BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY CONTAINING A DESCRIPTION OF THE GROUNDS, AND GENERAL PART THEREOF, VERY NEcessary for young students in that science. WRITTEN BY THAT LEARNED man, Mr WILLIAM PEMBLE, Master of Arts, of Magdalen Hall in Oxford. AC: OX arms of Oxford University OXFORD Printed by JOHN LICHFIELD Printer to the Famous University for EDWARD FORREST Ann. Dom. 1630. To the Reader GEntle Reader; I here present unto thy view these few sheets, written by that learned man Mr William Pemble, I doubt not to call him the father, the child favours him so much. It hath long lay bid from thy sight, but now at length emboldened upon thy courteous acceptance of his former labours, it looks abroad into the world; It's but little; let not that detract any thing from it, there may lie much, though penned up in a narrow room; when thou reads, then judge of it; Thus much may be said: Though many have writ of this subject, yet this inferior to none; thou may'st observe in it an admirable mixture of Art and delight, so that for younger Students it may be their introduction, for others a Remembrancer, for any not unworthy the perusal: only, let it find kind entertainment, at thy hands. Farewell. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIE. CHAP. 1. A general description and division of Geography. topography is a particular description of some small quantity of Land, such as Land measurers set out in their plots. chorography is a particular description of some Country, as of England, France, or any shire or province in them: as in the Usual and ordinary map. Geography is an art of science teaching us the general description of the whole earth, of this especially we are now to speak of, and also Chorography as a part under it contained: both, excellent parts of knowledge in themselves, and affording much profit and help in the understanding of history & other things. The parts of Geography are two. General, which treateth of the nature, qualities, measure, with other general properties of the earth. Special, wherein the several countries and coasts of the earth are divided and described. Of the general in the first place, and more at large then of the other, because it is more difficult, and hard to be understood, and yet of necessary use, for the understanding of the other. This general tract may be parted into five particular heads. 1 of the properties and affections of the earth. 2 of the parts of it in general. 3 of the Circles of it. 4 of the distinction and division of it according to some general conditions and qualities of it. 5 of the measuring of it. These in their order. CAP. 2. Of certain general properties of the earth. IN Geography when we name the earth we mean not the earth taken severally by itself, without the seas and waters. But under one name both are comprised, as they are now mingled one with another and do both together make up one entire and round body. Neither do we dive into the bowels of the earth, and ente● into consideration of the natural qualities, which are in the substance of Earth and water, as coldness, dryness moisture, heaviness, and the like, but we look only upon the out side, contemplating the greatness, situation, distances, measuring, and other such affections which appear in the superficies of it, to the eyes of our bodies and minds: These then of the earth and water together, rules are to be known, 1 The earth and the water do make one globe, i. e, one round or spherical body. The natural place of the water is to be above the earth, and so it was in the first creation of it, compassing, the earth round about as appears Genes. 1. 9 But for the use of 〈◊〉 and all other living creatures, God made a separation of them caussing the waters to sink down into huge hollow channels, prepared to receive it, that so the dry land might appear above it. Notwithstanding which separation, they do both still remain together, not covering one another as 〈◊〉 first, but intermingled one with another, and that so exactly as they now make but one round body, whereas at first they made two. Here therefore are two points to be proved, 1. That they are one globe. 2. that this one is round. 1 They are one globe having the same Centre or middle point, and the same surface or convexe superficies. which will appear by these reasons. 1 Common experience. Take a lump of earth and any quantity of water, and let them both fall down together upon the earth from some high place, we see that in the descent they do not sever, but keep still together in on straight line, which could not be, if the earth and water were two several round bodies having several centres. As for example suppose them to be two globes and let (a) be the Centre of the earth and (b) the centre of the water● from (c) some high place above the earth hurl down earth and water, I say the earth will part from the water in going down and the earth will fall down upon (d) & the water upon (e) but this is contrary to experience & ergo the supposition is false. 2 The shadow which in Eclipses is cast upon the Moon by the earth and the water, is but one and not two, & therefore the body is so likewise. This will appear in the proof of the next point, v. 2. 2 That both earth and water are one round body, 〈◊〉 square, long, hollow, or of any other figure. This is proved by divers reasons. 1 By Eclipses; when the earth, stands just between the Sun and the Moon, then doth the shadow of the earth falling upon the Moon darken it wholly or in part. Now as is the fashion of the shadow, such is the figure of the body, whence it falls, but the shadow of the earth and water cast upon the Moon is round, and also one, therefore they are round and also one body. 2 By the orderly and successive appearing of the stars, as men travile from North to South, or from South to North; by sea or land. For as they go by degrees, they discover ne● stars, which they saw not before, and lose the sight of them they did, which could not be if the earth were not round, As for example, let (X. O. R.) the inward Circle be the earth, (Q. S. P.) the outward, the Heaven: they cannot see the star (S) which dwell upon the earth in (X) but if they go Northward unto (O) they may see it. If they go farther to (R) they may see the star (P) but than they lose the sight of the star (Q) which being at (X) and (O) they might have seen. Because, as it appears in the figure, the earth riseth up round between (R) and (X). 