THE FOUR books of Flavius Vegetius Renatus, briefelye containing a plain form, and perfect knowledge of Martial policy, feats of Chivalry, and whatsoever pertaineth to war.  
Translated out of latin, into English, by john Sadler. Anno. 1572.  
¶ Seen and allowed, according to the order appointed.  
Imprinted at London in Fletestreate, near to Saint Dunston's Church by Thomas Marsh.   

TO THE RIGHT HOnourable and his singular good Lord, the Lord Russell, Earl of Bedforde, one of the Queen's majesties most honourable privy counsel, and Knight of the honourable order of the Garter. john Sadler wisheth perfect felicity.  
AFter I had first taken in hand (right honourable and my singular good Lord) the translation of this worthy and famous writer flavius Vegetius, at the request of the right worshipful sir Edmonde Brudenell knight: I thought I should have had no further labour, but that the said translation being so diligently and plainly handled according to the author's meaning, as my simple wit and knowledge could do it, should have contented and satisfied the said sir Edmonde only for his own private use and reading. But he being a man always studious, not so much to pleasure himself, as to benefit his country, and also desirous to make all men partakers of such commodity, as he himself alone, or a few besides him, might take by reading of the same: did afterward purpose to 'cause the said work to be printed. And although the rude and simple translation thereof, might worthily have withdrawn him from his said intent: yet nevertheless considering what profitable things are therein contained: how wise and prudent counsels for all governors and Captains are there declared: how expedient and necessary the knowledge of these things may be for all times and seasons, and especially for this our time wherein we now do live: he thought it better to 'cause the said work to be openly set forth and published, although in a very base and homely style, then that this worthy author, whom not only the Italians, Almains and Frenchmen, but also many other Nations, have most diligently translated in their own peculiar languages, should any longer be hid and kept from all his native country men: giving thereby occasion to such as shall think the said work to homely and basely handled, being yet, as it were, but hewn out of the rough, to plane and polished the same, if they will be disposed more curiously, and to set it forth with finer and purer eloquence. Which thing so much the better may be done, that the Ice is now cut up before, and the way made open, which at the first might seem more hard and dangerous to pass. The weaker that any thing doth appear, the more expedient and necessary it is to seek for help and secure for the same: the more simple that this translation is, the more need it hath of sure protection and defence. Wherefore when as sir Edmonde Brudenell, the chief causer and doer in setting forth of this work, had conferred together with me as concerning the publishing hereof, and had not yet determined to whom chiefly it might most conveniently be dedicated: your honour amongst all others came to our remembrance, for many and sundry causes, as most worthy of so excellent and passing knowledge therein contained: Not that these things may seem unknown to your honour, but being overseen perused and allowed of the same, might more safely come abroad and thereby deserve the better favour and acceptation of all the Readers thereof: as allowed of him, whose noble acts as well within the Realm as with out on every side, have always from time to time so well appeared. Pleaseth it your honour therefore to accept in good part this homely and simple work, offered by us of very true and hearty love: on sir Edmondes' behalf, as a declaration of the inward and unfeigned good will that he doth bear towards your honour: and on my behalf as a testimonial both of like good will, and also of my very bound duty: which now many years lately passed, have received a liberal annuity or stipend of your honour, whereby I have been the better able to express such poor knowledge as I had, or at lest my good will, not only in setting forth of this present work, but also in that trade, which I have professed a long time, as I trust to the honour of Almighty God, and also to the benefit and profit of my country. And whereas here I have communicated the setting forth of this treatise with him that hath been the only and chief occasion of first taking the same in hand, I think he may of very right challenge the greatest commendation thereof (if any be) who aided me not only with his good advice, but also with Books, which else where I could not have had for the accomplishment of the said translation. And to speak unfeignedly my own labour and travail can look for no manner of praise at all, except peradventure the only commendation of painful and faithful diligence, which as Vegetius saith himself, is h●re more requisite, than elegancy and fineness of words▪ not adding thereunto any thing of mine own, after the manner of a Paraphrast to dilate the matter more at large with a curious and eloquent style: but using only the office of a translator, plainly and compendiously expressing so near as I could, the true sense and meaning of the Author. Wherefore if this my endeavour may be accepted of your honour, I think it a greater commendation, then either I can deserve or justly look for: as thereby much boldened and encouraged to take like pains hereafter, if good and meet occasion may serve thereunto.  
From Oundell the first day of October 1571. Your honours most humble, faithful, and continual Oratoure: john Sadler.   

A Preface to the Reader.  
THe difference of peace and war is apparent to all men. How much the one is to be desired, the other to be eschewed (except in some respects hereafter declared, no man I think is ignorant. It I should but touch the gains & commodities of peace: 
The commodities of peace.  how quietly & pleasantly men do live together: how all things on the earth do increase and multiply: how wealth and riches do abound: how all manner of sciences and good learning do flourish, with other innumerable effects there of toiling here now to be recited: it would require a large and a great volume; 
The calamytyes of War  not a short and compendious preface. Again, how great-calamities and destructions through wars have happened, not only to Cities, towns and fortresses, but also to mighty Princes with their armies, great multitudes of people, and whole nations & countries: a man might spend a good part of his time to read through the books that hath been written thereof. But the more commodious, precious and necessary that pleasant and joyful name of peace is to be accounted, so much more earnestly it aught to be sought for, obtained and preserved: the greater dangers harms and losses that are by wars sustained, the greater heed foresight and policy to withstand the same, is to be used. Neither hath there been, that I have heard or read of, any common wealth or Realm foe fortunate and blessed, that it hath enjoined continual peace and quietness any long time, except the Prince of peace, even God himself, which also is the Lord of Hosts, have taken in hand the defence thereof. Which thing no doubt of his abundant goodness he sheeweth upon certain people and countries, when as he ●endes them good and gracious Princes, wise and godly governors. Which ruled by the spirit of God, may so order & keep the whole common wealth and state of their Realm, through their great wisdom learning and policy, that no disobedience of subjects to their Prince may be found uncorrected, no disquietness or trouble amongst them unappeased, no force of foreign enemies unforeseene, unwithstoode, unrepelled. In which happy estate that this our Realm of England at this present is, 
The happy estate of England, under 〈◊〉 Elizabeth.  and hath also continued even from the first beginning of this our most noble and gracious Queen's majesties reign: All true and faithful English hearts to their great joy must needs acknowledge, yeldinge to God the only Author thereof, most manifoulde and hearty thanks for the same: most humbly besechinge his eternal goodness long to preserve her excellent majesty to rule over us: whose most noble reign being not only most happy through the lightsome shining of gods most holy word, the zealous setting forth thereof, and prosperous success of the same: but also fortunate and blessed, as well with great abundance and plenty of all kinds of fruits of the earth, as the continual quiet and safe enjoyinge of them, may be to all good English men a sure & evidence token of God's high favour and especial grace declared over this Realm: and to all the world a spectacle of most wise and politic government. Whereas contrariwise it is not unknown how that a great part of the world nigh unto us, hath these years late passed, either been cruelly afflicted with grievous wars, or not altogether free and clear from great vexations & trouble's. And although some of la●e here in this Realm hath go about by rebellion to impair this state: 
Rebellion never prospered  yet as neither they which have attempted such enterprises in former times have been known or hard tell of at any time to have prevailed: so neither these, nor whosoever hereafter willbe so mad to tread in such like steps, can escape either like success as they have had, or rather worse, to speak more truly, which they seem justly to have deserved. seeing therefore that the good pleasure and providence of God hath so prepared for us, and bestowed upon us such a peerless Prince, so noble and worthy counsellors, that except men will be wilfully blind, they all may see with their eyes the goodness of their government: let all us Englishem●n as true and faithful subjects apply ourselves by all means possible to obey her majesty▪ to keep her laws, to be ready always at her commandment. Who ceaseth not to provide, foresee, and care for our safeguard, wealth and quietness, as well in time of peace as in war. Which things partly I touched before, and now occasion serveth to speak more of the same again. For although the one seem more to be wished for then the other, yet be they both, by the will & pleasure of God, left in the hands of princes to be used as time and other cyrcumstances shall require. And for that Pax, 
Pax derived A paction.  seemeth to be derived a Pactione, as some do writ: what time as Princes have agreed and concluded of good and wholesome conditions of peace, so long doth the league of peace endure, as such conditions are well observed & kept: but if the same be one's violate and broken, then commonly do wars ensue: which although they seem never so troublesome and full of danger, yet must they needs be taken in hand, not only with strength and manhood, but also with skill and policy. For as after calm & pleasant weather when suddenly a tempestuous storm doth rise, 
Peace resembled to fair weather, w●● to foul weather.  then by proof doth appear what the governor of the ship is able to do: if he lack skill & knowledge, the ship and all therein is like to perish: if he be cunning and expert, he may deliver it from shipwreck: even so when after long continual peace, grievous wars do fortune, then do valiant Captains show their worthy manhood, not with hardiness alone but with policy and knowledge. Seeing therefore that as fair weather many times is altered with storms and tempest, so peace oftentimes is changed with wars: what thing can be more expedient & necessary to the common wealth, then to have in readiness, politic and valiant Captains, expert and manly soldiers? which with their skilful experience and tried knowledge, may in dangerous times of wars do high service to God, their Prince, and their country, while they fight not only for their own lives, their wives and children, but also for the common liberty and wealth of all, the honour of their Prince, the defence and safeguard of the whole estate.  
For which intent and purpose the reading not only of the best historical writers both in Greek and latin, 
The reading of histories & other writers of War not v●●eete for Captains.  wherein most noble acts of famous Captains are lively set forth as notable examples to be followed: but also of such worthy Authors as have with great study & travail, gathered out of the best histories the chiefest points and devices of wars: and being dispersed far abroad in many divers and sundry books, have brought the same into a certain form and knowledge of the feats of arms: may seem to all men of war, and namely to such, to whom the charge of great multitudes oftentimes is committed, neither unworthy the reading, nor altogether unprofitable. Wherein in mine opinion this our Author Flavius Vegetius obtaineth the chiefest praise: 
Uegetius the chiefest writer of war.  who being commanded by Valentinianus Augustus, to put in writing the practices and devices of Martial policy, hath framed & compact together such a work, which he calleth Institutions, that it may be accounted, as it were a very method or most ready & compendious way to the right knowledge and science of the feats of war. And although the wars in these our days seem much unlike to the Roman wars before Vegetius time, 
An objection answered.  by reason of a great number of engines and other feats then used, whereof now many are out of use, and many more now invented which then were unknown: yet may this work appear not altogether unworthy to be known of our men of war, wherein as it were in a glass they may most clearelye see, not only how that the Romans through such skill and knowledge, and continual exercise thereof as is herein declared, have vanquished and overcome so many barbarous and strange Nations, subdued so many provinces, and become Lords and rulers of the most part of the world: but also may gather and choose out the best a and chiefest points of all their knowledge, which nevertheless may be used so far forth as shall seem expedient, 
The conten●es of the four books of U●getius.  and as occasion may serve & time require. Wherefore whereas the whole work of Vegetiu● is divided into four Books, I think it not unmeet to show briefelye what is chiefly entreated in every one of the same.  
In the first book he setteth forth two things principally. 
The. 1. book  First the mustering, chosinge, and appointing of young soldiers: where in he requireth of the choosers, most faithful and painful diligence, that they do cyrcumspectly consider and view, not only the countries and places where they were bread and brought up, their age, their staure, their behaviour, the good making & proportion of their bodies, the quickens of their eyes and countenance: but also the trades and sciences wherein they have been most occupied & used, their strength, swiftness, nimbleness & activitye: by which likelihoods and tokens it might well appear which would be most meet for so great a work. And in the well choosing of these doth consist the chiefest hope, not only for the strength of the army, but also for acchieving the victory.  
Secondly he setteth forth the trayninge up of the young soldiers well choose, 
An army in latin called Exercitus ab Exercitio.  with daily use and exercise: whereupon it came to pass that an army in latin was called Exercitus, to the intent it should be ever in labour & practise, and never forget to what end it was so named.  
Wherein he first showeth that they must learn and exercise to march in battle ray, to run, to leap, to swim, to strike handsomely, cunningly to use all kind of weapons, to shoot, to cast darts, to cast stones with slinges, or with hand, to mount on horses, to carry weight, to fortefye the Camp, to cast and scour trenches, with other kinds of exercises to long here at this time to be recited.  
In the second book he divideth the feats of war into certain kinds, 
The .2. book  he describeth the parts of an army, which among divers nations were diversly named: but the Romans called them Legions, Ab eligendo, 
Legio ab eligendo.  which word he saith requireth their faith and diligence, by whom the soldiers are to be allowed or refused. He showeth how many cohortes or bands of soldiers should be in one Legion, how many or how few Legions the Romans used to lead in one army, he setteth forth the names and degrees of the principal men of the host, he declareth the offices of all the Captains and governors, the lieutenant, the martial, the Centurions, peticaptaines, and all other rulers and officers of the whole army: he describeth the troops of the horsemen, and as well the names, as the offices of the Captains of every band. Many other things also he toucheth concerning the Standards, banners, ensigns and flags, yea and the offices of the Trumpeters, by whose sound it is known when the soldiers should set forward to any work, when they should fight or stay, when they should follow the chase, or when they should retire. Thus with many other notable things to be known, and partly with a vehement exhortation to the diligent exercise of the feats of war, and partly with a brief rehearsal of certain tools and engines, used to be carried with the army, he concludeth the second book.  
In the third he teacheth how an army well appointed and instructed, 
The 3. book  as is aforesaid, may now be brought to the field and join with the adversaries. But first he sheeweth how the health of the host should be preserved: what regard should be had that grain forage and victuals should be provided for and kept: how the chief Captains should keep the soldiers in quiet from sedition and uproar: how warelye and cyrcumspectlye the army should be led, when at any time it removeth: how to pass rivers, and other dangerous places. How great consideration ought to be whether they should fight in skirmish, or set battle? the chief Captains great carefulness before they join battle, in trying the courage of his soldiers, in chosinge ameete place for to fight in, in setting them in such order and array that they be not easily overcome. Which things for that they cannot be comprehended in few words, and the Author discourseth of them at large in many Chapters, I refer the Readers to the self same Author, who doth so perfectly set forth such notable devices and policies, such skilfulnes and knowledge, such providence & warenes, as aught to be in such a man, to whom the worthy honours of so great power and authority are ascribed, that unto his fidelity, virtue, and manhood (that I may here use the very words of Vegetius) the defence of Cities, the lives of the soldiers, the renown of the common wealth, may safely be committed. After these, he declareth certain general rules of war, and so endeth his third book.  
In the fourth book he treateth of the besieging and defending of Cities: 
The 4. book  wherein he first speaketh of the building and fortefyinge of the same: and what foresight should be if a City be besieged, that it suffer not famine: what policy may be used, if water, salt, strings, or cords and such like should fail in the City. He rehearseth also a number of engines and much ordinance used in those days in the besieging of Cities: the description whereof who so list to know more at large, let him read the tenth and eleventh book of Robertus Valturius. Also he giveth certain precepts and rules of wars upon the sea: in which he showeth what kind of ships were most necessary and commodious for the purpose: and how dilligentlye the same were made: in what months and seasons of the year timber should be felled: he nameth and numbereth the winds: he showeth when it is good to sail, & when not: he speaketh of certain signs and tokens, whereby mariners may foreknow fair weather or foul, calm or tempest: then describing certain armour and ordinance for ships, he briefelye teacheth how to lie in wait, and also how to join open battle on the sea: and thus endeth he his fourth and last book of the institutions of war. In all which work briefelye and plainly is contained, not only (as I said before) a method or compendious way, but also a perfect knowledge and art of war: to the which if painful diligence and experience be joined, 
Experience joined with knowledge, bringeth great things to pass.  what let should be, but that no less worthiness ●ud excellency appear in warriors of these our days, then hath been found in the most famous Captains before our time: to the which not experience alone brought them, but diligente learning and studying of the feats of war, written and set forth both by historical writers & Poets, a●d by such also as this our present Author Vegetius is. Innumerable examples might be here recited, but passing over all the residue for shortness of time, two of the chiefest may suffice. 
Alexander the great.  Alexander the great, who in short space subdued the greatest part of the world, had always the Poet Homer laid under his beds head, in whom he might behold the office as well of excellent Princes, as of most worthy Captains.  
julius Caesar, 
C. julius Caesar.  how greatly he was geeven to this kind of study, it doth most evidently appear by such notable books as he hath written and entitled Commentaries. And surely in mine opinion, it seemeth a far better and shorter way to attain to the name of a worthy and perfect Captain to join experience unto knowledge, 
Better to join experience to knowledge, then to get knowledge by experience.  then to get knowledge by experience. For man's life being short and subject to many casualtyes, oftentimees is cut of before it can come to any such perfection as is required in an excellent man of war: whereas small experience with diligente reading and perfect learning of feats of ware, may frame and make many politic Captains in a shorter space. I do not mean that knowledge without experience, can do any great thing at all: but being joined both together, doubtless they may be as able to bring to pass as great and marvelous things in valiant men in these our days, as they have been in many noble men before our time, as namely in those most worthy and famous conquerors, whom partly for brevities sake, partly for honour's sake I mentioned before: whereof Alexander the great (as justine and others do witness) never fought with any enemies, whom he did not vanquish and overcome: and how julius Caesar did prevail, his histories do declare, who being much inferior in number to his enemies, was so skilful and expert in the ordering of his battles, 
The not●●●● skilfulnes of julius Caesar.  that as it were before throughly assured, he would foretell to his men, even in this band (naming and pointing out the same) shall consist the victory: which should afterward even so come to pass as you may read in the greatest and last conflict between him and Pompeie, besides other places in the third book of the Roman civil wars.  
Presupposinge that I have said sufficiently for the exhorting of thee gentle Reader to the overlookinge of this book: as well for the necessary matter therein contained, as for causes by occasion chauncinge from time to time, whereby the same matter may need to be practsed: with hope of thy good pardon for any my faults whatsoever, as thou mayest seem rather to encourage then discourage me: I commit thee to Almighty GOD, and to the reading of my Author Flavius Vegetius, rudely, yet profitably hereafter speaking in English.  
Farewell.   

Christopheri Carlili Saphphica.  

ARte qui quavis patriam tuetur,  
In domo diuûm locus est paratus:  
Id facit Sadler: patet ergo coeli  
Porta supremi.   

Nonne constanter patriam tuetur?  
Qui modos tradit quibus amoventur  
Hostium fraudes, furiae rebelles,  
Insidiaeque?   

Scire vis turmas equitum locare?  
Copias crebras peditum? legantur  
Quae dat interpres Vegetj lat●●i  
Ore Britanno.   

Scire vis quid sit manus, atque turma?  
Quid cohors, alae, legio, balista?  
Quidque sit quincunx, aries, duelli  
Cornua bina?   

Scire vis qui sit locus atque tempus?  
Machinae martis? celeres biremes?  
Classium portus? sonitus tubarum  
Palladis arma?   

Bellicum quid sit? lituus sonorus?  
Tela bellonae? docetid polita  
Arte Sadlerus: facit, ut regustet  
Angla inventus▪   

Anglicae pubi dedit haee legenda  
Cura Sadleri: monumenta sunto  
Digna, quae cedro simul ac cupresso  
Perpetuentur.    

Thomas Dranta  
BElla virosque canit Sadlerus tempora belli,  
Castra acies fossas, spicula, tela, duces.  
Perbellè facit is, bellum qui rite repandit:  
Aurea per bellum pax solet essere dux.  
Edocuit bellum, bellum Deus ipse probavit:  
Si bellum, belli tunc probatilli librum.  
Sic Sadlere tibi multum pax bellaque debent:  
Sic Deus & librum, te probat atque tuum.   

Thomas Drante  
To writ of peace is good, to write of war is gay  
and good, for God himself taught David's hands to fray▪  
war faughten right is good, such war doth Sadler tell  
the fact he doth is right, the work he wrytes is well.   

In I. Sadlerum eiusque versionem Gulielmus jacobus.  

DVra quod ut nuper, nunc non sint scripta Veget●,  
Dic cuius studio, cuius & ingenio?  
Dic mihi quis castris Anglus, quis tantus in armis?  
Sic quis ad arma vocet, sic sua crastra locet?  
Dic quis tam doctus sic explicat omnia doctè,  
Sic aptè loquitur, sic sua bella parat?  
Denique dic quis sit sapienter tempore in isto  
Adfert qui patriae commoda tanta suae?   

unus is èmultis, vel dicam, ex omnibus unus,  
Qui facit ut durum hoc non videatur opus:  
Qui dedit effigiem belli quasi clarus in armis,  
Bella paransisto commodiora modo:  
Qui docte scripsit, posuit nec quid nisi rectè:  
Qui prudens isto tempore bella parat:  
Est is Sadlerus qui sic sentitque sapitque:  
Hec fiunt studio cuius & ingenio.    

In Vegetium quem I.S. Anglicè loquentem fecit.  
Gulielmi Charci carmen.  
CAstra quid & campi possint, virtusque dolusque,  
Scripsit Vegetius: nobile Martis opus.  
Quas habeant artes terrestria praelia, scripsit,  
Et quae Neptuni bella geruntur aquis.  
Quas teneant equites classes, peditesque phalanges  
Et qui cui turmae fortior ordo siet:  
Vt celeres alae possint volitare per agros,  
ut possis cuneos hostibus incutere:  
Vt formas formae superent, utque hostibus hostes  
Fortius occurrant, agminaque agminibus:  
Haec eadem Martis, magna ornamenta, potentis:  
Aptum opus & gratum, terra Britanna tibi:  
Sadlerus sermone dedit cultuque Britanno.  
Vtere, nam rebus maximus usus inest.   

William Bulleyne  

THe fruits of fearful war, each wight may plainly know:  
It is the rod from God above, to us that devil below.  
A blessing rich it is in deed, where God doth win the field:  
Or else a triple plague (God wot) to use the sword or shield.  
By war most lands & Cities great were won and still do stand:  
By war navies and galleys swift have gained many a land.  
Even so great forts and walled towns by wars overthrown:  
Sometime (again) the navies great in storms are overblown.  
And captives great in bondage led, which never back returns  
And bloody corpses in street lie dead: the fire consumes & burns.  
The buildings fair, and antiques old: in bed the child is slain:  
The Temples huge are cast a down: nothing doth else remain,  
But hunger plague, & bloody wounds, the mother her child doth ea●e:  
Dung is dainty to hungry slaves, when they do die for meat.  
Why then fear God, love well your Prince, esteem the man of war:  
For they do guard each common wealth, & chase thy enemy far.  
give peace good God in these our days, for thou dost for us fight  
Preserve the Church, defend the Queen, and people day and night.  
And Sadler then for his reward d●e praises let him have:  
Take in good part his diligence, else nothing doth he crave,   

The Prince to chief rule,  
The Preacher to the word:  
The Lawyer to the skroule,  
The Soldier to the sword.  
The Merchant to the purse,  
The thrasher to the flail,  
The sheapehearde to the flock:  
The mariner to the sail.    

john Higgins.  
AS war hath won eternal fame, & found a lasting praise,  
As war hath kingdoms great preserved, & kept them from decays  
So sure the Feats of war do pass, which if thou canst attain:  
Shall 'cause the win the field, and live, to see thy enemies slain.  
This Saddler by translating of, Vegetius shows so well:  
That thou by practice mayest attain, and therein soon excel.  
Four books there are, the first doth teach, to muster and to choose;  
And after choice what exercise, to practise learn and use.  
The next declares how wyghtye war, divided is in parts,  
How legions, wings, & armies stands, and teacheth each their arts.  
The third of good provision shows, & how the armies knit:  
Which way to skirmish fight & frame, your force with wiles of wit.  
The last doth teach how Cities may, prepare for their defence:  
And tells what engines erst were used to drive the enemies thence,  
Likewise what ships on sourginge seas, in time of war do well:  
By Sea what wiles & weapons cause, the soldier to excel.  
In such a sort are these so pend, by Saddler's painful skill:  
Vegetius teacheth Englishmen the Feats of war at will,  
And learns himself a language strange, he erst ne wist before,  
Thus he by Sadler taught, of war doth teach and learneth more.   

Sadleri carmen ad praecedentia.  

CVius hae laudes nisi Brudenelli?  
M●litis clari, atque equitis Britanni?  
Cuique, si quid sit, meritò putetur  
Maius honore?   

Quicquid huius sit studi●, laboris:  
Huius hortatu patriae tributum:  
una causa, & fons fuit iste primus,  
Solus & author.   

Si tamen verum volumus fateri:  
Nemo, preterquàm Deus ipse solus  
Dignus est, sic cui tribuenda laus sit,  
Omnis honorque.    

The same.  

To whom are all these praises due, and more than these, by right?  
but to sir Edmonde Brudenell that worthy English knight?   

Whatsoever fruit may by this work redound unto this land,  
at his request the same was done, and taken first in hand.   

But if the truth we will confess: no man, but God in throne,  
is meet, to whom all laud and praise aught to be given, alone.    

A COMPENDIOUS treatise of the Institutions, of war, written by Flavius Vegetius, a famous Author, unto Valentinianus Augustus, gathered out of the Commentaries of Cato, Celsus, Traianus, Hadrianus, and Frontinus.  

The Prologue of the first Book.  
THe manner hath been of old time to writ the studies of good sciences, & the same orderly brought into books, to dedicated unto Princes. Because neither any thing is well begun, except the chief Prince after God shall like well thereof: neither doth it become any man to know either better things, or more things than the Prince, whose knowledge may be profitable to all his subjects. Which knowledge that Octavius Augustus and other good Princes after him, willingly have had and practised, it is declared by manifold examples. By that means through the testimony of rulers, hath eloquence increased, and yet adventure been by no means blamed. Being compelled by this imitation, when I consider that your clemency, more than others, may pardon the bold enterprises of learning: I have not greatly perceived myself to be so much inferior to the old writers, (although in this work, neither elegancy of words, nor sharpness of wit is necessary, but diligent and faithful labour) that those things which being scattered and darckelye written by divers Historiographers, & such as teach the school of arms, hid and unknown, may of me be set forth openly for the commodity of the Romans. Therefore as touching the choysing and training of young soldiers, I do mean by certain degrees and titles to represent the ancient manner: not that these things may seem unknown to you, most puisante Emperor, but to prove that the first beginners of the Roman Empire, have heretofore observed, what thitges you at this time for the safety of the common wealth do willingly practise: & to show you how to find out of this little book for all most waightye and necessary affairs, whatsoever may appear at all times most requisite.   

That the Romans, through the only exercise of arms have overcome all Nations. The first Chapter.  
IN any manner of war, not so much in the great number of men & manhood without skill, as in knowledge and practice, doth consist the victory. For why we see that by no other means the Romans have subdued the whole world unto them, but by exercise of arms, the exact knowledge of encamping, and use of war. How could else the Romans being but a few, have prevailed against the Frenchemen being so many in number? How dared else the said Romans being of so small stature, have adventured against the Germans being so high and tall? It is very evident that the Spaniards not only in multitude, but also in strength of body, have excelled our men. With the Aphricans in subtlety and riches, we were never comparable. No man at any time hath doubted, but in sciences & wisdom, the Greeks have far passed us. But always we found it profitable to those an active and wise soldier, to teach him, if I may so term it, the law of arms, to confirm his knowledge by daily exercise, to make him understand by training him at home, such things as may befall in battle abroad: and sharply to take punishment of the dull and slothful soldier. For the knowledge of war maketh men more bold to fight. No man fears at any time to do that which he persuadeth himself he hath thoroughly learned. Surely in battle a small number well practised, sooner getteth the victory, than a rude and unskilful multitude, always in danger of slaying.   

¶ Out of what countries a young soldier should be choose. Chapter two  
THe order of things for our purpose doth require, that in the first part we entreat, out of what provinces or countries young soldiers should be choose. For it is most sure and evident, that in all places both cowards and hardy men be bred. But yet, because one nations doth excel an other in war, and the climate of the heaven doth very much avail, not only to strengthen the body, but also the mind, for in this place what is of the best learned men most approved & allowed, I mean not to pretermit. They say that all nations which be nigh to the Sun, parched & dried with over much heat, have more wit in deed, but yet less blood within them. And for that cause, they dare not manfully & boldly stand to it when they fight, well knowing how little blood they have, & fear much therefore wounding. contrariwise, the people of the North, whom the Sun burneth not so near, being more rash and unadvised, yet a great deal better blooded, are most ready of all, & desirous of war Out of the more temperate costs than should soldiers be choose, which both may have blood enough, and so not force neither for hurting nor kill: & have wisdom also sufficient, whereby wisely to keep a moderate mean & advisedly by circumspect council, to prevail in their fighting.   

