellence in arms, in learning, and in all workmanships: But even as after the going of Xerxes into Greece (which put the Grecians in the greatest fear that ever they were) the war having had an other end than was expected, they not only found themselves out of danger, but also got great glory thereby; growing marvelously from that time forward in all felicity, riches, and excellency of all arts: So the Romans after the second Punic war, and voyage of Hannibal into Italy; which troubled them much, remaining there sixteen years with a mighty army, in which time he won many battles on them, and came even to the gates of Rome, where he might also have entered, if he had known how to use the victory: the Romans then being brought to the greatest extremity, that ever they were (being vanquished by the Carthaginians, and seeming to have given over the glory of arms unto them) yet this long, and cruel war having taken an other end than was looked for; and the chance being turned to the advantage, and honour of the Romans; by their constancy, and good counsel: from that time forward for the space of three and fifty years (as Polybius saith) they became exceeding strong both by land and by sea, commanding not only over all Italy, but also over the better part of the world; stretching their Empire to the rest of Europe, into Asia, and into Africa; which they made greater than any other that had been before, or hath been after them: increasing in all felicity & abundance; which together with idleness, made the Arts and sciences to come in reputation amongst them: as it had before in Greece. For after they had vanquished, and overthrown the Carthaginians, destroyed Numantia, and razed Corinth to the ground; reduced into provinces, the kingdoms of Macedonia, Bythinia, Suria, Pontus, Capadocia, Numidia, Mauritania, and Egypt: conquered the Spain's, and the Gauls: subdued Germany, and great Britain; obtained the Lordship of the sea, and Isles thereof: there was not found any more sufficient power to resist them, then that of the Parthians on the East; which seemed to have parted with them the Empire of the world, possessing seventeen kingdoms. In so much that sithence that time, both military, and politic discipline, was better in Italy then it had been before in any part of the world. Eloquence also flourished much at Rome; and all arts both liberal and mechanical, came almost to their perfection. Then lived those great CAPTAINS so much renowned; the two Scipios, the one surnamed of Africa, and the other called the Asiaticke; Quintus Fabius the great; Marcus Marcellus, who was desirous to have saved that ingenious Archimedes life, at the siege of Syracuse; Paulus Emilius, Marius, Sylla, Pompeius, julius Caesar: ORATORS Cethegus, M. Cato Censorius, Galba, Lelius, the two Gracchis brethren; Carbo, Crassus, Antonius, Hortensius, Cicero, calvus, Pollio, Messala which lost his wit and memory; Cornelius Nepos, and Fenestella. HISTORIANS, Pictor, Piso, Antipater, Sisenna, Sallust, Titus Livius, and Trogus Pompeius: PHILOSOPHERS and wise men, Tubero, and Cato. STOICS, M. Varro, and Nigidius. LAWYERS, Quintus Scaevola, Servius Sulpitius, Gallus Aquilius, Lucius Balbus, C. Iwencius, Sextus, Papyrius, Aulus Offilius, Alphenus, Varus, C. Titius, Decius, the two Aufidij, Pacwius, Flavius Priscus, Ginna, P. Celius, C. Th●bacius, and Antistius Labeo. COMICAL POETS Livius Andronicus the first writer amongst the Romans, Cecilius, Plautus, Nevius, Licinius, Attila, Terence, Turpilius, Trabea, Luscus, Afranius: TRAGICAL, Accius, Pacwius, Ennius: satirical, Lucilius, and Horace, who was also a LYRIC: ELEGIACAL, ●uid, Tibullus, Propertius, Catullus, Asconius Pedianus a GRAMMARIAN; Cornelius Gallus, Laberius Plotius, Valgius, Fuscus, the two Gisques, and Furnias: HEROICAL, Lucretius, Macer, Virgil, Manilius, julius Firmicus, ASTROLOGERS: Antonius Musa a PHYSICIAN vitrvuius an ARCHITECT, Atela a PAINTER: The Italian wits always fructifying and increasing till the time of julius Caesar, and Augustus: when as Italy rose to the greatest excellence, that it could attain, both in arms, in learning, and in all workmanships: wherehence it fell incontinently. Diodorus the Sicilian, Strabo of Crete, Dyonise the Halicarnassean, and Cicero with them, do not only celebrate the perfection of their age; but foresee also the fall thereof at hand: telling how eloquence being brought from a little and low beginning, to her sovereign excellence, waxed old; and seemed as if in short time it would decay and come to nought: as by order of nature it falleth out with all other things. Horace witnesseth that in his time the Romans were come to the height of fortune; and that they did all works better than the Grecians. Seneca writeth that all whatsoever Italy may oppose or prefer unto Greece, flourished about the time of Cicero: and that all good wits which have given light to Latin letters were borne then. Solinus speaking of Augustus, saith that his reign hath been almost the only time wherein arms have ceased; and good wits, and sciences flourished.  
To such authority, magnificence, & state came the Roman Empire; whose beginning in deed was small and difficult, but yet miraculous: as promising some greatness in time to come. And first the generation, birth, and education of Romulus (who by beginning the buildings of the city of Rome laid the first foundation of this estate) was marvelous. For it is said that his mother lay with the God Mars; and it was then believed, that Hercules, was engendered in a long night, the day having been withheld, and the sun stayed contrary to the course of nature; so was it also believed that in the conception of Romulus the sun was eclipsed: and that there was a true conjunction of the Sun with the moon; when Mars (who was a God according to the Pagan credulity) coupled with Syluia being a mortal woman; and that the same happened again to Romulus the same day that he departed this life, vanishing out of sight when the sun was in eclipse. And then when he and his brother Remus were borne, Amulius (who had constrained their mother to make herself a votary or Nun, and to vow perpetual chastity, shutting her up within the wood of Mars, where she became with child) seeing that they were two, and meaning to make them die, commanded they should be exposed, and cast forth; and their mother shut up close: whereof she died. But fortune (which a far off beheld the birth of so great a city) provided for the two children; by means of a kind and gentle servant, who having charge to cast them out, would not put them to death: but laid them on the bank of a river, joining to a fair green meadow, and shadowed with little trees near unto a wild figgtree: and then a she-wolf, which had lately brought forth young ones and had lost them, having her teats so full of milk that she was ready to burst, seeking to ease herself came to these children, and gave them suck; as if she had brought forth a second time, in being delivered of her milk. And then the bird which is consecrated to Mars called a hickway or wood-pecker coming thither, and approaching to them, and with her foot, opening gently the children's mouths one after another; fed them with little crumbs of her own food: which being perceived by the shepherd Faustulus, he carried them there hence, and brought them up poorly among his beasts; no man knowing who they were; neither that they were the children of Syluia, and nephews to Numitor, and to the king Amulius. And being after this manner brought up amongst the shepherds, they became strong and hardy: in such sort that oft times they defended their beasts from being taken of thee●es. It fell out that after they had many times done so, Remus was taken, and accused unto the king of theft, from which he had often kept others; and that it was he which set upon the beasts of Numitor. And then was he delivered by the king unto Numitor to take avengement of him; or to be recompensed by him for the robberies which he had done: who seeing the young years of Remus; and considering well the marks of his countenance; together with the time, when his daughter's children were cast out; began to suspect that he was one of them, by his age so well agreeing thereto. And being in this doubt Romulus and Faustulus came unto him; by whom he was advertised of the truth of all. Then being avenged of Amulius (whom they slew) they placed Numitor in the kingdom; and afterwards founded the city of Rome. ROMULUS then the first Prince, author, and founder thereof, having composed it of Country people, and nea●heards, had many travails in doing thereof; and found himself entangled with many wars, and many dangers: being constrained to fight with those that opposed themselves to the rising and foundation of this City; and to the increase of this people newly planted. Then afterwards as his nativity, preservation, and nourishment had been marvelous; his end was no less. For as he spoke unto the people, suddenly the weather was over cast, and the air was horribly changed; The sun lost entirely his light, and there were terrible thunders, impetuous winds, storms and tempests on every side, which made the common people to hide themselves here and there in corners: But the Senators kept themselves together. Then when the storm was past, the day cleared, and the weather become fair, the people assembled again as before; and went to seek their king, and to ask what was become of him. But the Lords would not suffer them to inquire any farther; but admonished them to honour, and reverence him, as one that had been taken up into heaven; and who thence forward instead of a good king, would be a propitious, and favourable God unto them. Moreover julius Proculus, one of the Patricians accounted a very honest man, (who also had been a great familiar friend of Romulus) affirmed that as he came from Alba he met him on his way; greater and fairer than ever he had seen him; armed all in white armour, bright, & shining as fire: and that being affrighted to see him in such sort, he asked him wherefore he had abandoned his orphan city in such infinite sorrow: To whom Romulus answered; It pleased the Gods, from whom I came, that I should remain among men, as long as I have remained, & that after I had built a city (which in glory, and greatness of Empire, shall one day be the chief in the world) I should return to dwell in heaven, as before. Wherefore be of good cheer, and say unto the Romans, that in exercising of prows, and temperance, they shall attain to the height of humane power: and as for me I will be henceforth a God, Protector, and Patron of them whom they shall call QVIRINUS.  
The ancients recited many such marvels, in the which there is no appearance of truth, endeavouring to deify the nature of man; and to associate him, with the Gods. It is is very true saith Plutarch, that it were evil, and wickedly done to deny the divinity of virtue; but yet to mingle earth with heaven were great foolishness: being a thing most certain, that after death the soul (which is the image of eternity) remaineth only alive, and returneth to heaven wherehence it came; not with the body; but rather when it is farthest removed, and separated from the body; and when it is clean and holy, and holdeth nothing any longer oft he flesh. Therefore it is not necessary to go about to send against nature, the bodies of virtuous men with their souls unto heaven: but we ought to think, and firmly believe that their virtues and souls, according to nature and divine justice, become saints of men; and of saints demi-gods: and of demi-gods (after they are perfectly as in sacrifices of purgation cleansed, & purified, being delivered of all passibility, and mortality) they become (not by any civil ordinance, but in truth, reason & likelihood) entire & perfect Gods; receiving a most happy & glorious end.  
But NUMA the second king, succeeding unto Romulus, had time and leisure to establish Rome, and to ensure the increase thereof, by means of the long peace which he had with all his enemies; which was to Rome as a storehouse of all munition for the wars which followed after: and the people of Rome having exercised themselves at leisure, and in quiet and rest, by the space of xliij. years, after the wars which they had under Romulus; they made themselves strong enough, & sufficient to make head against those which afterwards opposed themselves against them. Considering that in all that time, there was neither plague, nor famine, nor barrenness of the earth, nor intemperateness of winter or summer that offended them: as if all these years had been governed not by human wisdom, but by the divine providence. For he gave out that the goddess Egeria was in love with him; & that lying with him, she taught him how to rule and govern his common wealth. Numa then taking the city of Rome, as in a turbulent tempest, and in a sea tormented, & troubled with the enmity, envy, and evil will of all the neighbour nations, and bordering peoples; and moreover exercised in itself with infinite troubles, and partialities; he extinguished and assuaged all angers, and all the envies, as evil, and contrary winds: giving means to the people being but newly planted, and scarcely yet established, to take root and to fasten their footing, by augmenting leisurely in all safety; without wars, without sickness, without peril, without fear, or any other hindrance whatsoever. For in all his reign there was neither war, nor civil sedition, nor attempt of novelty, in government of the common wealth; & yet less enmity or envy particularly against him; or conspiracy against his person forgreedines of rule. And not only at Rome was the people softened, & reform after the example of the justice, clemency & goodness of the king; but in all the Citie● also round about, began a marvelous change of manners no otherwise then if it had been a sweet breath of some wholesome and gracious wind, that had breathed on them from the side of Rome, to refresh them and there stole sweetly into the hearts of men, a desire to live in peace, to labour the earth and to bring up their children, in rest and tranquillity, and to serve and honour the Gods.  
After these two reigned five kings at Rome: and in TARQUIN the last, for hate of his pride, and not of the royal authority was the government changed: Rome being from that time forth governed by two annual CONSULS, and by the SENATE under the authority of the people.  
Then from the Consuls it came to the rule of TEN MEN, from whom it returned back again to the CONSULS. And whereas there were opposed unto them two military TRIBUNES of equal power: they were within the year deposed, and gave place to the CONSULS. And albeit they used in the great affairs of the common wealth to create a DICTATOUR with absolute authority for the time; nevertheless the Consulary administration remained still; and under it Rome prospered most; augmenting marvelously in power, till it came to the Empire of the world. And it seemeth discoursing by reason on the augmentation thereof, that it was guided, and governed by the divine Conduct: and that the true God (though he were not known nor worshipped of them;) because of their justice, prudence, valiance, and good discipline, exalted them: to the end to repress, or to chastise the great, and exceeding vices reigning at that time, amongst many nations? It was he that favoured them continually, by land, by sea, in war, and in peace; against the Italians, against the Greeks', against all strangers and Barbarians; giving them means to join trophies to trophies; triumphs unto triumphs; and conquest unto conquest; of kingdoms subdued, nations overcome; Islands and Continents brought under subjection: which came all under the shadow of the greatness of this Empire. He permitted that by one only battle Philip of Macedony should be chased away▪ That by one only blow Antiochus should yield them Asia; That the Carthaginians by one only overthrow should lose Lybia; That POMPEY at one adventure, and one only voyage should conquer them Armenia, the kingdom of Pontus, Syria, Arabia, the Albanians, the Iberians; and even to the hill Caucasus, and to the Hyrcanians; and to the Ocean which environeth the world; which at three several times, and three divers places saw him victorious▪ that he should repress, and beat back the Nomads in afric, even to the banks of the meridional Ocean; that he should subdue Spain, which was revolted with Sertorius, even to the Atlantic sea: and should pursue the Kings of the Albanians, even to the Caspian sea. That JULIUS CESAR should overcome the Gauls, which had gone beyond the Romans in military glory; taken, and burned Rome▪ possessed Italy▪ and who for a long space of time constantly defended their liberty: in such fort that where the Romans assailed others for glory, they made war against the Gauls for their safety, and conservation. God I say caused Hannibal, to run and consume out of Carthage into Italy, even as an impetuous raging stream; permitting that by the envy, and malignity of his envious fellow citizens, no reenforcement nor succour should be sent him from his country. He permitted that the armies of the Cymbrians, and of the Teutons should be separated by great distance of places, and times; to th'end that MARIUS might be able to fight with them, and to overthrow them both one after another: and to hinder that CCC. thousand fight men should not join together at the same time to overrun all Italy with invincible men, and forces unresistible. He permitted that Antiochus should hold him still, whiles they had wars with Philip; and that Philip having been already beaten, should die when Antiochus was in danger of the loss of his estate. He permitted that the Bastarnick, and Sarmatick wars should hold the king Mithridates occupied, whiles the Marsick war burned, and foraged Italy▪ That Tigranes, whiles Mithridates, was strong and mighty, should distrust, and envy him; which kept him from joining with him: and afterwards when he was overthrown, should gather unto him, that he might also perish with him. He permitted that the Romans after the great discomfiture which they had received of the Gauls near to the river of Allia, should reunite themselves; and that the said Gauls besieging the Capitol, and having surprised it by night should be discovered by geese: without which warning, both the place▪ and the estate, had been lost. He permitted that Alexander the great should die before he came toward the west: who being elevated by many great victories and glorious conquests, began already to dart the flaming beams of his arms even into Italy. In such fort that all these hindrances being taken away by the divine permission, the Romans had means to grow; and with time to establish an Empire of greater compass both by land and by sea, than any whereof there is any memory; and at whose incomparable power Plutarch admiring in the reign of trajan, thought, virtue and fortune (which ordinarily do never agree together) had with one accord accomplished, the greatest and goodliest work, that eu●● was amongst men. For where as the greatest potentates, and Empires that had been amongst men, were changed according to the occurrences, and stumbled one at the other; for as much as none of them was great enough to command all the rest: and that nevertheless all of them desiring it, there was a strange motion, and wandering agitation, and a universal mutation of all in all throughout the world; until such time as Rome coming to take force, and increase, and to tie and bind unto it on th'one side other peoples, and neighbour nations; and on the other side Lordships, Kingdoms, and principalities of strange and far princes beyond the seas; the principal things began to take firm foundation and assured establishment: because the Empire was finally reduced into peaceable order, and grown to such greatness of estate, that nothing could fall; by reason that virtue reigned in them that guided this great work unto perfection; especially in JULIUS CESAR, and AUGUSTUS, who surpassed all the rest that were either before, or after them in felicity, power ' and glory.  
For first of all who so will compare unto JULIUS CESAR, all the Fabians, Scipios, Metelles; and those of his time, or somewhat afore him, as Sylla, Marius, the two Luculles; and Pompey himself, whom Pliny dareth to compare, not only with Alexander the great, but with Hercules, and Bacchus; recounting the victories happily obtained by him in all parts of the world, with his titles and triumphs: He shall find that the deeds of Caesar, in all military virtue, and precedence in matter of war, surmount them all entirely: the one in the uneasiness of the places where he made his Conquests; the other in the largeness and circuit of those countries, which he added to the Roman Empire; another in the multitude and strength of the enemies whom he defeated; another in the roughness and sharpness of men with whom he had to deal; whose manners he afterwards polished, and softened; The other in clemency towards those whom he had taken; another in liberality, and great benefice towards those which fought under his charge in the wars: and all of them in the number of battles which he won; and multitude of enemies which he slew in battle. For in less than in ten years (which the wars of the Gauls endured) he took by assault or by force eight hundred Towns; subdued three hundred nations; and having had many times in battle before him three Millions of armed men; he slew one Million of them, and took as many prisoners. Moreover he made himself so well beloved of his people, who were so earnestly affectioned to do him service, that albeit they were but as other men when they fought for any other; yet when the question was of the honour or glory of Caesar, they were invincible, and ran headlong on all danger with such fury, that none was able to abide them. And being borne to do all great things, and his heart being by nature desirous of great honour, the prosperities of his passed prowesses, and conquests, did not invite him to be desirous to enjoy in peace the fruit of his labours: but rather kindled him, and encouraged him, to be willing to undertake others, engendering always more and more, an imagination in him of greater enterprises and a desire of new glory; as if that which he had already had been wasted and worn out. Which passion was nothing else but a jealousy and emulation of himself, as if he had been some other man; and an obstinate desire always to overcome himself: the hope of that which was to come fight still with the glory of what was passed; and the ambition of that which he desired to do, with that which he had all ready done. For he had purposed, and already made preparation to go fight against the Parthians, and after he had subdued them, to pass through Hyrcania, and to environ the Caspian sea, and the mountain Caucasus; and returning to win the kingdom of Pontus, that he might afterward go into Scythia, and having overrun, all the Country and bordering provinces of great Germany, and Germany itself, to return in the end through Gaul into Italy, and so to spread the Roman Empire round about: in such fort that it should on each side be bounded with the great Ocean. That great fortune, and favour of heaven, that had accompanied him all his life long, continued in the avengement of his death; pursuing by land, and by sea, all those which had conspired against him: insomuch that there remained not one unpunished of all those, which either in deed or in counsel, were partakers of the conspiracy of his death. But of all things which have happened to men on earth, the most wonderful, was that of Cassius; who after he had been defeated, & lost the day in the battle of Philippi, slew himself with that very sword, wherewith he had stricken Caesar. And of those which happened in heaven the great comet which appeared, was evident for seven nights continually after his death: and shortly after also the darkening of the light of the Sun, the which in sight of all that army arose always pale; and never with his sparkling and shining brightness; whereby his heat was also very feeble, and weak; and the air consequently all the year long very dark, and thick by reason of the imbecility of the heat which could not resolve, and clarify it: which was the cause that the fruits on the earth remained unripe and unperfect, perishing before they were ripened, by reason of the coldness of the air. But above all, the vision which appeared to Brutus, showed evidently that the slaughter was not acceptable to the Gods. Suetonius also witnesseth that at Capua was found in the sepulchre of Capys a Tablet of brass, signifying the death of julius; the manner how he should die, and be slain: which sepulchre, and tablet had been made a thousand years before. The people sorrowed much for him after his death; because he was most skilful and experienced how to rule: and caused his body to be brought into the midst of the market place; building a Temple for him near unto the place where he was buried, and worshipped him as a God.  
OCTAVIAN his nephew, and successor, had such hap, that of a simple Citizen, or Knight of Rome, he obtained the Empire of the whole world; which he ruled about fifty and six years; being whiles heelived, and after his death honoured as a God: by consecrating of Temples unto him, erecting of statues, and ordaining of Priests with great foundations to do service there. Before he was borne, it was foretold by julius Marathus unto the Senate and people of Rome, that nature shortly would bring them forth a King. And P. Nigidius a very learned ginger and Philosopher, having known his nativity, affirmed that there was a Lord of the world borne. Which Cicero foresaw in a dream; seeming unto him that the children of the Senators were called unto the Capitol; because jupiter had appointed to show which was he, that should one day be head and Prince of Rome. And that all the Romans' of a great desire which they had to know who he should be, were all come round about the Temple; and that all the children were likewise attending there in their purple garments: until that suddenly the gates of the Temple were opened, and then the children arose one after another, and passed along before the statue of jupiter; who looked upon them all saving the young Caesar, to whom when he passed before him, he reached out his hand, and said, Ye Roman Lords, this child here is he, that shall make an end of your civil wars when he cometh to be your head. It is said that Cicero had this vision while he slept; and that he imprinted firmly in his memory the form of the child's countenance; but that he knew him not: And that on the morrow he went of purpose into the field of Mars, whither, the young folk were wont to go to play and sport themselves; where he found that the childdrens having ended their exercises, were returning homeward: and that amongst them the first which he perceived, was he whom he had seen in his dream, and he remembered his favour well. Whereof being yet more astonished, he asked him whose child he was; who answered that he was the son of one Octavian; a man not much renowned, and of Actia, the sister of julius Caesar: which julius Caesar having no children made him by testament his heir, leaving him his goods, and his house. It is told of him that soon after he began to speak being not far from the city in a house of his fathers, where the frogs did nothing but cry and trouble men with their noise, he commanded them to cease, and be still; which they did, and never afterwards were heard in that place. He was a gentle, gracious, and civil parsonage, proper, comely, and fair throughout all his body▪ But especially his eyes; which shined as fair stars when he moved them. In such sort that they which looked on him, winked as at the sunbeams: And when a certain Soldier turning away from his face, was asked why he did so; he answered because he could not abide the shining of his eyes: and we do yet doubt that there be from above certain personages ordained to rule and command over mankind, and to do great, and strange marvels.  
But JULIUS CESAR having overcome his Citizens, made himself the first Monarch of the Roman empire: to whom Augustus succeeded, who governed it most happily after he was absolute Lord thereof. In such sort that there is not found any time wherein it hath been so wealthy, and well ordered, and established in peace, and obedience as it was in his time. And according to the form of government, which he brought into the state of his house, the train of his Court, into the Senate, or counsel, the course of justice, managing of his revenues, administration of provinces, entertainment of forces both by sea, and by land, that Empire long maintained itself, and prospered marvelously therewith. Being then in his greatest glory, and power, he held first of all in the Britain Ocean many parts; and on the other side from the pillars of Hercules, all the Islands and Ports, peoples and Nations which are in this Sea, as far as it is navigable, on the one side, and the other. Of which Nations the first on the right hand, are Mauritanians bordering on the Sea; likewise the Country of Lybia, even as far as Carthage: After them higher, and farther of the Numidians, and the Country of Numidia; and beyond them all the rest of Lybia, which stretcheth out unto the Syrteses; together with the City of Cyrene. Then are the Marmarides, the Ammonides, and those which hold the marish of Marienna; & consequently the great city of Alexandria; together with all the whole country of Egypt even to the easterly Ethiopia: and going down along the river of Nile by Pelusium unto the sea. And after returning along the bank thereof, the country of Suria, Palestina; and yet higher, a part of Arabia, and the Phoenicians; and farther into the land the Cilisyrians bordering on the river Euphrates. Farther on the sea, the Palmyrians amongst sandy deserts which are on the said river of Euphrates; And yet farther the Cilicians neighbours to the Surians▪ and the Cappadocians with a part of Armenia, the lesser: Moreover all the nations dwelling near the sea Euxinus all along the coast. In regard of mediterranean, or upland countries towards Armenia the great; the Romans ruled not over them, neither imposed any tribute on them: but gave and confirmed their kings unto them. Therehence coming from Cappadocia: & even to the Ionian sea is the great Chersonesus, in the which are on the right hand the provinces, and nations of Pontus, and Propontida, of Hellespont, and the Egean sea: On the left hand, the sea of Pamphylia, and of Egypt. And beyond those the Pamphilians, Lycians, Phoenicians, and Carians even to jonia; Moreover the Galathians, Bythinians, Phrygians, and Mysians being above the Pontic sea; and farther into the main land, the Pysidians and Lydians: all which nations were subject to the Romans. And passing yet farther by Hellespont, they ruled over the Mysians dwelling in Europe: and the Thracians on the sea Euxinus. Near unto the country of jonia, there is the gulf of the Egean sea; and that of the Ionian; then the sea of Cilicia, and the Tyrrhen sea, reaching even to the pillars of Hercules: within which reach, which is from jonia, unto the Ocean sea, there are many nations and provinces which were subject to the Romans: that is to say, the whole country of Greece, Thessaly, Macedony, and all the other quarters belonging to the province of Thrace; the Illyrians, Peonians, and the territory of Italy; which is for the most part environed with the Ionian, & Tyrrhene seas; and stretcheth itself by land unto the country of the Gauls, having on the one side the mediterranean or midland sea; on another the northern Ocean; and on tother the river of Rhine: and yet farther is all the country of Spain, all along the Atlantic sea, even to the pillars of Hercules. In regard of those which are farther into land; they passed not into that part of afric which hath on the one side the west Ethiopia; & on tother the desert country of Lybia: which is not inhabited for the exceeding heat, and hath nothing but monsters, and wild beasts, unto the East Ethiopia. These were the limits of the Roman Empire on the side of Ethiopia, and of afric. On the side of Asia the river Euphrates, the mountain Caucasus, the beginning of Armenia the great, and the Cholches dwelling near the sea Euxinus, & the rest of the Euxine sea. On the side of Europe the rivers of Rhine, and of Danubius: whereof the one that is the Rhine entereth into the Ocean; the other into the Euxin sea. And notwithstanding the Romans also ruled over some nations dwelling above the Rhine; and over the Gethes which dwelled beyond Danubius; and were called Dacians. Touching the Isles: all those which are within the mediterranean sea, which are called Cyclades, Sporades, Hyades, Echinades, Tyrthenides; or others whatsoever they are, about Lybia, jonia, Egypt, or elsewhere on the sea, which the Greeks call the great Islands; as Cypress, Candie, Rhods, Lesbos, Euboe, Sicilia, Sardignia, Corsica, Maiorca, Minorca; and all other great or little were subject to the Empire of Rome: And on the coast of the northern sea, they held under their obedience, the greatest, and the best part of the Isle of Britain.  
So many nations, & provinces did they subdue unto their obedience, by order of discipline, good counsel, strength, courage, virtue, patience, and perseverance of the Italians; when they taught to fight with the best military discipline in the world; which they used in rising, encamping, marching, & fight, well armed & ordered; resolute to overcome, or to die. Especially the footmen; in which they had more confidence, then in their horsemen; founding their principal strength on then. Then for the maintenance of their Empire, & safety; they had 200000. men ordinarily entertained; xl. thousand horse, CCC. Elephant's apt for war; two thousand Chariots furnished; and over and besides iij. hundred thousand harness of provision: which is for their force on land.  
Touching that on the sea, they had about two thousand ships; a thousand and five hundred galleys, of five, and six oars, with furniture accordingly; eight hundred great Vessels for pomp, and to carry their Emperors guilded, and richly wrought, both at the forecastle and stern: an inestimable quantity of gold, and silver in treasure; having almost an infinite revenue, consisting in yearly rents, in customs, and subsidies; and in tributes which we call taxes, and tallages: which they levied, on so many Countries, lands, and signiories. Of which revenue it is not possible to make any certain estimate, or account; no more than of other Empires and kingdoms absolute: whereof the revenues increase or diminish, according to the disposition of their affairs; and will of the Sovereign Lords, imposing and taking away subsidy at their pleasures.  
Such was the excellency of the Romans in arms. Touching that of Learning, CICERO without controversy deserveth to be the first named amongst them: who giving himself to imitation of the Grecians; hath represented in his writings the vehemency of Demosthenes, the abundance of Plato, and good grace of Isocrates: he not only got by study that which was excellent in each of them; but of himself also hath produced many virtues, or rather all, by the most happy felicity of his immortal understanding; borne by some gift of the divine providence, to the end that Eloquence in him might show all her forces. For who could teach more diligently, or move more earnestly; who was ever more pleasant? in such sort that one would think that he obtained that which he entreateth by force. And albeit by his vehemency he transporteth the judge; yet seemeth he not to be drawn himself: but to follow of his own accord. Moreover, there is such authority in whatsoever he saith, that it seemeth a shame to gainsay him; not bringing with him the diligence of an advocate, but the testimony of a witness, or of a judge: all these things notwithstanding flowing from him without constraint or labour; amongst the which each of them striving particularly, yet with great difficulty excelleth each other. And there appeareth in his speech a happy facility, goodly to hear. Wherefore he was not without cause accounted by those of his time to reign in judgements; and hath gotten amongst posterity the name, not of a man; but of eloquence. Pliny giveth such testimony of him. But what error were it for me (saith he) to omit thee M. Tully, or what excellent praise shall I give thee? but even that which hath been bestowed on thee, by the common voice, and universal suffrage of all the people of this nation: in taking out of all thy life▪ the works only of thy Consulship? when you spoke, the Tribunes refused the law Agrarie: that is to say, their food and sustenance. When you persuaded; they pardoned Roscius▪ the author of the law Theatral. When you perored and pleaded; it was permitted unto the children of banished persons to seek for honours, and magistracies. Catiline flieth from thy wisdom; Thou hast proscribed and banished Mark Anthony: I salute thee the first that hath been called the father of the Country; the first that hath deserved in a gown, the triumph of the Crown of laurel, by speaking well; parent of the Latin language, and elegancy: and (as Cesar the Dictator was wont to say of thee) having the prerogative of all triumphs: for as much as it is more to have advanced the bounds of the Roman learning, then of the Empire.  
The same Pliny writeth thus of M. VARRO. The statue of him alone whiles he lived, was placed by Asinius Pollio, in the library, which he first of all others erected▪ of the spoils gotten of the enemies; which I esteem no less glory, proceeding of a principal Orator and Citizen, in that multitude of good wits that then was; and giving this crown to him alone: then when Pompey the great, gave him the navale Crown, for having well behaved himself in the war against the pirates, where he was his Lieutenant. Cicero dedicating to him his first Academic, saith: Thou hast declared the age of the Country, the descriptions of time; the rights of holy things, and of Priests; the discipline of peace, and of war; the situation of Countries, and places; the names, kinds, offices, and causes of all, both divine and human affairs; bringing great light to our Poets, and generally to Latin words, and letters: and hast in many places begun Philosophy enough to awaken men, though little to teach them. And in his second Philippick; M. Varro (saith he) would that this place should be the house of his studies: what matters were handled therein, and what written? The rights of the people of Rome, the monuments of the ancestors, the reason and doctrine of all wisdom. And writing unto him in his Epistles, he saith: I have always esteemed you a great parsonage, especially that in these troubles are almost alone in quiet; and receive the fruits of learning, which are great; considering and treating of things, the utility and delectation whereof ought to be preferred before all the actions, and pleasures of these others: Surely I account this abode, which you make at Tusculum to be the true life; and would willingly leave all riches to all men; that it might be permitted me without any hindrance, to live after this manner. Lactantius dareth to affirm, that there was never any more learned amongst the Greeks and Latins. S. Augustine calleth him the sharpest of all men, and without doubt the most learned: who hath read so many things, that it is a wonder he had any leisure to write of aught; and yet hath written so much, that it is scarce credible, that any one could read it all: for he wrote CCCCXC. books. Also, who hath more curiously searched out this then Marcus Varro; or more learnedly found it; or more attentively considered it; or more subtly distinguished it; or written more diligently and fully of it? who albeit he be not so sweet in speech; aboundeth notwithstanding aswell in knowledge, and sentences; as in all doctrine, which we call secular; and they liberal: he can aswell teach the studious of things, as Cicero delight the curious of words.  
Cicero, in his book of the world, giveth such testimony of P. NIGIDIUS. This parsonage was adorned with all liberal arts; and a diligent searcher of things which were hidden, and folded up in nature. And I account thus of him, that after the noble Pythagorians, whose discipline was in a manner extinct: having flourished many years, in Italy and Sicily, he hath renewed it.  
The same Cicero saith of SERVIUS SULPITIUS a Lawyer: his admirable, incredible, and almost divine knowledge in exposition of the laws, and declaration of right and equity, shall not be forgotten. If all those which ever in this City had understanding of the Laws, were assembled together in one place; yet were they not comparable to Servius Sulpitius: for he was not so well seen in law, as in justice; wherefore he referred always to facility and equity, the deeds proceeding of the rule of right, and of the Civil Law: And did not take so much pains to set down the actions and plead of causes; as to take away the doubts of matters and difficulties of controversies.  
The same Cicero of GALLUS AQVILIUS, an other Lawyer; I say one could not to much esteem the authority of such a man; whose wisdom the people of Rome hath known, in taking heed to himself; and not in deceiving of others. Who did never sever the reason of Law from Equity; who so many years hath readily employed his wit, labour, and fidelity for the good of the people of Rome: who is so just, and so good, that he seemeth to be a Lawyer by nature, and not by discipline; so learned and prudent, that he seemeth to be not only a natural knowledge; but also a certain goodness of the civil Law: whose understanding is so good, and such his fidelity; that whatsoever is drawn from thence, is found to be pure and clear.  
Before this time the Latin Poesy was rude, which was then polished, and brought to perfection, especially by VERGIL; whom Quintilian witnesseth, among all the Heroic poets, both Greeks and Latins, to have come nearest unto Homer: in whom notwithstanding he acknowledgeth, that there was more of nature. These are the most notable personages that flourished then both in arms, and learning.  
But JESUS CHRIST defaced all their excellency; who in the reign of Augustus, descending out of Heaven here on earth, and clothing himself with the shape of a man, was borne of the Virgin, and came forth of her womb, both visible Man, and God invisible; promised by the Law, and the Prophets; the master of truth, and cleanser of Idolatry; corrector of malice, and renewer of our depraved nature: to th'end, to restore such as believed in him to their ancient purity, and innocency; corrupted by the forfeiture of the first man. He gave sight to the blind; speech to the dumb; strait going to the lame; healed incurable diseases; cast out evil spirits; fed with five loaves, and two fishes, five thousand persons; turned water into wine; went safely on the waters, as on the land; commanded the sea, the winds, and the tempests; raised the dead to life; and lived himself again, after he had been wrongfully crucified, and killed by the jews. By which miracles he showed himself to be the son of God: establishing his Church and christian Religion; in steed of the Mosaical, and Pagan. Which hath already endured more than fifteen hundred years, and shall never have end; hath passed already to the Antipodes; and hath been manifested to the East and West Indians; yea, even amongst the savages lately discovered towards the South, which before were unknown to all antiquity: and among the farthest people of the North, by means of the Suevians, and Moscovites. In somuch, that at this day we may affirm, that his word hath been heard in all parts of the habitable earth; as he had ordained unto his Disciples, enduing them with the grace of the holy Spirit, and power, to do miracles, as he had done before, and with the gift of tongues; with perseverance, patience, and constancy, against all torments and persecutions. A thing indeed admirable; and the like whereof never happened to any King, Lawmaker, or Philosopher, Grecian, or Barbarian: who contented themselves to set down, and cause to be received in their country, and language, the institutions and Laws, which they esteemed good and profitable. But jesus Christ, not as a mortal man; serving himself with poor fishermen for his Disciples: (whom he would have from that time forward to be fishers of men) hath manifested his Gospel by them through out the whole world; and before all people: enjoining them to show from him, the true way of salvation; and of believing in GOD the Creator of all things. Such was the progress and advancement, which they made in their ministery; that in a little time they induced the Nations by their preaching, to leave their ancient idolatries, and to receive Christ as GOD: they established schools, and auditories of the Christian doctrine: and then were Temples built to the Apostles, and Martyrs, in the most famous Cities of the world; at Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch; through out Egypt, and Lybia, Europe, and Asia. Beginning then, when the Roman power was come to his sovereign greatness, and glory, under Augustus the peaceable ruler of innumerable Nations; when the kingdom of Egypt was extinguished, which had endured almost time out of mind; and the nation of the jews, brought under bondage and subdued; and the Lordships of the Syrians, Cappadocians, Macedonians, Bythinians, Grecians, Illyrians, Africans, Spaniards, and Gauls, were under the Roman Signiory: which we must think did so fall out, by the divine providence of God, to the end to make the same work the more easy; which otherwise must needs have been very difficult: if all these Nations had remained in division and discord. But by means of the union of them under one great Monarchy, they accomplished with less fear and danger their proposed enterprise: God preparing them their way, and bridling the hearts of the superstitious, by the terror of that most mighty Empire. Cornelius Tacitus writeth, that such had been the persuasion of men, that it was contained in the ancient learning of the Priests, that about this time the East should prevail; and that such as came out of jewrie should reign: which was verified in the spiritual reign of jesus Christ; whose Gospel, doctrine, and religion, hath been preached through out the world.  
God then seeing malice infinitely increased, and the worshipping of false Gods dispersed through all the whole world: in such sort, that his name was already almost out of the memory of men; and that the jews themselves (to whom only his divine mysteries had been revealed, and promises made of his holy alliance) given over to vain superstitions; having left the true Religion; whereunto they refused to return, being reprehended, and admonished by the Prophets: at this time ordained for the redemption, he sent his son, the Prince of the Angels unto men, to th'end to divert them from wicked and vain worships; and to induce them to know, and to reverence the true God; bringing back their souls from folly unto wisdom, from iniquity to justice, and from impiety to a right belief. Such and so notable at this time was the mutation both in government, and in Religion.  
BUT as the Romans were climbed to the top of human power and wisdom, by labour & industry: so were they straightways corrupted by riches, and overmuch liberty; degenerating from the former integrity, prowess, learning, and eloquence: Whereof I can not render any better reason than by their own authors; men of good credit, and authority. To th'end (saith Seneca) that ye may understand, how much the wits of men do every day decay; and by I know not what iniquity of nature, and proclivity unto vice, eloquence is gone back: All whatsoever the Roman eloquence hath to oppose unto proud Greece, it flourished in the time of Cicero; All the good wits which brought any light unto our studies, were borne then. Since that time it hath always impaired: either by the looseness of the time, which is most pernicious unto good wits; or that the reward which was proposed for so goodly a thing being lost, all the travail and pains hath been bestowed on dishonest exercises; or else by some destiny, whose envious law is perpetual over all things; so that being come to the highest, they return to the lowest, faster than they went up. The good wits of slothful youth do languish, and do not apply themselves to any honest exercise. Sloth, and negligence, and dexterity in things that are pernicious (which is worse than either sleep or negligence) have possessed their minds. The delight of singing and dancing holdeth the effeminate, and of dressing their hair, and fitting their speech unto womanish dalliances; and exceeding of women in corporal delicacies, and tricking themselves with unclean cleanliness: which is the bravery of our youth. Who is there among the young folks ingenious, or studious enough, or rather man enough? Being softened and effeminated; they remain of necessity as when they were first borne; corrupting the chastity of others, and negligent of their own. The Gods will not suffer so much evil, as that eloquence should come to such people: which I would never so much admire; if she did not make choice of the minds on which she bestowed herself. Cornelius Tacitus writing of famous Orators saith: Tell me the cause why we are so far from the former eloquence: since it is but six score years from the death of Cicero to this present. And a little after; who knoweth not that eloquence, and the other arts are fallen from their ancient glory, not for want of men; but by the slothfulness of youth, and negligence of parents, and ignorance of teachers, and forgetfulness of the ancient customs, Which evils being first begun in the City; have been eft 'zounds dispersed through Italy: and all the provinces. The eloquent men of this time commit foul, and shameful faults in every word of their ordinary speech shutting up eloquence into little sense, and small sentences, as if she were banished from her kingdom: Whereas in times past, being richly decked with all arts, she filled the breasts; now being clipped; and curtailed, she remaineth without ornament, without honour; and as if she were without ingenuity; and is learned but as some base discipline. This we account to be the chief, and principal cause, why we are so far gone back from eloquence. And the same author again in the xvij. of his Annals saith: Before, the affairs of the people of Rome, were written with like eloquence, & liberty; but sithence the battle of Actium that the benefit of peace required all things to be reduced under the power of one; then ceased these great wits, and the truth was utterly lost: first by ignorance of the state of the common wealth, which was strange unto them; then by flattery, or hatred of those that ruled. Pliny in his second book; I marvel (saith he) that the world disagreeing, and being divided into kingdoms, that is to say, into parts, so many persons have employed themselves to search out things which are so difficult to find: In such sort, that at this day every one in his country knoweth some things more truly by the books of such as were never there, then by advertisement of the originaries. And now that we enjoy so happy a peace, and have an Emperor that taketh so great pleasure in the sciences, and in new inventions; men are so far off from inventing any new thing, that they scarce learn the inventions of the ancients. The rewards were not then bestowed in greater abundance by the greatness of fortune; and yet more men employed themselves in searching out of these things, not expecting any other reward then to help their postery. But men's manners are waxen old, and not the rewards. And the sea being open on all sides, and safe landing in all coasts, many do navigate; but it is to gain, and not to learn: whiles the mind being blinded, and altogether given over to avarice, doth not consider that it may more surely and safely be done by learning. The same Author saith in his thirteenth book; As the world is communicated by the majesty of the Roman Empire; who would not think the life of man accommodated by the intercourse of things; and by the society of a happy peace? And yet notwithstanding, there are found but few which know that which the ancients have left: So much the greater was their study, and their industry more fertile. About a thousand years past, shortly on the beginning of Letters; Hesiodus gave precepts unto husbandmen; who hath been followed of many, which hath increased husbandry amongst us: for as much as it is good to consider, not only that which hath been sithence invented; but also that which the ancients invented before; the memory whereof is lost by our sluggishness: whereof we can allege no other causes, than those that are public of the whole world. Surely, other customs are come in sithence; and men's wits are busied about other exercises: They are only given to questuarie, and gainful arts. Before, the Empires of nations were shut up in themselves, and therefore were they constrained by the necessity of fortune, to exercise the gifts of the mind. Innumerable Kings were honoured by the Arts; and prevailed by them, thinking by them to obtain, aid, and immortality: wherefore both the rewards and works abounded. The inlargment of the world, and plenty of things, hath been hurtful to posterity. Since the Senator began to be chosen by his revenue; the judge to be made by the revenue; and that nothing hath so much commended the Magistrate and Captain, as his revenue: Since that corrupting bribes were authorized, & the purchase of offices became very gainful; & that the only pleasure was in possessing much: the prizes of life are vanished; and the arts called liberal, of the great benefit of liberty have fallen out to the contrary: and men have begun to profit only by servitude, and slavery; some worshipping of it in one sort, and some in an other: yet all notwithstanding, aspiring to the same hope of profiting. The chiefest have rather respected the vices of another, than their own virtues. Wherefore pleasure hath begun to live; and life is perished. And the same in his xxv. book; I can not sufficiently admire the diligence of the ancients, who have left nothing unsearched, and unexperimented; not retaining to themselves, that which they knew to be profitable to posterity: on the contrary, we endeavour to hide, and to suppress their labours; & to deprive those good things of life, which are gotten by others. So certainly do they hide it, which know any thing; being envious of others: And ●eaching it unto none, do think thereby to authorize their knowledge. So far are these manners from inventing any new thing, wherewith to be helpful to life: the chiefest and sovereign labour of good wits being come unto this; to reserve to themselves the deeds of others, and to let them perish.  
Which is not to say, that there have not been since any learned, and eloquent men: but that they are much differing from the former in propriety, purity, facility, and elegancy of speech; not comparable to them in understanding, judgement, and knowledge. As in Italy, Seneca called by the Emperor Claudius, sand without lime, and a bosom unbound: The two Pliny's; the Uncle accounted the most learned of his time; and the Nephew a famous Orator; who were men of great credit, and authority. Tacitus and Suetonius Historiographers. Lucan, Persius, Sylius Italicus (who was Consul the last year of Nero) Statius, Juvenal, and Martial, Poets. Cornelius Celsus, exercised in all sciences. Quinctilian a Rhetorician. Aulus Gellius, julius Hyginus an ginger. Polemon, and Scaurus, Grammarians. Aburnius Valens, Tuscianus, Vindius, Verus, Vlpius, Marcellus, Arrianus, Tertullianus, Saluius julianus, L. Volusius, Mecianus, Papinianus, and his auditors, Vulpianus, Tarnucius, Palernus, Macer, Terentius, Clementius, Menander, Arcadius, Rufinus, Papyrius, Fronto, Anthius, Maximus, Hermogenianus, Africanus, Florentinus, Triphonius, justus, Callistratus, Venuleius, Celsus, Alphenus, Sabinus, AElius Gordianus, Triphonius, Proculus, Modestinus, Pomponius, and Africanus, all excellent Lawyers.  
In GREECE, ASIA, and ALEXANDRIA of EGYPT, Plutarch, and his nephew Sextus, Musonius, Apollonius Tyanaeus; & of CHALCEDONIA, Lucian, Galen the Physician, Epictetus the Stoic, Favorinus, Arrianus, Herodianus, and josephus, Historiographers. Appian a Poet. julius Pollux, and Harpocration, Grammarians. Herodes Atticus; and Apolonius Rhetoricians. Alexander Aphrodiseus a Peripatetic, which made the first Commentaries on Aristotle; who before was more praised, then understood of the learned: Out of whose school came Themistius, Ammonius, Simplicius, Philoponus, and Olympiodorus, all commentators on Aristotle. About the same time the Mathematics arose unto their sovereign excellency; by the industry of Claudius Ptolomeus a Mathematician of incomparable knowledge; and the best that ever was in this profession, who hath surpassed all the ancient Egyptians, Chaldeans, Persians, and Grecians; and hath not had his like sithences: having expounded more diligently than any other, the whole description of heaven, of the earth, and of the sea, correcting the errors of the former, and their instruments; and declared the whole, with very likely arguments, and evident demonstrations.  
The Romans for a time were very good, both in peace and in war, modest, just, and valiant: especially after the wars which they had against the Tarentines, and the king Pyrrhus, until the third Punic war. There was not then amongst them any dissension of the Nobles, or commotion of the people. All there care was to augment, and increase their Empire, without respect of their particular profit. At what time there flourished in the common wealth, Curius, Fabricius, Coruncanus, Metellus, Fabius, Scipio, Marcellus, Paulus, and Lepidus: whose magnanimity, and prudence in war; and moderation in peace was admirable. Then the common wealth was very good and holy; for as much as poverty and sparing were then in estimation: and the three kinds of government, were found there so equally ordained, and established so conveniently; that one could not say whether the state were an aristocraty, or a Democraty, or a Monarchy. The power of the Consuls was manifestly monarchical and royal; that of the Senators Aristocratical; and the popular estate wholly Democratical: And there was such an agreement, and band between them against all fortune, that one could not any where find a better estate of a common wealth. For if any common fear came from abroad, and forced them to secure one an other, than the power of this common wealth was so great, and such, that they wanted nothing for their defence; and they applied themselves all both in public and private, to execute in due season their deliberated enterprises: In such sort, that they were sometimes reputed invincible. On the contrary, if being delivered from the public fear of strangers, they became insolent by domestical peace, and abundance of goods; & accustomed themselves to idleness, and delights; and that by this means, the one part would be Masters over the others, & rule beyond reason: They had so well provided a remedy for it, by the mutual bridle and hindrance, which they were one to another, that no one could break out of rank, or lift up himself above the rest: but were every one constrained to remain in his charge. But after that by labour and justice, they were increased; & had overcome the cruel. Nations, and mighty kings: They were eft 'zounds corrupted, perverting the order wherein they lived before; and becoming proud, and avaricious; exceeding in gluttony, and whoredom; and dissolute in all superfluities & delicacies. And then they were divided into partialities, and factions; by occasion whereof they carried arms & weapons into the temples, & public assemblies: killing sometime the Tribunes; sometime the Consuls; and other principal persons of the city. wherehence there arose dishonest quarrels & without order: & therehence followed the contempt of laws and of judgements. And reenforcing the evil day by day, they began to plot manifest enterprises against the common wealth: & to bring the great armies forcibly into the common wealth, which were gathered of fugitive, & condemned persons. And although by their saying, they did it but against their adversaries; nevertheless, in very truth it was against the common wealth: because they invaded the city as enemies, & cruelly killed such as they met; or persecuted them with banishments, & abominable proscriptions, not omitting any detestable deed  
Which seditions began by the two Gracches, Saturnin, and Drusus, furious Tribunes; then were divers times renewed between Sylla and Marius; Pompey and Cesar; and continued by Mark Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus, against ●assius, and Brutus: and finally being raised again between M. Antony, and Octavian, who were brothers in law, caused the change of the common wealth into a Monarchy; the stoutest amongst the Romans being either slain in battles, or by proscriptions: and the others, being wearied with the civil wars, and grieved with the government of the Senate, and of the people; through the dissension of the Lords, and avarice of the Magistrates. For as this age nourished most excellent persons in all virtue, and knowledge: so did it also bring forth more vicious than any time before; and authors of execrable mischiefs.  
The age of Cato (saith Seneca) brought forth many worthy to be borne in Cato his time: as there were then as wicked as ever were; and undertakers of the greatest mischiefs. It was requisite that there should be of the one, and the other: To th'end that Cato might be known, it behoved there should be some good men to approve and allow of him; and some evil, against whom he might prove his force, and virtue. The same Seneca, saith: No age hath been without blame; and if one consider the liberty of every age, I am ashamed to tell it: but men never sinned more openly, then afore Cato. The same Author; M. Cicero (saith he) betwixt the Catilines and Clodians; between the Pompeyeses, and the Crasses; whiles he is tossed up and down with the common wealth; and the government failing, he was carried away; and perished therewith. Cicero writing of Pompey, and of Cesar; Thone and tother (saith he) hath sought to make himself Lord, and not to make the City happy, and honest; and Pompey never left the town till he could no longer keep it; nor abandoned Italy till he was driven out of it: but he thought at the beginning to move all lands and seas; to stir up the Barbarian kings; to draw into Italy the cruel nations armed. Do you not think there might be some agreement made between them? yes, now it might be done; but neither th'one, nor tother hath this end, to make us happy: They would both of them reign. And the same Author; Certainly both the one and tother is miserable; who have always had less regard, to the safety and dignity of their Country; then to their own domination and private commodities: And in the same place; whose alliance, and fidelity in wicked agreement, you see what mischief it hath brought forth. The same Cicero saith, that Cesar was by nature and inclination cruel; but that he counterfeited clemency, because that virtue seemed popular. And Seneca; Neither virtue nor reason (saith he) persuaded Pompey to undertake either foreign, or civil wars: but being carried away with a foolish desire of his own greatness, he carried arms now into Spain against Sertorius; now against the Pirates, under colour of pacifying the sea: He pretended these causes, to th'end he might continue his power. What led him into afric, and into the North against Mithridates; and into Armenia; and against all the kings of Asia; but only an infinite desire of increasing in greatness, seeming only to himself, that he was not great enough? What did put julius so far forward into these public evils? glory, and ambition, and a desire which he had without measure to excel above others. He could not suffer one to be before him; where the common wealth endured two. What? think you that Marius being once Consul indeed, having taken away by force the six other Consulships, when he defeated the Theutons, and the Cymbrians; and when he pursued jugurtha, through the deserts of Africa; did adventure these dangers by the instinct of virtue? These men moving all things, were also moved themselves; after the manner of whirlwinds, which carry away whatsoever they catch: and thereby become more impetuous, and can not be stil. Having then been mischievous unto many, they finally feel in themselves their pernicious mischief; whereby they have been hurtful unto many. The same Seneca; It is all one (saith he) whether Cato overcome, or be overcome in the battle of Pharsalia. The good being in him which could not be vanquished when his party was overcome, was equal with the good which he should have carried victorious into his Country; & have pacified the affairs. Wherefore should it not be equal? seeing that by the same virtue evil fortune is overcome, and good fortune well ordered. The virtue can not be greater nor lesser; It is always after one sort. But Pompey shall lose his army; but the honest pretence of the common wealth, and the Senate, with the chiefest Lords of Rome, following the part of Pompey, being placed in the first rank of the battle, shall be overthrown in one only battle; and the ruins of so great an Empire shall be dispersed over all the world: one part shall fall into Egypt, an other into afric, an other into Spain. This miserable common wealth can not all fall at one time; Let them do all they can. The knowledge of the places doth not help the king juba in his kingdom; nor the obstinate virtue of his subjects: and the fidelity of the Vticians being broken with so many evils faileth. And should Scipio be abandoned in afric, of the fortune of his name? It was already provided that Cato should receive no harm: And yet he was overcome. Certainly the calamities were very great in that conversion of the world; and there were strange adversities mingled with the prosperities. There was neither Country, City, Lordship, or parsonage any whit renowned; but endured much. The ruin of Carthage first presenteth itself, which City seven hundred years after it was founded, had been so flourishing, and excellent in all things; had borne rule over so many seas, and lands, and Islands, and ships; and so much riches; and so many arms, as n●ne more: and had courage more than any other. Fourteen years after, the Numantines being besieged by Scipio AEmilian, seeing that for want of victuals they were not able any longer to endure the siege, themselves burned thei● City of Numantia; and killed themselves, part by the sword; part by fire; & part by poison. Cicero nameth Carthage and Numantia, the two astonishments of the people of Rome. Shall I tell how Syracuse was spoiled; Corinth razed; Antioch, and Jerusalem taken; Athens besieged and sacked; Mars●illes borne in triumph? how Rome saw her Senate flying; & her treasures taken away? Alexandria found Cesar fight in her; and her king the young Ptolomey dead? how Thebes in Egypt was destroyed; Thirteen towns in Peloponesus swallowed up with an earthquak, wherewith Caria & Rhodes also were shaken? How there came extraordinary inundations of the sea; of rivers and of rains; of tempestuous winds? Monsters hideous in all nature, signs in the air, comets, eclipses of the sun, and of the moon; and other horrible things in the celestial motions: whereof ensued famines, plagues, and other diseases, which were before unknown. Cicero writeth, that there appeared then, not only fiery impressions by night in the heaven, flashes of of lightning, and tremble of the earth: but moreover, that the thunder fell on the high towers of the Temples; many Images of the Gods were removed out of their places; many statues of famous men thrown down; the tables of brass, wherein the Laws were engraven, were melted. The Image also of Romulus the founder of Rome, (who was made as he were sucking, and waiting at the tears of the wolf) stricken with thunder. Shall I tell of four-score thousand Romans, and their allies, defeated by the Cymbrians; and a hundred forty thousand Cymbrians slain by the Romans? the armies of the Helvetians, and Germains overthrown? the bondmen up in arms, and allies mutining? And not only the good towns, and mighty armies did suffer, but also the rich signories, and noble kingdoms were destroyed: the free nations either travailed with wars, or were brought under subjection. As the Spanish, French, British, german, Pannonian, Illyrian, Armenian, and Thracian. Italy itself, after it had about some five hundred years valiantly defended itself, was in the end subdued. Moreover, there were scarce any famous men, either in arms or learning, but either received notable injuries; or suffered violent death. Scipio Africanus being returned out of the Senate, was found the next day stifled in his bed: which was thought to have been done by his nearest kindred. Hannibal being driven out of Italy, and banished Africa; poisoned himself in the Court of king Prusias. The king Mithridates being besieged by his son Pharnaces, slew himself; and Pharnaces was in a moment overcome by Cesar. Antiochus the great was deprived of the greatest part of Asia; whereof he thanked the Romans. And the king Prusias called himself their slave. Perseus' the last king of Macedonia was overcome, led in triumph, and died in captivity; and one of his sons was the scribe of the magistrates. Tigranes' king of Armenia, prostrated himself before Pompey, and ask pardon, he lifted him up; and put the Diadem on his head, which he had thrown down. Ptolemey king of Cypress, threw himself headlong into the sea; knowing that by the instance of Clodius the Tribune, Cato was sent thitherto carry away his treasures. Syphax, jugurtha, and juba, being great kings in Africa, ended unhappily.  
Sertorius was slain by treason; Marius flying from Rome in extreme danger of his life, hide himself in the marish about Minturnes, and went to sea in a squiffe without victuals, to the fortune of the winds, and the waves: afterwards being returned, he died, being three score and ten years old, and almost mad. His son slew himself at Preneste. Sylla died eaten with worms, and lice. Crassus' being overcome beyond Euphrates by the Parthians, was slain as he parleyed on safeguard. Pompey was beheaded in the shore of Alexandria. Cesar murdered in the senate-house. Cato, Brutus, Cassius, & Antonius, were slain by their own hands. Cleopatra the last Queen of Alexandria, was strong to death with an Asp. Cicero twice banished, and his head, and hand cut off, with which he had written his Philippics. Mark Varro proscribed. Nigidius exiled. So many horrible things came to pass at that time, that the very remembrance of them striketh fear and horror into me.  