3 By the orderly and successive rising of the Sun and stars, and setting of the same. Which appear not at the same time to all countries, but unto one after another. As for example, let (F. C. B.) be the Circle of the earth, (D. E. A.) the Circle of the heaven from East to west, let (A) be the Sun or a star. When the Sun (A) is up, and shines upon them that dwell in (B) he is not risen to them that dwell in (C) again when he is risen higher and is come to (E) and so shines upon those that dwell in (C) he is not yet up to them that dwell in (F). Again when he sets in the West. in (D) and so is out of sight to the inhabitants in (B) he is yet up to them that dwell in (C) and (F). Which shows plainly the earth is round. 4 By the different observations of Eclipses. One and the same Eclipse appearing sooner to the Easterly Nations than those that lie farther west. which is caused by the bulk of the earth swelling up between. As for example. Let (X. O.) be the Circle of the earth, and the greater the Circle of the heaven from East to West. Let (P. Q.) be the body of the Sun, (W. S.) of the Moon in the eclipse by reason of the earth between it and the Sun. It is manifest that the inhabitants in (O) shall see the eclipse before the inhabitants in (X) by certain hours, according as the distance between (X) and (O) is more or less. They that dwell in (O) shall see it in (S) they that dwell in (X) see it not till it come to (W) a great deal higher. 5 That the water is round besides the natural weight and moisture of it, which being apt to yield and run abroad, will not suffer some places to lie high, and some low, like hills, & dales, but though it be made rough and uneven by tempest, doth presently return to their natural smoothness and evenness: I say beside this: it is clear by common experience; for if we stand on the land, and see a ship go forth to sea, by degrees we lose the sight of it, first of the bulk then of the must, and all. So also one the other side they that are at sea by degrees do● loose or gain the sight of the Land: As for example. Let (A) be some steeple upon the land (B) a ship at sea: He that stands at (A) shall by little and little lose the sight of the ship, as she goes out, & get sight of her as she comes in. Both first and last he shall have the sight of the top mast (B) when he sees nothing else. Because the sea riseth up between his sight and the ship. These reasons and experiments may suffice to prove the roundness of the earth and water; which might be farther demonstrated by showing the falsehood of all other figures regular or irregular that can be given unto it: that it is neither square, nor threecornerd, nor Pyramidal, nor conical on Taperwise, nor cylindrical like a barley roll, nor hollow like a dish, nor of any other fashion, as some have imagined it to be of. We come to this second rule. 2 The tops of the highest hills, and bottoms of the lowest valleys although in several places they make the earth uneven, yet being compared to the vast greatness of the whole, do not at all hinder the roundness of it. Among all Geometrical figures the sphaetiall or the round is the most perfect, and amongst all natural bodies the heaven is the most excellent. It was therefore good reason the most beautiful body should have the most perfect and exquisite shape. Exact roundness than is not found in any body, but the Heavens; the earth is round as was showed before, but not precisely, with out all roughness and inaequality of its surface. There are hills like warts and valleys like wrinkles in a man's body; and that both for ornament and use. Yet is there such unformity in this variety, as that there is no notable and sensible inaequa●ity made in the earth by Hills and valleys. No more than if you should lay a sly upon a smooth Cartwheele, or a pins head upon a great globe. Now that this is so appears by Sense and Reason. By Sense thus, If we stand on a hill or in a plain, when we may descry the country round about 15. or 20. miles: we may behold the b●im or edge of the earth round about us to be in a manner even and straight, even there, where the country is very hilly, and full of mountains. So th●t a far of their height makes but a little alteration and difference from the plain Countries, when we behold all together a far of: though when we come near, the alteration seems more sensible. By reason thus, the thickness of half the earth is (as shall be showed about 4000 miles, now the plumb height of the highest mountains, is not accounted above a mile and a half, or two miles at the most. Now between two miles and four thousand, there is no sensible proportion, and a line that is four thousand and two miles long, will not seem sensibly longer than that which is four thousand; as for example. Let (O) be the centre of the earth, (XW) a part of the circle of the earth which runneth by the bottoms of the hills and superficies of champion and even plains (WOE) or (XO) is the semidiameter or half the depth of the earth. (S) is a hill rising up above that plain of the earth, (WS) is the plumb height of the hill. I say that (WS) doth not sensibly alter the length of the line (OWE); for (WS) is but two miles. (WOE) 4000 miles, and two to 4000 altars not much more, than the breadth of a pin to the length of a perch. So a line drawn from (O) the centre to (S) the top of the hill, is in a manner all one with a line drawn to (W) the bottom of the hill. The third rule. 3 The earth resteth immovable in the very midst of the whole earth. Two points are here to be demonstrated. First that the earth standeth exactly in the midst of the World. Secondly that it is immovable. The former is proved by these reasons. 1 The natural heaviness of the earth and water is such, as they will never cease moving downwards till they come to the lowest place; Now the centre or middle point of the world is the lowest place, and ergo they must needs move thither, as for example. Let (O) be the centre of the world, (C D E) the heavens: it is manifest that the lowest place from the heavens on all sides is (O). S●uppose the earth to be in (A) or in (B) some where out of the centre. I say it is not possible (unless it be violently held up) that it should abide there, but it will descend till it come to (O) the middle point. 