THE MANNERS, laws, AND CUSTOMS OF ALL NATIONS. Collected out of the best Writers by JOANNES BOEMUS AUBANUS, a Dutchman. With many other things of the same Argument, gathered out of the History of Nicholas Damascen. The like also out of the History of America, or Brasill, written by john Lerius. The faith, religion and manners of the Aethiopians, and the deploration of the people of Lappia, compiled by Damianus à Goes. With a short discourse of the Aethiopians, taken out of JOSEPH SCALIGER his seventh book de Emendatione temporum.  
Written in Latin, and now newly translated into English. By ED. ASTON.  
AT LONDON, Printed by G. Elder and are to be sold by Francis Burton. 1611.   

TO HIS TRULY HONOURED FRIEND, SIR WALTER ASTON OF TIXAL, IN the County of Stafford; Knight of the honourable order of the Bath.  
HONOURED SIR.  
SEeing that it is an usual and commendable custom amongst all writers, to dedicate their works (once brought to perfection) to some worthy parsonage or other, to whom they are most devoted, under whose patronage and protection they may better pass without controlment. And having now at last (more for the benefit of such as are unskilful in the Latin tongue, than any private respect of mine own, other than my recreation) translated these several writers into our vulgar language, by whose travels, & endeavours, the manners, fashions & forms of government of foreign and remote nations are plainly discovered; to each studious and judicial reader, to the deserved commendations of the Authors themselves, the expelling of barbarous ignorance, and the enriching, and enlightening of the Christian world, with the knowledge of all parts thereof. And withal deliberately weighing with myself, to whom (amongst so many worthies of our days) I might direct, and consecrate these my labours, of whom I might conceive some hope of acceptance, and a willingness to support the burden of my weak building. I could bethink myself of none so fit, nor so worthy, as yourself (right worthy Sir,) both in regard that the manifold favours bestowed upon the poor house from whence I had my being, by you, and your memorable Ancestors, and the taste that myself have had of your good will to all your wellwishers, and for that also the variety of matter herein contained, may happily yield some delight, if you vouchsafe to peruse it, imboldneth me humbly to presume, in these rude & rugged lines, to manifest my ardent devotion and affectionate zeal I owe, & of duty ought to owe, unto your honoured self. And though the meanness of the gift, through the indigested phrase and ill composture, can no way merit the least place in your good liking, yet was the poor man's sacrifice, made with salt, as acceptable to the Roman gods, as the rich man's incense, and Sineta's cold water, proceeding from a willing heart, (having no better means to show his duty and devotion) as highly regarded, and as bountifully rewarded by King Artaxerxes as the richest presents the Persians did offer him. Accept then (I beseech you) these my poor presentments, & by your accustomed favour, so to give life to them, and me, that they may pass (under your protection) free from detraction, and myself be encouraged to proceed to other enterprises, for the advancement of your fame, and attaining to myself the expected end of all my labours, which is, to be enrolled in the Catalogue of your well-willers.  
Thus craving pardon for my presumption, I humbly take my leave,  
And rest ever truly devoted to your honoured name. ED. ASTON.   

To the friendly Reader.  
IF the reading of Histories be so necessary, & benefic all to all sorts of people, as they be rightly termed, by some the mirrors, and masters of our life, showing, and teaching us by the laws and governments of other nations and commonweals, what orders and institutions are fittest to be ordained, and observed in our own for the establishment of perfect peace, maintenance of divine worship and excercise of moral virtues.  
I doubt not (good courteous Reader) but the commendation of this Work, and other Histories of like argument, expressed at large by the Author in his preface, will pass so currant with thee, as thou wilt willingly conclude with him, That there is nothing more pleasant, more profitable, nor more praise worthy, then truly, legendo, aut peregrinando, either by reading or traveling, to know and understand the situation, laws, customs, religion, and form of government of each several Province in the world. And seeing also that (besides our sloth and home-loued idleness) there be so many rubs, and impediments to hinder and deter us from travel, as it is, in a manner, utterly neglected, and we thereby deprived of the one half of our understandings: how much more industrious aught we to be, (for supply of that defect) to busy ourselves in reading the reports of such Writers, (both ancient and modern) as have spent most part of their times in that kind of exercise, and do (as it were) proffer us their hands to lead and conduct us through each several country.  