¶ Whether out of the country, or out of the city, young soldiers may be taken most conveniently. Chapter three  
IT followeth that we know, whether out of the country or out of the city, a young soldier may be choose more convenient. As concerning which part none, I think ever doubted, but the common rude sort always was fittest for the wars: which is brought up abroad, & useth to take pain, that can abide sun burning, that passeth not for the shade, that never knew what baths meant, ignorant of delicatenes, simple of mind, content with a little, hardened in every part to abide & bear labour. Howbeit, sometime necessity so constraineth, that even out of cities they be forced to the war. Such therefore when they are once made sworn soldiers, let them learn to toil & travel, to run to & fro, to carry burdens, to abide the sun & dust. Let them far hardly & homely, let them sometimes be occupied abroad, sometimes in their tents: then at the length let them be taught to use their armour. And if the army shall sojourn long abroad, they must be kept hard to their task, & held far from all allurements of the city, that by this means both the strength of their bodies and minds may increase. Neither is it to be denied after the city was builded, that the Romans went al●ayes out of the same unto war. But than were they not weakened with pleasures of the body & deliciousnes. The sweat which was got in running and other exercise of Campus Martius, the youth washed it away with swimming in the river Tiber. The warrior & husbandman, were all one, only they differed in kind of armour. Which thing is altogether so true, that it is most true, how that unto Quintius Cincinnatus, as he was at plough, the greatest authority amongst the Romans in time of war, the office Dictatura, was offered and given. Out of the country therefore the force of the army seemeth chief to be supplied. For it comes to pass, I can not tell how, that he less fears death which hath tasted lest pleasure and delicious●es in his life.   

¶ Of what age those young soldiers should be, which should be thought allowable. Chapter four  
Now let us search of what age it is convenient that we chose our soldiers. verily if we will observe old custom, so soon as they grow any thing toward man's state, about fourteen and sixteen years, every man will grant, they should appear at the m●ster, for not only more speedily, but also more perfectly all things are learned which we learn in our young tyme. Besides, agility and activity, fit for war, as leaning & running, must be tried and put in ure before the body be enfeebled by age: for it is readiness got by former practice that maketh a good soldier. The younger sort must be choose as says Sallust, for no sooner were young men able to away with war, as they learned usually and painfully in the camp, the practice of the same. And it is better that a young man exercised should allege that all his age to fight is not yet come, then that he should truly lament that the same were already passed. Let him also have space and time to learn every point thereof. For whether you will make a good horse man, a good footman, a good archer, or teach a man at arms all his numbers, places, and gestures: that he forsake not his standing, that he break not array: to cast his dart with good aim and strength, cunningly to entrench and drive his stakes, to weld his terget well, to award onerthwarte strokes, warily to avoid blows, and boldly to strike his enemy: It seemeth no small nor light point of war. A soldier in this sort instructed, shall not be afraid but take pleasure to fight with what so ever enemy in the field.   

¶ Of what stature young soldiers should be choose. Chapter .v.  
Marius' Consul of Rome, I know, always chose young soldiers of tall stature, so that he would allow none for horsemen in the wings and front of his battle, but such as were six foot high, or five & ten inches at the lest. But than was there more plenty of people, & more that followed the war. For as yet had not civil dissension spent away the flourishing youth of the city. Therefore if need so require, it is meet to have regard more of strength then of stature, and that we are not herein deceived, we have Homer for witness, who declareth that Tideus was but small of person, but yet of good courage and stomach.   

¶ To know by the countenance and making of the body which soldiers are like to prove good. Chapter uj  
HE that will go about to muster men, must be very careful that by the continuance, by the eyes, by the sure compacting and joining of the limbs, he chose them which may be able to perform the part and duty of soldiers. For not only in men, but also in horses and in dogs, the chiefest power is signified by many tokens, as the best learned men have declared in their writings, and as also the Poet Virgil speaking of Bees, thus noteth to be observed.  
Of bees two sorts there are, but yet the better sure is he,  
With seemly coat that seemeth so of golden hew to be:  
The other gross and full of sloth, deserves no praise we see.  
Let the young man therefore that shallbe a soldier, not look drowsely, let him be straight necked, broad breasted, let his shoulders be well flesh, let him have strong fingers, long arms, a gaunte belly, slender legs, the calf and feet not to full of flesh, but knit fast with hard and strong sinews. Finding these tokens in a soldier, you need not greatly complain for want of tall stature. For more requisite it is that soldiers be strong and valiant, then huge and great.   

¶ What sciences young soldiers should be skilful in, which should be either choose or refused. Chapter vij  
IT followeth diligently to be known what sciences young soldiers should have learned, that are either to be admitted or utterly refused. I suppose that fishers, fowlers, Pasterours, linen weavers, and whosoever that dealeth with any thing that betokeneth a womanishe niceness, should be utterly banished the camp. Smiths, Carpenters, Butchers, Hunters of the heart and wild boars, may most conveniently be called to war. And herein consists the safety of the whole common wealth, that we choose our soldiers, not so much for goodly body as for manly courage of mind. The strength of the realm, and the name of the Romans lieth in the first examining of th' the soldiers that are choose. And let none think this a small office, and everywhere to be committed to every one, which of divers virtues that Sertorius had, was thought of the old Romans to be chiefest, and most commendable for youth▪ unto whom the defence of countries, and fortune of war is to be committed, aught to come of a good stock if it may be, and also be well conditioned. Because honesty maketh a meet and able soldier: for whilst they dare not fly for shame, they thereby get the victory. To what use should we train and bring up a coward, to let him remain in the camp and spend wages upon him? Never Sped that army well in battle, whereof, he that took the muster, was any thing negligent in allowing the soldiers. And for as much as use teacheth, and we find by experience, hereof proceed every where so many discomfitures and damage by the enemy: whiles to long peace causeth us make so negligent and careless choice of our soldiers, whiles the honest are suffered to follow the citizens trade, whiles young soldier loath to leave their masters, dissemble the matter that they be favoured and born withal, whiles such fellows are made out as their masters are weary of, and therefore willingly forego them. Circumspect men for this cause with as circumspect diligence must of this younger sort chose both meet and able persons.   

¶ Wha● time young soldiers should be registered and bylled. Chapter eight  
FOr all this, notwithstanding, upon these foresaid tokens, a young soldier may not by and by be bylled or pressed, but we m●st first see by exercising him what he can do, that we may know certainly whether he be a meet fellow for so great a purpose. It is necessary that he be ready and strong, we must understand whether he can perfectly learn the knowledge and feats of arms, and whether he hath a good soldiers stomach or no. For a great sort although by sight they seam alloweable, yet when they come to be tried, they are untolerable. The less worthy therefore must be left, and the worthier succeed them, and be placed in their room. In every conflict the multitude availeth nothing so much as manhood Let the young soldiers therefore after they are bylled, by continual exercise learn the feats of arms. But a presumption of long security, hath brought these things out of use. Whom shall a man find that is able to teach that which he himself hath not before learned? out of histories then or other authors, we must learn again that old lesson. Yea, but they seam to have written the noble acts and success only of wars, leaving these which we now doubt of, as things thoroughly and sufficiently known. The Lacedæmonians, Athenians, and other of the Greeks, have written many things in their books, which in their to 〈◊〉 are called Taktika, that is to say, ordinary matters pertaining to war. But we must search out the martial policy of the people of Rome, who, of small bounds have enlarged their dominion, well nigh to the regions of the Sun, & extended the same near to the worlds end. This necessity compelled me to overlook many authors, and in this present work most faithfully to set forth what things Cato Censorius hath written of war: what Cornelius Celsus, and what Frontinus hath briefly comprehended, and what Paternus, the most diligent maintainer of the law of arms, hath orderly put in writing. All which things are provided for by Augustus, Traianus, and Adrianus constitutions. I challenge no manner authority to myself, but gathering of the forenamed, what things have been dispersed, make of them as it were abridgementes called Epitomes.   

¶ That young soldiers be exercised in marching, running, and leaping. Chapter ix  
THe first and principal thing that a soldier must be doing withal, is to learn how to march well. For there is nothing in journeying or in battle more to be observed, then that all the soldiers do keep their array, which can not well be done but by walking oft apace, and just and even one with another. For a confused and disordered army, standeth oft in great peril & danger of the enemy. Therefore in five hours, a soldier must be able to go twenty miles in summer. But going a full pace, which is swifter, in as many hours he must be able to rid xxiiii miles. A more speedy pace then this, is plain running. The space where of cannot be justly limited. The younger sort must chief use to run, that with greater violence they may set upon their enemies, that with more haste when need is, they may take the more commodious places, or prevent their enemies if they would do the like: that, being made out for scouts, they may more cheerfully go forward, more readily return & more easily overtake their enemies when they fly. To leaping also the soldier must be used, for jumping of ditches, for passing deep places, which else might hinder them: that when such kind of difficulties happen, they may go over without any manner of trouble. Moreover, in the encounter & joining of battle, when a warrior setteth forward running and ●eaping, he dazzles his enemy's eyes, and puts him in marvelous fear, and suddenly striketh him ere he can be ready to resist, or by any means able to defend himself. And as touching the exercise of Pompey the great, Saluste in this wise seemeth to make mention. With the lightest in leaping, with the swiftest in running, with the strongest he strove in casting the bar. For he could not otherwise possible have matched Sertorius, except he had with often and sundry exercises prepared thus himself and his soldiers for the battle.   

¶ What young soldiers should use to swim. Chapter ten  
IN summer every young soldier with his fellows, should exercise swymming. For they shall not ever have bridges ready to pass over rivers withal, and when an army retireth or hath his enemies in chase, it is oftentimes constrained to swim. Sudden showers or great snows, make the waters break out, and by ignorance herein, soldiers are subject to danger, not only on behalf of the enemy, but also for drowning and perishing themselves. Therefore the ancient Romans, which by so many wars and continual perils, came to be excellent in all war matters, those the field Campus Mar●●us, hard by the river Tiber, that in the same when they had left exercising their weapons they might wash of clean 〈◊〉 the sweat and dust. And when they were weary with running refreshed themselves with swymming. And it is very necessary that not alone the footmen be able to swim, but also the horses themselves, yea, and the pages which they call Galeareos, that is to say head piece bearers, lest the unskilful miscarry when necessity shall approach.   

¶ How warriors afore time caused their soldiers to use for exercise wicker tergettes, and cudgels at a stake or post. Chapter xj  
Ancient men as we find in books, trained up young soldiers after this manner. They did writhe and make of twigs hurdlewise, round tergettes twice as heavy as a common terget. And the same old captains moreover, gave the soldiers instead of sword, great wooden cowgels as heavy again as their usual and wont wasters. And thus both in the morning and at after noon▪ the young soldiers were occupied at an exercise called the stake. And this use of the stake, is not only necessary for soldiers, but also for masters of sense. Neither was any ever thought either in the place of exercise, or in the field, a tried and valiant fellow, that had not been very well exercised at the stake. And for every soldier was there a stake driven into the ground, so fast, that it might not stir: and so deep, that it might be six foot above the ground Against this stake, as against the enemy, the young soldier did advance himself with his wicker and his waster, as with a sword & a buckeler. Sometime he struck alone as it were at the head or at the face, sometime he made at the ●yre, sometime below at the legs, sometime he would give bark, sometime step in, sometime even leap at it, and as earnestly and artificially would he fight with the same stake, as if his enemy had been in place before him. In which 〈◊〉 of exercise, this was generally to be observed: that so the young soldier should strive to venne w● his enemy, that he himself in no part say open to any blow.   

¶ That young soldiers should be taught to foin and thrust, not to cut and strike down right. Chapter twelve  
FUrthermore, they did learn to prick, not to cut. For such as used to strike down blows, the Romans would easily overcome, and beside laugh at them, when they had done. A down struck come it never so violently, seldom killeth: by reason of armour and bones, that defend the vital parts. contrariwise, a sricke out two inches deep, dispatcheth a man: for running inward so, it must needs pierce the lively parts. Besides, when a man reacheth up to strike a down stroke, he lieth open, both of his arm and his side: but casting a prick, a man is ever warded, and the enemy hurt before the prick bespied. And certain it is that the Romans used chief to fight after this manner. Devising for this cause a wycker 〈◊〉 and a wooden waster twice again so heavy as was customable, that when the soldier should take in hand the wont and lighter weapons in deed, he might unburdened, as it were, fight both more easily, and also more cheerfully.   

¶ That young soldiers be taught cunningly to handle weapons. Chapter xiij  
Moreover, the young soldier must be perfectly instructed, cunningly to handle his weapon: which thing is set forth by them that teach the same in the fields, or other places of exercise, the which use yet in some part is kept For it is plain that even now, in all manner of battles, those that can best use and handle their weapons, do fight a great deal more conveniently than others. Wherein the difference may be perceived between a well practised soldier, and him that hath had little or no exercise: when as they that are but meanly this way instructed, far pass and go beyond their fellows in artificial and cunning fight. And so carefully did our ancestors observe this practised discipline, that they doubly rewarded the teachers thereof. And as for the soldiers which had but smally profited in this same practice, in stead of wheat were fain to take barley, and not one of them had ever any wheaten bread given him, till in the presence of the lieutenant, the captains and such as were chief, they had showed by sure proofs that they had fulfilled all things which were to be required in a good soldier. For there is nothing more sure, more happy, nor more commendable than such a common wealth, which hath plenty of expert and learned soldiers, It is not glistering and gay apparel, it is not plenty of gold, silver, & precious stones, that makes the enemies to stoop or seek for favour, but the only terror of weapons that subdueth them. Besides, in other things, as says Cato, if aught be done amiss, it may afterward be amended: but a fault committed in battle, is altogether past cure, when present punishment followeth by and by upon the oversight. For either they are forthwith slain which have cowardly or ignorantly fought, or else being once put to flight, they dare not ever after deal and encounter again with those that overcame them.   

¶ That young soldiers should use to cast darts and other shot. Chapter xiiij  
BUt I return to the same wherewith I begun. The young soldier which is exercised with the cudgel at the post, must at the same post caste darts, as it were at a man, but much more heavy must those darts be, than such as afterwards he shall by occasion use in deed. In which exercise, the teacher of this mastery, must take diligent heed, that every one whirl his spear strongly, that with good level he hit the post, or else go very near it. This exercise maketh a man strong in the arms, and very expert also in whurling and casting.   

¶ That young souldious should be diligently taught to shoot Chapter xu  
Almost the third or fourth part of young soldiers, such as were thought fittest to make archers, with wooden bows and arrows for the same, were wont for exercise to shoot also at the stake. For this purpose were there teachers choose, and cunning fellows in deed, diligently to take heed that the soldier held his bow well and cunningly as he should do, that he drew home and strongly, that his left hand were ever steadie, that he ruled his right hand well, that he eyed and minded the mark altogether at the which he would shoot: that whether he were on horseback or on foot, he endeavoured to shoot ever as strait as could be. Which art both had need to be learned diligently, and also with daily use to be kept continually. And how necessary and profitable good archers are in battle, Cato in his books of the knowledge of feats of war plainly declareth. And Claudius with archers well practised before, overcame that enemy, with whom till then, he was never able to deal. verily Scipio Aphricanus, when he should join battle with the Numantines, which had sometime subdued the army of the people of Rome, thought it was not else possible for him to get the victory, except he placed in every band a certain of choose archers.   

¶ The young soldiers should be used to cast stones with a slinge, or with the hand. Chapter xuj  
IT is convenient that the younger sort be diligently exercised in casting stones, either with hands, or with slinges. They, which first inhabited the Isles called Baleares, are reported to have first found out and devised the use of slinging, and so carefully beside to have exercised the same, that the mothers would suffer their little boys not to eat any meat, but that which they had strike and killed with a slinge. And oftentimes round stones thrown level out of a slinge or slingestaffe, against warriors fenced with helmettes, cors●ettes, and coats of plate, are more grievous than any kind of arrows: when as unto those parts which be whole and safe, they do bring a deadly wound: and without anoiance of blood, the enemy is forthwith slain with the stroke of the stone. Very well known it is that in all battles of the old ancient men, slingers have been allowed: and because to carry a slinge is no labour at all, every soldier therefore must often use this exercise. For sometime it falls out, that in stony places a skirmish may be had: that some high ground or hill, shall need defending: that with stones and slinges, the foreign enemies must be driven from the assault of towns and cities.   

¶ Of the exercise of leaden plummettes. Chapter xvij  
THe exercise also of leaden of plummettes, which they call Martiobarbulos, as who say weapons of Mars the God of battle, should be taught younger soldiers. For not long ago, in the Illirian sea, there were of late two legions to the numbered of six thousand, who, for that they handled these weapons manfully and skilfully, were called Martiobarbuli. By these for a long space it is certain that all wars were very valiantly ended. In so much that till Dioclesian and Maximian were Emperors, it was thought good that these aforesaid, for their prows and manhood, deserved worthily to be named Martiobarbuli, joviarii, and Herculiam, as who should say, the champions of Mars, jupiter and Hercules. And they by commandment were preferred before other legions, and their use was to carry five of these kinds of plummets within their tergettes: which if the soldiers could handsomely and conveniently cast, they that were armed with tergettes, seemed in a manner to do as good service as those they call archers. For they wound the enemies, and gall their horses, before they can come not only to fight hand to hand, but also to the stroke and danger of the dart.   

¶ How young soldiers should be exercised to vault or mount on horses. Chapter xviij  
NOt only of the young soldiers, but also of stipendarie soldiers, the vaulting of horses hath always been straightly looked to. Which use verily hath continued to this our age, although they would have it seem now as though it were not so▪ Horses of wood in winter were set in a house, in summer in the open field. Upon these the young sort were compelled to mount, at the first without armour, until with use and exercise, they could do indifferently well, afterward in their harness they were forced to do the same. And so great regard was there hereof, that they learned, not only on the right side, but also on the left, both to get of and on: yea, even with drawn sword, or long poles in their hands. And here was the commodity of this continual exercise, that these which in peace had plied this practice so diligently, when never so sudden a tumult was moved in battle, with the least warning that could be, could mount and horse themselves.   

¶ That young soldiers should use to carry weight and burdens. Chapter xix  
YOu should often force the young soldiers, to take up a three score pound weight, and to walk with the same a wont soldiers space. And needful is this for them whom need oft compelleth, in many a shrewd journey to carry victual and armour. Neither should this be thought a hard matter, if great need so require: for what can not daily exercise overcome and make at length very easy? That this foresaid kind of exercise, the soldiers of foretyme have used, the Poet Virgil witnesseth in these words.  
Like as the Roman fierce in arms like to his country guise,  
Which heavy burden on his back himself fast forward hyse,  
And ready on his foe unwares doth set in battle wise.   

¶ What kind of armour soldiers of old time were wont to use. Chapter twenty  
Now is here fit place to show with what kind of armour and weapons the young soldiers should be furnished & fenced. But in this point the old custom is utterly laid aside. For although horsemen in arms did good, as we have of the Gothians, Alanes and Huns for example, yet it is plain that the footmen were naked and unarmed. For after the city of Rome was builded, unto worthy Grecians time, the army of footmen was fenced both with coarselettes & head-pieces. But when the exercise of Campus Martius, by negligence & slothfulness, was given over and discontinued, armour begun to seam heavy, & was not worn oft of soldiers. Therefore first they made a petition to the Emperors, that they might wear no more coarselettes, afterward that they might lay away their helmettes. And so when they should go to fight against the Gothians, being naked of their breasts, & having nothing of their heads, they were oftentimes by the multitude of archers vanquished & overcome. And notwithstanding so many misfortunes which have happened even to the destructions of so mighty and great cities. No man hath regard as yet to restore again to the footmen, either their coarselettes or head-pieces: whereby it comes to pass that naked men in the forward in danger ever of wounding, have greater mind of flying than they have of fight. What can an archer on foot do without harness? without head piece? which can not hold his bow and buckeler both together? What shall the standard bearers do in battle, advancing the ensign with their left hand, & have nothing to save their heads or their breasts? Marry a footman perchance, which seldom doth exercise & handle his armour, will think a breastplate troublesome & heavy. Howbeit, by daily use he might well enough away withal, which, though it bear heavy things, yet never complaineth. But they, which will not take pain to carry ancient armour for their furniture, shall unfurnished bear the blows away, and catch their deaths wound. And that which is a greater grief, and more shameful to be spoken of, either become captive, or betray their common wealth by running away. So that eschewing exercise and labour, with the greatest shame that can be, they are slain like beasts. Wherefore was an host of footmen of our ancestors aforetyme called a wall? but because the legions, besides their tergettes armed with darts or other shot, made a goodly glistering show also with coarselettes and head-pieces: in so much that the archers were fenced on their left arms with splences or gauntelettes. Footmen that had tergettes besides their coarselettes and head pieces, were also constrained to harness their right legs. And thus were they armed which fought in the forefront of the battle, and were called Principes, as who say the first and foremost to perils. And they, in the second order, which were called Hastate, that is to say spear men: and they in the third order called Triarii, as who should say of the rear ward, ready in the third place to fight. But these Triarii were wont to stoop and keep them within the fence of their tergettes, least standing up they might be wounded with their enemies weapons, and that when need should require, having rested themselves so well, they might more vehemently assault and set upon their enemies. And certain it is that these often have got the victory, when the spearemen before them called Hastati, have been slain, The ancient warriors had also among their footmen, such as were called light harnessed men, as Slingers and other with light Armour, which chiefly were placed in the out sides or wings, by whom ever the unset was given▪ and these were of the swiftest and best exercised sort, neither were they very many, because in retiring if necessity constrained, they were succoured and received of those in the forefront, so that the whole battle stood still unbroken. There hath a custom continued almost to this our time, that all soldiers used caps made of skins, which soldiers they called Pannonicos, devised for this purpose, that the head piece should not seem heavy to any man in fight, which did bear always somewhat on his head. But the shot which the army on foot did use, were called Pila, fastened with thin iron to the forepart of a triangle of nine inches, or a foot long, which being fast in the Target could not be cute away, and being skilfully and valiantly directed, could easily break in sunder any harness: of the which kind there be very few weapons now among us. But the foreign barbarous footmen that have Shields or Tergettes, do chiefly use these Darts, which they call Bebras: and of them they have two or three a piece. Moreover we must know, that when the matter is tried with Darts, the soldiers must set their left feet before, for so in throwing their darts when they step in with their right leg, the stroke is much more vehement. But when the matter is come to the pintch (as they term it) and fight as it were at the half sword, them must their right feet be foremost, that their sides be from their enemies, lest they catch a wound, and that their right hand be ready to give a blow when need is. Therefore it is manifest, that young soldiers should be furnished and fenced, with all cunning and policy in fight, and with all manner of armour and weapons. For needs must he fight more boldly, that being safe of breast and head, stands not i● fear of wounding.   

¶ Of the fortifyinge of Camps. Chap. xxi.  
THe soldiers also aught to learn to fortify their Camps, for there is not a more safe, nor a more necessary thing in all war. For why, if the army be well planted, the soldiers so safe enbulwarked, void of all care pass over days and nights, yea even though their enemies besiege them, they are as safe as though they had a walled City on their backs. But the knowledge hereof, is utterly come to nothing: it is long ago, since that when any would pitch their Camps, they used to entrench them, and set stakes before them: so that we have known, when the foreign horsemen as well by day as night, have come of a sudden many armies, many times have been marvelously annoyed. But not only the fool hardy without the Camp suffer these things: but when as by any chance in the forebattell they begin to retire, they have not a defence of the Camp, where to save themselves, & so are killed up like dogs: and so long do they die, as their enemies please to pursue and chase them.   

¶ In what places the Camp should be pitched. Chap. xxij.  
THe Camp should always be placed, especially if the enemies be nigh, in a place out of danger, whereas may be plenty of wood, forage & water. And if there they be likely to lie long, a consideration must be had, for the holsomnes thereof. They must also take heed that there be no hill nigh, higher than the Camp, which if their enemies take, they may greatly annoy them. They must also consider whether the field where they would encamp, hath been wont at any time to be overflowed with sudden waters: which by the like chance might force the host to remove. According to the number of soldiers, and the carriages, the Camp must be fortified, least the greater multitude be crowned into small room, or lest the small number be constrained to stand a loufe one from another, and more scattering then is convenient.   

¶ In what form the Camp should stand. Chapter xxiij  
A Camp must be pitched sometime foursquare, sometime threesquare, sometime halferounde, as the quality or necessity of the place shall require. But the gate which is called Porta Praetoria, that is to say, the gate for the Captain, must be either Eastward, or else in such a place that is full before the enemy, or if they be iourneyinge, it must stand that way whether the army means to go. Hard within this gate the first hundreds, (that is to say) the chief bands or companies of soldiers do pitch their Pavilions and place their Standards.  
But the gate which is named Decumana, (that is say) the great gate or entry into the Camp is behind the Captains gate, out of the which such soldiers as offend, are led to take their punishment.   

¶ With what things a Camp should be fortified. Cap xxiiij  
divers ways a Camp may be fortified, & especial three ways, for if they be not driven to a marvelous pinch, they cut turfs out of the ground, & with them make a wall as it were a wall three foot high above the ground, so that where the turfs were digged, even just before it their be a ditch. Then in all haste must their be ● ditch made nine foot broad and seven. foot deep. But when enemies of great force are at haude: the Camp must be fenced round about which a very large ditch, so that it be by the line (as they call it) twelve foot broad, and nine foot deep. But after they have set hedges above the same every way with earth thrown out of the ditch, and cast upon the hedges it will be reared four foot high, and thus shall it be xiii foot deep, and twelve. foot broad, above the which, must be stakes of very tough wood well entered, which the soldiers are wont to carry. For the which purpose it is good to have always in readiness mattocks or spades, rakes, scuttels or baskets and other kind of implements.   

¶ How a camp should be fenced when the enemy is at hand. Chapter xxu  
IT is an easy thing to fortify a Camp, when enemies are far of, but if the enemies do come fast upon them, than all the horsemen and half the footmen, are set in battle ray, to break the brunt of the enemy: the residue behind them, when they have drawn the ditches, do fortify the camp, and by a crier is wont to be proclaimed what the first company hath done, what the second, what the third, what the fourth, until they have finished all the whole work. Then come the Captains to view and measure the ditch, and such as have wrought leaselye and slouthfullye are therefore punished. After this sort thenne the young soldier must be trained, that when need shall require he may by and by fortify the camp without trouble.   

¶ How the young soldiers may be trained, that in the battle they keep good order and their array, and space between one and an other. Chap. xxvi.  
IT is certain that there is nothing more profitable in fight, than that soldiers exercise daily themselves to go in battle in good order and array, neither running on heaps, nor scattering abroad more than is expedient. For truly when they are thick thronged together, they loose their space they should fight in, and every one every where letteth another: and when they stand thin that each may be seen how he stands, they show a way to the enemy to enter and go through the army.  
And thus if the enemy shall cut and part the army, & come to the backs of them that fight, very fear must needs bring all things out of order. Therefore the young soldiers must be brought forth always to the field, & as they are by name billed, they must be called to the battle: so that the battle be long right out at the first and single: that it be not hollow, that it be not crooked, that the soldiers stand, of like and convenient distance one from another: then they must be charged of a sudden to double the front: so that though they go as fast as even they are accustomed in the field, yet they may keep their array. thirdly commandment must be geeven, that forthwith they bring themselves into a quadrangle form. That done, they must turn them into a triangle (wedgewyse as they term it) that is to say, small before, thick and brother afterward. This good ordering of soldiers hath done very much good, & been profitable in war. They must also be warned to convey themselves into a round form, whereby when as violently the enemy doth break into the battle, the soldiers with this practice may be able to resist them, lest all the whole multitude be compelled to run away, and by that means grievous peril follow thereupon. If the younger sort can by daily exercise one's perceive these things, they shall a great deal more easily save themselves when they fight.   

¶ How much space the soldiers must go and come when they be brought forth to march: And how often they must be exercised in a month. Chapter. xxvij  
Moreover the custom hath been and remaineth still, and also is in the decrees of worthy Augustus, and Adrianus Emperors, it is provided in the same, that thrice in the month, as well horsemen as footmen, should be brought forth to march, (for so do they term this kind of exercise.) The footmen armed & furnished with all manner of weapons, were commanded to go and come the space of .10 miles from the Camp a marching pace, so that some part of the way they might run over merilye. The horsemen divided by troops in armour, likewise went even as long a journey, and as such on horseback are wont to do for exercise: Sometimes they followed, sometimes gave back, and forcinge their horses, ran them out upon the spur, not only in the plain fields, but also in places steep down, and very high both horsemen and footmen were caused to go up and down, so that hap what hap could to them in their fight, these practised soldiers had very well forelearned.   