2 If the earth stood any where but in the midst we should not see half the heavens above us, as now we always do, neither could there be any Aequinox, neither would the days and nights lengthen and shorten in that due order and proportion in all places of the World as now they do; again Eclipses would never fall out but in one part of the heavens, yea the Sun and Moon might be directly opposite one to another and yet no Eclipse follow, all which are absurd. As for example, let the centre of the World be (O) let the earth stand in (A), a good way distant from the centre, it is manifest that the greater half of the Heavens (C I B) will always be above, and the less half (C D B) below, which is contrary to experience. Thence also it follows that the days and nights will never be equal, for the Sun (B) will be always longer above the earth whilst he moves from (B) to (C) than below, moving from (C) to (B). Again the Sun (B) may stand just opposite to the Moon (X) and yet no Eclipse follow, the earth which makes the Eclipse, standing out of the midst. 3 The shadows of all bodies on the earth would not fall in that orderly uniformity as they now do: for if the earth stood towards the East, the shadows would be shortest before noon, if toward the west afternoon, if towards the North, the shadows would still fall Northward, if towards the South, Southwards, all which experience shows to be false. As for example, let the earth stand Eastwards in (A) the shadow of any body upon the earth, as of the body under (E) will be shorter in the morning when the sun is in (C), then at noon when the sun is in (X). If the earth stand Southward in (W) the shadow of any body will always fall south, as it doth in the figure (IN) and (Z.) The second thing to be proved was that the earth is immoveable. where we must understand a double motion, Straight, or Circular. For the first it is clear that with out supernatural violence it cannot be moved in any straight motion, that is, upward downward, or toward any side; it cannot be shoved out of his place. For the Second, whether abiding still in his place it may not move round, the question is disputed, and maintained one both sides. Some affirm it may, and doth: who think there is greater probability the earth should move round once a day, then that the Heavens should: by reason of the incredible swiftness of the heaven's motion, scares conpetible to any natural body; and the more likely Slowness of the earth's moving. Others deny it grounding their opinion upon Scripture, which affirms the earth to stand fast, so as it cannot be moved; and upon Sense, because we perceive it not to move, and lastly upon reasons drawn from things hurled up, and let fall upon the earth. The arguments on both sides will be more easy to be understood by the figure that follows. In this figure it is manifest, that the earth in the midst, cannot ●oue by any straight motion, upward toward (N) or sideward toward (M) or any other way out of its proper place, and therefore that opinion of Copernicus and others, that the earth should move round once ayeere in such a Circle as (M P R) is most improbable & unreasonable. And rejected by the most. But although it cannot move straight, it may move round. For though it be a m●rueilous great body of unconceaveable weight, yet being equally poised on every side, there is nothing can hinder its Circular motion: As in a Globe of Lead, or any other heavy substance, though it were 40. Fathom in compass, yet being set upon his two Poles, it would easily be turned round eu●n with a touch of ones little finger. And therefore it is concluded that this circular motion is not impossible. The probability of it is thus made plain. The whole circuit of the Heavens, wherein are the fixed Stars is reckoned by Astronomers to be 1017562500. that is a Thousand and seventeen Millions of 〈…〉 les, five hundred sixty two thousand, and five hundred miles. Let this be the compass of the Circle (N M O Z.) So many miles doth the Heau●ns move in one day, till the same point come to the place from whence it went; as till (N) move round, and come to (N) again. This being the motion of the whole day 24, ●ou●es how m●ny miles will (N) move in one hour? ●t will move 423 〈◊〉 4●7 and a half. i e. Forty two Millions three hundred ninty eight thousand, four hundred thirty seven miles and an half. So many miles will (N) move in one hour, from (N) to (M.) A motion so swi●● that it is utterly 〈…〉 dible. far more likely it is, the circuit of the earth (A S X V) being about 24000. i e. twenty four thousand 〈…〉 les 〈◊〉 or less, it should move round once aday For then one point as (N) should move in one hour from (X) to (V) but a thousand miles, which motion although it be swifter than any arrow or bullet from a Cannon's mouth, yet is it incomparably flower than that of the Heavens, where so many Millions are posted over in an hour. Now for the saluing of all the celestial Phaenomena, or appearances, the truth is the same, if we suppose the earth to move, as if we believe it to stand still. The rising of the Sun and Stars, the motions of all the Planets, will keep Correspondence that now. Nor need we fear logging, or that steeples and towers would totter down, for the motion is regular, and steady without rubs, and knocks. As if you turn a globe about, it will go steadyly, and a fly will set fast upon it, though you move it apace. Besides the whole body the air is carried about with the whi●linge of the earth, so that the earth will make no wind, as it turns swiftly about; as a wheel will, if it be turned apace. Notwithstanding all this, most are of another opinion, that the earth standeth still without all motion, rest rather befittinge so heavy and dull a body then motion. The main reason brought to establish it is this. Let a stone be thrown down out of the air from (W:) if the earth stand still, it is manifest it will fall upon (X) just under it; as we see it doth by common experience, a stone will fall down from any height upon the place we aimed at, but let the earth move, the stone will not light upon (X,) but some where else as one (S:) for (X) will be moved away, and gone to (U.) So again let two pieces of ordinance that will shoot at equal distance be discharged one just towards the East, the other towards the West; if the earth move (as they say it doth) towards the West, the bullet that is discharged Eastward will fly farther then that Westward. For by the contrary motion of the earth he will gain ground. But experience hath proved this to be false, showing that the bullets, will both fly at equal distance. To salve thi● answer is made that the earth by its swift motion carries with it and that steadily not only all bodies resting or moving upon it, but also the whole Sphere of Air (W E Q) with all things whatsoever that are moved in it naturally or violently, as clouds, birds, stones hurled up or down, arrows, bullets, and such like things violently shot forth: as may appear in the figure. The fourth rule. 4 The earth, though it be of exceeding great quantity being considered in itself, yet being compared to the Heavens, especially the higher spheres, is of no notable bigness, but may be accounted as a point or prick in the midst of the world. That the earth is no bigger than a point or pinns head in comparison of the highest heavens will easily appear unto us, by these reasons. 