In which rank, mine Author, and those ancient and famous writers, out of which this collection is gathered (though it cannot be denied but that there hath been ●uch alteration of stars since their days, as there is almost no one country in the world that doth wholly retain the self same customs & ceremonies by them described) are not in the meanest regard, nor their sayings in any wise to be contemned, in regard of the number of late writers, who though some of them have been men of that fame and repute, and withal so perfect and absolute in their relations, as they have come far nearer unto the truth of our present estate, yet is there no reason that a multitude of Mandivels that wander abroad in this pampletting age in the habit of sincere Historioghraphers (like Asses in lions skins) should dazzle and dim the glory of the other, or cancel and deface their opinions so authentic and anciently received. For mine own part I must confess my insufficiency, truly to discern betwixt the one and the other, yet thus much I may presume to say in the behalf of mine Author, that (to my weak understanding) in all the course of his books, he enforceth no untruths to make them seem probable, nor mere probabilites for true, but relateth things doubtful as he found them written by others, and so leaveth every man to his discretion, to give credit as he sees cause: And although he maketh mention of some ceremonies & customs used in certain countries, which seem so absurd, monstrous and prodigious, as they appear utterly void of credit yet is there no cause that that should distaste any one, considering that (as he well noteth in the conclusion of his third book) all people are not endued with like civility, and that there is as great difference in men's livings as in their colours.  
The pleasure which I took by perusal of these several collections, and the profit that I conceived might thereby redound both to myself and others, together with the approbation of my endeavours and commendation of the works by some worthy, and worthily respected friends, whose judgements do far exceed mine own, encouraged me to undergo the business, and to proceed in that I had already begun with more alacrity, which after much labour I have now at length finished, and suited in this ragged livery, and made him to speak in a phrase though not eloquent, yet I hope plain and intelligible. And albeit a tale may be much improved by a formal manner of telling, yet gold is more esteemed of for his goodness then for his colour, and the worthiness of the work ought to be of more regard than the elegancy of the phrase, the one being the substance, the other but the shadow.  
As for the nice curiosity of such word-weighing Crittickes, as will sooner find two faults in another, then amend one in themselves: I little esteem, either of them or their censures. But if (for want of other matter to quarrel at) any Momus should accuse my pen for mercenary: I protest, I may truly answer them with the very words of mine Author, that what I have done, was not Spe lucri ulsius, neo popularis aurae ambitione, verumenimuero tam libero, & plane otioso study, quam rei ipsius mira dulcedine at que utilitate.  
If I have omitted or misconstrued any abolete words or sentences for their harshness and ill coherence, or erred in setting down the true quantity of weights and measures, (for avoiding whereof I have most commonly used the Latin words themselves) or in describing the disguised apparel of sundry people, as namely those rude savages called Tovoupinambaltii, being so different from all other nations, as (keeping the sense (I could hardly adapt them to our own English phrase, or if I have showed myself too affectionate in the commendation of our own country, in my enlargement added to the chapter of England, where I supposed mine Author was too sparing: or (to be short) if in the confession of the Aethiopians faith, or the Epistles written from Prester john to the Pope, and kings of Portugal, or in any other place, or by any other means, I have aught mistaken, or squared from the true meaning of the writers: Be pleased (courteous and friendly Reader) in humanity patiently to pass them over, and impute such errors and escapes, rather to the want of knowledge of the truth, than want of will to express the truth.  
And so concluding (with this one only advertisement that if in the whole course of these books, thou meet with any thing that, in thy opinion, doth overmuch exalt the ceremonies of the Church of Rome, thou wilt consider, that the Author was an absolute Papist, as well thou mayst perceive, and therefore of likelihood would by all means he could, advance and make the best of his own Religion: nor did I think it the part of a Translator, by marginal notes to suppress his opinions, but in this place rather to forewarn thee, which (as the Proverb saith) doth forearm thee, how to give credit in those cases. I commit these my labours to thy favour able consideration, and thyself to God's holy protection: Resting thine in what he is able,  
ED. ASTON.   

THE authors PREface to the Reader.  
THE most famous and memorable laws, customs, and manners of all nations, and the situation of each several Country, which Herodotus the father of Histories, Diodorus Siculus, Berosus, Strabo, Solinus, Trogus Pompeius Ptolemy, Pliny, Cornelius Tacitus, Dionysiuss Afer, Pomponius Mela, Caesar, josephus, and of later Writers, Vincentius, Aeneas Silvius, (who was afterward Pope Pius the second) Antonius Sabellicus, johannes Nauclerus, Ambrose Calepinus, Nicholas Perottus in his books entitled, Cornucopia, and many other famous Historiographers, have confusedly, and (as it were) by parts commended unto us in their Commentaries: I have (good diligent Reader) as my leisure would serve, collected, abridged, digested, and compacted together in this 
The cause why he writ this book.  short and compendious Breviary: wherein you may easily find what ever you have occasion to look for; which I have effected, not in expectance of gain, nor affecting popular praise, but freely, and without other recompense, than the pleasure and profit the thing itself bringeth with it. And herein I have expressed as well the customs of ancient time, as those which be in use at this day; as well the good as the bad, in differently: that both lying open before thine eyes, by their examples thou mayst follow and imitate in the course of thy life, those which be honest, holy, and commendable, and avoid those which be dishonest and shameful. And hereby thou shalt perceive (good Reader) in what perfection and happiness we now live at this day, and how fimply, rudely, and uncivilly our forefathers lived, from the Creation of the world to the general Flood, and for many ages after. When as they, using no money, no merchandise, but equalling one benefit with another, had nothing proper to themselves, but sea and land as common to all, as the air and firmament. No man then gaped after honour and riches, but every one contented with a little, lived a rural, secure, and idle life, free from toil or travel, accompanied with one or more wives and their sweet children, having no other house than the heavens, the shadow of a tree, or some homely cabin: their meat was then the fruit of trees, and milk of beasts; their drink water, and their clothing, first, the utmost rind or broad leaves of trees, and afterwards the skins of beasts unhandsomly stitched together. They were not then enclosed in and immured in walls, nor defended with ditches, but wandering abroad at their wills, with their cattle, not then compassed in enclosures, reposed their bodies where ever night took them, sleeping joyfully and securely without fear of thieves or robbers, whereof that age was ignorant.  