¶ Of the persuasion to warfare, and of the manhood of the Romans. Chap. xxviii  
IN consideration of my faithful promise and vow (most puissant Emperor, I have gathered together into this little book, these things which I have choose out of all authors, which have written the science and Art of warfare: that in mustering and exercising of young soldiers, if any man would be dilligente, he may easily make a strong army: but following the ancient manhood that hath been in times past. For neither is all martial blood and stomach quite go and decayed in men, nor yet lands which brought forth the Lacedæmonians, the Athenians, Mar●ians, Samnites, Pelignes, yea & the very Romans themselves, be barren and unfruitful. Have not the people of Epirus, sometime prevailed very much in arms? Have not the Macedonians and Thessalians by war, conquering first the Persians', come as far as Indie? And it is manifest that the Danes, the people of Media and Thracia, have always been such stout warriors, the Mars himself is feigned to have been born among them. It were to long to reckon up the strength of all countries, when as they all consist in the Empire of the Romans. But great security and long peace hath made men partly delight in idleness, and partly in service at home in the common wealth. By such means therefore it is well known, that the care of warrelye exercise was at the first negligently handled, afterward dissembled, last of all brought into oblivion & quite forgotten. Neither let any man marvel that this hath chanced in the time late passed: when as after the first war between the Romans and the Carthagiens, when 24. years were come and go, peace so weakened the Romans through idleness and disuse of Armour, which before had been every where conquerors, that in the second war of Carthage, they were by no means comparable to Hannibal. After so many consuls lost: so many captains slain: so many armies cast away: finding a means to learn the use and exercise of warfare, they came at the length to be conquerors again. At all times therefore should young men be choose and exercised, for cheaper certain it is to instruct a man's own soldiers in arms, then to hire strangers for money.    

The second Book of Flavius Vegetius Renatus of the institutions of war.  

The Prologue.  
Continual conquests and triumphs, do declare that your Grace doth chiefly and most skilfully keep in remembrance the ancient ordinances of the elders, as touching the knowledge and feats of arms: For the effect of things is always the most certain proof of any science. But your rest and quietness (most victorious Emperor) doth require the old and ancient things out of Books, with a deeper judgement than any earthly mind is able to conceive: when as with new and fresh noble acts, it passeth antiquity itself. Being therefore commanded to comprehend briefelye in writing these things, not therein to teach or instruct your majesty, but only to put you in remembrance thereof: my due obedience and solemn promise hath oftentimes striven with shamefastness. For what greater boldness can there be, then to the Lord and Prince of the whole world, the vanquisher of all barbarous and foreign Nations, to writ of the knowledge and use of war: except peradventure you commanded that to be done, which you yourself had performed. And again, it seemed a very heinous and dangerous thing not to obey the commandments of so great and mighty an Emperor. Therefore in obeying I am become very bold, while for fear that in denying I should appear more bold. To the which rashness the long continuance of your accustomed and exceeding great clemency hath encouraged me. For of late I offered a little Book of the chusinge and trayninge up of young soldiers, as one of your own family, yet ●herein sustained no blame: and therefore fear I not at your commandment to adventure on a work, when as that which was voluntarily done, hath past unreprehended.   

Into how many kinds the Art of war may be divided. The first Chapter.  
WHat soever belongeth to war (as the singular and notable Author among the Latynes doth testify) consists of armour and men: Whatsoever partayneth to war, I say is divided into three parts, Horsemen, Footmen and navies. Of the horsemen one sort be called wings, because that like unto wings they defend the battle on both sides, which now be called Vexillationes, that is to say, companies of men of war all under one Standard, a Velo, because they do use banners or Ueiles, termed glistering flags or ensigns. There is another sort of horsemen which be named, Legionacij, because they be joined to the Legion: like to the which are devised another kind (& for their harness they were of their legs) called Ocreati.  
There be likewise two manner of navies, one which may be called Foystes or Galleys, and the other of ships. The horsemen keep the plains, the navies the seas and waters, the footmen the hills, Cities the champion grounds and also steep places. Whereby we see that the footmen are most necessary for the common wealth, doing good service every where. And whereof a greater number may be maintained with less cost and charge. An host of men is in latin Exercitus, of the very thing itself, and of the use of exercise hath therefore so proper a name given unto it, to the intent it should never forget what it was called. The footmen are divided into two parts, the one sort Legionaries, the other Aides: the Aides were sent from their part takers and confederate Nations. The Roman virtue doth far exceade all other in the ordering of their Legions. A legion hath the name Ab eligendo, which word of itself requireth their faith and diligence by whom the soldiers are allowed: For rescue & aid the lesser number, for legionary soldiers a much greater number hath ever customablye been appointed.   

¶ How the legionary soldiers and those that are sent for aid do differ. Cap. ij.  
THe Macedonians, the Greeks, the Trojans, did use those battles which they called Phalanges, about the number of .8000. men in a Phalange. The Frenchmen and Spaniards, and many barbarous Nations, used in battle such as they called Gaternas, wherein were 6000. harnessed men: the Romans have Legions, in the which are .6000 warriors or more. But what difference may seem to be between the Legions and Aids, I will plainly declare. Those which are sent for aids come from sundry places, for divers and sundry hire: neither in training, in knowledge, nor in disposition one like another, far unlike be their fashions, their use of their Armour clean of another sort. And needs must they be long of getting the victory, which before they come to fight differ thus after this sort. finally whereas expedition requireth, it is very expedient that all the soldiers at one only warning, should straight way turn themselves: then how can they do all a like that, which they are commanded, when they never kept any company altogether before: and yet these things solemnly used, often exercised, almost daily confirmed, profit not a little. The aids went always with the legionary soldiers, as light harnessed men in the forebattayle, rather for an help in fighting then a principal succour. But a Legion where is but one peculiar kind of soldiers, having in it complete harnessed men (that is to say) first and foremost Principes, then Hastati, the third Triarij or of the rerewarde, the Ensign bearers: then light harnessed men, as casters of ●artes, Archers, men with Slinges, Crossebowe men: having also in it m●n at Arms, and such as be annexed unto the Legion called legionary horsemen, and all these in one register: when as with one mind and one consent they ●ortifye the camp, order their army, and join battle together, being safe and sure on every side, needing no manner of outward help or aid.  
What multitude is so many, that such an army shall not conquer? As we are plainly taught by the great prowess of the Romans, which using Legions always in such sort aforesaid, overcame so many enemies as either willingly they would, or all things considered, they possible could.   

¶ The cause why Legions have been wasted and deminished. Chap. iij.  
THe name of Legions remaineth yet till this day, but through negligence of former times, the strength thereof is abated: for the ambition preventing manhood, hath got away his due reward: & soldiers now a days are promoted by favour, which never were promoted but only by labour. And again for this cause, that when we have paid a certain their wages, & with a passport (as the custom is) dismissed them, we never substitute other in their rooms. Besides it can not be choose, but some must fall sick, become weak & so be discharged: some give over warfare, or die by one chance or other: that except every year, (yea almost every month) as many again succeed them, & come in their place: an army be it never so great, must needs consume & waste. another cause there is why legions may be lessened: A soldier takes much pain in a Legion, armour is heavy and burdenous, rewards come sloulye, punishments rife & sharp, which things the most part to avoid, if it might be, seek to be sworn and serve for aid, where both they take less pains, & are more sun preferred. Noble Cato the Elder, both valiant in arms, & who that being Consul had oftentimes himself conducted an army, he thought yet, he might profit the common wealth a great deal more if he put in writing what belonged to war: for valiance and noble acts continued but one age, but what things are written for the profit of the common wealth, are remembered throughout all ages. The like have many other done before, but especially Frontinus, writing to the gracious Prince Traianus, for this endeavour and travail was very much commended. These man's ordinances, these man's instructions, as much as in me lieth, briefelye and faithfully I intend to put in writing. For seeing that whether an army be well ordered or evil, the expenses are as great of the one as the other: it shallbe profitable not only for the time present, but also for ever hereafter, if by your majesties good provision, (most noble Emperor) strong and politic use of Armour may be renewed and established, and whatsoever dissimulation for favour hath tofore been practised, the same may by your means be redressed and amended.   

¶ What number of Legions the ancient Romans led with them to the wars. Chapter. four  
We find in all Authors that every Consul, against the greatest number of enemies, lead never more than two Legions, reckoning there with the aids that came from their friends & confederates. So well exercised were they, so stout and valiant, that they thought two Legions sufficient for any war whatsoever. Wherefore according to the rule of the law of Arms, and trade of wars, I will declare the old manner of ordering of a Legion: which description if it shall seem somewhat diffuse or homely, impute not the same to me, but to the hardness and difficulty of the matter itself. With a diligent and attentive mind, they must therefore be read over and over, that they may be throughly understood and perfectly remembered. For needs must that common wealth be unuincible, that hath a governor so skilful in chivalry, as when he will, can make both strong and valiant Armies.   

¶ How a Legion should be ordered. Chapter. .v.  
AFter much diligence hath been used in choosing such of the younger sort as shallbe of good stomach & courage, and also practised before for the space of four months or more: then at the commandment and by the authority of the mighty sovereign Prince, a legion is framed & made. For soldiers being once belde, pricked and registered they use to be sworn. And hereof therefore comes that Ceremonious taking of an oath in war, of the which this is the form. They swear by God the father, by Christ the son, and by the holy Ghost, and by the Majesty of the Emperor or Prince, which after God, ought to be beloved and worshipped of all men living. For when as the Emperor or Prince hath received the title of royal majesty, unto him (as if God were presently and corporally with us) our faithful obedience must be performed, and most vigilant and diligent service declared and showed. For whosoever liveth either out of the wars or in the wars, doth then serve God, when as he faithfully loveth him, whom God hath appointed to rule and reign over him. But to this, do the soldiers swear, that they will do all things valiantly, which the Emperor or Prince doth command: that they will never forsake the wars, neither refuse death for the Roman common wealth.   

¶ How many cohortes or bands should be in one Legion, and how many soldiers should be in one band. Cap. uj.  
We must know that in a Legion there aught to be 10. bands. But the first band passeth all the rest, both in number of soldiers, and also in estimation, and commonly they be (as it is requisite) of very good calling and well brought up in learning: for this band bears the Eagle, which always is the chiefest standard in the Roman army, & the ensign of all the whole Legion. These ha●e in reverence and worship their emperors pictures as present tokens from God. This first band containeth .1105. footmen: heavy armed horsemen 132. And it is named Cohorsmiliaria, that is to say, a company of a thousand and more soldiers. This band is the head of all the Legion: when soever they must fight, this band begins the battle, and are first set in order in the front of the battle. The second band containeth .555. footmen, & 66. horsemen of heavy armour. And this band is called Cohors quigentaria, that is to say, a company of .5. hundred & more soldiers. The third band likewise hath .555. footmen, and .66. horsemen. But here they use to place their strong & more expert men, because this third band is in the mids & strength of the battle. The fourth band hath .555. footmen, & 66 horsemen The fift band hath as many, but it is requisyte they be valiant and courageous soldiers: because as the first Cohorte is set in the right wing, so the fift is set in the left wing.  
These five bands are set in a ray in the first battle. The sixte band hath .555. footmen .66. horsemen, and the same must be choose and picked men: for why, the sixt band is placed next behind the standard, and next the emperors arms in the second front or battle. The seventh band hath .555. footmen .66 horsemen. The eight band hath .555. footmen 66▪ horsemen: but courageous men, as it is expedient, because it is the middlemost band in the second battle. The ninth hath 555. footmen .66. horsemen. The tenth doth contain also .555. footmen 66 horsemen: valiant and expert warriors, because in the second battle it defendeth the left wing. These ten bands make a full and perfect Legion, containing 6100. footmen, and 726. horsemen. There may not be in a Legion any fewer of harnessed men: more there hath been oftentimes. For when one band would not serve, by commandment have been taken mother other bands, of a Thousand soldiers in a band.   

¶ Names and degrees, of the chief and principal men of the Legion. Chap. seven.  
Now that I have set forth the ancient ordering of a Legion, I will declare the names and offices of the principal soldiers: to speak plainly and properly, show by what name every soldier was first registered and billed. The chief Tribune was appointed by the discretion and judgement of the Emperor, by his solemn Epistle or letter written to that effect. The under Tribune came up by his service. And he is called Tribunus a tribu: of giving every one his right: because he hath authority over the soldiers, which Romulus first chose out of the Tribes (that is to say) out of the wards, hundreds, or other such like companies of the peoples of Rome. Those soldiers Ordinarij, are called such as have charge in the battle, & lead the first ranks or rays. They were called Augustales, which were joined to those ordinary soldiers by the Emperor Augustus. Fla●iales in like sort, as it were Secundi Augustales, noble Vespasian added to the Legions. Aquiliferi, are they which carry the Eagle. Imaginarij or Imaginiferi, which carry the Images or pictures of the Emperors. Optiones ab optando, when those next going before them were sick or grieved, these as it were their successors & supplying their places, were wont to take upon them all their whole charge. Signiferi, are the Standard bearers now called Draconarii. Tesserarii be they, which gave the watch word to the soldiers of all the Legion. And this word Tessera, is the commandment of the chief Captain, to call the army either to any work or battle. Campigeni, that is to say, Antefignani, are therefore so named, because by their endeavour and manhood, the manner of exercise doth increase in the field. Metatores, are those which go before the army, to choose them a place to encamp in. Beneficiarij, so called whom the Tribune to benefit prefereth and promoteth. Librarii, that keep a book of the soldiers accounts. Tubicines, Cornicines, and Buccinatores, which by blowing a trumpet, brazen horn or Sackbut, cause the soldiers to join battle. Armaturae duplares, were soldiers, which had double allowance of victuals. Simplares, which had ordinary allowance.  
Mensores, which in the camp measured out by the foot to the soldiers, places to pitch their tents in, or appointed every soldier his lodging in the Cities. Torquati duplares, soldiers with double chains: & Torquati simplares, soldiers such as wore a single chain all of gold, had it, for some reward of manhood and virtue. Which who so deserved, besides the praise and commendation sometimes had double allowance of victuals. There were also Candidati duplares, such as laboured or stood for double allowance of victuals: and Candidati simplares, such as laboured for single allowance. These be the principal soldiers which have any prerogative or privilege above the other. The rest are named Munifices, because they are constrained to look to their charge and office.   

¶ The names of them which led the ancient orders of soldiers. Chap. viii.  
THe old custom hath been, that the chief leader of the Legion, should promote the Centurion or Captain of the vaunt guard called Primipilus, whose office was not only to take charge of the Eagle or chief standard, but also to have under his leading in the first battle four Centuries, that is to say .400. soldiers. This captain as the chief of all the Legion, did obtain many profits and commodities. Also the chief of them which be called Hastati did lead in the second front, two Centuries, that is to say, 200 men, whom we do now call Ducenarium, that is a Captain of two hundred. But the principal of the first band, had under his government one century, and an half, that is to say .150. men, and the ordering of all things in the Legion whatsoever. Likewise the second called Hastatus, did lead as many as did the first, that is to say, 150▪ men. The first or chief Triarian, did lead an hundred men: so that these five ordinary soldiers, governed ten Centuries of the first cohor●or band, and unto whom the ancient fathers did great hovor, and also appointed to their commodity: for this end chief, that the other soldiers of all the legion with all kind of labour and humble service should endeavour themselves to attain such rewards. There were also centurions or under captains, which had the charge of a single century or just hundred, which be named Centenarii, there were Decani. That conducted ten soldiers, which are now called the chief of one company in one pavilion or tent. The second cohort hath five centurions, likewise the third, the fourth, the fifth, and so to the tenth cohort. And so in all the legion were .155. centurions.   

¶ Of the office of him that is called Praefectus legionis, the lieutenauntes' deputy. Chapter ix  
Such as sometime had been Consuls, sent the emperors lieutenants to war, unto whom all the whole armies and those which were sent for aid, as well in peace as in necessary time of wars were always obedient: whose room it is certain that right excellent famous men, as masters of the soldiers do now supply, which were wont to have the government, not only of two legions, but also of a greater numbered. But the very chief and peculiar judge of the legion was Praefectus, having common authority of the best estate or order, & in the absence of the lieutenant, as it were his deputy or vicegerent, had the greatest power of all. The tribunes or centurions, and all the other soldiers, were all at his commandment. This same gave the watch their charge, and when any voyage was to be made gave only commandment. If a soldier had committed any fault, this deputy forthwith by his authority, commanded the marshal to take punishment of him. He took charge of all the soldiers armour, also of the horses, apparel and vitaile. He might command severe punishment to be executed, and exercises, not only of the footmen, but also of the horsemen daily to be practised. Himself as a diligent and sober overseer, trained up the legion committed to his charge, always honestly and diligently in all good service & industry, as one not ignorant that the valiauntnes of the soldiers redounded chief to the commendation of the captain.   

¶ Of the office of the chief overseer of the camp. Chapter ten  
THere was also an overseer of the camp, though not of great authority, yet occupied in no mean or small affairs: whose office was to see to the encamping of the army, to all fortification, to ditching and entrenching. The tents or hales of the soldiers, withal the bag and baggage were ordered ever as it seemed good to him. The sick soldiers beside of every tent, with those that had them in cure, all expenses belonging to the same, concern his only travel and diligence. Cartes or wagons, shot or artillery, timber, edge tools, wherewith to hew and saw the same, for opening of ditches, when a bulwark should be purposed, and for more commodious conveyinge of water, this matter pertaineth properly to him. He did moreover foresee that there wanted not at any time either straw, or wood, battering rams, cross bows, field pieces, & other kind of ordinance. This officer, after long and great experience of warfare, was choose as one most expert, and cunningest well to teach and instruct others in that, which he himself had done with commendation.   

¶ Of the office of the master of the artificers. Chapter xj  
Moreover, there are in a legion Carpenters, and such as make preparation, as Cartwrightes, Smiths, Painters, and other artificers, for building places to winter in. For the speedy making of engines, wooden towers, and other things wherewith the enemies cities are annoyed, and their own better defended. And either to make new, or to repair the old shaken armour, weapons, wagons & other kinden of ordinance. They had also forges or shops for tergets, or b●clers, for coats offence, for bows, in which arrows, darts, helmets, & all kind of weapons were made. For this was his special charge, that no necessary thing should at any time be missing in the camp: in so much that they had also pioneers, which after the manner of the Bessians, working under the ground, & undermining the foundation of the walls, would suddenly issue out & take their enemy's cities. Of all these, the master of the artificers had the charge, and was the only overseer.   

¶ Of the office of the chief tribune or Colonel. Chapter twelve  
A Legion, as it is before said, hath ten cohortes, but the first contained a .1000. or more soldiers, in the which were such placed as were sent, for their great wealth for birth, for their learning, for comeliness, for virtue, & manhood. Over this cohort the tribune had the government, passing all other in knowledge of arms, in goodly parsonage, in honest manners and conditions. The other cohortes as it seemed good to the prince, were ruled by other tribunes or governors. But so great regard was there had for the exercising of the soldiers, that not only the said tribunes or governors did command their own soldiers committed to their charge to exercise themselves, every day in their own presence: but also they themselves being perfect in the knowledge of arms, did exhort and encourage other the rather by their example, often to do the like. The tribunes carefulness by this industrious travail was very much commended, when as his soldiers went clean in apparel, when their armour was sure and bright, when they often exercised themselves by use to become skilful.   

¶ Of the centuries, or hundred of the footmen, and of their ensigns, or penoncels or banners. Chapter xiij  
THe first and chief standard of all the legion is the eagle which he that carrieth is called Aquilifer. Also there be carried in every cohort dragons, and those that carry them, are called Draconarii. But the ancient men of war, because they knew that in the fighting of the bobtail it might so fall out that array in the army might very soon be broken: for remedy thereof, they divided the cohorts into centuries, or hundred, & to every hundred they appointed a peculiar ensign, so that it was written with letters in that ensign or flag, of which cohort or band, & of which century in order of the same cohort, every one was. The which the soldiers beholding and reading, in never so great hurly burly, could not far wander from their companies of their own tent. Moreover, they commanded the centurions, which now are called Centenarii, being valiant warriors in complete harnis, to govern every century or hundred, the crests of their helmets being set overthwart, to th'intent they might be more easily known, and to th'end there might be no great disorder, when as an hundred soldiers might follow, not only their ensign, but also their centurion or captain by the mark or ensign in his helmet. Again the centuries or hundred were divided into companies of ten soldiers, so that over ten soldiers abiding under one pavilion, one was chief ruler called Decanus (as who say the chief of ten) which is named the head of the company. And the company often was called Manipulus, for that, that hand in hand as it were, they fought always just & jointly together.   

¶ Of the tromps of the legionary horsemen, called Turmae. Chapter xiiij  
LIke as among the footmen, there was century (that is to say, the numbered of a hundred men) or Manipulus, which is less▪ that is the numbered of x. even so is turma called amongst the horsemen. One troop doth contain .32. horsemen. The captain over these is called Decurio, the leadear of .30. or more of horsemen. For an .100. footmen go under one centurion, & under one ensign: likewise under one Decurion .32. horsemen, under one ensign. Moreover, like as the centurion to be choose, should be a man of great strength, of tall stature, cunningly and strongly to toss his pike, throw his dart, knowing very skilfully how to fight with his sword, & how to turn & weld his terget, having very good knowledge in handling his weapon, vigilant, sober, nimble, and active, a doer rather than a talker, which can hold in his own soldiers, learn them feats of war, make them exercise their weapons, see they be well appareled, & clean shoode, that every soldiers harnisse be without rust, well skoured and bright: So the Decurion to be choose Captain of a troop of horsemen, must first of all be a handsome man, a comely and tall man, able with praise and admiration of all men to mount on his horse, though he be harnissed & armed at all points, which can cunningly handle the staff, & advisedly bestow his arrows, which can instruct the soldiers of his troop (that is to say) the horsemen committed to his charge, in all manner of things which appertain to a horseman: which will see that they often make clean their mail, furbushe their harnisse, their spears and helmettes. For the glistering of armour breeds and striketh, a great fear to the enemy. Who will take him to be a valiant soldier, which lets his armour rust and be evil favoured by negligence. And it is convenient that not only the horsemen, but the very horses also themselves be at commandment, and well broken. The charged therefore as well of the men, as of the horses, of health no less than exercise, coucerneth the Decurion or captain of the horsemen.   

¶ After what sort the legions should be se● in order. Chapter xu  
Now by the example of one legion, we will declare after what manner a whole army should be set in array, if necessarily they must join battle speedily. This thing if need shall require, may be applied to more legions. The horsemen must be placed in the wings. The fore front of the footmen in the first cohort or band, must beginnne the array in the right wing. Hereunto must be joined the second cohort. Then the third cohort in the midst, and there withal the fourth. The fifth cohort must stand for the left wing, but before and behind the standerdes. Those which fought in the fore front or first battle, were called Principes: that is to say, chief and principal soldiers, as those in complete harnisse which had helmettes, coarselettes, leg har●isse, shields, sword & great daggers, and five leaden plommettes in their shields, which they do cast at their first joining. Also two kinds of darts: the one greater, with an iron head three square, of nine inches long, the staff five foot long and a half, which they named Pilum, at this time called Spiculum. This used the soldiers oftentimes to cast, for that the same directed with cunning, and thrown with good courage, striketh through both footmen with shields, and horsemen with their complete harnis: the other less, and was a kind of dart with an iron head, three cornered of five inches long, the staff of three foot and a half: which they were wont to call Verriculum, but now Verutum. The first and chiefest soldiers in the first array, called Principes, and the second called Hastati, were wont to be furnished with this kind of weapons. Behind these were such as were called Pherentarii, and light armed men, which now with harnisse and armour we place for aid. Next were such as bore shields, with leaden plummettes, sword & darts, as now a days almost all our soldiers use. Then archers with helmettes, breastplates, & sword, arrows & bows. Likewise slingers which with slinges, or staffeslinges, did cast stones. There were also that were called Tragularii, which did shoot arrows with hand bows, and cross bows. The second battle was likewise armed, and those which were placed in that band were called Hastati, that is to ●aye, pikemen or spearemen. But in the second battle the sixt band was set in the right wing: to the which the seventh band was joined. The eight band kept the middle front of the battle, having the ninth joined to it. The tenth cohort in the second battle, did always ●epe the left wing.   

¶ After what manner the Triarians, and also the Centuriens should be armed. Chapter xvi  
AFter all these battles, the Triarians, or soldiers of the rerewarde were placed with shields, coarselets, helmettes, being harnissed on the legs, having sword, great daggers, leaden plummets, and two darts, the which did rest kneeling upon one knee: that if the first battle were overcome, these might repair and make up the battle again, and set on the enemies a fresh and recover the victory. But all the standard or banner bearers although they were footement, had on coats of mail or plate, of the lighter sort, and helmettes covered with bear skins, to terrify and make afeard the enemies. The Centurions also had coarselettes, brigantines, shields and helmettes of steel, but with crests overthwart, and covered with silver, that they might be the better known of their soldiers.   

¶ Now that the battle being joined, the complete harnissed men stood as a wall. Chapter xvij  
THis thing also must be known and diligently observed, that in open war the first and second battle should stand sure and unmovable. The soldiers also of the rerewarde, should abide and rest. The light armed soldiers, and terget men, archers, slyngers, that is to say, such as were armed with light harnisse should go before the army, and provoke the enemies. And if they could put the enemies to flight, they should pursue them, but if they were overmatched and overlayde with the power and multitude of their enemies, they must retire to their own company, and stand behind them. But the complete armed men must receive the brunt of the battle, and stand as we say, like a brazen wall, and they must not only cast darts, but also with sword fight nearer hand. And if they put the enemies to flight, these complete harnissed men must not pursue them, lest they should disorder the band, and break the battelraye, and so the enemies returning and suddenly coming upon them, so disordered & scattered abroad, might easily overcome them. But the light armed men, with the slingars, archers and horsemen, must pursue the enemies in the chase. By this good order and diligent provision, and circumspection, this legion shall either easily vanquish their enemies, or else shallbe out of danger if they chance to be overcome: because it is necessarily required in this company, not, without great cause, either to give back or fly themselves, or pursue their enemies reculing.   

¶ The names of soldiers, and the orders and degrees should be written in the shields. Chapter xviij  
BUt, lest soldiers sometimes in the hurly burly of a battle, should depart from their own company: they did paint in divers bands, divers signs or marks in the shields, which they called Digmata, that is to say, signs, marks, or tokens: like as they use to do now a days. Moreover, in the shields, the name of every soldier was written with letters, and also of what band every one was, or of what hundred. Thereby by these it is manifest that a legion well furnished and ordered is, as it were, a most sure defenced city, which carried with it every where all things necessary unto battle: neither feared the sudden coming of the enemies, which also in the middle of the plain fields could fortify itself quickly with trench and bulwark. Which also had within itself all manner of warriors, and furniture fit for the war. Therefore if any do covet in open battle to overcome the rub and barbarous people, let him earnestly desire & pray that according to the will and pleasure of God, and the appointment of the victorious prince, and the good guiding & ordering of a valiant captain, the armies may be repaired and made up again with young and fresh soldiers. And within short space younger men being skilfully picked out and exercised diligently every day, both in the morning and after noon, with all manner of martial affairs and feats of war, shall sun be equal to those old soldiers which have subdued the whole world. Neither let your majesty be moved O Caesar, that the old custom which in times paste did flourish and was best liked, is now altered and changed. But the continuance of this good provision & happy success consists in you, that is for the safety of the common wealth, both to invent new things, and to restore the old. Every work seemeth hard before a man assay: but if expert and politic men be appointed to pick out and choose soldiers, an army meet for the wars, may quickly be gathered, and diligently instructed: for any thing may be ●●ought to pass by diligence and policy, if sufficient and competent expenses be allowed.   