1 The stars which are many times bigger than the earth, seem yet to us to be no bigger than a great pinns head, or such like quantity; therefore much less shall the earth appear to be of any sensible magnitude. 2 We always behold half the heavens above us, which could not be if the earth had any sensible proportion to the heaven. 3 All observations of heights and distances of the celestial bodies, which are made on the superficies of the earth, are as exact, and true, as if they were made in the very centre of the earth. Which were impossible, unless the thickness of the earth were insensible in regard of the Heavens. 4 All Sun dials which stand on the superficies of the earth, do as truly cast the shadows of the hours, as if they stood in the Centre. As for example. The star (S) appears like a point or prick to them that dwell in (A) wherefore the earth (O X) will appear much less to the sight of him that should behold it from (S), nay it would not be seen at all. Again half the Heavens (B F E) are always seen to them that dwell in (A) wanting some two minutes, between (E D) and (B C) which difference is altogether insensible. Again if we observe the height of the star (S) above the Horizon (B E) it will be all one namely (B S) whether we observe it in the top of the earth in (A) or in the middle in (O.) For, (A) and (O,) are so little distant one from another, that (A S,) and (O S) will be parallel lines, and be esteemed but 〈◊〉 one line. The fourth reason concerning dials, is clear by the framing and construction of them: wherein either the lower end of the Cock (or Gnomon) whereat all the hour lines meet, or the upperend and knobb (as in many dials) is supposed to be the Centre of the earth. CAP. 3. Of the parts of the terrestrial Globe. THe properties of the earthly Globe have been handled in the former chapter we come now to the parts, which are two in general. Earth Water Both contain under them more particular parts to be known. The more notable parts of the Earth are these. 1 A Continent or main Land, or as some call it firm Land, which is not parted by the Sea running between. 2 An Island, a land compassed about with waters. 3 A Peninsula, a land almost surrounded by waters save at one place, where it joins by anarrow neck of land to the Continent; this is also called Chersonesus. 4 An Isthmus, a straight neck of land which joins two countries together, and keeps the Sea from compassing the one. 5 A Promontory or head land running far out into the Sea like a wedge. All easy to be known without any definition. 6 A Mountain 7 A Valley 8 A Champion plain 9 A Wood The more notable parts of the Water are these 1 Mare the Sea, or Ocean, which is the gathering together of all waters. 2. Fretum a straight or narrow sea running between two lands. 3 S●nu● a Creek, Gulf, or Bay, when the sea runs up into the bosom of the land by a narrow entrance but openeth it broader when it is within; if it be very little it is called a Haven, Portus. 4 Lacus a Lake, a little sea with in the land having rivers running into it, or out of it, or both. If it hath neither it is calldd Staguum a standing Pool, also Palus; a senne. 5 Fluvius a River, which from the pleasantness is also called Amnis; from the smallness of it Rivus. CAP. 4. Of the circles of the earth. IN a round body as the earth is, there can be no distinction of parts, & places, without the help of some lines drawn or imagined to be drawn upon it. Now though there are not, no● can be any circles truly drawn upon the earth, yet because there is a good ground in nature and reason of things for them, we must imagine them to be drawn upon the earth, as truly as we see them described upon a Globe or in a plain paper. Further this must be noted, that all circles on the earth have the like opposite unto them conceived to be the Heavenes, under which they are directly situated. Thus known, the circles that we are to take the special notice of are of two sorts, Greater and Lesser. The greater circles are those which divide this earthly globe into equal halves or Haemispheres. The lesser are those which divide it into two unequal parts, one bigger, another less. Of the former sort there are four, the 1 Aequator. 2 Meridian. 3 Horizon. 4 Zodiac, or Ecliptic. 1 The Aequitor or Aequonoctiall li●e, is a li●e dra●●● just in the midst of the earth, from East to West, which compasseth it as a girdle doth a man's body, and divideth it into two equal parts, one 〈◊〉 the North side, the other on the South The two points in the earth that are every way fa●hest distant from it North, & South are called the Poles of the earth which do directly stand under the two like points in the Heaven, so called because the Heaven turns about upon them, as the Earth doth in a Globe that's set in a frame. This circle is of the first & principal note and use in Geography, because all measurings for distances of places and quarters of the Earth are reckoned in it, or from it. It is called the Equinoctial, because when the Sun in the Heavens co 〈…〉 es to be directly over that circle in the earth, the days & nights are of equal length in all parts of the world. Mariners call it by a kind of excellency, The line. Upon the Globe it is easily discerned being drawn bigger than any other circles from East to West, and with small divisions. 2 The Meridian, is a line that is drawn quite cross the Equinoctial, and passeth through the Poles of the Earth, going directly North and South. It is called the Meridian, because when the Sun stands just over that circle it is Meridies i d. noon day. It may be conceived thus, at noon day, when it is just twelve a clock, turn your face towards the South, and then imagine with yourself two circles drawn, one in the Heavens, passing from the North just over your head through the body of the Sun down to the South, and so round under the earth up again to the North Pole. Another upon the surface of the earth passing through your feet just under the Sun, and so compassing the earth round till it meet at your feet again, and these are Meridian's answering one to another. Now the Meridian is not one only, as was the Equinoctial, but many still varying according to the place wherein you are, as for example. At London there is one Meridian, at Oxford another, at Bristol another, & so along Eastward or Westward. For it is noon at London sooner than at Oxford, and at Oxford sooner than at Bristol. Upon the globe there are many drawn, all which pass through the poles, and go North and South, but there is one more remarkable than the rest, drawn broad with small divisions, which runneth through the Canary Lands, or through the Lands of Azores Westward of Spain, which is counted the first Meridian in regard of reckoning and measuring of distances of places O●● from another; for otherwise there is neither first nor last in the round earth. But some place must be appointed where to begin the account: and those Lands have been thought fittest, because no part of the World that lay westward was known to the Ancients further than that: and as they began to reckon there, we follow them. This circle is called in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. 