THE FALL OF THE POWER, Learning, and Eloquence of the Romans'.  
THE Romans' then (which for a time had marvelously profited) living in liberty, after that by the factions, into which they were fallen, they were brought into servitude under the rule of one Monarch; they waxed worse and worse; by little and little decreasing the exercise of Arms, and studies of learning. And howbeit by the virtue of some good Princes, the Empire seemed in some sort to rise again; yet was it the more brought low, and afflicted afterwards by the looseness of others: the honour and venerable excellency of this sovereign dignity, being transferred from the ancient families of Rome, to strangers of all nations: yea, even to certain base and vicious persons; who came to it by force, and by corruption: of whom the most part were slain by the greedy soldiers which had created them; and others were overthrown by themselves. Which disorders continued till such time, as the Empire fatally approaching to his end; was abandoned for a pray to the barbarous Nations. For, these Emperors unadvisedly thinking to fortify themselves by the mercenary and auxiliary arms of strangers, whom they sent for to their succour and service; weakening the proper and natural forces of the Empire, which their ancestors had used in the getting of it: they drew, ere they were ware of it, many of the Northern nations into the countries, lands, and signiories of their obedience. Moreover, by transporting the principal forces, and riches, from Rome to Byzantium, dividing of the Empire into the East and West; they weakened much. In such sort, that the West was first destroyed, and then at length also the East; which remaining united, might have long, and almost perpetually resisted all invasions. Then was lost the purity and elegancy of the Latin tongue; the Italians leaving to speak Latin: and in like manner the disciplines written therein came to contempt, and ignorance; and all liberal and Mechanical arts were corrupted: as is easy to judge by the works of this time, yet remaining of divers sorts. And although in this mingling, there fell out great things, and strange marvels; yet met they not with men to gather them diligently, and to write them worthily: but they whole remained either buried in the darkness of ignorance, or wrapped up in confusion; or depraved by barbarism, which endured in Europe about a thousand years.  
But howbeit, that common weals have their natural conversions, fatal periods, and prefixed times of continuance: It seemeth notwithstanding that the chief cause of the ruin of the Roman Empire, aught to be attributed to CONSTANTINE surnamed the great; who transported the seat thereof out of Italy, where it was begun, and grown up; changed the form of government, in which it had been maintained since Augustus' time; casserd the Praetorian soldiers; made the fees hereditary, which the men of arms before possessed only for a time, or during their life at most; created new Magistrates; and ordained new Laws, altering in a little time all the ancient form of government. For, Dioclesian being dead, Maximian, Maxencius, and Licinius slain (who had been all Emperors at the same time with Constantius associated by them) when this CONSTANTINE (the son of this Constancius, and his successor in the Empire) saw himself alone peaceable Monarch, he bethought him for the perpetuating of his memory, and celebrating of it the more, to build upon the strait of the sea, and the farthest part of Europe next unto Asia, in the place where Byzantium stood before, a great city equal in all things unto Rome; which he beautified with the same privileges, liberties, dignities and honours: To the end that by the force thereof the Empire toward the East might be upheld against the Persians; whose power at that time was great, and terrible; as in the west it was maintained against the Germans by the means of ancient Rome. He would that these two cities should be reputed as one; and that the citizens of th'one as of the other, should in like manner be chosen Consuls; of whom th'one should be resident here; and tother there. He ordained that there should be four prefectures of the praetory, or Courts of sovereign authority, next unto the imperial; by which all the affairs of the Empire should be ordered: two for the west, of Italy, and of France; two for the East, of Ilyrian, and of the Orient. And in lieu of the fifteen legions ordained by Augustus, and entertained by his successors for defence of the Empire on the Rivers of the Rhine, and of Danubius; he there built certain Castles, and Fortresses, putting in them but weak garrisons: yet thinking nevertheless that they would be strong enough to stop the courses of the Northern nations; which he took to be altogether overcome by the great victories which he had obtained over them. Wherein he was greatly deceived; for as much as these barbarous people seeing the frontiers of the Empire weak, and evil guarded, stayed not long from winning them; entering into the provinces of the Empire, which they overran and invaded miserably: namely the Ostrogoths, and lombards of Italy; the Visigoths, Aquitaine and Spain; the Frenchmen, and Burguignons, the country of Gauls; the Vandals, Bethicke, and Africa: Finally Rome, which was called before the head and light of the world, and subduer of countries, was besieged, taken, spoiled, and destroyed many times. Which evils (according to the saying of Ezechiel) came out of the North; which hath always been so fertile of men, that not only it hath filled with inhabitants the waste wildernesses, and huge forests of that quarter; but also hath accustomed to cast out innumerable people; which have possessed Asia, and Europe, overthrowing the ancient estates to establish new.  
But I return to the Empire which THEODOSIVS the first of that name held last entirely both in the East and West; & afterwards divided it between his two sons HONORIUS, and ARCADIUS: under whom began the foresaid afflictions, by the disloyalty and blinded ambition of Ruffinus, and Stilicon their governors. THEODOSIVS the second, son of Arcadius, was the last that may truly be called Emperor of the west, until Charlemaigne. Whiles Martian, and Valentinian reigned, GENSERICUS the Vandale who had intelligence with ATTILA king of the Huns, made him come out of Pannonia into Gaulewith five hundred thousand men; where he was fought with by the Romans, Goths, and Frenchmen. It is not red that there were ever two greater armies any where opposed one against the other, nor which fought more obstinately; in such sort that there were slain a hundred and fourscore thousand; and amongst others Theodorick king of the Goths. ATTILA being returned into Pannonia after this overthrow, levied a new army; and came furiously into Italy, where he forced, sacked, and burned Aquileia, and many other places. And as he purposed to go to Rome the Pope Leo the first of that name came unto him, and did so much by his entreaty that he not only changed his purpose of going to Rome; but also leaving Italy he returned into his own country. He was a fatal Tyrant unto Europe, and became in a little time very mighty; calling himself arrogantly the scourge of God: but his power was eftsoons lost by the discord of his children.  
On the other side GENSERICUS, king of the Vandals went out of Spain into afric, where he made no less waist than Attila had done in Europe: he took Carthage, and Hippona, of whence Saint Augustine was Bishop, who died there during the siege, lamenting the ruin of the Empire; and destruction of the Churches. therehence he sailed into Italy with a mighty army, and went unto Rome, which hetooke, and spoiled: And being won by the prayers of Pope Leo (who before had appeased Attila) he did not put it to fire and sword. Whereby it appeareth that the Empire toward the west was very weak: which many Emperors of small renowmne held one after another; who dispatched one another by treasons, and secret practices, without remaining long. Amongst whom there was a certain AUGUSTULUS, who voluntarily quitted the Empire; and led a private life. His name seemeth to have been fatal, because that the Empire which began at AUGUSTUS ended in him at Rome.  
At the same time ODOACER RUGIAN went with a great army of Herulois into Italy, where he obtained the government. Against whom ZENON the Emperor sent Theodorick king of the Ostrogoths, who overcame him in two battles; and in the end slew him, remaining Master of Italy: which he and his successors enjoyed about threescore years, wherehence the Emperor JUSTINIAN thrust them out entirely by the Eunuch Narses, as he drove the Vandals out of afric by Bellisarius. From that time forth the Greek, and Lombard HEXARCHES tore, and mangled Italy, till they were put down by the Frenchmen, and that by the prows, and felicity of CHARLEMAIGNE, the peace was there restored.  
But by reason of these invasions made by so many divers nations one upon an other; there came wonderful mutations into the world; of tongues, buildings, habits, customs, laws, Magistrates, offices, manners of living, public, and private, of the military discipline, of arms, engines, & instruments: with their words and names. This notwithstanding, and although learning and eloquence diminished by little and little; there were many learned men both Greeks and Latins; such as the estate of that wretched and troublesometime could bring up. Namely those which are called the doctors of the Church, as GRECIANS, Eusebius, Athanasius, Cyrillus, Gregory Nazianzen, and Basil the great; being Bishops, both of them noble, and brought up together as fellow Scholars at Athens: Theodoret, Gregory of Nicene, Epiphanius, Nectorius, & john Chrysostome patriarchs of Constantinople; Apollinarius of Antioch, and Damascen all Thelogians or Divines. Before whom were Clement of Alexandria, justin Martyr, Aristides, and Athenagoras: there flourished moreover Appian and Dydimus, Grammarians; Libanius a sophister. Plotinus jamblichus, Maximus, Porphyrius, and Proclus Philosophers. Oribasius, Paulus Egineta, & Etius Physicians: Procopius, Agathias, Philostratus Histor●ans. The LATINS were Cyprian, Tertullian, Arnobius, Lactantius, Hilarius, Ambrose, Hierome, Ruffin, Augustin, & many other Theologians: Ausonius, Claudianus, Iwencius, and Prudencius Poets. Servius Donatus, Priscianus, and Diomedes Grammarians. Victorinus a Rhetorician: Sextus, Rusus, Aurelius, Victor, Trebellius Pollio, Quintus Curtius, Vopiscus, Lampridius, Spartianus, Capitolinus, Idacius, Eutropius, Ammianus Marcellinus, Paulus Orosius, Prosper Aquitanicus, Cassiodorus, Sidonius Apollinarius, jornandus, Paulus Diaconus, Methodius, Gregory of Tours, Antony the Monk Historiographers; & Vegetius who hath written of the art Military. Tribonian a Lawyer by the commandment of justinian, gathered the writings of the ancient Lawyers called the Pandects, which only remain with us of antiquity. Afterwards he did the like by the edicts & ordinances of the Emperors, comprised before in iij. volumes, namely the Gregorian, Hermogenian, & Theodosian, & gathered them into one volume, called the Code or book of justinian. Symmachus & Boecius were in the temple of Theodorick a king of the Goths called Vero●ensis; who put them inhumanly to death. Symmachus was an Orator, Boetius a Philosopher, who was exercised in all parts of Philosophy, and in Mathematics, so happy both in verse and prose; that it is hard to judge whether he were the last that spoke Latin, or the first that did undertake to restore learning and eloquence decayed. Laurentius Valla calleth him the last of the learned men. For sithence we have not had any but Saint Gregory, Beda, and Bernardus Clarevallensis. In so much that learning remaineth as it were dead, the world going into a great silence, and ignorance.  
The troubles also and varieties were no less in matter of religion then of Empire. For whereas since the resurrection of JESUS CHRIST those which made profession of his Gospel, had been by the space of three hundred years, cruelly persecuted with divers sorts of horrible torments by the Emperors, Nero, Domitian, trajan, Severus, Maximinus, Decius, Valerianus, Aurelian, Dioclesian, and Maximinian: Finally CONSTANTINE embracing our religion, undertook against his brother in law, Licinius Caesar for the protection thereof a great war, and more important than was that between Pompey and Caesar; or between Octavian, and Antony. In which the question was not only of Empire, as in the other; but also of religion: namely, whether the world from that time forward should be subject and obedient to Christian Emperors, who would overthrow the religion of the Gentiles; or else unto the Emperors of the Gentiles who would utterly root out Christianity: whereof ensued one of the chiefest mutations that ever was; CONSTANTINE through the grace of God remaining victorious: who caused the worshipping of false Gods to cease, & shut up their temples, and set the Christians in security; permitting them freely and publicly to pray unto the true God, and to build Churches: unto which he assigned revenues for the maintenance of Preachers and Ministers, and would have them received unto honours, and magistrácies notwithstanding their profession.  
This quarrel being scarce appeased, the heresy of Arrius arose, the most pernicious that ever was: for the rooting out of which, CONSTANTINE assembled that famous counsel of Nicene. But yet two years before his death at the persuasion of his sister Constance, herevoked Arrius again out of banishment. The which was cause of great scandal, especially between his sons the Emperors CONSTANS, and CONSTANTIVS: of whom the one was an Arrian, and the other an Orthodox or true Christian. Amongst whom thus disagreeing, there were counsels held against counsels, and the one disannulled by the other: confessions against confessions: creeds against creeds: two Bishops different in every city; and double service in the churches, double mutining continually, accusations, defences, banishments, and martyrdoms. Which disorder endured a long time, this discord being spread far and wide throughout the world, yea even amongst the Goths, Vandals, & Lombard's: who under this pretence committed execrable cruelties, and innumerable spoils.  
On this scandal happened an other yet worse than the former. For JULIAN their cousin, and successor, coming to the Empire, when Christiandome seemed clean delivered of Paganism, he set it up again, denying the faith of JESUS CHRIST, whereby he got the surname of an Apostata. He took away the revenues granted by Constantine, to the churches of the Christians; and forbade the schools unto children: depriving both the teachers, and learners of their maintenance. He killed many that made profession of christian Religion; deprived others of their charges, as jovinian; Valentinian, and Valens; took away their goods from others, saying in mockery that by making of them poor, he made it easier for them to go into paradise: because it was written in their books. Blessed is the poor, for unto such belongeth the kingdom of heaven. He exhorted the jews to restore their manner of government for hatred of the Christians; and to re-edify the Temple. He wrote books against the Christian doctrine which he said was repugnant to common sense; and did take away the bands of humane society: but his fury passed as a cloud; for he reigned only nineteen months, dying of a hurt in the war, which he made against the Persians. In whose place JOVINIAN was chosen Emperor by the army, who brought matters into a better state. The destruction of the judaic, and Delphic Temples happened at that time, which portending the ruin of both those religions, abated much the insolence of the jews, and of the Pagans; and assured, and comforted the good Christians.  
Afterwards the Goths, Vandals, & lombards, Arrianizing (as we have said) afflicted Europe and afric, almost two hundred years, & ruinated the Empire of the West. Which they that were reputed wise men amongst the Gentiles seeing, said that this desolation proceeded of the changing of the ancient religion, wherein the Empire had been nourished, increased, and maintained long; and that the Gods being angry sent such calamities, for revenge of their contempt. Against whom S. Augustin opposed himself, writing his books of the city of God to refute them. On the other side, the Nestorians, Eutichyans, and Manichees, troubled all the East. The Persians destroyed Asia, and afric: their king Cosroe publishing an edict, that whosoever would save his life, should renounce that God that was crucified. Then the Saracens entirely exterminated the Persians with their language, and religion. Moreover the Emperors of Constantinople, beating down the Images, and statues of the temples, were excommunicated by the Popes of Rome: Who forbade them throughout Italy to pay them any tribute, or to put their pictures in their coin, commanded that their names should be omitted in their masses, and public prayers; & refused their edicts, commandments & letters; making them to lose that which they had remaining in the west: & to assure themselves against them and against the Lombard's, who had seized on the Hexarchat of Ravenna, they sent for Charles Martel, & Pepin, who were Frenchmen, & of the house of Ostrich to their succour: whose strength, authority, & renown at that time was great. And consequently they created, consecrated, & crowned CHARLEMAIGN Emperor of the west; calling him Augustus, & Cesar three hundred and twenty years after the Emperors were ceased in Italy. He delivered Italy from the Lombard's, Germany from the Hongarians, & Gaul of the Saracens: with the victories which the grandfather and his Father won of them. He went twice into Spain; and overcame the Saxons. And as he was learned in Greek and Latin, being no less a favourer of learning then a lover of arms, he ordained the University of Paris, which hath been since the most famous of the world, and most flourishing in all Arts: having served for a refuge for the studies of learning, which are waxen cold in Asia, utterly lost in Greece, decayed in Italy, and driven out of Egypt, and afric. So this magnanimous, and victorious prince joining together the greatest provinces of Europe, was a Monarch, protector of the peace, religion, laws, judgements and disciplines.  
By such occasion was the Empire restored to the west; which had first his seat in France; them in Germany, where from hereditary it is become elective; and in process of years by evil ordering is so much diminished, and impoverished, that there remaineth nothing but the shadow of a great name, and vain title: The prince's electors holding the imperial lands with their rents, revenues, customs and commodities hoarded up; and the principal countries being franchised by the Emperors, who have given them privileges to govern freely their common weals. Concerning Italy which was the chief and ancient patrimony of the empire; it is either possessed by the Popes which hold Rome that was wont to be the proper seat of the Emperors, and many other places; or by the kings of Naples, or by the Venetians, or by the dukes of milan, Florence, Ferrara, Mantua, Urbin, and other potentates sequestered from the empire. The Isles of Sicily, Sardigna, Corsica, Maiorca, Minorca, and Savoy also are cut off. Thus hath the Empire by succession of time been distracted, and dissipated: Since the ruin whereof the world hath not had his virtue so united. But many kingdoms are lifted up each in his country: as towards the west that of France, Spain, and Portugal. In the North England, Denmark, Sueden, Moscovy, Polonia, Hungaria. In the East Persia, Narsingue, China or Cathay. In the South that of the Sultan, of Presbiter-Iohn, Tuniz, and Fez; and elsewhere many signiories and commonalties, which acknowledge none but themselves.   
The end of the sixth Book.   