¶ Besides the strength of the body, the cunning or knowledge of ciphers and counting, must be regarded in young soldiers. Chapter xix  
BUt for as much, as in armies there be many schools and exercises of chivalry, which do require cunning and expert soldiers, it is very expedient that they which do admit and allow the young soldiers, should search out diligently, and know in every one the bigness of the stature, the strength of the body, and the promptness of his mind. But in certain the cunning of ciphers and augurim, and exercise of reckoning and casting account is required. For the account of all the whole legion, whether it be of the diligent service, or of the numbers of soldiers, or else of money, is daily registered in the acts or chronicles, with greater diligence almost then the trade of victualling, or civil government, is noted in the register books of the city. They note also the continual watches in time of peace. Also the warding on the day time, and the charges or offices in carrying from place to place: amongst all the centuries and companies, what the soldiers do by course: that none be charged or burdened more than is due and right, or if any have liberty granted and are exempted. The names of them which ordered their courses, are noted in the books. When any man hath received a passport, and for how many days it is noted in the abbridgementes. For at that time a passport was granted very hardly, except it were for most just and probable causes. Neither the soldiers which were lately begun and entered, were assigned to any certain service, nor any private charge committed unto them. For why, it was not thought meet and convenient that any soldier of the prince or chief captain, which is found meat, drink and clothing, of the common provision, should attend upon private commodities. Notwithstanding, there were soldiers appointed to wait on the chief judges & tribune, and other that were in authority, which were called Accensi, that is to say, soldiers appointed to be about great officers. For when the legion was fully made up & perfect, these were added which now we do call Supernumerarios, above the just number. And yet the very ordinary soldiers, did carry ferdels or bundles into the camp, that is to say, wood, hay, water, and straw. For of this they were called Munifices, because they did those commendable things which they were charged withal.   

¶ How soldiers aught to put aside the half part of any gift in money, or other things given them, in the keeping of such as are standard bearers. Chapter twenty  
THis thing in times paste was excellently well ordained and appointed of the ancient men, that the one half of such things as were given the soldiers, should be set apart with the standerdes, and there should be kept for the use of these soldiers, lest through excess and riot, or the getting of vain things, it might be wasted of their own companions. For the most part of men, and namely the poorer sort, do spend and say forth willingly so much as they have, or can come by. But this sequestration or putting aside of the money, first of all is proved profitable and commodious, even for their fellow soldiers. For sing that they are sustained and found meat, drink, and clothing of the common expenses, their goods which they have got in war are increased, according to the equal part or one half of those things which were given them. Furthermore, the soldier which knoweth his money to be kept with the standerdes, doth never mind to forsake the standerdes, but rather to stick to them. He fighteth more stoutly and valiantly for them in the battle, as all men are commonly wont to do. That is to take care for those things wherein he knows their whole wealth and substance doth consist. Finally, there were set abroad ten bags in every band, in the which these things were put. There was also joined the xi bag, into the which the whole legion did put a certain portion to be bestowed on the burials: that if any of the companies died, ●uner all charges should be taken out of that eleventh bag. This account was kept in a basket or cophin by standard bearers (as the report is now) And therefore, such were standard bearers, as were not only faithful, but also learned and skilful, which could both safely keep things which were committed to their custody, and also give just account of that, which they had in keaping, to every man.   

¶ Promotions and dignities in the legion, are so disposed and ordered, that none is advanced thereto before he have passed through the ten bands or companies of the legion. Chapter xxj  
I Think verily that among the Romans, the legions were appointed and ordered, not only by the policy of man, but also by the inspiration of God. In the which, ten bands are so set in order and joined together, that of all those is made as it were one body and one society. For the soldiers are advanced, and proceed through divers bands, and divers companies as it were round about, one after an other, so that from the first band going forward in order by little and little he came to the tenth band, and again from thence he came back again through the rest to the first band: having better preferrment, and his wages still augmented. Therefore the Centurion or chief captain of the forward, after that he ruled and governed all the bands round about in course, by sundry exercises and feats of arms: in the first band he obtained that reward, whereof redounded innumerable commodities to him out of the whole army. Like as Primicerius, or he that hath the chief authority in the principal office of the overseers or other rulers, doth come to some honest and gainful preferrment in warfare: even so the horsemen of every band, do courteously use their own company with good fellow ship: because the horsemen and footmen do naturally vary & disagree one with an other. Therefore by this joining, and as it were linking together of the army, good agreement was kept and continued throughout all the bands, both of horsemen and footmen.   

¶ What difference is between trumpeters, blowers of horns, or shawms and such like. Chapter xxij  
Moreover, an army hath trumpets, cornets, and shawms. The trompetters do call the soldiers to battle: and again do call them back blowing the retreat. The cornets were an ornament to set forth the whole army, both in the marching forward toward to the battle, and also in the retiring from the fight. As often as these do blow, not only soldiers, but also standerdes, are ready at the ●ounding of them to remove. Therefore, as often as the soldiers march forward alone to any business or skirmishes, the trumpeters do blow, and the soldiers only do come together at the sound of the trumpets. As often as the standerdes must be removed, the blowers of cornets do sound. But when they do fight, both the trumpets and the cornets do sound together. Also Classicum, is called that noise which the trumpeters do make with the sound of a cornet. This is a notable sign of great power and authority royal, because this is sounded when the prince, chieftayne, or general captain is present, or else when a soldier for some heinous offence is put to death. For this must needs be done by the statutes and laws of the general: but if the soldiers go forth to keep the watches, to carry things from place to place, or to do any work, or to make a road, at the sound of the trumpets they do it, and by the sound of the same do retire to the camp again. But when the standerdes do march, or in marching when they should stay, the blowers of the cornets sound to both these. The which thing in deed for this cause is observed & kept in all manner of exercises, skirmishes, roads, and marching forward of the army, that in the fight the soldiers might more easily obey: if the captains should command them, either to fight or to stay, to pursue, or to retire. For this proof is plain that such things must be practised at vacant time and leisure, which of necessity must be achieved and done in the battle.   

¶ Of the exercise of soldiers. Chapter xxiij  
THe appointing and administration of an army, being orderly descried, let us return to exercise again: whereof (as it is said already) Exercitus, that is an host hath derived the name. The young and new soldiers were exercised with all kind of weapons & feats of chivalry, both in the morning and after noon. But the old beaten and expert soldiers, once a day were exercised in arms. For neither long age, nor number of years, doth teach the feats of arms, but the continual use & study of exercise: and a soldier not exercised and trained up in feats of war, although he hath been never so long in wages, yet he is always but a young beginner, and altogether ignorant in handling his weapon, which on the holy days is set abroad for to behold in the exercise. Therefore not only they, which were under the chief masters, did learn by daily exercise the handling of armour and weapons, and the swiftenes and nimbleness of the body, but also all the soldiers a like did exercise the same. For swiftenes and agility of the body, and also the cunning both to strike the enemy and defend himself, is chiefly got by exercise and practise, especially if they fight near at hand with sword. But this is more weighty and needful that they learn in their playing exercise to keape their orders, and that in so great stirs and throngs, being used to the like in these exercises, wherein they are first trained and entered, they do wait upon their own banners and ensigns, and that among the well trained and expert soldiers, there be no error or disordre committed, although in the common sort there may be very great confusion. It is also very good that the young soldiers be exercised with some post or stake, where they may learn to strike at the sides, the legs, and heads, either with the thrust, or with right down strokes. Let them also accustom to leap and strike together: to vawte against their shield, as if they were dancing, and skypppe down again: sometime to run forward skipping and leaping, and fetching of gamboldes, sometime to step away quickelye, and leap back again. Let them exercise also to throw darts a far of at the posts or stakes, that they both may be more cunning in casting straight, and more nimble and quick with the right hand. But the archers and slyngers, did set up some broom for a mark, or bundles of shrubs, or straw, that standing six hundred foot from the mark, oftentimes they might hit it with their arrows, or with their stones leveled out of a sling staff. Therefore, more boldly they did that in the battle which before they had exercised in sport in the field. They must also at all times accustom themselves, that they swing the sling, but once about the head only, when a stone is cast out of it. And all the soldiers did use with one hand to cast stones of a pound weight, which exercise is thought more ready, because it needeth not a slinge. They were also compelled alway and with continual exercise, to cast darts or leaden plummettes: in so much that for the horsemen in winter season, large galeries were covered with tiles or shingles, which are cliffs of wood: or if they did fail, with read, flags or stubble, or else straw: and also certain large places made for the footmen, and covered in like manner: in the which in the time of storms, winds, or foul weather, the army was instructed and exercised with armour and weapons under covert. But the other days in winter, if snow and rain did cease, they were compelled to exercise them abroad in the field: least if this custom should be left of, the minds and also the bodies of the soldiers might be weakened. At is good also that they use often to cut down wood, to carry burdens, to leap over ditches, to swim in the Sea, or Rivers, to walk a good round pace, or to run yea, although they be laden with the weight of their armour & other burdens: that daily labour in time of peace▪ might not seem hard, or painful in time of war. Therefore, like as the whole legion is exercised, even so the aids ought to be exercised daily. For like as a well tryaned and exercised soldier desires the battle, even so the unexperte and ignorant, doth fear the same. last of all we must know that in fight, use and experience, doth avail more than force. For if the teaching to handle weapons do cease, and cunning in feats of arms be not regarded, than a country clown is as good as the best soldier.   

¶ Examples of exhortations, and the exercise in warlike affairs, taken of other arts and sciences. Chapter xxiiij  
THe wrestler, the hunter, the carter, commonly for a small reward, yea, for favour of the common people, use to keep and increase their cunning and knowledge with daily exercise. Much more it behoveth a soldier, by whose manhood and valiauntnes, the common wealth is defended and preserved, perfectly to know, and by continual exercises to retain and keep the cunning in martial affairs and feats of war: to whom often chanceth not only a glorious victory, but also proies of great price: and whom, also both the law of arms and the good judgement of the general, will advance to wealth and honour. The cunning stage players do not leave of their exercises, looking only for praise and commendation of the common people: a soldier then choose and admitted by a solemn oath, whether he be a young soldier or an old, aught not to cease, discontinewe or be slack in the exercise of chivalry, who must fight both for his own safety, and also for the liberty and safeguard of his country: especially seeing there is an old and wise saying, that all manner of sciences do● consist in continual study and exercise.   

¶ A rehearsal of Iron tools and other engines of the legion. Chapter xxu  
AN army also commonly vanquisheth and conquereth the enemies not only through the multitude of soldiers, but also through divers kinds of Iron tools, and other engines. First of all, it is furnished with shot, which no coat armooure nor tergettes are able to abide. For in every century or hundred, they use to have a field piece: the which a mule was appointed to draw. And the companies of one pavilion, that is to say xi men, were assigned to address, and set forth the same. For the greater these pieces be, the further and more strongly they shoot the pellets. And they not only defend the Camp, but also in the field they are planted behind the battle of the complete armed men. The brunt and violence whereof, neither the horsemen with coats of fence, neither footmen with their shields, are able to withstand. And there are wont to be in one Legion lv. field pieces: also ten greater pieces called Onagri, that is to say, in every cohort one, and they are carried in tilted carts with two Oxen, that if by chance the enemies came to assault the rampire and bulwark, the camp might be defended with arrows and pellets. The Legion also doth carry with it, boats made hollow of one piece of timber with very long cords, and sometimes also with iron chains: and forasmuch as they are joined together (as they say) all of one piece of timber and boards joined together, and laid upon them: by the help of these, both the footmen and horsemen safely pass over rivers, which otherwise without bridges they could not pass over. It hath also iron clampes which they call Lupos, and iron hooks fastened to great long poles. Likewise it hath for dispatching the work about the ditches and trenches, mattocks, spades, shovels, rakes, maundes, baskets, chipaxes, saws, with the which stakes and other stuff are squared & sawen a sunder. It hath also artificers with all kind of iron tools, which for the assault of the Cities of the enemies may make engines, which they call Testudines, and Musculos, that is to say, engines of war to beat down walls, whereby they are defended which do approach the walls of a Cities besieged. And Arietes, which were pieces of ordinance, made like a rams head to beaten down the walls. And Vineas, which are an ordinance of war made of timber & hurdles, under the which men went surely to the walls of a town besieged. Also battle rams & towers movable. But lest in rehearsing every thing more be said then need: a legion aught every where to carry with it all manner of things, which are thought necessary in any kind of war: that in what place soever it shall pitch the Camp, it may make an armed City.    

The third book of Flavius Vegetius Renatus of the feats of war.  

The Prologue.  
THe ancient Chronicles do testify that the Athenians, the Lacedæmonians, and the Macedonians, have been chief Lords and mighty rulers. But the Athenians have not only taken diligent travail in feats of war, but have also in divers sciences famouseiye flourished. As for the Lacedæmonians they had their chiefest regard, and applied themselves most to war. For they first of all other, gathering the experiments of fight by the success thereof, are affirmed to have written of war: in such sort that they brought that which was thought to consist in manhood & good fortune, into a form of knowledge & cunning: & commanded the masters of Arms (which they call Tak●ikous) to teach their youth the use & diversity of fighting. Men worthy of praise & much to be m●rueled at, which would be cunning in that science, without the which, other sciences are altogether nothing. The Romans following their ordinances both have kept in use, and also set forth in writing, the rules of martial policy: the which being dispersed abroad in divers Authors & books, you have commanded me most victorious Emperor, as my mean knowledge in learning shallbe able briefelye to abridge: lest the multitude of those rules should bring tediousness, or the small points be devoid of due and full credence. But how greatly the knowledge of the Lacedæmonians have prevailed in battle (to let the other pass) it is declared by the example of Xantippus: which took Attilius Regulus, and gave the overthrow to the army of the Romans, which before had been conquerors against the Carthaginians. All which he did not by prowess and manhood, but by the help of policy, and that triumphingly, and at one onset to the dispatching of that whole battle, and bringing it to an end. Hannibal when he prepared to come into Italye, sought for some Lacedaemonian to lead and guide the Army, by whose counsels (although inferior in number & strength) he utterly destroyed so many consuls, so mighty and great Legions. He therefore that desireth peace, let him prepare for war: he the coveteth the victory, let him diligently train and instruct his soldiers: he that wisheth for prosperous success, let him fight with art and policy, not at all adventure and by chance. No man dare provoke or offend him, whom he doth perceive to be the better or superior, if the matter come to blows.   

What manner or of what number an Army should be of. The first Chapter.  
IN the first Book I have showed the mustering and exercise of young soldiers: in the second was taught the ordering of a Legion, and the knowledge & science of warfare. But this third book doth sound the Trumpets and bloweth out the Alarm. For therefore are those things written before, that these wherein the cunning of conflicts and the chiefest point of the victory doth consist, might the sooner, by observing some order in teaching, be understood: and thereby profit the more. An host or army is called a multitude, as well of Legions as of aids, and also of horsemen, gathered together to make war.  
The manner whereof is, to be known of the masters of arms. For whereas we read examples of Xerxes, Darius, Mithridates, and other kings, which have had in their armies infinite numbers of people: it doth evidently appear that over great armies, have oftener been destroyed through the greatness of their own number, then through the manhood of their enemies. For the greater multitude is subject to many chances: in journeys and vyages, it is always slower by reason of the vastness thereof. And when it traveyleth a length, it chanceth oftentimes to be invaded, and to suffer loss, though the enemies be but few.  
And in passing of rough places or rivers, it is oftentimes deceived by the lets and stays of the carryages. Moreover for the great number of cattle and horses, forage is gathered and got not without great labour.  
Also the trouble and danger in providinge grain, and the scarcity thereof, which in any manner of vyages is to be avoided, doth eftsoons encumber the greater armies. For with how great study and diligence soever victuals be prepared, yet the more that they be employed and distributed unto, the sooner they do fail. The very water also sometimes doth scantly suffice a great multitude. If so be that the army by chance should be put to flight, it must needs be that of a great number, a great meanye must be slain: and that they which have escaped being once thoroughly afraid, will afterward fear to fight again. But the ancient men of war which by experience had learned remedies against incumberaunces, would not have their armies so huge in number, as well trained up in the feats of war. Therefore in smaller battles, they thought one Legion with the aids joined unto it, that is to say, ten Thousand footmen and two Thousand horsemen, able to suffice: which army the praetors being as meaner Captains, did use to lead forth when any viage was in hand. If the power of then enemies were great, than the might of the consuls (as who say a greater authority) was sent with xx. Thousand footmen, and four Thousand horsemen. If that an infinite number of cruel people had rebelled: then in so great and dangerous time of need, two Captains, namely both the consuls were sent with two armies, with such commandment, that they should foresee that the common wealth should take no damage nor detriment. Finally when as the Romans almost all their time fought in divers realms against divers and sundry enemies, their soldiers were for this cause the more sufficient, because they judged it not so profitable to have great armies, as well instructed and trained in the knowledge of feats of arms: Yet provided always that there should not be in the camp a greater number of the confederate helps, then of Citizens of Rome.   

¶ After what manner the health of an army● should be maintained. Chapter two  
Now I will declare (which thing aught chiefly to be foreseen) how the health of the arms may be preserved: that is to say, by reasonable places, waters, time, medicine, and exercise. For the places that the soldiers do not tarry long in a pestilent and unwholesome country, nigh unto marisses or fens, apt to breed sickness: nor in fields wanting water, nor hillles without wood: nor in the Summer without tents and pavilions: lest that going late from their place, they bring sickness on them through the hea●e of the Sun, and weariness of their journey: but rather in Summer season that they come to the places whereunto they mean to travail, before it be day: that in cruel and could Winter they travail not by night through frost and snow, or sustain the scarcity or want of wood: or little store of apparel. For that soldier can neither be healthful nor fit for any voyage, which is constrained to 〈◊〉 for could. Neither let the army use noisome or 〈◊〉 waters: for the drink that is made of naughty water is like to poison, and breadeth the pestilence in those that drink it. Now as touching that any company of soldiers being sick by any such chance, may be refreshed with convenient meats, and healed with the help and cunning of the physicians: the diligence of th● rulers and Tribunes, yea and of the lievetenaunte himself which executeth the greater power, shallbe required hereunto. For they are in very ill case upon whom the necessity both of war and sickness doth lie. But the expert and cunning men in feats of war have thought, that daily exercises of arms could more avail to the health of soldiers, than Physicians could. Therefore they would have the footmen in reign & snow, continually to be exercised for health under covert, at other times in the plain field▪ Likewise they commanded that the horsemen should daily exercise both themselves and their horses, not only in the plain: but also in most difficult passages as in steep down places, & in the gaping of ditches. That nothing might happen unto them in the necessity of fight, which they known not before. Whereof it is to be understand with how great study and diligence, the army should at all times be learned the knowledge of arms: when as the use of labour both may get them health in their tents, and victory in the battle. In the time of Harvest & Summer, if a multitude of soldiers to tarry long in a place, there must needs arise most hurtful sickness, both of the infection of the water, and smell of the very filth with corrupt breathinge and naughty air: which none other way can be keep from them, but with often removing of the Campe.   

¶ With how great care and regard, forage or grain aught to be provided and kept. Chap. iij.  
ORder doth require that we should now speak of the provision of forage & grain. For scarcity doth more consume an army, then fight: and hunger is more cruel than the sword. Moreover other casualtyes be helped in time, but the providing of forage & victual hath no help or remedy, unless they be laid up before hand. In any manner of enterprise this is one and the chiefest counsel that thy army may have sufficient to live with: that lack of necessary things may weaken the enemies. Therefore before war be begun there aught to be a wise and prudent devise, for money and other charges, that forage, grain, & other victuals (which the old custom did require of foreigners) might be gathered in time: and greater store thereof then is sufficient always laid up in such places as are strongly fenced, and most convenient to serve the turn. If so be that the tributes or payments do fail, all things must be compassed & got with money paid before hand. For possession of riches is not without care, except it be kept with force of arms. But many times there is twice as much need, & a s●ege oftentimes is longer than they think it willbe: when as the enemies themselves being almost famished, do not give over to besiege them whom they hope may be overcome with famine. Furthermore whatsoever cattle, grai●e, or wine, the enemy that causeth war can prevent and take to their own provision of victual: (the owners thereof not only being warned by public commandment, but also constrained by choose searchers) the fame must be brought to convenient holds, and streng thened with garrisons of armed men: or to safe and surely defenced Cities: and the foreign people must be called earnestly upon, to keep themselves and all that they ●●ue within their walls before the enemies 〈◊〉 enter in. For the repairing of the walls and all manner of ordinance, must be looked too before. For if the enemies do once prevent them being otherwise occupied, every thing is disordered through fear: and such things as are to be demanded of other Cities, are always denied after that the passages be once stopped. But to keep those things trustelye that may be saved, and to distribute them moderatlye, is as good as if there were plenty, namely if from the beginning they be well looked to. But it is to late to spare when nothing is remaining. In hard and dangerous voyages the ancient warriors did use to bestow the victuals, rather according to the number of the soldiers, then to the worthiness of them. So that after the necessity was past, than recompense was made to those that were worthy, of the common charge and cost. In the winter, the scarceness of wood and forage, in Summer the lack of water is to be avoided. But the want of grain, wine and vyneger, and also of salt, at all times is to be shunned: so that such soldiers as can do lest service in the field, should defend the Cities and holds with armour, arrows, wringstaves, slinges, and also stones, artillerye of all sorts. And chiefly we must take heed that the uncyrcumspecte simple foreign people confederate with us, be not deceived by the craft and perjury of the enemies.  
For oftentimes deceitful covenants and feigned peace, have done more harm to such as are light of credit, than the force of arms. By reason whereof, the enemies if they be altogether do suffer hunger, and if they be dispersed they are easily onecome by such as every foot will be skirmishing with them.   

¶ After what manner they aught to foresee, least the soldiers do make any stir or sedition. Chap. four  
AN army gathered out of sundry places sometime doth stir up sedition and uproar, and when they are not willing to fight, they fain themselves to be angry: to the intent they should not be led to battle. Which they chiefly do, that lived at home idly and deliciously. For they, which would shrink from fight, run headlong into such desperateness, because they are grieved with the sharpness of the labour, wherewith they are not acquainted, which notwithstanding in the voyage they must needs sustain, and moreover because they are afraid to enter into battle. To the which wound men have used to layemanye and divers medicines: that they may be held, while they be yet a sunder in their places, to all manner of knowledge and exercise with most street sharpness of the Tribunes, lievetenauntes, and also the chief and principal of the army: that they observe nothing else, but their solemn vow and promise, and that with discretion: that they have no ●eysure to set their minds on pasportes: let them use continually to attend to their name, and to their ensigns: let them practise daily the running of the field (as they term it) and the diligent beholding of the handle of armour and weapons: They must be held very often to these exercises, and that most part of the day, even till they sweat again, to shooting and to throwing stones, either with a sting or with the hand, to wear armour that they may wield themselves in it, to pitching the bar, and with wasters as though they should fight with sword, now with the point, now with the edge to strike one at another.  
Also they must with like diligence be trained in running & leaping, that they may skip over ditches, if the sea or a river be nigh to their tents. In Summer time all t●e soldiers should be constrained to swim: moreover to cut down wood, to journey through bushy and shrubby places, to square timber, to scour the trench, to take and keep some place, and to endeavour themselves with shields, violently meeting one ●nother, that they be not beaten from it by their own companies. In such wise the soldiers of the Romans being exercised and trained at home, whether they be of the Legions or of the aids, or of the horsemen, when they shall come from divers places to take a voyage, they must needs through an ambitious desire to try their manhood, rather wish for war, then for peace. No man doth take any thought for seditious stirring, which hath any confidence in his cunning and strength. But the Captain aught to be cyrcumspecte, if there shallbe any troublesome or seditious soldiers among all the Legions, or aids, or troops of horsemen, that he may know them by the Tribunes, deputies & principal men, not for the ill will of the informers, but for the truth of the matter: and the same to be separated from the Camp by some witty devise, to do and accomplish some thing, which even unto themselves may seem such, as in a manner they would wish for: or else let them* fortify and keep some holds and Cities, * with such a preetye subtiltye, that whereas in deed they be rejected and despised, they may seem to be choose of purpose.  
For a multitude doth never burst out to disobedient stubbornness with like agreement: but they are stirred up by a few, which hope they may with a number offend freely without punishment, for their vices and wickedness. If so be that extreme necessity shall require a remedy to be had therein, the best way is after the manner of our forefathers to punish only the Authors and beginners of such faults, that fear may come to all, punishment to a few. Notwithstanding those Captains are more worthy of praise, whose armies labour and use hath instructed to soberness and humility, than they whose soldiers the fear of punishment doth constrain to obedience.   

¶ How many kinds there be of ensigns of war. Chapter .v.  
Many things ought to be well learned and marked of them that fight: for why, negligence aught not to be pardoned, where as they fight for life and death. But amongst other things nothing is more profitable to the victory, then to obey the warnings of the ensigns. For when as in the hurlye burlye of battles, a great number cannot be ruled with one voice only, and when as of very necessity many things forthwith must be commanded and done: the ancient use and experience of all nations hath invented, how the whole army by the ensigns should know and follow that, which the only Captain judged to be profitable and expedient. There are therefore as it is manifest, three kinds of ensigns, one sort having voice which are called Vocalia, another partly having voice, and partly not, which they call Semi●ocalia, the third without voice, and they are called Muta: of the which they that have voice, and they that partly have voice, are perceived and known by the ear: but the dumb without voice, are referred to the eyes. Vocalia, are said to be they, which are pronounced with the voice of a man, so that in the watche● or in the battle it is accounted for a token: as for example: victory, reward, virtue, God be with us. The triumph of the Emperor & such other, whatsoever they will give which have the greatest authority and power in the army. Yet we must know that these words must every day be altered: lest by use the enemies may know our token or watcheworde: and searchers or spies may be amongst our men without danger and punishment. Simi●ocalia be called which are given by the trumpette, or the horns, or the shawme. The trumpet which is straight is called Buccina, which is bowed towards itself with a brassen circle. The horn of the wild bulls being bound with silver is best heard, when it is moderated with art, & the breath of him that bloweth it. For by these with most certain & undoubted sounds, the army doth know whether they ought to stay or go forward, or certainly to retire: whether they should follow the chase any long way, or sound the retreat. Muta signa, be the Eagles, Dragons, banners, red peno●celles, red scarves, feathers, crests of helmets. For whether soever the leader shall command these to be carried, thither of necessity must all the soldiers go, following and waiting upon their own ensign. There be also dumb signs, which the Captain of the war doth command to be observed: in the horses, in garments, and also in the very armour: to the intent the enemy may be known from their own company. Moreover he signifieth some thing with his hand, or (after the cruel manner of rude and strange people) with a whip, or else with moving or stirring his apparel which he hath on. All which things all the soldiers should acknowledge both to follow and understand in their places, in journeys, in all manner exercise of the camp. For continual use of that thing is necessary in time of peace, which in the confusion and trouble of the battle should be kept. Also there is a dumb and common ●igne, as often as in the going of a multitude, the dust stirred up, riseth like clouds, and doth bewray the coming of the enemy. Likewise if armies be divided, the flame of fire in the night, and in the day time the smoke, doth signify unto their fellows that, which by no other means can be showed. Sometimes they do hung out beams in the Turrettes of Cities, which other while being raised up, and other whiles let down, do declare what things be done.   