3 The Horizon is twofold Sensible or appearing. Intelligible or true. The Sensible or appearing Horizon is the space of the earth so far as in an ope● plain, or upon some Hill a man may see round about him. The brim or edge of the earth further than which you cannot see, that is the Horizon, or as some call it the Finitor. Because finet or terminat visum, it sets the limits or bounds to your sight, beyond which nothing can be seen upon the earth. This is greater or lesser, according as the height of the eye above the plain superficies of the earth, is more or less. The most exact trial hereof is at Sea, where there are no mountains nor any unequal risings of the water to hinder the sight, as there are at land. For example let ( B A F) be the superficies of the Sea and let a man's eye be placed in (X) above the Sea; as the eye stands higher or lower so will the distance seen be more or less, as if the height of (X A) be 6 foot which is ordinary the height of a man, the eye looking from (X) to (B) shall see 2 miles and 3 quarters, if (X) be 20 foot high (B A) will be five 〈◊〉 Navigation ●. 229. miles, if 40 foot 7 miles, if 50 foot 8 miles. So that from the mast of a ship 50 foot high, a man may see round about at sea 8 miles every way, toward (B G) and (F), So far may the water itself be seen, but any high thing on the water may be seen farther, 16, or 20 miles according as the height is as the ship at (C) may be seen from (X) as far more as it is from (A) to (B). There can be therefore no certain quantity and space set down for this sensible Horizon, which continually varies according to the height of the eye above the plain ground or sea. This Horrizon is not at all painted on the globe nor can be. The intelligible or true Horizon is a line which girts the earth round in the midst, and divides it into two equal parts or Hemispheres the uppermost upon the the top & middle point Whereof we dwell, and that which is under us. Opposite to this in the Heavens is another Horizon, which likewise cuts the Heaven into two Hemispheres, the upper and the lower. Above which circle when any star or the Sun is moved, it than riseth unto us, and setteth unto those that dwell opposite unto us, and so on the contrary, you may conceive it best thus, if standing upon a hill, or some open place, where you may perfectly see the setting of the Sun, you mark when the Sun is half gone out of your sight, you may perceive the body of the S●nne cut in two, as it were by a line, going along through it, the half above is yet seen, that underneath is gone out of your sight. This line is but a p●ece of the Horrizon, which if you conceive to be drawn upward about the World from the West to the North, and so by East and South, to West again you have the whole Horrizon described. This circle is not drawn upon the body of the globe, because it is variable; but stands one the outside of it, being a broad circle of wood covered with paper on which are set the months and days of the year both in the old and new Calendar, and also the 12 signs, and the points of the compass. All which are easily discerned by the beholding. The use of this Horizon is not so much in Geography as in Astronomy. The Zodiac is a circle which compasseth the earth like a ●●lt, crossing the ●quator slopewise, no● straight as the Meridian's do. Opposite to it in the Heavens is another circle of the same name, wherein are the 12. signs, and in which the Sun keeps his own proper course all the year long, never declining from ●t on the one side or other. The use hereof in Geography is but little only to show what people they are over whose heads the Sun comes to be once or twice a year; who are all those that dwell with in 23. degrees of the Aequator; for so much is the declination, or sloping of the Zodiac. This circle is also called the Ecliptic line, because when the Sun and Moon stand both in this circle opposite each to other, then there happens an Eclipse of the Sun or Moon, upon a globe it is easily discerned, by the sloping of it from the Aequator, and the divisions of it into 12. parts, and every of those 12. into 30. degrees. These are the greater circles: the lesser follow; which are all of one nature, and are called by one general name: sc. Parallels, because they are so drawn on each side of the Aequator, as they are equidistant unto it every way. Many of this kind are drawn upon the globe (as is easy to ●e● seen) and may be conceived to be drawn upon the earth: but there are only two sorts chiefly to be marked: namely the Tropickes and the Polar circles. The tropickes are two, parallel circles distant on each side of the Aequator 23. degrees showing the farthest bounds of the Suns declination North or South from the Aequator, or the midst of heaven. And therefore they are called tropickes a 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ●ertendo, because when the Sun comes over these lines, he either turns away from us, as in the Summer, or turns toward us again as in the winter: There are then two of them vid. 1 The Tropic of Cancer which lies on the North side of the Aequator, to which when the Sun comes, it makes the longest day in Summer. 