A COMPARISON OF THE ROMANS with the Egyptians, Assyrians, Persians, Greeks', and Parthians; in power, warfare, learning, language, Eloquence, Poesy, and works of other arts. The Seventh Book.  
NAture having placed ITALY in a middle seat between the south and the North, hath as much or more favoured the ITALIANS as any other people on the habitable earth; making them not only strong, comely and courageous, but also ingenious, and prudent: And consequently excellent in manners, laws, arts, and workemanships. By means of which singularities, and prerogatives they got in ancient time, the greatest Empire that ever was; and yet not of such largeness that it comprehended the whole world: which never happened hitherto; neither is ever possible to come to pass. For on the North side they never ruled over all Germany and great Britain; neither over Norway, Sweveland, Moscovia, Lituania, and Scythia; Neither towards the south over Ethiopia, and the higher afric, where the Blackmores inhabit; neither in the East over India, China, Catay, Giapan, and Taprobana; which Easterly part hath the river Tigris for a fatal bound; without speaking of the lands lately discovered in the West: in so much that looking considerately thereon, it will be found by true reason of Cosmography, that they never possessed the twelfth part of the earth. ZENON the first author of the sect of the Stoics, imagined an universal form of government, tending to this, that all men should not live by towns, peoples, and nations; being separated by particular laws, rights, and customs: but that they should account themselves fellow citizens; and that there was but one sort of life, as there is but one world; no otherwise then as if it were but one flock, feeding under one shepherd, in common pastures. PLATO also wished that there were on earth but one king, as there is in heaven but one God; to th'end that the humane government might therein resemble the divine: which Lord of the world as a true shepherd of mankind, should love all men indifferently as his natural subjects; maintaining them with good manners, laws, judgements, and assured intercourse both by sea, and land: so great a prince not bearing envy to any person; and having no occasion to enlarge his frontiers by ambition: which would be the cause of ceasing so many enmities, wars, slaughters, spoils, and robberies, happening amongst men through the plurality, and dissensions of governments. Which matters being by them gravely and magnificently propounded, are much more easy to be wished then effected: considering the diversity of tongues, dissimilitude of manners, and customs, variety of sects, and vanity of opinions that reign amongst men; and make them to lose that love which is wished amongst them: hindering the establishing of one universal common wealth of all; and consequently a Monarchy, of people so much differing in estimation of divine and humane right, and the religion and service of God. One man alone can not possess all the earth, the greatest part of it being drowned by the sea; and in some places where it is uncovered of waters, being unhabitable through excessive heat or cold: And if he should possess it, he would strait forget himself in so great authority and liberty; and become proud beyond measure, waxing tyrannical and insupportable: as it happened to Cambyses, to Nero, to Sesostris, to Attila, to Tamberlan, and to Alexander the great; who through extreme overweening would be accounted and called the son of God; and for his insolency was poisoned by his most familiar friends: and as it happened to OCTAVIAN AUGUSTUS, who suffered Temples to be consecrated to him, and divine honours to be given him in his life time: Considering also that there is a certain measure, and proportion of greatness in Towns, Cities, and States: even as in living creatures, plants, and instruments: which when it exceedeth; loseth his nature and use. As it befell unto this ROMAN EMPIRE, which being climbed up to an incomparable greatness, and inestimable wealth; did fall est 'zounds into great calamities; and was finally overthrown; as others had been before it: which we will compare together, setting down their similitudes, and differences.  

A COMPARISON OF THE ROMAN Empire, with the Assyrian, Median, Persian, Macedonian, and Parthian.  
Amongst the great ancient kingdoms, the ASSYRIAN was excellent in nobility, mighty in arms, large in compass of land, and in continuance admirable: which being augmented by Belus, Ninus, and Semiramis; and enlarged by the spacious countries of Asia; was the first that amongst all other Empires (which it far exceeded) obtained the name of an established Monarchy: and for the space of a thousand three hundred and threescore years, under thirty eight kings flourished greatly. After followed that of the MEDES, which under nine kings continued CClxj. years: well governed in peace, and war. Then reigned the PERSIANS, who having added Egypt unto their dominion, and increased their strength and riches, when they had prospered two hundred and thirty years; they lost their state under Darius their fourteenth king. From that time forward the MACEDONIANS by the success, and conduct of Alexander, obtained the rule over Asia; which they lost one hundred and twenty years after, giving occasion by their civil dissensions, to the Parthians in the East, and to the Romans' in the West to increase, and grow great. Then the Romans' towards the West seizing the Macedonian Signiory (which though it were great indeed, yet was but weak by the division of the princes who had parted it between them) established the greatest and fairest Empire that ever was. For if all the famous Monarches amongst the strangers be compared unto the Roman Emperors, there will not be found any amongst them, that have done greater things either in peace or war: or that have more enlarged their Empire; and longer maintained it.  
The Assyrians went not out of Asia. The Medians endured only cclx. years: the Persians having overcome the Medes obtained almost all Asia; but when they assailed Europe, they little prevailed. And the Persians being overthrown; the Macedonian Empire was greater than all the former: but it endured but a while. For incontinently after the death of Alexander being divided into many Lordships, it was easily supplanted by the Romans'. And although it were very ●arge, yet it went not into spacious afric, saving where it reacheth unto Egypt, neither possessed all Europe, being bounded on the north with the country of Thrace, and towards the West with the Adriatic sea. But the ROMAN EMPIRE extended into Europe, Asia, and afric, from the Orcadeses, and Thule on the one side, Spain, and Mauritania on the other; even to the hill Caucasus, and the river Euphrates, and the higher Ethiopia▪ traversing the country of Egypt, and of Arabia even to the East sea: being the first and only, which to this present, hath made the East, and West his limits; and hath endured longer than any other, excepting the Assyrian.  
Touching the PARTHIAN which was at the same time when the Roman, & opposed against it; being increased with the ruins of the Macedonian in the East, as the Roman was also in the west; albeit it was very great and terrible unto all the East, as comprehending eighteen kingdoms between the Caspian, and the red sea; and being far stretched out toward the Indies; and famous by many overthrows which it had given to the Romans', as namely by the death of Crassus, and shameful retreat of Antonius, yet obtained it but one part of Asia, and received some kings from Rome: which being begun by Arsaces, endured only cccclxiij. years, under twenty and sean●n kings.  
And the second PERSIAN also was of no greater circuit; which was set up by the Persian Artaxerxes, having overcome in three battles, and in the end slain Artabanus, the last king of the Parthians: and ended cccxiij. years after it was restored: being overthrown under Hormisdas the xxviij. king by the Arabians.   

THE BIRTH OF ROME, AND CONTI nuance thereof, compared to the four Ages of man's life.  
AS the Astrologers say, that cities have their revolutions, and prefixed times of continuance, which is known by the situation of stars, at the day of their nativities: For this cause Tarucius a Roman in the time of Cicero, and of Mark Varro (being a friend to them both, and a great Philosopher, and Mathematician after the manner of the Chaldees) by the cunning of Astrological calculation, cast the nativity of Rome, from the day wherein Romulus first began it; which was the ninth of April, between two and three of the clock in a pastoral feast, called Palilia: and rehearsing her passed adventures, foretold those that were to come.  
The same Varro (a very learned man, and one who read the Roman histories as much as any Roman that ever was) writeth that the continuance of Rome was foreseen, and known by the twelve Vultures which at the foundation thereof flew over Romulus, namely that it should be of twelve hundred years; every vulture signifying an age, or a hundred years: and that in his time be had heard of one Vectius Augur, that Rome should attain to twelve hundred years; seeing it had escape● one hundred and twenty: in which te 〈…〉 it was taken, spoiled and destroyed many and sundry times.  
The times of the continuance thereof were divided into ages after the similitude of man's life: whereof the first which is called infancy or childhood, we● under Romulus, who founded it and brought it up. The puerility or boyt●ie under the other Kings, who augmented and instructed it in good manners, customs, laws, and disciplines▪ But being grown up under Tarquin it would no longer endure the yo●● of subjection, under proud domination; and from that time forward choose rather to be obedient unto laws, then unto Kings. Then the striplings age being ended in the end of the Punic war; and the strength more settled: it entered into the age of manhood; for having destroyed Carthage (which of long time had been her enemy) she stretched out her signory by land, and by sea, into many countries, till such time as wanting matter of foreign war, she abused her strength▪ employing it to her own destruction. Then was her first old age, when being afflicted with civil wars, and oppressed with inward evils, she fell again into a Monarchy, and came to another childhood or infancy: And remained in vigour till the time of trajan, of the antonine, and of Theodosius the first; and then became aged under Honorius, and Arcadius, and the 471. years after that the Monarchy had begun in Augustus, it finished in Augustulus, being utterly lost in respect of Italy.   

A COMPARISON OF ROME, with Babylon, and Constantinople.  
TO this purpose it is obsermed that ROME and BABYLON had almost a like beginning, increase, continuance, and ending: such affairs being disposed by the ineffable mysteries, and profound judgements of God▪ and not happening casually, or by humane power. In such sort, that under a like disposition of time BABYLON fell, and ROME arose: Thone suffered the Lordship of strangers; and tother despised that of her own citizens. Thone (as it were) dying left the heritage: and the other growing, acknowledged herself heir. And then when the Empire of the East died, the Empire of the west was borne. And as BABYLON eleven hundred threescore and four years after it was built, was by Arbaces the Median despoiled of her kingdom, and deprived of her king: In like manner ROME after she had as many years endured; was assailed, and taken by Alaricus king of the Goths. After this manner was the beginning of BABYLON, and ROME alike, their power alike, their greatness alike, their time alike, their good, and evil alike, their downefal alike; and alike their destruction. We may say as much of CONSTANTINOPLE the heir of them both: which about xj. hundred sixty and four years, after it was built by Constantine, who called it new Rome▪ was taken▪ spoilt and deprived of the Greek Empire and of her Emperor by Mahom●● king of the Turks. wherein hath been observed a singular me 〈…〉, that as it was built by Constantine the son of Helen, so it was also conquered by the Turks, under another Constantine, the son of Helen.   

A COMPARISON OF THE ROMAN common wealth with the Lacedaemonian, and Carthaginian.  
AS a Common wealth which is well ordained to endure a long time, ought not to be single, or of one kind only, but must also have the virtues and properties of others assembled in hit; to th'end that nothing therein be unduly or unproportionably increased, which may make it to fall into the evil that is next it, and consequently come to ruin, for this cause Lycurgus instituting the LACEDAEMONIAN common wealth mingled therein a Monarchy, aristocraty, & Democraty so conveniently, that it remained almost seven years in the same manner, retaining still the integrity of his first institution. In the which the king, the Ephori, and the Senate had their pre-eminences, and powers in such sort intermingled, and balanced together; that one could not well discern, under what kind of government it was established.  
The CARTHAGINIAN common wealth was thus ordained from the beginning▪ It had kings, & the aristocraty ●e power of Senators; and the commons having also their pre-eminence, in things appertaining to them. In such sort that as touching the assembling of the three estates, it resembled the Lacedaemonian.  
Also the ROMAN had these three estates so equally and conveniently tempered; that one could not say, whether it were an entire aristocraty, or a Democraty, or a Monarchy▪ Considering the power of the Consuls, one would have judged it Monarchical, and royal; regarding that of the Senators, Aristocratical; and respecting that of the people, Democratical. But the Seignory being seized on by the Emperors, they first took from the people the authority of meddling in public affairs, and transported it to the Senate; then reduced that of the people and of the Senate, to their absolute power.  
The Lacedaemonian was sufficient only to conserve their own, and to keep their liberty; but insufficient to augment and to enlarge their Empire: wherein the Roman was most excellent. For the Lacedæmonians assaying to conquer the principality of Greece, they sodanly put their liberty in danger; where the Romans after they had brought Italy under their obedience, subdued in a little time a great part of the world; being abundantly furnished with all preparations requisite for such an enterprise. Touching the Carthanginian, then when it began to have wars with the Roman, it was in declining▪ and the Roman in his vigour: seeing that all common weals have a certain augmentation, and vigour; and afterwards a diminution▪ For Rome flourished then, especially in order of government. The people in Carthage had usurped to much authority in the Counsels. At Rome the Senate conducted the greatest part of the affairs; which prospered the more for being governed by the wisest: and by such conduct they finally overcame the Carthaginians. Besides, that the Italians are of a more excellent nature, than the Lybians; both in shape of body, and in hardiness of courage: and that the Romans were served by their own nation; which were taught to war with the best discipline in the world: The Carthaginians used none but strangers, and mercenaries; putting all their confidence in them, which turned them unto evil.   

A COMPARISON OF THE POWER of Alexander the great, with that which the Romans had in his time: and if having conquered Asia he had turned his forces into Europe; what might have happened▪ by the judgement of Livy.  
LIVY in the ninth book of his first Decade speaking of PAPIRIUS CURSOR, saith that in that time being as fertile of virtues as any other, there was no man, on whom the state of Rome did more depend; then on him: and (which is more) they accounted him matchable in courage with Alexander the great: if having subdued Asia, he had turned his arms into Europe. Nothing less (sayeth he) may seem to have been sought from the beginning of this work, then that I should wander farther then appertaineth to the order of things, and that beautifying the work with varieties, I should recreate the readers with pleasant digressions; and give my mind some rest. Yet the mention of so great a King and captain, maketh me set down here the secret thoughts, which sometime have come into my head: as to know what had happened to the Romans', if they had made war against Alexander the great▪  
Often time's in war the multitude and valiancy of Soldiers may do much; as also the wisdom of Captains; and fortune which is mighty in all humane, and especially in military affairs. Considering these things both severally and together, I find that they made the Roman Empire invincible against this King; as against all other Kings and Nations. First beginning by the comparison of Captains; I deny not that Alexander was an excellent captain: but he is the more renowned, because he was alone, and died young, upon the augmentation of his affairs, having not yet tasted of adverse fortune▪ not speaking of other Kings and famous Captains▪ that have ●in notable examples of humane accidents. What made Cyrus so much celebrated by the Grecians, to fall into the adversities of contrary fortune, but his long life; as not long sithende it happened unto Pompey the great? I will not speak of the Roman Captains which were at other seasons▪ but of those with whom as being Consuls or dictators, Alexander had fought: namely, M. Valerius corvinus, ●. Marcus Rutilius, C. Sulpitius, Titus Manlius Torquatus, Qu. Publius Philo, Lucius Papirius Cursor, Quintus Fabius Maximus, and the two Deccis, Lucius Volumnius, Marcus Lucius, and other great personages following, if he had preferred the Punic war before the Roman, and then being of more years, had passed into Italy. In every of which there was the same vigour of spirit, and mind, that was in Alexander; and military discipline from the beginning of the City, successively delivered from hand to hand; and ordained in form of an art, by the principal precepts thereof. Thus did the King's fight; and thus they that drove them away▪ namely, the Junii▪ and Valerij: Thus consequently the Fabiuses, Quintij, and Cornelij; Thus Furius Camillus, who being old, saw the two young ones that should have fought with Alexander: To whom also Manlius Torquatus would not have given place, if he had met him equally in battle; neither Vaserius corvinus, both of them notable soldiers before they were Captains. Neither would the two Deccis have yielded any whit unto him▪ who marching against the enemy, disaduowed their bodies, and bequeathed them to death. Papirius Cursor would not have yielded to him, with that strength of body and courage that was in him. And that I may not stand to name every one, this Senate (accounted to consist of Kings) would not have suffered itself to be supplanted by the counsel of a young man: And he that so esteemeth it, comprehendeth the true form of the Roman Senate▪ But peradventure it is to be feared, that he would have pitched his camp better than any of those whom I have named, convoyed his victuals, conducted his carriages, kept himself from ambushes, chosen the time of fight, arranged the battle, and assured himself of succours. But he should no more have said, that he had met with Darius, accompanied with women, and eunuchs; armed between purple and gold; effeminated and weakened by the pomp of his fortune; rather a pray then an enemy; whom he overcame without bloodshed: happy in this, that he dared to so good purpose despise such vanities. He should have found Italy much different from India, through which he went banqueting, with his drunken army: when he should have here seen the forests of Apulia, and the Mountains of Leucania, and the traces, or footestepps of the overthrow of his ancestors; where his uncle Alexander, lately king of Epirus had been overcome.  
We speak of Alexander, not yet plunged in prosperity; wherein he showed himself as insolent, as ever did any Prince: Who if he be considered by the state of his new fortune, and by that new mind which he carried after his victories, he had comen into Italy, more resembling Darius, than Alexander: and had brought thither his host, not remembering Macedonia any longer; and already degenerating into the manners of the Persians. It is grievous to me to recite i●●o great a king, the proud changing of his garment; and the desired flatteries of those which cast themselves prostrate on the ground before him; being not only ●●k some to the vanquished, but also even to the victorious Macedonians: and the shameful punishments, and murders of his friends amongst his cups; and the vanity of his supposed, and feigned race. And if from that time forward he had become a greater drunkard, more ●●u●l and more sudden in his anger▪ (which are undoubted things amongst those that have written of him) would not these vi●●s have much endamaged and hindered the Imperial virtues? Is that to be feared which some light persons amongst the Greeks, (namely favouring the glory of the Parthians against the Roman name) have accustomed to say, that the people of Rome could never have sustained the majesty of the name of Alexander: who I think was never known to them, not so much as by ●ame? Against whom some in the City of Athens, whiles they yet beheld before their eyes the smoking ruin of Thebes, supplanted by the arms of the Macedonians; dared in full assemblies to speak freely, as appeareth by the writings of their Orators: would none amongst so many Roman Lords have spoken freely? Let his greatness be of so great reckoning: yet shall it be but the greatness of a man; gotten by the felicity of little more than ten years. And they which extol him, for as much as the people of Rome, having not been overcome in any war, yet hath had the worst in sundry battles; and that Alexander had the better in all: they do not consider that they compare the acts of one man, being yet young; with those of a people which hath already warred for the space of eight hundred years? Do we then marvel, if on this side be more ages, than years on the other; that fortune hath been more variable in this long space, then in the time of thirteen years? Let us rather compare the fortune with fortune, of one man with another; and of Captain with Captain. How many Roman Captains can I name, that never had contrary fortune in battle? One may see in the Annals of the Magistrates, and in the Calendars, the battles of the Consuls, and of the dictators; whose virtue, and fortune never brought any displeasure to the people of Rome: And they are more admirable than Alexander, or any other king; having not been dictators some of them above ten or twenty days; and none above a year. The levies of men have been hindered by the Tribunes; they went often to war after the season, and have been sent back again before it, by reason of the Comices or Parliaments. The year hath been spent in preparations for enterprises; The temerity or malice of a Colleague hath caused hindrance, or damage; and when matters have been evil managed, he hath been succeeded by another▪ They have taken new or ill disciplined soldiers. But certainly kings are not only free from all hindrances▪ but also Lords over time and business: and with their counsels they draw all things after them, and do not follow them. Then invincible Alexander, had waged war against invincible Captains; and had put in hazard the like pledges of fortune: but there had been more danger on the Macedonians side which had but one Alexander, not only subject to many perils; but also seeking of dangers. The Romans had many equal to Alexander inglorie and greatness of exploits which might live or die according to their destiny, without the public interest.  
I● remaineth to compare armies with armies, either in number; or kind of men; of arms, or multitude of auxiliaries. Then at that time by the number taken of the City, they were found two hundred and fifty thousand heads. Wherefore in the revolt of the allies from the name of the Latins, there were levied well near ten legions of Citizens. Often times there were four or five armies at a time in Hetruria, and Vmbria; the Gauls being also their enemies: They made war in Samnia, and against the Lucan's. Then afterwards he should have found all Italy, with the Sabines, Volsces, Eques, and all Campania, and a part of Vmbria, and Etruria; the Piscenians, Marsians, Pelignians, Vestines, Apulians, and all the coast of the Grecians, inhabiting on the inferior sea, from the Thracians unto Naples, and Cans: and from thence to Antia, and Hostia; either mighty with the Romans; or subdued by them. He should have passed the sea with his old Macedonian soldiers, not exceeding the number of thirty thousand on foot, and four thousand on horseback, almost all Thessalians: for this was his strength. If he had joined with them the Indians, and other Nations; they would rather have been a hindrance, than any help unto him. Moreover, the Roman army in their own country might easily have new supplies; and the army of Alexander would have waxen old: as it happened afterwards unto Hannibal.  
The arms of the Macedonians were the buckler, and the javelining, called Sarissa: The Romans used a shield, which was greater to cover the body, and a spear somewhat rougher, either to strike or throw then the pike. The footmen both of th'one, and tother keeping firmly their ranks: but the unmovable Macedonian phalange was of one sort; and the Roman squadron manifold, and compounded of many parts; easy to sunder or join, as need required. Touching their work, there is none like to the Roman, nor better to endure travail. Alexander if he had been overcome in one battle, would have made an end of the war; But what arms could have quailed the Roman, whom Candie and Cannes could not quail? Surely, if he had prospered in the first encounter, he would have been gone to the Persians, and Indians, and to the cowardly nations of Asia: as the brute is, that Alexander the king of Epirus, feeling himself wounded to death, said; comparing the state of the wars made in Asia by this young Prince, with his.  
When I call to mind, how in the first Punic war they fought twenty and four years against the Carthaginians, with mighty fleets by sea; I then think that the age of Alexander could not have sufficed for one war: and peradventure the Carthaginian state being allied with the Roman by ancient line, and the fear being alike against a common enemy, might have joined two such mighty Cities in arms, and men; and then he might have been entangled with the Punic and Roman war at one time. The Romans' assayed the Macedonian enemy▪ not under Alexander, neither when the forces of Macedon were whole and entire; but against Antiochus, ●hilip, and Perses, not only without any loss, but also without any danger. Let it not be evil taken that I say, and let the civil warre● cease; we have never failed, neither in places of advantage▪ or disadvantage, when soever we had to deal with an enemy on horseback, or on foot, and in open war. The soldier laden with arms, may well fear the man at arms on horseback, the arrows, and thick forests, the crooked and uneasy ways but he hath beaten back, and shall beat a thousand bands more heavily armed, than those of the Macedonians, and of Alexander: provided that the love of peace wherein we live, remain still amongst us, and the care of civil concord.   

A COMPARISON OF POMPEY THE great, with Alexander, Hercules, and Bacchus, according to Pliny.  
BUT it pertaineth to the honour of the Roman Empire, and not to the victory of one only man, to recite all the titles, and triumphs of POMPEY the great, having attained to the glory of the deeds, not only of Alexander the great, but of Hercules also, and the father Bacchus. Sicily then being recovered, where he began to do service to the common wealth, following the party of Sylla; and then all Africa being subdued, and brought under obedience, and his surname of (great) being taken therehence; being a Roman knight (that which never before happened unto any) he was carried in a triumphant chariot; and by and by going toward the West, and having erected many trophies in the mountains Pyrenees; he reduced under obedience, eight hundred three score and sixteen Towns, between the Alps and the extremities of the farthest Spain: through the magnanimity of his courage, making no mention of Sertorius. And the civil war being extinguished, which moved all the strange wars, he again led the triumphant chariots being a Roman knight, and so many times Emperor and Captain before he was soldier. Then being sent to all the seas, and beyond toward the East; he brought back his titles to his Country: after the manner of such as overcome in Combats, and sacred games; who are not only crowned themselves, but crown their Country also; attributing to the City these honours at the Temple of Minerva, which he dedicated of his prey: after this manner. Cn. Pompey the great, Emperor: having ended the war, which endured thirty years, having defeated, put to flight, slain, and taken to mercy two Millions of men, four score and three thousand, eight hundred, forty and six; and having sunk and taken, eight hundred forty and six ships; won a thousand five hundred thirty and eight Towns, and Castles: and conquered the lands from the marish of Meotis, to the red Sea, hath made this vow: to the merit of Minerva. Such is the summary of his deeds toward the East. Concerning the triumph which he made at the end of September, in the year when Marc. Messala, and Marc. Piso were Consuls, the preface was such. When we had delivered all the sea-coast of pirates, and had restored the Empire of the sea to the people of Rome, he triumphed of Asia, Pontus, Armenia, Paphlagonia, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Suria, the Scythians, jews, Albanians, Iberians, the Isle of Crete, and Basternes: Moreover, of the kings Mithridates, and Tygranes. The top of his glory, as he said himself in a great assembly, was this; That having found Asia, the last of the provinces, and farthest, he made it one of the middlemost unto his Country. If some one on the contrary would in like manner recite the deeds of julius Cesar, which seemed greater than his, he should reckon all the world, which would be an infinite thing.   

A COMPARISON OF JULIUS Cesar, with Alexander the great, according to Appian.  
ALEXANDER, and JULIUS CESAR, were both of them very ambitious, and warlike above all others; ready and diligent to execute all enterprises: and impetuous in dangers, even to the contemning of their own lives. And their fortune and audacity was no less helpful to them both, than their military discipline: Of whom th'one, namely ALEXANDER, went in the summer season, and through country's destitute of waters, to the god Hammon: and having passed the gulf of the sea of Pamphylia, by great hap, and felicity, he got the country▪ For in his passage over the sea, it seemed that fortune withheld, & appeased the raging thereof. Afterwards at the beginning of winter, being on his way, he went through the rough seas: even to the Indies. Moreover, being at the siege of a Town, he was the first that got upon the wall, and then leapt down all alone amongst his enemies; and having received thirteen wounds; yet remained notwithstanding invincible in all things. He subdued many Nations in Europe; and conquered the Greeks' by arms, which were a very warlike nation, and desirous of liberty; and who were never accustomed to be subject unto any other: till such time as under colour of presidence, they were obedient to Philip, the father of Alexander, as to their Protector. He vanquished almost all Asia; and as one might say, overcame all that he saw. And finally, as he purposed in his mind to conquer the rest of the world, he died in the flower of his age.  
Touching JULIUS CESAR, in the sharpest of winter, the Ionian sea was calm, and navigable unto him. He sailed also in the Ocean sea over against the Isle of great Britain: and albeit he had not any knowledge of the coast, yet he commanded his Pilots, who kept a lose off, to put in with their ships. And in an other place, having by night time alone in a little boat espied the passage, he bid the Master of the ship set sail to the wind; and to put more confidence in the fortune of CESAR, then in the sea. He entered oftentimes all alone on his enemies, when all his people quaked and trembled for feat. He fought in pitched field against the Gauls thirty times, and subdued all that Nation: which was so terrible to the Romans; that whereas by the law of the Priests, and of the Ancients, they gave immunities to the men of arms from service, they always added, except it were against the Gauls; in which case there was no excuse, neither for Priest, nor aged person. Moreover, CESAR fight near unto Alexandria, and seeing himself on a bridge, abandoned of all his people, and environed on all sides with his enemies; he cast his purple garment on the ground, and then leapt into the sea. And because his enemies pursued him in the water, he kept a long time at the bottom, without showing himself, saving now and then, to take breath; till he drew near to one of his ships: and then stretching out his hand, he made himself known; and by that means was saved. In the civil wars (for fear as he said, but in truth for ambition) he had against him many great and valiant Captains, of many great armies, not only of Barbarians, but of Romans also: and he over came all his enemies (which had surmounted all others in virtue and felicity) in one only battle, or two. But yet notwithstanding, his armies were not always invincible, as those of Alexander: for his Praetors, Cotta ' and Titurius, fight against the Gauls, were shamefully defeated; and in Spain, Petreius, and Afranius, enclosed his army in such sort, that they were in a manner besieged. Also at Dyrrhachium, and in Libya, they were about to run away: and again in great fear of the young Pompey. But in as much as concerneth the person of Cesar, he was ever without fear; and in the end victorious. He enlarged the Roman Empire both by sea, and by land; from the Ocean sea, even to the river Euphrates; aswell by force and virtue, as by his clemency, and benignity. His Empire was more firm & better founded then that of Sylla; for he showed himself in effect a king to those which would not have had it so, although he abstained from the name: and having undertaken a new war, he died; as did Alexander. Both of them had armies almost alike: for their men were quick and hardy; loving their chiefs; sharp and fierce in fight; often disobedient, and ready to mutiny against their Emperors; because of their continual labour: and notwithstanding, after they were dead, they lamented, and bewailed them greatly; and judged them worthy to be honoured as Gods. They were both strong of body, and excellent in beamy; both descended of the line of jupiter; Thone of AEacus, and of Hercules; and tother of Anchises, and Venus. Both of them were contentious, and rough to such as provoked them; but easy to be reconciled: pitiful and gracious to their prisoners, and to those which they had overcome; and liberal toward all people; without covetousness of any thing, but of the victory. By such virtues and conditions, they both attained (howbeit by divers means) to such great principality. For when Alexander began to conquer, he had already a kingdom, which Philip had greatly increased▪ But Cesar of a private Citizen (though of a noble race) without any great patrimony, and without money, attained to this great glory. Both of them contemned the great signs that appeared of their death; and notwithstanding, towards those that foretold their mishap, they showed no tokens of displeasure: and their end was almost after one sort; because that both of them had twice together infortunate prognostications; & were either of them at both times in great danger. For ALEXANDER in the Country of the Oxydraces, having gotten upon the wall of the enemies, before all the Macedonians, seeing himself alone, and abandoned of all, (because the ladders were broken) of a great audaciousness leapt down into the Town amongst his enemies: where being grievously hurt in the stomach, and the neck, even as he began to fall, was succoured by his people; who for fear of losing him had broken the gates. CESAR also being in Spain against the young Pompey; and seeing his men afraid in such sort, that they durst not fight; ran alone into the midst of his enemies: and having received in his shield above two hundred shot, sustained the brunt, till such time, as his men for shame, and fear of him, came to secure and rescue him. And after this manner, their first evil prognostication put them in danger of death: But the second, made them both to die outright. For Apollodorus fearing the force of Alexander, and of Hephestion; Pythagoras, (who was a great diviner) after Apollodorus had made sacrifice, having beheld the entrails of the beast that was sacrificed, bade him that he should not stand in fear of them, for both of them should die within a little time. And after that Hephestion was dead, Apollodorus fearing lest some should practise the death of Alexander, revealed unto him the prognostication; whereof he made but a sport, and demanded of Pythagoras, what was signified by that which he had seen; who answered him, that it betokened death: whereat laughing as afore, he praised Apollodorus as his friend, for that he gave him warning; and the diviner for the confidence and assurance which he had in his art. The like almost happened unto CESAR as he went unto the senate, where he was slain; for when it was told him, that his infortunate sacrifice signified death; he answered, that the like befell him, when he was in Spain: the diviner then replying, that he was then also in great danger; and that now the signs were more mortal, than they were then; to show, that he had some confidence in the diviner, he set him to sacrifice again, till such time as he saw, that he tarried overlong in doing thereof, and then all angry he went into the Senate; where he was slain. The like happened also to ALEXANDER, coming back with his army out of the Indies into Babylon; for as he drew near the City, the Chaldees warned him, that he should forbear for that time to enter into the City; to whom he answered, reciting a verse to this effect; Who is the good devinour, that thinketh well? Afterward being admonished by the Chaldees, that if (whatsoever be fell) he would needs go into the City with his army, he should not turn his face toward the West; but should go round about the Town, turning on the East side; he was content to please them therein: But finding a marish in his way, that hindered his passage, being angry, and mocking at them, he turned towards the West, and went into the Town: out of which being afterwards gone forth, and come in a boat on the river Euphrates, and after on that of Pallacora, into which Euphrates falleth, to certain great lakes which are at the mouth of these two rivers; in such sort that they make the land of Assyria almost all navigable, purposing to enclose the mouth of those said rivers with a wall; he jested (as is said) at the prognostication of the Chaldees; because he was come out of the city, and had navigated safe, and sound: But nevertheless, being entered into it again, he ended his days there shortly after. So happened it unto CESAR, who meeting in the morning the very same day that he was slain with the diviner, which had foretold him that he should not escape the day of the Ideses of March; said to him laughing, that the Ideses were come and yet notwithstanding, he was slain the same day. By this means both of them made no account of the prognostications; and yet towards the prognosticatours they showed not any anger: and died both according to their prognostications. Moreover, they were both very studious of virtues, and of the sciences; both in the Greek, Latin, and strange languages: ALEXANDER took pains to understand the learning of the Brachmanes, who are reputed the most learned amongst the Indians; as the Mages are among the Persians. CESAR also going through the kingdom of Egypt with Cleopatra, laboured to understand, & to know the sciences of the Egyptians: whereby he afterwards ordered many things wisely at Rome. For the course of the year which was il ordained (by reason of the odd months and days called Intercalares) because they took it according to the course of the Moon, he altered it by the course of the Sun, as did the Egyptians. It happened also unto CESAR, that none of those which conspired his death escaped, but were slain all by his successors; as ALEXANDER had also done to them that had slain his father.   

A COMPARISON OF JULIUS CESAR and Augustus; with Romulus, and Num●.  
AS ROMULUS had many troubles in the founding of Rome, and was entangled with many wars, being constrained to fight with those that opposed themselves to the foundation of his Town; And then NUMA succeeding, had leisure to assure the increase thereof: So JULIUS CESAR, having obtained by many travails and dangers the Monarchy that he so much desired, and so earnestly affected, he left it to OCTAVIAN his nephew and heir troubled with partialities: who had means to confirm it, in fifty and six years which he reigned; and to establish the Country in great concord: causing the Temple of janus to be shut after the battle at Actium, as it had ●in in the time of Numa, that all occasions of war might be extinguished, and quenched.   

A COMPARISON OF ROMULUS with Cyrus, Theseus, Arsaces, and Semiramis; who founded Cities, and kingdoms, or Monarchies.  
AS CYRUS presently after his birth was exposed unto beasts to be devoured, and left in the midst of a forest, where a bitch gave him suck; and was after saved by a shepherd: so was ROMULUS also cast forth; and sucked a sheewolfe; and was fed by a woodpecker: till such time as the shepherd Faustulus had found him, and carried him home in safety. And in like manner, SEMIRAMIS was left in a desert place, full of rocks, where she was fed by the birds for a season: and afterwards found by the shepherds, which nourished and brought her up. THESEUS and ROMULUS were begotten by stealth, and not in lawful marriage; and it was bruited of them both, that they were borne of the seed of the Gods: founding the two noblest Cities of the world, th'one Rome, the other Athens. SEMIRAMIS also, who founded Babylon, was begotten out of lawful marriage. And as ROMULUS whiles he spoke unto the people, vanished away suddenly; and it was given out, that he was taken up into heaven, and that from thenceforth in steed of a good king, he would be a gracious god unto the Romans: So SEMIRAMIS, having given commandment to all the governors of the provinces of the kingdom of Assyria, that they should be obedient to her son, as to their king, she vanished suddenly: and it was believed, that she was translated among the Gods. The people of Rome builded a Temple unto JULIUS CESAR, near unto the place where his body was burned, after his death: and worshipped him as a God: thinking that the Comet which arose then, was his soul translated into heaven. And if it were lawful to mingle truth with fables, and divinity with humanity; MOSES (which received so much grace and favour of GOD, as to speak unto him, and to be chosen to bring the children of Israel out of the miserable bondage of Pharaoh, and to give them the Law, and form of living) he was soon after his birth exposed in a basket of bulrushes, near to the river Nilus, and after miraculously saved by the king's daughter; who brought him up, and adopted him as her son: And when he died, and was buried, his sepulture was never afterwards known of any. God by the mouth of his Prophet Esay, calleth CYRUS, who founded the kingdom of Persia, his king, two hundred years before he was borne: promising to hold his right hand, and to help him to take the strong Cities; to subdue mighty Nations; and to humble the kings of the earth: And chose him amongst all the Princes of the Gentiles to re-edify the Temple of jerusalem: and to restore the people of Israel to their Country, wherehence they had been driven out a long time. ARSACES' having conquered and established the kingdom of the Parthians, was no less celebrated of them, than Ninus and Semiramis of the Assyrians; Cyrus of the Persians; Alexander of the Macedonians; Romulus, julius Cesar, and Augustus of the Romans'. In remembrance and honour of whom, the succeeding kings which reigned in that state were called of his name Arsacides, as the Roman Emperors are called Caesar's, and Augustes, in the honour and memory of julius Cesar, and Augustus.   