¶ How great subtiltye aught to be used when an army is removed the enemies being nigh. Chapter uj  
THey which with great diligence have learned the feats of war, do affirm: that more perils are wonts to happen in journeys, then in the very battle itself. For in joining together of the battle, all the soldiers be armed and see the enemy in the face, and comes with courage to fight against him. But in the journey a soldier is less armed and less headful, and he is suddenly troubled with the force and deceit of the privy invasion of the enemy. Therefore the Captain aught with all diligence, and with all care to foresee lest in going he suffer invasion of his enemy: and that, although not easily, yet without damage or loss, he resist and repel the same. First of all he aught to have perfectly set forth the passages of all the countries in the which the war is: so that he may learn the distances of places, not only by the length thereof, but also the fashion or qualities of the ways: that he consider the shortness of ways, the turninge, the mountains, the rivers being faithfully described unto him. In so much that the wittier Captains are affirmed to have had the journeying descriptions of countries, in which they must needs have to do, not only dyligentlye noted, but also painted before their eyes: that they might point out the way to them that should go, not only with the advisement of the mind, but also with the sight of the eyes. Furthermore he should dyligentlye inquire every thing severally of the wiser men, and such as be of reputation and skilful of the places, and so gather the truth of a meanye. Moreover when there is danger in choosing the ways, he should take meet guides and cunning, and deliver the same to the safe keeping of others, with a sure promise either of punishment or of reward, if they serve truly. For those guides shallbe profitable when they shall understand that in no wise they can escape or run away, and that for their faithfulness & truth rewards be prepared, and for their untruth and false dealing punishments are ready. Also it must be foreseen the wise and expert men be sought, lest the error of two or three may purchase danger to the whole multitude.  
Sometime ignorance and bold rudeness doth promise' many things, and believeth that he knoweth the which he doth not know. But the chiefest point of this warenes and heed taking is: that it be kept close unto what places & by what ways the army should pass forth. For it is thought that in all vyages the thing which must be done, should be not known. For this cause the old men of war have had in their Legions the badge or sign of Minotaurus, that as he was said to be hid in the innermost and most secret place of the maze or intricate place called Labyrinthus: even so the intent of the Captain should be kept secret and hid. That journey is taken in hand without fear, which the enemy doth not so much as once suspect: but because spies sent out on the other part, do either see or suspect which way the army goeth, and many times there wanteth not runagates and traitors: it must be declared how these being at hand, may be prevented and resisted. The Captain ready to march forth with his army, must send most trusty and fine witted men with the best tried horses: which may search the places through which they must take their journey, before and behind, on the right hand and left hand, lest the enemies go about to set an ambushment, and lie in wait to deceive them. But the searchers or spies do work more safely by night then by day. For he, after a certain manner is a traitor to himself, whose spy or scoutewatch may be taken of his enemies. Therefore let the horsemen go first: after them the footmen, carriages, Archers, pages, and in the midst the wagons must be placed: so that part of the light armed footmen, and light harnessed horsemen do follow. For seldom as they do march on, they are invaded before, but more often behind. Also on the sides the carriages aught to be guarded with a good company of soldiers. For they that lie in wait, oftentimes with a contrary course rush into some other place of the army, then where they are suspected. This also is specially to be observed, that the part, to the which the enemy is likest to come, may be fortified with the most choice horsemen, with light armed men, and also with archers on foot set purposely to withstand them. If so be that the enemies do assail on every side, than every side must be defended. But lest sudden trouble should exceedingly hurt them, the soldiers are to be warned aforehand, that they be ready with mind and courage, and that they have their weapons in their hands. For sudden chances which amaze men most when they are put to their pintche, are nothing fearful, if they be provided for aforehand. The old men of war did most dilligentlye take heed lest the soldiers in their fight should be troubled by the pages sometime being hurt, sometimes being in fear, and lest archers through their cry should be made afraid: least that either being scattered far a sunder, or gathered togethered on heaps, they might let their own party more than profit them, & by reason thereof further the enemies. And therefore even as the soldiers march forth, so they also lead the carryages well appointed under certain ensigns. finally they did choice of the very pages (which they call headpiece bearers) such as were fit and cunning by experience: whom they make as it were Captains, over two hundred fletchers & other young fellows, and not above. Unto these they gave banners or flags, that they might know to which ensigns they ought to gather their carryages together. But the fighting men are divided from the carriages a preatye space, lest being thrust thick together while the army is in marching forward, they may be hurt in fight. As the places do differ, so the manner of defence should be altered. For in the open fields horsemen use to assault the army, rather than footmen. But in places full of woods, hills, or fens, footmen are more to be dread. This also must be avoided, lest y● while one sort make to much hast another sort through negligence going to slowly, the army be broken a sunder in the midst or else peradventure be made thin. For the enemies always make their invasion there, where the army is slender.  
Therefore the most expert Captains of the field, the deputies or the Tribunes must be set before, which may stay them that go to fast, and constrain them to make haste that go to slowly: for they that go a great way before, if a sudden invasion come, do not so much covet to retire, as to fly. But they that be last, being left behind of their own company, what with the violence of the enemies and their own despairing, are strait way overcome. We must also know, that the enemies do privily say ambushmentes in such places as they perceive meet for them: or else do assail them with open battle. But lest any privy places may do hurt, that the diligence of the Captain provideth for, whose duty it is to search every thing before hand. Also the ambush being perceived, if it be compassed about pollitikelye, it doth suffer more peril and danger, than it went about to do. But if an open power be prepared in the mountains, the higher places must be taken up with aids sent before: to the intent that when the enemies shall come, he may be on the lower ground, and then he dare not adventure to withstand, when he seethe armed men as well before him, as above his head. If so be that the ways be narrow, and not safe enough, yet it is better that soldiers go before, with hatchets and axes, and with labour to make the ways open and plain, then in never so good a way to suffer peril and danger. Moreover we aught to know the usual trade of our enemies, whether by night, or in the dawning of the day, or in the time of repast, their custom is to assail their wearied enemies: and to eschew that, which after their accustomed trade we think they will do. Furthermore it behoveth us to know, whether they can do more with footmen, or horsemen: whether with slingers, pikemen, or archers: whether they excel us in number of men, or munition & fence of armour and weapons: & then we aught to order that thing well, that we know profitable to ourselves, & contrary to them. We aught also to consider & deliberate, whether it be better to begin our journey by day or by night: what & how great distances be of the places to the which we covet to make haste: lest in Summer the scarcity of water hinder us in iorneying: in winter dangerous fens & such as men cannot pass, or great waters: and by such means the journey being letted, our host may be compassed ●rentrapped before it can come to the place appointed. As it is our commodity at all times to avoid these things: so if the ignorance or negligence of the enemies shall give us occasion, it ought not to be let pass: but we aught instantly to allure the traitors & spies, to the intent that we may know what our enemy both presently and afterward doth purpose to do: and with horsemen in readiness, or light armed footmen, prepared for the purpose to beguile them, and so to cast them into a sudden fear, as they be ranging abroad seeking for forage and victuals.   

¶ After what manner great rivers may be passed over. Chap. vij  
IN the passing over of rivers ●hey that are not very cyrcumspecte, are oftentimes excedinglye molested. For if any water be rough and boisterous, or the channel very broad, it many times drowneth the carriages and the boys and now and then slothful and lyther soldiers. Therefore after the ford be searched, two troops of good horsemen upon choose horses are appointed, being separate a sunder a reasonable space, that the footmen and carryages may pass over through the midst: for the former troop doth break the violence of the waters, and the latter doth gather and put over such as be caught and were under the water. But when the flood is deeper, so that neither footman nor yet horseman can pass it: if it do run through plain places, it is best to divide the river into many parts with ditches, & thus being parted, the passage over will be easy. But rivers are made easy to pass over with boats, or with spearestaves rammed fast into the earth▪ & plantchers laid over them, or else with much labour to gather together as many empty vessels as can be, and to say boards over them But the expert horsemen use to make bundells of dry reeds or flags, upon the which they do put their armour and weapons, lest they should sink. They ●●em selves, and their horses did swim after their bundles and so pass the river. But experience hath found out this to be a more commodious way, that the host do carry with it in carts certain boats, which they call Monoxilos, that is to say boats somewhat broad, made hollow, all of one beam, very light according to the kind & fines of the wood, having boards likewise and Iron nails in a readiness for that purpose. And thus a bridge being made without delay, and bound strongly with roopes (which for the same purpose must be prepared, wylbe as strong for the time as if it were a bridge of stone. But the enemies are now already upon the banks, and their use is to lie in wait, and to come upon them that pass over of a sudden. Against the which extremity or need, companies well armed, are set in the bank on either side, lest they being divided by the channel that runneth between them, should be oppressed of the enemies. But the surest way is, to fasten stakes before on both sides, that if any assault be made they may sustain it without harm. If so be that the bridge be necessary, not only for passing over, but also for coming back again, and provision of victuals: then at either end it should have soldiers to defend it, and broad ditches should be cut out of it with a rampire made by it, and the soldiers should keep and defend the bridge as long as they shall have any necessary affairs in those places.   

¶ After what manner a camp should be placed. Chapter eight  
THus having described the manner how an army should be ordered in the journey, it seemeth good next to come unto the ordering of the tents, wherein we must remain. For in time of war, a fortified or walled city is not always ready in the way to abide at, and it is an unwise point and very dangerous, that they should stay or abide every where without any munition or fort: when as the soldiers being busied to take their meat, or scattered abroad to do any thing pertaining to their charge: it is an easy matter to find out wiles to entrap them or ever they be ware. Finally, the darkness of night, the necessity of sleep, the scattering of the horses when they feed, do minister occasion to sudden invasions. In pitching a camp, it is not enough to choose a good place: except it be such one that an other better than it can not be found, lest we, forsaking the better place, & our enemies taking it to their use, we may chance to smart for it. We must also take heed in Summer, lest either corrupt water be nigh the army, or wholesome water be far of: In Winter lest we lack store of forage, or plenty of wood now and then: least the field wherein we must abide now and then be overflowed with sudden storms, least it be pitched in steep down and rough places, and such as if the enemies should besiege us, we might hardly get forth: least it be within the reach of our enemies arrows, when they cast them from high places over our heads. The which things being foreseen warily and diligently as they aught to be, thou shalt make the camp, either four square, or round, or three cornered, or else longewayes, according to the necessity of the place. For the fashion or form is not prejudicial to any commodity. Nevertheless, those camps are thought fairest, which are longer by the third part, than they are broad. But they that view and survey the field, aught so to measure every foot thereof, that the army may be compacted according to the numbered of the same. For if the camp be narrow, they in the forefront hem it in to straightly. And if it be to broad, they scatter farther than they should do. There be three ways whereby they say a camp may be fortified. The first they say, is some what sleight, serving them one night only while they are in their journey, that is to dig up turfs and to say them in order round about the camp upon heaps, and above them in good order to make a pale. I mean to set stakes there, or briars and brembles. A turf it cut of earth, that containeth both the grass, the roots & the earth also, and is cut out of the ground with an Iron spade or such like, it is made half a foot deep, a foot broad, a foot and a half long. If it be so that the ground be so sandy that after the fashion of a brick, a turf can not be cut up, than every man must set to his helping hand to the making of a ditch, which must be five foot broad and three foot deep, in the inner side whereof a rampire must be raised: so that the army may take their rest without fear. But if the camp remain in one place, then whether it be summer, or winter, if so be the enemy be at hand, it must with greater care and labour be fortified: for every hundred have their stations appointed out by the captains and generals of the field, which they take and keep them unto: and laying of their shield & farthels about their own ensigns, ●hey gird their sword unto them, & cast a trench about the army of ix foot, or xi or xiii foot broad, or else if they fear a greater power of enemies xvii foot broad, (for it is a custom always to observe an odd numbered) than they raise up a rampire and hedge it about, or else drive stakes into it, & bows of trees, lest the earth should slide a way: upon the which rampire they make battilmentes and fortresses, even as they do upon a stone wall. The captains do measure out this work with poles or perchies ten foot long, lest any man should dig less than he aught, or else through his fellows negligence should dig out of square. The tribunes also overse this work, neither do they depart if they be good & diligent in their office, before that all be finished. Now lest there should be any sudden invasion on them that labour, all the horsemen & part of the footmen which doth not work by reason of prerogative of dignity, do stand armed in readiness before the trench, that they may withstand the enemies invading them. Therefore, within the camp the standards are first set in their places: because there is nothing more to be had in reverence of the soldiers, them the majesty of the same. The pavilion called Praetorium, is prepared for the chief captain and his company. Other tents are pitched for the tribunes, unto whom water, wood, forage, are ministered by certain companies assigned to those charges. Then according to their degree, are places appointed in the camp for the legions, aids, horsemen, and footmen, wherein they may pitch their pavilions: and there be choose of every hundred four horsemen and four footmen, which do keape the watches by night. And for as much as it seemed unpossible, or a very hard thing, in the watch tower for every one to continue watching all the whole night: therefore the watches are divided by an hour glass into four parts, that it should be need for noon to watch more than three hours in the night. The watches are begun by a trompetter, and after the hours be ended, they are called away again by a blower of a horn. But for all this, the tribunes do choose and pike out fit and tried men, which may go about the watches, and show if any fault may appear, whom they call Circuitores, that is to say searchers of the watch. Now are these made a certain degree in the wars, and are called Circitores, that is to say, officers going about to see good rule in the night. Yet we must know that the horsemen aught to watch without the trench and bulwark. But every day time, after the camp be pitchte, they do use to take order for warding and posthorses, some in the morning, some after noon, for weareing of the men and horses. Among the chief and special points, it behoveth the captain, whether he remain in the camp or in a city, to provide that feeding for the cattle, conveying of grain & other kinds, the carriage of water, wood, and forage be made assured and without danger, from the invasion of their enemies. Which thing otherwise can not come to pass, except in meet and convenient places, by which the provision of our victuals must pass, there be set and disposed places of refuge and succour: whether they be cities or defenced castles. If so be that any old munition be not found, there must hastelye be made sure fortresses compassed about with great ditches. For the word fortresses, is so named being derived of this word fort: as who say, a little fort or castle, within the which a certain number of horsemen and footmen continuing, having charge to watch and attend for the same, do conduct and make safe the way, for the conveyance of victuals. For the enemy dare scarcely adventure to come to those places, in which he knoweth his adversaries to abide both before & behind.   

¶ What manner, and how great things should be considered, to understand whether we aught to fight with skirmishing, and lying in wait, or with open battle. Chap. ix.  
Whosoever will vouchsafe to read these bridgements briefly gathered out of the most expert and tried authors, he coveteth quickly to hear the law, or manner of a field fought, and the precepts of rules of fight. But an open or a set battle, is soon determined by the trial of two or three hours space: after that all hope of the side which is overcome, doth once begin to fall & decay. Therefore all things should be thought on & assayed before, that it come to the uttermost & last breaking of. For good captains do not assay the field with open battle, where ensueth common danger to all, but always closely and privily, that by that means they might destroy, or at the lest terrify their enemies, their own soldiers being yet fresh and lusty. Concerning which part, I will declare such things as are very necessary, which I have gathered out of old writers. The chief art and commodity of the captain, is oftentimes to debate & entreat of his own power, and also if his enemy's power, taking unto him throughout all his army expert and cunning men of war, and also wise and discrete men, that (all flattery set a part) which is very hurtful, he may know whether he or his enemies have the greater number of fight men: whether his men or the enemies be better armed, & furnished with artillery, which are most exercised, and which in greatest dangers are more valiant. He must also inquire whether part have better horsemen, and whether better footmen. He must also know that the strength of the army doth chief consist in the footmen: and among the horsemen he must see which were best with the lance, and which with the bow, who have the best armour, the best horses: last of all, whether the places in which they must fight, be more commodious for the enemies then for themselves. For if we delight in an host of horsemen, we must desire the plain fields: if in an host of footmen, we must choose such places, as be narrow and straight, environed and stopped with ditches, marisses, and fens: or with trees, & sometime hilly places: for the which army, store of victual must be had, rather to much then to little. For hunger (as men say) doth pinch inwardly, and oftentimes doth over come without di●te of sword. But chief he must consult and deliberate, whether it be more profitable to prolong the urgent necessity of battle, or to fight it out of hand. For sometime the adversary doth hope that the voyage may soon be ended: and if it may be delayed and longer, either the army is famished for lack of victuals, or is called away to their own, through the love and desire that they have thereof: or else having done nothing worthy of praise, is compelled to depart through despair Then many discouraged with pains and weariness do forsake him: some betray him, and some yield themselves to their enemies. For in adversity faithfulness is rare, and he that came wealthy, now begins to be bore and neady. It is profitable also to know what manner of man the adversary is, what his companions are and leaders, whether they be rash and hasty, or ware and circumspect, whether they be hardy or fearful: cunning in the feats of war, or such as are wont to fight at all adventure: what valiant people have fought with them, what cowardly and fearful: of what trustiness our aids be, and of what force: what courage his army is of, and what also our host hath: and which part doth more hope for the victory, for by such cogitations manhood is either increased or diminished. By the encouraging of the captain, even those which despair are much boldened, & if he be not fearful, they wax courageous, if he hath done any valiant act, either by laying wait, or by other occasion offered: if things go not well, but fall out unluckly with their enemies: if he can vanquish any of his enemies, either such as be weaker, or not so well armed. But you must take diligent heed that you bring not forth the army to fight at any time, if it be doubtful or fearful. It is very necessary to know whether you have new soldiers or old. Whether they have been some little time in wars, or have continued a good while in peace and quietness: for they are to be esteamed as young soldiers which have not fought a long season. But when the legions, aids or horsemen do come from sundry places to us, a noble and worthy captain ought to exercise every company severally in all kind of weapons and artillery by the tribunes or marishals thereto appointed, whose diligence he hath tried before: and after ward shall exercise them gathered together into one place, as though they should fight in open battle. He himself shall often try and prove what cunning they have, what force, how they agreed together, whether they can be ready at the sound or blowing of the trumpets, at the showing of the ensigns, yea, & at every beck and commandment. If they do amiss in any point, they must be exercised and instructed, until they be cunning and expert. Although they may be fully instructed in running in the ●ielde, and other exercise: in shooting, in throwing darts, in setting the army in order: yet they must not rashly be brought to the open or set battle upon every light occasion, but they must first be entered and acquainted with little encounters. Therefore the painful, discrete and wise Captain, doth judge of his own, and also of his adversaries power, even as he and his council should judge of a civil matter between party and party. If he be found more able and better furnished in many things, let him not differ the convenient and fit occasion of fight. But if he perceive his enemy to be the better, let him avoid the open and set battle. For a fewer in numbered, and weaker in strength, oftentimes under good captains have obtained the victory by sudden invasions, and lying privily in wait.   

¶ What must be done if any captain have an army out of use of fight, or an army of young soldiers. Chapter ten  
ALl arts and sciences, and all our daily works do proceed and increase by continual use and exercise, which if it be true in small things, how much more aught it to be observed in the greatest affairs. And who doth doubt that the knowledge and skill of war, is more mighty than all other things: by the which liberty is maintained, and the dignity of a prince enlarged, and the Empire maintained and preserved. The Lacedæmonians, in times past (all other kinds of learning set a side) did judge this only to be observed, and after that the Romans likewise. And even at this time, the barbarous and strange nations, do also think that this only aught to be observed and kept. And they have such confidence herein, that they think all other things do consist in this: or that they may obtain all things through this. This unto them that must fight, is very necessary, by which they may save their life, and obtain the victory. Therefore a captain unto whom the worthy honours of so great power and authority are given: to whose faithfulness and prows, the goods of the possessors, the defence of cities, the safety of the soldiers, the honour of the common wealth is committed: aught to be careful, not only for the whole army, but also for every particular company of the same. For whatsoever doth happen in the war otherwise then well, the fault is his, but the injury and hurt is common. Therefore if he guide an army of young soldiers, or such as have been long out of use in chivalry, he aught diligently to try and search the strength, courage and experience of every band of the legion, and also of every company of the horsemen. Let him also know (if it be possible) by name, who is captain under him, who is tribune, which be his household servants, which be common soldiers in every hand, and how much he can do in the war: and let him get great authority by sharpness and severity: let him punish all the soldiers faults by the laws, let him not be thought to wink at any that offendeth, let him understand and know the proof and trial of all in sundry places upon divers occasions. These things (as it behoveth) being thus ordered and looked to, when the enemies do wander abroad careless, dispersed here and there for booties, then let him send expert and tried horsemen, or else footmen with the young and meaner soldiers, to the intent that if, by occasion the enemies be foiled, they might be made more cunning, and the other more bold and hardy. Let him place certain companies very privily to come suddenly on the enemies at the passing over of Rivers, at the steep or fall of mountains, at the narrow straights of woods, at the dangerous passages of fens and other ways. And let him order his own journey so, that being ready and well furnished, he may set upon them, either when they are eating or sleaping, or being idle, careless, unarmed, unshod, their horses being scattered abroad, suspecting nothing: because in such skirmishes his soldiers may be boldened and encouraged. For they which before of a long time or never in their life have seen men wounded or ●layne: at the first sight are so afraid, that they quake and tremble: and being amazed through fear, have more mind of flying than of fight. Furthermore, if the enemies do range abroad to make invasions, let him set upon them after they be weary with their long voyage: and let him invade the hindermost, even at unwares. Let him also suddenly prevent with choose men, such as either for forage, or for a booty do tarry a great way from their company. For these things must be tried first, which if they have ill success, it doth small harm: if they prospero well, it doth much avail. It is the point of a good captain to minister and breed causes of discord amongst th' enemies. For no nation though it be very little, can quickly be destroyed of the enemies, except it be consumed with private dissensions and hatred within itself. For civil discord and hatred is to hasty and rash in seeking the destruction of the enemies, and to careless and unheedy of foreseeing of their own defence and safety. And in this enterprise, this one thing must be foretold, that no man should despair of the perfourminge of those things which have been done before. But some man may say that no man in many years space doth enuironne an army which is pitched, in a place compassed about with a ditch, a rampire or trench. I answer him thus, that if this heed were taken the sudden invasion of enemies, neither by night nor day, could do any hurt at al. The Persians' following the example of the Romans, do pitch their camps with ditches drawn about: and for as much as all places in a manner be sandy, they fill sacks, which they carried empty with earth very dusty and dry (which in those places is digged) and with an heap of them they do make a rampire. All the barbarous people having their carts joined together in a round compass, after the manner of a rampire, do pass over the nights quietly, and out of danger of them that do invade them. And do we fear that we can not learn those things which others have learned of us? These things must be learned by experience, and also by reading of such things as before time were observed: but being left of for a great while, no man hath sought them out, because that as long as peace flourished, the necessity of war was far out of mind. But lest it may seem impossible to renew and restore the knowledge of marshal affairs, being long intermitted and decayed for lack of exercise, examples may sufficiently teach us in this point. The knowledge of warfare hath oftentimes been forgotten with them of old, but 〈◊〉 hath been sought out again in books, and confirmed by the skill and authority of good captains. Scipio Aphricanus, did take the armies which were in Spain, being oftentimes overcome under divers general captains: and observing the order and precepts of warfare, he so diligently exercised them in casting of ditches, & making trenches, that he would say commonly that diggers must be defiled with mire, which would be washed with the blood of their enemies. And at the length with those he so fired the Numaintines, that their city was taken, and never one escaped. Metellus received an army in Aph●ike, which was subdued under Albinus their general captain: which he did so repair with old precepts and policy of the ancient warriors, that afterward they overcame them, of whom they had been subdued before. The Germans also in France, destroyed the legions which Cepio, Manilius and Sillanus led: the remnant whereof, when Caius Marius had received, he so instructed them with knowledge and skill of fight, that he destroyed in open battle an innumerable multitude, not only of Zelanders, but also of Germans, & Hungarians For it is easier to instruct soldiers of new unto prowess, then to call again them that be thoroughly afraid.   

¶ What things should be done the same day, that the open or set battle should be joined. Chapter xj  
THe more easy feats of war being declared before, the order of the trade & knowledge of warfare, doth move me now to come to the doubtful day of the open fight, and mortal day unto nations and people. For the whole victory consists in the success of open battle. Then at this time so much more aught the captains to be diligent and careful, in as much as greater renown is hoped for of them that be diligent, and the greater danger doth follow them that be slouthefull and unexperte: in which the use of skilfulnes, the knowledge and policy of fight, incontinent doth try and rule all the matter.  
In old time they were wont to bring forth the soldiers to fight, refreshed before with a small portion of meat: to the intent that their meat received might make them the quicker: and that in the longer bickering they might not be wearied with hunger. Great care also must be had, if the enemies be present, whether you bring forth the soldiers to the battle out of the camp, or out of a city, lest whiles the army goeth forth through the straight passage of the gates by small numbres, it be discomfited of the enemies gathered together in a readiness. Therefore this must be provided, that all the soldiers do issue forth of the gates, and the army be set in array before the enemy come. If ●o be that the enemies being ready come to them abiding still in the city: let their issuing forth, either be differred, or at the lest dissembled: that when the adversaries shall begin to advance and boast themselves against those whom they think will not come forth of their city: when as they shall retire, and purpose to get some booty, and so shall break their array, than they being astonished, let the most choice and piked men rush out, and forthwith set upon them at unawares. But this must be observed that the soldiers be not wearied with any long journey: lest you compel the horses being weary after their running to the open battle. He that shall fight, must needs be much weakened with the travail and pain of the journey. What shall he do that comes blowing & panting to the battle? This thing the old men of war have always shunned, and in the time late passed, when as the Roman captains, through ignorance, have not been ware of, (so that I will say no more) they have utterly cast away their army. For the state or condition is unlike, for him that is weary, to fight with him that is well refreshed: he that sweateth with him that is fresh: he that runneth with him that stood still.   

¶ We must diligently search out▪ what minds the soldiers be of, when they should fight. Chapter twelve  
THe very same day that the soldiers shall fight, it is meet to search diligently what they think. For fearfulness or confidence is perceived by the countenance, talk, going, & moving: neither aught you to be very bold, although the young soldiers do covet to fight. For battle is pleasant to such as have not tried it, and you may be assured that the battle must be prolonged if the expert warriors be afraid to encounter with their enemies. Yet with the advertisements and exhortations of the captain, manhood and courage increaseth in all the army, specially if they can perceive such order and means invented for the battle that shall be fought, that they may be in hope easily to attain the victory. After this, the cowardness and ignorance of the enemies must be declared. And also, if they have been overcome of us before tyme. Such things also must be declared, by the which the minds of the soldiers through hatred of the adversaries, may be stirred to anger and indignation. For this is given naturally almost to all men to be afraid, when as they come to the joining of battle. But without doubt they are more fearful, whose minds the very sight of the enemies doth amaze and trouble. But that fear is mitigated by this remedy, if before you shall fight, you do often set your army in array in safe places: from whence they may use both to view the enemies and to know them. Sometime they may venture some thing of good occasion, and so either chase or ●lea the enemies: that they may know the manners and fashions of the enemies, their armour and their horsemen. For the things which are practised by experience, are less fearful.   

¶ How a meet place should be choose to fight in. Chapter xiij  
IT behoveth a good captain to know, that the very place wherein they must fight, doth contain a great part of the victory. Take pains therefore, that when you shall join battle, first you have the advantage of the place: which the higher it shallbe when as it is taken, it is thought to be the more commodious. For the darts & other weapons are cast down with greater force against them that be under: and the higher part doth drive them back that withstand, with greater violence. He that forceth himself against the rising or bending of an hill, he doth take on hand a double conflict, both to strive with the place and with the enemy. But here must be discretion had, and a difference made if you hope for the victory through your footmen, against the horsemen of your enemies, you must choose rough places, uneven, and full of hills. But if you seek the victory against the footmen of your enemies through your horsemen, you must choose such places as be in deed some what higher, but plain and open, encumbered neither with woods, nor with ●ennes.   

¶ How an army aught to be set in order, that in the battle it may be invincible, or not easily overcome. Chapter xiiij  
HE that goeth about to set his battle in good order, he aught to foresee three things: the Sun, the dust, & the wind. For the sun before their faces, doth blemish or basell their sight, a contrary wind doth turn away your darts and beatheth them down, and furthereth those of the enemies. The dust gathered before the face filleth the eyes and closeth them up. The unskilful captains use to avoid these incommodities even in that very moment when they set the battle in array: but a wise and circumspect captain ought to take heed betime, & foresee things to come▪ least a little while after the day coming, the course of the sun being changed, it may be hurteful: and least a contrary wind doth rise, even in the time of the battle. Therefore let the ranks be so set in array that these may be behind us: and (if it may be possible) that they may be full in the face of our enemies. Acies is called an army set in order and in good array, and the forefront of it is placed directly against the enemies. This forefront in open or set battle, if it be wisely set in order, doth help and profit very much. If they be ordered unskilfully, if they were never so good warriors, yet with ill setting in array, they are soon vanquished and overthrown. The rule of setting in array, is that in the first rank be placed the expert and old beaten soldiers, whom in old time they called Principes, that is the most expert and valiant soldiers. In the second rank must be appointed archers, being armed with curets or breastplates, and the best soldiers with darts or else spears, who of old were called Hasti, that is pikemen. Every armed man was accustomed to take straight forth three foot space between one and other. That is to say, in the space of a mile, a thousand six hundredth three score and syxe, are placed and set in length, that neither the battle may appear thin between the soldiers, and that there may be room enough to handle their weapons. They would have between one rank and other, a space behind their backs, six foot in bredthe, that they that fight, might have room to come forward and go backward. For the darts in leaping and running, are cast with a greater violence. In those two ranks are placed such as are of riper age, hardy through use and experience, and also armed with more heavy and weighty harness. For these as a wall within themselves can not be compelled, either to retire, or to pursue their enemies: least they should disorder their rays: but are ready to receive the enemies marching forward, and by standing stoutly to it and fight valiantly, either to drive them back, or put them to flight. The third order or ray, is placed of the lyghtest armied men, of archers, being young men, of good casters of darts, which in old time were called Ferentarii, that is, men armed in light harnisse, ready to come quickelye to succours.  
The fourth order must be set with the most ready soldiers, which are armed with shields, with young archers and such as fight with darts and leaden plummets (which they name Martiabarbulos, all which were called light harnissed men. Therefore we must know for as much as the two first orders do stand still: the third order & the fourth with their darts and arrows, must always go forth to provoke the enemies. If so be that they can put them to flight, than they with the horsemen do pursue. But if they be driven back by the enemies, they return to 〈◊〉 first and second ordres again, and amongst them every one takes his own place. But the first and second battle, as soon as they come to fight with dint of swords, and short darts, that is (as they say commonly) to hand strokes they endure and hear of, the brunt of all the battle. In the fifth ray or battle, sometime were planted field pieces, and shooters in crossbows, slingers both with the slyngestaffe, and with the hand. They be called Fundibulatores, which cast stones with staffeslinges. The slinge staff is a staff four foot long: to the which through the mids is bound a slinge of leather: and being forced with both hands, doth cast level the stones in manner of a great gun. Funditores, be such as cast stones with slynges made of flax, thread, or great hears, for these they do call the better, they do throw stones, fetching their arm round about their head. They that had no shields, did fight in this order, whether it were with stones cast with hand, or with darts: whom they did name Accensos, as who say, as yet younger men and not expert, but afterward added and put to the legion. The sixte order, was upholden and stayed with the most valiant and courageous warriors, and such as had shields and were fenced with all kind of armour and weapons: whom the ancient men did name Triarios, that is to say soldiers which be set always in the rerewarde, which were the strongest men. These are always placed after the last ranks: that being rested & fresh, they might more sharply assail their enemies. For if any thing had happened otherwise than well unto the first orders, all the hope of recovery did hang and depend of their force & strength.   