2 The Tropic of Capricorn, lying Southward of the Aequator, to which when the Sun comes, it makes the shortest day in winter. The Polar circles are two parallels drawn by the poles of the Zodiac compassing about the poles of the world, being distant from them every way 23 degrees. These are two. 1 The Arctic Circle that compasseth about the North Pole: it is so called because that in the Heavens (where unto this in the earth lies opposite) runs through the constellation of the great Bear, which in greek is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 2 The Antarctic circle that compasseth about the South Pole, & is placed opposite unto the former. All these with the former are easily known upon the Globe by these descriptions, & names usually added unto them. But because maps are of an esier price, & more common use then Globes, it will be needful to show how all these circles, which are drawn most naturally upon a round Globe, may also as truly, and profitably for knowledge and use be described upon a plain paper. Whereby we shall understand the reason of those lines which we see in the usual Maps of the world, both how they are drawn, and wherefore they serve. Understand therefore, that in laying down the globe upon a plain paper, you must imagine the globe to be cut in two halves through the midst, and so to be pressed down flat to the paper; as if you should take a hollow dish, and with your hand s●ui●ze the bottom down, till it lie ●lat upon a board or any other plain thing for then will those circles that before were of equal distance, run closer together towards the ●i●st. After this conceit, universal Maps are made of two fashions, according as the globe may be divided two ways, either cutting quite through by the meridian from North to South, as if you should cut an apple by the eye and the stalk, or cutting it through the Equinoctial, East and West, as one would divide an apple through the midst, between the eye & the stalk. The former makes two faces, or hemispheres, the East and the West hemisphere. ●he latter makes likewise two Hemispheres, the North and the South Both suppositions are good, and besitting the nature of the globe: for is touching such universal maps, wherein the world is represented not in two round faces, but all in one square plot, the ground whereupon such descriptions are founded, ●s l 〈…〉 natural and agreeable to the globe for it supposeth the 〈◊〉 to be like a Cylinder (or role of bowling allies) which imagination, unless it be well qualified, is utterly false, and makes all such maps faulty in the situation of places. Wherefore omitting this, we will show the description of Of this Hypothesis se● 〈◊〉 errors of navigation. the two former only, both which are easy to be done. CAP. 5. Of diverse Distinctions, and Divisions of the earth. NExt after the Circles of the Earth, we may not unfitly handle the several Divisions and distinctions which geographers make of the parts, and inhabitants of the earth, These are many, but we will briefly run them over. 1 The first and most plain is by the Coasts of the Heavens, and rising, and Setting of the Sun, so it is distinguished into the East where the Sun ariseth. Oreins, Ortus 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. West where the Sun goeth down. occidens. North: between both fromwards the Sun at Noon. Septentrio. South: between both towards the Sun at Noon. Meridies. These four are called the chief or Cardinal quarters of the world. They with the others between them are easily known but are of more use to Mariners then to us, We may rather take notice of those other names which by Astrono mers Geographers Divines and Poets are given unto them. Who sometime call the East the right hand part of the world, sometime the West, sometime the. North, & sometime South. the diversity is noted in these verses, Ad Boream terrae. Sed Coeli mensor ad Austrum. Praco Dei exortum, videt, occasumque Poeta. That is Geographers look to the North, Astronomers to the South. Priests turn them to the East, & Poets to the West. This serves for understanding of Authors, where in any mention is made of the right or left part of the World, if for example ●e be a poet, he means the South by the right hand, the North by the left: because a poet turns his face to the West, and so reckons the quarters of Heaven and Earth. 2 The second distinction is by the notable differences of heat and cold, that are observed on the earth, this is the the division of the Earth by Zones or Cirdles, which are parts of the Earth, wherein heat and cold do remarkably increase or decrease. Those Zones are 5. 1 The hot or burning Zone (Zona torrida) which contains all that space of earth, that lieth between the two Torpicks, supposed heretofore (but falsely as after experience hath showed) to be inhabitable by reason of heat, the Sun continually lying over some part of it. 2. 3 The temperate Zones wherein neither heat nor cold is extreme but moderate: these are two, one on the North side of the Aequator between the Arctic circle, and the Torpicke of Cancer, another on the South side between the Torpicke of Capricorn, and the Antarcticke circle. 4. 5 The cold, or Frozen Zones, wherein cold for the most part is greater than the heat, these likewise are two, one in the North, between the Arctic circle, and the North Pole, another on the South between the Antarctick circle and the South Pole. These of all parts of the earth are worst inhabited, according as extremity of cold is always a greater enemy to man's body, than extremity of heat. 3 The third distinction is by the shadows, which bodies do cast upon the earth, just at noonday; for these do not always fall one way but diversely according to their diverse situation upon the Earth. Now in respect of the shadows of men's bodies, the inhabitants of the earth are divided into the 1 Amphiscij (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) whose shadow at noon day fall both ways, sc. to the North when the Sun is Southward of them, & to the South when the Sun is Northward, and such are those people that do dwell in the hot Zone. For the Sun goes over their heads twice a year, once Northward another time Southward, when the Sun is just over their heads they are called Ascij, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, without shadow. 2 Heteroscij (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) whose shadows do always fall one way, namely always towards the North, as those that dwell in the Northern temperate Zone, or always to the South, as those that dwell in the Southern temperate Zone. 3 Periscij (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) whose shadows go round about them, as those people who dwell in the two cold Zones, for as the Sun never goes down to them after he is once up, but always round about, so do their shadows. 4 The fourth distinction is by the situation of the Inhabitants of the Earth, compared on with another: who are called either. 1 Perioeci (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) such as dwell round about the Earth in one and the same parallel, as for example under the Tropic of Cancer. 