A COMPARISON OF THE ROMAN warfare, with the Parthian, Carthaginian, and Assyrian.  
THE military exercise of the Carthaginians was principally in matter of the sea; By reason whereof they made little reckoning of footmen; but gave some order for horsemen: because they were served by strangers, and mercenaries. The Parthians used not any footmen, neither fought in any order; but by skirmishes confusedly, and uncertainly. On the contrary, the principal force of the Romans' consisted in their footmen, and they fought close in rank and order; never forsaking that place wherein they were appointed: resolute to overcome, or to die. The great champaigns and large countries, which the Parthians inhabited far from the seas, and where there are but few rivers, being far distant one from an other, were very fit for their horsemen to run swiftly, from one side to tother: Where on the contrary, the Romans' being laden with arms, could not keeping their order, make haste without damage, in such places where they found neither victuals nor waters. Who by military discipline and exercise surmounted the multitude of the Gauls, the greatness of the Germans, the strength of the Spaniards, the riches and cautels of the Africans; the wisdom and subtleties of the Grecians: albeit they were less in all things than these Nations, saving in the art, and exercise of war. And having gotten the signory of a great part of the world, when their Empire was mounted up to the highest of the wheel, in the time of Augustus; it began then to turn, and to go downwards: when the Citizens of Rome were left out of the hosts which the Emperors gathered; and that they relied on the force of the mercenaries; and of such as they had before overcome. And howbeit the great virtues which were in Augustus, and his good wit, preserved and upheld the Majesty of the Empire, as long as he lived; yet his successors learned of him to entertain others in pay, besides the Romans'; as Goths, Lombard's, Germans, Frenchmen, Spaniards, and others; whereof came the ruin of Rome: for as much as the emperors following kept an host of strangers, called the Praetorian, near the walls of the City of Rome: which manner, albeit at the first it seemed for their advantage; yet in the end it was their overthrow. For this number of soldiers disposed of the Imperial dignity at their pleasure; being armed in the place against naked, and unarmed people. Also the other armies which were in Gaul, Germany, Pannonie, Suria, Africa, and elsewhere, would be of authority; whiles th'one of them named one to be Emperor, and an other named another: in somuch that there were sometimes two or three pretending at one time: who thinking each to consume the other, consumed the Empire; which had cost so much in the obtaining. But considering that almost all the Emperors were of strange Nations; as also the soldiers which had created them: that made them to care less for the conserving of it, then if they had been borne of the City. Then aswell those which were elected Emperors, as they which had chosen them, marched against the City, with the same mind, as they would against their enemies: doing in these changes many spoils and murders; aswell on the Emperors themselves; as on the Senators, and other great persons. Whereas if the institution which the Romans had, in the time whiles their virtue lived, had been still maintained, (which was to make their wars with their own people, and not to hire strangers; nor to admit their neighbours or allies into their camp in greater number than they were themselves) their Empire had not been divided; neither transported out of their hands: neither their City many times destroyed and abandoned, as it hath been. For by maintaining their former manner of fight, they should have avoided all these inconveniences; and have comen always happily to a good end of all their enterprises: as they did as long as they were served of their own Citizens.  
Moreover, the Romans failed greatly in the entertaining of their ordinary armies; and prolonging of general military charges: which fault was a great furtherance to the overthrow of the common wealth, and destruction of the Empire. But the kings of Assyria changed every year their armies; and their Lieutenants general: providing wisely by such changing, that the soldiers and Captains, could not so readily unite themselves one with the other, to conspire against them. For the people that are continually exercised in arms, and hardened unto labour, are more courageous; and the Captains which command always over the same armies, make them partial to themselves; and draw them oftentimes from the obedience of their common wealth, or the service of their Prince: as it hath been discoursed more at large before, speaking of the Assyrians.  
Besides, they yet made an other fault, no less than the former: changing the simplicity of the Romans, into the proud ceremony of the barbarous kings. For whereas the first Emperors accommodated themselves to the Roman liberty, not differing from other Lords, but by authority, and obedience which was borne towards them: went unto the wars; conducted their armies; conquered Countries; took fortresses; bearing all travails indifferently with their men of arms; whom they called fellow-soldiers: the later thinking, that to live in delights and idleness, was the sovereign bliss and happiness, shut up themselves in their palaces; and separated themselves as much as they could from the sight of men; seeing and hearing little; making of themselves Gods invisible, or seldom seen; and would be worshipped for such; to the end to be more venerable, after the manner of the kings of Assyria, Persia, and Parthia: and took a crown of laurel, a diadem of gold, a seat and sceptre of ivory, hose, girdles, and other apparel laden with precious stones; and going forth in this pompous habit, environed with xxiv. Lictours with faggots, and axes, and with the train of their praetorian soldiers, they caused a torch or firebrand to be carried before them▪ and gold land which was brought from far, to be sowed in their way where they should pass, disdaining to touch the bare ground, whereon other men did tread: In such sort, that desiring to seem more than men, they became less than men; their arrogancy on the one side making them odious▪ and their cowardice on the other side contemptible: and by the evil opinion which was held of their life, and little power, they gave occasion to men to conspire against them, to kill them, or drive them away.   

A COMPARISON OF THE LEAR LEARning, and other knowledge of the Romans'; with that of the Greeks', Egyptians, and Chaldees.  
Having compared the Roman power, and warfare, with the most famous of the former Nations: we will after the same manner also compare the Learning of the Romans', with that of the Greeks, Egyptians, and Chaldees. As learning than came first from the Barbarians to the Grecians; and from the Grecians to the Italians; by occasion hereof the Italians in the deep sciences, have always used the inventions of strangers: or if of themselves they have written any thing, there hath been but little soundness therein. PLINY writing his natural history, put his trust in those authors, of whom he received the matters: without verifying of them. CORNELIUS CELSUS a man of reasonable understanding, having written of all sciences, hath only carried away this praise, to be reputed to know all things: and in that which he hath written of Physic, there is nothing to be accounted of, but the Latin, such as was in his time. The most that is praised in SENECA is, that he sharply reprehendeth the vices; showing himself for the rest little Methodical; and somewhat negligent in those matters which he handleth: relying on such as gathered them; for the truth of them. CICERO, who boasteth that he hath joined Philosophy, and eloquence of pleading together (which no Grecian had done before him) he is reckoned a better Orator, than a Philosopher: having handled certain places of philosophy rather for ostentation, then for doctrine or institution. And MARC VARRO (who is held the most learned of the Romans') began Philosophy, more to stir up others, then to instruct them: as the same Cicero witnesseth.  
VIR GIL modestly advowing the Greeks' to be better Orators, Poets, Painters, Statuaries, and wrestlers; and the Chaldees, and Egyptians better Astrologers, Geometricians, and Arithmeticians; and that other strangers did excel in other disciplines: he affirmeth, that the true art of the Roman is, to subdue the proud▪ and to be pitiful to those that submit themselves. Cicero speaketh more bravely, not consenting to make the Latins equal with the Greeks' and others: but preferreth them in many things, as in the preface of his Tusculans, where he writeth thus. My judgement hath always been that our men either have of themselves better invented then the Grecians; or have bettered whatsoever they borrowed of them: for we have their manners, and fashions of life, their domestical, and familiar affairs better, and seemlier ordered. And touching the common wealth, our ancestors have framed and governed it with much better Laws and institutions. What shall I say of warfare? in which virtue our men have much excelled; and yet more in good discipline. In regard of other things which they have gotten by nature, and not by learning; they ought not to be compared neither with the Greeks; nor with any other nation. Where was ever such gravity, such constancy, such courage, honesty, faith, and such excellent virtue in all kinds, as may be compared to that of our ancestors? Greece surmounted us before in learning, and all kind of knowledge: wherein it was easy to overcome such as made no resistance. For the Poets being the most ancient in learning amongst the Grecians (considering that Homer, and Hesiodus were before the building of Rome; and Archilochus in the reign of Romulus) we have Poetry more lately. For about four hundred and ten years after Rome was built, Livy published a comedy, when C. Claudius the son of him that was blind, and Mark Tuditan were Consuls; a year before the birth of Ennius: who was ancienter than Plautus and Nevius. The Poets than were but of late known, and received of us: although it be written in the originaries, how people being at the table, were wont to sing to the flute the virtues of renowned parsons. Notwithstanding the oration of Cato showeth that this thing was but of small account; wherein he reproached unto Marcus Nobilis that he carried with him Poets into his province: because this Consul had Ennius with him into Etolia, as we know. Wherefore by how much the less honour they gave unto Poets; their studies were so much the less. But this notwithstanding; if any endued with great wits have given themselves thereunto, they have no less answered the glory of the Greeks. If Fabius a man of great nobility had been praised for painting well; it is to be thought there had been amongst us many Polycletes, and Parrhasies. Honour nourisheth arts, and all are stirred up to study with glory; and those things always remain untouched which of all men are reproved. The Greeks esteemed much of the knowledge of singing, and playing on Instruments: wherefore it is said that Epaminondas (in my opinion the first man of Greece) could very well play on the Lute. And Themistocles some years before having refused the harp, was accounted the more ignorant: Then the Musicians flourished in Greece, and every one learned Music; and he which was ignorant therein, was accounted the less learned. Geometry was in great honour amongst them; and therefore there was no thing more respected, than the Mathematics: But we have moderated these arts by the utility of numbering, and measuring. On the contrary we have eftsoons received the Orator; howbeit not learned at the first; yet apt to speak: and afterwards learned. For it is written, that Galba, African, and Lelius were learned; and Cato studious, who was before them. Then Lepidus, Carbo, and the Gracches. And finally coming to our age; we have had such stor● of learned men, that we yield not much, or rather nothing at all, to the Grecians. Philosophy hath been omitted until this time (having not yet received any light from Latin letters) which we must beautify, and bring to light: wherein we ought to take so much the more pains, because it is said that there are many Latin books written inconsiderately, by good and honest parsons; but yet not sufficiently learned.  
The same Cicero in his fourth Tusculane; As in many places (saith he) I have accustomed to admire the good wits and virtues of our men; so I chiefly admire them in these studies: which being very lately desired of them, have been transported out of Greece into this City. For the auspexes, ceremonies, comices, appellations, counsels of the fathers, the orders of footmen, and of horsemen, and of the whole warsare being from the beginning of the city by royal laws, and institutions divinely ordained: Surely then when the common wealth was delivered from the domination of kings, it made an admirable increase, and an incredible course in all excellence. Considering then the studies of learning; many reasons make me think that they have also been brought from elsewhere: and not only been desired; but also conserved, and refined. How many and what excellent Poets have here been in a little time? and what Orators? In such sort as it appeareth that our men have easily attained to all things when they have been desirous of them. The study of wisdom hath been of ancient time amongst them: Yet do I not find any that may be called wisemen before the age of Lelius, and Scipio. While they were yet but young, I see that Diogenes the Stoic, and Carneades the Academic, were sent Ambassadors by the Athenians to our senate; and how that neither of them before had handled any public affairs; and th'one was a Cyrenian, & tother a Babylonian: and that they never had been taken out of the schools & chosen unto this charge; if at that time there had been any learning in those that were chief of the city. Who writing in divers professions, some of them handled civil Law; others made Orations or Histories, representing the doctrine of good life; the most venerable of all others: and more by example of life then by writing. Then in this true, and elegant Philosophy (which began in Socrates, and hath remained amongst the Peripatetics and Stoics, which say the self same thing, but after a divers manner, and the Academics endeavouring to decide their differents) there are not any Latin writers; or if there be some, they are but a small number: as well by reason of the greatness of the matters; as of the hindrances of men; or because they thought them not to be approved of the ignorant.   

A COMPARISON OF THE LATIN authors, with the Greek: and namely of Cicero with Demosthenes.  
QVintilian who came after Cicero, comparing the Latin authors with the Greek: First touching Heroical poesy, he giveth the second praise unto Virgil, singularly admiring the happy, and easy natural vain of Homer; and in Virgil his diligence, and curious imitation. In an Elegy he liketh well of Tibullus and Propertius, whom he compareth with the Greek Elegiacks. Concerning the Lyrickes, he accounteth Horace the chief of all the Latins, and almost alone deserving to be read. He confesseth, Pindarus is not imitable. That the Latin Tragedy attaineth not to the gravity of Sophocles, and Euripides. And the Comedy yet less to the Attic grace, and eloquence. No Latin Poet hath made any jambicke or Dithyrambicke work. The Satire is altogether Latin.  
The Latins were happier in History, then in Poesy: Sallust being nothing inferior to Thucydides, and Livy to Herodotus.  
But touching Eloquence Cicero maketh this judgement of Demosthenes, and himself. Demosthenes perfecteth many things; and I begin them. You may judge that he is able, and that I am willing and that he declareth himself according as the matter requireth. But he was excellent, and succeeded unto excellent personages; and there were many great Orators in his time. We should have done very much in coming in any sort to that which we pretended, in the place where as Antony thought, never any eloquent man had been heard.  
It is certain that these two Orators, were very like in their Inventions, and dispositions; keeping the same order, and the same manner of dividing, preparing, and proving: But they were different in elocution, and in affections. One is more strict, the other more abundant: The one concludeth in fewer words; Tother disputeth more at large. th'one is more sharp: and the other for the most part grave. One can take nothing from th'one; nor add any thing to the other. In brief, there is more diligence in Demosthenes: and more nature in Cicero. It was forbidden in Athens to use any proemes or epilogues; and it was not lawful in peroring to move affections; By reason whereof Demosthenes herein is inferior: But the Greek tongue which he used, is richer and pleasanter than the Latin.  
Moreover he that would inquire what personages they were, and how they lived; he shall find their lives, and fortunes very like. First of all, both the one and the other came from mean place, to great authority. They were both banished their cities; and after called back with great honour. They undertook quarrels against mighty Lords; into whose hands they fell: and died with the liberty of their Citizens. The excellent Poets living at rest and solitary, being removed from public affairs, have ended more happily. But besides their foresaid similitudes, and differences; I find that Demosthenes employed wholly all the sense and science which he had either of nature, or gotten by art of Rhetoric; and that he surpassed in force, and virtue of eloquence all the Orators of his time; and in gravity, and magnificence of style, all those which wrote only for show, and ostentation; and in exquisite art, and diligence, all the Sophisters of Greece, and the Masters of Rhetoric. And that Cicero was as well seen in many sciences, as a statesman might be; being often employed in private, and public▪ civil, and criminali affairs: as may be known by many Philosophical books which he hath written of his own invention; after the manner of the Academic Philosophers: and seen by his Orations; in which he sought occasions, as he went, to show that he was learned. Also in their styles may be found some shadow of their natural disposition; for the style of Demosthenes hath nothing tending to sport or mirth; but is every where strict; and there is nothing in it but pricketh to the purpose, savouring of great travail, with austerity and sharpness of nature: whereas Cicero used oftentimes to jest, even almost like a jester or pleasant companion; and turning in his plead matters of consequence into game, and laughter, because it came somewhat to his purpose; he sometimes forgot the duty belonging to a parsonage of gravity, such as he was. Moreover, one may see in their works and compositions, that the one speaketh soberly in his own praise, so that none could take offence thereat; and never but on just occasion, in regard of some matter of consequence; and is otherwise very modest and sparing to speak of himself: Contrariwise the unmeasurable repetitions of the self same things which Cicero used commonly in his orations, showed an excessive desire of glory. And moreover he praised not only his own deeds; but also the orations, which he had written or pronounced: as if he had been to contest with some scholastical Rhetorician; and not to redress and reform the people of Rome. For to desire glory for his fair speaking, or (which is worse) to beg it, is an act of a base mind. And therefore in this part, we must confess that Demosthenes is more grave, and more magnanimous: who himself said that all his eloquence was but a rote gotten by long exercise; which had yet need of Auditors that would hear it patiently: and that he esteemed them foolish and impertinent (as indeed they are) which glorify themselves.   

THE ROMAN KNOW ledge in Law.  
COncerning the knowledge of the LAWS (which held the second place in Rome next after eloquence) it hath been wholly Romain, and Italian. For in other well ordered countries, and common weals it is not found that there were any that made, only profession of civil Law. The Athenians, and Lacedæmonians (from whom the Laws were brought unto Rome) never used any such: neither the Egyptians, Assyrians, Persians, Carthaginians, Macedonians, Parthians, and others whose signiories were mighty and well governed.  
These men understanding the rights and customs, which particular men used in the city, and the styles of pleading, they gave counsel touching mean matters, and showed how causes were to be handled, and Process to besued out; the manner of prosecuting actions, of proposing exceptions, demanding delays, licences, and defaults, framing of complaints, answers, replies, salvations, advertisements; of making inquests, and informations; judging definitively; and executing of judgements: whose authority came to be so great at Rome, and throughout Italy that there was made no testament, obligation, bargain, transaction▪ contract, rescission, or other deed of importance; without communicating of it to them. And they came not only to them about cases concerning the civil Law: but also for all affairs, and duties. They gave counsel to the Emperors, to the senate, to the assemblies of people, and in their friends causes: They were called on, and used both in peace, and war. By reason where of they were called Prudentes wisemen; and there art jurisprudentia, the wisdom of the Law; for as much as their profession could not be conducted without great wisdom: without having seen, heard, red, and known much; without knowledge of antiquity; without understanding the common disposition of mankind; the nature of right, and of equity; without observing the manners of many nations, and especially of their own▪ They wrote infinitely in their professions: their books being abolished by the Emperor justinian; after he had caused the Pandects to be gathered that are yet remaining. Which hath been a great loss both to this art and to the Latin tongue; none of the ancient writers being left but certain rags, and shreddes evil sowed together, and disposed. Their true office was to expound the meaning of the Praetorian edicts, constitutions of the Senate, decrees of the people, ordinances of princes, and other laws; to show the reason of each of them; to advertise which of them ought to be kept▪ or renewed, or abrogated; according to the times, places, parsons, and other circumstances.   

A COMPARISON OF THE LATIN tongue, with the Greek.  
ALl the Latin authors have complained of the want of their tongue, confessing it to be poor in respect of the Greek: in the which more persons had written & of more things. Cicero in his Tusculans, saith that the Greek tongue is richer than the Latin; & in his first De finibus, that the Latin was so far from being poor, that it is richer than the Greek: albeit that writing of philosophy, he findeth enough to do to make new words correspondent to the Greek, peculiar to every art, or speculation; & affected by the philosophers: being the first, or at lest he that hath invented most; turning some by translations, & others in such terms as he could. Theodore Gaza (a Greek by nation, but very well seen both in the Greek, and Latin tongues, as any that hath been since the restitution of learning) affirmeth that the Latin tongue is sufficient to represent every Greek word and sentence; and that they which cannot turn the Greek into Latin, do endeavour to shadow their ignorance by the poorness of the tongue. Notwithstanding Quintilian doth not dissemble that scarcity whereinto the ancients were fallen; by the scrupulous severity, which they used in their speech: And without difficulty acknowledgeth Latin, to be rougher in pronunciation; and harder to join or derive words: wherein the Greek is happy and pleasant. The Greek, and the Latin, have their syllables long and short; and versification alike: which other tongues have not so well. The Greek hath articles; and the Latin hath not: but useth names without any welt or guard (as one may say) or any kind of addition: and we must not marvel thereat, considering that Homer (who in verse excelleth all others) put articles unto few names: as if they were handles for vessels that had need of them, or plumes upon morions. Cicero in his Oration for the Poet Archias, saith that the Greek writings were read amongst all nations; and the Latin were shut up in very strait limits: On the contrary, Plutarch in his Platonical questions affirmeth that in his time, almost all the world used the Roman language: The Cardinal Adrian, who hath written of the Latin tongue, giveth it four times; the most ancient, the ancient, the perfect, and the unperfect: fetching the most ancient from the beginning of Rome, to the time of Livius Andronicus; and the ancient from this Livy, unto Cicero, in whose time it was perfect; And the unperfect, after Cicero; for incontinently under Augustus it began to lose his natural purity, and elegancy; and perished by little and little with the majesty of the Empire: Till at last they left speaking it, & in steed thereof succeeded the Italian, which is spoken at this day. Likewise the Greek flourished, with the learning and power of Greece, till the time of Philip, and Alexander: when it fell from his natural propriety, and elegancy: diminishing from that time forward with the liberty of the country: and engendering by process of years the vulgar Greek of this present, being mingled with the Roman, Turkish, and Arabian: sithence that the country hath been possessed by the Turks Mahometists: whereof we have largely spoken in the discourse of Tongues.   
The end of the seventh Book.   

OF THE RELIGION, POWER, KNOW ledge, & other excellence of the Arabians, or Saracens; and other Mahometists. The eight Book.  
AS the progress which arms, learning, and piety, have had hitherto, hath been summarily declared in the two last books: hence forward shall be another proposed, of the religion, power, knowledge, and other excellence of the Arabians or Saracens; which requireth no less deduction than the former. In the mean time whiles the Empire was afflicted by the barbarous nations, and Christendom troubled with heretics; the Saracens transported to themselves the honour of arms, and of learning. For whereas the church divided by the Arrians, Nestorians, Manichees, Donatists, and Pelagians; had lost much of her integrity: Then the Empire in the East being vexed by the Persians; in the West, and South, by the Goths, Vandals, Alanes, Huns, and Lumbards'; and consequently the light of learning extinguished: in such a confusion the people grieved, and wearied with so many troubles; hearkened the more easily unto Mahomet, when he began to publish his law. Which was so plausible, in hatred of the former contentions, that it was eftsoons received into many regions. In so much that the followers thereof have by succession of time possessed both Asia, and Africa, and a great part of Europe; making themselves Masters of the best Countries of the world; out of which they banished the gospel, to give place to their Alcoran: which the greatest part of mankind now followeth; speaking the Arabian tongue in the affairs of religion, and the disciplines, even as Latin is used in these parts. So having ended so many conquests, and subdued, innumerable nations, they applied their selves to learning; becoming by the quickness & sharpness of their wits: very learned in philosophy, Physic, Astrology, Geometry, & other arts. By means whereof they got in their turn great reputation, in the exercise of arms, & knowledge of learning. And as that unmeasurable power of theirs extended into divers countries; so have they had many valiant Captains and famous princes for the conduct of their affairs. But there is none more renowned than MAHOMET, the author of the Alcoran, and founder of the Sarazen Empire; who being borne of an obscure, & poor parentage, came to great riches, power, & authority, making himself the lawgiver of mankind; & making the people believe, that he was the prophet and messenger of God. His successors were Eubocara, Homar, Odmen, Hali, Alharen, Moavi, jesid, & the Caliphs, who prospered marvelously in a little time with those beginnings which Mahomet had given them; spreading far & wide together with their dominion, the Arabian language, & religion: abolishing in those countries which they conquered, the Greek, Latin, Punic, & Persian: which was a wonderful strange mutation. And as they have been excellent warriors; so have they been no less studious; & learned. For they have had Avicen, a man most learned in their Theology and in all sciences: Auerrois, an expounder of Aristotle; whom those of his time, and which have come after him, have had in such admiration, that they have almost equalled him with Aristotle himself; giving him by excellency the name of the Commentatour: Auempace, Algazel, Benbitar, Abaren, and Siphac Philosophers: Mesue, Rasis whom they call Almansor, Serapion, & Zoar surnamed the wise, Physicians: Albumasar, Auenzoar, Gebber, Alpharab; Alphragan, Hali, & Rodoan, Astrologers. All which flourished almost at one time, & have been followed by many others, as Persians, Syrians, Egyptians, Africans, & Spaniards writing in the Arabian tongue: which remain unknown to us by ignorance of the tongue, & diversity of their religion. They say that Rhetoric is not needful, because that nature plainly, & in few words declareth her conceits: & albeit they have (as other nations) many Historiographers, yet they make but small account of histories, especially the Turks; saying that men dare not write the truth of princes while they are living, and that after their decease the memory of them is lost. There are few Architects amongst them, because they give not themselves much to building, the most part of them dwelling under tents & pavilions. The others build no houses above one story in height like to dove-houses, as in Turkey, mocking at Christians that are so curious in their houses, as if they were to dwell in them perpetually: or if they do build, they are temples, bridges, stoves, baths, hospitals, & other such like public edifices: caring little for the private, which they commonly make of wood, & of earth, & seldom of squared stone: such vanity being reproved by their Law. They have yet fewer painters, statuaries, cutters, gravers, & carvers of images, for fear of Idolatry (which they abhor) detesting by reason thereof the pictures & counterfeits of all living creatures. They have Poets enough, which paint out their amorous passions, & such other fantasies. The Alcoran itself is written in meeter, & is altogether poetical. On which is grounded not only their religion, but their politic government, justice, & warfare is ruled thereby. Wherefore all Talismans', Basis, Subasis, Cadis, & cadileskers are bound to understand it, & as near as they can to accommodate their sentences thereunto. The princes themselves have Muphtis, & patriarchs near unto them, to take heed to their decrees, & ordinances; & to repeal them if they be found repugnant to their religion. For other things, they follow the laws of the Sultan's, & the customs of the country, by reason whereof they have no other civil law, nor Lawyers. The christians which have written against Mahomet, do call him a diabolical magician, a liar, a deceiver; & say that he was the son of a Pagan; & borne of a jew; a thief, a whoremonger, & a cunning contriver: an idolater of religion; poor of fortune; presumptuous of understanding; ignorant of learning; & renowned for villainies. That at his beginning he was a Merchant, & a driver of Camels; & afterwards being enriched by the marriage of a rich widow, became a Captain, & had charge of the Arabians under the Emperor Heraclius. In which service he found means to get him power and authority. For whereas the four thousand Arabians, which served Heraclius had required to have the military garment given them, as well as to the other men of war; an Eunuch who was Treasurer at this unhappy time answered them, that the garment which was reserved for the Roman Soldier ought not to be given to dogs. Which they taking in scorn, fell to mutiny, and with the same disdain incensed the rest of that nation. To whom Mahomet joining himself provoked them farther, and confirmed them in this rebellion. Then was he chosen the chieftain by one part of them, as in seditions they are wont to be chosen, that support the multitude in their evil counsels, and blame their superious. Many despised in him the baseness of his stock, and poverty of his former life. But to warrant himself from this contempt (as it is easy towards the simple, and ignorant multitude,) he used from that time forward a pretext of divinity in his actions; calling himself no more a Captain chosen by military favour, but the prophet and messenger of almighty God: to th'end that under colour of this imposture, all men should obey him the more willingly. And whereas he fell oftentimes of the falling evil, to excuse himself of this disease, he affirmed that the Angel Gabriel spoke unto him, and brought him the Law: which he published, as spoken by the mouth of God, and revealed from above; albeit it be full of iniquity and of lies. He gave men to understand that God first sent Moses unto mankind, than JESUS CHRIST with miracles, and because they had not obeyed him, that he sent at that time Mahomet with strong hand, to the end that such as were not moved by miracles should be constrained by arms. And that the Mosaical, and Christian law being to rigorous, he was sent to soften them, by the publication of more easy precepts. That there should come no other messenger, and that he was the last, that was foretold by Christ in the gospel. And so hath established a new sect and most pernicious, mingled of the old, and new testament, whereof he hath perverted many places, endeavouring to subvert the holy Trinity, and to abolish the divinity of jesus Christ, and the mysteries of his death, passion, and resurrection.  
But those of his side, which willbe called Musulmans do speak much otherwise, and do exalt him infinitely: as the most excellent parsonage of the world, having maliciously invented many lies of his pretended excellency, to make him the more admirable, and to draw the more people to his belief. Amongst others they have dreamt of a prophetical light, which appeared first in Adam, then was continued from prophet to prophet, until Mahomet: shining in their faces even as the sun in fair weather, and the moon when it is full. That as soon as a new prophet was conceived, it passed from the husband to the wife, and the child borne of her; and remained with him, till being waxed great he had engendered another. As soon then saith he, as Adam was created, as he stood up his brain shaked, and made a noise as the leaves do which are shaken with the wind; and that Adam wondering thereat, God said unto him; The sound which thou hast heard, and whereat thou meruailest, is the sign of the prophets, and messengers which shall preach my commandments: and therefore thou shalt take heed, that the same seed of light be not put, but into a clean womb. And when he had engendered Seth (who is the father of the prophets, and the chief of the messengers of God) at the instant that light passed from the face of Adam, into the face of Eve; who while she was with child, shined in such sort▪ that the birds of the air, and beasts of the earth, wondered at the beauty and brightness of her face. Adam himself was astonished therewith. Every day the Angels saluting her, brought her odours of Paradise, till such time as she brought forth Seth alone; because that afore she always had two at a burden, male, and female; brother and sister. Seth being borne, carried in his face the shining of that light, which before his mother bare: which light remained strait between heaven and earth, the Angels descending thereby upon Seth, and crying always; Rejoice thou earth worthy of the light of Mahomet: on him be the prayer of God, and the salvation. When his father Adam drew near to his end, he declared unto him by his Testament the mystery of the light; and the genealogy of the prophets. Then descended Gabriel accompanied with lxx. thousand Angels, bearing every one of them a white leaf, and a pen which signed the writing, saying that, His voice was exalted, and that the will of God was, that the order of the prophetical generation should be continued. So Seth received the writing signed, and was clothed by the Lord, with a doublered garment shining as the sun, and soft as the violet flower. They affirmed that this light passed after this manner from Adam to Seth, from Seth to Enoch; and from Enoch by continual succession to Noah, and Sem; then to Abraham, at whose birth two lights coming out of the East, and the west, met together in the midst of the earth, enlightening the whole world in one: and the Angels were heard singing, that it was the light of the Prophet Mahomet, who should be borne of his seed; whose word should be in the virtue of God. This light passed from Abraham to Ishmael, and from Ishmael to Amofre, to whom it seemed, that their grew forth of his loins a tree, whose branches shined, and reached unto heaven: and that by the boughs thereof there went white men up and down. He understood of the diviners, that this high tree signified a great lineage, which should lighten the earth, and climb up into heaven. From Amofre it came to Abdamutalib the Grandfather of Mahomet, a parsonage replenished with all virtue; and when there was any drought, as soon as this light shined on the earth, it presently reigned there. An elephant prostrated himself before him, & speaking with the voice of a man said: (Salvation be on you, and on the light that shineth out of your reins. Dignity, fame, honour, and victory be on you, and that there should proceed forth of him a king greater than all the kings of the earth. another time sleeping on the stone which was placed by Abraham in his Oratory at Mecha, he dreamt that there issued out of his reins a chain parted in four, on one side stretched toward the East, on tother side towards the west; upwards as high as heaven, and downwards to the bottom of the depth: and that suddenly it was all wound up together, and then changed into a great herb, green and flourishing, such as was never seen amongst men. That in the mean time there stood by him two old men; towards whom turning he asked them who they were; and they confessed that the one of them was Noah, and tother Abraham, prophets of the most high God; and told him that out of his reins should come a man, by whom the heaven and earth should believe, and all nations should be converted unto justice and truth. The Magician's Sorcerers, & diviners conspired against Abdalle the son of Abdamutalib, and father of Mahomet, for to kill him: because that all their practice was to be overthrown by his seed: and to him was given a Tutor, as a defender; who seemed as a man, but was none: who perpetually watching over him, turned away all their mischievous devices. Also the jews conspired against him, and he was preserved from them by lxx. Angels, which seemed men, and were not. Leaving all other women he wedded Emina; and when the time was come which God had foreseen, and prescribed, to put finally into the world the light of the prophet Mahomet, the voice of the Lord was heard, saying: The gates of Paradise should be opened, and the innermost of his secret manifested: for it pleaseth me this night to transport the light of my prophet from the reins of Abdalle into the womb of Emina, and that it come into the world. This being done, as Abdalle the judge and Lord of the Arabians, went unto the house of prayer, he perceived a great light, to lighten from his house up towards heaven: and by and by he died; leaving his wife with child. And within twelve days after, Mahomet was borne; Then all Idols fell, and became black. All kingdoms were destroyed from the East unto the West, and not one stood upright. Lucifer was cast into the bottom of the sea where he remained forty days; and with much a do came out therehence: then calling all his fellows he showed them that Mahomet was borne; who would take away all their power: and therefore they should determine to corrupt the world with hypocrisy, riotousness, and pleasure. At the same hour God made it to be understood throughout heaven and earth that he had a faithful, and happy friend borne unto him. His mother witnessed, that in bearing and bringing him forth in her childbirth she felt not any pain at all; and that from above there were sent to nourish him, flocks of birds, with beaks of emeralds, and wings of hyacinth, who lifting up their eyes from the East toward the West, and looking towards the child, perceived that he was almost fledged; and held out his hands, as it were to pray unto God. There came also a man clothed in white raiment, presenting him with three keys like unto pearls; which he took, namely the key of victory, the key of the laws and the key of prophecy: And afterward came three persons with their faces shining; of whom the first carried a cawderon of Emeralds, with four handles of pearls well appropriated; and offering it unto him said: This is the world and his four corners; East, West, North, and South. Mahomet accepting it all it was foretold him, that he should command over all the world: And when this man had washed him thrice, he kissed his forehead, speaking thus; Be glad O Mahomet; for that is reserved for thee, which hath been denied unto the prophets; which surmountest all in wisdom, and magnanimity: And the key of victory being especially given thee, thou shalt be without fear; and there shall be none remaining in the world but shall tell of thy name: And then assembled all sorts of birds, the clouds, and the winds, and finally the companies of Angels striving for the nourishment of the child. The birds said that they were fittest: considering that they could gather fruits from divers places. The winds, that they could fill him with odours. The clouds that they would nourish him most conveniently; having means to impart unto him the sweetness of waters. The Angels being angered said, that there remained nothing for them: But a voice from above appeased the debate; declaring that he should not be taken out of the hands of men; and that happy should be those breasts which should give him suck; happy the hands which should handle him; and happy should be his house and his bed. An ass being almost famished with hunger, kneeled down to worship him; and having him on her back, lift up her head, and went beyond the others, which had gotten before her: And when as every one marveled thereat, the ass answered for herself speaking in the voice of man; Thus hath God restored me as I perished, and hath raised me from death to life: O if you knew what I bear: It is the seal of the prophets, the Lord of the messengers, better than all the former friends of God. Three men carried him up to a mountain, and ripped up his belly, without grief or harm. The first opened him from the breast unto the navel, and washed his entrails with snow; The second cleaved his heart in the midst, and took out thereof a black grain, saying it was the portion of the devil; The third cleansing the place, made him whole again. He was then thus nourished according to their fabulous saying; and grew in such sort, that he never gave any cause of trouble or grief to those which nourished him. Seraphin kept him three years; and Gabriel nineteen; who gave unto him the Law in the fortieth year of his age; and carried him to heaven: Wherehence being descended, and associated with Eubocara, Haly, and Zaid, he calleth himself the prophet of God; preaching publicly. And not only maketh himself believed by his word; but also by force, (considering that the sword prevaileth more with people, than reason) fight often against his adversaries: in so much that they reckon twenty and two expeditions of his; having been present in person at nine; and in his life time given eighteen battles in which he obtained victory: conquered Mecha with the places round about; and possessed the rest of Arabia. Then seeing himself fortified, he wrote to the Princes of other languages, as to the King of Persia, the Emperor of the Romans', the king of Ethiopia, and others; that they would willingly receive his Law.  
They have forged many other lies of him like unto these, which I will purposely omit, fearing tedious prolixity: and lest in reciting of scandalous blasphemies▪ I should offend Christian ears. As touching his death, they say he died of a Pleurisy, or of the falling evil, the Lxiij. year of his age: and that having foretold in his sickness, that the third day after his death he should be carried into Heaven; the people expecting it, kept him so long, that by the stinch of his carrion, they were constrained to bury him at Medina, surnamed since of the Prophet.  
Such than was the beginning of the Algiers of MAHOMET▪ that is to say: of his reign, which endured ten years; after the which his followers do reckon their years, as we do ours after the Nativity of Christ. His parents, and successors (continuing the enterprise) have persisted till this present, in the publication of that Law, by preaching, and by force: making their power very great; and spreading with their Empire, the Arabian religion, and language, almost in all parts of the habitable earth. Then the Mahometists made at the beginning great conquests, under the government of one only Lord called the Caliphe, which was king & priest together, having the superintendence, and conduct of all their affairs: concerning not only piety and justice; but also arms and revenues; all possessions, sacred or profane; liberty, and bondage; life and death. But as they increased in countries, so they entered into partialities; and while this schism endured, they created in Egypt an other Caliphe: leaving him of Bagdet, as too superstitious, and rigorous; who excommunicated them, and declared them Heretics. The Caliphe of Bagdet commanded in all the East. And tother of Egypt, who diminished his authority, had but little lands at the first: But he conquered in process of time all Barbary; and a great part of Spain. For the Saracens under his obedience passed into afric; where they took Carthage, Maiorca, Minorca; and following their good fortune▪ marched as far as Mauritania: And still endeavouring to increase, they passed into Europe, at the persuasion of an Earl a western Gothe, called julian▪ who (being much moved with the outrage done by King Roderick to his wife) caused them to pass over the straight of Sebi●a, and to come into Spain: where at their first coming they gave many battles to the Visigoths; and in the last slew all their Nobility: In such sort, that Spain came into their possession, all except Esture, and Biscay.  
The other Saracens sailed into Thrace, and held Constantinople three years besieged; which they were constrained to abandon, being consumed by famine and pestilence.  
another time they came into Italy, and having seized on Apulia, they overran the country, as far as the port of Hostia; and entering into Rome, burned the Churches of the Apostles, possessed the coast of Tuscan, of Province, and Languedoc; spoiled Genua, Avignon, and Narbona; went into the gulf of the Adriatic sea; where they overcame the fleet of the Venetians. After so many conquests they promised themselves the entire Monarchy of the whole world. For having vanquished the East, subdued afric, overcome Italy; and tamed Spain; they did not think there were any Nations, or kings on the earth, which durst undertake to resist them: making account to subdue all others in short space, by the only fear of their name. Ten years after they had been in Spain, they determined to pass farther: and taking for a good presage, the request which Eudon the Duke of Aquitaine made unto them, (thinking to find a better, and fairer country) they went to the number of four hundred thousand into Gascony; carrying with them their wives, and children, as if they had the victory already assured. For seeing all things at the first to succeed unto them prosperously, they became so proud, that they utterly disdained the Christians. They had already overrun and spoiled all the country, as far as Tours; whither being come with their great army, they were encountered by CHARLES MARTEL, leading the forces of France and Germany; where he discomfited CCCLxx. thousand; having lost but fifteen hundred of his. It is not remembered that the Saracens were ever better chastised; or lost so many brave men, and valiant Captains: All passed the edge of the sword, even women and little children. Whiles the Saracens wasted and overran the Gauls, two Comets appeared in heaven, for the space of fourteen days; whereof the one was seen in the morning before the sunrising; and tother in the evening after the sun was set: which flaming looked towards the North. There remained of these Saracens even to our time, holding the kingdom of Granado: where hence they were driven out about a hundred years sithence; and clean banished Europe by king FERDINAND. Others remaining in afric, and having lost their domination, are divided into many Seignories; and into two sorts of people: whereof th'one inhabit the plains, & the Cities; the other wander continually on the mountains: They are much fallen from their former power and military reputation; and likewise from their excellency in learning.  

