A profitable Treatise of the Anatomy of man's body: Compiled by that excellent Chirurgeon, M. Thomas Vicary Esquire, sergeant Chirurgeon to king Henry the eight, to king Edward the. vj. to Queen Mary, and to our most gracious Sovereign Lady Queen Elizabeth, and also chief Chirurgeon of S. Bartholomewes' Hospital.  
Which work is newly revived, corrected, and published by the chirurgeons of the same Hospital now being. An. 1577.  
¶ Imprinted at London, by Henry Bamforde   

  


Now he that is the perfect guide,  
doth know our helps were here alone,  
By homely style it may be spied,  
for rules in Rhetoric have we none:  
Our heads do lack that filed phrase,  
whereon fine wits delight to gaze.  
If any say we deserve here blame,  
we pray you then amend the same.    

TO THE Rightworshipful, SAINT Roland Haiwarde Knight, Precedent of little Saint Bartholomewes' in Dost Smithfeelde, Sr. Ambrose Nicholas Knight, Master Alderman Ramsey, with the rest of the worshipful Masters and Governors of the same William Clowes, Wil Beton, Richard Story, and Edward Bayly, chirurgeons of the same Hospital, wish health and prosperity,  
THe People in times past did praise and extol by Pictures and Epigrams, the famous deeds of all such persons, who so ever in any virtuous quality or Liberal Science excelled. Sulpitius Gallus among the Romans was highly renowned for his singular cunning in Astronomy, by whose means Lucius Paulus obtained the victory in his wars against Percius. Pericles also among the Athenians was had in great admiration and honour for his profound knowledge in Philosophy, by whom the whole City of Athens was from care and woe delivered, when they supposed their destuction to be near at hand, by a black darkness of some admiration hanging over their City. How honourably was Apelles the Painter esteemed of mighty king Alexander, by whom only he desired to be painted. But amongst all other Arts and Sciences, whose praise in times past flourished and shined most brightly, chirurgery among the wise Grecians lacked not his praise, honour, and estimation. For did not that worthy and famous captain of the greeks Agamemnon love dearly, and reward bountifully both Podalerius and Macham through whose cunnings skill in Surgery, thousands of worthy greeks were saved alive and healed, who else had died and perished. And further here to speak of Philoneter, of Attalus, of Hiero, of Archelaus, and of juba, kings of famous memory, who purchased eternal praise by their study and cunning in Physic and Surgery. But now in these our days envy so ruleth the roast, that Physic should be condemned, and Surgery despised for ever, but that sometime pain biddeth battle, and care keepeth skirmish, in such bitter sort, that at the last this Alarm is sounded out, Now come Physic, and then help Surgery. Then is remembered the saying of jesus the son of sirach which is notable, Honour the Physician and Chirurgeon for necessity, whom the almighty God hath created, because from the highest cometh Medicine, and they shall receive gifts of the King. Wherefore we exhort the wise man that he in no time of prosperity and health, neglect these noble Arts and mysteries of Physic and chirurgery, because no age, no person, no country can long time lack their helps and remedies. What is it to have lands and houses, to abound in silver and gold, to be decked with pearls and Diamonds, yea and to possess the whole world, to rule over Nations and countries: and to lack health, the chiefest jewel and greatest treasure of man's life and delight.  
Consider then we beseech your Worships, what praises are due to such noble Sciences, which only work the causes of this aforesaid health, and how much the weal public are bound to all them, whose cares and studies daily tendeth too this end. Among whom here is to be remembered Master Vicary Esquire, sergeant Chirurgeon to Kings and Queens of famous memory: Whose learned work of the Anatomy is by us the forenamed Surgeons of Saint Bartholomewes' in Smithfeelde, newly revived, corrected & published abroad to the commodity of others, who be Students in chirurgery: not without our great studies, pains and charges. And although we do lack the profound knowledge and sugared eloquence of the Latin and Greek tongues, to deck and beautify this work, yet we hope the studious Reader shall thereby reap singular commodity and fruit, by reading this little Treatise of the Anatomy of man's body, the which is only grounded upon reason and experience, which are two principal roots of Physic and Surgery. As it is granted by Galen in his third Book De Method medendi: and we who daily work and practise in Surgery, according to the deepness of the Art, aswell in grievous wounds, Ulcers, and Fistules, as other hid and secret diseases upon the body of man, daily used by us in S. Bartlemews' Hospital, and other places. etc. Those poor and grieved creatures, aswell men and women, as children do know the profit of this Art to be manifold, and the lack of the same to be lamented. Therefore Galen truly writeth, saying, That no man can work so perfectly as aforesaid, without the knowledge of the Anatomy: For (saith he) it is as possible for a blind man to carve and make an Image perfect, as a Chirurgeon to work without error in man's body not knowing the Anatomy. And further, for as much as your Worships are very careful for those poor and grieved creatures within the Hospital of S. Bartlemewes. etc. whereof Master Vycarie was a member: We are therefore now encouraged to Dedicated this little work of the Anatomy, being his and our travails, to you as Patrons of this Book, to defend against the ravening jaws of envious backbiters, which never cease by all unlawful means to blemish and deface the works of the learned, expert, and well disposed persons. Finally, we do humbly crave of your Goodnesses, to accept in good part this Treatise concerning the Anatomy, as the fruits of our studies and labours, whereby we shall be much better encouraged to set forth hereafter other profitable works for the common wealth. Herein if your Wisdoms do vouchsafe to hear our requests, and to allow these our doings, as did noble Amasus king of Egypt accept the labours of his painful Artificers, we have not only to thank your Worships for so doing, but also to pray always for you unto the almighty God to requited your goodnesses, receiving you into his protection and keeping.  
Amen.   

¶ To the Reader.  
DEAR Brethrens, and friendly Readers, we have here according to the truth and meaning of the Author, set forth this needful and necessary work concerning the Anatomy of man's body, being collected and gathered by master Thomas Vicary, and now by us the chirurgeons of Saint Bartholomewes' Hospital revived, corrected, and published. And albeit this Treatise be small in Volume, yet in commodity it is great and profitable. Notwithstanding, if the things therein contained be not discretely and wisely studied and applied, according to the true meaning of the Author, We have to tell you hereof, that therein is great peril, because through ignorant Practitioners, not knowing the Anatomy, commonly doth ensue death, and separation of soul and body. Furthermore, whereas many good and learned men in these our days, do cease to publish abroad in the English tongue their works and travails, it is, for that if any one fault or blemish by fortune be committed, either by them or the Printer escaped, they are blamed, yea and condemned for ignorant men, and error holder's. But now we here cease from these points to trouble the gentle Reader with longer discoursing, for whose sakes and commodities we have taken these pains: Wishing that men more skilful and better learned would have borne this burden for us. Craving only thus much at your hands, for to correct our faults favourably, and to report of the Author courteously, who sought (no doubt) your commodities only, and the profit of the common Wealth, without praise and vainglory of himself. Thus we the chirurgeons aforesaid, commit you to the blessed keeping of Almighty God, who always defend and increase your studies and ours. Amen.  

O Lord which made the lofty Skies,  
work in our Rulers hearts,  
Always to have before their eyes  
safeguard to godly Artes.    

¶ Thomas Vycarie to his Brethrens practising chirurgery.  
HEREAFTER followeth a little treatise of the Anatomy of man's body, Made by Thomas Vycarie Citizen and Chirurgeon of London, for all such young Brethrens of his Fellowship practising chirurgery. Not for them that be expertly seen in the Anatomy: for to them Galen the Lantern of all chirurgeons, hath set it forth in his Canons, to the high glory of God, and too the erudition and knowledge of all those that be expertly seen and learned in the noble Science of chirurgery. And because all the noble Philosophers writing upon chirurgery, do condemn all such persons as practise in chirurgery not knowing the Anatomy. Therefore I have drawn into certain Lessons and small Chapters, a part of the Anatomy, but touching a part of every member particularly: Requiring every man that shall read this little Treatise, to correct and amend it where it shall be need, and hold me excused for my bold enterprise, and accept my good will towards the same.   

¶ A brief Treatise of of the Anatomy of man's body: Compiled by me Thomas Vycarie Esquire, and sergeant Chirurgeon to king Henry the eight, for the use and commodity of all unlearned Practitioners in chirurgery.  
IN the name of God, Amen. Hear I shall declare unto you shortly and briefly the sayings, and the determinations of divers ancient Authors, in three points▪ very expedient for all men to know, that intend to use or exercise the mystery or art of chirurgery. The first is, to know what thing chirurgery is: The second is, how that a Chirurgeon should be chosen: And the third is, with what properties a Surgeon should be endued.  
THE first is to know what thing chirurgery is. Herein I do note the saying of Lamfranke, whereas he saith, All things that man would know, may be known by one of these three things: That is to say, by his name, or by his working, or else by his very being and showing of his own properties. So than it followeth that in the same manner we may know what chirurgery is by three things. First by his name, as thus, The Interpreters writ, that Surgery is derived out of these words, Apo tes chiros, cai tou ergou, that is too be understanded, A hand working, and so it may be taken for all handy arts, But noble hippocras saith, that Surgery is hand working in man's body, for the very end and profit of chirurgery is hand working. Now the second manner of knowing what thing chirurgery is, it is the saying of Avicen to be known by his being, for it is verily a medecinal science: and as Galen saith, he that will know the certainty of a thing, let him not busy himself to know only the name of that thing, but also the working and the effect of the same thing. Now the third way to know what thing chirurgery is, It is also to be known by his being or declaring of his own properties, the which teacheth us to work in man's body with hands: as thus, In cutting or opening those parts that be whole, and in healing those parts that be broke nor cut, and in taking away that that is superfluous, as warts, wens, skurfulas, and other like. But further to declare what Galen saith Surgery is, It is the last instrument of medicine: That is to say, Diet, Potion, and chirurgery: of the which three, saith he, Diet is the noblest, and the most virtuous. And thus he saith, whereas a man may be cured with Diet only, let there be given no manner of medicine. The second instrument is Potion: for and if a man may be cured with Diet and Potion, let there not be ministered any chirurgery. The third and last Instrument, is chirurgery, through whose virtue and goodness is removed and put away many grievous infirmities and diseases, which might not have been removed nor yet put away, neither with Diet, nor with Potion. And by these three means it is known what thing chirurgery is. And this sufficeth for us for that point. Now it is known what thing chirurgery is, there must also be chosen a man apt and meet to minister Surgery, or to be a Chirur gion. And in this point all Authors do agreed, that a Chirurgeon should be chosen by his complexion, and that his complexion be very temperate, and all his members well proportioned. For Rasis saith, Whose face is not seemly, it is unpossible for him for to have good manners. And Aristotle the great Philosopher writeth in his Epistles to the noble king Alexander (as in those Epistles more plainly doth appear) how he should choose all such persons as should serve him, by the form and shape of the face, and all other members of the body. And furthermore they say, he that is of an evil complexion, there must needs follow like conditions. Wherefore it agreeth that a Chirurgeon must be both of a good and temperate complexion, as is afore rehearsed. And principally, that he be a good liver and a keeper of the holy commandments of God, of whom cometh all cunning and grace, and that his body be not quaking, and his hands steadfast, his fingers long and small, and not trembling: and that his left hand be as ready as his right hand, with all his limbs able to fulfil the good works of the soul. Now here is a man meet to be made a Chirurgeon. And though he have all these good qualities before rehearsed, yet is he no good Chirurgeon, but a man very fit and meet therefore. Now then to know what properties and conditions this man must have before he be a perfect Chirurgeon. And I do note four things most specially that every Chirurgeon aught for to have: The first that he be learned: the second, that he be expert: the third, that he be ingenious: the fourth, that he be well mannered. The first (I said) he aught to be learned, and that he know his principles, not only in chirurgery, but also in Physic, that he may the better defend his Surgery. Also he aught to be seen in natural Philosophy, and in Grammar, that he speak congruity in Logic, that teacheth him to prove his proportions with good reason. In Rhetoric, that teacheth him to speak seemly and eloquently: also in theoric, that teacheth him to know things natural and not natural, & things against nature. Also he must know the Anatomy, for all authors writ against those Surgeons that work in man's body not knowing the Anatomy, for they be likened to a blind man that cutteth in a vine tree, for he taketh more or less than he aught to do. And here note well the saying of Galen the prince of Philosophers, in his Estoris, that it is as possible for a Surgeon not knowing the Anatomy, to work in man's body without error, as it is for a blind man to carve an Image & make it perfit. The. ij. I said, he must be expert: for Rasus saith, he aught to know and to see other men work, and after to have use and exercise. The third, that he be ingenious or witty, for all things belonging to chirurgery may not be written, nor with letters set forth. The fourth I said, that he must be well mannered, and that he have all these good conditions here following: First, that he be no spousbreaker, nor no drunkard. For the Philosophers say, amongst all other things beware of those persons that follow drunkenness, for they be accounted for no men, because they live a life bestial: wherefore amongst all other sorts of people, they aught to be sequestered from the ministering of medicine. Likewise a Chirurgeon must take heed that he deceive no man with his vain promises, for to make of asmal matter a great, because he would be counted the more famous. And amongst other things they may neither be flatterers, nor mockers, nor privy backbiters of other men. Likewise they must not be proud, nor presumptuous, nor detractors of other men. Likewise they aught not to be too covetous, nor no niggard, & namely amongst their friends, or men of worship, but let them be honest, courteous, and free, both in word and deed. Likewise they shall give no counsel except they be asked, and then say their advise by good deliberation, and that they bewel advised afore they speak, chiefly in the presence of wise men. Likewise they must be as privy and as secret as any Confessor, of all things that they shall either hear or see in the house of their Patient. They shall not take into their cure any manner of person, except he will be obedient unto their precepts, for he can not be called a patient, unless he be a sufferer. Also that they do their diligence aswell to the poor as to the rich. They shall never discomfort their patient, and shall command all that be about him that they do the same, but to his friends speak truth as the case standeth. They must also be bold in those things whereof they be certain, and as dreadful in all perils. They may not chide with the sick, but be always pleasant and merry. They must not covet any woman by way of villainy, & specially in the house of their Patient. They shall not for covetousness of money take in hand those cures that be uncurable, nor never set any certain day of the sick-man's health, for it lieth not in their power: following the distinct counsel of Galen, in the amphorisme of hippocras, saying, Oportet seipsum non solum. By this Galen meaneth, that to the cure of every sore there belongeth four things: of which, the first and principal belongeth to God, the second to the Surgeon, the third to the Medicine, and the fourth to the Patient. Of the which four and if any one do fail, the Patient can not be healed: then they, to whom belongeth but the fourth part, shall not promise' the whole, but be first well advised. They must also be gracious and good to the poor, and of the rich take liberally, for both. And see they never praise themselves, for that redoundeth more to their shame and discredit, then to their fame & worship: For a cunning and skilful Chirurgeon need never vaunt of his doings, for his works will ever get credit enough. Likewise that they despise no other Chirurgeon without a great cause: for it is meet that one Chirurgeon should love another, as Christ loveth us al. And in thus doing they shall increase both in virtue & cunning, to the honour of God and worldly fame. To whom he bring us al. Amen.  