All which things afterwards crept in and ensued of men's variable wills, emulation and dissonant desires, when fruits gotten without labour being insufficient to sustain such multitudes, and other things growing defective, and for the repelling and repressing the often incursions and fierce assaults of beasts and foreign 
The cause why people inhabited near together.  people, they were constrained to gather themselves into multitudes, to join their forces together, and to apportion themselves certain limits and territories wherein to live; where (joining and uniting their houses for neighbourhood) they began to live a more civil and popular kind of life, to fence and fortify themselves with walls and trenches, and to ordain laws, and elect magistrates for the maintenance of peace and tranquillity amongst them: And then they began to provide for their maintenance, not only by husbanding their grounds, or following their flocks, but by sundry other exercises, and new invented arts, to pass by sea with their navies into foreign nations: first, for transporting of companies to inhabit newfound countries, and then for traffic and trading one with another: to train up horses for the cart, of copper to make coin, to clothe themselves more curiously: to feed more daintily, to have more humanity in their speech: more civility in their conversation, more state in their buildings, and in all points to be more mild, more wise, and better qualified: and laying aside all gross barbarism, and beastly cruelty, abstaining from mutual slaughter: from devouring of human flesh, from rapine and robbery, from open and incestuous coupling of children with their parents, before indifferently used: and from many more such enormities, applied their reason and strength to recover the 
The earth recovered from her first rudeness and barrenness, and made fertile.  earth, which (being then either overgrown with thick woods, overrun with wild beasts, or overflowed with standing waters) lay rude, barren, desert, unfrequented, and inconvenient for man's dwelling, and (with their industry and labour) plaining and purging it from heaps of stones, roots of trees, and superfluous waters, made it fertile and very delightsome to behold. And allowing the plains and champion grounds for tilling, and the lesser hills for vineyards, did so manure & dress the earth, (with instruments made for the purpose) as it brought forth both corn and wine in abundance, which before yielded nothing but acorns and wild apples, and those also sparingly produced.  
The valleys they beautified and adorned with most delectable gardens, and well watered meadows, leaving only the tops of mountains for woods, and assigning so much soil for the increase of fruit, as they scarce left sufficient for fuel and fodder. Then they began to people all places more plentifully, to erect new buildings, of ferme houses to make hamlets, of boroughs great cities, to build temples in valleys, towers on mountain tops, to encompass their fountains with hewed marble stones, & environing them with plants on all sides for shadow, derived their running waters thence into their cities, through pipes & conduits: to search deep in the ground for water, where naturally it was wanting: to hold in and restrain the streams and violent rivers, with dams and banks of earth, which before would often flow at large, to the great destruction of the Inhabitants, and (that they might be passable, and no hidderance or impediment to men's business) to build over them strong and stately bridges, upon bending Arches or piles fastened and firmly rampered in the ground, to cast down Rocks in the sea, which whilom were wont to be dangerous for sailors, to make havens, inroads, and harbours both in islands, and on the Continent.  
To dig dock and Rhodes, wherein ships might rest in security, free from danger of wind or weather. And so diligently to deck and garnish all things both by land and sea, that the earth (as now it is) compared to his former filthiness and deformity, may be thought to be an other earth, different from that it was before, and not much unlike that most delectable garden, out of which our unfortunate first founder's Adam and Eve were ejected 
The earth compared to Paradise.  for transgressing the divine commandment.  
Moreover, many most noble Disciplines, and liberal Arts, were by men found out, which (that they might remain to all posterity) were by divers Characters, and new-inuented notes of letters, committed to books and tables, and did so far exempt and advance them beyond all human condition, as they might have been thought rather to lead the most blessed lives of deified men, than men indeed.  