A COMPARISON OF MAHOMET with Lycurgus, Minos, Numa, Zoroaster, Zamolsis, Charondas, Zaleucus, Trismegistus, and other Pagan Lawmakers, or founders of Cities, and Empires.  
ALmost all the ancient Lawmakers, which gave Laws and manners of living unto people in divers Countries, and seasons, feigned that they were sent by the commandment of GOD: thinking by this means to give their Laws the more authority; and to make them be the easier received. And they attributed them unto the divinity under different names, according to the opinions of the Countries where they were; as Zoroaster the Lawgiver of the Bactrians, and of the Persians, to Horosmades; Trismegistus of the Egyptians, to Mercury; Zamolsis of the Scythians, to Vesta, Charondas of the Calcides, to Saturn; Minos of the Candians, to jupiter; Numa of the Romans to Egeria; and such other personages: who having to deal with rude and rough people, and intending to bring in great novelties into the governments of their countries, feigned that they had communication with the Gods: as if that fiction had been profitable to those whom they made so to believe. So Mahomet, purposing to give Laws to the rude and gross Arabians, living for the most part of robberies on the mountains, made them believe, that he received them from God by the Angel Gabriel; to make them obey them the more willingly.  
And as Pythagoras had made an Eagle tame, which was used to come down to him by a certain voice; as she flew in the air above his head: and as he passed through the Olympian games, suffered his thigh to be seen, which seemed all of gold; and many such other devices which are told of him, seeming to be miracles: So Mahomet had tamed and taught a pigeon, which came to eat corn out of his ear; which to deceive the people, he said was the holy Ghost, who inspired him with these precepts. Almost all founders, or reformers of common weals, and kingdoms, going about to bring in new laws, and manners, seized on the sovereign force and authority; to the end to fear, and to refrain such as would oppose themselves against it: knowing that such alteration could not be made without violence, and force; and that otherwise, they should neither have been heard, nor followed: So Mahomet, calling himself the Prophet, and messenger of God, sent to give the Law unto men, made himself believed, not only by word, but also by force; and fought oftentimes against his adversaries. Lycurgus' referred all his Laws to the war, and to victory: And Mahomet all his discipline to fight, and commanding; placing the felicity of man in great power, and largeness of Empire. Pythagoras was of opinion, that the first cause was not sensible, nor passable; but invisible, & incorruptible, and only intelligible. And Numa following him, forbade the Romans, to make the form of God, like to any man, or beast: in such sort, that at the beginning, there was not at Rome any Image of God, neither painted nor melted. And a long time they had not in their Temples any statue or figure of God; accounting it sacrilege to seek to represent heavenly things by the earthly: (as Plutarch saith) considering that it is not possible any way to attain to the knowledge of the divinity, but by the understanding. For the same reason, Mahomet saith, he forbade all images, and figures of things that have life; not suffering in his Mosgedes, or Temples, any corruptible thing whatsoever: saving lamps burning on high all in a rank; and mats below to kneel upon; that coming thither barefoot, they should not hurt themselves with cold.  
Solon did write in Greek verse, the Laws which he gave to the Athenians; and Mahomet his Alcoran in Arabian meeter, which is altogether poetical. The Assyrians invented many fictions of their Queen Semiramis, which had built Babylon. The Persians of Cyrus, who founded their kingdom. The Romans of Romulus, who began Rome, and the Roman Empire; to the end to make them more admirable. But the Mahometists have exceeded the fables of all the rest in their Mahomet; exalting him infinitely: as the most excellent parsonage of the world: and have maliciously invented many lies of his pretended excellency, heretofore rehearsed; to th'end to make him more admirable, and to draw the more people to his belief.   

THE POWER OF THE ARABIANS or Saracens, compared to the Roman, Macedonian, Persian Parthian, Assyrtan, and Egyptian.  
PLinie speaking of the Arabians, saith: that they were not inferior to any people of the world. They receiving the law of Mahomet (who was of their nation) were called Saracens, who in little time after they had received this Religion, achieved great conquests, subdued many Regions, took, and ruinated Towns, wasted countries, overthrew kingdoms, and namely the Roman Empire in the East. But as they increased suddenly in dominions, so they entered into partialities, and divided themselves under two Caliphs: whereof the one was established at Bagdet in Assyria, commanding over all the East, tother in Egypt, who conquered all the rest of Barbary with Spain. Being come to such and so great power, albeit they were all of one religion, or little different (because they called one another Schismatics) yet had they not one Empire answering to one sovereign Monarch, and resident in the capital City of the state; as had the Assyrians, Persians, Parthians, and Romans: but being divided into many Lords, and evil agreeing; they fought the one against tother; which was the cause that made them diminish as soon as they were grown up. For the first Turks coming out of the North East parts of Asia, on the differents of the two Caliphs; they took Persia from them, and possessed the Caliphat of Bagdet, with the better part of the lesser Asia: becoming Mahometists. But the Latin Christians under Godfrey of Bovillon, and the Corasmians overcame these Turks; then the Latins & Corasmians being overcome, the Tartarians issued from the same quarter, wherehence the Turks came before: who in an instant overran a great part of the North, of the East, and of the South: then drawing toward the West, they overcame the Ruthenians, Lithuanians, Polaques; and pierced even into Hungary, Ostrich, and Germany: which if they had been, or were united, would make an incomparable power. But they are divided by hordes of the Procopians, Zavoglans, Nogacians, and Corasmians, the one being governed by kings; and the other by common weals.   

A COMPARISON OF THE ARABIAN or Sarasen Learning, with the Greek, Egyptian, Chaldaic, Persian, and Romain, or Latin.  
AS the learning of the Greeks' and Romans' augmented with their power; so did that of the Arabians, or Saracens. And when they were the most mighty of the world, than they became most learned: especially in the demonstrative sciences. Amongst whom Auicenna, Albumasar, Gebber, and Auerrois, got the first praise. Avicen hath been the most universal of them all; being eminent in philosophy, in the Mathematics; in their Theology; & in the Arabian poesy: who writing also in Physic, hath very well handled (according to the judgement of the most learned in this art) the signs and causes of diseases; accommodating unto them many remedies not understood, nor practised, by the Greeks and Italians. Auerrois hath learnedly expounded all Aristotle. Abumasar understood perfectly all the celestial motions, and their effects: having invented the great conjunctions, and many other goodly things which remained unknown until his time. Gebber a very expert Mathematician, hath found faults in the demonstrations of Prolomey his Almagests. And others in divers sciences have invented many new things, or reform those that were invented before: both Persians, Syrians, Egyptians, Africans, and Spaniards, writing in Arabian; which possessed the schools of the West, before the restitution of the Greek and Latin. Which I thought good to speak of by the way; that it might be known, that all learning is not comprised in these two languages, & that the Arabian ought not to be despised; which comprehendeth a good part. They got such reputation in the Mathematics, that Alphonsus' king of Castille, going about to make his Astronomical tables, had his principal recourse to them; because that only they at that season could teach and restore such sciences: to whom he made great presents, to the value of four hundred thousand Crowns: Imitating therein the liberality of Alexander, who disbursed the like sum, to have the natures of living creatures truly represented by Aristotle. But the Caliphs seeing that the people too much given to Philosophy, & to the Mathematics, cared but little for their Law; they founded Colleges for the entertainment of teachers, and learners of their Alcoran; and in some universities, they changed the Lectures of philosophy, into those of their Law; ordaining that whosoever from thence forward, would study the Alcoran, should in no sort give himself to Philosophy; which hath made the exercises of the sciences to wax cold in some places; but not through out: because that at this day there are found in Persia, most learned Philosophers, & Astrologers.   

A COMPARISON OF THE ARABIAN tongue, with the Greek, Latin, and Hebrew.  
WHen the Greeks and Romans were in their greatest prosperity, and rulers over many Countries, they spread these two tongues with their dominions; & much people learned to speak them: either to please them therewith, or to negotiate with them: then the Christian religion serving itself with them, hath preserved & dispersed them into divers countries: yet were they never understood in so many places, as the Arabian is now: the which is common to almost all the inhabitants of Asia, afric, & a third part of Europe; the affairs of the Alcoran being treated therein, which is followed by th'one half of the world or more; and all sciences. Even as we use Latin in these parts, separated from the vulgar tongues, and not understood, but by such as have learned it in schools. It resembleth the Hebrew, chaldaic, and Syriack, in this, that it is written as they are from the right hand to the left; with points in steed of vowels; and hath many words common with them, and the phrase somewhat near them: but peculiar letters to itself, wherein it is much different from the Greek, and Latin, which are written from the left hand to the right.   
The end of the eight Book.   

THE SEQVELE OF THE RELIGION and power of the Mahometists; as of the first Turks, Corasmians, Tartarians, of the soldan, of the Ottoman, and of the Sophy: Where there is mention made of the great Cham of Catay; of the King of Narsingue, of the Moscovite, and of Presbyter john; as having all begun or grown up about that time, albeit they have other Religions. The ninth Book.  
ON the different which was between the Caliphs; The TURKS coming out of the North-east of Scythia, went into Asia, about the hundredth year of the Algiers of Mahomet; and after they had a long time wandered, they stayed in Persia: whither they came, being called by the Persians against the Arabians, and others of the new Religion, which oppressed them. But finding at their coming the kingdom of Persia vanquished, aswell by arms, as by religion; and seeing it was not possible for them to resist against the conquerors, they confederated with the Arabians, receiving their Religion. And anon after on the occasion which they took hold of, they rebelled and seized the Caliphat of Bagdet, which they a long time held. Their power was grown and increased in such sort, that at such time as the Frenchmen, under the conduct of Godfrey of Bovillon went to recover the holy land, they ruled already over the better part of Asia: Wherehence they were driven out after many victories gotten on them by the Latin Christians, by the Georgians, & Armenians.  
After the departure of the Turks, the CORASMIANS seeing the kingdom of Persia disfurnished of defence, invaded it; and created their Signior, Emperor of Asia: Then undertaking to possess Turkey, they were beaten back; losing their Emperor, who was slain there: and they could not rise again, but were by little and little defeated.  
And they being destroyed, the TARTARIANS began to be celebrated in Asia; who came from the same quarter, wherehence the Turks before had come, as appeareth by their language, and similitude of manners: whose beginning, progress, victories, and conquests, are more admirable, then of all the Nations that ever were before, or after; in greatness of armies, celerity of expeditions, success of battles, largeness of Seignories, foundations of Empires, and manner of living, much different from others. First they inhabited that part of Scythia, which is beyond the great mountain of Belgian, towards the Indies: to which place came the arms of the Macedonians under the conduct of Alexander. And being a beastly people without manners, without learning, without religion, living on beasts which they kept, and nourished, wandering from place to place, following the commodity of pasturage; unfit for arms, despised of all, and tributaries to their neighbours: yet they increased so much, that they were divided into seven principal peoples; and began to live under Captains, who had the conduct of them, and of their affairs; remaining notwithstandtng under the subjection of others: until such time as a poor old man, a Smith by his occupation, (who as they believe was engendered of the sunbeams) was divinely ordained their first CHAM, and Emperor. For he saw in his sleep a man of war, clothed all in white, and mounted on a white horse, which called him by his name, and said unto him, Changuis, The will of the immortal God is, that thou be the governor of the Tartarians, and ruler over the seven Nations: to the end, that by thee they may be delivered out of the bondage wherein they have long remained, and receive the tributes which they have been accustomed to pay. CHANGVIS was very glad when he had heard the word of God; and told unto every one this vision. But the Captains and chief men amongst them would not hearken to it; but made a jest thereof: Till themselves the night following saw the white man of arms, and had such a vision, as he had declared unto them; who were commanded from the immortal God, to be obedient to CHANGVIS, and to accomplish his commandments in all things. Then being assembled together, they did their obedience and reverence unto him, as to their natural Lord: Then they spread in the midst of them a black covering on the ground, and a seat on it, whereon they placed CHANGVIS, calling him the first CHAM, and doing him solemn reverence with kneeling. Which custom (though it be base) hath been sithence observed by them in confirming of their Emperors: albeit they have gotten many kingdoms, and infinite riches, having invested themselves of Asia, and Europe; even to Hongary, and Ostrich. CHANGVIS being thus established Emperor, by the consent of all; would make trial whether they would obey him faithfully; commanding them many things: And first that they should all believe in the immortal God, by whose grace he was come to the Imperial dignity. Secondly he ordained, that there should be made a general view of all such as were able to bear arms; and that the muster being made, there should be appointed a Captain over ten; over a thousand; and over ten thousand: making the regiment of this assembly. Moreover he commanded the foresaid seven Captains, to bereave themselves first of their charges, and dignities: Tother commandment was yet more strange, by which he enjoined them to bring every one his eldest son, and each to cut off his head, with his own hand. And albeit that seemed cruel and unjust; yet was there not any that refused it: forasmuch as they accounted him to have been appointed their Lord by the divine providence. When he had known and proved their good wills, and that they were ready to obey him, even to death; he assigned them a certain day to march forward. And from thence he went against many Nations; which he incontinently subdued: and possessed all the lands on this side of the mountain Belgian, and enjoined them without any gainsaying, until such time as he had an other vision: seeing the same white armed man again, which said unto him: Changuis Cham; The will of God is, that thou pass over the mountain Belgian, and go toward the West, where thou shalt conquer kingdoms, signories, and lands, subduing many Nations unto thy Empire. And that thou mayst be assured that it is true, and proceedeth from God, which I tell thee; arise, and go with thy people towards that mountain, to that part which joineth on the sea: There thou shalt kneel down nine times, and worship God nine times; and he which is almighty will show thee the way which thou mayst go conveniently. According to this vision, Changuis rejoicing arose, and without any doubt (because the first vision being found true, assured him of the rest) he gathered together all his people: commanding them to follow him with their wives and children, and all that they had. Then they went so long, till they came where the great and deep sea toucheth the mountains; and there appeared no way nor passage for them. Changuis as was commanded him from the immortal God alighted off his horse (as did also all the rest) and kneeling towards the East, worshipped God, ask mercy, and grace of him, and that he would show them the way to go. They remained that night in prayer; and arising in the morning, they saw the sea retired nine foot, and that it had left a spacious way. Being all astonished with this miracle, they thanked God devoutly: and going towards the West, they went men and women, beasts, and chariots, a great and terrible multitude.  
The year before this their descent, which we reckon of Christ, M.CCxj. in the month of May, appeared for the space of eighteen days a Comet, burning over the Polaques, the river of Don or Tanais, and the Country of Russia, the tail thereof directed towards the West: which signified the descent of the Tartarians, which happened the next year following. If this be true, it resembleth much the going of the Hebrews out of the land of Egypt, under the conduct of Moses; to whom the red sea opening itself, gave passage; and drowned the Egyptians pursuing after them. josephus writeth also, that the Sea of Pamphylia opened unto Alexander the Macedonian, when he marched with his Army against the Persians. But the Tartarians being passed over: their Cham fell sick and died, having before commanded concord between his twelve children, by the similitude of arrows which could not be broken altogether; but being separate, they broke them easily, saying to them: that as long as they agreed▪ their Empire should endure; and should be overthrown as soon as they were divided. And before his death made his eldest son called HOCOTA, the best and wisest of them to be received as their Lord, and his successor; who purposing to march further, won the Caspian gates being placed there, and continually kept and shut up: to the end to stop the passage into Asia of infinite people dwelling beyond it, as it were in an other world. Afterward he dispatched three armies, and gave them to three of his sons: commanding jacchis being the eldest to go toward the West; Batho toward the North; and Tagladais toward the South. He himself abounding in men, marched with a mighty army into the East, conquering all the Country as far as Catay: where he established that most mighty and rich Empire, which is there at this present, and held by those which descended of him. He overcame also the kingdom of Persia: in which voyage the Tartarians learned the knowledge of letters, the use whereof was before unknown amongst them. He favouring the Latin Christians which reigned at Jerusalem came to secure them: But being prevented thereof by their overthrow, before he came; he drew towards Bagdet, where he took the Caliphe being a Turk by nation, whom he made to die of famine and thirst; having shut him up into the chamber of his treasures, as a man unworthy to possess that riches, whereby he could not help himself. TAGLADAIS going into the South, carried arms even into Ethiopia; where he had evil success: for being overcome in battle by the Ethiopians, and driven into desert countries, he lost there the greatest part of his people. Then he turned him towards the West, and joined with his brother JACCHIS; who had much afflicted the estate of the Turks in Persia, Assyria, and Mesopotamia. The voyage of BATHO was more successful, & renowned; who having in a great battle overcome Gonata king of the Turks; he supplanted eft 'zounds by arms the whole reign of that nation. He vanquished the Rosullanois, Lapiges, Polaques, Lithuanians; and pierced even into Hongary, Ostrich, and Germany: putting all where he went to fire and sword. Such were in a little time the terrible expeditions of the TARTARIANS in the North, South, East, and West, through the great emotion and mutation of humane things. Wherefore the Christian Princes, and the Pope especially, fearing their return, sent Ambassadors to their Emperor, to th'end to pray him that he would acknowledge and worship the GOD of all, and jesus Christ whom he had sent; and use no more such cruelty against the Christians, as he had done in Polonia, Hongaria, and Moravia: He answered, that in five years he would not molest them. After the departure of the Ambassadors of the Christians, came those of the Saracens, to persuade the Tartarians to receive the law of Mahomet: as easier, & more convenient for military people; Saying, that the Law of Christians was of idle effeminate idolaters, and worshippers of Images▪ that theirs was full of all commodities, and pleasures, a conqueror of other religions by force, and arms▪ with beating down the proud imposed tribute on such as were humbled. That pleased well the barbarous people, being of nature courageous; and given to sensuality: And so they received the Law of Mahomet, which they observe at this day. They hold much land in Europe, joining to Russia, Lithuania, and Polonia: In Asia all that lieth from the river Tanais, and the bounds of Pontus and Bacchu, unto Cathay and Chyna.  
The ZAGATHAINS confining on the Persians, are more civil, sowing, planting, building, traficking, being governed in a kingdom; and have for the seat of their king called CUSILBAS', enemy to the Sophi, the City of Smarcand, being marvelous great, fair, and rich: situated in the river jaxartes, four days journey from the Caspian sea, where the great Tamburlaine was borne, of whom we will speak hereafter.  
The great CHAM of Catay is also a Tartarian, descended of the race of Ghanguis, of whom seeing it cometh to purpose, we will here entreat; albeit he be no Mahometist: but hath a religion separate, and different from the Mosaical, Christian, and Saracen. It is not without cause that he is called great; for he exceedeth in politic government, power, wisdom, revenue, and magnificence, all the Princes of Europe, Asia, and afric; yea, even the Turk himself. And if all the Christian and Saracen Seignories were reduced under one obedience; yet could they not be compared unto his. He commandeth over more than seven hundred leagues of Country, well inhabited and peopled: full of fair buildings, after our manner; villages, boroughs, castles, rich and strong towns, abundance of victuals of all sorts, and exquisite Artisans. The CATHAYANS or men of CHINA, have such an opinion of themselves, that they account themselves to be the chief men of the world; thinking other men to be but half sighted, as if they saw but with one eye: and that they only see clearly with both eyes; by reason of their subtility and dexterity, making such perfect, and lively works, that they seem not to be made by man's hand, but by nature herself. They have learning and the sciences in singular recommendation, honour, and estimation; receiving none to the sovereign dignity, nor to public offices, but such as are learned: Considering that in the distribution of their offices and Magistracies, they respect not nobility, nor riches; but learning and virtue only.  
OTTOMAN the first author of the family of the OTTOMANS, and founder of the Turkish Empire, which is so mighty at this day, having again set up the name of the TURKS, which before was abolished, served in the wars at the first under the great Cham: He came but of mean place, and was poor in possessions; but strong of body, and of courage audacious. Thinking that he had some wrong done him, he parted from the Tartarians, and accompanied only with forty horses, he seized on some strait in the mountains of Cappadocia; Then being helped by the commodity of place, and opportunity of time, he began to make roads in the plains adjoining, getting great spoils: To whom there joined many thieves; multiplying from day to day. Then seeing himself reinforced with men, he did manifestly and in open war, that which he did privily, and by stealth before; conquering towns, people, and countries, without any great resistance: In such sort, that in short space he got a great signory in Asia: which hath been valiantly and happily maintained by his successors descending of him, and bearing his name; which have always augmented it, until the thirteenth which reigneth at this present; having one after an other from the father to the son, gathered together two Empires, above twenty kingdoms, and a great number of Cities in Asia, and Europe; gotten aswell on the Mahometists, as on the Christians; without ever losing any thing that they had taken. They hold all that was in old time called Arabia, Egypt, Suria, Mesopotamia, Chaldea, part of Persia, and of Media, Assyria, Adiabena, part of the greater Armenia, and all the lesser, and a part of Cholches, which they call Mengrelles; All Asia the lesser containing Cilicia, Cappadocia, Pamphylia, Galatia, Caria, and Phrygia: And in Europe, a part of the Sarmatians, or Geteses; the Dacians, Mysians, Thracians, Macedonians, Greeks, Albanese, Dalmatians, Pannonians, Hongarians, jaziges, and Metanastes: In afric, Argier, Tripoli, and Tunez. This unmeasurable power so renowned, and terrible at this day unto all the world, is grown up from so small a beginning, as hath been said, to such height, and reputation, in the space of two hundred and sixty years; by their wise conduct in peace, and in war, by sobriety, patience, obedience, concord, diligence, order, valiancy, abundance of men, horses, and arms; and by means of the good, military, and politic discipline, which they carefully observe: which hath made them to prosper with the hindrance of their neighbours, being lose, and corrupted, or infected with seditions. Peradventure they are not entirely such as they have been (as all impair with time) and being enriched with their victories gotten on the Persians, are become more pompous in their apparel, and harness, than they were before: as prosperity and riches depraveth people. But as they change their manner of living, so their fortune also will change; and whereas they now beat others, they will also be beaten: as they have begun to be, not many years sithence, at the battle which they lost at Lepanto, against the Venetians; which is the greatest adversity that ever they received, sithence they passed into Europe.  
Likewise, VSUN-CASSANUS was a soldier under Tamburlaine; who restored this new kingdom of Persia. He being advertised that there was in his country a Lord called Harduel, of the race of the Prophet; and the bruit, that ran among the Persians of his holiness, and learning, especially in the law whereof he was a Doctor; and in Astrology, wherein he marvelously excelled; he gave him his daughter to wife: of which marriage came the SOPHI ISHMAEL. Harduel then being more assured and heartened by this royal alliance, took upon him with the aid of Techel Cusilbas', to bring in new expositions and ceremonies into the Alcoran; following Haly, who was preferred by them before Mahomet. Whereat JACOB the son and successor of Vsun-Cassanus being angry; banished him and his son: because he feared, that by the favour of his adherents, under colour of reforming the Religion, he aspired to the estate. When the SOPHI (who at the time of his banishment with his father, was but a child) was waxen great, he returned by force into Persia, setting up the Sect which was begun by his father, and was afterward left off for fear. And under this pretence he drew much people to his part, and conquered in few years the signory, not only of Persia; but also of Media, Armenia, and Assyria: finding at his return Alevant, and Morat-Champ, the sons of jacob, and his cousins at war together; whereof th'one he slew in battle; and constrained tother to fly into Arabia: wherefore he remained peaceable possessor of of the state. But because his uncle jacob was deceased before he might be revenged of him, he burned his body: Of which inhuman deed being reprehended by his Mother, he put her to death; or killed her himself. And notwithstanding, was called SOPHI, which is as much to say as holy, having gotten not by any merit of his own, but by the goodness of his father this name, which hath remained to his heirs, being reputed heirs by the Turks. This SOPHI by the sudden success of his conquests, put all the East in fear; spreading his renown over all the habitable earth: To whom the Tartarian Zagathain opposed himself, warring continually against him: and Selim Ottoman, who assailed him with a mighty army, a good ways within his own kingdom, took and spoiled Tauris his chief City; and won the memorable battle of Chalderan: where▪ were slain many, both of the one side and tother; and the two chiefs were hurt; the Turks remaining victorious, only by reason of their artillery▪ which at that time was unknown to the Persians. After Selim defeated in an other battle the soldan, who would have helped the Sophi; which were the two greatest victories that happened within these five hundred years. Sultan Soliman following the footsteps of his father, returned thither, and got on the Sophi Damascus in Assyria, and the imperial City of Bagdet, being the ancient seat of the Caliphat of Chaldea, overthrown by the Tartarians: as also that of Cairo hath been destroyed by the soldan. For they which bear the name now in both Cities, have but the titles, putting the SULTAN'S in possession, without meddling at all with the state; who doing thus▪ receive because of their pretended right three thousand Seraphes▪ to the end to retain after that manner some form of the former religion; The sovereignty whereof is not governed any more by them▪ but by Muphtis, as hath been said, who are as patriarchs, and Superintendents in divine matters; and judges in cases of conscience: whom the SULTAN'S hold near about their persons, or in the principal Towns of their estates.  
So by the ruin of the Latin kingdom in Jerusalem, and of the Egyptian Caliphat, the estate of the SOULDAN began in Egypt and Suria, instituted by Syrracon and Saladine; which was hereditary, until Menescala: who ordained the MAMMELVCS, amongst whom it hath long time been elective. Never was there seen nor heard a more strange or detestable kind of government then that of the MAMMELVCS, being all Christians reheaged, and of servile condition, which tyrannically commanded over the Egyptians and Surians being free; using miserable indignities, and cruelties towards them. In so much that such power deserved rather to be called servitude then Lordship. The MAMMELVCS than were taken when they were little boys from the country of the Circasses, near to the Temerinde or black sea: then brought and sold as slaves into Egypt. Where some selected of them were nourished and hardened unto pain and travail, by continual exercise of arms: And such as were found to be the best were enroled in the order of the Mammelucs, and to them succeeded from hand to hand, not the sons of the Mammelucs deceased; but others nourished and chosen after the same manner, to whom pertained the honours and profits of the state; which they divided among them: not committing the governments of provinces, and conducts of armies, but to those that were experienced, whose virtue was known; and who had passed all the military degrees: and by them, and from among them, was the SOULDAN chosen. They held in most strait subjection all the people of Egypt, and of Suria, forbidding them to have any weapons or to ride on horseback. They were not above sixteen thousand; but they entertained many servants under them: and being men of great force, and hardiness, they had not only tamed many bordering nations, and beaten the Arabians; but also made many wars against the Turks; envying their prosperity; of whom they remained often victorious, and were seldom or never vanquished by them. But when as they were divided, and bandded in partalities, Selim the Turk defeated them in two battles, killing in the first the SOULDAN SAMSON, who was gone into Suria with an army to help the Sophi: then prosecuting his victory, he went into Egypt against him that was chosen SOULDAN, in steed of him that was dead; whom he took, and made him ignominiously to be carried on a poor Camel with his face backwards all along the great street of Cair, and to be hanged at the gate of that City: doubling his power by the Conquest of such a state, much reverenced by those of the religion of Mahomet; and redoubted because of the valiance of the MAMMELVCS, who were massacred in such sort that there name is almost extinguished.  
There remain yet other great kingdoms of this time as of NARSINGVE in the Indies; and of PRESBYTER JOHN in Africa, called Lac●gue, & Negus; of the ABYSINS being baptised, and circumcised Christians; and of the MOSCOVITE in the north a Christian also, but after the Greek manner.  
The king of Narsingue, which is of the ancient religion of the Brahmins, yieldeth to no king of the world in riches, power, and magnificence: entertaining forty thousand horsemen of ordinary; and four hundred elephants fit for war, with infinite dromedaries.  
Touching PRESBYTER JOHN, he commandeth over innumerable nations different in colours: and hath under him forty kings tributary. His lands and signiories extend toward the West more than twenty days journey; and he hath gold shut up in a cave, enough to buy the moiety of the world: and the quantity is every day increased, and multiplied without taking any thing from it. In the spacious kingdom of Ethiopia being so large never did the king's sons or brothers move any sedition for the state, nor defiled their hands in one another's blood: but the line of the blood royal is always conserved by rare hap; and never yet communicated to any other kingdom whatsoever, Christian, Hebrew, Sarazen, or Pagan. They say it was once revealed to one of their kings in a dream, that if he desired to have his kingdom long maintained in peace, and unity, he must lock up all his children (which were a great number) on a mountain; and that he must keep only him that he would have to succeed in his kingdom: and this custom remained eternally to his posterity, as a thing ordained of the heavens. Otherwise, that one part of Ethiopia (which is so large) would come to revolt against the heir; and put him in danger of his life, and of his state. The king being awaked was marvelously astonished with this novelty: not knowing where he might find this mountain. Wherefore he had another vision, revealing unto him that he should mark through out all his country, where he should see goats, on the top of rocks so high that they seemed ready to f●ll: and this should be the place where he should shut in his children. Which the king having put in execution, the mountain was found to be of a marvelous height and greatness, wherein the children of Presbyter john were locked up, and carefully kept; for there is no less pain to them that come out therehence, or which draw therehence any of those that are shut up, than death; he only remaining free that aught to reign by his birthright; or which seemeth the most capable to succeed in that dignity. Those which are shut up do never come forth, except it so fall out that Presbyter john departed without heirs of his body to inherit the crown. For than they take out him that is next it, whom they know to be the worthiest.  
Also the great KNES or king of Moscow is a great landed man in the North; whose dominion is about three months journey in compass of ground▪ and he possesseth innumerable people, nations, provinces, duchies, principalities and signiories; which the Emperors of Moscovia have gotten one after another by arms, or by other means offered them from time to time; as Wolodimeria, Novingorod, Plescovia, Smolenk, Tuner, jugaria, Permia, Viakia, Belgaria, the lower Novogorodia, Ceruigenia, Rozar, Volokde, Rezomia, Rostomis, Cazan, Ostrakan, and others; which it would be tedious to recite because of the rudeness of their names. They say that of all his Lordships there are seven principal; wherehence he can bring forth for a need, seven hundred thousand men of war, all on horseback: namely out of Plescovia a hundred thousand; Novingorode a hundred thousand; Tuner a hundred thousand; which are the greatest signiories, that he hath: out of Smolenk (a duchy usurped on the king of Poland) an other hundred thousand; and a hundred thousand out of the Duchy of Mosco●ia; where is situated the great city of Mosko, the seat of the prince. The bounds of his empire go a great way into Asia; as far as the Caspian sea, near the lands of the Sophi: And having won a battle against the King of Suevia, he is entered into the country of Livonia, where Germany beginneth on this side; and hath there conquered Riga, and Rivallia, two great cities pertaining to the master Duke, and Knights of the Teutonian or Dutch order. He exceedeth in severity and rigour of commanding all the monarchs of the world; having gotten such authority over his subjects as well ecclesiastical as secular, that he may dispose at his pleasure of their lives, and goods: no man daring to gainsay him in any thing. They confess publicly, that the will of their prince is the will of God; and that all whatsoever he doth, is done by the divine providence. Therefore they name him the Porter of Paradise; the Chamberlain of God, and Executor of his will. By this means is he become so mighty, within a little time, that all his neighbours which are the Tartarians, Suevians, Polonians, Livonians, yea and the Turks themselves do redoubt him. It would be an infinite labour to propose here all the kingdoms and Empires that have been, or are in reputation. But it shall suffice to have touched such as are best known: namely, those that have joined wisdom with power; whereunto this present discourse tendeth.  
The end of the Ninth Book.   