¶ Hereafter followeth the anatomy of the simple members.  
AND if it be asked you how many simple members there be, it is to be answered, eleven, and two that be but superfluities of members: and these be they, Bones, Cartylages, Nerves, Pannykles, Ligaments, cords, Arteirs, Weines, Fatness, Flesh and Skin: and the superfluities be the hears & the nails. I shall begin at the Bone, because it is the foundation, and the hardest member of all the body. The Bone is a consimile member, simple and spermaic, and cold and dry of complexion, insencible, and inflexible: and hath divers forms in man's body, for the diversity of helpings. The cause why there be many bones in man's body is this: Sometime it is needful that one member or one limb should move without another. Another cause is, that some defend the principal members, as doth the bone of the breast, and of the head: and some to be the foundation of divers parts of the body, as the bones of the Ridge, and of the legs: and some to fulfil the hollow places, as in the hands and feet. etc.  
The Grystle is a member simple and spermaic, next in hardness to the bone, and is of complexion cold and dry, and insencible. The grystle was ordained for six causes, or profits that I find in it: The first is, that the continual moving of the hard bone might not be done in a juncture, but that the grystle should be a mean between the Lygament and him: The second is, that in the time of concussion or oppression, the soft members or limbs should not be hurt of the hard: The third is, that the extremity of bones and joints that be gristly, might the easilier be folded and moved together without hurt: The fourth is, for that it is necessary in some mean places to put a grystle, as in the throat bowel for the sound: The fifth is, for that it is needful that some members be holden up with a grystle, as the lids of the eyes: The sixth is, that some limbs have a sustaining and a drawing abroad, as in the nose and the ears. etc.  
The Lygament is a member consimple, simple, and spermaic, next in hardness to the gristle, and of complexion cold and dry, and is flexible and insensible, and bindeth the bones together. The cause why he is flexible and insencible is this: If it had been sensible, he might not have suffered the labour and moving of the joints: and if it had not been flexible of his bowing, one limb should not have moved without another. The second profit is, that he be joined with sinews, for to make cords & Brawns: The third help is, that he be a resting place to some sinews: The fourth profit is, that by him the members that be within the body be sustained, as the matrix and kidneys, and divers other. etc.  
The Sinew is a consimiler member, simple and spermaic, mean between hard and soft, and in complexion cold and dry, and he is both flexible and sensible, strong and tough, having his bes beginning from the brain, or from Mynuca, which is the marrow of the back. And from the brain cometh. seven. pair of Nerves sensatives, and from Mynuca cometh. thirty. pair of Nerves motius, and one that is by himself, that springeth of the last spondel. All these senews have both feeling and moving, in some more, and in some less. etc.  
A Cord or Tendon is a consimple or official member, compound and spermaic, sinewy, strong, and tough, meanly between hardness and softness, and meanly sensible and flexible, and in complexion cold and dry. And the Cord or Tendon is thus made: The sinews that come from the brain & from Mynuca, and go to move the members, is intermingled with the ligaments, and when the Sinews and ligaments are intermingled together, then is made a Cord. And three causes I perceive why the cords were made: The first is, that the sinew alone is so sensible that he may not suffer the great labour and travel of moving, without the fellowship and strength of the Lygament that is insencible, and that letteth his great feeling, and bringeth him to a perfect temperance, and so the cords move the limbs to the will of the soul. And this Cord is associated with a simple flesh, and so thereof is made a brawn or a muskel, on whom he might rest after his travel. And this Brawn is called a Muscle. Then when this Cord is entered into this brawn, he is departed into many small threads, the which be called will. And this will hath three properties: The first is in length, by whose virtue that draweth it hath might: The soconde in breadth, by whom the virtue that casteth out hath might: The third in thwartnes, in whom the virtue that holdeth hath might: and at the end of the Brawn those threads be gathered together to make another muskel. etc.  
Now I will begin at the Artere. This Artere is a member consimyle, simple and spermaic, hollow and sinewy, having his springing from the heart, bringing from the heart to every member blood and spirit of life. It is of complexion cold and dry. And all these arteries have two coats, except one that goeth to the Lungs, and he hath but one cote that spreadeth abroad in the Lungs, and bringeth with him to the Lungs blood, with the spirit of life to nourish the Lungs withal: and also that Artere bringeth with him from the lungs air to temper the fumous heat that is in the heart. And this Artere is he that is called Arteria venalis, because he hath but one cote as a vain, and is more obedient to be delated abroad through all the lungs, because that the blood might the sooner sweat through him: whereas all other Arters have two coats, because one cote may not withstand the might and power of the spirit of life. divers other causes there be, which shall be declared in the anatomy of the breast. etc.  
The vein is a simple member, in complexion cold and dry, and spermaic, like to the Artere, having his beginning from the liver, and bringing from the liver nutritive blood, to nourish every member of the body with. And it is so to be understanded that there is no more difference between these two vessels of blood, but that the Artere is a vessel of blood spiritual or vital. And the vein is a vessel of blood nutrimental, of the which Veins there is noted two most principal, of the which one is called vena porta, the other is called venacelis, of whom it is too much to treat of now, until we come to the anatomy of the womb. etc.  
The flesh is a consimiler member, sim ple, not spermaic, and is engendered of blood congealed by heat, and is in complexion hot and moist. Of the which is noted three kinds of flesh's: that is to say, one is soft & pure flesh: the second is muskulus or hard & brawny flesh: the third is glandulus, knotty, or kurnelly flesh. Also the commodities of the flesh be indifferent, for some be common to every kind of flesh, and some be proper to one manner of flesh alone. The profits of the flesh be many, for some defend the body from cold as doth clotheses: also it defendeth the body from hard things coming against it: also through his moisture he rectifieth the body in summer, in time of great heat. Wherefore it is to be considered what profitableness is in every kind of flesh by himself. And first of simple and pure flesh, which fulfilleth the concavities of void places, and causeth good form and shape: and this flesh is found between the teeth, and on the end of the yard. The profit of the Brawny flesh or muskulus flesh, shall be spoken of in the anatomy of the arms. The profits of the Glandulus flesh are these: First, that it turneth the blood into a colour like to himself, as doth the flesh of a woman's paps turn the menstrual blood into milk: secondly, the Glandulus flesh of the Testikles, turneth the blood into sparme: thirdly, the Glandulus flesh of the cheeks, that engendereth the spittle. etc.  
The next is of Fatness, of the which I find three kinds: The first is Pinguedo, and it is a consimilar member, not spermaic, and it is made of a subtle portion of blood congealed by cold: and it is of complexion cold and moist, insencible, and is intermeddled amongst the parts of the flesh. The second is Adeppes, and is of the same kind as is Pinguedo, but it is departed from the flesh besides the skin, and it is as an oil heating and moisting the skin. The third is Auxingia, and it is of kind as the others be, but he is departed from the flesh withinforth about the kidneys, and in the entrails, and it helpeth both the kidneys and the entrails from drying by his unctiositie. etc.  
Then come we to the Skin. The Skin is a consimile member or official, partly spermaic, strong and tough, flexible and sensible, thin and temperate, Whereof there be two kinds: One is the Skin that covereth the outward members: and the other the inner members, which is called a Pannicle, the profitableness of whom was spoken of in the last Lesson: But the Skin is properly woven of threads, Nerves, Ueynens, and Arteirs. And he is made temperate, because he should be a good déemer of heat from cold, and of meystnes from dryness, that there should nothing noye nor hurt the body, but it giveth warning to the common wits thereof. etc.  
The Heirs of every part of man's body are but a superfluity of members, made of the gross fume or smoke passing out of the viscoves' matter, thickened to the form of heir. The profitableness of him is declared in the anatomy of the head. etc.  
The Nails likewise are a superfluity of members, engendered of great earthly smoke or fume resolved through the natural heat of humours, and is softer than the Bone, & harder than the Flesh. In complexion they be cold and dry, and are always waxing in the extremity of the fingers and toes. The utility of them are, that by them a man shall take the better hold: also they help to claw the body when it needeth: Lastly, they help to divide things for lack of other tools, etc.   