2 Antoeci (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) such as dwell opposite to the former in another Parallel of the same distance from the Aequator. As those under the Tropic of Capricorn. 3 Antipodes (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) who dwell ●ust under us their feet opposite to ours. 5 The fifth distinction is of the Length and Breadth of the Earth and places upon it: these may be considered two ways 1 Absolutely, and so the Longitude or Length of the Earth is its Circuit, and Extension from East to west, Latitude or breadth of it, is the whole Circuit and Compass of it from North to South: 2 Comparatively comparing one places situation with another, and so the Longitud of a place, is the distance of it from the first Meridian going through the Canary Lands, Eastward. Whereby we know how far one place lies East or West from another. Latitude of a place, is the distance of it from the Aequator towards the North or South. Whereby we know how far one Place lies Northward, or Southward of another. The Longitude must be reckoned by the degrees of the Aequator, the Latitude by the degrees of the Meridian. For example, in these two Haemisphaeres, the longitude of the whole earth is from (C) to (A) and (B) in the Aequator. The latitud is from (N) to (S), and from (Q) to (P) the North and South poles, and this reckoned in any meridian. The first meridian is (A N B S) which goes by the Canary Lands, the Equinoctial is (A B C A). Now I have a City given sc. (D) I would know in what longitude and latitude it is. For the longitude I consider what meridian passeth through it, which is the meridian (N D S) which crosseth the Equinoctial in (ay) at 15 degrees, wherefore I say that (D) stands Eastward from the first Meridian 15 degrees. So I find that the City (ε) is 150 degrees Eastward, (G) 195, and (F) 345. For the Latitude I consider what parallel runs through (D E G) or (F) and I find the 30 to pass by (D) 45 by (E) the 15 by (F) the 45 Southward by (G) and those numbers are the latitude of the place that are distant from the Aequator, (C A B). 6 The sixth Distinction is by the Length or shortness of the Day in Summer time in several Quarters of the earth. And this division is by Climates (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) which are several spaces of the earth contained between two Parallels, in the which the longest day in Summer exc●edes that in another Parallel, by half an Hour. There is a great deal of Confusion and difference between the late and and ancient Geographers about the distinction and diverse reckonings of the Climates. It is not worth the labour to recount their opinions and Calculations: thus much is plain, and easy to be known. There are 24. Climates in which the Day increaseth by half hours, from 12. hours to 24. There are likewise 6. Climates in which the day increaseth by months, from one month to six, that is half a year. Under the Aequator the day is always twelve hours long, but as you go from it towards the Pole, the Day lengthen● still till it comes to a Those th●● dwell under the Pole have not past 3. or 4 months profund as ●ene●ras dark night, for when the Sun is in Libra & Pisces being then nigh, the Horizon it sends forth to them a glimmering light not vnli●e to the twilight or d●wning of the day in a morning a little before the Suns rising Muns●er lib. 1. cap. day half a year long. Now in what degrees of latitude every on of these Climates begin and end, shall appear by this table following. 7 The seaventh and lost distinction of the earth is taken from the situation of it in respect of the Heavens, and especially the Sun's motion. In regard whereof Some parts or inhabitants of the Earth are said to be or dwell in a Right Sphere, some in a parallel Sphere, and others in an oblique or crooked Sphere. They dwell (in Sphaerarecta) in a right or straight Sphere who dwell just under the Equinoctial, whose Horizon is parallel to the Meridian's, but cuts the Aequator at right Angles. They dwell in parallel Spheres, who dwell just under either of the Poles, whose Horizon is parallel to the Aequator, but cuts all the Meridian's at right Angles: and the latter is sometime called a Parallel Sphere. They dwell (in Sphaera obliqua) in a crooked Sphere, who inhabit any place between the Equinoctial and the Pole, whose Horizon cuts the Aequator, the Parallels, and the Meridian's at oblique or unequal angles. 1 The use of this table is easy. In the first Column are contained the names and number of the Climates. In the second the Parallels which enclose it on each side, and divide it in the midst. For the parallels here are drawn by everyhalfe hours increase. The third Column is the length of the Day in Summer, in every Climate, which from 12. hours increaseth by half hours to 24. hours after by months, from one month to six. The fourth contains the degrees of latitude, how far every climate lies from the Equinoctial. The fist contains the space or breadth of every Climate, how many degrees or minutes it takes up upon the Earth. The sixth contains so●e notable places by which the Climates pass. 2 Hereby it is easy to know what the longest Day is in any Place of the world whose latitude is known. Or contrarily the longest Day being known to know the latitude For example Oxford hath latitude 52. 0. degrees longitude 24. 0. In the table I find that 52. degrees of Latitude lie in the 9th Climate wherein the day is 16. hours and a half long, so much I say the Day is at Oxford in Summer. The place of Oxford in the Haemisphaere is at (U.) 3 Upon Globes the Climates are not usually described, but are noted out upon the brazen Meridian. So also in universal maps they are seldom drawn, to avoid confusion of many lines together but they are many times marked out on the limb or edge of the map, CAP. 6. Of the measuring of the earth. WE are now come to the last point concerning the measuring the Earth, which is two fold, either of the W●●●e earth. 