OF THE POWER, LEARNING, and other Excellence of this age, The Tenth Book.  
AS the Tartarians, Turks, Mammelucs, and Sophians, have gotten into the East by their valiancy the glory of Arms, So have we in these parts towards the West recovered within these two hundred years, the excellency of Learning; and set up the studies of the scienences, after they had long time remained in a manner extinguished. Wherein by the industrious perseverance, of divers learned men, the matter hath had such good success, that at this day our age may compare with the most learned that ever were. For now we see the tongues restored; and not only the deeds, and writings of the ancient brought to light; but also many other goodly things newly invented. Since this time Grammar, Poesy, History, Rhetoric, and Logic have been beautified with innumerable expositions, adnotations, corrections, and translations. The Mathematics were never better known; nor Astrology, Cosmography, and Navigation better understood. Natural Philosophy and Physic, were not in greater perfection among the ancient Greeks', and Arabians; then they are at this present. The military arms, and instruments, were never so forcible, and impetuous as they are now: nor the dexterity so great in the use of them. The arts of painting, graving, cutting, carving, and building are almost brought to their perfection. And men have so much laboured in knowledge of Law, and eloquence; that it is not possible, to do more. The art of Politic government comprehending, and ruling them all (which seemed as it were laid aside) hath lately received great light. moreover Theology or Divinity the worthiest of all, which was much obscured by the Sophisters, hath been very much lightened by the knowledge of the Greek and Hebrew; and the ancient Doctors of the church, which lay in obscurity in the libraries have likewise been brought to light: Unto which work the Art of Printing hath been a great help; and made the increase thereof much easier. Seeing then that by course of things, and succession of time we are come to this age, we will henceforth consider it not by the particular excellencies of countries; but by the memorable things done or happened, during this space of time, throughout Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Newfound lands, in the East, West, North, and South: and by such graces, as it hath pleased God to impart, to special parsons, in this season, throughout the several countries of the habitable earth.  
And as we have marked tother ages by some famous warrior, and notable power that hath been in every mutation; so it seemeth that the marvels of this age ought to begin at the great and invincible TAMBERLAN, who affrighted the world with the terror of his name, about the year of Christ 1400. and by the incredible army which he led of twelve hundred thousand fight men, trained unto warlike discipline, got the Empire of Asia: purposing (if the pestilence had not come into his host) to have gone into Europe: and to have entirely subdued it, as far as Spain; wherehence he would have crossed into Africa; and through it have returned into Asia. Being then predestined unto great things, because that in his former poverty there appeared in him some generosity above the rest, he was in sport chosen king of his companions; But he taking it in good earnest (as one that promised already great enterprises in his mind) he took oaths of them, & having all sworn to do what he would have them, and not to forsake him; he made himself their Captain, and commanded them to leave their shepherds life, as a base thing; and to small purpose, for the getting of glory and riches; and that they should arm themselves and follow him: That by this means they might from that poor and base estate wherein they lived contemptible, come to great & unlooked for felicity. With this company descending out of the mountains into the plain country, and prospering from day to day; as he increased in Lordship, he augmented in power. First he got the kingdom of his own country; then obtained Parthia, and Persia: On the North side yielded to him the Hyrcanians, Bactrians, Sogdians, Saces; & other innumerable people inhabiting on this side the mountain Ismaus, which are called the Tartarians. He subdued the Seres, Arians, Drangians, Aracosians, Gedrosians, and Paramisians which are beyond the hill Ismaus. All the Massagets yielded themselves. Consequently entering farther into Asia towards the East, he made himself Lord of Bythinia, of Pontus, & of all the country called at this day Anatolia; with the coast of the sea Euxinus, Propontis, Marais, Meotis, and the Cimmerian Bosphorus: Moreover going on the right hand, he conquered infinite towns & provinces; over coming the kings & tyrants which he met withal. And passing his forces over the river Tigris both horse and man, he invaded the Vxians; whom he subdued, with the Susians: and all the country even to the Persian sea. From thence going over the mountain Tauris, he went into Mesopotamia, then into Media, which he conquered: bringing under his obedience, the Cadusians, Armades, Tapirdes, & Circitians. And turning toward the south, he passed over the mountain Amanus, & went down into Suria, & Comagena, bordering on the river Euphrates: which he overran, as far as Arabia, and near to Jerusalem. He subdued the Lydians, Phrygians, Capadocians, Paphlagonians, Misians, jonians, Dorians, and Eolians; not leaving finally any people or nation between the hill Ismaus, & the Ocean, Caspian, & red sea, untamed or unsubdued by arms. After he defeated Bajazet king of the Turks in battle; who had opposed himself against him, with two hundred thousand men: and having taken him, caused his hands to be bound behind his back; and showed him in that piteous case to his people that were overcome; to th'end that from that time forth he might be accounted the absolute king over all Asia. He used his back in steed of a stool to help him to horseback; & when he was set at meat made him remain like a dog under the table; casting him crumbs and morsels in mockery, and scorn: keeping him at other times in chains, and shut up in a cage of iron; as wild beasts are wont to be kept. This great victory astonished not only all the inhabitants of Asia, but also the other nations which Tamburlaine had never troubled, nor meant to trouble with war: In such sort that the Moscovites being separated by the river of Rha, from the Tartarians, paid him tribute, and sent him fresh men; The Mossinois, Cercetures, Leucosyrians, and all the nations that are between the Caspian sea and the river Tanais, yielded unto him of their own free will; and the Corasmians, Dacians, and Sacians, dwelling beyond the river Tanai●▪ He received into his obedience the Nogains, and Sciabenians; warlike nations, and neighbours to the Moscovites. He took by force, Smirna, S●bastia, Tripoli, Antiochia; and Seleucia. Then passing from Suria into the inner part, he assailed Galaria; and Rabatia; where he slew all the inhabitants. Therehence he went into Egypt: constraining the soldan to save himself by flight. And he was l●tt●d from going any farther by sandy deserts; and by want of waters. For he desired nothing more, finding himself strong and fortunate in war▪ then to undertake great, and difficult things; going over uneasy places, and hard passages; and assailing of fortresses that were thought to be inexpugnable: to th'end to be reputed a valiant Prince & a hardy warrior. He commanded at the siege of places, to spread the first day white pavilions, the second day red, and the third black: signifying by the white that he would take the besieged to mercy; by the black that he would burn their City; and by the red, that he would put all to the edge of the sword. And when a certain Italian (whom for the dexterity which he found in him, he had made of a mean Merchant overseer of his revenues) admonished him to join clemency with his unmeasurable power, and felicity; he answered him with a frowning look, and sparkling eyes; that he was the wrath of God, and the deadly destruction of the depraved age. To another that entreated him to take pity on Bajazet, who was lately so great a king; he sternly answered, that he did not chastise a King renowned for many victories: but a cruel and vicious tyrant, who had put to death Solyman his▪ eldest brother, and deprived him of his Kingdom. And to the Emperor of Constantinople offering him his person, his city, and signory, as unto him, to whom God had adjudged all the Empire of the East; and by whose benefit, all men acknowledged Greece to be delivered from that cruel tyrant Bajazet; he said, that he would not bring into bondage, the most fair, renowned and rich city of all others, which had so lately been saved out of the hands of the Turks: Adding moreover that he was not entered into this war for execrable ambition, or insatiable covetise of conquering countries, or enlarging his dominions; but to the end to secure the Emperor and the Lords of Greece; and to maintain it in liberty, as he understood it had remained: That the tyrant being taken, and bound, endured the punishment of his wicked deeds, receiving the same measure which he meaned to have given unto others. Moreover whereas he overthrew, and burned all that was between the South and the East; he suffered none to meddle with the temples which he left entire: and for reverence of their prophet, he entered not into Arabia; moved with some fear of God, and reverence of the religion. Yet fortune having always favoured him, without ever having been contrary unto him; seemeth among so many admirable events, which exceed the ordinary course of conquerors, to have denied him an historiographer of excellent learning, and eloquence; agreeable to his virtues: to celebrate them worthily.  
During the reign of TAMBERLAN, began the restitution of the tongues; and of all sciences. The first that applied himself to this work was Franciscus Petrarcha, opening the Libraries which till then were shut up; and beating away the dust and filth, from the good books of ancient authors: for being a man of great understanding; & excellent learning, he hath not only beautified the Italian tongue (for the which he is reverenced with his disciple Bocace, as a principal Author and Illustratour thereof) but also hath laudably awakened both the Latin prose and poesy. After him john of Ravenna a Grammarian (who when he was but young knew Petrarch an old man) hath much advanced the Latin tongue, instructing▪ and exhorting many to the love of learning; which became very learned: Amongst whom was Leonard Aretin, Franciscus Philelphus, Laurentius Valla, Guarin of Verona, Pogius, Omnibonus, Accursius, Nicolaus Pe●otta, Victorinus Feltra, Franciscus Barbarus, Petrus Paulus Vergerius, Maseus Vega, Leonardus justinianus; Gregorius and Lilius Triphernius; Antonius Panormitanus, joannes Aurispius, Petrus Candidus, and Blondus Flavius. Then Emanuel Chrysoloras a gentleman of Constantinople a renowned parsonage in learning and all virtue, being sent by the Emperor joannes Paleologus unto the kings of Europe, to obtain succours of them for Greece being greatly endangered, after he was rid of that painful charge, he remained at Venice, seeing his country delivered from the fear of Bajazet whom Tamberlan held prisoner: where he taught first the Greek tongue, which was left off, and unknown above seeven years in Italy: And after at Florence, Rome and Paris, instructing the most part of the Scholars of joannes Raue●nensis▪ which prospered with him so well, that by his instruction continued a few years it came to pass▪ that such as were ignorant of the Greek were from thenceforward accounted the less learned among the Latins; But other Grecians coming after into Italy, did marvelously advance this work, so happily by him begun: namely the Cardinal Bessarion, a great Philosopher, and Divine, who left at Venice that goodly Greek library; Georgius Gemistius, and Georgius Trapezuntius a learned Peripatetic▪ who forgot the knowledge of letters in his extreme old age. Theodore Gaza, an excellent translator, Andronicus Thessalicus, joannes Argyropilus, Constantinus and johannes Lascares, Demetrius Chalchondilas, Sophianus, Marullus a Poet, and Marcus Masurius; whom God hath raised up, to preserve in these parts the Greek language and learning; oppressed by the Turkish arms in Greece: having invited to the knowledge of their learning, not only the Italians; but also the Frenchmen, Duchmen, Flemings, Englishmen, Scots, Polonians, Hongarians, and Spaniards: which have all given themselves unto it with great vehemency, and affection. The ITALIANS most renowned therein have been Pomponius Letus, Platina, Callimachus, Aeneas Silvius, who was afterward Pope Pius, Campanus, Andreas Alerius, Domitius Calderinus, Angelus Politianus, Hermolaus Barbarus, and joannes Picus (called the Phoenix of his time, as being singular in exquisite learning; and eminent in the knowledge of many tongues; and of all sciences: who had done great good if he had lived longer, and deserved to be compared with all antiquity.) johannes Franciscus being his nephew, Marsilius Ficinus a Platonist, Georgius Merula, Georgius Valla, Baptista Pius, Christophorus Landinus▪ Philippus Beroaldus both the Uncle, and Nephew, Antonius Codrus, Michael Palmerus, Petrus Crinita, Sabellicus, jovianus Pontanus apt and fit, for any kind of writing, as happy in prose, as in verse of many sorts; a good Philosopher and ginger. Baptista Mantuanus, the two St●ozzi the father and the son, Syncerus, Sannazarius, Vida, Fracastorius, Palaiarus, Scipio Capicius, Octavius, Cleophilus, the two Celij Rhodoginus and Calcagninus; Leonicenus, and Leonicus; Manardus, jucundus Veronensis▪ Paulus Emilius, Polydore Virgil, Egn●cius, Bembus, Sadoletus, Contarenus, Nymphus, Eugubinus Romulus Amaseus, Marcus Antonius Flaminius, Molsa, Andreas Naugerius, Hadrianus Cardinalis, Andreas Alciatus, Emilius Ferrettus, Petrus Victorius, Mancinellus, Sulpicius, Carolus Sigonius, Robertellus, Paulus Manucius, Nizolius, Lazarus Bonamicus, and Lampridius. FRENCHMEN, jacobus Faber a Philosopher and Divine, Guil. Budeus, the most learned of his time both in Greek and in Latin, & a most diligent observer of antiquity, Lazarus Baisius, Germanus Briensis, Nicolaus Beraltius, Michael Hospitalis, Franciscus Connanus, the two Syluij Franciscus, and jacobus; joannes Fernelius a Physician, Orontius Fineus a Mathematician, Textor, Petrus Dan●us, jacobus Tusanus, jacobus Amiottus, Stephanus Doleta, Adrianus Turnebus, joachimus Perionius, Nicholaus Gruchius, Petrus Bun●llus, Marcus Antonius Muretus, and Petrus Ramus: Antonius Fumeus, Duarinus, Baro, Balduinus, Cuiacius, and Othomannus Civilians. jacobus Ludovicus Strebeus, Macrinus, Borbonius, & Beza Poets. FLEMINGS, Erasmus, Longolius, Gaguinus, & Vesalius. GERMANS The Cardinal of Cusa, Purbachius, joannes Regiomontanus, the principal Mathematician of this age, Rodolphus Agricola, Reuchlinus Capnio, Melancthon, Zasius, Beatus Rhenanus, Vadianus, Glareanus, Gulielmus Copus, Leonardus Fuscius, Georgius Agricola, most expert in Metals, Saxon a Grammarian, Oldendorpius, Brunus, Eobanus Hessus, Sleidan, Simon Grinaeus, Huttenus, Bilibaldus, Pyrkmerus, Cornarius, Camerarius, Omphalius, Latomus, Sturmius, Wolfgangus, Lazius, Cranzius, and Funccius. ENGLISHMEN, More, Linacre, Tunstall, Pacey, and Fisher. SCOTS, Hector Boetius, and Buchanan. POLONIANS, Osius, Frixius, Cromerus, and johannes Zamoscius. SPANIARDS, Nebrissensis, Vives, Poblation, Amatus, Antonius Pinus, and Goveanus.  
But it is better to distinguish these renowned parsons of this age by their exercises, and professions: as we have done in other revolutions.  
The most renowned WARRIORS than have been Tamberlan, called of his followers, Temitcultu, or Demirben●, or Demirly; Amorath, and Mahomet his son; Selim, and Soliman being Otthomans: Charles the eight king of France, king Ferdinand of Spain the first called the Catholic King: Gonsaluus the great; the Emperor Charles the fith; Charles of Bourbon; the Sophi Ishmael; the Scirife of Fez; and Francis Duke of Guise. BY SEA Andrew Dorie, Adrian Bassa, called Barbarossa, Dragut, and Salec Rez, and S●rozza the Prior of Capua; PLATONICAL PHILOSOPHERS, Bessarion, Gemistius, Ficinus; PERIPATETICS, Trapezuntius, Argiropolus, Fabius, Nymphus, Pomponacius, Contarenus, and Simon Grinaeus. johannes Picus purposed to havereconciled Plato and Aristotle, and to have accorded the two sects, as Boetius had undertaken before him: But both th'one and tother have lain down under the burden, without accomplishing of this promise. ELOQVENT Imitators of the ancients, & observers of Cicero: Laurentius Valla is the first in this rank, who hath reduced Latin speech to the ancient manner of speaking; a great admirer of Quinctilian, as the Cardinal Hadrian, was of Cicero; then Nizolius, and Doleta. Those which have most expressed & ymitated Cicero in their writings are Bembus, Sadoletus, Longolius, Perionius, and Elaminius: Latin, Italian, French, & English POETS, are Petrarch, Antonius Panormitanus, Pontanus, Marullus, Syncerns, Vida, Fracastorius, Molsa, Naugerius, Flaminius, Capicius; Palearius, Morus, Borbonius, Macrinus, Eobanus Hessus, Sabinus, Bachananus, Ariosto, Rousard, joachin du Bellay, Ponthus de Tyard, Marc Antony du Baif, Remy Belleau, Marot, Mellin du Sangelais, Stephen Iodelle, & Philippede Ports. HISTORIOGRAPHERS, Callimachus, Platina, Laurentius Valla, joannes Saxo, Pope Pius, Bloridus, Sabellicus, Pontanus, Peter Martyr of Mil●in●, Michael Riccius, Paulus Emilius, Polydore Virgil, Paulus iovius, Sleidan, Staphilus, Pandulphus, Galeatius Capella, Coccinus, Bembus, Tritemius, Gaguinus, Cuspinianus, Paradinus, Bonfinis; Sorter, and Turoce Hongarians, Cromerus a Polonian, Crantzius a Saxon, Olaus a Goth, joannes Leo an African, Franciscus Aluares, Damian, Goes, ivan de Baros, Portugals; Franciscus Taraphus, Antonius Nebrissensis, Petrus Medimna, Rodericus Pallentinus, and Ferdinando Gonzales Ouiedes, Spaniards; Machiavelli, and Guicchiardin, Italians; jean Froissard, Enguerren de Monstrelet, and Philippe Comines, Frenchmen; Stomphius a Swisser, & Monster, a German. CIVILIANS, Zasius, Alciatus Oldendorpius, Baro, Duarinus, Balduinus, Cuiacius, Othomannus, and T●iraquellus. PHYSICIANS, Leonicenus, Manardus, Copus, Linacer, joannes Ruellius, Cornarius, Guinterius, Fuscius, Fernelius, Rondeletius, jacobus Silvius, Amatus Lusitanus, Vesalius, Martinus Acakia, Tagaveltius, and jacobus Houlerius. MATHEMATICIANS, Bonatus, johannes Regiomontanus, the Cardinal of Cusa, Purbachius, Collimicius, Petrus Appianus, Gemma Frisius, Vadianus, Copernicus, Leovicius, Orontius, Turrianus, Gauricius, and Hieronimus Cardanus. PAINTERS, Zotta a Florentine, who hath restored the art of painting after it had been long laid aside; and beautified it much. Belim (who for his excellency was sent to Sultan Mahomet Emperor of Constantinople, from the signory of Venice) Petrus Burgensis, Raphael of Urbin, Albert Durer who hath written in the Dutch tongue of Painting: as jean Cousin hath also done in French: and Leo Baptista Albertus in Latin. STATVARIES, & GRAVERS Donatel, Michael Angelo, Andrea of Cremona, Christopher Mantoano and Lorenzo, who was fifty years making the gates of a Chapel at Florence, in which with wonderful workmanship are graven in brass the histories of the old, and new testament: ARCHITECTS, Leo Baptista Albert▪ who hath written a very learned work of Architecture; joannes jucundus of Verona, who built the great bridge at Paris, and first published vitrvuius corrected, with figures, and Caesar his Commentaries 〈…〉▪ Philip that made the great Church of Florence, the vault whereofby singular art is not sustained by any pillars▪ Aristotlea Bolonian, removed certain towers of stone from one place to another, whole without any hurt, by putting wheels artifically under the foundations: Pierre L'Escot called Claigny, overseer of the work and reparation of the Lou●re at Paris, begun under king Francis the first; and Philbert de L'orme, chief Master of the buildings of the Tuilleries, of Annet, and of Saint Mor at Paris: he hath left books written of his art▪ and hath invented a new kind of Carpentry for covering of houses. PHILOLOGVES or searchers of antiquity, and propriety of tongues, Correctors of books, translators, and commentators, Laurentius Valla, Perottus, Gaza, Trapezuncius, Pomponius Laetus, Domicius Calderinus, Georgius Merula, Georgius Valla, Politian; Hermolaus Barbarus, Raphael Volateranus, Galeotius, Na●nianus, Christopherus Landinus, Equacius, Nebrissensis, Budeus, Erasmus, Sigonius, Gruchius, Mancinellus, Sulpicius, Verulanus, Beroaldus, and Beraltius, Textor, Baptista Pius, Robertellus, Victorius, Turn●bus, Gelius, Calcagninus, and Rhodoginus. And others innumerable in many tongues and Nations. Famous travailers, Pilots, NAVIGATOURS, discoverers, and conquerors of New lands, Christopherus Columbus a Genovese, Americus Vespucius a Florentine, and Dom Henry the Infant of Portugal, Magellan, Cortese, Pizairus, Alphonsus Alburquequen, and Chabot. The Princes that have most helped the restitution of arts, are Alphonsus' king of Naples, having honourably received, and liberally rewarded such as presented him with Greek books translated into Latin: Francis the King of France the first of that name▪ who appointed salaries or stipends for the public professors at Paris, and erected a sumtuous Library at Fontainebleau full of all good books. The Kings of Castille, And of Portugal have bestowed liberally on the discovery of the Newfound lands and of the Indies: Cosmo, and Lorenzo de Medicis florentines, have been much helpful unto learning; receiving the learned men which came to them out of all parts, and entertaining them honourably: and moreover sending at their charge throughout all Greece, to seek out good and ancient books (which were neglected there) they builded for the common utility, magnificent libraries.  
Besides the restitution of the ancient learning almost accomplished; The Invention of many goodly new things, serving not only for necessity, but for pleasure also, and ornament of this life, hath been reserved to this age. Amongst which the Art of PRINTING deserveth to be in the first place, for the excellency, utility, and subtlety of art whereby it is guided in the graving of the matrices; casting, distributing, and gathering of the letters; manner of the ink, and of the baules to put it on the form; placing of the presses, and manner of using them; of wetting the paper, laying on, taking off, and drying the leaves; then reducing them into volumes; reviewing, and correcting of the impression; whereof we have spoken before: and whereby there is more dispatched in one day, than many diligent writers could do in one year. By reason hereof, the books which before were rare and dear, are now become more common, and easier to be had: For it seemeth to have been miraculously invented to make learning and good letters to live again; which were in a manner dead. The invention thereof is attributed to the Germans, and began at Mentz, therehence it was carried to Venice; and afterwards spread over all Christiandome; and so brought unto his perfection, by Nicholas Genson, Aldus, the juntes, Frobenius, Badius, Robert Stephens and others. Notwithstanding the Portuguese traficking about the farthest of the East and of the North, into China, & Catay, have brought therehence books written in the language, and writing of that country: saying, that they have used it there a long time. Which hath made some to think that the invention thereof was brought therehence through Tartary, and Moscovia into Germany; and so communicated to tother Christians: to whom by the divine providence hath been especially reserved the consummation of divine, and humane wisdom. The Mahometists deprived of this grace do utterly reject printing, not using it amongst them, neither suffering any to bring them books written of their affairs in Arabian, and printed elsewhere.  
The second praise aught to be given to the invention of the Seaman's compass, consisting of a Rose, and a needle of steel, which being touched or rubbed with an adamant or loadstone, showeth always the point which is answerable to the place where we imagine the pole artic. Aristotle understood not this property, nor Galen, nor Alexander, Aphrodiseus, nor Avicen, the most curious observers of natural things: For if they had known such a miracle of nature, and so profitable a means of sailing, they would sure have made mention thereof in their books; having stood so much upon others of much less importance. It was also unknown to the Romans, who suffered so many shipwreck, fight on sea against the Carthaginians: and under Octavian they lost a great fleet of Vessels against Sextus Pompeius. By means hereof all the Ocean hath been sailed over, innumerable Isles found out, and a great part of the continent or main land discovered towards the west, and the south; unknown before of the Ancients; and hath therefore been called the new world; and not only been overcome, but also converted by the Christians. The enterprise being begun, by Columbus a Genovese, & Vespucius a Florentine, men of excellent understanding, and exquisite judgements, deserving no less praise than Hercules of Greece that was so famous: and afterward continued by the Castilians, being emulatours of the same honour, and desirous of gain. Whereof some have been swallowed up into the huge sea, not being yet thoroughly known; and others eaten by the Cannibals; leaving a piteous remembrance of their audacious enterprises. But there are three that having had more favourable fortune, have made famous discoveries: namely Cortese of the kingdom of Mexico, and of the great City Themistiten seated, builded, and peopled, like unto Venice; Pizairus of Peru, and Cuscu rich in gold; and Magellan of the Moluccaes where the spices grow. At the same time the Portugals parting the world with the Castilians, by the same knowledge of Navigation passed the Atlantic sea, and the Canaries; winning in the utter Barbary many Towns on the Saracens. Then crossing the line heretofore termed the burning Zone, and falsely esteemed to be desert, they have gone beyond the tropic of Capricorn; conquering Brasil, and other countries. Afterwards drawing towards the East, they went along all the coast of afric, and the bank of Ethiopia; surmounted the gulfs of the Arabian, and Persian seas; and being come to India (having overcome by arms the kings of Cambaya, Canonot, & calicut, building in their country's fortresses, thereby to safeguard the traffic of the East; whereof they made themselves masters; And farther passing over the rivers of Ganges, and Indus) they travailed as far as Taprobana, and to the golden Chersonesus: making the king of Malache their tributary. From whence setting sail towards the North, they went to China and Catay; where they made an end on this side of their Navigation, entering into amity and confederacy with the great Cham, to th'end to have liberty to traffic with safety in his country; which before was not accessible, but with apparent danger of death unto strangers: In such sort that by our industry all the world is at this day known, whereof a great part that had so long remained unknown; & the uttermost parts of the East, West, North, & South do communicate together: the men that are separated with so many seas so distant and different, visiting one another, by means of navigation, being made safer and easier by this Invention.  
I would willingly give the third place, to great ORDINANCE, and ARTILLERY; (which hath made all other ancient military instruments, and engines of war to cease, all which it exceedeth in impetuosity, violence, & quickness.) were it not that it seemeth to have been invented rather for the destruction, than the profit of mankind: being an enemy to generous and courageous virtue, which it spareth no more than the rest; but breaketh and bruiseth whatsoever it encountereth. First it was invented in Germany by a blower in Alchemy; wherehence it hath been transported over all the world; & seemeth at this day to be brought almost to his perfection; sithence the means is found to discharge by volies many pieces together; which batter, and beat down all places, how strong soever they are in situation, height, or thickness of walls, & rampires. The Canon at the first was called a Bombard, for the noise which it maketh; and Mortar which was of iron bound with many pieces heavy and unwieldy; shooting huge bullets of stone, with a great quantity of powder made of saltpeter; sulphur, and willow coals proportioned: the invention whereof hath been no less admirable, then of the Canon itself. After in steed of iron succeeded brass; whereof at first were made great pieces laid on wheels, yet more maniable, then was the mortar; (giving them bullets of iron) unto which have been given names of birds, and other living creatures, which have appearance of terror: as Coleurines, Serpentines, Basilisks, Sacres, Falcons, and other appellations imposed according to the diversity of their measures, forms, and carriages; at the pleasure of those that made them, or of the Princes which commanded them. Since there have been made some lesser, lighter, and maniable, to shoot with bullets of lead: as muskets, calivers, harquebuses, pistols, and pistolets. But because the noise and violence of the Canon, hath been fitly expressed by the Poet Fracastorius, I will here insert his Verses. 
Continuò cava terrificis horrentia bombis  
Aera, & flammiferum tormenta imitantia fulmen,  
Corripiunt, Vulcan tuum (dum Theutonas armas)  
inventum: dum tela Jovis mortalibus affers.  
Nec mora, signantes certam sibi quisque volucrem:  
Inclusam, salicum cineris sulphúrque nitrumque  
Materiam accendunt, seruata in vest favilla.  
Fomite correpta, diffusa repent furit vis  
Ignea circumsepta; simulque cita obice rupto  
Intrusam impellit glandem: volat illa per auras  
Stridula; & exanimes passim per prata iacebant  
Deiectae volucres, magno micat ignibus aer,  
Cum tonitru: quo sylua omnis ripaeque recuruae,  
Et percussa imo sonuerunt aequora fundo.   
This age hath borough forth many great and notable inventions: on which notwithstanding I will not stand, because they are rather accessary to the ancient things; then exceeding the understanding of our forefathers: all antiquity having not any thing to compare unto these three. But amongst the marvels of our age, there have been manifested new and strange maladies, unknown of the Ancients, and not treated of by any Greek, Arabian, or Roman Physician: as if there were not enough already dispersed over the world, to the number of three hundred, and more; without speaking of the inconveniencies happening every day, by the excesses which men do use.  
Moreover, there are risen Sects in many Countries, which have much troubled the public peace, and cooled the mutual charity of men: Whereof some more curious will attribute the cause to the celestial motions. For as we have observed in times past, in the notable mutations of mankind, where nature hath showed her greatest forces: that extreme evil, and wickedness▪ hath met with excellent virtue; and extraordinary calamities have accompanied great felicity: so could not one imagine any kind of unhappiness or ●ice, which is not found in this age, so happy in the restitution of good learning, and restoring of sciences. Neither is there any amongst all men, either Christians or barbarous Nations, but hath suffered much, No part of the habitable earth, no person is exempted from affections: which increase from day to day, and are too much known to our damage and confusion.  
Every where the public estates have ●in afflicted, changed, or destroyed; and every where the Religion troubled with heresies. Not only all Europe▪ but also the farthest regions of Asia, and afric; the inhabitants of the new found lands, and of the East and West Indies being innumerable in multitude, and dispersed into infinite places, have been troubled with foreign and civil wars, long continued: wherehence hath followed the excessive price of all things, with often famines and pestilences. We must think that God being angry with men, sendeth such calamities generally, and particularly, to correct our vices; and to bring us to a greater knowledge, and reverence of him: For there was never in the world more wickedness, more impiety, or more disloyalty; Devotion is quenched; simplicity and innocency mocked at; and there remaineth but a shadow of justice. All is turned upside down, nothing goeth as it ought. But the most notable adversities and prosperities of this age, are elegantly represented by Fracastorius in these goodly Verses. 
Credo equidem & quaedam nobis divinitus esse  
inventa, ignaros fatis ducentibus ipsis.  
Nam quanquam fera tempestas, & iniqua fuerunt  
Sydera: non tamen omnino praesentia diuûm  
Abfuit à nobis, placidi & clementia coeli.  
Si morbum insolitum, si dura & tristia bella  
Vidimus, & sparsos dominorum caede penates;  
Oppidaque, incensasque urbes, subversáque regna,  
Et templa, & captis temerata altaria sacris;  
Elumina deiectas si perrumpentia ripas  
Euertere sata, & medijs nemora eruta in undis,  
Et pecora, & domini correptaque rura natarunt;  
Obseditque inimica ipsas penuria terras:  
Haec eadem tamen haec aetas, quod fata negarunt  
Antiquis, totum potuit sulcare carinis  
Id pelagi immensum quod circuit Amphitrite.  
Nec visum satis, extremo ex Atlante repostos  
Hesperidum penetrare sinus, praxumque sub Arcto  
Inspectare alia, praeruptaque littora rapti;  
Atque Arabo advehere, & Carmano ex aequore merces:  
Aurorae sed itum in populos Titanidis usque est,  
Supta Indum Gangémque, supra qua terminus olim  
Calygare noti orbis erat: superata Cyambe  
Et dites Ebeno, & foelices macere syluae.  
Denique & à nostro diversum gentibus orbem,  
Diversum coelo, & clarum maioribus astris,  
Remigio audaci a●●igimus, ducentibus & dijs.   
The end of the tenth Book.   