¶ Hereafter followeth the anatomy of the compound members, and first of the head.  
BEcause the head of man is the habitation or dwelling place of the reasonable soul of man, therefore with the grace of God I shall first speak of the Anatomy of the head. Galen saith in the second Chapter De iwamentes, and Avicen rehearseth the same in his first preposition and third Chapter, proving that the Head of man was made neither for Wits, nor yet for the Brains, but only for the eyes. For beasts that have no heads, have the orgayne or instruments of Wits in their breasts. Therefore God and nature have reared up the head of man only for the eyes, for it is the highest member of man: and as a beholder or watchman standeth in a high Tower to give warning of the enemies, so doth the Eye of man give warning unto the common Wits, for the defence of all other members of the body. Now to our purpose. If the question be asked, how many things be there containing on the head, and how many things contained within the head? As it is rehearsed by Guydo, there be but five containing, and as many contained: as thus, The Heir, the Skin, the Flesh, the Pannicles, and the Bone, neither rehearsing vein nor Artere. The which anatomy can not be truly without them both, as thou shalt well perceive both in this Chapter, but specially in the next. And now in this lesson I shall speak but of Heir, Skin, Flesh, veins, Pannicles, and Bones, what profit they do to man, every of them in his kind. Of the Heir of the head (whose creation is known in the Anatomy of the simple members) I do note four utilities why it was ordained: the first is, that it defendeth the Brain from too much heat, and too much cold, and many other outward noyances: The second is, it maketh the form or shape of the head to seem more seemelyer or beautyfuller. For if the head were not heyred, the face and the head should seem but one thing, and therefore the heir formeth and shapeth the head from the face: The third is, that by the colour of the heir is witnessed & known the complexion of the Brain: The fourth is, that the fumosities of the brain might ascend and pass lightlier out by them. For if there were a sad thing, as the skin or other, of the same nature as the heir is, the fumosities of the brain might not have passed throw it so lightly, as it doth by the heir.  
The Skin of the head is more lazartus, thicker, and more porrus, than any other Skin of any other member of the body. And two causes I note why, One is, that it keepeth or defendeth the brain from too much heat and cold, as doth the heir: The other, it discusseth to the common wits of all things that noyeth outwardly, for the heir is insencible: The third cause why the skin of the head is more thicker than any other skin of the body, is this, that it keepeth the brain the more warm, and is the better fence for the brain, and it bindeth and keepeth the bones of the head the faster together.  
Next followeth the Flesh, the which is all Musculus or Lazartus flesh, lying upon pericranium without mean. and it is made of subtle will, and of simple flesh, Sinews, veins, & Arteirs. And why the flesh that is all musculus or lazartus in every member of a man's body was made, is for three causes: the first is, that by his thickness, he should comfort the digestion of other members that lie by him: The second is, that through him every member is made the more formelyer, and taketh the better shape: The third is, that by his means every member of the body draweth to him nourishing, the which others withhold to put forth from them: as it shall be more plainlier spoken of in the anatomy of the womb.  
Next followeth Pericranium, or the covering of the bones of the head. But here it is to be noted of a vein and an Artere that cometh between the flesh and this Pericranium, that nourisheth the utter part of the head, and so entereth privily through the commissaries of the skull, bearing to the Brain and to his Pannikles nourishing: of whose substance is made both Duramater, and also Pericranium, as shall be declared in the parts contained in the head, Here it is to be noted of this Pannikle Pericranium, that it bindeth or compasseth all the bones of the head, unto whom is adjoined the Duramater, and is also a part of his substance, howbeit they be separated, for Duramater is nearer that brain, and is under the skull. This Pericranium was made principally for two causes: one is, that for his strong binding together he should make firm and stable the feeble commissaries or seams of the bones of the head: The other cause is, that it should be a mean between the hard bone and the soft flesh.  
next is the Bone of the Pot of the head keeping in the Brains, of which it were too long to declare their names after all Authors, as they number them and their names, for some name them after the Greek tongue, and some after the Arabian, but in conclusion all is to one purpose. And they be numbered seven bones in the pan or skull of the head: the first is called the Coronal bone, in which is that Orbyts or holes of the Eyes, and it reacheth from the Brows unto the mid dost of the head, and there it meeteth with the second bone called Occipissial, a bone of the hinder part of the head called the Noddle of the head, which two bones Coronal and Occipissiale be divided by the Commissaries in the mids of the head. The third and fourth bones be called Parietales, and they be the bones of the sideling parts of the head, and they be divided by the Commissories both from the foresaid Coronal and Occipissial. The fifth and the sixth bones be called Petrosa or Mendosa: and these two bones lie over the bones called Parietales, on every side of the head one, like scales, in whom be that holes of the ears. The seventh and last of the head is called Paxillarie, or Bazillarie, the which bone is as it were a wedge unto all the other seven bones of the head, and doth fasten them together. And thus be all numbered: the first is the Coronal bone, the second is the Occipissial, the third and the fourth is Parietales, the fifth and the sixth is Petrosa or Mendosa, and the seventh is Paxillari, or Bazillari. And this sufficeth for the five things containing.   

¶ In this Chapter is declared the five things contained within the head.  
NExt under the bones of the head withinfoorth, the first thing that appeareth is Duramater, then is Pia mater, than the substance of the Brain, and then Uermy forms and Retemirabile. But first to speak of Duramater, whereof, and how it is sprung and made: First it is to be noted of the Ueine and Arteire that was spoken of in the last Chapter before, how privyly they entered through the commissoris or seams of the head, and there by their union together, they do not only bring and give the spirit of life and nutriment, but also do weave themselves so together, that they make this pannicle Duramater. It is holden up by certain threads of himself coming through the said commissories, running into Pericranium or pannicle that covereth the bones of the head. And with the foresaid vein and Arteire, and these threads coming from Duramater, is woven and made this Pericranium. Also why this pannicle Duramater is set from the skull, I note two causes: the first is, that if the Duramater should have touched the skull, it should lightly have been hurt with the hardness of the bone: The second cause is, that the matter that cometh of wounds made in the head piercing the skull, should by it the better be defended and kept from Pia mater, and hurting of the brain. And next unto this pannicle there is another pannicle called Pia matter, or meek mother, because it is so soft and tender unto the brain. Of whose creation it is to be noted as of Duramater, for the original of their first creation is of one kind, both from the heart and the liver, and is mother of the very substance of the brain. Why it is called Pia mater, is, for because it is so soft and tender over the brain, that it nourisheth the brain and feedeth it, as doth a loving mother unto her tender child or babe, for it is not so tough and hard as is Duramater. In this pannicle Pia matter is much to be noted of the great number of Veins and Arteirs that are planted, ramefying throughout all his substance, giving to the brain both spirit and life. And this Pannicle doth circumuolue or lap all the substance of the brain: and in some places of the brain the Veins and the Arteirs go forth of him, and enter into the divisions of the brain, and there drinketh of the brain substance into them, ask of the heart to them the spirit of life or breath, and of the liver nutriment. And the aforesaid spirit or breath taketh a further digestion, and there it is made animal, by the eleboration of the spirit vital is turned and made animal. Furthermore, why there be more pannicles over the brain than one, is this, If there had been but one pannicle only, either it must have been hard, or soft, or mean between both: If it had been hard, it should have hurt the brain by his hardness: if it had been soft, it should have been hurt of the hard bone: and if it had been but meanly neither hard not soft, it should have hurt the brain by his roughness, and also have been hurt of the hard bone. Therefore God and nature have ordained two Pannicles, the one hard, and the other soft, the harder to be a mean between the soft and the bone: and the softer to be a mean between the harder and the brain itself. Also these Pannicles be cold and dry of complexion, and spermaic.  
Next is the Brain, of which it is marvelous to be considered and noted, how this Pia mater divideth the substance of the Brain, and lappeth it into certain sells or divisions, as thus: The substance of the brain is divided into three parts, or ventrikles, of which the foremost part is the most: the second or middlemost is less: the third or hindermost is the lest. And from each one to other be issues or passages that are called Meats, through whom passeth the spirit of life too and fro. But here ye shall note that every Uentrikle is divided into two parts, and in every part God hath ordained and set singular and several virtues, as thus: First in the foremost Uentrikle God hath founded and set the common Wits, otherwise called the five Wits, as Hearing, Seeing, Feeling. Smelling, and tasting. And also there is in one part of this Uentrikle, the virtue that is called Fantasy, and he taketh all the forms or ordinances that be disposed of the five wits, after the meaning of sensible things: In the other part of the same Uentrikle is ordained and founded the Imaginative virtue, the which receiveth of the common Wits the form or shape of sensitive things, as they were received of the common wits withoutfoorth, representing their own shape and ordinances unto the memorative virtue. In the midst sell or ventrikle there is founded and ordained the Cogitative or estimative virtue: for he rehearseth, showeth, declareth, and deemeth those things that be offered unto him by the other that were spoken of before. In the third ventricle and last there is founded and ordained the virtue Memorative: in this place is registered and kept those things that are done and spoken with the senses, and keepeth them in his treasury unto the putting forth of the five or common wits, or organs, or instruments of animal works, out of whose extremities or sowar parts springeth Mynuca, or marrow of the spondels: of whom it shall be spoken of in the Anatomy of the neck and back. Furthermore it is to be noted, that from the foremost Uentrikle of the brain springeth seven pair of sensative or feeling senews, the which be produced to the Eyes, the Ears, the Nose, the Tongue, and to the Stomach, and to divers other parts of the body: as it shall be declared in their anatomies. Also it is to be noted, that about the midst ventrikle is the place of Uermi formis, with curnelly flesh that filleth, and Retemirabile, or wondered call under the Pannicles, is set or bounded with Arteirs only which come from the heart, in the which the vitayle spirit by his great labour is turned and made animal. And ye shall understand that these two be the best kept parts of all the body, for a man shall rather die, than any of these should suffer any manner of griefs from withoutfoorth, and therefore God hath set them far from the heart. Here I note the saying of Haly Abbas, of the coming of small Arteirs from the heart, of whom (saith he) is made a marvelous net or call, in the which call is enclosed the Brain, and in that place is laid the spirit of feeling, from that place hath the spirit of feeling his first creation, and from thence passeth to other members. etc. Furthermore ye shall understand that the brain is a member cold and moist of complexion, thin, and meanly viscous, and a principal member, and an official member, and spermaic. And first why he is a principal member, is, because he is the governor or the treasury of the five wits: And why he is an official member, is, because he hath the effect of feeling and stirring: And why he is cold and moist, is, that he should by his coldness and moistness abate and temper the exceeding heat and drought that cometh from the heart: Also why it is moist, is, that it should be the more indifferenter and abler to every thing that should be reserved or gotten into him: Also why it is soft, is, that it should give place and favour to the virtue of stering: And why it is meanly viscous, is, that his sinews should be strong and meanly tough, and that they should not be letted in their working through his overmuch hardness. Hear Galen demandeth a question, which is this, Whether that feeling and moving be brought to Nerves by one or by divers? or whether the aforesaid thing be brought substantially or radically. The matter (saith he) is so hard to search and be understood, that it were much better to let it alone and pass over it. Aristotle entreating of the Brain, saith, The Brain is a member continually moving and ruling all other members of the body, giving unto them both feeling and moving: for if the Brain be let, all other members be let: and if the Brain be well, than all other members the body be the better disposed. Also the brain hath this property, that it moveth and followeth the moving of the Moon: for in the waxing of the Moon the Brain followeth upwards, and in the wane of the Moon the brain descendeth downwards, and vanisheth in substance of virtue: for then the Brain shrinketh together in itself, and is not so fully obedient to the spirit of feeling. And this is proved in men that be lunatic or mad, and also in men that be epulentike or having the falling sickness, that be most grieved in the beginning of the new Moon, and in the latter quarter of the Moon. Wherefore (saith Aristotle) when it happeneth that the Brain is either too dry or too moist, then can it not work his kind: for than is the body made cold: then are the spirits of life melted and resolved away: and then followeth feebleness of the wits, and of all other members of the body, and at the last death.   