Had not Satan the Prince of the world, and enemy of mankind, (by sowing his most pestilent Cockles amongst the good corn) confounded their most entire and happy estate. For he seeing the multitude of people increase, and the pleasure of the world held in better estimation, stirred up with envy, first found them guilty to themselves for committing damnable sins, and afterwards made them with curiosity to affect the knowledge of future and heavenly things, from the obscure answers of Oracles: And to the end he might abolish all knowledge, of one true and only God, and 
The true God forgotten.  trouble all mankind with some notable evil: he taught them the profane worship of false gods and goddesses, causing them to commit idolatry, and do reverence unto them, making the Delphian Temples in one place, the Euboian in another; in another the Nasamonian, and the Dodoman oaks (by his devilish inspiration) to utter forth Oracles. By which means he procured that divine honours were attributed to Saturn in Italy, to jupiter in Crect to juno in Samos, to Bacchus in Thebes and India, to the Sun and Moon, (under the names of Isis & Osiris) in Egypt: to Vesta in 
Plurality of gods, & which god was worshipped in each several country  Troy: in Africa to Pallas and Triton: to Mercury (under the name of Teutas) in France and Germany: to Mynerua in Himettum & Athens: to Apollo in Boeotia, Rhodes, Chius, Patura in Lycia, the lesser Phrigia and Thimbra. To Diana in Delos and Scythia; To Venus in Cyprus, Paphos, Gnydos, and Cythera: to Mars in Thrace, to Vulcan in Lipara and Lemnos, to Priapus in Lampsacus near Hellispont, and to others in many other places, whose names (for their rare inventions and great benefits bestowed upon their people) were then most fresh in memory.  
Moreover also, after Christ jesus, the true Son of the living 
Jesus Christ reduced the world from error.  God, appearing in flesh, and pointing out to the erring multitude the perfect pathway of salvation, by his word and example, exhorting to newness of life, to the glory of his heavenly father, and sending his Disciples forth into all the world, by their wholesome doctrine and preaching, had confounded their damnable idolatry, and spread abroad a new religion, and new institutions of life, yea and prevailed so much, as being received of all nations in the world, there could nothing more be desired for the obtaining of true felicity: when Satan returning into his former malice, and going about to cirumvent, and get again his habitation in men's curious hearts, which before (by the coming of Christ) he was forced to forsake, reduced some into their former errors, and so corrupted and blinded others with new heretical opinions, as it had been better for them, never to have tasted the truth, then so suddenly and maliciously to forsake the known way of salvation. For now at this day all the people of Asia the less, Armenia, Arabia, Persis, Syria, Assiria and Media, and in Africa, the 
The large Countries of the Mahometans.  Egyptians, Numidians, Libyans and Muritanians. In Europe, all those of Greece, Misia and Thrace, utterly abiecting Christ, observe and with all honour and devotion adore, that most accursed and Epileptical Makomet and his damnable doctrine. The Scythians (which at this day be called Tartars) a very large and populous nation, dye, some of them worship the Idols of their Emperor Cham: some the stars, and some others the true and only GOD, at the preaching of Saint Paul: the people of India and Aethiopia, which be under the government of Prestor john, hold the faith of Christ, but in a manner that is far different from ours. But the sincere and right belief of our Saviour Christ, wherewith (by his special grace) the whole world was once illumined, is retained only in Germany, Italy, France, Spain, England, Scotland, Ireland, Dacia, Livonia, Prussia, Polonia, Hungaria, and of the inhabitants of the Isles of Rhodes, Scicilia, Corsica, Sardinia and of some few beside. So far hath that most cruel enemy of mankind prevailed, by bringing in such diversity of manners, such hateful and damnable superstitious abuses in ceremonies and sacred things, that whilst every nation contendeth by strongest arguments to prove that the GOD which they worship and adore is the true and great GOD, and that they only go the 
The diversity of worshipinge is the seminary of distension.  way of eternal happiness, and all others the bypath that leadeth to perdition.  