¶ The manner of measuring by the foot, how much space in the battle should be between every man in length, or in breadeth, and how much betwixt every rank. Chap. xv.  
BUt after that I have set forth in what manner the army aught to to be set in array, now I will declare the footing and measuring of the same. In one miles space one battle doth contain 1666. footmen: because that every soldier doth occupy three foot space. If that you would ordain six battles in a mile space, there must needs be 9996. footmen. But if you would pitch the same number in three ranks, you must take .2000. paces. But it is better to make more battles, then to disperse them farther a sunder. But I said before that there ought to appear between every rank behind their backs six foot in breadth. And the fighters as they stand to take every one a foot. And therefore if you would set in array vi. ranks or battles: 42. foot in breadth, and a mile in length will contain an army of ten Thousand men. But if you would set the same in array divide into three battles .21. foot in breadth, and two miles in length, will contain the army of ten Thousand me●. After the same reason, whether there be xx. thousand or .30 thousand footmen, according to the measuring by the foot, they may be set in array very easily. Neither is the Captain deceived when he knoweth how many armed men every place can contain. finally if the place be somewhat straight, or if the number be sufficient, than it is best to set them in nine battles or more. For it is better that they fight thick together, then severed further, & a great distance one from another. For if the battle be made to slender and thin, the enemies do easily break through, and disturb the array by violent invasion, and no help afterward can be had. But what bands aught to be set in the right wi●g, what in the left, and what in the midst, it is 〈…〉 a custom and manner, either according to their dignities & degrees, or else for the order and form of the enemies it is altered.   

¶ Of setting the horsemen in order Chap. xuj.  
AFter that the footmen be set in battle ray, the horsemen are set in the wings, so that all they that be in complete harness, & such as have lances be joined to the footmen. But archers & such as are not well armed, let them rove abroad, & keep a loufe from those which are better armed, & more valiant soldiers. For the sides be defended with horsemen, and the wings of the enemies must be separate, scattered and disturbed by the quick and light horsemen. The Captain aught to know against what troops of the enemies, or against what ranks of his enemies, he must place his troop of horsemen. For I know not by what hide or secret way, yea rather by some heavenly means, some do fight against some better then others: and they that had overcome stronger men, oftentimes are overcome of that weaker. If so be that the horsemen be not equal, the swiftest footmen, after the manner of the old warriors with light Tergettes, exercised to the same purpose should be joined with them, whom they did name Expeditos velites: that is to say light and nimble for skirmishes. Which being done, though there were never so stout horsemen of the enemies, yet can they not be able to match an army so mingled and tempered. The old Captains invented this remedy that they used to exercise certain young men that ran notably, and did always place of them between every two horsemen a footman, with light shields, sword and darts.   

¶ Of aids or rescues which are placed behind the battle. Chap. xvii.  
BUt the best way is and doth most avail to the obtaining of the victory, that the Captain have in a readiness behind the battle, the most piked and choice soldiers of the footmen, horsemen, with the deputies, rulers & Tribunes attending only to that purpose. Some about the wings, some in the midst, that if the enemies in any place do violently assault them, and strive to burst in by force, the may step forth suddenly and fulfil the places, lest the battle ray might be disturbed and broken: and so by showing their manliness and courage, they might abate the stoutness of the enemies. The Lacedæmonians first invented this way: whom the men of Carthage have followed: afterward the Romans in all places have observed the same. There is no better order or placing of a battle then this. For the forefront which is placed directly against the enemies, oughtt only to do this, if it be possible, either to drive back the enemy, or else to discomfit him. If it be set like a wedge small before and broad behind, or spreading open like a pair of shears, you must needs have behind the battle soldiers, more than ordinary: of which you would make your battle wedgewyse, or open like the shears: if it should be led in and out like a saw, it shallbe made likewise of the superfluous soldiers. For if you begin to put out any soldier set in array, out of his place, you shall disturb and bring all out of order. If any troop of the enemies depart from their company, and begin earnestly to invade either your wing or any other part, unless you have soldiers more than ordinary, whom you may set against those troops: whether you take horsemen from the battle or else footmen: while you wou would defend one part, you shall endanger the other by despoiling of it so. If you have not a sufficient multitude or plenty enough of fighting men, it is better to have the battle less pitched, so that you place very many to serve for aid and secure: for you must have many choice men about the middle part of the battle, piked out of the well armed footmen, of which you may make your battle wedgewyse, and so shortly break into the army of your enemies. And it is very good to environ the wings of your enemies battle with the horsemen about your wings, appointed and kept for this purpose, which are furnished with lance and armour, and the light armed footmen.   

¶ In which place the first and chief Captain aught to stand, in which the second, and in which the third, Chap. xviij.  
THe Captain which beareth the chiefest rule and authority, useth to stand between the horsemen and footmen on the right side. For this is the place in which all the battle is ruled, from whence is the straight and free passage to the skirmish. And therefore doth he stand between both those companies, that he may both guide with wisdom and counsel, & also exhort with his authority & estimation, as well the horsemen as footmen to fight. He with the horsemen which are above the ordinary number, and the light footmen mingled with them, must compass the left wing of the enemies which stands against the same, & always assault & press on them behind their backs. The second Captain is set in the middle battle of the footmen, which may stay & strengthen the same. This Captain must have with him the most valiant & well armed footmen, of them that be overplus. Of the which either he himself may make his battle wedgewyse, and burst the forefront of the enemies: or else if the enemies shall make there's wedgewyse, he may make his battle open like the shears, that he may meet & encounter with the enemies wedge. In the left side of the army the third Captain aught to be very valiant in arms, wise and cyrcumspect: because the left side is more in danger, & as it were stands in the battle maimed and weak. Therefore he must have about him good horsemen, which are above the ordinary number, & the most nimble footmen, by the which he may always enlarge the left wing, lest it should be compassed about of the enemies. But the shout or cry (which they do call Barrithum) must not be raised up before that both the battles be joined. For it is the point of such as be unskilful, and cowards to cry aloud a great way of, when as the enemies are made more afraid, if with the dint of weapons come together the hedious shout and cry.  
But you must always cast and study to set your battle in array before your enemies: because you may at your own will and pleasure do that, which you think to be fit and profitable unto yourself, when no man doth let or withstand: by this means also you shall more encourage and boulden your soldiers, and discourage your enemies.  
For they are most courageous, which dare provoke and challenge their enemies. And the enemies do begin to fear, when they see the battle set in order and array: and this commonly also cometh hereof, that you being now set in order and well prepared, may prevent and assault your enemies, ordering themselves & trembling for fear. For it is one part of the victory to disturb the enemy before you fight.   

¶ With what means the vallantnes and deceits of the enemies in the battle, may be withstand and prevented. Chap. nineteeen.  
Besides the privy onsettes & sudden invasions upon occasion, which the Captain of an army doth never omit: sometime it is good to set upon the enemies, when they are wearied with long journeys, dispersed through passing over of rivers, letted with fens or marisses, travailinge in the tops of mountains, scattered in the plain fields, and sleaping quietly in their abiding places. For when the enemy is hindered or troubled with other business, he may be slain before that he can prepare himself. If so be that the adversaries be ware and cyrcumspect, and that there is no opportunity of lying in wait: then with like choice and advantage, we must fight hand to hand with our enemies, which know and see all as well as we. For this cause the skill and knowledge of war doth no less help them that be instructed, in this open fight, then in the privy deceipts and lying in wait. But above all things you must take heed, lest upon the left wing (which more commonly doth chance) or else on the right (which happeneth very seldom) your soldiers be compassed about of the multitude of the enemies, of troops of horsemen, roving abroad whom they call Grumos. Which thing if it shall chance, one help and remedy is: that you turn your wing (as it were the insyde outward) and make it round, because that they being turned, may defend the backs of their fellows. But in that corner where most peril and danger is, must be placed the most valiance men: for there the greater violence and brunt is wont to be. Likewise against the array of the enemies coming wedgewyse, you may resist with certain and ordinary means. Cuneus, is called a company of footmen, which joined with the forebattell goeth in like order small before & broad behind, and so doth invade and break the arrays of the adversaries: for so much as the darts be cast of a great many into one place. The which thing the soldiers do name Caput Porcinum, the swines head: against the which that order and ray is appointed, which is called Forfex, opening like a pair of shears. For this battle is made of well choose soldiers, set thick together, in form and likeness of the letter V: and doth receive the wedge or sharp battle of the enemies: and encloseth it on both sides, which being done, it cannot pierce through the forebattel. Also Serra, is called a company which being appointed of the stout and valiant soldiers fighteth in battle, sometime marching forward, sometime recoylinge as a saw goeth when it is drawn, and is placed before the forefront directly against their enemies, that the forebattell disordered, may be brought into array again. But Globus is called a company of men of war, which being separate from their own battle, doth invade the enemies with an uncertain and sudden coming upon them: against the which is sent another globe or troop of horsemen, of a greater number of people & more valiance. You must also mark well that a little before the time, wherein the battle is joined, in no wise you do altar your rays, or remove any companies from their own places unto others. For strait ways doth rise discord and confusion of all things, and the enemy doth sooner set upon them being unprepared and altogether disordered.   

¶ How many kinds of ways an open or set battle is joined, and how also that army which is less in number and strength, may obtain the victory. Chap. xx.  
THere be seven kinds of open fighting, when the banners displayed in defiance on both parts, do join together in fight. One kind of fight is with a long forefront, and a four cornered army: as now a days always almost they use to fight: but this kind of fight, they that be skilful and expert in arms, do not judge to be best: because that when the battle is stretched forth in length, an even plain ground is not always in the way nigh hand and ready, and if sometime there be any empty or hollow place, or bowing or crouking in the middle part, in that part oftentimes the foreranke is broken. Moreover if the enemy do pass you in multitude, he doth compass either the right or the left wing on the sides: in the which there is great danger, except you have above your ordinary number, which may stay and put back the enemy. He only aught to join battle after this sort, which hath both more in number, and more valiant fight men: that he may compass his enemy of both the wings, and enclose him as it were within his own army. The second kind of fight is common, which is better than any other. In which if you will appoint a few stout and courageous men in a place convenient, although you be troubled with multitude and manhood of your enemies: yet may you easily win the victory. The manner of this fight is that when the battles set in array do join together, then shall you separate the left wing a good way of, from the right wing of your adversary, that no darts or arrows may come as far as it.  
But you shall join your right wing to his left wing: and there first begin you the battle: so that you do assault & compass about the left side of it, to the which you shall join yourself, with the best footmen and most tried horsemen: and that you may come to the backs of the enemies, by thrusting them out of place an overrunning them. If so be that you once begin to make your enemies to recoil: and give back from thence: if your own men do come on withal, you shall obtain most certain victory: and that part of your army which you removed from your enemy, shall remain in safety. But in this kind of fight the battle is ordered after the similitude of the letter A. or else the Carpenter's squire. If so be that the adversary do the same before you: you shall gather together unto your left wing, the extraordinary soldiers, as well horsemen as footmen: which before I said must be set behind the battle: and so shall you withstand your adversary with great force & strength, that you be not driven back with craft and policy. The third kind of fight is like unto the second, but in this point it is the worse: because you begin with your left wing, to fight with your enemies right wing. For the invasion is very weak, & they that fight in the left wing with much difficulty do assault their enemies openly. The which I will more plainly declare. If you shall at any time have your left wing a good deal the stronger, then join together the most valiant horsemen and footmen: and in the conflict bend the same first to the right wing of the enemies, and as much as is possible, make haste to drive back and compass the right side of your adversary. But separate the other part of your army in which you know that you have the worst fight men, a good way of from his left wing, that it may not be invaded with sword, or that the darts come unto it. In this kind of fight you must take heed lest your cross battle be beaten through with the wedge or sharp battle of your enemies. But by this way in one case you shall fight profitably, if your adversaries right wing be weaker, and your left wing a great deal the stronger. The fourth kind of fight is such: when as you have set your battle in array, four or five hundred paces before they come to the enemy, suddenly when he looks for no such thing, you must couragiouslye set forward both your wings: that you may on both his wings put the enemy to flight, and so sooner attain the victory. But this kind of fight although it do quickly overcome, if it shall set forth very expert and valiant soldiers, yet it is full of danger, because he that fighteth in such wise is constrained to leave his middle battle naked, and to divide his army into two parts. And if the enemy be not overcome at the first brunt, he hath afterward occasion, whereby he may both set upon the wings divided, and the middle battle also left without aid & succour. The fift kind of fight is like to the fourth. But it hath this one thing more, for because it doth set light armed men and archers before the first battle: that they may resist the invasion of enemies, and let them for breaking in: for so doth he set upon the left wing of the enemy with his right wing, and with his own left wing the right wing of the enemy. If so be that he can put the enemies to flight, he doth strait way win the field: if not, the middle battle is in no jeopardy, because it is defended of the light armed men and archers. The sixt kind of fight is the best of all, and in a manner like the second: which they do use that despair or mistrust of the number of their own soldiers, and also of their manhood. And if they do set them well in array and good order, although it be with a small number, they do always get the victory. For when as the battle set in array doth approach and come to thenemies, join you your right wing unto the left wing of thenemies, and with the most tried horsemen and swiftest footmen, there begin to fight. But remove and take away the other side of the army, a great way from the right side of your enemy, and stretch it out a length as it were a spit or a dart. For if you shall begin to beat the left part of his army, both of the sides and behind, without doubt you shall put them to flight. But thadversary cannot secure his that be in danger, neither with his right wing, nor with his middle battle: because your battle is stretched forth & reacheth itself all in length, after the fashion & similitude of the letter. I & goeth a great way of from thennemyesenemies: with the which kind many times they bicker in their vyages. The .7. kind of fight is, which through the help & benefit of the place, doth help him that doth fight. In this kind also you may withstand & match with your adversary, both with a small number, & also with less valiant soldiers, if you have on one side an hill, or the sea, or a river, or a lake, or a City, or fens, or rocks & steep down places: by the which the enemies cannot come unto, & set the residue of your army in strait battle ray. But in that wing which hath no defence, you must set all your horsemen & Gunners. Then with more safety you shall encounter with the enemy, after your own will & pleasure: because of one part the nature of the place doth defend you, of that other part almost a double strength of horsemen is set. Notwithstanding this thing aught to be observed, which is most necessary: that whether you would fight, you right wing with his left wing, there set the valiant men: or whether your left with his right wing, there place the stoutest men: or whether you would make a wedge or sharp battle in the midst, by the which you might break the battle rays of your enemies: in the same wedge you must ordain & set the most expert & cunning soldiers. For the victory is wont to be achieved by a few. The matter doth altogether rest in this, that by a wise and discreet Captain, choose men be set in those places, which by skill are thought most fit and commmodious.   

¶ That a way should be given to the enemies to departed, that they may more easily be destroyed in flying away. Chap. xxi.  
Many men being ignorant of the feats of war, do think they may have a greater victory if they can compass the adversaries either with straightness of places, or with multitude of armed men: that they can find no way to departed or fly away. But they which are so enclosed be more encouraged & boldened through desperation: & when there is no hope at all, fear doth constrain them to fight. He doth covet willingly to die with company, which knoweth most certainly that he must needs dye. Therefore is the saying of Scipio commended, which said, that the way whereby the enemies might fly should not be fortified. For if a passage to departed awaybe once opened, as sun as the minds of all do agree to run away: they are slain & murdered like beasts, neither is there any danger to them that pursue, when as they that be overcome have turned their weapons into flight, with the which they might have been defended. After this sort the greater that an army is, so much more easy a great number is overthrown, for there is no number to be required, where the heart of the soldiers once sore afraid & discouraged, doth not so much covet to shun the weapons of the enemies, as their faces. But being enclosed, though few in number, & weak in power: yet in this same point they be equal to their enemies, for as much as being in despair, they know that they hoping for no escape, must needs fight. For this only hope have they that be desperate, to look for no safety or life at all.   

¶ After what manner you may departed from the enemy, if you do not like of your purposed battle. Chap. xxii.  
ALL things being orderly declared & made plain, which the trade of war hath by experience & knowledge observed: one thing remaineth to declare, after what manner we may retire from the enemies. For they that be expert in the knowledge of war & in examples, do testify, that no where any greater danger doth appear. For he that before the joining together doth recoil, doth both take away good hope from his own army, & doth encourage and bolden the enemies. But forasmuch as this thing doth of necessity happen oftentimes, we must declare by what means the same may be done safely. First of all that your own men do not know that therefore you depart, because you shun to join battle: but that they may be brought in believe that they be called back by some policy, for this intent that the enemies may be alured unto a more convenient place, that may be the more easily vanquished: or else if the enemies should pursue after them, privy waits might be laid the better. For it must needs be that they will be ready to fly, which perceive their own Captain to despair. This also is to be avoided, that the enemies in no wise perceive of your departure away, and so forthwith run hastelye upon you. Therefore many have set their horsemen before their footmen: to the end that they running to and fro, should not suffer the enemies to see when the footmen departed. Also they withdrew every rank or batteile particularly, beginning at the first and called them backward. The other remaining still in their order and place: which afterward by little and little re●oylinge, they joined unto them which they had withdrawn. First after the ways were searched, some did retire with the army by night: to thintent that when the day came, the ennemy●es could not overtake them that went before. Moreover the light harnessed men were sent before to the hills, by the which the army might sodainlye be called again without danger: and if the enemies would follow on, they were discomfited of the light harnessed men, which got the place before them, with the horsemen also joined to them. For nothing is thought more dangerous, then if they which lie in the ambush should meet them that pursue them, unadvisedly or before they have prepared themselves. This is the time wherein ambushmentes or traps conveniently are laid, because there is greater boldness and less care against them that are in flying. For of necessity, of greater security and less carefulness ensueth greater peril and danger. Enemies are wont to come sodainlye upon such as are unprepared, or taking their meat, weary in their journey, feeding their horses, and suspecting no such thing at all. Which thing both we ourselves must avoid, and in such manner of occasions we must annoy our enemy. For neither manhood, nor yet the number of men can help such as be oppressed by such a chance: for as much as he that in battle is overcome in open fight, although policy and cunning doth there avail very much, yet he may accuse or allege ill fortune for his defence: but he that hath fallen into the sudden coming on of the enemies, and their ambushes laid for them: can allege nothing to excuse his salt: because he might have avoided it, and known before by scouts and spies meet for the purpose. Whensoever any army or company doth retire, this subtiltye is commonly used. A few horsemen do follow after with a strait journey: a strong power is secretly sent by other places or ways: as sun as the horsemen come to the enemies, they try and assay lightly what they can do and so departed The enemy thinketh straight that whatsoever lying in wait had been, that is go and passed, and so waxeth careless & negligent● then that power which was appointed by a secret way, coming on them suddenly, doth oppress them at unwares. Many when they depart away from the enemy, if they go through any woods, do prevent and take rocks or strait places: lest their enemies should there lie in wait for them. And again they stop the way behind them with trees cut down, which they call Compedes, that is to say fetters or gives, to the intent they may let their enemies in pursuing them: and in such ways there is occasion for both the parties, as well the one as the other to lie in wait. For he that goeth before, doth leave ambushmentes as it were behind him in valleys meet for the purpose, or mountains full of woods, into the which when the enemies shall fall, he returns quickly and helpeth his own company. But he that followeth by back ways, doth send light harnessed men a good way before: and getting before, doth keep his enemy from passing over, to the end that he may encclose him being deceived both behind and before. And as well he that goeth before may return back, as also he that followeth (though it be far of) may sodainlye come upon them that are a sleep in the night, by some deceit or policy. In the passing over of rivers, he that goeth before, doth assay to oppress that part which is sent before to pass over, while the residue are scattered in the river. But he● that followeth in haste, doth trouble those that could not pass over before.   

¶ Of camels and men of arms upon barded horses. Chap. xxiii.  
SOme Nations have used in times passed, to bring forth camels in the forebattell: as the people called Vrciliani, in Africa & they that be called Macetes, at this day do bring forth the same. But this kind of beasts: being apt for sandy and dry places, and to abide thirst, is reported to go the straight ways without wandering, yea though they be troubled with dust through the wind. But saving for the strangeness, if it be put away from the things that it hath been accustomed with, it is of no force in the war. The barded horsemen for the munition of armour which they bear, are in deed safe from wounds. But for the hindrance and weightiness of armour, it is an easy thing to take them: and many times they be in danger to gi●●es and shares: they be better against footmen scattered abroad then against horsemen in fight: nevertheless being set either before the Legions, or else joined with the Legionaryes, what time as they join together in fight, that is to say, hand to hand: oftentimes they break and invade the forebattell of the enemies.   

¶ After what manner we may withstand chariots armed with hooks, and also Elephants in the battle. Chap. xxiiii.  
King Antiochus and king Mithridates, had chariots in the war armed with hooks. Which as at the first brought great fear in the battle, so afterward they were laughed to scorn: for the armed chariots doth hardly find a plain and even field at all times: and with a small let it is held back, & one horse being vexed or wounded, it is disappointed. But these things have perished and decayed, chiefly through the policy of the Roman soldiers. After they came to fight, the Romans suddenly thorough out the fields did cast caltroppes: on the which when as the chariots fallen in their running, they were destroyed: this same Tribulus or caltroppe is, an instrument of defence fastened together with four iron pin●es: the which whatsoever way you will cast it, doth stand with three corners or pricks, and with the fourth, standing up right is very dangerous. The Elephants by reason of the greatness of their bodies, the fearfulness of their cry or braying, the strangeness of their form and shape, do trouble both men & horses in the battles. King Pyrrhus brought these first against the Romans in Lucania. Afterwards Hannibal in Africa, king Antiochus in the East part, jugurtha in Numidia, had many of them, against the which they invented sundry kinds of armour and weapons to withstand them. For a certain Centurion in Lucania, with a sword cut away from one of them the hand or long snout (which they call Promnistiden) and two barded horses were joined to the chariots; upon whom such as were called Clibanarij sitting, did direct against the Elephants long spears called Sarissas', that is to say, the longest poles they could get: for being fenced with iron armour, neither were they hurt of the Archers (which the beasts did carry) & they shunned the violence of the Elephants through the swiftness of the horses. Some other have sent out against the Elephants, soldiers in complete armour: so that in their arms and helmettes or shoulders, were set great sharp pricks of iron, lest the Elephant with his hand or long snout, may say hold of the man that came to fight against him. Yet the old men of war chiefly appointed light harnessed men called Velites against the Elephants. Velites, were young men with light armour, of a lusty and lively body, which shot and cast darts very well on horseback. These when they ran besides the Elephants, with broad spears and greater Darts, than they were wont, killed the beasts: but when hardiness and boldness grew, afterward many soldiers together cast all at once their darts, that is to say, their shot against the Elephants & so wounded them. Yet this also they used to do, the slingers with slingstaves & round stones leveled out of their slinges, did overthrow, and kill the men of Ind which ruled the Elephants with the towers also: and there was no safer way to destroy them invented then this. Moreover the soldiers made room for the coming of the beasts, where they might break into the battle: which when as they came so far as the midst of the host, the troops of armed men compassed them about on every side, and took both the beast and their rulers not hurt nor wounded. It is very good also to set certain field pieces behind the forebattel of a greater bigness, than the residue laid upon carts with two horses or Mules, for such do shoot level their pellets farther and with greater violence: and when the Elephants come within the reach of the dart, the beasts are strike through with the shot of the Gunners. Notwithstanding the iron is thrust brother and more surely into them, because in great bodies are made greater wounds. We have rehearsed many examples and engines against the Elephants, to the intent that if at any time necessity shall require, it may be known what defence may be had against so huge and terrible beasts.   

¶ What aught to be done if either part, or the whole army doth fly. Chap. twenty-five.  
VUe must know, if one part of the army hath overcome, & another doth fly, we should not yet despair: when as in such an extremity the constancy of the Captain may get the whole victory to himself. This thing hath happened in very many wars: and such have been accounted to have the upperhande, as have not despaired.  
For in such like case, he is thought to be more valiant, whom adversity doth not discourage. Therefore let him first take the spoils of the enemies slain, and as they do term it, let him gather the field, let him first rejoice and triumph with a shout and the trumpets. By this boldness and confidence he shall make the enemies afraid: so shall he increase the courage of his own men, and go away as though he were a conqueror. If so be that by any chance all the army be discomfited in the battle with great loss of men, yet many have had good luck in recovering and rescuing that which was lost, and therefore such remedy in the like distress must be sought. Therefore a wise and cyrcumspect Captain, aught in open or set battle, to fight so advisedly and warily, that if any thing should hap otherwise then well, through mutability of wars, and man's frail condition, he might deliver him & his overcome soldiers without great loss or displeasure. For if hills be nigh, if any defence be behind their backs: if, although the other go away, all the most valiant stand stoutly to it, they shall save themselves and their own company. Oftentimes and army now discomfited, if it can recover strength again, doth slay them that pursue, dispersed & scattered abroad out of order. For they which rejoice and advance themselves, are never in more danger, then when from sudden fierceness & boldness they are changed into sudden fear. But what success soever follow, they must be gathered together that remain alive, and must be encouraged with meet exhortations, and cherished & comforted by repairing of their armour. Then must there be new choice had of fresh soldiers, and new aids must be sought for: and then a fresh assault & invasion must be made upon the conquerors if occasion serve, by some privy lying in wait: for this is very good & profitable: and so boldness may be recovered again. Neither can opportunity want at such times: because man's minds are commonly puffed up with pride, through good luck and prosperous success, & then are less cyrcumspect & fearful. If any man think this to be the greatest misfortune that can be, let him 〈◊〉 & remember, that they commonly, which get the victory, have the worse always in the beginning of the battle.   