¶ Hereafter followeth the Anatomy of the Face.  
THE Front or the Forehead containeth nothing but the Skin and Musculus flesh, for the pannicle underneath it is of Pericranium, and the bone is of the Coronal bone. Howbeit there it is made broad as it there were a double bone, which maketh the form of the Brows. It is called the Forehead or Front from one Ear to the other, and from the roots of the Ears of the head before unto the brows. But the cause why the Brows were set and reared up, was, that they should defend the Eyes from noyance withoutfoorth: And they be ordained with hear to put by the humour or sweated that cometh from the head. Also the Brows do help the eyelids, and do beautify and make fair the face, for he that hath not his Brows heyred, is not seemly. And Aristotle saith, that over measurable Brows betokeneth an envious man: Also high brows and thick betokeneth hardness: and brows with little hear betokeneth cowardness: and meanly sigfieth gentleness of heart. Incisions about these parts aught to be done according to the length of the body, for there the Muscle goeth from one Ear to the other. And there if any incision should be made with the length of the Muscle, it might happen the Brow to hung over the Eye without remedy, as it is many times seen, the more pity. The brows be called Supercilium in Latin, and under is the Eye lids, which is called Cilium, and is garnished with heirs. Two causes I find why the eye lids were ordained: The first is, that they should keep and defend the Eye from dust and other outward noyances: the second is, when the eye is weary or heavy, than they should be covered and take rest underneath them. Why the heirs were ordained in them, is, that by them is addressed the forms or similitudes of visible things unto the apple of the eye. The Ear is a member seemly and grystlye, able to be folden without, and is the orgayne or instrument of hearing: It is of complexion cold and dry. But why the ear was set up out of the head, is this, that the sounds that be very fugitive, should lurk and abide under his shadow, till it were taken of the instruments of hearing: Another cause is, that it should keep the hole that it standeth over from things falling in that might hinder the hearing. The sinews that are the Orgayns or Instruments of hearing, spring each from the Brain, from whence the seven pair of sinews do spring, & when they come to the hole of the Ear, there they writhe like a wine press, and at the ends of them there be like the head of a worm, or like a little teat, in which is received the sound, and so carried to the common wits. The Eyes be next of nature unto the Soul: for in the Eye is seen and known the disturbances & griefs, gladness and joys of the Soul, as love, wrath, and other passions. The Eyes be the instruments of sight. And they be compound and made of ten things: that is to say, of seven Tunicles or Coats, and of three humours. Of the which (saith Galen) the Brain and the head were made for the Eye, that they might be in the highest place, as a beholder in a tower, as it was rehearsed in the Anatomy of the head. But divers men hold divers opinions of the Anatomy of the Eyes: for some men account but three tunikles, and some six. But in conclusion they mean all one thing: For the very truth is, that there be counted and reckoned seven Tunikles, that is to say, Sclirotica, Secondyna, Retyna, Vnia, Cornua, Arania, and Coniunctiva: and these three humours, That is to say, humour Vitrus, humour Albigynus, and humour Crystallinus. It is to be known how and after what manner they spring: You shall understand that there springeth of the brayny substance of his foremost Uentrikles, two sinews, The one from the right side, and the other from the left, and they be called the first pair, for in the Anatomy they be the first pair of sinews that appear of all seven. And it is showed by Galen, that these senews be hollow as a reed, for two causes: The first is, that the visible spirit might pass freely to the Eyes: The second is, that the form of visible things might freely be presented to the common wits. Now mark the gooing forth of these sinews: When these sinews go out from the substance of the Brain, he cometh through the Pia mater, of whose substance he taketh a Pannicle or a Coat: and the cause why he taketh that Pannicle, is to keep him from noying, and before they enter into the skull, they meet and are united into one senewe the length of half an inch: and then they departed again into two, and each goeth into one eye, entering through the brain pan, and these senews be called Nerui optici. And three causes I find why these Nerves are joined in one before they pass into the Eye: First, if it happen any diseases in one eye, the other should receive all the visible spirit that before came to both: The second is, that all things that we see should not seem two: for if they had not been joined together, every thing should have seemed two, as it doth to a worm, and to other beasts: The third is, that the Senewe might stay and help the other. But hereupon Lamfranke accordeth much, saying, that these two sinews come together to the Eyes, and take a Panikle both of Pia mater and of Duramater, and when they enter into the Orbyt of the Eye, there the extremities are spread abroad, the which are made of three substances: that is to say, of Du ramater, of Pia mater, and of Nerui optici. There be engendered three Tunikles or Cotes, as thus, Of the substance that is taken from Duramater is engendered the first cote that is called Secondina: and of Nerui optici is engendered the third cote that is called Retina: and each of them is more subtler than other, & goeth about the humours without mean. And it is to be understood, that each of these three Tunicles be divided, and so they make sire: That is to say, iij. of the parts of the brain, and three of the parts outwards, and one of Pericranium that covereth the bones of the head, which is called Coniunctiva. And thus you may perceive the springing of them: as thus, Of Duramater springeth Sclirotica and Cornua: of Pia mater springeth Secondina & Unia: and of Nerui optici springeth Coniunctiva. Not we to speak of the humours which be three, and their places are the middle of the Eyes: Of the which the first is Humour Uitrus, because he is like glass, in colour very clear, red, liquit, or thin, and he is in the inward side next unto the brain: and it is thin, because the nutritive blood of the Crystalline might pass, as water through a sponge should be cleansed and made pure, and also that the visible spirit might the lightlier pass through him from the Brain. And he goeth about the Cristaline humour, until he meet with Albuginus humour, which is set in the uttermost part of the Eye. And in the midst of these humours Uitrus, and Albuginus, is set the Crystalline humour, in which is set principally the sight of the Eye. And these humours be separated and involved with the Pannicles aforesaid, between every Humour a pannicle. And thus is the Eye compound and made. But to speak of every Humour and every Pannicle in his due order and course, it would ask a long process, and a long Chapter, and this is sufficient for a Chirurgeon. Now to begin at the Nose: You shall understand that from the Brain there cometh. ij. Senews to the holes of the brain pan, where beginneth the concavity of the Nose, and these two be not properly sinews, but organs or instruments of smelling, and have heads like teats or paps, in which is received the virtue of smelling, and representing it to the common wits. Over these two is set Colatorium, that we call the Nose thrills: and it is set between the Eyes, under the upper part of the Nose. And it is to be noted, that this concavity or ditch was made for two causes: The first is, that the air that bringeth forth the spirit of smelling might rest in it, till it were taken of the organ or instrument of smelling: The second cause is, that the superfluities of the Brain might be hidden under it, until it were cleansed: And from his concavity there goeth two holes down into the mouth, of which there is to be noted three profits: The first is, that when a man's mouth is close, or when he eateth or sleepeth, that then the air might come through them to the Lungs, or else a man's mouth should always be open: The second cause is, that they help to the relation of the form of the Nose: for it is said, a man speaketh in his Nose when any of these holes be stopped: The third cause is, that the concavity might be cleansed by them when a man snuffeth the Nose, or draweth into his mouth inwardly. The Nose is a member consimple or official, appearing without the face, somewhat plicable, because it should the better be cleansed. And it is to be perceived that it is compound and made of shin and Lazartus flesh, and of two bones standing in manner trianglewise, whose extremities be joined in one part of the Nose with the Coronal bone, and the neither extremities are joined with two gristles, and another that divideth the Nose thrills within, and holdeth up the nose: Also there be two concavities or holes, that if one were stopped the other should serve: Also there is in the Nose two muscles, to help the working of his office. And Galen saith, that the Nose shapeth the Face most: for where the Nose lacketh (saith he) all the rest of the face is the more unseemly. The Nose should be of a mean bigness, and not to exceed in length, or breadth, nor in highness. For Aristotle saith, if the Nose thrills be too thin, or to wide, by great drawing in of air, it betokeneth great straightness of heart, and indignation of thought. And therefore it is to be noted, that the shape of the members of the body, betokeneth and judgeth the affections and will of the Soul of man, as the Philosopher saith. The temples be called the members of the head, and they have that name because of continual moving. And as the science of the Anatomy meaneth, the spirit vital is sent from the heart to the brain by Arteirs, and by veins and nutrimental blood, where the vessels pulsatives in the temples be lightly hurt. Also the temples have dentes or holes inwardly, wherein he taketh the humour that cometh from the brain, and bringeth the eyes asleep, and if the said holes or dentes be pressed and wrong, then by trapping of the humour that continueth, he maketh the tears to fall from the Eye. The Cheeks are the sideling parts of the face, and they contain in them Musculus flesh, with Veins and Arteirs, and about these parts be many Muscles. Guydo maketh mention of. seven. about the cheeks & over lip. And Haly Abbas saith, there be. xii. Muscles that move the neither jaw, some of them in opening, and other some in closing or shutting, passing under the bones of the temples, And they be called Temporales: And they be right noble and sensative, of whose hurt is much peril. Also there be other muscles for to grind and to chew. And to all these Muscles cometh Nerves from the brain to give them feeling and moving: and also there cometh to them many Arteirs and veins, and chiefly about the temples, and the angles or corners of the Eyes and the Lips. And as the Philosophers say, the chief beauty in man is in the cheeks, and there the complexion of man is most known, as thus, If they be full, ruddy, and meddled with temperate whiteness, and not fat in substance, but meanly fleshly, it betokeneth hot and moist of complxion, that is, sanguine and temperate in colour. And if they be white coloured, without meddling of redness, and in substance fat and soft, quavering, it betokeneth excess and superfluity of cold and moist, that is phlegmatic: And if they be brown in colour, or cytrin, yellow, red, and thin, and lean in substance, betokeneth great drying and heat, that is choleric: And if they be as it were blown in colour, and of little flesh in substance, it betokeneth excess and superfluity of dryness and cold, and that is melancholy. And as Avicen saith, the Cheeks do not only show the diversities of complexions, but also the affection and will of the heart: for by the affection of the heart, by sudden joy or dread, he waxeth either pale or red. The bones or bony parts, first of the cheeks be two: of the Nose outwardly, two: of the upper Mandibile, two: within the Nose, three: as thus, one dividing the Nostrils within, and in each Nosethril one, and they seem to be rolled like a wafer, and have a hollowness in them, by which the air is respyred and drawn to the lungs, and the superfluity of the brain is purged into the mouth wards, as is before rehearsed. But Guydo and Galen say, that there be in the face nine bones, yet I can not find that the neither Mandible should be of the number of those nine, for the neither Mandible accounted there, proveth them to be ten in number, Of which thing I will hold no argument, but remit it to the sight of your Eyes. The parts of the mouth are five, that is to say, the Lips, the teeth, the tongue, the Uuila, and the Pallet of the mouth. And first to speak of the lips, they are members consimile or official, full of Musculus flesh, as is aforesaid, and they were ordained for two causes, one is, that they should be to the mouth as a door to a house, and to keep the mouth close till the meat were kindly chewed: The other cause is, that they should be helpers to the pronouncing of the speech. The teeth are members consimile or official, spermaic, and hardest of any other members, and are fastened in the cheek bones, and were ordained for three causes: First that they should chew a man's meat, or it should pass down, that it might be the sooner digested: The second, that they should be a help to the speech, for they that lack their Teeth do not perfectly pronounce their words: the third is, that they should serve to beasts as weapons. The number of them is uncertain, for some men have more, and some less, they that have the whole number have. xxxij. that is to say. xuj. above, and as many beneath, as thus, two Dwallies, two Quadripulles, two Cannines, eight Morales, and two Cansales. The Tongue is a carnous member, compound and made of many Nerves, ligaments, veins and Arteirs, ordained principally for three causes: The first is, that when a man eateth the Tongue might help to turn the meat till it were well chewed: The second cause is, that by him is received the taste of sweet and sour, and presented by him to the common wits: The third is, that by him is pronounced every speech. The fleshly part of the tongue is white, and hath in him nine muscles, and about the root of him is Glandulus, in the which be two wells, and they be ever full of spittle to temper and keep moist the tongue, or else it would wax dry by reason of his labour. etc. The Uuila is a member made of a spongeous flesh, hanging down from thy end of the Pallet over the goulet of the throat, and is a member in complexion cold and dry, and oftentimes when there falleth rawness or much moistness into it from the head, than it hangeth down in the throat, and letteth a man to swallow, and it is broad at the upper end, and small at the neither. It was ordained for divers causes, One is, that by him is holpen the sound of speech, for where the Uuila is lacking, there lacketh the perfect sound of speech: Another is, that it might help the prolation of vomits: another is, that by him is tempered and abated the distemperance of the air that passeth to the Lungs: another is, that by him is guided the superfluities of the brain that cometh from the coletures of the Nose, or else the superfluities should fall down suddenly into the mouth, the which were a displeasure. The Pallet of the mouth containeth nothing else but a carnous Pannikle, and the bones that be underneath it have two divisions, One along the Pallet from the division of the Nose, and from the opening of the other Mandible unto the neither end of the Pallet, lacking half an inch, and there it divideth overthwart, and the first division is of the Mandible, and the second is of the bone called Paxillarie or Bazillarie, that sustaineth and bindeth all other bones of the head together. The skin of the Pallet of the mouth is of the inner part of the stomach and of mire, and of Ysofagus, that is the way of the meat into the stomach. The way how to know that such a pannicle is of that part of the stomach, may be known when that a man is touched within the mouth, anon he beginneth to tickle in the stomach, and the nearer that he shall touch unto the throat, the more it abhorreth the stomocke, and often times it causeth the stomach to yield from him that is within him, as when a man doth vomit. Also in the mouth is ended the uppermost extremity of the Wesande, which is called mire or Isofagus. And with him is contained Trachia arteria, that is, the way of the air, whose holes be covered with a lap like a tongue, and is gristly, that the meat and drink might slide over him into Isofagus: The which grystle when a man speaketh it is reared up, and covereth the way of the meat: and when a man swalloweth the meat, than it covereth the way of the air, so that when the one is covered the other is discovered. For if a man open the way of the air when he swalloweth, if there fall a crumb into it, he shall never cease coughing until it be up again. And this sufficeth for the neck, face.   