A COMPARISON OF THIS AGE, with the most famous former Ages; to know wherein it is superior, inferior, or equal unto them▪ and first touching the warfare of these days, with the ancient Greek, and Romain. The Eleventh Book.  
THE excellency of this age being briefly declared; we will hence forward compare it with the most famous of the former; in matter of Arms, Artillery, Captains, Armies, Battles, Sieges, Empires, and other States; voyages by sea, and by land, discoveries of Countries, riches, manners, and sciences: to know wherein it is superior, or inferior, or equal unto them; beginning with the comparison of the warfare of these days with the ancient Greek and Roman. It is said, that CYAXARES king of the Medians was the first that distributed the men of war of Asia into Bands, Squadrons, and Companies; and ordained that the horsemen and footmen should have their quarters apart; and should no more march confusedly as they were wont to do. The ROMANS accounting more of their Infantry, then of their Cavalerie; and founding on it all the designs of their power; divided their footmen into those that were heavily, and such as were lightly armed, whom they called Velites: under which word were understood, all such as used slings, darts, and bows; the greatest part of whom (as Polybius saith) were armed with a cask, and to cover themselves, had a shield or target on their arm, and fought without keeping any rank or order, a good way from the heaule, or main army. The men that were heavily armed had a salad, which covered their head, and came down as far as their shoulders. There body was armed with cuirasses, which with the tases covered their thighs, as far as their knees. They had moreover their legs, and their arms covered with greves, and vantbrasses, and carried also a shield of four foot long, and two and a half broad; which had a circle or plate of iron above, to sustain the blows the better, and to keep it from cleaving; and an other plate of iron underneath, which kept the shield from being wasted, and worn, with leaning it on the ground: which might be compared to a pavois, provided that the pavois had in the very midst thereof a boss of iron, well set on, and close joined, as their shields had; the better thereby to endure the blows and strokes which should fall thereon. Besides they had a sword girt on their left side, and on their right side a short dagger: They had a dart in their hand, which they called Pilum, and threw it when they began their fight. Some w●●te, that besides their pavois, they carried also a pike, namely the Greek soldiers. But that seemeth impossible, because they must needs have enough to do to help themselves with one of these weapons apart; and to use them both together were an uneasy, and a very difficult thing: for the pike alone requireth both hands; and the pavois on tother side serveth only for defence to cover themselves, because it was not very maniable. And the target also could not well be handled, but would be in a manner unprofitable: except at the beginning of the battle they holp themselves with their pike, having their target at their back; and that coming so near together, that the pike served them to no farther use, than they abandoned it to take their Target; wherewith, and with their sword, the soldiers holp themselves in the press.  
The GREEKS did not lad themselves with such heavy armour as the Romans, but they gave themselves therewithal much more to carry the pike; especially the Macedonian Phalanges, which carried pikes called Sarisses, of ten cubits long; wherewith they assayed to break the ranks of their enemies without going out of their own. But seeing that the ROMANS conquered all the world, we may well think that they were the best armed of all.  
The fashion of this time is, to arm the footman with good Curets, and a cask or headpiece: which seemeth to be sufficient for the defence of a man● and is better than the harness of the ancients. Touching weapons to offend, we carry a sword somewhat longer than theirs: Our other arms are the pike, the halberd, partisan, arqebus; and many others not so usual amongst soldiers; and the target: although there is little reckoning made thereof, except it be for an assault; and beside there are few that use it but the Captains. The arqebus hath been found out but few years sithence; and is very good, so it be handled by such as are skilful and ready: yet now adays, every one will be a harquebuzier, whether it be to get the more pay; or to be the lesseloden; or else to fight the farther off. The Halberds are a new kind of weapon lately invented by the Swissers: which are very good if they be strong, and will cut well; and not light ones such as the Italians use. And in like sort are their Partisans; which being stronger and better steeled than they are, would serve well against naked men: but against those that are armed can do no great service. Amongst other arms which are less in use are the long bow, and the crossbow: which may do very great harm to men that are not well armed: both by reason of their readiness in shooting, which is very sudden; and also for the sureness of their blows, which are seldom in vain. Concerning the Pike, if the Swissers have not been the inventors thereof; yet at least wise they have first brought it in use: because that they being poor at the first, and desirous to live in liberty, were constrained to fight against the ambition of the Princes of Germany; who by reason of their riches and power, entertained many horsemen, which the Swissers could not do; and for this cause made their wars on foot. Then were they constrained (to defend themselves against the cavalry of their enemies) to haverecourse to the ancient manner; and therehence to choose some kind of arms for defence against horsemen: which necessity, made them either to maintain, or bring in use again, the orders of the time past; without which, footmen are altogether unprofitable: wherefore they took pikes as very serviceable weapons, not only to sustain the assault of men at arms; but also to overcome them. By means of which arms, and by the affiance which they have in their good order; they have taken on them such boldness, that fifteen or twenty thousand of them, durst undertake to stand against a world of horsemen. The example of the force which these people have showed to be in arms of footmen, are the cause that since the voyage of king Charles the eight, other Nations have imitated them: namely the Spaniards, and Almains; then the Italians, and Frenchmen, following the order which the said Swissers keep, and the manner of the arms which they bear; but for order, there are few like unto them. We must labour then to get this order; or if it be possible, to form or find out some more safe: by means whereof we may defend us from every one, and be preferred before all others. To do this it seemeth to such as are most expert in this matter, that we ought very well to arm the bodies of our soldiers, to the end that the ranks may be so much the harder to be broken: especially such as serve before in steed of a wall, or vantmure; and all the rest (if it be possible) every one according to his weapon. And it must not be thought strange, that we load these men with so much Armour; for it is to arm them surely in such sort as they ought to be armed, that mean to stand to it: and not as they which arm themselves lightly; who being evil covered and armed, think rather on flying, then of overcoming: taking example by the Romans', who armed their soldiers which were ordered in batalions, as heavily as possibly they could, to make them the firmer against their enemies; and that feeling their bodies so laden with harness, they should not look to save themselves by flight; but either to die in the place, or to get the victory. Vegetius complaineth of the soldiers of his time, that they went too lightly armed, and followed not the Ancients: which were always wont to overcome their enemies, because they were evermore well armed; and that such as were ill armed were ordinarily overcome in all their battles. The soldiers also must harden their bodies unto pain, learn to help themselves with those arms and weapons which they bear, to keep their order in marching through the Country, and the manner of encamping, or lodging together in a camp: which are the principal points that an Army ought to know.  
The Nations which heretofore have had ordinances, or companies of footmen, have always made one principal number of the men which they levied; which although it hath been diversly named, yet hath it been ever almost equal in number: because they have all ordained it of six or eight thousand men; which number by the Romans was called a Legion, because they levied their men by election; of the Greeks' Phalanx; of the Gauls Caterue; of the Swissers and Almains Hourt; that is to say, a Battalion: which the Italians and Spaniards do also use; But they have of late began to call it a Regiment. The greatest disorder that they can commit which ordain a battalion, is in this, that they take no heed, but only to make the head strong; in which they place the Captains, and all the valiantest, and best armed of all the bands; taking no care of providing for the back, for the sides, and the innermost ranks: as if the foremost ranks were the whole hope of the victory; and that the rest served only to make up a number. For by this means they hazard the whole on two or three ranks; as if they were immortal, or sufficient alone to make resistance, without the help of the rest which are behind them: which is directly contrary to that order which the Ancients observed; which was, to receive one rank into another, and one battle into an other; and to fight obstinately even to the last. For without this manner it is not possible to secure or to defend the first: nor yet by withdrawing them within their ranks, to come to fight in their place.  
With which mean the ROMANS knew how to help themselves often, and to this end they parted their Legions into three manners of men which were called Hastarii, Principes, and Triarii. The Hastarii made the front, and had their ranks furnished with good store of men. The Principes made the second battle, and were arranged with thinner ranks than the first. The Triarii made the third and last; with their ranks so thin, that when need was, they could receive within them both the former battles. Moreover they had their Velites, which were lightly armed; who did such services as the arquebusiers do with us: and were placed in the wings between the battalion, and the horsemen. These being lightly armed began the battle: And if it happened that they overcame their enemies, they pursued the victory: but if they were beaten back, they retired into the flanks of the Battalion. After whose retreat, the Hastaries or pikemen came to fight with their enemies; and if they found themselves to weak, to withstand them, and that the enemies overcame them, they retired then by little and little into the thin ranks of the Princes, with whom they renewed the battle. And if it so fell out, that again they were beaten; then both the one, and the other withdrew themselves within the Triaries: with whom they altogether began the fight a new▪ And if these three sorts of soldiers were overthrown, they had then no farther remedy to relieve themselves. Which manner of repairing themselves three times, seemeth to be invincible: because that fortune must thrice abandon us; and there with also our enemy must fight with us, and overcome us three times.  
The GREEKS' with all their Phalanges, had not this means of renewing themselves▪ and although in them they had many chiefs, and many ranks; yet notwithstanding of all together, there was made but one head, and one body. And the manner which they had to secure one another, was not to retire the one ranks into the other; as the Romans did: but for one soldier to step into the place of another; and this they did in the manner as followeth. The Phalange was ordered by ranks, as is our Battalion; yet was it not confusedly: for every band knew his own place; and the Decuries, that is to say, the chambers or squadrons were arranged in such sort, that the soldiers followed one another; and were in file, and not in front, as we place ours. Whereof the first was called the Dean, or Decurion, whom we may call the Chief of the Chamber; and the last was called the Guide of the back. The second was called Substes, and the former priests: and consequently the rest called on the other Substes, and priests, even to the said guide, which made up the end. Of these ranks there were a good many and more; in somuch that one Phalange had two hundred fifty and six men in front: and Lxiiij. ranks in length. True it is that they were divided under four Colonels: which marched all in front; with certain spaces between them. But let us put the case, that in each rank there were Ccluj. men, and that they came to encounter with their enemies; if it came to pass that in going, or in fight, any one of them were slain or overthrown, he that was in the second rank, and right against the place of the man that was fallen, namely his Substes est 'zounds advanced himself, and stepped into the place of the former. And by this means the men of that rank remained always complete, and full. And to fill up the second rank, they of the third namely the priests, stepped forward, and put themselves into the void places; and those of the fourth furnished the third: and so successively, and almost at one instant, the latter ranks supplied, and filled up the former: In such sort, that the first ranks were always whole and entire; and there was no place that remained void saving in the last rank, which consumed itself, having none behind to fill it up; in such sort, that the damage which the first ranks received, was the cause of consuming the last: So these Phalanges, by means of their order might sooner be consumed; then broken: for to overthrow them was to difficult a thing, by reason of their great number.  
The Romans used Phalanges at the beginning, and had their legions also ordered after the Greek manner; but that order afterwards misliked them: Wherefore they divided their men into many bodies; as namely into Cohortes, and Manipulos, accounting that the body which had most souls, must have most life; being also compounded of most members.  
The Battalions of the Swissers, Almains, Frenchmen, and others, do imitate at this time in some part the manner of the Phalanges ● aswell in that they arrange a great number of men together; as also in that they place them in such sort, that one may step into the place of another. But that this manner is not so good, as that of the Romans; many examples of the Roman legions do tell us: because that whensoever the Romans fought against the Greeks', their Phalanges were consumed, and overthrown by the Roman legions; for the difference of the arms, which these Nations did use, and also the Roman manner of relieving themselves three times, was of more force, than the great number and the solidity of the Grecian Phalanges.  
In ordering a BATTALION then after all these examples, it were good to retain in part the arms and fashions of the Greek Phalanges; and in part of the Roman Legions, and of our modern men of war: Wherefore in one Legion now adays, there should be three thousand, and five hundred ordinary pikemen, to make the body of the Battalion; and four hundred and twenty for the flanks; one hundred and seventy extraordinary, for the forlorn hope, which are the arms of the Phalanges: Besides the pikemen were requisite five hundred Halebardiers▪ which are weapons found out in our time▪ and moreover, CCCCxx. Harquebuziers, for the flanks; DClxxx▪ for the forlorn hope. The body of the Battalion is divided into ten bands; as the Romans parted their Legions, into ten Cohortes▪ The Harquebuziers are ordained to begin the battle, and for skirmishes; as the Romans had their Velites. And as the arms are taken of divers Nations; so must also these bands participate with the orders of many sundry people. The men of all these bands are six thousand, and seventy: besides which, there ought to be in every Legion a General▪ chief above the Captains▪ whom they call a COLONEL having for his officers these which follow▪ namely, a Marshal of the Camp, a Sergeant Maior, a Provost, and under the Provost, some men of knowledge, to assist him in his judgements; and to counsel him concerning matter of justice. He must also have a muster Master, and some Sergeants, and Clerks of bands; and a master of high justice, or executioner. Moreover, it is necessary that the said Colonel, have one, or two religious Parsons, to say the divine service, and to administer the Sacraments, to those of his Legion, or Regiment. He must also have a Physician, an Apothecary, some Surgeons, some makers of fireworks, and of powder▪ and some Armourers. The overplus to the full number of thirty, aught to be reserved for his guard.  
The Ensigns at this time serve rather to make a great show of people, then for any military use: but antiquity used them for guides, and to know the better how to bring themselves in order. For every one as soon as the Ensign made a stand, knew where his place was about it, and how to put himself in it presently. They knew in like manner that if it moved or stayed, that they were accordingly, either to move, or stand still. Therefore it is requisite, that in one Camp there should be many bodies, that is to say, bands; and that every body have his Ensign, to guide those that are of the same body: for in having it, the camp hath more arms, and by consequent more life. The soldiers than ought to order themselves according to the Ensigns; and the Ensigns according to the sound; which being ordained as it ought, commandeth the whole Legion: which if it march in such sort, that their places be correspondent to the beating of the Drums, will easily keep this ordinance. And to these ends the Ancients had flutes, and mischiefs, and sounds perfectly agreeable. For as he which danceth according to the falls of the Music doth not err; so also that Battalion which marcheth according to the sound of the Drum, can not fall in disarray. And therefore when they were disposed to change their place, or according as they listed to kindle, or appease, and assure their soldiers, they likewise changed their sound; and as the sounds were variable, so the names of them were divers. We have in our time the Drums for the footmen; and the trumpets for the horsemen▪ both which instruments have their several bearings, and sounds▪ to encourage the soldiers when it is needful: and to this end are they invented to command▪ and to make themselves understood a far off. But I believe verily, that the Drums were also invented to serve to keep measure for the soldiers in their marching: for all the times and diversities of their beat are true cad●●●os, and measures for the hastening, or staying of the pace of the men of war. It behoveth them then to learn all the sounds, all the signs▪ and all the cries; which are used to command in battle; and that every one understand what they signify▪ Even as the Mariners know what they are to do by the only whistle of the Master: wherein the soldier ought to be ready, and instructed to obey presently, and to purpose▪ to the beating of the Drums, whether it be to march forward; or to stand still; or to ●●●ire●▪ or else to turn their faces, and arms to any part▪ And to these ends the Colonel is to ordain that all his drums, have the self same kind of beating; and that they all use one, and the same form of striking an Alarm▪ of shaking proclamation; of imbatayling themselves; of going forward▪ or backward; of ●●●ing them on th'one side, or on tother; or for the retreat▪ And in brief to signify all the other points, which the voice of one alone, can not make so well understood, as doth the sound of many drums▪ which cause themselves to be heard in the greatest tumult, and the thickest throngs. The soldiers also aught to be so attentive, to hearken what is said unto them, or commanded; that they n●u●● fail. The Drums also ought to be ready to beat, according to the sound of the Colonel his trumpets; by which they are directed in all their beat. The Colonel his Trumpet must be expert in all kind of soundings; and do them so loud and shrill, that he make not one thing understood for another: but know how to express as appertaineth, the commandment of the Colonel; about whom he ought always to be, and never to forsake him. The cause why trumpets are appointed for footmen, is because they be much better understood then the Drums, if there be a great tumult, and that the sound must be varied: for it is by the trumpets that they are governed, whose sound is higher than is the beating of Drums: Which the Swissers, (who have been the inventors of Drums) have known: And for these purposes have trumpets before their batalions; by which the chiefs do signify what the Battalion is to do. And it is no long time sithence they used great Cornets.  
And forasmuch as the ARTILLERY is conducted, and guarded by the footmen: we will speak thereof, as far forth as concerneth the comparison of ancient things with modern; before we come to entreat of the horsemen, or men of arms. The name of Artillery was before, that canonry was known, comprehending all engines of battery, and defence; which by excellency, remaineth only to the Canon; all other ancient military instruments failing: as Balistes', Catapultes, Rams, and all others. Diodorus the Sicilian writeth of an engine of battery called Helipolis, which Demetrius surnamed Poliocritus used against the Town of Salamis in Cyprus. This engine was Lx. cubits broad of all sides, and Lxxx. in height: and therewith had nine stages, separated th'one from tother with planks of wood; and yet notwithstanding was all sustained with four great wheels of one cubit in height. He had moreover many engines called Rams to batter the walls: and to secure them two other mighty engines or fences of boards, covered with haircloth, or with raw hides, which served against fire or stones; under which they might safely assail the walls. He placed below, and in the first story, many engines to shoot great and heavy stones; in the middle story, there were other engines shooting long and sharp shot; and in the highest stories, others shooting lighter shot, and smaller stones: And every where was a sufficient number of men, to handle and use those engines; about two hundred in all. Polybius showeth the fashion of an other engine of war called Sambucas, which the Romans used against the City of Syracuse: & it was after this sort. They had ready in their ship a ladder of four foot broad, that when they landed, they might set it against the wall; on the sides whereof they fastened things to hold by, and armed it with a cover of defence, setting it a cross those holds which held the ships together; in such sort, that it stood a good way beyond the fordeck of the ship. To the top of the masts were fastened polies with cords, & there when necessity required, they drew those that were at the hind part of the ship by the polies with cords, to the top of the ladder. Tother also which were at the forcastle, made fast the engine with stages; and then they drew near unto the wall, coming on land by the sailing of the ships, which was easily done by means of the two decks made on the outside. At the top of the ladder there was a plank, of a good breadth, and fenced with shields: on which four soldiers got up, and fought against those which out of the fortresses did hinder the approach of the Sambuque: And when as by the approach of the ladder they had gotten to the wall; disarming the sides of their shields, they got up into the fortresses, or towers: and the rest followed them by the Sambuque, by means of the transporting of the ladder, out of one vessel into an other, by the cords and pulleys. Which engine was with good reason termed a Sambuque; for when it was so perfected and erected, the figure of the ship, and the ladder together resembled a Sambuque; being an instrument of Music, which we call a Shagboote. The Romans then thought to come to the wall with this engine thus prepared: But Archimedes with other engines, cast from the top of the wall a great stone of the weight of ten kintals, than a second, and afterward a third, one after an other; which falling on this engine, with a wonderful thundering and tempest, broke down all the foundation; dismembering, and dissevering those things which joined the galleys together, and upheld it. And going about to come nearer to the wall, to avoid the blows of the stones, and the shot, which they thought would have gone over their heads, and could not have hurt them, when they were near; they were beaten back by other engines, whose carriage was proportioned for all distances: and many holes and arches being near one an other on the wall, where there were many crossbows to shoot near at hand, being in such places, that the enemies without could not see them; when they were about to come nearer, thinking to be under covert, and to remain out of sight, they were all astonished, finding themselves again received with an infinite number of shot, and beaten down with stones, which fell directly on their heads: for there was no place of the wall, but shot at them. By reason whereof they were constrained to retire back again from the wall; but when they were then farther removed, the shot, stones, and arrows, that flew on all sides, found them out, and hit them where they were; in such sort, that there were many men spoiled, and many of their vessels bruised, and battered: they not being able to take any revenge on their enemies; because that Archimedes had prepared the most part of his engines behind and under covert, and not upon the wall. All which inventions are subtle, and ingenious: but yet not comparable to the Canon in these days; which breaketh and battereth whatsoever it encountereth.  
I come now to the cavalry, which is used diversly in divers Regions. Some use that called of the Ancients, Cataphracte of barded horses with lances, and curtelasses; Others use light horses with sword and pistols; And others ride naked or unarmed, with short lances, as horsmanstaves, or bows and arrows, or arqebus. The Cataphracte Cavalerie of France, hath always been much regarded, carrying the name above all others, both for exploit, and equipage; and especially sithence the time of king Charles the seventh: who reduced it to a certain number of lances, and men of arms, of his ordinances, ordinarily paid, and continually exercised in arms, being divided into garrisons in his frontier places. He divided them into bands, and companies, furnished with Captains, Lieutenants, Ensigns, Guidons, men of arms, Marshals of the lodgings, quarter Masters, and harbingers; treasurers of the wars, and paymasters of companies, commissaries, and controllours: committing the charge of them to chosen Lords of wisdom, and magnanimity: as to the Constable, and Marshals of France; and other men of quality.  
The MAMMELVCS being taken the most of them out of the country of Circasse, were instructed by Masters of fence, and continually exercised in arms; hardening them to labour, to hunger, and to thirst, and to lie on the ground; or on some poor piece of tapestry. They which were found the most valiant, were enrolled in this order; receiving from that time forward good entertainment, and salary. Wherefore having no other care, but of arms; and being strong of disposition, and accustomed from their infancy unto pain; they gave themselves the chief praise for war, above all other Nations: thinking that there were not in the world any, whom they could not overcome by arms.  
The PERSIANS are Cataphractes, having strong barded horses; and are very valiant men of arms: in such sort, that five and twenty thousand of them, do not fear a hundred thousand Turks; which fight unarmed upon light horses. The Nobility of the country are bound to go to the war, by the fees, and underfees which they possess; as in France, Spain, Lombardy, Naples, England, Germany, & Poland: and to find a certain number of armed men, according to the revenue of their lands which they hold, either by succession from their parents; or by benefit of the Prince. The richer sort are commonly very well armed; the others content themselves with salads, and coats of mail: and being covered with shields, they fight sometimes with the lance, and sometimes with the bow. Those of Scyras are accounted the best; then the Assyrians; with whom are mingled, the Medians, and Parthians the best archers of Asia after the Tartarians. The ARMENIANS like better to fight on foot, and are ordered in batalions; fortifying themselves with great pavoises, pitched in the ground against their enemies: using short pikes, & axes, and slings. Their allies are the Georgians, & Mengrelles; which are Christians after the Greek manner; and reputed most warlike.  
There is great reckoning made of the ALBANESE of Greece, of the HOUSSERONS of Hongarie, & of the REISTERS of Germany. But the Turks at this day seem to be the chief warriors, having overcome the Frenchmen in the battle of Nicopoli; overthrown the Mammelucs; & vanquished the Persians in their own Country; subdued the Albanese, and the Hongarians; entered, & wasted Germany. Whereof none ought to wonder, considering their discipline, in the which they have many things most commendable, observed with justice and severity; in such sort that they excel therein the ancient Greeks, and Romans. The first is sobriety, for in scarcity of victuals they will sustain themselves in war with a little bread half baked, and rice; with the powder of flesh that is dried in the sun▪ ●●eir drink is fair water, being forbidden to drink wine in the Campe. Such a law had in ancient time the Carthaginians in war, as Plato faith▪ But the Turks besides this politic discipline have their religion also, which maketh them the more fearful to offend. There was never elsewhere the like obedience, because there is not amongst them any company about x. men, but hath his head; & the inferiors are always obedient to their superiors. Their s 〈…〉 in such a multitude is marvelous▪ so many soldiers being kept in order by signs of the hand, & of the countenance, without speaking any word: In so much that oftentimes in the night they let their prisoners escape for fear of making noise. There is none so hardy as to bring any woman into the army; nor to use the company of any. They play not at dic●, nor cards, nor any other plays of hazard, for money: neither do they blaspheme God in any sort; but name him at all times with great reverence. The two cases which they punish most grievously are quarrels, and thefts. Marching through the country in the summer season, they dare not for their lives to go amongst the come, & spoil it. They despise death, thinking that it is predestinate unto every man▪ and the day of his death written in his forehead; which it is not possible to avoid: which maketh them more bold and adventorous; as also the punishment & recompense which are present for them that do well or evil. For whereas punishment, and reward, do uphold all common weals (as Solon said) & honour, & reproach are the two wings of virtue▪ presently amongst them after the fight is done, he that hath acquitted himself well, is rewarded by increasing of his pay; and he that hath done evil hath his head cut off; or else remaineth for ever dishonoured. They never lodge in the towns; neither when they come near them▪ do they permit any to go lie there; for fear of injuries and seditions: observing military discipline very strictly; to th'end, that while they are in camp, they be not used unto delicacies, which in times past have destroyed mighty kingdoms; and corrupted the most warlike Nations. Moreover to avoid idleness, the Ottoman Princes have accustomed, from two years to two years, to make wars in some place; to the end to exercise their men of war: which otherwise being dispersed here and there in the provinces would consume, and come to be of little worth: There is no nation with whom the Turks have had any different, but they always over came them; besides the Tartarians. Notwithstanding although the great Signior aboundeth in men, and in all things requisite for wars, more than any other Monarch of our time; yet for all that he adventureth nothing rashly: and obtaineth more victories by dexterity, and taking opportunities, than he doth by force. He knoweth the manners of those with whom he hath to deal; & procureth them other enemies, to th'end, to distract, & to weaken their forces: causing the situation of the countries to be set down before him in a model: which way he is to march; whereto encamp with his army; to fight or to retire; seldom going into any country, but when it is divided; and that he hath favour, and intelligence with the one party. He accustometh when he goeth about any long or difficult journey, and where the country is uneasy to draw artillery▪ to carry it in pieces: and then towards the bounds of the enemy, or when he hath passed the evil way, to cast and melt it. When he conquereth by arms any new 〈…〉 trey, he overthroweth by and by all the unnecessary fortresses; destroyeth the cities, and iourneth them into poor Hamlets; extinguisheth wholly the great ones, and the nobles: suffering the common people to live in that religion which they had before. All his great power consisteth in his 〈◊〉 called commonly spachiss; and in his footmen which are called janissaries. The Spachiss have as much pay in time of peace, as in war, and are abou● the number of two hundred thousand; comprehending as well the ordinary ones of the Court, and house of the Prince; as the subjects or Beglerbeiss. Moreover there are threescore thousand adventurours, named Achangis: to whom the Turks and Tartarians do join when they are called. But there is no strength among the Turks more assured or more gallant▪ then that of the janissaries; which can after the manner of the Macedonian Argyr●spides in old time being disposed into a phalange, sustain and break all the assaults of the enemies: and never were overcome together. Amurath the second of that name first ordained them, and by their help won the great battle at Varne; where Lancelot the king of Hongaria, and Polonia was slain His son Mahomet took Constantinople by assault; and Bajazet, Methon: Selim vanquished the Sophi, & the two soldans; Soliman obtained many victories in Asia, afric, & Europe. Their weapons are either ●ows, or long harquebuses, which the most part handle very well; shorter pikes than those with the Lansquenets and Swissers use; a Scimitar, and a little battaile-axe. They fight stoutly both by sea, and by land. They take the sons of all the Christians that are subject to their Signior, which he commandeth to be taken from three years to three, or from four to four; and maketh them to be brought up very poorly, and to lie on hard ground; to th'end to harden them to travail, and accustom them to live in the field. All the Turks go, with such courage, order, and alacrity to the war, especially when it is for defence of their religion; that when they assemble to go thither, one would think they were rather going to a marriage, then to the camp. Scarcely, and with much a do will they stay for the prefixed time of marching but do commonly prevent it. It dislyketh them much to remain at rest without war; accounting themselves happy when they die not in their houses, amidst the tears of their wives; but in fight amongst the Lances, and arrows of their enemies: not lamenting for the loss of those which die in that manner; but reputing them holy, and praying for them in all their assemblies. To prevent manslaughters (which they have in great detestation) they carieno weapon's in the Court, nor in the Towns, or in camp, save when they are to fight; but lay them on camels, or mules, or keep them within their tents. They care not for the cold of Winter, nor the heat of Summer, nor for any other incommodity of the air, or of the weather; They fear not the roughness of places; or length of the ways; they content themselves with a little; and do not load themselves with unprofitable baggage: making great journeys, without fainting through their travail. They show great staidness in their manners, avoiding lightness in their deeds, gestures, apparel, and speeches. There is no curiosity, vanity o● superfluity amongst them: but on the contrary great simplicity, and modesty. When AMURATH the second, (whom they account a Saint, and who was very valiant and fortunate in arms) went to the Temple to prayer, he went out of his palace without any pomp, accompanied only with two servants; and would not be saluted nor flattered with acclamations: and being in the Temple had no heaven spread over him, nor any other magnificence; and before he died gave over the Empire to his son, and withdrew himself to a religious solitariness. He was affable in speech, wise in judgement, and liberal in alms. His son MAHOMET had very favourable fortune; resembling Alexander the great, in courage, in wit, and desire of glory. He took Constantinople by assault at the age of twenty and two years: And complained notwithstanding that Alexander at the same age, with so little power, had conquered the Empire of the world: and he which had no less heart, than he, and was so mighty in men, in horses, arms, and revenues, could not have his will of one part thereof; although that by his great deeds he got the title of great unto his fafamily. SELIM preferred Alexander the great, and julius Cesar before all the great Captains of the ancients; reading incessantly their deeds translated into the Turkish tongue; and conforming himself after their imitation, hath gotten the greatest victories of our time. SOLIMAN after he had governed wisely and happily that great Empire by the space of forty and seven years, being reverenced and obeyed of his own; feared of his neighbours, and desired of all; died fight at the age of threescore and eighteen years: and when he was dead by the terror of his name, and reputation of his magnanimity took Signet in Hongarie, leaving peaceable so unmeasurable a power unto Selim his successor.  
They were never to any purpose beaten, but by TAMBERLAN, who in knowledge, and experience of arms, power, authority, felicity quickness of spirit, diligence, hardiness, and perseverance▪ hath excelled not only the Otthomans: but also all the great Captains, Assyrians, Egyptians, Medes, Persians, Parthians, Greeks', Romans, Christians, and Saracens.  

A COMPARISON OF TAMBERLAN with Ninus, sesostris, Cyrus, Darius, Alexander, Arsaces, Hannibal, Constantine, Attila, and Charlemaigne.  
ALthough TAMBERLAN were no King's son as was Ninus, yet notwithstanding by especial favour of the heavens he attained to the whole Empire of Asia, as tother had done; and led an army not much lesser than his. And as he discomfited in battle Zoroaster King of the Bactrians; so this man overcame Bajazet the king of the Turks. He vanquished all the Scythians and Tartarians, on this side, and on tother of the hill Ismaus as far as the river Volga; who before had killed Cyrus: and whom Darius with so many millions of men, could not bring under his obedience: neither Alexander the terror of the East; and which were never assailed of the Romans'. As Sesostris made his triumphant Chariot to be drawn by four Kings, coupled instead of horses, when he went to the Temple, or walked through the City: So TAMBERLAN when he went to horse, used the back of Bajazet, the captive king of the Turks for his footstool; even as Sapores king of the Persians, had used Valerian, the Emperor of the Romans'. He hath this common with Cyrus: that they were both brought up amongst shepherds; and chosen kings by their companions; wherehence begun their greatness. He was in fortune like to Alexander; who never fought battle but he won it; neither besieged fortress but he took it▪ having both of them received continual favour of fortune, without any adversity. As Alexander when he had▪ overcome the East, prepared great armies by sea, and by land, to conquerial●● the West; intending to have go● into afric, as far as Mauritania, and to pass at the straight of Gibraltar into Spain, and then there hence to re●ourne●y Gaul and Italy into Greece▪ and as julius Cesar went to fight against the Parthians, purposing after he had overcome them to go into Hyrcania, and en●ir●●ing the Caspian sea▪ and the mountain Caucasus, to conquer the kingdom of Pontus as he came back, that he might afterward enter into Scythia; and having overrun all the countries, nations, and provinces of great Germany, and Germany itself: to return in the end by Gaul into Italy; and so to spread the Roman empire roundla 〈…〉, in such some that it should be on all sides environed with the Ocean▪ So Sesostris aft●● he had conquered the better part of afric▪ Ethiopia, and Arabia, aspiring to the Empire of the world, prepared a great army on the Arabian sea, wherewith he coasted, and subdued all the countries bordering on the sea, even as far as India, which he wholly overran beyond the river of Ganges; and from thence marched with his land army, throughout Asia, and Scythia, which he overcame as far as Tanais: wherehence he went into Europe, with intention to subdue it entirely. But that good fortune which had long accompanied these great Captains, failing them; they could not accomplish such great enterprises. For the first was poisoned, the second murdered, and tother too constrained to return into their countries; th'one by pestilence, and tother for want of victuals, and the sharpness and difficulty of the country of Thrace. Astyages the king of the Medians being overcome by Cyrus was bound in chains of gold. Darius' king of Persia vanquished by Alexander, was shut up by Bessus in a golden cage. Desiderius king of the lombards, being taken by Charles the great at Pavia; was deprived of his kingdom; and kept prisoner the rest of his life: So Bajazet being overcome by TAMBERLAN, remained prisoner until his death, and was kept in chains. Attila was borne and died, the same day that julius Cesar: He called himself the scourge of God. TAMBERLAN said he was the wrath of God, and the destruction of the depraved age. Nevertheless Attila moved with reverence of Religion, at the request and instance of Pope Leo, did not only change his determination of going to Rome; but also leaving Italy returned into his own country. TAMBERLAN where he went permitted none to violate the Temples, & meddled not of Arabia; because their Prophet was born there. Sesostris being returned into Egypt, gave himself wholly to religion; & to building of Temples. Charlemaigne founded Monasteries; and began the University of Paris. Constantine made the Pagan worship to cease; and assured Christendom; assigned revenues to the Christian Churches; and builded Constantinople. TAMBERLAN restored Smarcand: both of them having beautified & enriched their cities with the spoils of the whole world. Alexander, Hannibal, julius Cesar, Augustus, Constantine, Attila, Charlemaigne; and TAMBERLAN had no issue, of their bodies: resembling one an other in this; that they all led great armies, fought great battles, and got great signiories; which eftsoons were lost or alienated by the division or cowardice of their successors. Attila was fatal to Europe, and the West; Alexander and TAMBERLAN to Asia, and the East; julius Cesar to the common wealth of Rome, Hannibal to Italy, and the country of Lybia. TAMBERLAN brought the Turks to a piteous state; out of which they soon arose, and became more mighty than before: as the Greeks' and Romans' oppressed by xerxes and Hannibal; when they thought themselves utterly overthrown, came to greater glory.   

A COMPARISON OF THE KING doms, Empires, or Monarchies, and common weals of these days; with those of ancient time.  
IT is mentioned in the holy scripture how Nabuchodonosor saw an Image of an exceeding greatness; the head whereof was of gold, the breast and arms of silver, the belly and thighs of brass, the legs of iron, the feet part of iron, and part of earth: And when he was awaked, because he could not remember his dream, and yet found himself sore troubled and fryghted therewith, he called together his diviners before him; whom he commanded to expound unto him what his dream was, and the meaning thereof: and if they failed herein, he threatened to put them to death. Which being understood by Daniel a young man that had been brought thither as a Captive from Jerusalem, he made it known that he could fulfil the kings desire; and being presented to the king, he declared first what the king had dreamt; and then interpreted the meaning of his dream: saying, that the Image signified the four sovereign Empires of the world, which should succeed in order one after another; namely the Babylonian, Persian, Greek, and Romain. Thereupon he spoke unto the king in such terms; Thou art certainly the golden head of this Image; thou I say whom God hath decked with supreme power, and glory; to whom he hath given dominion over all men▪ over the beasts of the field and the birds of the air. And after thee shall come another kingdom of silver, that is to say, worse than thine which is present; The third shall be of brass which shall be stretched out far and wide: the fourth of iron, for as iron bruiseth and overcometh all things, so likewise this fourth shall bruise all the rest, and subdue them to itself. The power of Nabuchodonosor is compared to a high tree reaching unto heaven, and covering the universal world with the shadow thereof; whose leaves are singularly fair, and the fruit so plentiful, that all beasts are fed and fatted therewith: In whose boughs and branches all sorts of birds do build their nests, and make their resort. Whereby the scripture signifieth the Assyrian Monarchy, which was augmented under this King, and exalted to the highest. Daniel also saw in a dream four beasts coming out of the sea, a Lion, a Bear, a Leopard, and the fourth being terrible and horrible to behold. The Lion signifieth the reign of the Assyrians; and the two wings which he giveth him are as the two members of this Empire, Babylon and Assyria. By the Bear is meant the kingdom of Persia, by which that of Babylon was destroyed: The three ribs which he saith were between his teeth, are the principal Kings of this Monarchy, Cyrus, Darius, and Artaxerxes, excelling above the rest; which have eaten much flesh; that is to say, have joined many nations to their dominion. The Panther or Leopard is the Empire of Alexander the great, or of the Grecians: The four wings and heads are the four kingdoms, issued out of this Monarchy after the death of Alexander. The fourth and last beast is the Roman Empire: the ten horns are the members or parts thereof, Syria, Egypt, Asia the lesser, Greece, Africa, Spain, France, Italy, Germany, and England: for the ROMANS ruled over all these Nations. Amongst these ten horns ariseth and groweth up another little horn, which taketh away three of the otherten; whereby is understood, the kingdom of MAHOMET or of the TURKS: which being risen from a small beginning in the Roman Monarchy, hath seized the three principal parts thereof; Egypt, Asia, and Greece. Moreover this little horn hath eyes, and is injurious against God; for Mahomet proposed new Doctrine, having the appearance of wisdom; which is signified by the eyes: and yet notwithstanding blasphemeth God, abolishing the Christian doctrine, and outraging of his Saints; until such time as the Ancient which hath neither beginning nor end, cometh unto judgement. Whereby is evidently to be understood, that the course of this world, shall end in this Empire; & that there shall not follow any other. But that all principalities of the world being abolished, that everlasting kingdom shall come, whereof CHRIST is the Author and conductor. Thus have some Divines expounded Daniel.  
Others accommodate it only unto Babylon; which fell under the dominion of the Persians, Medes, Greeks, and Parthians; which hath been often desolate, and finally overthrown; not thinking it good to reduce all Empires unto four; considering there have been others of great power, and largeness. As of the Medes, who supplanted the Assyrians; of the Parthians which overcame the Macedonians, & oftentimes vanquished the Romans; & as having parted the world with them, obtained the East, & ruled all Asia between the red sea, and the Caspian; & a good way toward the Indies: Of the Egyptians, whose kings excelled in praise of valiancy, & deeds of arms all other nations; which would blot out & deface, the great & excellent victories of the Persians, Macedonians, & Romans; if the long course of years would permit their renown to endure till this time, the rest no way surpassing them, but in the happiness of their Historiographers (who are more read) & by a fresher memory of their antiquity; Of the Arabians or Saracens, which possessed Persia, & Babylon, destroying the Roman Empire in the East; and enjoyed a great part of Asia, Africa, and Europe; planting there not only their armies and signiories, but their religion also, and their tongue: Of the Goths who invaded not only the provinces of the Roman Empire in the West, but took, and sacked Rome the seat of the Empire; reigning in Italy lxx. years: although Alexander who overthrew the kingdom of the Persians, reigned but twelve years; who like a lightning thunder leapt into divers parts, leaving his state to many successors disagreeing amongst themselves who lost it incontinently: Finally of the Tartarians who may be compared with all the former; who won Bactriana and Sogdiana; the provinces of the Babylonian, Persian, and Parthian Empire; and destroyed Babylon itself under the conduct of their Lord Halao.  
At this day there are great estates, namely toward the East: Of Cathay or of China, in the Northern India; and of Narsingue in the Southern, whereunto the Persian is near: That of the Moscovite in the North, and the Abyssin or Ethiopian in the south. In the West the Spanish, and French. The Turkish is as it were in the midst of all very great and rich: which notwithstanding is not to be compared to that of the Romans', who ruled from the Orcadeses and Thule on the one side; Spain, and Mauritania on the other; as far as the hill Caucasus, and to the river Euphrates, and the higher Ethiopia; traversing the country of Egypt and of Arabia, even to the East sea: their Empire having been almost the only one that hath until this present made the East, & West, the North, and South, their limits; having endured xii. hundred years longer than any other kingdom or common wealth, which hath been either before or sithence, except the Assyrian. For the Turks hold little in afric, & nothing in Italy, Spain, France, Germany, & England; neither yet passing toward the East & the south, the ancient bounds of the Romans.  
The common wealth of VENICE being principally Aristocratical; by the senate, and college of wisemen, hath these parts so well tempered together and proportioned, that it hath been a long time preserved from seditions within itself, and mutations, which at leastwise were of great importance; and outwardly hath maintained itself against the assault of many mighty princes: having already continued above twelve hundred years, without any violence of inward wars, and without falling under the yoke of any foreign power, or changing the first ordinance wherein it was founded. Many ancient common weals have exceeded it in greatness of Empire, in military discipline, and renown of great exploits: But there is none to be compared to it in government, and laws for good, and happy life; neither any to be found that hath reigned so long; no not among the ancients, the Roman, Carthaginian, Rhodian, Athenian, Lacedaemonian, and Marsilian; or amongst those of later age, the Florentine, Senoise, Lucoise, and Genuoyse: the state being in deed governed in the most accomplished communality, that hath been seen or read of. The Democraty of the SWISSERS likewise is well tempered by the counsels established in every Canton; which preserve it from such vices and inconveniences, unto which the common people are most ordinarily subject; & have made it to prosper hitherto. And in as much as there are 'mongst them thirteen cities confederate; they represent the ancient leagues of the Toscans, jonians, Eolians and Acheians: which exceeded not much the number of twelve or thirteen towns. For being come to such a number that they have means to defend themselves, they endeavour not to increase their state: as well because that necessity constraineth them not to seek to get greater power; as also because that being common in their conquests they make no less reckoning of them; & that otherwise by augmenting in societies & confederacies, the multitude would come to some confusion.   

A COMPARISON OF WARLIKE NA NAtions, Armies, Battles, Sieges, and Assaults of Fortresses.  
SOme nations are better by land; and others by sea. Polybius writeth of the CARTHAGINIANS, that they were best on the sea, and could there best furnish an equippage, for as much as this exercise was hereditary, and ancient unto them, and that they traficqued on sea more than any others: but that the ROMANS holp themselves best with their footmen; & gave themselves wholly unto it. The Phoenicians, Cilicians, Egyptians, Rhodians, & Marsilians were in times past much esteemed for marine matters. The situation of VENICE is more fit for war by sea then by land: seeing that one could not there in any sort accommodate any companies of horsemen; or bands and squadrons of footmen. Moreover the most simple, and courageous nations seek not to fight but by prows, and virtue; blaming all subtleties, and surprises: such as the Gauls & Helvetians were in old time. The others as the Greeks', Spaniards, Persians, Egyptians, and Africans which are crafty, and cautelous of nature, care not by what means they get the advantage on their adversaries: not thinking any kind of deceit to be reproachful against the enemies; so that they overcome them. And therefore they do ordinarily use ambushes to entrap him; and do rob and spoil their towns at unawares: endeavouring to vanquish them by skirmishes, and sudden surprises, when they find them unprovided; rather then by battles determined, and prepared at a prefixed day. Polybius saith that the Cretenses or Candians are the nimblest people of the world, both by sea, and by land, for ambushes, robberies and spoils; for surprises by night, and all manner of deceits: but that in a pitched field they are fearful, and cowardly without service; unto whom the Acheians, and Macedonians are quite contrary. justin telleth of the Parthians, that by flying or running away they deceived their enemies; and that when one would think them to be overcome, they were then most dangerous. The Turks (who are reckoned so mighty) get more victories, by policy, and opportunity; then by force: never adventuring or hazarding battle, but to their advantage.  
Concerning armies; Asia at all times by reason of the unmeasurable largeness thereof hath been most populous; and therefore hath set forth armies of incredible greatness, and power: as we have said of Ninus, who led an army of seventeen hundred thousand footmen, two hundred thousand horsemen, ten thousand and six hundred chariots, armed with hooks: Of Semiramis his wife who went into India with thirty hundred thousand foot, five hundred thousand horsemen, a hundred thousand chariots; and made a bridge on the river of Ind of two thousand boats: of Cyrus; who gathered together six hundred thousand footmen, and sixscore thousand horsemen, with two thousand armed chariots: Of Darius the first; who assailed the Scythians, with eight hundred thousand fight men: Of Xerxes' going into Greece; who had by sea five hundred seventeen thousand men, and by land a Million, seven hundred thousand footmen, and fourscore thousand horsemen; with twenty thousand Arabians, and Africans: unto whom there joined of Europe three hundred thousand: the whole multitude coming to two millions, six hundred and seventeen thousand fight men. Attila in Europe assembled five hundred thousand men of war; on horseback, and on foot. We will compare TAMBERLAN unto them, who had together and entertained long twelve hundred thousand soldiers: and those which have diminished this number, yet gave him no less than six hundred thousand footmen, and four hundred thousand horse. The two greatest armies, which have been seen in the West by land; within these thousand years, were that of Sultan Soliman when he came the second time to Vienna, and of the Emperor Charles the fift, going to defend it against him. Where if they had fought, the question had not been only of Vienno, but of the Empire almost of all the world: to bring it into his ancient estate. But the winter coming on, they parted without doing any thing worthy of remembrance, fearing one the other. In the Turks army there were five hundred thousand fight men; and of Artillery, three hundred field pieces. In that of the Emperor xc. thousand foot, and thirty thousand horsemen; Almains, Flemings, Bohemians, Polaques, Hongarians, Spaniards, Italians, Bourguignons, Namurois, and Hannoniers; with incredible preparation of all sorts of artillery: the whole number of all those that were in the army when it was full, coming to cclxxx▪ thousand parsons. The other military assemblies that have been seen in the West of long time, do resemble robberies, or playing at barriers, rather than true wars (if we believe Blondus Flavius the Historiographer) military discipline being all observed in these parts; and men effeminated by delights; and blinded by their mutual and frivolous dissensions, diminishing from day to day their valiancy and reputation.  
As touching battles, Herodotus affirmeth that of all those which were ever fought by the Barbarians, the sharpest and most furious, was between TOMYRIS the Queen of the Massagetes, and CYRUS: where was overthrown a great part of the Persian army, and Cyrus himself slain. Xenophon reckoneth for great battles, those two which Cyrus obtained against the Assyrians and the Lydians; in which th'one King was slain, and tother taken. We may also put amongst the principal battles, those three which ALEXANDER won of Darius King of Persia; Those which were between SCIPIO, and HANNIBAL; and between POMPEY and CESAR at Pharsalia: Between ATTILA king of the Huns on the one part, and the Romans' Frenchmen and Goths on tother in the plain of chaalon's, where remained a hundred and fourscore thousand parsons in the place: That which CHARLES MARTEL had at Tours against the Saracens, where were slain three hundred and threescore thousand. Unto which we may compare that which TAMBERLAN gave to BAJAZET OTTOMAN, where were slain two hundred thousand Turks: AMURATH to LANCELOT King of Poland and Hongary, at Varne; where he was slain: The two which SELIM got on the SOPHI at Calderan, and on the SOULDAN in Suria: the most renowned that were fought these thousand years.  
The most memorable ancient sieges of places are, that of TROY by the Greeks', where they continued ten years, and in the end took it in the night time by device: of BABYLON by Cyrus, and by Darius: of MESSENE by the Lacedæmonians; where they remained likewise ten years: having bound themselves by oath not to departed, till they had taken it. Herodotus writeth that Psamneticus king of Egypt, held AZOTUS a city of Suria besieged for the space of nineteen years; and was so obstinate in his purpose that he would not departed till he had taken it: The same Author saying, that of all the towns that he had ever known, it had endured the longest siege. Moreover Alexander besieged tire, Marcellus Syracuse; Hannibal Sagunt; Scipio, Carthage, and Numantia; Numantius, Corinth; julius Cesar, Vxellodun, Alexia, Auaric, Gergobie, and Marseilles; Vespasian, and his son Titus, jerusalem; Alaricus, Attila, and Gensericus, Rome. We may put amongst the new sieges, which we will compare with the ancients, that of CONSTANTINOPLE by Mahomet, accompanied with two hundred thousand Turks: who took it by assault, when he was but two and twenty years old: of GRANADO by king Ferdinand, and Queen Isabel, where they continued seven years before they could take it on the Moors: of RHODES by Sultan Soliman, compassing it with three hundred thousand men, who finally obtained it by composition: of BELGRADO at the entrance of Hongary, a very strong city; and of MALTA also by him, which he could not take, although his men did their uttermost: but conquered Signet in Hongarie when he died. It is not long sithence Florence sustained a siege a whole year together, before the common wealth was brought into a Dukedom.  
But the sieges of Rhodes and Malta were more by sea, then by land, and may be compared to the sieges of tire, Syracuse, Carthage, Numantia, and Marseilles: which in like manner were rather on sea, then on land. The battle by sea which the VENETIANS got not long sithence of the Turks doth not yield any whit to the most renowned of the ancients: as that of the ROMANS against the ARMORICANS that of DEMETRIUS the son of Antiochus king of Suria, and PTOLOMEY king of Egypt; Between PHILIP king of Macedonia, and ATTALUS king of Pergamus; between OCTAVIUS CESAR, and MARCUS ANTONIUS before Actium: It is true that the ancients were more mighty by sea then we: but for want of understanding and skill in navigation they made infinite shipwreck, and received inestimable losses. The only city of Athens kept sometimes three hundred galleys. And now the Turk who is so rich, and so mighty cannot rig forth, set to sea, and maintain so many. Xerxes when he went into Greece had three thousand vessels. Alexander when he died caused a thousand to be prepared to go into afric, and to assail Carthage. The Romans', and Carthaginians in the wars which they had long time together lost an infinite number of ships. Dionise the tyrant of Syracuse had four hundred vessels with oars.  
Moreover the ancients made galleys of v. vj. seven. viii. ix. & x. oars in a seat, yea even to thirty. Those of this time are but of iij. and at Venice it hath been a difficult thing to build one of five oars. These five hundred years the Venetians, and Genuoises have been Masters of the Mediterranean sea, and have fought sharply thereon one against the other, for the chief superintendance thereof: The Venetians at length have had the better, and are mighty thereon at this day. In the Ocean the Portugals, Castilians, and Englishmen by dexterity, knowledge, and skill of navigating hold the chief commendation in this exercise: having excelled the Tyrians, Egyptians, Phoenicians, Rhodians, Romans', Carthaginians, Marsilians, Armoricians, and all others that ever meddled with long voyages, and discoveries of lands that were before unknown; having gone round about the world by their navigations: which the ancients never did, nor could, or durst undertake to do.   