Whilst also every sect indeauoureth to advance and set forth themselves, it ensueth that (each one persecuting other with mortal enmity and deadly hatred) it is not only dangerous to travel into foreign nations, but in a manner utterly bard and prohibited, which I persuade myself is the cause, that the names of bordering nations being scarce known to their neerrest neighbours, whatsoever is either written or reported of them, is now accounted fabulous and untrue: the knowledge whereof 
The Greek Philosophers first glory.  notwithstanding hath ever been reputed so pleasant, so profitable and so praiseworthy, as it is most manifest, that for the love and desire thereof only, without other cause at all, very many forsaking father and mother, wife and children, country and kin (and that which is more) neglecting their own health, have adventured through great difficulties and dangers, care and troubles, long and tedious journeys into foreign nations, only to furnish themselves with experience. So as it is undoubtedly true that not in these days only, but almost from the beginning of the world, All those have been generally esteemed men of greatest authority, wisdom and learning, and by open consent have been elected and chosen Masters and Governors, Councillors and judges, Captains and Controllers, who having 
The lawgivers first authority.  sometimes traveled strange countries, have known the manners of many people and cities, for ever as those ancient Philosophers of Greece and Italy, which were first founders of sundry sects wherein they instructed their Disciples & Scholars, as namely Socrates, of the Socratic sect, Plato, of the Academic, Aristotle, of the Peripatick, Antisthines of the Cynic, Aristyppus, of the Cyrenaicke, Zeno of the Stoic, and Pythagoras of the Pithagoricke. As also those old lawgivers Minos and Rhodomanthus to the men of Crete, Orpheus to those of Thrace, Draco & Solon to the Athenians, Lycurgus to the Lacedæmonians, Moses to the jews, Zamolxis to the Scythians, and many others which we see have set down to their people divers prescript ceremonies & civil disciplines: invented not of those several sects, disciplines and laws, within their city walls, but learned and brought them from the Chaldeans themselves (being the most wise men of the world) from the Indian Philosophers, the Brackmans' & Gymnosophists, 
The Caldeanes the wisest men in the world.  and from the Egyptian Priests, with whom sometimes they were conversant. To conclude, we plainly perceive that those most renowned worthies, jupiter of Crete (who was reported to have measured the world five times over) and his two sons of like desire and success, Dionysius, surnamed Bacchus, and valiant Hercules and Theseus his imitator, jason with the rest of the greeks which went with him for the golden Fleece, weather-beaten Ulysses and Aencas the outcast of Troy, Cyrus, Darius, Xerxes, Alexander the Great, Hannibal the Carthaginian, Mithridate king of Pontus (expert in the language of fifty nations) the great Antiochus and innumerable other Roman Princes and Governors, the Scipios, the Marii, the Lentuli, Pompey the Great, julius Caesar, Octavian Augustus, the Constantine's, Charles, Othones, Conrades, Henry's and frederic, have by their warlike expeditions into foreign nations, purchased unto themselves an everlasting fame and immortal memory. Wherefore seeing there is so great pleasure and profit in the knowledge of countries, and of their manners, and also seeing it is not in every man's power, nor yet lawful for many causes, for every one to travel and behold lands far remote: thou mayst (good gentle reader) as well by reading comprehend & understand, the most renowned customs of all nations, and the several situation of each country, expressed in this book, and that as readily, & with as much pleasure, as if, taking thee by the hand, I should lead thee through every nation one after an other, & faithfully relate unto thee, in what place, and under what kind of government, each nation have lived heretofore and now do live.  
Nor would I have thee distasted or carried away, for that by some too severe reformer, it may be objected and laid in my teeth, that I have produced for new and for mine own, a matter written long ago, and heretofore handled of no less than a thousand Authors, and that I have used only their words without alteration: But if thou diligently mark my purpose, thou shalt find that (in imitation of that liberal houshoulder, to whom Christ in the Gospel compared every learned scribe) I have presented thee (my kind guest) with some things, as well out of mine own brain, as wholly extracted from the hidden treasure of my books, and not only with borrowed and unknown stuff, but with sundry new dainties of mine own devising.  
Farewell, and what ever thou findest herein accept in good part.   

To the Reader in commendation of this work.  
NOt Soline, Pliny, Trogus, nor Herodotus of worth,  
Not Strabo best Geographer that Cretish Isle brought forth:  
Not true historian Siculus, nor yet Berosus sage,  
Nor any other writer else within this latter age:  
Not Silvius (after Pius Pope) the second of that name,  
Nor yet Sabellicus (whose works deserve immortal fame)  
In volumes large do touch so near the state of th' viniverse  
As doth the Author of this book in sewer words rehearse:  
For here each part of Asiae soil distinctly you may find,  
Th' Arabians, Persians and the Meads, the Scythians & the Ind,  
The Sirian and Assyrian, and all the Parthians race,  
The Geteses and Dacians (Europs Scythes) the people eke of Thrace:  
The Sauromates, and those which in Pannonia do remain  
The German, the Italian the French and those of Spain:  
The Irish and the British Isles (of Islands all the best,  
And Afric nations all (which first old African possessed)  
The Aethiops and the Carthage men, and those of Aegipt-land,  
And all the people that do dwell, on the dry Libyan sand.  
And many more inhabitants of divers Isles beside,  
And where the sect of Mahomet most chiefly doth abide:  
What ample large and spacious lands do honour Christ their head,  
And through what kingdoms of the world his faithful flock are spread.  
FINIS.   

The manners, laws and customs, of all Nations. LIB. 1.  

The true opinions of Divines, concerning man's original. CAP. 1.  