¶ Hereafter followeth the Anatomy of the Neck.  
THE Neck followeth next to be spoken of. Galen proveth that the Neck was made for no other cause but for the Lungs, for all things that have no Lungs have neither neck nor voice, except fish. And you shall understand, that the neck is all that is contained between the head and the shoulders, and between the chin and the breast. It is compound and made of four things, that is to say, of Spondillus, of Seruicibus, of Gula, & of Gutture, the which shall be declared more plainly hereafter, and through these pass the way of the meat and of the air, but they be not of the substance of the neck. The Spondelles of the neck be seven, The first is joined unto the lower part of the head, called Paxillarie or Bazillarie, and in the same wise are joined every Spondel with other, and the last of the seven with the first of the Back or Ridge: and the ligaments that keep these Spondels together are not so hard and tough as those of the back: for why? those of the neck be more feebler and subtler: The cause is this, for it is necessary otherwhile that the head move without the neck, and the neck without the head, the which might not well have been done if they had been strong and boisterous. Of these aforesaid seven Spondels of the neck, there springeth seven pair of sinews, the which be divided into the head and into the Uysage, to the shoulders, and to the arms. From the hole of the first spondel springeth the first pair of sinews, between the first spondel and the second, and so forth of all the rest in like manner as of these. Also these sinews receive subtle will of the senews of the Brain, of the which will, and sinews, and flesh, with a pannikle, make the composition of Muskels, Lazartes, and Brawns, the which three things be all one, and be the instruments of voluntary moving of every member. The muscles of the neck after Galen are numbered to be. xx. moving the head and the neck. Likewise it is to be noted, that there be three manner of fleshes in the neck: the first is Pixwex or Seruisis, and it is called of children Gold heir, or yellow heir, the which are certain longitudinales lying on the sides of the Spondels from the head down to the latter Spondel. And they are ordained for this cause, that when the sinews be weary of over much labour with moving and travail, that they might rest upon them as upon a bed. The second flesh is musculus, from whom springeth the Tendons and cords that move the head and the neck, which be numbered twenty, as is afore declared: The third flesh replenisheth the void places. etc.  
The third part of the neck is called Gutture, and it is the standing out of the Throat bowl. The fourth part is called Gula, and the hinder part Ceruix, and hath that name of the Philosophers because of the marrow coming to the Ridge bones, It is so called, because it is as it were a servant to the brain: For the neck receiveth and taketh of the brain influence of virtue of moving, and sendeth it by sinews to other parts of the body downwards, and to all members of the body. Hear you shall understand, that the way of the meat, & Mire or Isofagus is all one thing, and it is to be noted, that it stretcheth from the mouth to the stomach, by the hinder part of the neck inwardly, fastened to the spondels of the neck, until he come to the fifth spondel, and there he leaveth the spondel and stretcheth till he come to the foremost part of the breast, & passeth through Diafragma till it come to the mouth of the stomach, and there he is ended. Furthermore it is to be noted, that this Wesande is compound and made of two Tunikles or Cotes, that is to say, of the inner, and of the utter. The utter tunikle is but simple, for he needeth no retention but only for his own nourishing: but the inner Tunikle is compound and made of Musculus Longitudinal Wyl, by which he may draw the meat from the mouth into the stomach, as it shall be more plainly declared in the Anatomy of the stomach. Furthermore Cana pulmonis via trachia arteria, all these be one thing, that is to say, the throat bowl, and it is set within the neck beside the Weasand towards Gula, and is compound of the grystle knit each with other. And that pannikle that is mean between the Weasand and the throat bol, is called Ismon. Also ye shall understand, that the great veins which ramefie by the sides of the neck to the upper part of the head, is of some men called Gwidege, & of others Vena organices, the incision of whom is perilous. And thus it is to be considered, that the Neck of man is compound and made of skinny flesh, ligaments and bones. And this sufficeth for the neck and the throat.   

¶ The Anatomy of the Shoulders and Arms.  
AND first to speak of the bones: It is to be noted, that in the shoulder there be two bones, that is to say, the Shoulder bone, and the Cannel bone, and also the adiutor bone of the arm are joined with the shoulder bones, but they are not numbered among them, but amongst the bones of the arms. In the composition of the shoulder, the first bone is Os spatula, or shoulder blade, whose hinder part is declined towards the chin, & in that end it is broad & thin, & in the upper part it is round, in whose roundness is a concavity, which is called the box or coop of the shoulder, into which entereth the Adiutor bones, and they have a binding togethers with strong flexible sinews, and are contained fast with the bone called Clavicula, or the Cannel bone: and this Cannel bone stretcheth to both the shoulders, one end to the one shoulder, and another to the other, and there they make the composition of the shoulders. The bones of the great arm, that is to say, from the shoulder to the fingers ends, be. thirty. The first is the Adiutor bone, whose upper end entereth into the concavity or box of the shoulder bone: It is but one bone having no fellow, and it is hollow and full of marrow, and it is also crooked because it should be the more habler to gripe things, and it is hollow because it should be lighter and more obedient to the steering or moving of the Brawns. Furthermore, this bone hath two emynences, or two knobs in his neither extremity, or in the juncture of the Elbow, of the which the one is more rising then the other, and are made like unto a Polly to draw water with, and the ends of these bones enter into a concavity proportioned in the uppermost ends of the two Focel bones, of which two bones the less goeth from the Elbow to the Thumb, by the uppermost part of the arm, and the greater is the neither bone from the Elbow to them little finger. And these two bones be contained with the Adiutor bone, and be bound with strong ligaments, and in like manner with the bones of the hand. The which bones be numbered. viii. the iiij. uppermost be joined with the. iiij. nethermost towards the hands: and in the third ward of bones, be. u and they are called Ossa patinis, and they are in the palm of the hand. And to them be joined the bones of the Fingers and the Thumbs, as thus, in every finger. three bones, and in the thumb two bones: that is to say, in the fingers and thumb of every hand. xiv. called Ossa digitorum, in the palm of the hand. u called Patinis, and between the hand and the wryste viii. called Racete, and from the wryst to the shoulder. iij. bones: all which being accounted together, ye shall find thirty bones in each hand and arm. To speak of sinews, ligaments, cords and Brawns: Here first ye shall understand that there cometh from Mynuca thorough the Spondels of the neck four sinews, which most plainly do appear in sight, as thus, one cometh into the upper part of the arm, another into the neither part, and one into the inner side, and another into the utter side of the arm, and they bring from the brain and from Minuca both feeling and moving into the arms, as thus, The sinews that come from the Brain and from the marrow of the back that is called Minuca, when they come to the juncture of the shoulder, there they are mixed with the ligaments of the self shoulder, and there the ligaments receive both feeling and moving of them, and also in their meddling together they are made a Cord or a Tendom. Three causes I found why the sinews were meddled with the ligaments, The first cause is, that the excellent feeling of the sinews, which many ways be made weighed by their continual moving, should be repressed by the insenciblenesse of the Ligaments: The second is, that the littleness of the sinews should be fulfilled through the quantity of the Ligaments: The third is, the feebleness of the senewe, that is insufficient and too feeble to use his offices, but by the strength and hardness of the ligaments. Now to declare what a Cord is, what a Ligament, and what a Muscle or a Brawn, it is enough rehearsed in the Chapter of the Simple members. But if you will through the commandment of the Will or of the Soul, draw the arm to the hinder part of the body, than the utter Brawn is drawn together, and the inner is enlarged: And likewise inwards, when the one brawn doth draw inwards, the other doth stretch, & when the arm is stretched in length, than the cords be lengthened: but when they pass the juncture of the shoulder and of the Elbow, by three fingers breadth or thereabout, than it is divided by subtle will, and meddled with the simple flesh, and that which is made of it is called a Brawn. And three causes I find why that the simple flesh is meddled with the Cord in the composition of the brawn: The first is, that the aforesaid will might draw in quiet through the temperance of the flesh: The second is, that they temper and abate the drought of the cord with his moistness, the which drought he getteth through his manifold moving: The third is, that the form of the brawny members should be the more fair, and of better shape: wherefore God and nature have clothed it with a Panikle that it might the better be kept. And it is called of the Philosophers Musculus, because it hath a form like unto a Mcuse. And when these Brawns come near a joint, than the cords spring forth of them, and are meddled with the Ligaments again, and so moveth that joint. And so ye shall understand, that always between every two joints is engendered a Brawn, proportioned to the same member and place unto the last extremity of the fingers, so that aswell the lest juncture hath a proper feeling and moving when it needeth, as hath the greatest. And after Guydo there be numbered. xiii. in the arm and hand, as thus. iiij. in the Adiutor, moving the upper part of the arm: and. iiij. in the Focels, moving that part of the arm: and five in the hand, moving the fingers. Now to speak somewhat of the Veins and Arteirs of the arm: It is to be understood, that from Venakelis there cometh two branches, the one cometh to the one arm pit, and the other cometh to the other. And now mark the spreading, for as it is of the one, so it is of the other, as thus, when the branch is in the arm pit, there he is divided into two branches, the one branch goeth along in the inner side of the arm until it come to the bought of the arm, and there it is called Bazilica or ●patica, and so goeth down the arm till it come to the wryst, and there it is turned to the back of the hand, and is found between the little finger and the next, and there it is called Saluatella. Now to the other branch that is in the arm hole, which spreadeth to the utter side of the shoulder, and there he divideth in two, the one goeth spreading up into the carnous part of the head, and after descendeth through the bone into the Brain, as it is declared in the Anatomy of the head: The other branch goeth on the outward side of the arm, and there he is divided in two also, the one part is ended at the hand, and the other part is folded about the arm, till it appear in the bought of the arm, and there it is called Sephalica, from thence it goeth to the back of the hand, & appeareth between the thumb and the foremost finger, and there it is called Sephalica occularis. The two branches that I spoke of, which be divided in the hinder part of the shoulders, from each of these two (I say) springeth one, and those two meet together and make one vain, which appeareth in the bought of the arm, and there it is called Mediana, or Cordialis, or Commine. And thus it is to be understood, that of vena Sephalica springeth vena occularis, and of vena Bazilica springeth vena Saluatella, and of the two veins that meet springeth vena Mediana, and in ramefying from these five principal veins springeth innumerable, of the which a Chirurgeon hath no great charge, for it sufficeth us to know the principals.  
To speak of Arteirs, you shall understand, that wheresoever there is found a Ueine, there is an Arteire under him: and if there be found a great vein, there is found a great Arteir, and where as is a little Ueine there is a little Arteir: For wheresoever there goeth a vein to give nutriment, there goeth an Arteir to bring the spirit of life. Wherefore it is to be noted, that the Arteires lie more deeper in the flesh than the veins do: for they carry and keep in them more precious blood than doth the Ueine, and therefore he hath need to be further from dangers outwardly: and therefore God and nature have ordained for him to be closed in two coats, where the Ueine hath but one. etc.  
The Breast or Thorax is the Ark or Chest of the spiritual members of man, as saith the Philosopher, where it is to be noted, that there be sour things containing, and eight contained, as thus, The four containing, are, the Skin, Musculus flesh, the Paps, and the Bones: The parts contained, are, the heart, the Lungs, Panikles, ligaments, Nerves, veins, Arteirs, Mire or Isofagus. Now the skin and the flesh are known in their Anatomy. It is to be noted, that the flesh of the Paps differeth from the other flesh of the body, for it is white, glandulus, & spongeous: and there is in them both Nerves, veins and Arteirs, and by them they have Coliganes with the heart, the liver, the brain, and the generative members. Also there is in the breast, as old Authors make mention, lxxx. or. xc. muscles, for some of them be common to the neck, some to the shoulders, and to the spades, some to Diafragma or the Midriff, some to the Ribs, some to the Back, & some to the breast itself. But I find certain profitableness in the creation of the Paps, aswell in man as in woman: for in man it defendeth the spirituals from annoyannce outwardly: and another, by their thickness they comfort the natural heat in defience of the spirits. And in women there is the generation of milk: for in women there cometh from the Matrix into their Breasts many veins which bring into them menstrual blood, the which is turned through the digestive virtue from read colour into white, like the colour of the Paps, even as Chylley coming from the stomocke to the liver is turned into the colour of the liver. Now to speak of the bones of the Breast: They be said to be triple or threefold, and they be numbered to be seven in the Breast before, and their length is according to the breadth of the breast, and their extremities or ends be grystlie, as the ribs be. And in the upper end of Thorax is an hole or a concavity, in which is set the foot of the Furklebone or Canel bone, and in the neither end of Thorax, against the mouth of the stomach, hangeth a gristle called Ensiforme: and this grystle was ordained for two causes, One is, that it should defend the stomach from hurt outwardly: The second is, that in time of fullness it should give place to the stomach in time of need when it desireth. etc. Now to speak of the parts of the back behindefoorth: There be. xii. Spondels, through whom passeth Mynuca, of whom springeth. xii. pair of Nerves, brnging both feeling and moving to the Muscles of the Breast aforesaid. And here it is to be noted, that in every side there be. xii. rib, that is to say. seven. true, and. v. false, because these. u be not so long as the other. seven. be, and therefore be called false rib, as it may be perceived by the sight of the Eye. Likewise of the parts that be inwardly, and first of the heart, because he is the principal of all other members, and the beginning of life: he is set in the midst of the breast severally by himself, as Lord and King of all members. And as a Lord or King aught to be served of his subjects that have their living of him: So are all other members of the body subjects to the heart, for they receive their living of him, and they do service many ways unto him again. The substance of the heart is as it were Lazartus flesh, but it is spermaic, and an official member, and the beginning of life, and he giveth to every member of the body both blood of life, and spirit of breath and heat: for if the heart were of Lazartus flesh, his moving and steering should be voluntary and not natural, but the contrary is true, for it were impossible that the heart should be ruled by Wyl only, and not by nature. The Heart hath the shape and form of a pineapple, and the broad end thereof is upwards, and the sharp end is downwards, depending a little towards the left side. And here it is to be noted, that the heart hath blood in his substance, whereas all other members have it but in their veins & Arteirs: also the heart is bound with certain ligaments to the backepart of the breast, but these ligaments touch not the substance of the heart, but in the overpart they spring forth of him, and is fastened, as is aforesaid. Furthermore the heart hath two Uentrikles or concavities, and the left is higher than the right, and the cause of this hollowness is this, for to keep the blood for his nourishing, and the air to abate and temper the great heat that he is in, the which is kept in his concavities. Now here it is to be noted, that to the right Uentrikle of the heart cometh a vain from the great vain called Venakelis, that receiveth all the substance of the blood from the liver. And this vein that cometh from venakelis entereth into the heart at the right Uentrikle, as I said before, and in him is brought a great portion of the thickest blood to nourish the heart with, & the residue that is left of this, is made subtle through the virtue of the heart, and then this blood is sent into a concavity or pit in the midst of the Heart between the two Uentrikles, and therein it is made hot and pured, and then it passeth into the left Uentrikle, and there is engendered in it a spirit that is clearer, brighter, and subtler than any corporal or bodily thing that is engendered of the four Elements: For it is a thing that is a mean between the body and the soul. Wherefore it is likened of the Philosophers, to be more liker heavenvly things then earthly things. Also it is to be noted, that from the left Uentrikle of the heart springeth two Arteirs: The one having but one cote, and therefore it is called Arterea venalis: and this Arteir carrieth blood from the heart to the Lungs, the which blood is vaporous, that is tried and left of the Heart, and is brought by this Artery to the Lungs to give him nutriment: and there he receiveth of the Lungs air, and bringeth it to the heart to refresh him with. Wherefore Galen saith, that he findeth that man's heart is natural and friendly to the Lungs, for he giveth him of his own nutrimental to nourish him with, and the Lungs reward him with air to refresh him with again. etc. The other Arterye that hath two coats, is called vena Arterialis, or the great Artery that ascendeth and dissendeth, and of him springeth all the other Arteirs that spread to every member of the body, for by him is unified and quickeneth all the members of the body. For the spirit that is retained in them, is the instrument or treasure of all the virtue of the soul. And thus it passeth until it come to the Brain, & there he is turned into a further digestion, and there he taketh another spirit, and so is made animal, and at the liver nutrimental, and at the Testikles generative: and thus it is made a spirit of every kind, so that he being mean of all manner of operations and workings taketh effect. Two causes I find why these Arteirs have two coats: One is, that one cote is not sufficient nor able to with stand the violent moving and steering of the spirit of life that is carried in them: The second cause is, that the thing that is carried about from place to place, is of so precious a treasure that it had the more need of good keeping. And of some Doctors this Arteir is called the Pulsative vain, or the beating vain: for by him is perceived the power & might of the Hart. etc. Wherefore God and Nature have ordained that the Arteirs should have two coats. Also there is in the Heart three Pelikels, opening and closing the gooing in of the Heart blood and spirit in convenient time. Also the heart hath two little Ears, by whom cometh in and passeth out the air that is prepared for the Lungs. Also there is found in the heart a Cartilaginus auditament, to help and strength the self Harte. Also the Heart is covered with a strong Pannikle, which is called of some Capsula cords, or Pericordium, the which is a strong case, unto whom cometh Nerves, as to other inward members. And this pannicle Pericordium springeth of the upper Pannicle of the Midriff. And of him springeth another Panikle called Mediastinum, the which departeth the Breast in the midst, and keepeth that the Lungs fall not over the Hart. Also there is an other Pannikle that covereth the Ribs inwardly, that is called Plura, of whom the Midriff taketh his beginning. And it is said of many Doctors, that Duramater is the original of all the Pannicles within the body: and thus one taketh of another. etc.   