General rules of wars. Chap. xxvi.  
IN all manner of battles, the state or condition of the setting forth is such, that whatsoever is profitable to you, is hurtful unto the adversary: that which doth help him, is always hurtful unto you. Therefore we never aught to do or dissemble any thing after his will and pleasure: but to do that only which we judge to be profitable unto ourselves: for you do against yourself, if you follow the which he hath done for himself. Again, whatsoever you have attempted for yourself, it will be hurtful to him if he mind to imitate it. In time of war, he that in posting or conveyinge of his carriages is diligent: and taketh great pains in exercisinge his soldiers: shall incur less peril and danger. A soldier must never be brought forth into the battle, before you try and prove what he can do. It is better to subdue the enemy through scarcity and lack of necessary things, by sudden invasions, by terror and fear, then with open battle: In which fortune commonly beareth more sway, than manhood and prowess.  
Not counsels are better than those, which the 〈◊〉 knoweth not before you accomplish them.  
Occasion and opportunity is commonly more profitable in war, than valiantness.  
It is very good to entice & receive such as fly from their Captains, if they do it faithfully and dissemble not: because such as forsake their own Captains, and go to the contrary parts, do discourage the adversary more than they that be slain.  
It is better to keep some in readiness behind the forebattelles' for succours, then to have the soldiers scattered abroad.  
He is hardly overcome, which can truly judge of his own power, and also of his enemies power.  
Manhood doth more avail than multitude of men.  
The opportunity of place doth oftentimes profit more than manhood.  
Nature bringeth forth few valiant men, but diligence doth make many by good instruction and discipline.  
An army with labour doth profit and proceed, with idleness it doth decay.  
Never bring forth a soldier into the f●elde, except thou perceive that he hoopeth for the victory.  
Sudden things do make enemies afraid, things common and stolen are nothing set by.  
He that rashly pursueth the enemies when his own men are out of array, will soon give to the enemy the victory which he had got.  
He that doth not prepare grain and other necessaries, is overcome without any dent of sword.  
He that hath more store of men & also more valiant, let him fight with the forefront four square: which is the first way of setting an army in array before described.  
He that thinketh himself unequally matched with his enemy, let him with his right wing drive back the left wing of the enemy: which is the second way.  
He that knoweth himself to have his left wing, the strongest and best furnished: let him set upon the right wing of the enemy: which is the third way.  
He that hath the most expert & cunning soldiers, must set on both the wings of his enemies battle together: which is the fourth way.  
He that is Captain of the light armed men, let him invade both the wings of the enemy, placing the light harnessed men which are quick & ready, before the forefront: which is the fift way.  
He that hath not sure trust, neither in the number of his men, nor in their manhood: if he purpose to fight, let him drive back the left wing of the enemies, with them of his right wing: the residue of his men being stretched in length after the form of a spit or broche: which is the ●i. way.  
He that knoweth himself to have the fewer & weaker men after the seventh way, ought to have of one side, either a mount, or a City, or the Sea, or a river, or else some other succour or safeguard.  
He that hath most confidence in his horsemen, let him seek the higher places, & do his chief feats of arms by the horsemen.  
He that hath most trust in his foot armies: let him get the higher places for the footmen, & accomplish his enterprise chiefly by them. When a spy of the enemies doth go to and fro in the camp very privily, let every man be comma●ided in the day time to resort to his pavilion, & strait way● the spies is apprehended.  
When you shall know that your counsel and purpose is bewrayed to the enemies: than you must change your intent and purpose herein.  
That which chiefly aught to be brought to pass, entreat and deliberate with many: but that which you do intend to do herein, communicate with very few and those most trusty & faithful, or rather deliberate and consult of them with your own self and no more.  
Punishment and fear do amend soldiers abiding in one certain place: in a viage oriourneye, hope and rewards do make them better.  
Good Captains do never fight in open or set battle, but upon good occasion, or very great necessity.  
It is a good devise rather to oppress the enemy with hunger and famine, then with the sword.  
As touching an army of horsemen, there be many rules and precepts: but sing that this part of warfare hath profited and proceeded through use and exercise, through the kind of armour, and the worthiness of horses: I suppose that nothing is to be gathered out of books, when as this present instruction may be sufficient.  
Let not the enemies know after what manner you intend to fight, lest they go about to prevent and withstand the same by one help or other.  
I have orderly declared things, O valiant and mighty Emperor, which being approved, divers & sundry times, through faithful and diligent experience, the most worthy authors have set forth and published: that unto the cunning of shooting, which in your grace the Persian doth praise and marvel at: unto the knowledge and comeliness of riding of horses, which the people of Hungarre and Scythia, called Hunni, & Alani, would gladly imitate if they could: and to the swiftenes of running, wherein the Saracine, and man of Ind, can not match with you: to the exercising of handling the weapons, & using all kind of artillery, wherein the captains and masters of the field are glad, that they knew some good examples to follow: (unto all these things I say) a rule or trade how to fight in battle, yea, rather policy how to get the victory, must be annexed: that as much as you can through puissance and marvelous good ordering of your common wealth, you may show the office and perform the duty, both of an Emperor and a soldier.    

The fourth book of Flavius Vegetiu● Renatus of the feats of war.  

The Prologue.  
BUilding of cities, was the thing that in the beginning did separate and divide the homely and rude life of men, from the society and company of dumb creatures & wild beasts. The which cities upon their common utility and profit have the name of public weals. Therefore most mighty nations and princes of famous memory have thought there could be no greater renown, then either to build new cities or else amplifying those which have been builded by others, to call them after their own name. Wherein your majesty doth obtain the chiefest praise of all other. For whereas other princes have builded one city a piece, or few more: Your grace with continual labour hath erected such a number, that they may seem to be builded, not so much by man's hand, as by the will and working of God. So you excel all other Emperors in happiness of estate, in temperance, in chasteness of life, in examples to be followed, and in the great love that you bear towards learning. We see with o●r eyes the goodness of your government, and also of your good mind. The which things, both they which have go before us, did wish to enjoy, and they whicht are yet to come, desire to continued for ever. By reason whereof we do rejoice that so great a jewel is given to all the world, as either the mind of man could desire, or the bountiefulnes of God could give. And as for the building up and repairing of walls how it hath go forward, through the good orders devised by your grace, the city of Rome can show. Which by defending the tower Capitolium, hath saved the citizens lives, that afterward it might with greater glory obtain the dominion of all the world. Therefore for the accomplishing of this work, taken in hand at the commaundemen of your majesty, I will bring into order the devices of sundry writers, by the which both our own cities may be defended, and the cities of our enemies overthrown: neither shall it forthink me of my labour, because these things in time to come may be profitable to all men.   

That cities aught to be fenced either with handworke, or nature, or both. The first Chapter.  
City's and castles are fenced, either by nature, or with hand, or else with both, which is reckoned the stronger. By nature: as with the height or craggines of the place with the sea, with fens, or with rivers. By hand, as with ditches and walls. In that benefit and help of nature, the most safety consists in the wittines and counsel of the chooser: in the plain ground, full necessary is the diligent travel of the builder. And we see some very ancient cities so builded in plain & open fields, that although the help of situation did fail, yet with cunning and workmanship they were made invincible.   

¶ That wales should ●ot be made straight but with many coignes. Chapter two  
MEn in times past drew not the circuit of their walls straight jest they might be apt to receive the strokes of the battering ram. But laying the foundation they enclosed their cities with many wyndinge & turnings in and out, and in the very corners did build many towers. For this cause, that if the enemy would set ladders or other engines unto a wall builded after such order, he might be beaten down, not only before but also on the sides, and in a manner behind, as enclosed in a lane or bought.   

¶ After what sort earth may be heaped up and joined to a wall, so that it shall never be beaten down. Cap. iij.  
A Wall which can never be thrown down is made after this manner. Make two walls on the town side of the ditch a good way distant a sunder, then cast between them that earth which you throw out of the ditch, and beat it down hard with beetels and weighty instruments: so that, that which is first and next to ●he utmoste stonewall, be somewhat lower than the stonewall itself, and the second a good deal lower than the first: that from the city men may go up easily to the battlements, as in the rising of an hill, or after the manner of steiars. A wall thus strengthened with earth, can never be beaten down with any ram, and though the stones should chance to be thrown down, yet the great heap of earth that is rammed between the walls, doth withstand them, that give thassault, as well as any wall.   

¶ Of portcluses, and how gates may be safe from burning. Chapter four  
Moreover, we must take heed lest the gates be burned with fire, for the which cause they should be covered with leather and iron. But that is more profitable which in the old time hath been invented, that before the gate there should be a fortress, in the entering whereof is a perculles, hanging with rings of Iron and ropes: that if the enemies should enter in, the same being let down, they might be enclosed and destroyed. And the wall above the gate, must so be made with holes that we may power down water and quench the fire underneath.   

¶ Of making ditches. Chapter .v.  
BUt the ditches before the cities must be made very deep, and very broad: that they may not easily be made even, and filled of the besiegers. And that the water running over, may stop the undermining of the enemy. For two manner of ways is undermining letted, either with the deepness of the ditch, or overflowing.   

¶ How to keep them which stand on the wall harmless from the arrows of the enemies. Chapter uj  
IT is to be feared sometime, lest that many archers driving the defenders down, may suddenly take the wall. Therefore it shall be good to have in the city complette harnis and store of shields. Moreover, mantils, cloaks, and heareclothes, may be hanged before them, and so receive the shot of arrows: for the heads of the arrows cannot easily pierce through that which yieldeth and waveth to and fro. There is also a remedy found: to make hurdles of wood, called Metellae, and to fill them with stones, and to set them between two battlements so cunningly, that if the enemies should climb up by ladders and touch any part of them, the stones may turn upon their heads.   

¶ By what means it aught to be foreseen that they that are besieged be not famished. Chapter vij  
THere be many kinds of defending and assaulting of cities, which we will speak of in places convenient. Now we must know that there be two kinds of besieging. One when the enemy appointing his men in due places, doth with continual assaults assail the besieged. The other, when as he keepeth them from water, or trusteth that they will yield through famishement, having stopped all victuals from coming to them. For by this devise he himself being quiet and safe, doth weary his enemies. Against which chances, the towns men upon small suspicion of their enemies, aught most diligently to place within the walls all kind of food, whereby man may live: to the intent that they themselves may have abundance, & their enemies through need compelled to raise their siege. And not only pork or bacon, but also all kind of flesh, that may be preserved close, aught to be laid up, that through the help of flesh grain may suffice. And pulleyn likewise in a city may be kept without charge. And for such as be sick very necessary. Especially fodder must be got in for horses: and such as can not be brought in must be burned. Likewise of wine vinegar and all other kind of grain, or fruit great store must be laid up, and nothing that may be profitable to them, aught to be left for the enemies. Gardens also, both for the profit and pleasure of them, aught not to be neglected, in the grasseplotes and yards of houses. But it doth little profit to have gathered much together, except from the beginning, the delivery or distribution be moderated by such convenient overseers, as have charge thereof with a good & profitable measuring of the same. For they be never in danger of famine, which used in time of plenty to keep sobriety and moderation in spending. Also the youth and women, which are unfit for war, many times are thrust forth forth want of victuals, lest scarcity uppresse the soldiers, by whom the cities often have been defended and kept.   

¶ What kind of things must be prepared for the defence of walls. Chapter eight  
IT is convenient that there be prepared, to set the engines of the enemies or fire, such things as are apt to burn, rosyn, brimstone, clear pitch without dregs, oil, called Incendiarium, that is to say, ready to set any thing on fire. Iron of both tempers to make armour and weapons, and coals aught to be saved in store houses, wood also for spear staves, and arrows, must be laid up in store. Round stones out of rivers which for their roundness are somewhat heavy, and meet for the casters, must be gathered most diligently: with the which the walls and towers should be filled. The least stones of all are to throw with slinges, or slingestaves, or else with the hand, the greater stones are shot with the guns. But the greatest of all, by reason of their weight & rolling fashion must be laid in fortresses, that they being thrown down headlong upon a sudden, may not only overwhelm the enemies underneath, but also may break their engines. Also mighty great wheels must be framed of green wood, or rollers cut of very strong trees, which they call Taleae, must be made smooth, that they may roll, which sliding down do overthrow the soldiers with the sudden vehemency, and make the horses sore afraid. There must be also in readiness beams & trasinges or boards. And nails and pings of iron of divers quantities. For such engines of the enemies must be hindered by other like, specially when as the walls or fortresses upon a sudden shall have need to be made higher, lest the movable towers of the enemies should rise above them and so take the city.   

¶ What aught to be done if store of strings or cords do fail. Chapter ix  
IT is also expedient to gather very diligently good store of strings or sinews, for as much as the ordinance which is called Onager and Balista, and other like, except they be bend and drawn with cords or sinews avail nothing. Notwithstanding, the big hears of the tails or manes of horses, are thought good for the lesser artillery. But it is a thing most certain, and hath been tried in the Romans need that woman's hears in such kind of ordinance are no less profitable. For in the long siege of Capitolium (the chief castle of the city of Rome) their artillery being marred with the continual and wearisome fight of the enemies, and cords or strings failing them, the matrons of Rome cut their hear from their head & brought it to their husbands as they were fight, & so repairing their engines, they drove back the force of their enemies. For those honest and chaste●weomen, rather choose with heads for a time disfigured to live at liberty with their husbands, then with all the● trimming to be subject to their enemies. It is also good to get together horns & raw hides, for the covering of complete armour, and other engines and munitio●s.   

¶ What should be done that the besieged lack not water. Chapter ten  
IT is a great profit and commodity for a city, to have within the walls wells, and springs, ever continuing, and enduring. If so be that the nature of the place do not serve, them must you dig pits of what deepness soever you think good, and draw up the water with ropes. But some time the places which are fenced with mountains & rocks, are more dry than other. In such a case you may build a fort at the foot of the hill, & so shall you by digging find water. And from of the fort defend it with darts, or other shot appointed for the purpose, that there may be free going and coming, for the fetching of water. If it be so that the water be without the cast of the dart, & yet in the side of an hill under the city: it is meet that a little fort (which they call a blockehouse) be builded between the city and the springe: and there to be placed ordinance and archers, that the water may be defended from the enemies. Moreover, in all the public and common buildings of the city, and in many private buildings there should be cisterns most diligently ordained, that they may be receipt for rain water which falls from the houses. For thirst doth seldom overcome them which in a siege have used water only for their drink, though it were never so little.   

¶ If ●ault should fail in the city, what aught to be done. Chapter xj  
IF the city stand by the sea, and salt be wanting, take water out of the sea, and pour it into broad vessels, and by the heat of the sun it will turn to salt. If so be that the enemy do stop thee from the water (for that often times doth chance) then take the sand, which the sea casts up, and wash the same with fresh water, and that water being dried, will turn likewise into salt.   

¶ What should be done when the enemy doth first assault the walls. Chapter twelve  
VUhat time as the assault is given to a Castle or City, great is the danger on both parts, but greater is the bloudshedde of them that give the assault. For they that covet to enter the walls, with rerrible preparation show forth all their army, and with noise of men and trumpets fray the town, hoping thereby to make it yield. Then the towns men being astonied at the first brunt (for fear dismayeth the unexercised) if they know not the experience of such dangers quickelye lose their City, if the enemy set ladders to the wall. If it be so that at the first meeting the enemy be put back by bold and warlike men, straight way the towns men wax bold, and then they fight not with fear, but with courage & cunning.   

¶ A rehearsal of engines with which the walls are assaulted. Chap. xiii.  
THe engines that are set to walls are in latin called Testudines, Arietes, Falces, Vineae, Plutei, Musculi, Turres. In English, Snails, Rams, Hooks, Uines, desks, Myse, Turrettes. Of which particulerlye after what manner they may be made, by what manner cunning also they may fight or be driven back, I will hereafter declare.   

¶ Of the battering Ram, the hook and the snail Chap. xiiii.  
THe engine called Testudo, that is to say, the snail is joined together of timber and boards, which to keep away fire is covered wit● leather or hear●clothes, or any patched cloth. This engine hath within it a beam which is headed with a crooked iron called Falx, that is to say an hook, to th'end that it may draw stones out of the walls, or else the head of the self same beam is covered all with iron, and is named Aries, that is a Ram: either because it hath a very hard forehead to cast down the walls, or else because after the manner of Rams it goeth backward, to the intent it may strike with a more vehement force. But Testudo, hath taken that name of the form & similitude of the very snail in deed: because like as the snail sometimes plucks back her head, sometimes puts it forth: even ●o this engine, sometime draweth the beam back, sometime thrusteth it out, that it may strike with greater power.   

¶ Of sheddes', desks and countermure. Chap. xv.  
THe engine named Vinea, that is a vine, is compact of light wood and it is viii. foot high, seven foot● broad, and xuj. foot long. The covering of it is double with boards and hurdles. The sides also are hedged with rods, lest they should be pierced with violence of stones and darts. The out side is covered with raw & new hides, or else with tyltclothes, that it be not set on fire. A number of these are joined together in a row: under the which the besiegers being safe, do pierce the foundations of the walls to throw them down. Plutei are called, which after the similitude of a compassed vault or arch, are compacted of rods, and covered above with heareclothes or leather, and are moved as it were a cart, unto what part soever you will, with three little wheels, of the which one is set in the midst and two in the head or forepart. These do the besiegers bring to the walls: and standing under them with arrows, or slinges, or darts, drive away the defenders from the walls, that they may better s●ale the walls with ladders. But that that is called Agger, or countermure, is raised up of earth and wood against the wall, from the which the darts are thrown.   

¶ Of engines called Musculi. Chapter xuj  
MVsculi be lesser engines, with the which the men of war being covered, if mire or the ditch of the City do hinder them, do not only fill the same, but also make it hard with stones, wood, and earth brought thereunto. To the end that the movable towers may be joined to the walls without any let or hindrance. They be called Musculi, of beasts of the Sea like unto myse. For like as they, although they be lesser, yet the aid and help the Whales, in going before them for dashing against rocks: even so these lesser and shorter enginnes appointed to serve the great movable towers with wheels, do prepare the way for their coming, and fortify the passage before them.   

¶ Of tower's mou●ble. Chap. xvij.  
Tower's are a kind of engines joined together of beams and boards, after the similitude of buildings. And to keep so great a work from fyringe by the enemies: it is most diligently fenced on all parts with raw hides or tilt clotheses: for the height of it is proportionable to the breadth, for sometime they be thirty. foot broad by the square, sometime xl. or l. But the tallenes or height must be such, that they may pass in height, not only the walls, but also the towers of stone. These towers must have many wheels cunningly made, by the easy rolling of the which so great a frame may be moved. And it is present danger to the City, if the tower come once to the walls. For it hath with it a number of ladders & divers ways may set men into the town. For in the lower part it hath the Ram, with the violence of which it beats down the walls About the middle it hath a bridge made of two beams and hedged with rods which may quickly be brought forth, & set between the tower and the wall, & the men of war going by the same out of the engine pass over into the City & take the walls In the higher parts of the same tower, be placed pikemen and Archers, which from an high may overthrow the defenders of the City, with pikes arrows and stones Which being done, the City is taken without delay. for what help doth remain, when as they which did trust to the height of their walls, sodainlye behold above them a wall of their enemies higher than there's.   

¶ How the movable tower may be set on fire. Chap. xviii.  
THis evident and apparent danger many ways may be resisted. First if your soldiers be strong & bold, a number may issue forth together. And dryvinge away the enemies, pull of the leather and set fire on the tower. If so be that they dare not issue forth, let them discharged the greater artillery, and such as they call Malleoli & Phalaricae, with fire shot, that renting the hides or tyltclothes a sunder the flame may be hid inwardly. Malleoli be as it were, arrows which burn all where they light.  
But Phalarica after the manner of a javelin hath a strong head of iron, and between the hollowness or pipe thereof and the staff, it is wrapped round about with brimstone, rosin, pitch & tow soaked in oil apt to burn, the which being discharged level with the violence of your artillery, breaketh the covering, and s●ickinge in the wood oftentimes burneth the whole turret. Also you may let down men with roopes when your enemies be a s●eape, & with lanterns privily hid, burn theit engines, and then pull them up again.   

¶ How you may make your walls higher. Chap. nineteeen.  
THat part of the wall to the which the engine cometh, may be made higher either with mortar and stones, or with clay or brick, or with bards and planks, and so shall not the defenders ●e oppressed with the height of the turret. And the turret being to low shall serve to no use. But they that besiege towns, use oftentimes this policy. First they build such a tower as may seem lower than the walls of the City: afterward they make another little tower within of boards and planks, and when the tower is joined to the walls sodainlye they put forth that little turret with roopes and pullyes, out of the which the armed men going forth, because it is higher than the walls strait way take the City.   

¶ By what mean the earth may be digged, that the engine can do no harm. Chap. xx.  
SOmetime they do set long beams headed with iron against the coming of the engine, and so keep of the same from the wall. But when as the City of Rhodes was besieged by enemies, and they had made a tower with wheels above the height of all the walls and towers, this remedy was invented by the wit of a certain crafts man: in the night he undermined the wall, and that place to the which the day after the tower should be removed, he made hollow within casting, out the earth, none of the enemies perceiving it: so that when that great frame was driven and forced forward with the wheels, and came to the place which underneath was made hollow before, strait way it sunk, the ground yeldinge to so great a weight, so that it could not come near the walls nor be moved any further, and by this mean the City was delivered and the engine left behind.   

¶ Of ladder's and the frame of timber with ropes, of the bridge, and of the sweape. Chap. xxj.  
VUhen the tower comes to the wall by all means possible they drive the enemy from the wall, with stones, darts, arrows, pellettes & such like. This being done, and ladders set to the wall, they take the City. But they which do scale the walls with ladders, many times sustain peril and danger after the example of Capaneus: by whom this manner of assault with ladders is said to be first invented, who was slain with so great violence by the Thebans, that he was thought to be destroyed with thunder. And therefore the besiegers do enter the walls of the enemies with these engines called Sambuca, Exostra and Tolleno, that is to say, a frame of timber & roopes, a bridge, and a sweape. Sambuca is called after the similitude of an harp: for like as in a harp there be strings, so in the beam which is next the towers, be roopes which do lose and set at liberty the bridge with pullyes, from the upper part, that it may go upon the wall: and strait way the men of war issue out of the tower, on● going over upon it, do invade the walls of the City. Exostra is that bridge which we spoke of before, which suddenly is stretched forth of the tower unto the wall. Tolleno is this, when a beam is set fast and deep upon the earth, upon the which in the highest top, another beam is joined overthwart, longer by the one half in measure so equally, that when you pull down the one end, the other riseth up. In the one end of this with hurdles and boards, is made room for a few men to stand in. Then pulling the one end down with roopes, you lift up the other end, & so set your men upon the walls.   

¶ Of the lesser kind of Ordinance called Balista. Of the greater name Onager, of that which is called Scorpio, of Crossbows called Arcubalistae, of slingstaves and slinges, by the which the wall is defended▪ Chap. xxij.  
AGainst these incommodityes such kinds of ordinance defend them that be besieged, Balistae, a lesser kind of ordinance, Onagr● a greater, also that which is called Scorpio, Arcubalistae, Crossbows, Fustibali, slingstaves, archers and slinges. Balista is a kind of Ordinance bent with ropes or cords, the which the longer and greater that it is, so much the further it casts the shot, and this kind of ordinance if it be cunningly framed, and afterward discharged by skilful men that know the reech and compass of it, doth pierce through whatsoever it striketh. That which is named Onager, serveth to shoot stones withal: and because the roopes of it are great, therefore the stones are mighty that it casts. For the greater and larger the engine is, so much the greater stones it hurleth in manner of thunder. There is no kind of ordinance more violent than these two sorts. Scorpiones were called in the old time such as now we term Manubalistae, so named because that with small arrows they kill men. I think it superfluous to declare Fustibalistas, Arcubalistas & Fundas, which experience at this present knoweth well enough. The ordinance that I named Onager, if it shoot mighty stones, doth not only overthrow horsemen and footmen, but also breaketh the engines of the enemies in sunder.   

¶ Against the engine named a Ram, be flockebeddes or matresses very good, also roopes and great pillars. Chapter xxiij  
AGainst the battering Rams or hooks, there be many helps and remedies, for some with cords let down their tiltclothes and other patched gear, and mattresses, and so let them hang in such places as the ram doth beat, that the violence and force of the engine may be broken with the softness of these, and not throw down the wall. Some others with a number of men, do from the wall catch the Ram with roopes, and drawing it a side overthrow it: Many use to tie unto roopes a piece of iron much like unto a pair of shears full of teeth, which they call Lupum, and so either they do overthrow the Ram caught with the same, or else lift it up, that it hath no force to strike. Sometime they throw down huge stones of marble, or other of like hardness from the walls, and all to break the Rams.  
If the force of the Ram shallbe so great, that it shall beat through the wall and cast it down (as oftentimes it chanceth,) then is there none other help but to pull down your houses, and make another wall within, & so between two walls to slay your enemies, if they break in.   

¶ Of undermining and throwing down walls that way. Chap. 24  
There is another kind of assault, that is under the earth and privy, which is called undermininge. The manner of it is this, a number of pioneers dig in the earth as miners do, and making a trench●, by that means seek to destroy the City. The which by two ways they bring to pass. For either they do enter the City, and by night when the towns men are not ware of it, do issue out of their trench, and unlockinge the gates let in their own army, and slay the enemies in their houses at unwares: or else when they come to the foundations of the wall, they dig under a great part of it, and with dry timber underset it, that for a while it may not fall, afterward they say many fagottes and such like dry fuel about it, and having placed their soldiers in array, they set fire to it, so that the pillars of wood and boards being burnt, and the wall there with falling suddenly, they have a way laid open for them to burst in at.   

¶ What the towns men oughe to do, if the enemies burst into the City. Chap. twenty-five.  
IT is manifest by infinite examples, that they which have entered their enemies City oftentimes have been so slain, that not one hath escaped. Which thing without doubt doth come to pass, if the towns men do keep their walls and towers, or take first the highest places.  
For then such as be of age, both men and women, do overwhelm with stones and other kinds of weapons, such as do break in: the which to avoid, wise Captains set open the gates of the City: to thintent that having leave to depart, they may not resist. For desperation in such a case, is a necessary enforcement to manhood.  
The towns men have only this help, whether the enemies enter by day or by night, to hold and keep their walls and towers, and to climb up to the highest places, and so to overthrow their enemies on every side, in all the streets of the City,   

¶ What heed ought to be taken, jest the enemies privily take the wall. Chap. xxuj.  
Many times the besiegers do invent some guile or craft, and by a counterfette desperation departed a good way of. But when as, after fear is past, the unheedefull and careless towns men have taken rest, watch of the walls being given over, the enemies come privily with ladders, taking occasion of the darkness of the night, and so climb the walls. For which cause a greater and more dilligente heed must be had, when as the enemy is go away: and in the very walls and towers, aught small cabins to be made, in which the watch men in winter season may be defended from showers and cold, and in Summer from the heat of the Sun. This thing also experience hath found that in the towers is good to keep fierce dogs and quick of smelling, which can perceive the coming of the enemy by the scent, and give warning thereof by barking.  
Also geese by like skill of nature declare by their cryings, the sudden invasions of the enemies by night. For the French men enteringe into the chief Tower or Palace of Rome (called Capitolium) had for ever blotted out the name of the Romans, had not Manlius withstood them being raised up with the crying of geese. And by the means of one goose they were saved, which afterward subdued the whole world.   

¶ How the town●s men may be deceived. Chap. xxvii.  
Above all things it is counted the greatest matter, not only in sieges, but even in all kinds of war, to spy out and know dilligentlye the custom and use of the enemy. For you cannot conveniently by laying wait for them deceive them, except you know at what hours they cease from their labour, and at what time they be less cyrcumspecte, whether at none or towards even or in the night, or at such times as they eat their meat, when as the soldiers of both sides are dispersed to take their rest, and to refresh their bodies. Which thing when the besiegers perceive, subtillye they withdraw themselves from battle, that they may give free liberty to the enemy to be very negligent. Which negligence what time as it shallbe greatest, for that they fear nothing, than the besiegers shall suddenly bring their engines and ladders to the walls, and take the City. Therefore in the walls the towns men aught to have stones and ordinance in a readiness, to th'end that as sun as the deceit is known, they may resist and have at hand such things as they may roll, and cast upon the heads of their enemies.   

¶ What the besiegers ought to do that they be not entrapped of the towns men. Chap. xxviii.  
IF the besiegers likewise be negligente, they are as sun caught by deceit as the other, for whether they be occupied at meat, or sleep, or else scattered a sunder through idleness or any other necessity: then the towns men suddenly rush forth, they slay them ere they be ware, set on fire their enginnes, rams, and the very countermurs, and overthrow all the works that were made against them. For this cause the besiegers do make a trench, a stones cast of, and so furnish the same, not only with a pale and stakes, but also with turrettes and fortresses, that they may easily withstand them that issue forth of the City, which work they call Loriculam, and oftentimes when a siege is described in any history, ye shall read that this or that town was compassed round about with this paleworke called Loricula.   

¶ With what kind of ordinance Cities may be defended. Chap. xxix.  
ALL kind of shot, either pellets of lead, or javelins, short darts, or longer darts, the higher that they come down, so much more violently they fall upon those that be under them. Arrows, also shot with bows and stones thrown with hands, slinges or slingstaves, from how much the higher place they be cast, so much the deeper do they pierce. But Bal●stae and Onagri, two kinds of ordinance if they be warelye discharged by such as be skilful and cunning, they do cut in sunder every thing they meet with, and against this kind of ordinance can nothing be a sufficient defence▪ For whatsoever it strikes in manner of thunder it undoth it & goeth through it.   