2 Several parts thereof, and their distance one from another. Concerning the first it is but a needless labour to recount the diversity of opinions that have been held from time to time by learned Geographers, What is the compass and depth of the earth. This may be seen in ●ues de usu Globe, part. 3. cap. 2. and in Clavies on Sacrobosco with others. They all differ so much one from another, that there is no certainty in trusting any of them. The most common and received opinion is that the circuit of the earth is 21600 miles, reckoning 〈◊〉 miles for every degree, and then the depth or Diameter of the Earth shall be 6877 English miles, containing 5000 foot in a mile. Th● means whereby the circuit and Diameter of the earth are found out are Principally two. 1 By measuring North or South, ●nder one Meridian some good quantity of ground, threescore or an hund●●d miles (or two for the more certainty) for in those petty observations of small distances, there can be no certain working. This may be done, though it be laborious, yet exactly without any sensible error by a skilful workman, plotting it out upon his paper, with due heed taken, that 〈◊〉 often rectify the variation of the needle (by which he travels) upon due observation, and that all notable ascents and descents, with such winding and turning as the necessity of the way causeth, be reduced to one straight line. By this means we shall know how many miles in the Earth answering to a degree in the Heavens; if exact observation by large instruments be made to find the elevation of the pole, in the first place where we begin to measure, and the last where we make an end. Besides this way of measuring the circumference of the Earth, there is none other that hath any certainty of obseration in it. That by Eclipses is most uncertain; for a little error in a few minutes of time (which the observers shall not possibly avoid) breeds a sensible and fowl error in the distance of the two places of observation. That of Erat●sthenes by the Sun beams, and a shadow of a style or gnomon set upon the Earth, is as bad as the other. For both the uncertainty of the calculation in so small quantity as the shadow and the gnomon must needs have, and the difficulty to observe the true length of the shadow, as also the false supposition whereupon it proceeds, taking those lines for Parllells which are not, do manifestly show the reckoning hereby made to be doubtful and not sure. 2 The second is by measuring the semidiameter of the Earth: For as the circumference makes known the diameter, so doth this the circumference. This may be done by observation made upon some great hill, hard by the sea side. The invention is of Maurolycus Abbot of Mess●va in Sicili●, but it hath been perfitted, and more exactly performed by a worthy Mathematician Ed. W. who himself made proof of it. By this art was the 〈…〉 idiameter of the Earth ●ound ou● to be 1831262● foot: which allowing 5000 foot to a mile is ●662 & a half miles, which doubled is the whole Diameter 7325 miles. The circuit of the earth shall be 2●030 miles, and one degree contains 63 61/36 miles, which is almost 64 miles. Which as it exceeds the ordinary account, so may we rest upon it as more exact than any other. 2 The second point concerning the measuring of particular distances of places one from another is thus performed. First upon the Globe it is most easy. With a pair of Compasses take the distance between any two places howsoever situated upon the Globe, and apply the distance so taken to the Aequator, & see how many degrees it takes up; those degrees turned into miles show the distance of the two cities on from another. Upon universal maps their is a little more difficulty in finding the distance of places which here must be considered in a threefold difference of situation: 1 Of Latitude only. 2 Of Longitude only. 3 Of Latitude and Longitude together. 1 If the two places differ only in Latitude, and lie under the same Meridian if the places lie both on one side of the Aequator, the differences of the latitudes: or the sum of both latitudes added together, if one place lie North and another South, being turned into Miles gives the true distance. 2 If the places differ only in Longitude, and lie both under one parallel of latitude the difference of longitude turned into miles proportionably according to the latitude of the parallel, gives the true distance. 3 The distance of places differing both in latitude and longitude may thus be found out first let there be drawn a semicircle upon a right diameter noted with (A B C D) whereof (D) shall be the Centre. The greater this Semicircle is made, so much the more easy will be the operation; because the degrees will be la 〈…〉. Then this Semicircle being drawn, and accordingly divided, imagine that by the help of it, you desire to find out the distance betwixt London and jerusalem, which Cities are known to differ both in longitude & latitude. Now, that the true distance betwixt th●se two places may be found out, you must first subtract the lesser longitude out of the greater, so shall you find the differences of their longitudes, which is 47. degrees. Then reckon that difference upon the Semicircle, beginning at (A) & so proceed to (B;) & at the end of that difference, make a mark with the letter (ε) unto which point by your ruler, let aright line be drawn from (D) the centre of the Semi circle. This being in this sort performed, let the lesser latitude be sought out which in 32 degrees, in the fore said semicircle, beginning your account from the point (E) and so proceed towards (B), and at the end of the lesser latitude let another point be marked out with the letter (G), from which point, let there be drawn a perpendicular line which may fall with right Angles upon the former line drawn from (D) to (ε), and where it chanceth to fall, there mark out a point with the letter (H): This being performed let the greater latitude which is 51 degrees 32 minutes, be sought out in the semicircle beginning to reckon from (A) towards (B) and at the end of that latitude set another point signed out by the letter (ay) from whence let there be drawn another perpendicular line that may fall with right angles upon the diameter (AC): & here mark out a point with the letter (K), this done take with your compass the distance betwixt (K) and (H) which distance you must set down upon the diameter (AC) placing the one foot of your compass upon (K) and the other towards the centre (D), and there mark out a point with the letter (L); then with your compass take the shorter perpendicular line (G H,) and apply that wideness upon the longer perpendicular line (I K,) placing the one foot of your compass at (ay,) which is the bounds of the greater latitude, and extend the other towards (K), and there make a point at (M), then with your compass take the distance betwixt (L) and (M), and apply the same to the semicircle, Placing the one foot of your compass in (A) and the other towards (B), & there mark out a point with the letter (N), now the number of degrees comprehended betwixt (A) and (N) will express the true distance of the two places, which will be sound to be 39 degrees: which being multiplied by 60. and so converted into miles according to the former rules, will produce 2340. which is the distance of the said places. FINIS.