A COMPARISON OF NAVIGATIONS, and discoveries of Countries, Peregrinations, and voyages by land.  
HOmer and Orpheus have song in their verses how all the habitable earth is environed with the Ocean as an Isle. And the Cosmographers affirm that the earth and water make but one globe; which hath been wholly compassed in our time, in three years, by the navigation of MAGELLAN and his fellows. In ancient time the North was sailed by the commandment of AUGUSTUS, as far as the Baltic sea; and Borussia, where the Amber groweth. Now the ENGLISHMEN, and the NORMANS go easily into Moscovia, passing the sea of Y ce, at such time as it is unfrozen.  
Touching the innermost, and farthest part of the North, the Ancients knew no farther than the river of Tanais, dividing Asia from Europe: At this day all is known even to the Pole; and the most part reduced to the Christian religion by the SVEVIANS, and MOSCOVITES. Which on the other side was known by the MACEDONIAN arms, during the reign of Seleucus and Antiochus from the Indian sea unto the Caspian. And about the Caspian sea were discovered many banks, as towards the East was visited a great part of the south sea by the victories of ALEXANDER the great. HANNO also a rich Carthaginian Lord sailed from Gibraltar into the Arabian sea, behind Africa: having set down his voyage in writing. In our time the Castilians have sailed beyond the Canaries, and bearing towards the West, passed unto our Perieces, which they have subdued to the Crown of Spain, with many Cities and large countries full of gold, and other good things by them discovered. And the Portugals going towards the south beyond the Capricorn have come to our Anteces, proving all the middle Zone to be inhabited; that is to say, all that space of ground which is under the Zodiac between the two tropicks against the opinion of Aristotle, and the ancient Poets. Afterwards they traversed toward the Indies, and went to our Antipodes obtaining a dominion over them. Moreover Paulus Venetus, Ludovicus Romanus, Franciscus, Aluarez, joannes Leo, and others travailing by land through all the coasts thereof, have given us knowledge of infinite Mediterranean or midland countries, which were not known before. In such sort that we may truly affirm that the world is wholly manifested, at this day, and all mankind entirely known: for now all men may communicate one to another their commodities, and supply their mutual wants; as inhabiting all the self same city, and common wealth of the world.   

A COMPARISON OF THE RICHES of the time present, with that of the times past.  
IT is certain, that this age hath been much enriched and accommodated with many new things, serving not only for necessity, but also for pleasure, ornament, and magnificence; by the foresaid navigations, and discoveries: For besides the sugars, pearls, spices, strange and medicinable herbs, trees, and fruits; there have been found many mines of fine Gold towards the South; especially in the country of PERV, where all the vessel, and utensils of household, are of gold: which hath been brought into Spain, and dispersed afterwards over all Europe. But there is no small difficulty in judging whether the riches of this time, be comparable to that of the time passed. For it seemeth that the Ancients were richer, when we call to memory the unmeasurable quantity of gold, which SARDANAPALUS the last king of the Assyrians consumed▪ at his departure out of the world; the riches of the kings, MIDAS, and CROESUS; of PYTHIAS the Bythinian, who at his own charges feasted the Army of Xerxes, and presented him with a great Vine of gold; the great treasures found by ALEXANDER in the conquest of Persia. The abundance of gold that was in jewry, in the time of SALOMON; the excessive expenses of ANTONIUS and CLEOPATRA; the wealth of CRASSUS a Citizen of Rome, accounting no man rich, if he could not entertain an Army with his revenue: the spoils which JULIUS CESAR got in the Gauls; and the gifts which he gave unto many, to draw them to his side: The prodigality of the Emperors, Claudius, Caligula; and Nero: The possessions of Pallas, Callistus, and Narcissus bondmen; And of SENECA the Philosopher: who being but private men, exceeded the public revenue of many kings, at this day accounted to be very rich. Notwithstanding we understand, that the great CHAM of Cathay, and PRESBYTER JOHN, use a kind of husbandry never before practised, together gold and silver unto them, and to keep that, which they have gathered; & do continue together, in so great quantity, that they have enough to buy all the rest of the world: For th'one, not using money made of any metal, but either pieces of paper, or the rinds of Mulberry trees, marked with his Imperial mark; The other, grains of salt, or pepper corns, (which they cause to be valued as money) they draw to themselves all the gold, and silver of the Country; and cause it to be melted, and then lock it up in strong places, without diminishing of it at any time: In such sort, that they seem to exceed in wealth, all other Princes, both ancient & modern, that were ever renowned for their riches. The kings of PERSIA were not so good husbands, which gave money his course to and fro, both of gold, & silver in their Country, & that which they drew unto themselves, they caused to be melted & cast into earthen barrels; and when the vessels were full, they made them to be carried up & down to follow their Court; & when they had any need, they broke as much as they had use of. They say that the revenue of the great SIGNIOR, amounteth to twelve or fifteen Millions of gold; wherewith he entertaineth so many men on horseback, and on foot, by land and by sea, in his Court, and on his frontiers; which do never want their pay: and yet notwithstanding, by good husbandry layeth up every year great store of gold and silver, in his treasure house, and in the seven towers of Constantinople. Of long time there hath not been any Lord richer under the degree of a King, or an Emperor, than COSMUS de MEDICIS, the first of that name being a Florentine.   

A COMPARISON OF ARTISANS, and of works  
THE excellent Artisans, and exquisite works, are commonly found amongst rich folks; who are curious to have fair houses, movables, garments, arms, harness, pleasures, and delights: But poor men are sufficed with supplying of their wants. Wherefore in those Countries where all riches do abound; and namely in great Cities, do frequent all kind of workmen; which are very good at this day: coming near to the Ancients in some works; and in others excelling them. The GREEKS' for a time excelled in all occupations; Then the ITALIANS; who are ordinarily absolute in whatsoever they give themselves wholly unto. The ALMAINS work wonderfully in all kind of Metals. The FLEMINGS in Painting, and tapistry. The FRENCHMEN are most industrious to imitate that which they see exactly done elsewhere: and to represent it afterwards. The EGYPTIANS of Cair, are very witty; honouring, and esteeming above all others, the inventors of any brave novelty. But the CATHAYANS, or CHINOIS, have this persuasion of themselves, that they surpass all men in dexterity: working so lively, that their works do not seem to be made by man's hand; but by nature herself.   

A COMPARISON OF THE MANNERS of this present Age, with the former.  
IT is an old complaint, that manners wax every day worse and worse. If it were so, than men should ere this have come to the height of iniquity; and there should now be no more integrity in them: which is not true. But we must think that there is a vicissitude, and an interchangeable course between vice and virtue; which arise and fall by turns, and are oftentimes opposed one against an other, as contraries: that they may be the better known, and more easily discerned. Inest enim rebus omnibus quidam velut crbis, ut quemadmodum temporum vices, ita morum vertantur: nec omnia apud priores meliora (inquit Tacitus) sed nostra quoque aetas multa laudis et artium, laudanda posteris tulit. It is credible, that this complaint hath first proceeded from old men: who having passed the flower of their age (which was full of joy, and gladness) when they come to their extreme old age (wherein is nothing but sorrow, and sadness,) they wish again for the pleasures of youth; seeing their senses become feeble; and all their members weakened. Sometimes also being despised or neglected of those that erst had honoured them; and deceived by a false opinion which they have of things; they think there is no faith, nor friendship, nor honesty, remaining among men: telling to the younger sort many wonders of their former age. To whom it happeneth no otherwise than it doth unto those, that embark themselves on the sea, and beginning to sail, according to the measure as they are distant from land, it seemeth unto them, that the bank, or shore, the hills, trees, and houses do leave them: thinking in like manner that in their old age, both pleasure, humanity, and justice do forsake them, and vanish away. Moreover, those which are extremely vicious, being not able to go any farther, nor yet to stand at a stay where they be; are constrained to return by little, and little, either for shame (which is naturally in men) or else for necessity; because that in such manifest wickedness, they are eschewed of all men: or else by the divine providence; which bringeth them back again. For in the ancient histories are found such execrable vices, as there can not be more; which have reigned for a time, and have afterwards been detested: in whose place have suoceeded most commendable virtues. Whereon we will resolve with Seneca, speaking thus to this purpose. Hoc maiores nostri questi sunt (ait) hoc nos querimur, hoc posteri nostri queruntur; eversos esse mores, regnare nequitiam, in deterius res humanas, et in omne nefas labi: At ista stant loco eodem, stabunt que paululum duntaxat ultro citroque mota; ut fluctus quos aestus accedens longius extulit, recedens maiore littorum vestigio tenuit. Nunc in adulterio, magis quam in alio peccabitur, abrumpetque fraenos pudicitia; nunc conviviorum vigebit furor, et foedissimum patrimoniorum exitium culina; nunc cultus corporum nimius, & formae cura, praeseferens animi deformitatem: Nunc in petulantiam & audaciam erumpet male dispensata libertas; nunc in crudelitatem privatam, ac publicam ibitur, bellorumque civilium insaniam, qua omne sanctum, et sacrum profanetur. Habebitur aliquando ebrietati honour; et plurimum meri cepisse virtus erit. Non expectant uno loco vitia; sed mobilia, & inter se dissentientia tumultuantur: pellunt invicem, fuganturque. Ceterum idem semper de nobis pronunciare debemus; malos esse nos, malos fuisse (invitus adiiciam) & futuros esse.   

A COMPARISON OF THE LEARNING of these days, with the Ancient in Philosophy, Eloquence, Law, Policy, Physic, Poetry, Astrology, cosmography, and the other Mathematics.  
Always the great understandings, and good wits fit for Learning, have been rare; yea even in the learned ages, and amongst the most ingenious Nations: Consequently, the excellency of learning hath been also rare; and therefore the more admirable. To the attaining whereof, there is requisite a happy nature, a laborious diligence, & a constant perseverance; which must be advanced, honoured, and rewarded by the Princes: who notwithstanding commonly have small care of learning, and favour it slenderly. The students, if they be poor, they apply themselves to questuarie, or gainful arts; whereby to have means to live, when they have reasonably profited in them. The rich give themselves to pleasure, seeking the easy and superficial appearance; and not the painful profoundness, and depth of knowledge. The greatest part of Teachers use but rehersing, and repetitions by rote, acquitting themselves lightly of their charges. They which writ for the most part, do nothing but tie together, and all heap one on another Grammars, Rhetorics, logics, Institutions, Introductions, Abridgements, Annotations, Corrections, Translations, Epistles, Orations, Eclogues, Dialogues, Common places, elegies, Odes, Vulgar rhymes, and such other versifications. Moreover, we must learn out of books in the schools, the Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Chaldiack, and Arabian; which were mother tongues amongst the Ancients, & they learned them from their cradle, when they began to speak: In which we must now consume much time, and the best of our age; which were better employed in the knowledge of things, and understanding of the sciences. Besides there is one inconvenience in learning, which is not small; that they are all their life time brought up in the shadow of schools, without knowing of their behaviour amongst men; and without having experience of matters; although knowledge without practise be unperfect. Which is the cause that we have not at this day such eminent persons in Philosophy, as Pythagoras, Thales, Plato, Aristotle, and Theophrastus; In Eloquence, as Demosthenes, and Cicero; In Physic, as Hypocrates, Galene, and Avicen; In Law, as Servius Sulpicius, Papinian, and Ulpian; In History, as Herodotus, Thucydides, Polybius, Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus; In the Mathematics, as Euclid, Eudoxus, Archimedes, and Ptolomeus: albeit there have been in them very excellent men of this age. For sithence they were extinguished in Egypt, and left off by the Greeks, and Arabians; they were never more famous than they are at this present: especially Astrology, and cosmography; for the Ancients scarcely understood th'one half of heaven, of the earth, and of the sea; knowing nothing in the West beyond the Canaries; and in the East beyond Catygare. At this day all lands and seas are known, and sailed.  
Thales, Pythagoras, Aristotle, Hipparchus, Artemidorus, Eratosthenes, Strabo, Pliny, Macrobius, Capella, Virgil, and generally all the ancient Authors; save Ptolomey, Avicen, and Albertus magnus, thought that of the five Zones of heaven, there were but two inhabited: and that the three others by excessive heat, or extreme cold remained desert. At this day there is nothing more certain, then that they all are inhabited. Pliny, Lactantius, and S. Augustin, thought there were no Antipodes: But now we rule over them, and traffic with them ordinarily. They which in times past beheld the heavens, found but few movings, and could scarce perceive ten; But now (as if the knowledge, both of the one, and the other world, had been by some destiny reserved for our age) they have been observed in greater number, and more admirable: and two other principal ones added unto them, to serve for a certain demonstration of many things appearing in the stars; and to discover the hidden mysteries of nature. cosmography, and Astrology, are so beautified, that if Ptolomey the father of them both were alive again, he would scarce know them, being increased in such sort by the late observations, and navigations. REGIOMONTANUS is reputed the best Mathematician this age, and thought to be little inferior to Anaximander the Milesian; or Archimedes the Syracusan. His Master Purbachius, the Cardinal of CUSA, and COPER NICUS (being Germains all of them) have excelled in these sciences. Also JOVIANUS PONTANUS hath taken great pains in Astrology, being no less happy in prose, then in verse; and apt for any kind of writing. Volateran said, that he made verses with more art than nature: But yet so laboured after the imitation of the Ancients, that he hath not had his peer in this age. Crinitus speaking of him, and of MARULLUS his disciple, affirmeth, that both the one and tother is absolute in his kind; and that they two may be compared with the Ancients: deserving very well to be taken for good example, and admired as notable relics of antiquity. Fracastorius giveth such testimony of PONTANUS. 
Vidimus et Vatem egregium, cui pulchra canenti  
Parthenope, Placidusque cavo Sebethas ab antro  
Plauserunt, umbraeque, sacri manesque Maronis:  
Qui magnos stellarum ortus cantavit, & hortos  
Hesperidum; caelique omnes variabilis oras.   
SYNCERUS, VIDA, and FRACASTORIUS have likewise deserved much in the Latin Poesy. PETRARCH, and ARIOSTO in the Italian. RONSARD, and BELLAY in the French. GEORGIUS AGRICOLA a german, hath so well acquitted himself in searching the nature of Metals; as Aristotle, Theophrastus, Pliny, and other Ancients, seem to have understood nothing in comparison of him. The Earl JOHN of MIRANDULA, was the honour of his age; and might well have been compared to all the Egyptian, Chaldean, Persian, Greek, Roman, and Arabian antiquity, if he had lived.  
But it is now time to make an end of this discourse; by which is evidently shown the vicissitude in all human affairs, arms, learning, languages, arts, estates, laws, and manners: and how they cease not to arise and fall; amending or impairing by turns. And if the memory and knowledge of that which is past, be the instruction of the present, and advertisement for that which is to come: it is to be feared, lest the power, wisdom, sciences, books, industry, workmanshipps, and knowledges of the world, being come to so great excellency; do fall again, as they have done in times past, and come to decay: by confusion succeeding after this order and perfection; rudeness after civisitie; ignorance after knowledge; and barbarousness after elegancy. I foresee already in my mind, many strange Nations, differing in fashions, colours, and habits; rushing into Europe as did in old time the Goths, Huns, lombards, Vandals, and Saracens; which will destroy our Towns, Cities, Castles, Palaces, and Temples: will change the manners, laws, languages, and religion; burn the Libraries, spoiling whatsoever good things they shall find in these Countries invaded by them: to the end to abolish the honour and virtue thereof. I foresee wars arising in all Countries, both civil and foreign; factions, and divisions springing, which will profane both divine and human whatsoever; famines, and pestilences threatening mortal men; the order of nature, the rules of the celestial motions, and the agreement of the elements breaking off; deluges, and inundations coming on the one side; and excessive heats, and violent earthquakes on the other: and the world drawing towards an end; bringing with it a confusion of all things, and reducing them again to their ancient and former Chaos.  
But howbeit, these things proceed (after the opinion of the Naturalists) from the fatal law of the world; and have their natural causes: yet notwithstanding, the events of them do principally depend on the pronidence of God; who is above nature, and who alone doth know the prefixed time, wherein these things shall come to pass. Wherefore, men of good minds ought not to be amazed or astonished therewith; but rather to take courage unto them, travailing carefully, every one in that vocation whereunto he is called; to th'end to preserve to their power so many goodly things lately invented, or restored; whose loss would be almost irreparable; and to deliver them over to such as come after us; as we have received them of our ancestors: and namely GOOD LETTERS, as long as it shall please God that they endure. Whom we will pray to preserve from indignity, such as make profession of them worthily; that they may persevere in this honest study: amending the Arts, and clearing of the truth, to his praise, honour, and glory. For this occasion, the better to encourage them, shallbe added an Inquisition on that common saying of men, whereby they have always maintained, and do maintain; that nothing can be said, which hath not been said heretofore: that thereby they may understand, that the truth is not wholly discovered; nor all the learning taken up by our forefathers.   
The end of the eleventh Book.   

WHETHER IT BE TRUE, OR NO, that there can be nothing said, which hath not been said before; And that we must by our own Inventions, augment the Doctrine of the Ancients: not contenting ourselves only with Translations, Expositions, Corrections, and Abridgements of their Writings. The Twelfth and Last Book.  
THE beginnings of the Arts have been small, and the greatest difficulty, was in the first inventing of them; then by the industry of the learned, they were by little and little augmented; Correcting such things as were evil observed, and supplying such as were omitted: but yet, without making any thing entirely absolute; whereunto there might nothing be added. Nothing is begun and ended at one time; but by succession of time, things are increased, amended, and become better polished. Almost all the Arts have been invented by Use and Experience; and afterwards gathered and made by observation and reason: and then consequently reduced into better form, and more certain, by Divisions, Definitions, Argumentations, and Demonstrations; by general precepts and rules drawn from nature, not from opinion, and tending to the same end: not by staying and resting on that which men had formerly done, said, or written; nor by only imitating of them, after the manner of slothful, and cowardly persons: but by the adding of somewhat of their own, by some that came after, according as the matters from time to time discovered, and cleared themselves; the honour commonly remaining to the last comers, as the most exquisite, and accomplished. By whose example we ought to travail courageously, with hope to make ourselves better than them; aspiring continually to perfection, which as yet is not seen any where: considering that there remain more things to be sought out, then are already invented, and found. And let us not be so simple, as to attribute so much unto the Ancients, that we believe that they have known all, and said all; without leaving anything to be said, by those that should come after them. They have not been so arrogant, as to look that none should meddle, or deal with those matters which they had handled: But on the contrary, considering the difficulty of knowledge, and the weakness of man's understanding, they have exhorted others to travail therein; speaking rather to stir them up, and provoke them thereunto, then to keep them back, or stay them from writing. Let us not think that nature hath given them all her good gifts, that she might be barren in time to come: but that as she hath in times past brought forth certain notable personages, who have manifested many of her secrets; so she can again bring forth, such as by the influence of heaven, and a singular inclination, by livelynes of understanding, and perseverance of labour, shall attain thither; whither long experience, diligent observation, and subtility of reason, have not pierced till this present. She is the same that she was in the former famous ages: The world is such as it was before: The heaven and the time keep the same order which they did; The Sun, and tother Planets, have not changed their courses; and there is no star removed out of his place: The Elements have the same power; men are made of the same matter, & in the same sort disposed as they were in old time. And were not the manner of living corrupted, which we use, preferring idleness before diligence, pleasure before profit, and riches before virtue; nothing would let, but this age might bring forth as eminent personages in Philosophy as were Plato, and Aristotle; in Physic as Hypocrates, and Galen; or in the Mathematics as Euclid, Archimedes, and Ptolomey. Considering the help which we receive of their books, the examples wherewith antiquity hath instructed us, so many observations, and inventions since their time, and so long experience of all things: In such sort, that (if we consider it well) there was never age more happy for the advancement of learning, than this present; if weighing the shortness of man's life, we resolve to employ our whole endeavour & industry, on the study of true knowledge. Wisdom hath not fulfilled her work; much remaineth, and will always remain: and there will never be wanting occasion to add thereunto. Truth doth offer herself to all those that will seek her, and are of capacity to receive her▪ albeit Democritus complaineth, that she is hid in a place as deep as a well, wherehence (in his opinion) it is not possible to draw her forth. Whosoever giveth himself to it in good earnest, shall find always somewhat to do therein. All the mysteries of God and secrets of nature, are not discovered at one time. The greatest things are difficult, and long in coming. How many are there, not yet reduced into art? How many have been first known and found out in this age? I say, new lands, new seas, new forms of men, manners, laws, and customs; new diseases, and new remedies; new ways of the Heaven, and of the Ocean, never before found out; and new stars seen? yea, and how many remain to be known by our posterity? That which is now hidden, with time will come to light▪ and our successors will wonder that we were ignorant of them. M. Varro witnesseth, that in the space of a thousand years, the Arts were invented, and augmented; which yet until this time are not perfected, and accomplished: But if the perfection of them hath not hitherto been found, it followeth not thereof, that it cannot be found. For those things which at this day are held to be the greatest, and most admirable, had a time of beginning: and that which is now very good, was not so at the first; but is increased by little and little, amending from time to time. Certainly, the excellency in all things is slow, difficult, and rare: seeing that there is scarcely found in many hundreds, and thousands of years, amongst an infinite number of Students, one man worthy of admiration; being learned and eloquent indeed; that with a good natural wit, livelynes and sharpness of understanding, experience and use of things, hath the constancy and patience to persevere, which are requisite to such an enterprise. This notwithstanding, we ought not to faint, or to despair; for if there be but small hope to excel and go beyond the best; yet is it an honour to follow them: and if there be no means to reach them; yet is it commendable to be second, or third unto them. It is therefore convenient to apply our industry to the searching out of the truth, as they have done; and to endeavour to augment the doctrine of the Ancients: without so much subjecting ourselves to antiquity, that we do nothing for our age; and have no care of our posterity. Moreover, many things invented by the Ancients, are lost. The wisdom of the Egyptians, Persians, Indians, and Bactrians, hath not come unto us; many good Greek and Latin Authors are not found; And amongst those that remain, there are few agreeable to the present manners, and affairs. We do not build now adays after the fashion of vitrvuius; neither till the ground, nor plant, according to Varro, or Columella; nor take food or physic after the ordinance of Hypocrates, and Galen: We judge not according to the Civil Law of the Romans'; neither plead we as did Demosthenes, and Cicero; or govern our common wealths, by the Laws of Solon, and Lycurgus; or following the politic precepts of Plato, and Aristotle. We sing not as did the Ancients; neither war we according to Vegetius: the art military being changed; and all kind of arms, both offensive, and defensive. Ptolomey in his cosmography, doth advertise men to believe the latest travailers, touching the longitude, and latitude of places. Aristotle saith, that the Quadrature of the Circle may be known; but that it is not yet found out. Plato affirmeth, that Geometry was unperfect in his time, and that stereometry, and the Cubike wanted. The Calculations of the Heavens are not all found true. Vesalius curiously observing Anatomy, hath found many points therein omitted by Aristotle, and Galen. Pliny, boasteth that he hath added in the History of living Creatures, that which Aristotle was ignorant of. Leonicenus reproveth Pliny of lies, and errors in many places. Auenreis hath written against Galene; Galene against Aristotle; and Aristotle against Plato. There is no Author so accomplished or perfected, in whom one may not find somewhat wanting, or worthy of reproof. And that which is worse; there are some men so given and so affectionate to antiquity, that they are ignorant, or have very small knowledge, of the Country, and time wherein they live. They know in every point how Athens, Lacedaemon, Carthage, Persia, & Egypt were governed, not knowing the affairs of their own Country; wherein they are strangers: As there are found many among us, discoursing of the assembly of the Ariopagites, & of the Comices of the Romans; understanding nothing of the counsel of France, the handling of the revenues, and the order of the Parliaments. Is it not then an abusing of study, and of learning, to dwell continually among the Ancients,; and not to endeavour to bring forth new inventions, agreeable to the manners, and affairs of this time. When will we leave taking of grass for corn; the flower for the fruit; and the rind for the wood; doing nothing but translate, correct, expound, or abridge, the books of the Ancients? who if they had been also of this mind, not setting themselves to write; or to say any thing, but that which had been written, or said before; no Art should have been invented: or at least, they had all remained in their beginnings, without receiving any increase. The perpetual Imitators, or always translators; or commentators, hiding themselves under the shadow of others, are very slaves; and have no generous courage in them: if they dare not once to do, that which they have so long time learned. They always distrust themselves; and follow the first in those things, wherein the later have not agreed with the former; namely, in those which are not yet sought out: and will never be found, if we content ourselves with that which is already invented; without adding any thing thereunto. By occasion whereof, I will answer them henceforward which object, that there are too many books.  
Certainly, if all that hath been written by the ancient Philosophers, Historiographers, Orators, Poets, Physicians, Divines, and Lawyers, had come to our hands, all had been full of books; and we should have had no other movables in our house but books: we should be constrained to go, sit, and lie upon books. And yet there remain so many, and are made from day to day, that the age of man could not suffice to read, not only the writings in many disciplines; but in one particular: and seldom are the inventories found perfect. The great number serveth rather for charge, then for instruction; and it is much better to read some few that be good; then to wander through many which are evil. Lucian blameth an ignorant person, which boasted that he had many books; and Martial mocketh an other, who thought thereby to be accounted learned. Seven hundred Volumes were found in the Library of Alexandria, which were all burned together by a mischance of fire. The learned carried their books thither from all parts, as to the Theatre of learning; and they read them in the Museum which was there, at the plays ordained for the honour of Apollo, and of the Muses: the vanquishers receiving great gifts, in the sight and knowledge of all the world; In somuch that none were reckoned learned, which had not won some prize there. Livy calleth that great Library, a worthy work of kingly care, and magnificence: But Seneca saith, that it was neither care, nor magnificence; but a studious pomp or superfluity: & yet not studious; because the Ks. Ptolemies had not erected it to serve for study, but for a show and spectacle. As we see many private men also which have gathered many together, well printed, bound, & gilded: to serve only for ornaments, which they never look in themselves, nor suffer others for fear of fouling them. Also king ATTALUS assembled at Pergamus in emulation of the Ptolemies, two hundred thousand volumes which were given by Antonius to Cleopatra, & so vanished. There were in the Library of the GORDIANS xl. thousand: and a great number of exquisite ones in that of LUCULLUS, and AUGUSTUS. There are some at this present very well furnished; both amongst the Christians, and the Mahometists.  
But going by the professions, I have read that DIDYMUS a Grammarian composed four thousand books: APPIAN six thousand; who was so arrogant, as to say, that he made them immortal, to whom he dedicated his works. CICERO said, that if his age were doubled, yet would it not suffice to read all the Lyric Poets. Seneca thinketh as much of those that have written of Logic. There is no people, nation, city, commonwealth, signiory, country, kingdom, or empire; but hath his Chronicles and Histories. In Greece one only war of Marathon, found three hundred Historiographers, & Plutarch in his lives allegeth more than two hundred of them. SALLUST, and LIVY are come to us unperfect, and faulty: as are also many others of less reckoning both Greeks' and Romans'. It is not possible to reckon the books that are made of Physic, which hath many times been changed, and divided into divers sects. ARISTOTLE the Philosopher composed iiij. hundred volumes: and VARRO the most learned amongst the Romans as many. The Emperor JUSTINIAN by the excessive multitude of books which were of the civil Law, was constrained to cause the Pandects to be made: on which contrary to his edict have been heaped innumerable commentaries. S. john the evangelist saith, that the world is not able to receive all the books which should be written of JESUS CHRIST: as appeared in the time following, wherein were infinite written in many languages, concerning the Christian religion; and the exposition of the old and new Testament. ORIGEN alone hath written six thousand books. The Goths, Vandals, Alanes, Huns, Lombard's, Saracens, Turks, and Tartarians brought an inestimable loss to the libraries, and corruption to the languages.  
Books are different also according to the disposition of the times, and inclination of the countries wherein they are made: even as wines are divers according to the territory, quality of the air, and disposition of the year; the nature of the vine, & industry of the keeper. Every age hath his peculiar kind of speech; Every nation and age his phrase: the Greeks' and Latins writing after one sort; the Hebrews, Chaldees, and Arabians after an other. All are not of continuance: and as many are lightly and easily made; so they are eftsoons and incontinently lost. Some are left off for the obscurity, and to affected subtlety and barbarousness which is in them: Others despised, or neglected as unprofitable; or consumed by length of time; or destroyed by wars, changes of tongues, and of religions; or by being evil written and copied out; or corrupted, & depraved: In others there is nothing but tedious repetitions; by changing the order, and the words. Pliny a man of great reading, saith that in conferring and comparing of authors, he hath found the old written out word for word by those that were next after them, concealing their names; and choosing rather to be taken in their theft, then to acknowledge the debt. Those which are respected here as holy; are burned elsewhere, as abomination. The affected to some certain sect, religion, or profession, are red only by people of the same sect, religion, and profession. The poems, orations, epistles, chronicles, histories, comedies, and tragedies, are not looked on; but by such as understand the tongue wherein they are written: & out of it they commonly lose their grace. There are not any which please and satisfy all people; or which are received in all places; except they be advisedly made, with great judgement, & profound learning, by a singular grace of God, and a rare goodness of nature: resisting against envious old age, & warranting themselves from the silence of oblivion. Such as seem to be those of Plato, Aristotle, Hypocrates, & Ptolomey▪ who not content with the images of things, and shadows of opinions, have sought the truth directly; & have therefore escaped the injury of time, of fire, of water, & of wars; among so many nations, & contrary sects, translated into divers languages; yet keeping still the same grace, as when they were newly made. For as time abolisheth the opinions that are not well grounded; so it also confirmeth the infallible judgements of a wise & understanding nature, augmenting always the reputation of those writers which have best observed, & understood it. The judgement of time discovereth in the end the secret faults of all things; who being the father of truth, and a judge void of passion, hath always accustomed to give a just sentence, of the life or death of writings.  
But seeing that the arts & sciences begin, & grow; are changed and preserved by care, diligence, remembrance, & meditation, and are lost by negligence, sloth, forgetfulness, and ignorance; it being a thing most requisite that truth should remain amongst men: It behoveth of necessity that the first being abolished, others should come in their places; and that the old books being lost, there should be made new. For as other things being subject to mutation, have need of continual generation to renew themselves, and to maintain each of them his kind: So must learning also be provided for, by seeking of new inventions, in steed of those that are lost, by changing that which is not well; and by supplying that which is wanting: to the end that it be not decayed; but amended from day to day. For the world being made of two things, whereof the one are perpetual, and others mutable and corruptible: It is certain that those which are perpetual, as the heaven, the sun, the moon, and tother stars, remain, constantly always in one self same estate: But they that are movable do begin, and end; are borne, and die; do increase, & diminish uncessantly; endeavouring notwithstanding (as much as they may) to come near and participate of eternity: not by remaining always one and the same (as doth superior and divine things) but by continuing their kinds by the means of generation; which is an immortal work in this mortality. So the plants, and all living creatures which cannot endure long, by the necessity of the matter whereof they are made, renew themselves continually; procreating by buds, and seeds, their like. In such sort that by the order of nature the young do always succeed unto the old, and the living to those that are deceased; their kinds by this means remaining immortal. But men being endued with a divine and immortal soul, do aspire more to such perpetuity and immortality; endeavouring to remedy that infirmity which they know in themselves: Namely such as have their bodies most fruitful, by begetting of children, by whom they hope to perpetuate their name, and lineage; Others that have their mind better instructed, by bringing forth such fruits as are proper thereunto; as virtues, sciences, learned and elegant writings, and other such fruits more noble, more admirable, and more durable than those of the body; which they prefer before children; and for which they voluntarily expose themselves to all labours, and dangers; neither sparing their parsons nor their goods. therehence ariseth in good wits the insatiable desire of honour, stirring them up day and night, not to content themselves with base, and casual things: but to seek by virtuous deeds, to recompense the shortness of this life, by the memory of all posterity. Therehence proceedeth the wonderful desire of making themselves known▪ of leaving a good opinion of them, and getting an immortal renown. And by how much the better they are, the more they strive to come to this point of immortality; which they do so long for. For those most excellent personages, would not have travailed as they have done in times passed; without the hope which they had to be praised, and renowned, as now they are. Such were the ancient Poets, Orators, Historiographers, Physicians, Philosophers, and Divines; who have brought forth so many books, which bring them immortal glory; as they themselves being immortal, do teach unto others piety, justice, & equity; declare the secrets of nature, both in heaven, & in earth; teach the disciplines; contain Histories full of examples; give remedies against maladies; and other innumerable helps, and means: without which we should live worse than beasts; having neither religion, learning, nor civility. Such were the LAWMAKERS, who begat laws, and manners of government, giving to people, honest and durable manners of living. Such were the LAWYERS who have ordered the business, contracts, and Cases of particular parsons; expounded the Statutes, and ordinances; showing the reason of them; advertising how they ought to be kept, renewed, or abrogated. Such were the valiant CAPTAINS who did heroical deeds for the defence, and liberty of their country; founded Empires, and monarchies; and builded cities: forgetting all other pleasures, to the end to leave an immortal memory for the time to come. Such were many notable parsonages; who for having showed excellent inventions, and exercised all virtues, have been greatly admired: even to the deifying of some of them. And if we mislike barrenness in the body, with greater reason ought we to detest it in the mind; and aspire to the like immortality, and renown: the desire whereof is naturally given to all parsons, to serve for a spur to prick them forward unto honest actions. The husbandman hateth the fruitless ground; and the husband a wife that is barren: And all do commend him more that by husbandry augmenteth his good, then him which maintaineth it only in that estate which is fallen to him by succession. So in like manner it sufficeth not to know by the book without bringing forth something of ourselves, whereby to help the truth. Plato saith that the Greeks' have bettered that which they received from the Barbarians. Cicero is of opinion, that the Italians have of themselves better invented then the Grecians, or made that better which they borrowed of them. And why should not we endeavour to do the like; amending that which the Barbarians, Greekes, & Romans' have left unto us? There is no want of good wits, so that they be well instructed. Peradventure there are more in one place then in another; but there are found some every where; as in this country of ours, where nature hath showed herself as favourable as any where else: creating us not inferior to any others, in situation, fertility, & commodity of country, goodness of wits, civility of manners, equity of Laws, government, and continuance of Monarchy; dexterity both in liberal and mechanical sciences, variety of all things either growing within the country, or brought from other places; multitude of public schools well privileged, and richly founded for the institution of youth, and entertainment of Professors, and Teachers.  
Wherefore, if all men do think that the future belongeth unto them; they that are Learned must not be negligent in obtaining of that by the durable monuments of Learning, which others do pretend and seek by works of small continuance. But they ought to travail to their power, if not in respect of men (who show themselves oftentimes ingrateful towards their benefactors, and envious of the present virtue) yet at the least for the honour of God: Whose will is, that we should carefully preserve the arts and sciences, as also all other things necessary for life; and deliver them over from time to time to our posterity, by learned, and elegant writings in good matters: giving light to the obscure, credit to the doubtful, order to the confused, elegancy to the unpolished, grace to such as are left of, novelty to the old, and authority to the new.  
FINIS.