WHen the divine Majesty (upon the first day of Creation) had finished this great 
Why the world is so called.  and wonderful Architecture of heaven and earth, (which of his beauty and elegant form, is called the world,) and all things contained within the compass thereof, upon the sixth day he created man, of purpose that he might have all other things in full fruition, and be Lord and Governor over them, and making him the noblest of all other Creatures, he endued him with celestial understanding, and named him Adam, of the red 
The original and appellation of Adam.  earth or clay whereof he was framed. And to the end he should not be alone, the Lord (casting him into a dead slumber) took a rib from out his side, and framing woman thereof, gave her unto him as his wife and companion, and placed them in the pleasantest part of all the earth, watered on all parts with most pleasant rivers, and delectable fountains, which place for the ever fresh and pleasant aspect, was of the greeks called Paradise, 
Paradise.  wherein for a space they lived a most blessed life, free from all evil, the earth producing all things of her own accord: But no sooner had they transgressed the commandment of their maker, but that they were expelled from that most sacred seat and happy habitation, & thrust into the earth to till the same, out of which they were taken, 
The fertileness of the earth why i● was restrained.  which being, then for a curse, restrained of her former fruitfulness, and bringing forth nothing willingly, they got their livings with sweat and sorrow, their bodies being become subject to heat and cold, and all kind of infirmities; Their first begotten son they called Cain, the second Abel, after whom they had many other children. So 
Cain the first begotten of Adam.  that the world growing richer in age, and the earth more inhabited, as the multitude of people increased, so did wickedness wax more rife, and men growing worse & worse, accounting injury for innocency, and the contempt of God's majesty for piety, were come to that height of iniquity, that God in all the world scarce finding Noah only, (whom for the reparation of mankind he thought fit to be preserved with his household) sent the general deluge, 
The general deluge, and how long it continued.  which drowning all the world, destroyed the fowls of the air, and all living creatures breathing upon the face of the earth, some few seed pares only excepted, defended by the Ark from the force of the flood. After the rage of the waters had continued for five months' space, the Ark rested upon the hills of Armenia, and Noah & his company going 
Noah sent his children and kindred to inhabit other countries.  forth into the earth, (by God's special grace & assistances) in short time, the almost, extinguished estate of all mortal creatures was repaired. And Noah, because all parts of the earth might be repeopled, sent his sons, nephews, and kinsfolk, with their companies to dwell, some into one country, some into an other. Into Egypt (according to the opinion of Berosus) he sent Esennius with the Colonies of Cham: Tritamen into Lybia and Cyrene, and japhet Priscus Attolaa, to enjoy the rest of Africa. Into East Asia he sent Canges, with some of the sons of Gomer Gallus, Sabus, surnamed Thurifer went into Arabia foelix: Arabus ruled in the deserts of Arabia: and Petreius in that part of Arabia called Petreia. Chanaan he placed in Damascus in the confines of Palestine: In Europe he made Thuysco King of Sarmatia, from the river of Tanais, to the river of Rhine, to whom were joined the sons of Istrus, and Mesa, with their brethren, who had the government from the hill Adulas, to Messembria Pontica. Under whom Tyrus, Archadius and Aemathius governed in Italy, Gomerus in France: Samotes possessed that part of France betwixt the rivers Garunia and Sequana, and jubal was Lord of the Celtibers.  
That short and untimely alienation of the children 
The cause of the variety of tongues and manners.  from their progenitors, (of whose life and manners they had little taste) was cause of all the diversity which ensued; for Cham, being constrained to fly with his wife and children, for scorning and deriding his father, seated 
The exile of Cham.  himself in that part of Arabia, which was afterwards called by his name, where he left no religious ceremonies to his posterity, as having received none from his Father: whereof ensued, that, as in tract of time, diverse companies being sent out of that coast, to inhabit other countries, and possessing diverse parts of the world, (for the rejected seed did exceedingly increase) many of them fell into inextricable errors, their languages were varied, and all knowledge and reverence of the true and living God, was utterly forgotten and abolished, in so much as many of them might well be said to live a life so uncivil and so barbarous, as hardly could there 
Men lived like beasts.  any difference be discerned betwixt them and brute beasts.  
Those which went into Egypt, admiring the motion and brightness of the heavenly lights, and ascribing a certain Godhead to the Sun and Moon, began to worship 
The Sun and Moon worshipped.  them for gods, calling the Sun Osiris, and the Moon Isis, the Air they reverenced under the name of jupiter: the Fire of Vulcan: the Sky of Pallas: and the Earth of 
The Moon called Isis, the Sun, Osiris: the Air, jupiter; the Fire, Vulcan; the Sky, Pallas; and the Earth, Ceres.  Ceres, giving divine honours unto other things likewise, under diverse other names and appellations; Nor did that black cloud of darkness, hang only over the land of Egypt, but what countries soever were first inhabited by the offspring of Cham, were utterly overwhelmed in ignorance of true piety, and wholly enthralled in Satan's slavery. Neither was there ever land the mother of more Colonies, than that part of Arabia, wherein cursed Cham 
Arabia, the mother of many Colonies.  and his crew remained; so great was that destruction which the untimely banishment of one man brought to all mankind.  