¶ The Anatomy of the Lungs.  
THE Lungs is a member spermatike of his first creation, and his natural complexion is cold and dry, and in his accidental complexion he is cold and moist, lapped in a Nerueous Pannikle, because it should gather together the softer substance of the Lungs, and that the Lungs might feel by the means of the Pannicle, that which he might not feel in himself. Now to prove the Lungs to be cold and dry of kind, it appeareth by his swift steering, for he lieth ever waving over the heart, and about the heart. And that he is cold and moist in reward, it appeareth well, that he receiveth of the brain many cold matters, as Cataries, and Rumes, whose substance is thin. Also I find in the Lungs three kinds of substance: One is a Ueyne coming from the Liver, bringing with him the Crude or raw part of the Chylle to feed the Lungs: Another is Arterea venalis, coming from the heart, bringing with him the spirit of life to nourish him with: The third is Trachia arteria, that bringeth in air to the Lungs, and it passeth through all the left part of them to do his office. The Lungs is divided into five Lobbes or Pellikels, or five portions, that is to say, three in the right side, and two in the left side. And it was done for this cause, that if there fell any hurt in the one part, the others should serve and do their office. And three causes I find why the Lungs were principally ordained: First, that they should draw cold wind, and refresh the heart: The second, that they should change and altar, and purify the air before it come to the heart, lest the heart were hurt and noyed with the quantity of the air: The third cause is, that they should receive from the heart the fumous superfluities that he putteth forth with his breathing. etc. Behind the Lungs toward the Spondels, passeth Mire or Isofagus, of whom it is spoken of in the Anatomy of the neck. And also there passeth both Veins and Arteirs, and all these with Trachia arteria, do make a Stoke, replete unto the Gullet with Pannikles, and strong Ligaments, and Glandulus flesh to fulfil the void places. And last of all is the Midriff, and it is an official member, made of two Pannikles, and Lazartus flesh, and his place is in the midst of the body, overth wart or in breadth under the region of the spiritual members, departing them from the matrix. And three causes I find why the Midriff was ordained: First, that it should divide the spirituals from the nutrates: The second, that it should keep the vital colour or heat to dissende down to the nutrates: The last is, that the malicious fumes reared up from the nutrates, should not noye the spirituals or vytals. etc.  
The womb is the region or the city of all the Entrailss, the which reacheth from the Midriff down unto the share inwardly, and outwardly from the reins or Kydnes, down to the bone Pecten, about the privy parts. And this womb is compound and made of two things, that is to say, of Syfac & Myrac. Syfac is a Paunicle, and a member spermatike, official, sensible, senowy, compound of subtle Will, and in complexion cold and dry, having his beginning at the inner Pannicle of the Midriff. And it was ordained because it should contain and bind together all the entrails, and that he defend the Musculus so that he oppress not the natural members. And that he is strong and tough, it is because he should not be lightly broken, and that those things that are contained go not forth, as it happeneth to them that are broken. etc. Myrac is compound and made of four things, that is, of skin outwardly, of fatness, of a carnous pannicle, and of Musculus flesh. And that it is to be understanded, that all the whole from Sifac outward is called Myrac, it appeareth well by the words of Galen, where he commandeth, that in all wounds of the womb to few the Sifac with the Myrac, and by that it proveth that there is nothing without the Sifac but Myrac. And in this Myrac or utter part of the womb, there is noted eight Muscles, two Longitudinals, proceeding from the shield of the Stomach unto Os Pecten: two Latitudinales coming from the back wards to the womb: and four Tranuerse, of the which two of them spring from the Ribs on the right side, and go to the left side, to the bones of the Haunches, or of Pecten: and the other two spring from the Ribs on the left side, and come over the womb to the right parts, as the other before doth. Hear it is to be noted, that by the virtue of the subtle will that is in the Musculus longitudinal, is made perfect the virtue attractive: and by the musculus Tranuerse is made the virtue retentive: and by the musculus Latitudinale is made the virtue expulsive. It is thus to be understood, that by the virtue attractive is drawn down into the entrails all superfluities, both water, wind, and dirt: By the virtue retentive all things are withholden and kept, until nature have wrought his kind: And by the virtue expulsive is put forth all things, when Nature provoketh any thing to be done. Galen saith, that wounds or incisions be more perilous in the midst of the womb then about the sides, for there the parts be more tractable, than any other parts be. Also he saith, that in wounds piercing the womb there shall not be made good incarnation, except Sifac be sewed with Myrac. Now to come to the parts contained within: first, that which appeareth next under the Sifac is Omentum, or Zirbus, the which is a pannicle covering the stomach and the entrails, implanted with many Veins & Arteirs, and not a little fatness ordained to keep moist the inward parts. This Zirbus is an official member, and is compound of a vain and an Arteir, the which entereth and maketh a line of the utter tunikle of the stomach, unto which tunikle hangeth the Zirbus, and covereth all the guts down to the shayre. Two causes I find why they were ordained: one is that they should defend the nutratives outwardly: the second is, that through his own power & virtue he should strength & comfort the digestion of all the Nutrates, because they are more féebler than other members be, because they have but a thin womb or skin. etc. Next Zirbus appeareth the entrails or guts, of which Galen saith, that the Guts were ordained in the first creation to convey the dross of the meat and drink, & to cleanse the body of their superfluities. And here it is to be noted that there be six portions of one whole Gut, which both in man and beast beginneth at the neither mouth of the stomach, and so continueth forth to the end of the Fundament. Nevertheless he hath divers shapes and forms, and divers operations in the body, and therefore he hath divers names. And here upon the Philosophers say, that the lower womb of a man is like unto the womb of a swine. And like as the stomach hath two tunikles, in like manner have all the Guts two tunikles. The first portion of the Guts is called Duodenum, for he is. xii. inches of length, and covereth the neither part of the stomach, and receiveth all the dross of the stomach: The second portion of the Guts is called jerunium, for he is evermore empty, for to him lieth evermore the chest of the Gall, beating him sore, and draweth forth of him all the dross, & cleanseth him clean: The iij. portion or gut is called Yleon, or small gut, and is in length. xv. or. xuj. Cubits. In this gut oftentimes falleth a disease called Yleaca pas●io. The iiij. gut is called Monoculus, or blind gut, and it seemeth to have but one hole or mouth, but it hath two, one near unto the other, for by the one all things go in, and by the other they go out again: The fift is called Colon, and receiveth all the dross deprived from all profitableness, and therefore there cometh not to him any veins Miseraices, as to the other: The sixth & last is called Rectum, or Longaon, and he is ended in the Fundament, and hath in his neither end four Muscles, to hold, to open, to shut, and to put out. etc. Next is to be noted of Mesenterium, the which is nothing else but a texture of innumerable veins Miseraices, ramefied of one vain called Porta epates, covered and defended of Pannicles and ligaments coming to the entrails, with the back full of fatness and glandulus flesh. etc.  
The stomach is a member compound and spermaic, senowy and sensible, and therein is made perfect the first digestion of Chile. This is a necessary member to all the body, for if it fail in his working, all the members of the body shall corrupt. Wherefore Galen saith, that the stomach was ordained principally for two causes: The first, that it should be to all the members of the body, as the earth is to all that are engendered of the earth, that is, that it should desire sufficient meat for all the whole body: The second is, that the stomach should be a sack or chest to all the body for that meat, and as a Cook to all the members of the body. The stomach is made of two pannicles, of which the inner is Nerueous, and the utter Carneous. This inner pannicle hath musculus longitudinales that stretcheth along from the stomach to the mouth, by the which he draweth to him meat and drink, as it were hands. Also he hath Tranuers will, for to withhold or make retention. And also the utter pannicle hath Latitudinal will, to expulse and put out: and that by his heat he should help the digestive virtue of the Stomach, and by other heats given by his neighbours, as thus, It hath the liver on the right side, chafing & heating him with his lobes or figures: & the Splen on the left side with his fatness, & veins sending to him melancholy, to exercise his appetites: and above him is the Heart, quickening him with his Arteries: Also the brain, sending to him a branch of Nerves to give him feeling. And he hath on the hinder part, dissending of the parts of the back many ligaments, with the which he is bound to the Spondels of the back. The form or figure of the Stomach is long, in likeness of a gowrde, crooked: and that both holes be in the upper part of the body of it, is, because there should be no going out of it unadvisedly of those things that are received into it. The quantity of the stomach commonly holdeth two pitchers of water, and it may suffer many passions, and the neither mouth of the stomach is narrower than the upper, and that for three causes: the first cause is, that the upper receiveth meat great and boisterous in substance that there being made subtle it might pass into the neither: The second is, for by him passeth all the meats, with their chilositie from the Stomach to the liver: The third is, for that through him passeth all the dross of the Stomach to the guts. And this sufficeth for the Stomach. etc.  
The liver is a principal member, and official, and of his first creation spermaic, complete in quantity of blood, of himself insencible, but by accidence he is sensible, and in him is made the second digestion, and is lapped in a Senowy pannicle. And that he is a principal member, it appeareth openly by the Philosophers, by Avicen, and Galen. And it is official as is the stomach, and it is of spermaic matter, and senowy, of the which is engendered his Veins. And because it was little in quantity, nature hath added to it cruded blood, to the accomplishment of sufficient quantity, and is lapped in a senowy pannicle, And why the liver is cruded, is, because that Chile which cometh from the stomach to the liver, should be turned into the colour of blood. And why the liver was ordained, was, because that all the nutrimental blood should be engendered in him. The proper place of the liver is under the false Ribs in the right side. The form of the liver is gibbous or bunchy on the backside, & it is somewhat hollow like the inside of an hand. And why it is so shapen, is, that it should be plycable to the stomach, like as a hand doth to an apple, to comfort her digestion, for his heat is to the stomach as the heat of the fire is to the Pot or Cauldron that hangeth over it. Also the liver is bound with his pellikles to the Diafragma, and with strong ligaments. And also he hath Colyganes with the Stomach and the entrails, and with the heart and the Rains, the Testicles and other members. And there are in him five Pellikles like five fingers. Galen calleth the Liver Massasanguinaria, containing in itself four substances, Natural and Nutrimental. The naturals is sent with the blood to all parts of the body to be engendered and nourished. And the nutrimentals be sequestrate and sent to places ordained for some helpinges. These are the places of the humours, the blood in the liver, Choler in the chest of gall, Melancholy to the Splen, Phlegm to the Lungs and the junctures, the watery superfluities to the reins and the Uesike. And they go with the blood, and sometime they putrefy and make Fevers, and some be put out to the skin, and be resolved by sweat, or by scab, by Pushes, or by Impostumes. And these four natural humours, that is to say, Sanguine, Choler, Melancholy, & phlegm, be engendered and distributed in this manner: First ye shall understand that from the spermaic matter of the Liver inwardly, there is engendered two great veins, of the which the first and the greatest is called Porta, and cometh from the concavity of the liver, of whom springeth all the small veins Miseraices, and these Miseraices be to Vena porta as the branches of a tree be to the stock or tree. For some of them be contained with the bottom of the stomach, some with Duodenum, some with jeiunium, some with Yleon, & some with Monoculus, or Saccus. And from all these guts they bring to Vena porta the succozitie of Chiley going from the stomach, & distribute it into the substance of the liver. And these veins Miseraices be innumerable. And in these veins is begun the second digestion, and ended in the liver, like as is in the Stomach the first digestion. So it proveth that Vena porta and vena Miseraices serve to bring all the succozitie of the meat and drink that passeth the Stomach to the Liver, and they spread themselves through the substance of the Liver inwardly, and all they stretch towards the gibbos or bowing part of the Liver, and there they meet and go all into one unity, & make the second great vein called Venakelis or Concava, or Vena ramosa, all is one, and he with his roots draweth out all the blood engendered from the liver, and with his branches ramefying upwards and downwards, carrieth and conveyeth it to all other members of the body to be nourished with, where is made perfect the third digestion. And also there goeth from the liver veins bearing the superfluities of the third digestion to their proper places, as it shall be declared hereafter.  
Now to speak of the Gall, or the chest of the Gal: it is an official member, and it is spermaic and senowy, and hath in it a subtle will, and it is as a purse or a pannicular vesike in the hollowness of the liver, about the middle pericle or lobe, ordained to receive the Choleric superfluities which are engendered in the liver. The which purse or bag hath three holes or necks: by the first he draweth to him from the liver the choler, that the blood be not hurt by the choler: by the second neck he sendeth to the bottom of the stomach Choler to further the digestion of the stomach: And by the third neck he sendeth the choler regularly from one gut to another to cleanse them of their superfluities and dross: and the quantity of the purse may contain in it half a pint. etc.  
And next is the Splen, or the milt, the which is a spermaic member, as are other members, and official, and is the receptory of the melancolious superfluities that are engendered in the Liver. And his place is on the left side, transuerslye linked to the stomach, and his substance is thin. And two causes I find why he was ordained there: The first is, that by the melancolious superfluities that are engendered of the liver which he draweth to him, he is nourished with: The second cause is, that the nutritive blood should by him be made the more purer and clean, from the dross and thicking of melancholy. etc.  
And next of the reins and Kidneys: It is to be understood, that within the region of the Nutrites backwards, are ordained the Kidneys, to cleanse the blood from the watery superfluities, And they have each of them two passages, or holes, or necks: by the one is drawn the water from Uenakelis by two veins, which are called vena emulgentes, the length of a finger of a man, and issueth from the Liver: and by the other is sent the same water to the Bladder, and is called Poros urithides. The substance of the Kidneys is Lazartus flesh, having Longitudinal will. And their place is behind on each side of the Spondles, and they are two in number, and the right Kidney lieth some what higher than the left, and is bound fast to the back with ligaments. The Philosopher saith, that man's kidneys are like to the kidneys of a Cow, full of hard knots, having in him many hard concavities, and therefore the sores of them be hard to cure. Also they are more harder in substance then any other fleshy member, and that for two causes: one is, that he be not much hurt of the sharpness of the urine: The other is, that the same urine that passeth from him might the better be altered and cleansed through the same. Also there cometh from the heart to each of the kydnes an Arteir, that bringeth with him blood, heat, spirit, and life. And in the same manner there cometh a vain from the liver, that bringeth blood to nourish the kydnes, called blood nutrimental. The grease of these kydnes or fatness is as of other inward members, but it is an official member, made of thin blood, congealed & cruded through cold: and there is ordained the greater quantity in his place, because it should receive and temper the heat of the kydnes, which they have of the biting sharpness of the water. Now by the kydnes upon the Spondels passeth Venakelis, or venacava, which is a vain of a great substance, for he receiveth all the nutrimental blood from the liver: and from him passeth many small pipes on every side, and at the Spondel between the Shoulders he divideth himself whole into two great branches, the one goeth into the one arm, and the other into the other, and there they divide themselves into many veins and branches: as it is declared in the arms.   