¶ How you may know what height your ladders and other enginnes aught to be of. Chap. xxx  
LAdders and other enginnes do very much avail for the taking of town walls, if they be made of such height that they over reach the town.  
The height of the town ye may take two manner of ways, for either may you tie a slender line to the one end of an arrow, and so shooting it, when it shall come to the top of the wall, by the length of the line you may know the height of the wall, or else when the son either setting or rising doth cast a shadow from the towers and walls to the earth, then measure the length of that shadow, thy enemies not knowing thereof. And afterward stick up a pool ten foot high above the ground, and measure likewise the shadow thereof, the which being done, you may easily know the height of the wall or town, by proportion of the pool, seeing that a body of this height casts a shadow of this or that length.  
And thus have I set forth for the common commodity and profit (as I suppose) of those things, which ancient writers of chivalry have left behind them, and the latter age by experience hath necessarily found out touching the assault a●d defending of Cities. Marry this one thing I cannot to much warn you of, that you provide dilligentlye that there be neither scarcity of meat nor drink in your City besieged, for that cannot by any means be remedied. Therefore the longer time that you suppose the siege will endure, so much the more victuals must you say up in your town.  
⸪ And thus much the manner of war on land, being declared sufficiently, with the means of defending and assaulting of Towns: I will consequently treat of war held on the Sea, and of ships and Galleys, and first of the Liburnian Galleys.   

Precepts to be observed in making war upon the Sea. Chapter. xxxj.  
THe manner of making war upon the land, sufficiently declared at your majesties commandment (most mighty and worthy Emperor) the portion yet not spoken of, as I trow, is of war upon the Sea. Of the feats and cunning whereof the less therefore remaineth to be spoken, for that the Sea being quieted now this good while, we keep war with other strange Nations upon the land. Notwithstanding that the people of Rome for the worship and commodity of their great renown: and not for any necessity growing by sudden commotion, but lest at any time it might suffer danger, always had an army in readiness. For no man dare give occasion of war, or do, or offer any wrong to that kingdom or people, whom he knoweth well provided, and ready to withstand and to revenge the same. Therefore at Misenun and Ravenna Cities of Italye, at each there abode a Legion of Romans with the Navies: that they should not leave the City undefended: and when as occasion served, without delay or fetching much compass, they might pass to all parts of the world. For the Misenates had lying hard upon them France, Spain, the Moors, Africa, Egipte, Sardine, and Cycil. The Ravennates used to pass with a straight course into Epyrus, Macedonia, Achaia, Propontis, Pontis, East Asia, Creta and Cyprus: and to these with most speed, because in warrelye affairs speedi●es and swiftness doth more avail than manhood.   

¶ The names of the judges which governed the navy. Chap. xxxii  
THe chief Captain of the navy of the Misenates, did govern the ships or Galleys which say in Campania, on the west side of Italye: but the Captain of the navy of the Ravennates, did keep them that rested in the Sea called lonium on the east side of Italye: under the which there were appointed .10. Tribunes, in every band one. But every Gallye had such a one as was called Naua●chus, that is, the master or governor of the ship whom they called also Navicularium, a Pilot or conductor of ships. Which besides other duties of Mariners, did carefully and dilligentlye every day, help the governors and rowers, and further also with all possible industry, all manner of exercises of the soldiers.   

¶ Why the Lyburnian Galleys were so called. Chap. xxxiii.  
divers countries at divers and sundry times have been able to do much upon the Sea, and therefore have had divers and sundry kinds of ships. But what time as Augustus fought the battle at Actium, whereas Antonye by the aid of the people of Liburnia, was chiefly overcome, it appeared by the experiment of so great a conflict, that the Liburnian ships were more fit for the wars than others. And according to the fashion of them, did the Roman Emperors afterward build their navy, borrowing of them both their name and their likeness. For Liburnia is a part of the country called Dalmatia, lying nigh to the City called ●adera: after whose example now the ships of war are builded, & be named Liburnae.   

¶ With what diligence the Galleys or ships called Liburnae are made. Chap. xxxiiii.  
LIke as in building of houses men seek dilligentlye for good mortar and stones, even so aught good stuff be sought for the framing and making of ships, and so much rather because the danger is greater if a ship be faltye, than an house. Therefore if you will build a Liburnian vessel, chose chiefly to make it of Cyprysse and Pine tree, Larche & Fir, than any other timber. And for your nails, it is more profitable to have them of brass than iron, although the cost be greater. For iron nails will sun be rusty with water, and so consume: but brazen nails for all the water, do keep their natural substance still.   

¶ What heed must be taken in cutting down of Timber. Chap. xxxv.  
THe Timber whereof Galleys must be made, ought to be cut down between the xv. and the xxiii. day of the Moon. And this must especially be observed. For none other but only that which is cut in these eight days, will be free from worms and rotting. That which is upon any other day hewed down, within a years space, willbe worm eaten and turn to dust. And this do all Carpenters know to be true, by their skill and daily experience.   

¶ In what months Timber should be cut down. Chap. xxxvi.  
IT is good cutting of Timber in julye and August, and so till the first of januarye, for then be trees most without sap, and therefore the timber both drier and stronger. But you must beware that strait upon the cutting down your Timber, you square it not, nor make your ship of it, as sun as you have squared it. For timber asketh a double drying time, one before it be sawen, and another after, and so shall it be thorowlye dry, and fit for your use: whereas if you put green Timber or board into a ship, within a while after when it waxeth dry, it will shrink and make wide rifts, which is most perilous for those that are in the ship.   

¶ Of the bigness and fashion of Galleys called Liburnae. Chap. xxxvij.  
AS touching the quantity or greatness of the Galleys named Liburnae, the lest of all have every one, one row or bench of Oars: they that be somewhat greater have two, they that be of a convenient bigness have three or four, or else sometime five. Neither let this thing seem strange to any man, seeing that in the battle at Actium, there were much greater Galleys than I have spoken of, so that some had six ranks of Oars and above. But small boats that serve for scouts, and go always with the greater Galleys, have almost twenty rowers in each side: the old Britons termed these kinds of boats Pictas.  
Their use is suddenly to steal upon the enemies ships, and to meet with their provision by the way, and to spy out their counsel, and to give warning of their coming. And if you will not have them descried by their whiteness, you may colour their sails and tackling with a light blue, because that is like the Sea colour: and with the same likewise stain your pitch wherewith you dress your ships, and let your soldiers and Mariners apparel, be likewise coloured with the same, that neither in the night nor day time, they may well be espied in their scouting.   

¶ The names and number of the winds. Chap. xxxviij.  
Vuhosoever carrieth an army with his navy, aught to foreknow the signs of storms and whirlwinds. For Galleys have more often been taken away with tempests and surges, then with the force of enemies. In the which behalf the whole cunning and knowledge of natural philosophy is to be used. By the which we learn the nature of winds and tempests, by a certain divine kind or mean. And in a rough and raging sea, even as heed taking doth defend and save them that be ware and cyrcunspecte: so negligence doth cast them a way that lie reckless & careless. Therefore he that willbe skilful in sailing, aught first to consider the number, and also the names of winds. Old warriors persuaded themselves that according to the situation of the four coasts of Heaven, that only four principal winds did usuallye blow from every part thereof, but a latter time found out twelve winds by experience. We have set forth the names of the same, to put all manner of doubt clean away: so that the principal winds being declared, we may show those also, which are joined to the same, both on the right side and on the left.  
Therefore from the place where the son stayeth in the Spring time, that is to say, from the chief and middle point of the east, cometh the plain Eastwinde. Unto this is keepeth the middle point of the South, unto this is joined on the right side the South southeast wound: on the left side the South south-west wind. The plain west wound keepeth the middle point of the West. Unto this on the right side is joined the West Northwest wind, on the left side the West south-west wind. The plain Northwynd doth keep the middle point of the North▪ unto which is joined on the right side the North North-east wind, & on the left side the Northnorthwest wound. Of these oftentimes bloweth one at once, sometime two at once, but in great Tempests, yea three are wont to blow together. The Seas which of their own nature are still and quiet, through the vehemency of these winds, wax rough with raging and troublesome waves. As these wind's blow according to the nature of times or places: so tempests are turned into calm weather, contraryewyse calm weather into tempests. And ● lucky wind brings a navy to the most desired haven: th● contrary wind compelles a man to lie a loof, go back again▪ or else to sustain peril. And that man therefore dot● seldom suffer shipwreck, which hath diligently considere● the nature and reason of the winds.   

¶ In what months men may sail more safely than others. Chap. xxxix.  
Now it followeth to speak of months and daye●, for neither doth the violence or raging of the sea suffer men to sail all the year long: but some months are most convenient to sail in, some be uncertain & doubtful, and other not to be used at all. During the course of the clear and lightsome time of Summer, that is to say, after the rising of the Pleiades, in latin Vergilie, in english the seven stars: from the xxvii. day of May: unto the rising of the star called Arcturus, otherwise in Greek Bo●tes: that is to say, unto the xiiii, day of September sailing is thought good and safe, because through the benefit of Summer, the rage of the wind is assuaged▪ After this time unto the vi. day of November, sailing is more uncertain and more dangerous: because after the xiii. day of September Arcturus doth rise, the most vehement star of all other. The xxiiii. day of September cometh in the raging time of the Equinoctial. About the seventh day of October do arise certain stars called Haed●●pluu●ales, betokening rain. The xi▪ of October doth rise the star called Taurus. But from the month of November the going down of the seven stars which is in winter, doth trouble the ships with many tempests. Therefore from the xi day of November unto the x. day of March, the Seas are shut up. For why the very short days, the long nights▪ the thickness of clouds, the darkness of the air, the double raging of the winds, showers, and snows: doth much trouble and drive away, not only navies from the Sea, but also goers, by the way, or travelers from a journey on the land. But after the birth day of sailing (as I may term it) or first setting forth of ships to the Sea, which is kept solemn with yearly games and common shoes, or specta●les of many Nations. The seas are dangerous to prove unto the xv. day of May, by reason of many stars raygninge, and also of the time itself: not that the travail of merchants should cease, but because there is more heed to be taken, when an army doth fail with Galleys, then when the foolish & greedy hardiness for private merchandise doth make haste thereunto.   

¶ After what manner the signs and tokens of tempests may be observed. Chap. xl.  
Moreover the rising and going down of certain stars doth stir up & cause most vehement tempests: in the which although certain days be marked by the testimony of authors, yet for as much as they be sometimes altered by divers chances, we must confess & acknowledge that man's nature cannot know perfectly the condition or state of heaven. The rising of tempests yearly is of three sorts. For by experience we found y●●●pestes do happen either about ●ne certain day of the year prefixed, or before it, or after, whereupon the tempestuous seasons that go before the day appointed or midst of winter, we call by the name of a Greek word Procheimasin, those that rise just at the ordinary day we name Epicheimasin: those that follow the same we term Metach●imasin. But to rehearse every thing by name, it seemeth both unmeet for this place & to long. Seeing that many writers have declared diligently the course & order, not only of months, but also of days in this case. Also the motions of planets many times trouble the clearness of the air, when as at certain days appointed by God the creator of the world, they draw near or departed from some of the twelve. signs. Likewise the days wherein the Moon changeth are commonly full of tempests & fearful to such as use the sea.   

¶ Of s●gnes and tokens whereby to know the clearness and troublesomeness of the air. Chap. xlj.  
BY many tokens may men foreknow both storms after a calm, & fair weather after tempests, & this doth the circle of the moon declare as in a glass. A ruddy colour betokeneth winds, a bluish or sky colour, rain. A colour mixed of both, foretelleth storms & raging weather. A pleasant & bright circle doth promise clear weather to ships, especially if the fourth day after the change, her horns be not blunt & red, nor yet darkened with much moisture. Furthermore in the Son you must mark whether at his rising or setting, his beams be cheerful & of one colour: or by reason of a cloud over against it, they be of divers colours, & whether they be bright & glistering, or red like fire, which is a sign of wind that will shortly follow: or pale and speckled which betoketh rain sun after. Likewise by the air & sea, & the greatness and fashion of the clouds, may mariners know the changes of weather if they give their mind to it And some tokens may they learn of birds, and some of fish, as Virgil in his Georgikes doth very wisely declare, and Varro in his books of sailing doth diligently set forth the same. And these things do Pilat's & masters of ships profess themselves to know, so far forth as unlearned experience without any profound learning hath instructed them.   

¶ Of ebbing and flowing of the Sea▪ Chap. xlii.  
THe Element of the Sea is the third part of the world: which besides the blowing of the winds doth also move by itself. For at certain hours as well in the day time as in the night, it runneth to and fro by ebbing & flowing. And sometime like a running brook, floweth to the landward, sometime back into the deep again. This doubleness of the moving of the Sea, doth help the course of ships if it be with them, and hinder them if it be contrary. Which thing must be eschewed with great heedefulnes of him that intends to fight. For the violence of the tide cannot be overcome by any help of Oars, when as the wind itself doth give place thereto. And because that in divers conntryes thorough the state of the moon increasing or diminishing: at certain hours the tides do altar, Therefore he that goeth about to make war on the Sea, ought to know before he join battle, the usage of the Sea in that place.   

¶ Of the knowledge of places, and of the rowers. Chapter xliij  
THe diligence and cunning of the Mariners and governors, is to know the places and havens where they sail, that they may esche we shallow places & such as be dangerous, by reason of rocks appearing or hid. For the deeper that the sea is, so much the more safe & quiet it is. In mariners is required diligence, in the Master skilfulnes: in the rowers strength and manhood. Because that a Sea battle is joined when the water is calm: and Galleys when they strike their enemies ships with their stems & forepartes, are driven with Oars and not with wound. And also when they shun the brunt of others, they use the help of Oars, and not wind thereto Therefore look what part hath strongest rowers and cunningest Captain and master, that same carrieth the victory.   

¶ Of weapon's and ordinance of ships. Chap. xliiii  
A Land battle requireth many kinds of armour and weapons, but that which is fought on the Sea, needeth many more kinds, both of armour & weapons, and also enginnes and ordinance, even as they should ●ight on the walls & towers of a City. For what is more cruel than the fight upon the Sea? whereas men be killed▪ not only with water, but with fire. Therefore there must be a special regard had of harness and other coverings, that the soldiers he fenced with complete armour, coats of plate, helmets and leg harness. For no man can complain of the weight or burden of his armour, which fighteth standing in the ships: you may make your shields both stronger & larger, to bear of the strokes of stones, hooks, and clampers, and other kind of weapons used in ships. Darts and stones are cast between both parties, with arrows, pellettes, slinges, slingstaves, leaden plummettes, greater ordinance, lesser ordinance, iron bows or Crossbows: and (which is a more grievous thing) they that presume and think themselves sur● by reason of their manhood, after their Galleys be joined 〈◊〉, do pass over into the ships of their enemies on bridges laid over between.  
In the greater galleys they do make up fortresses and towers, that as upon a wall, so they may from above more easily wound and slay their enemies. Also they use to wrap arrows in tow, pitch and brighstone, and so kindling them▪ to shoot and strike them into the sides of their enemies ships, and so suddenly to set them on fire by reason of the pitch and rosin, wherewith the sides of the ships are already anointed. One sort are slain with the sword, and stones or pellettes, another sort are compelled to burn in the water, and among so many kinds of deaths (which is the must cruel of all) their bodies vuburyed, must be devoured and confumed of fish.   

¶ How wiles may be wrought on the Sea. Chap. xlv.  
AS the use is in a field battle, so likewise on 〈◊〉 water, you may privily steal upon your enemies at unwares, or in ●●eekes and str●ightes convenient, you may hide a number of Galleys ready to come forth when need shall require, that your enemies being unprovided, may the sooner be overcome specially if they be weary with long rowing, or if the wind or tide be contrary to them▪ or if they sleep suspecting none ill, or if the road or corner which they keep have no way to issue out. If opportunity to fight do come as you would wish, then must your men fall to it cherefullye having these helps, and so join your battle as may be most for your advantage. If so be that the foresight of the enemy be such, that they will not be beguiled, but encounter in open fight, than your Galleys must be placed in array not straight as soldiers be in a field battle, but bowing in, after the similitude of the half moon, so that the two ends come out, and the middle be hollow, that if the enemy shall assay to burst through be▪ he may be caught and compassed in, by reason of the very order and array. But in the wings must you place the chiefest strength both of your Galleys and of your soldiers.   

¶ What should be done when open battle is joined on the Sea. Chap. xluj.  
Moreover it is profitable that your navy be always in the deep sea and at liberty, but your enemies always driven to the shore. For they do lose all force and strength in fight, which are thrust to land. In this sea ●ight, three sorts of weapons help much, named in latin. As●eres, Falces, Bipennes. Asser is when a slender and a long beam much like the sail yard, doth hang on the mast, and hath both the ends headed with iron. This serveth in steed of the battle Ram, and being driu●● mightily and with great force, it throweth done and killeth both Mariners & soldiers, & oftentimes beateth through the ships sides. Falx is a very sharp iron, crooked like a hook, which being put upon great long pools, doth suddenly cut the enemies tackeling a sunder, and the roopes that bear up the sail yard: and so the sail clotheses falling down together, doth make the ship more ●lowe & unprofitable. Bipennis is a double edged axe, on both sides very broad and sharp, with the which the most skilful Mariners when as the battle is hottest, they go down into a small boat, and privily cut a sunder the roopes wherewith the rudders of the enemies ships are tied Which thing being done, the ship is straight way taken as unarmed. For what help is left when the rudder is lost. As touching the ships of pastime which are used in the the river of Danubius, in daily watchings, I purpose to speak nothing at all, because that in them by often use, hath been found more cunning, than our ancestors have left to us in writing, and my purpose was only to gather such things together, as I find written in Books.  
FINIS.    


This engine serveth for the xiv. Chapter of the fourth Book. Folio. 55.   

This engine surueth for the xv. Chapter of the fourth Book. Folio. 55.   

This engine serveth for the xuj. Chapter of the fourth Book▪ Folio. 56.   

This serveth for the xviij. Chapter of the fourth book. Folio 56.   

This engine with the two next following serveth for the xxi. Chapter of the fourth Book. Folio. 57   

For the▪ xxi. Chapter of the fourth Book.   

For the xxi. Chapter of the fourth Book.    

A table declaring what every Book containeth in every Chapter.  

The first Book.  
THat the Romans through the only exercise of arms, have overcome all Nations. Chapter. 1.  
Out of what countries a young soldier should be choose. Chapter. 2.  
Whether out of the country or out of the City young soldiers may be taken most conveniently. Chap 3.  
Of what age the young soldier should be, which should be thought allowable. Chap. 4.  
Of what stature young soldiers should be choose Chap 5.  
To know by the countenance & making of the body which soldiers are like to prove good. Chap. 6.  
What sciences young soldiers should be skilful in, which should be either choose or refused. Chap. 7.  
What time young soldiers should be registered or billed. Chap. 8.  
That young soldiers be exercised in marching, running and leaping. Chap. 9  
That young soldiers should use to swim Chap. 10  
How warriors aforetime caused their soldiers to use wicker tergets, & cudgels, at a stake or post. Chap. 11.  
That soldiers should be taught to foin & thrust, not to cut, and strike down right. 12.  
That young soldiers be taught cunningelye to handle weapons. Chap. 13.  
That young soldiers should use to cast darts and other shot. Chap. 14.  
That young soldiers should be diligently taught to shoot Chap. 15.  
That young soldiers should be used to cast stones with a slinge, or with the hand. Chap 16.  
Of the exercise of leaden plummettes. Chap. 17.  
That young soldiers should be exercised to vault or mount on horses. Chapter. 18.  
That young soldiers should use to carry weight and burdens. Chap. 19  
What kind of armour soldiers of old time were wont to use. Chap. 20.  
Of fortifying of camps Chap. 21.  
In what place a camp should be pitched Cap. 22.  
In what form the camp should stand Cap. 23.  
With what things a camp should be fortified Cap. 24.  
How a camp should be fenced when the enemy is at hand. 25.  
How the young soldiers may be trained that in the battle they keep good order, their array, and space between one and an other. Chap. 26.  
How much space the soldiers must go and come when they be broughe forth to march: and how ●ften they must be exercised in a month. chap. 27.  
Of the persuasion to warfare, and of the manhood of the Romans. chap. 28.   

The second Book.  
INto how many kinds the Art of war may be divided Chapter. 1.  
How the Legionary soldiers, and those that are sent for aid, do differ chap. 2.  
The cause why Legions have been wasted & deminished. 3  
What number of Legions the ancient Romans led with them to the wars. chap. 4.  
How a legion should be ordered. chap. 5.  
How many cohortes or bands should be in one legion, and how many soldiers should be in one band. chap 6.  
Names & degrees of the principal men of the Legion. ca 7.  
The names of them which led the ancient orders of soldiers. chap. 8.  
Of the office of him that is called Praefectus legionis, the Lievetenantes' deputy. chap. 9  
Of the office of the chief overseer of the camp cap. 10.  
Of the office of the master of the artificers. cap. 11.  
Of the office of the chief Tribune or colonel. cap. 12.  
Of the Centuries or hundred of the footmen, and of their ensigns, penoncels or banners. chap. 13.  
Of the troops of the legionary horsemen called Turmae. chap. 14.  
After what sort the legions should be set in order chap. 15.  
After what manner the Triarians and also the Centurions should be armed chap. 16.  
How that the battle being joined, the complete harnessed men stood as a wall. chap 17.  
The names of soldiers, and other orders and degrees, should be written in the shields. chap 18.  
Besides the strength of the body, the cunning or knowledge of ciphers and counting must be regarded in soldiers chap. 19  
How soldiers aught to put aside the half part of any gift in money, or other thing given them, into the keeping of such as are standerde bearers. chap. 20.  
Promotions and dignities in the legion are so disposed and ordered, that none is advanced thereto, before he have passed through the 10. bands or companies of the legion chapter. 21.  
What difference is between trumpeters, blowers of horns or shawms and such like. chap. 22.  
Of the exercise of soldiers. chap. 23.  
Examples of exhortations and the exercise in warlike affairs, taken out of other arts and sciences chap. 24.  
A rehearsal of iron tools and other engines of the legion. chap 25.   

The thrid Book.  
VUhat manner, or of what number an army should be of chap. 1.  
After what manner the health of an ●rmre should be maintained▪ chap 2.  
With how great care & regard, forage and grain aught to be provided for and kept. cap 3.  
After what manner we ought to foresee lest the soldiers do make any stir or sedition. chap 4.  
How many kinds there be of engines of war. Cap. 5.  
How great subtiltye ought to be used when an army is removed, the enemies being nigh. Chap. 6.  
After what manner great rivers may be passed over. Cap. 7.  
After what manner a Camp should be placed. Chap 8.  
What manner, and how great things should be considered, to understand whether we ought to fight with skirmishing or with open battle Chap. 9  
What must be done if a Captain have an army out of use of fight, or an army of young soldiers Chap. 10  
What things should be done the same day that the open or set battle should be joined Chap. 11.  
We must diligently search out what mind the soldiers be of, when they should fight. Chap. 12.  
How a meet place should be choose to fight in. Cap. 13.  
How an army may be set in order, that in the battle, it may be invincible, or not easily overcome. Cap. 14.  
The manner of measuring by the foot, how much space in the battle should be between every man in length, or in breadth, and how much betwixt every rank. Chap. 15.  
How to set the horsemen in order. Cap. 16.  
Of ●ydes or rescues which are placed after the battle Chap. 17.  
In which place the first a●d chief Captain aught to stand, in which the second, and in which the third. Cap. 18.  
With what means the valiantness and deceits of the enemies in the battle may be withstand and prevented. Chap. 19  
How many kinds or ways an open or set battle is joined, and how also that army which is less in number and strength, may obtain the victory. Chap. 20.  
That a way should be given to the enemies to departed, that they may more easily be destroyed in flying away. Chap. 21.  
After what manner you may departed from the enemy if you do not like of your purposed battle. Chap. 22.  
Of Camels and men of arms upon barbed horses. Cap 23  
After what manner we may withstand chariots arme● with hooks, and also Elephants in the battle. Cap. 24▪  
What ought to be done if either part or the whole army do fly. Chap. 25.  
General rules of wars. Chap. 26.   

The fourth Book.  
THat Cities ought to be fenced either with handiwork or nature, or both. Chap. 1.  
That walls should not be made straight, but with many coignes. Chap 2.  
After what sort earth may be heaped up and joined to a wall, so that it shall never be beaten down. Cap 3▪  
Of Portcluses, and how gates may be safe from burning. Chap. 4.  
Of making ditches. Cap. 5.  
How to keep them, which stand on the wall, harmless from the arrows of the enemies Cap. 6.  
By what means it aught to be foreseen, that they that are besieged, be not famished Chap. 7.  
What kind of things must be prepared for the defence of walls. Chap▪ 8.  
What aught to be done if store of strings or cords do fail Chap. 9  
What should be done that the besieged lack not water. Chap. 10.  
If salt should fail in the City, what aught to be done. 11.  
What should be done when the enemy doth first assault the walls Cap. 12.  
A rehearsal of engines with which the walls are assaulted Chap. 13.  
Of the battering Ram, the book, & the snail. Cap. 14.  
Of Sheddes' desks or peintesses and countermure. 15.  
Of engines called Musculi. Chap. 16.  
Of towers movable. Cap. 17.  
How the movable tower may be set on fire Cap. 18.  
How you may make your walls higher. Cap 19  
By what means the earth may be digged that the engine can do no harm. Cap. 20.  
Of ladders & the frame of timber with roopes, of the bridge, and of the sweape. Cap. 21  
Of the lesser kind or ordinance called Balista: of the greater called Onager: of that which is called Scorpio, of crossbows called Arcubalistae: of slingstaves & slinges, by the which the walls are defended. Cap. 22.  
Against the engine named a Ram be flockebeddes or mattresses very good, also ropes and great pillars. Cap. 23.  
Of undermyning & throwing down walls that way. 24.  
What the towns men ought to do, if the enemies burst into the City. Cap. 25.  
What heed ought to be taken lest the enemies privily take the wall. Cap. 26.  
How the towns men may be deceived. Cap. 27.  
What the besiegers o●ght to do, that they be not entrapped of the towns men Cap. 28.  
With what kind of ordinance Cities may be defended. Cap. 29.  
How you may know what height your ladders and other engines aught to be of Cap. 30.  
Precepts to be observed in making war upon the sea. 31.  
The names of the judges which governed the Navyes ca 32  
Why the Lyburnian Galleys were so called. cap. 33.  
With what diligence the galleys or ships called Libu●nae are made. cap. 34.  
What heed must be taken in cutting down of timber. ca 35▪  
In what months timber should be cut down cap. 36.  
Of the bigness and fashion of Galleys called Liburnae. cap. 37.  
The names and number of the winds chap. 38.  
In what months men may sail safely, more than others. 39  
After what manner the signs and tokens of tempests may be observed chap. 40.  
Of signs and tokens whereby to know the clearness & troublesomeness of the air chap. 41.  
Of ebbinge and flowing of the sea chap. 42.  
Of the knowledge of places, and of the rowers. chap. 43.  
Of weapons and ordinance of ships. chap. 44.  
How wiles may be wrought on the sea. chap. 45.  
What should be done when open battle is joined on the sea. chap. 46.   
Then end of the contents.   

Faults escaped in the printing, whereof the first number signifieth the leaf, the letter a. the first side, and b. the second side.  
In the Epistle dedicatory, b. for translation thereof, read● translating thereof.  
Folio 3. a. continuance, read countenance.  
Folio. 3. read soldiers for soldier.  
Folio. 8. Grecians, read Gratian'S.  
Folio. 9 b. army, read Campe.  
Folio. 10. a. standers, read standards.  
Folio. 10. a. especial, read especially.  
Folio. 13. a. Legionacijs, read Legionari●.  
Folio. 13. b. Gaternas, read Cateruas.  
Folio. 14. a. possible, read possibly.  
Folio. 15 b. harvest, read harnesde.  
Folio. 20. a. footement, read footmen.  
Folio. 24. read, say reed.  
In the third book the Prologue, Men worthy, read O men worthy.  
Fol. 34 a. it, read is.  
Fol. 40. a. Hasti, read Hastati.  
Fol. 41. a. ranks, read orders.  
Fol. 48 a. Promuscide, read Promusciden.  
Fol. 53. b. uppresse, read oppress.  
Fol. 56. b. bards, read boards.  
Folio. 63. a. there lacketh before the beginning of this leaf, all these words following: joined on the right side, the East north-east wind: on the left side, the East, Southeast wind. The plain southwind.  
Folio▪ 64. a. Pilat's, rea●e Pilots.  
FINIS.   

Imprinted at London in Fleetstreet near unto Saint Dunston's Church, by Thomas Marsh.