Whereas on the contrary part, the issue of Sem and japhet, 
The issue of Sem and Japhet.  being lawfully instructed by their parents and elders, and contented to live in their own limits, wandered not abroad into all parts of the world as those others did, 
Why the worship of the true God remained with so few.  which is the cause that the desire of the truth, I mean the worship of the true God and godliness, was (until the coming of the Messias) privately practised in one country only.   

The false opinion of the Ethnics concerning man's original. CAP. 2.  
BUT the ancient Philosophers, (being void of 
The twofold opinion of the Philosophers concerning the world.  knowledge of the true Godhead, have written long since many Histories of Nature,) have otherwise thought of man's original: for some of them were of opinion, that the world was without beginning, and incorruptible, and that the stock of humane kind hath been for ever. Some others supposed both world, and worldly men to have beginning, and to be likewise subject to corruption, for, (say they) at first the nature of heaven and earth being mingled together and unseperated, had one only form or Idea, out of which chaos each body being separated from other, the world attained this shape it now carrieth: the airy being in continual motion, the fiery part thereof, for his lightness, required the uppermost seat, and by the same reason, the Sun, and all other stars obtained their courses; That part which was mixed with moisture, by reason of his weight, remained still in 
Light things tend upwards, and heavy things downwards.  his proper place, which being than mingled together, of the moist part thereof was made the sea, and the harder part became earth, though then soft and slimy; which afterwards growing harder and thicker by the heat of the sun, the force of the heat by little and little swelling and puffing up the superficies, or uttermost part thereof, 
The natural creation of living creatures.  there were in many places diverse humours congealed together, wherein appeared certain putrefactions covered with thin skins or films, as we may perceive by experience in the fens & standing waters of Egypt, when as the heat of the air upon a sudden warmeth the cold earth: so that heat abounding in moisture, caused generation, and a certain winding air encompassing the moisture, preserved that from danger by night, which by day was made solid by the heat of the sun: so as in the end those putrefactions being brought to perfection, &, as it were, their time of birth drawing near; the skins wherewith they were covered, being burned and broken, they brought forth the forms of all creatures: of which, those that did most participate of heat, took their place in the uppermost region, and became flying fowls, those which were most near unto the nature of the earth, became serpents, and other earthly creatures, and those of the watery condition, were allotted the Element of the same nature, and were called Fishes.  
But when the earth (with heat and wind waxing every day drier than other) surceased from bringing forth the greatest sorts of creatures, those which she had already produced, brought forth others of the same kind, by mutual commixtion one with another.  
And in this manner did those Philosophers affirm, 
The barbarous manner of living of the first people.  that men had their beginnings likewise, and that they, (seeking the fields for such food, as herbs and fruits of trees did naturally yield them) lived a wild, uncivil, and brutish kind of life.  
And being much annoyed with beasts (the better to resist them) partly moved with fear, and partly for their 
The diversity of tongues how it came.  common profit, gathered themselves into companies, and joining their forces together, sought out fit places for themselves to dwell in. That the sound of men's mouths being first confused, and disordered, by little and little became a distinct and intelligible voice, and gave unto every thing his proper name. And that men being placed and dispersed into diverse parts of the world, used not all one, but diverse languages, and for every language diverse characters of letters. That the first company of men gave beginning to every country wherein they lived. And that those men which were first so procreated (being utterly void of succour and aid of any thing, and not knowing how to gather the fruits of the earth, and to lay them up and keep them, to serve their necessity, lead so hard a life at the first, as many of them perished in winter by cold or famine, who afterwards growing wiser by experience, found them out holes and caves in the 
Men made wiser by danger.  ground, both to avoid the extremity of cold, and to preserve fruits to defend them from famine. And having found out the use of fire and other things profitable, and all other commodities of man's life being made manifest unto them: and finally making necessity the mistress of 
Necessity the the mistress of labours.  their labours, they commended to their memories the knowledge of all things; to whom were given as helpers, hands, speech, and excellency of mind.  
Now those which (attributing nothing to God's providence) were of opinion, that man had this manner of 
The first men were the Aethiopians.  beginning, did hold also, that the Aethiopians were the first of all mortal men, using this conjecture for their reason, that the country of Aethiopia, by reason of the vicinity and nearness of the heavens, did before all other lands begin to wax warm, the earth from the beginning lying long soaked in water: whereof it happened, that of that first temperature of heat and moisture, man himself being first begotten, would with a better will hold that place wherein he was borne, than to go seek strange countries, all other places being utterly unknown unto him.  
Wherefore beginning there, (yet first speaking a word or two, in general of Africa one of the the three parts into which the world and this my present work is divided) we will first speak of the situation of Aethiopia, and of the customs and orders used in that country, and afterwards we will treat of all other lands in order as they lie, with what diligence we may.   