¶ The Anatomy of the Haunches, and their parts.  
THe Haunches are the lower part of the womb, joining to the thighs, and the secret members. And three things there are to be noted thereof: the first is of the parts containing: the second is of the parts contained: and the third is of the parts proceeding outwards. The parts containing outwardly, be Myrac and Sifac, the Zirbus, and the bones. The parts contained inwardly, are, the Vezike, or bladder, the spermaic vessels, the Matrix in women, Longaon, Nerves, Veins, and Arteirs dissending downwards The parts proceeding outwards, are, The Buttocks, and the Muscles dissending to the thighs, of which it is to be spoken of in order. And first of the parts containing: as of Myrac, Sifac, and Zirbus, there is enough spoken of in the Anatomy of the womb. But as for the bones of the Haunches, There be of the parts of the back three Spondels of Ossa sacri, orof the Haunches, & three cartilaginis spondels of Ossa caude, called, The tail bonne. And thus it is proved, that there is in every man, woman, and child. thirty. spondels, and thus they are to be numbered: In the Neck, seven. in the Ridge, xii. in the reins, u & in the Haunches, vj. And it is to be noted, that every spondel is hollow in the midst, through which hollowness passeth Nuca from the Brain, or the marrow of the back. And some Authors say, that Mynuca is of the same substance that the Braene is of, for it is like in substance, and in itself giveth to the Nerves both the virtue of moving and feeling. And also every Spondel is holed on every side, through the which holes both Arteirs and veins, do bring from the heart and the liver both life & nourishment, like as they do to the brain: and from the pannicle of Minuca or the marrow of the back, through the holes of the sides of the spondels, springeth forth Nerves motives, and there they intermeddle themselves with the strong ligaments that be insencible, and so the ligaments receive that feeling of the Nerve, which the Nerve taketh of Mynuca. And by this reason many authors prove, that Mynuca is of the same substance that the Brain is of, and the panicles of the Nuca is of the substance of the pannikles of the Brain. etc. And each of these spondels be bound fast one with another, so that one of them may not well be moved without another. And so all these spondles together, contained one by another are called the Ridgbone, which is the foundation of all the shape of the body. They with the last spondel be contained or joined to the bones of the Hanchens, and they be the upholders of all the spondles. And these bones be small towards the tail bone, and broad towards the Haunches, and before they join and make Os pectinis. And so they be broad in the parts of the Isles, and therefore some Authors calleth it Ilea. And each of these two bones toward the liver hath a great round hole, into the which is received the bone called Vertebra, or, The whorle bone, Also besides that place there is a great hole or way, through the which passeth from above Musculus, veins, and Arteirs, and go into the These. And thus it is to be noted, that of this bone Pecten, and the bone Vertebra, is made the juncture of the Thy.  
Now to speak of the parts contained, The first thing that cometh to sight, is the Bladder, the which is an official member, compound of two Nervous Pannicles, in complexion cold & dry, whose neck is carnous, and hath Muscles to withhold, and to let go: And in men it is long, and is contained with the yard, passing through Peritoneum, but in women it is shorter, and is contained within the Vulua. The place of the bladder is between the bone of the Share and the tail gut called Longaon, and in women it is between the foresaid Bone and the Matrix. And in it is implanted two long Uessels coming from the kidneys, whose names be Porri urichides, bringing with them the Urinal or water from the kidneys to the bladder, which privily eutreth into the holes of the pannicles of the bladder, by a natural moving between tunicle and tunicle, and there the urine findeth the hole of the neither tunikle, and there it entereth privily into the concavity of the bladder, and the more that the bladder is filled with urine, the straighter be the two tunicles comprised together, for the holes of the tunicles be not even one against another, and therefore if the bladder be never so full, there may none go back again. The form of it is round, the quantity of it is a pitcher full, in some more, and in some less. etc. Also there is found two other vessels called, vaza seminaria, or the spermaic vessels. And they come from Uenakelis, bringing blood to the Testikles, as well in man, as in woman, in the which by his further digestion it is made sparme or nature in men. They be put outward, for the Testikles be without, but in women it abideth within, for their Testicles stand within, as it shall be declared hereafter.  
Next followeth the Matrix in women: The Matrix in woman is an official member, compound and Nerueous, and in complexion cold and dry. And it is the field of man's generation, and it is an instrument 〈◊〉, that is to say, a thing receiving or taking: and he proper place is between the bladder and the gut Longaon, the likeness of it is as it were a yard reversed or turned inward: having testikles likewise, as aforesaid: also the Matrix hath two concavities or sells, and no more, but all beasts have as many sells as they have paps heads. Also it hath a long neck like an urinal, & in every neck it hath a mouth, that is to say, one within, and an other without. The inner in the time of conception is shut, and the utter part is open, as it was before: and it hath in the midst a Lazartus pannicle, which is called in Latin Tentigo. And in the creation of this Pannicle is found two utilities: The first is, that by it goeth forth the urine, or else it should be shed throughout all the Vulua: The second is, that when a woman doth set her thighs abroad it altereth the air that cometh to the Matrix for to temper the heat. Furthermore, the neck that is between these two foresaid mouths, in her concavity hath many involutions and pleates, joined together in the manner of Rose leaves before they be fully spread or ripe, and so they be shut together as a Purse mouth, so that nothing may pass forth but urine, until the time of chylding. Also about the middle of this neck be certain veins in Maidens, the which in time of deflowering be corrupt & broken. Furthermore, in the sides of the utter mouth of the mouth are two testicles or stones, and also two vessels of sparme shorter than man's vessels, and in time of coyt the woman's sperm is shed downè into the bottom of the Matrix. Also from the liver there cometh to the Matrix many veins, bringing to the child nourishing at the time of a woman's being with child: and those veins, at such time as the Matrix is void, bring thereto superfluities from certain members of the body, whereof are engendered women's flowers. etc.  
And forasmuch as it hath pleased almighty God to give the knowledge of these his mysteries and works unto his Creatures in this present world, Here I purpose to declare what thing Embreon is, and his creation. The noble Philosophers, as Galen, Avicen, Bartholomeus, and divers other writing upon this matter, say, That Embreon is a thing engendered in the mother's womb, the original whereof is the sparme of the man and the woman, of the which is made by the might and power of God, in the mother's womb a child, as hereafter more at large shall be declared. First the field of generation called the Matrix, or the mother, is known in the anatomy, whose place is properly betwixt the Bladder and Longaon in the woman, in which place is sown by the tillage of man a covenable matter of kindly heat, for kindly heat is cause efficeens both of doing and working, and spirit that giveth virtue to the body, and governeth and ruleth that virtue: the which seed of generation cometh from all the parts of the body both of the man and the woman, with consent & will of all members, and is shed into the place of conceiving, where through the virtue of Nature it is gathered together in the sells of the matrix or the mother, in whom by the way of the working of man's seed, and by the way of suffering of the woman's seed mixed together, so that each of them worketh in other, and suffereth in other, there is engendered Embreon. And further it is to be noted, that this sparme that cometh both of man and woman, is made & gathered of the most best and purest drops of blood in all the body, and by the labour and chafing of the testikles or stones this blood is turned into another kind, and is made sparme. And in man it is hot, white, & thick, wherefore it may not spread nor run abroad of itself, but runneth and taketh temperance of the woman's sparme, which hath contrary qualities, for the woman's sparme is thinner, colder, and féebler. And as some Authors hold opinion, when this matter is gathered into the right side of the matrix, than it happeneth a male kind, and likewise on the left the female, and where the virtue is most, there it savoureth most. And further it is to be noted, that like as the Renet of the Cheese hath by himself the way or virtue of working, so hath the milk by way of suffering: and as the Renet and milk make the cheese, so doth the sparme of man and woman make the generation of Embreon, of the which thing springeth by the virtue of kindly heat, a certain skin or call, into the which it lappeth itself in, where with afterwards it is tied to the mother's womb, the which covering cometh forth with the birth of the child, and if it happen that any of the skin remain after the birth of the child, then is the woman in peril of her life. Furthermore it is said, that of this Embreon is engendered the heart, the liver, the Brain Nerves, veins, Arteirs, cords, ligaments, Skins, Gristles, & Bones, receiving to them by kindly virtue the menstrual blood, of which is engendered both flesh and fatness. And as writers say, the first thing that is shapen be the principals, as is the Heart, liver, and Brain. For of the heart springeth the Arteirs, of the liver the Veins, and of the Brain the Nerves: and when these are made, Nature maketh & shapeth Bones and gristles to keep & save them, as the bones of the head for the Brain, the Breast bones and the Ribs for the Heart and the liver. And after these springeth all other member one after another. And thus is the child bred forth in four degrees, as thus, The first is, when the said sparme or seed is at the first as it were milk: The second is, when it is turned from that kind into another kind, is yet but as a lump of blood, and this is called of hippocras, Fettus: The third degree is, when the principals be shapen, as the heart, liver, and Brain: The fourth and last, as when all the other members be perfectly shapen, than it receiveth the soul with life and breath, and then it beginneth to move itself alone, Now in these four degrees aforesaid, in the first as milk it continueth, seven. days: in the second as Fettus, ix. days: in the third as a lump of flesh engendering the principals the space of, ix. days: and the fourth unto the time of full perfection of all the whole members, is the space of, xviij. days: So is there, xluj. days from the day of conception unto the day of full perfection and receiving of the soul, as God best knoweth.  
Now to come again to the Anatomy of the Haunches: Then come we to Longaon, otherwise called, The tail gut, whose substance is panniculer, as of all the other bowels, the length of it is of a span long, stretching nigh to the reins, his neither part is called Annis, that is to say, The towel. And about him is found two Muscles, the one to open, the other to shut. Also there is found in him five veins or branches of veins, called vena emoraidales, and they have coliganes with the bladder, wherefore they are partners in their grieves. And when this Longaon is raised up, than ye may see the veins and arteirs, and sinews, how they be branched and bound down to the neither parts. The parts proceeding outwardly, are, Didimus, Peritoneum, the Yard, the Testikles, and the Buttocks. And first it shall be spoken of the yard, or of man's generative members, the which dureth unto that part that is called Peritoneum, the which place is from the cods unto the Fundament, whereupon is a seam. Wherefore saith the Philosopher, Man's yard is in the end and term of the share. The yard is an official member, and the tiller of man's generation, compound and made of skin, brawns, Tendons, veins, arteirs, sinews, and great Ligaments: and it hath in it food passages, or principal issues, that is to say, one for the sparme, and another for the urine. And as the Philosophers say, the quantity of a common yard is viii. or, ix. inches, with measurable bigness proportioned to the quantity of the matrix. This member hath, as saith Avicen, three holes, through one passeth insensible polissions and wind, that causeth the yard to rise: the other two holes be declared before. Also the yard hath a skin, and about the head thereof it is double, and that men call Prepusium, and this skin is movable, for through his consecration the spermaic matter is the better and sooner gathered together, and sooner cast forth from the Testicles: for by him is had the more delectation in the doing. And the foremost part of the head of the yard before is made of a subtle brawny flesh, the which if it be once lost, it is never restored again, but it may well be skinned. etc.  
The cods is a compound member, and an official, and though it be counted amongst the generative members, yet it is called a principal member because of generation. This purse was ordained for the custody & comfort of the testikles and other spermaic vessels. And it is also made of two parts, of the inner, and the utter. The utter is compound and made of skin, and lazartus, longitudinal, and transuersal, in like manner as is the Myrac. The inner part of the cods is of the substance of the Sifac, and are in similitude as two pockets drawn together by themselves, and they differ not from the Sifac: and there be two, because if there fall any hurt to the one, the other should serve. The Testikles or stones be two, made of glandulus flesh or curnelly flesh. And furthermore, through the Didimus cometh to the Testikles from the Brain, sinews, and from the heart Arteirs, and from the liver veins, bringing unto them both feeling and steering, life and spirit, and nutrimental blood, and the most purest blood of all other members of the body, whereof is made the sparme by the labour of the Testicles, the which is put forth in due time, as is before rehearsed.  
The groins be known: they be the emy iunctures or purging place unto the liver, and they have curnelly flesh in the plying or bowing of the Thighs. The Hips have great brawny flesh on them, and from thence dissende downwards brawns, cords, and ligaments, moving and binding together the thighs, with the Haunches themselves.   

¶ The Anatomy of the Thighs, Legs, and Feet.  
THE Leg reacheth from the joint of the Thy unto the extremity of the Toes, and I will divide it in parts, as the arms were divided: One part is called Coxa, or Thigh, and that is all that is contained from the joint of the haunch unto the Knee: The second part is called Tibia, and that reacheth from the Knee to the Ankle: The third is the little foot, and that is from the Ankle, unto the end of the Toes. And here it is to be noted, that the Thigh, Leg, and Foot, are compound and made as the great arm or hand, with skin, flesh, veins, arteirs, sinews, brawns, tendons, and bones, whereof they are to be spoken of in order. Of the skin and flesh there is enough spoken of before. And as of veins and arteirs, in their descending downwards at the last spondels they be divided into two parts, whereof the one part goeth into the right Thy, and the other into the left: and when they come to the Thy they be divided into other two great branches: the one of them spreadeth into the inner side of the Leg, and the other spreadeth into the utter side, and so branching dissende down the Leg to the ankles & feet, and be brought into four veins, which be commonly used in letting blood, as hereafter followeth. One of them is under the inner ankle toward the heel, called Soffena, and another under the utter ankle, called Siattica, and another under the ham, called Poplitica, the fourth between the little Toe and the next, called Kenalis. And it is to be noted of these four great veins in the legs of the manifold dangers that might fall of them, as often it happeneth. There be many other branches which a Chirurgeon needeth not much to pass upon. The sinews spring of the last spondel, & of Os sacrum, and passeth through the hole of the bone of the Hip, and dissendeth to the Brawns, and moveth the Knee & the ham, and these dissende down to the ankle, and move the foot, and the brawns of the feet move the Toes, in like manner as is declared in the bones of the hands. The first is called Coxa, that is The thy bone, and he is without a fellow, and is full of marrow, and is round at either end: The roundness that is at the upper end is called Vertebrum, or Whirl bone, and boweth inwards, and is received into the box or hole of the hanche bone: and at the lower & towards the Knee there it hath two rounds, which be received into the concavities of the bone of the leg at the knee, called the great Fossels. There is also at the knee a round bone called, The knee pan. Then followeth the leg, wherein is two bones, called Focile mayor, and Focile minor, the bigger of them passeth before, making the shape of the shin, & it is called the shin bone, and passeth down making the inner ankle. The less passeth from the knee backwards, dissending down to the utter ankle, and there formeth that ankle. etc. The bones of the foot are, xxuj. as thus, first, next the ankle bone is one, called in Latin Orobalistus: next under that towards the Heel is one, called Calcany: and between them is another bone called Os nauculare: In the second ward there be four bones, called Raceti, as be in the hands. In the third & fourth ward be, xiv. called Digitori: and. u called Pectens at the extremities of the Toes, next to the nails. And thus be there in the foot, xxuj. bones, with the Leg from the Ankle to the Knee, two in the Knee, and one round and flat bone, and in the Thy one. And thus shall you find in the whole Leg and Foot, thirty. bones. And this sufficeth for young Practitioners.   
FINIS.   

¶ Imprinted at London by Henry Bamforde. 1577.