Of the situation and perfection of the world. CAP. 3.  
Our Ancestors (as Orosius reporteth) were of 
The earth divided into three parts:  opinion, that the circle of the whole earth, enclosed within the borders of the Ocean, is in the form of a Triangle, and that there be three parts thereof, Africa, Asia and Europe. Africa is divided from Asia by the river Nilus, which running from the South into Aethiopia, and passing 
Africa divided from Asia.  by Egypt, maketh it exceeding fruitful by his overflowing, and dischargeth himself into the sea, in no less than seven sundry places.  
The Mediterranean sea divideth Europe from Africa, 
Europe divided from Africa.  which (according to Pomponius Mela) making breach into the earth from the West Ocean, about Gades Island and Hercules pillars, is not there in breadth above ten miles over. Asia is separated from Europe by the river Tanais, 
Asia divided from Europe.  which flowing from the North almost into the middle of the pool of Maeotis, meeteth there with the sea, called Pontus, which parteth the rest of Asia from Europe; Africa is bounded upon the East with the river Nilus, and upon all other parts with the sea, it is shorter than Europe, 
The situation and quality of Africa.  and brother when it joineth to the sea, and fuller of hills, and holding on a crooked course towards the West, by little and little growing sharper and narrower, is then the narrowest when it is nearest to an end. As much of Africa as is inhabited, is wonderful fertile, but the greatest part thereof lieth desert, being either covered with dry barren sands, forsaken for the vicinity of the Sun, or annoyed with sundry sorts of hurtful creatures. Upon the North it is compassed with the Lybian Sea, with the 
The incommodities of Africa.  Aethiopian on the south, and with the sea Atlantic on the west. The whole country of Africa was inhabited from the beginning, but of four sundry sorts of people whereof two (as Herodotus writeth) were borne & bred in that country, 
Africa inhabited by homebred people and strangers.  and the other two were strangers: the homebred and natural countrymen are the Carthagenians and the Aethiopians, the one inhabiting in the north of afric, & the other in the south. The strangers be Pheniceans and Grecians. The ancient Aethiophians and Egyptians (if all be true which they report of themselves) were at first rude and barbarous, and feeding commonly like bruit beasts with herbs and wild flesh, using neither manners, laws nor government, but wandering and straying abroad without consideration or regard, and utterly destitute of any certain habitation, reposing themselves wheresoever they were benighted: But afterwards being made more civil and human, by Hercules (who is said to have brought Colonies 
The people of Africa made more civil by Hercules.  into that Country) and making themselves houses of those ships wherewith they had before sailed into Libya, they began to dwell and inhabit together. But of this we will speak more at large hereafter.  
The soil of Africa is unequally inhabited, for the 
The quality of the soil of Africa.  South part thereof, by reason of the exceeding heat, lieth for the most part desert, and that part which lieth next unto Europe is very populous, the fruitfulness of their ground 
The fruitfulness of the ground.  is admirable and wonderful, as yielding to the husbandman, in some places a hundred fold increase.  
It is strange that is reported of the fruitfulness of Mauritania 
The wonders of Africa.  in Africa, that there be Vines bigger than two men can fathom, and clusters of Grapes of a cubit in compass, that there be stalks of wild Parsley, wild Fennell, and thistles of twelve cubits in length, and of a wonderful thickness, much like unto the Indian Cane, the knots or joints whereof will fill eight bushels, there are also herbs called Sperage, of no less notable bigness: Their Cypress trees, about the hill Atlas be of an exceeding height without knots, and with a bright leaf: but of all, their Cytron tree is the most noble, and of the romans accounted most dainty. Africa breedeth Elephants and Dragons, which lying in wait for other beasts kill all they can catch, 
What kind of beasts are bred in Africa  as Lions, Libards, Bufles, Goats and Apes, whereof there be great store in many places.  
There be also beasts like Camels and Panthers, and beasts called Rhizes, which be like unto Bulls. And (according to the opinion of Herodotus) that country breedeth horned Asses, beside, Dragons, Hyaenaes', Porcupines, wild Rams, and a kind of beast begotten betwixt the Hyaena and the Wolf, (which is somewhat bigger than the ordinary kind of Wolves) Panthers, Storckes, Eagles, Ostriches, and sundry kinds of Serpents, but especially the Cerastes which hath a little body, and horns like a Ram, and the Asp which is little likewise, but very venomous, against whose mischief the Rat a very little creature, is by nature opposed for a remedy.   

Of Aethiopia, and the ancient customs of that Country. CAP. 4.  
EThiopia is divided into two regions, whereof one lieth in Asia, the 
Two Aethiopia's.  other in Africa: That in Asia is now called India, and is washed on 
One Aethiopia is now called India.  the East with the red and Barbarian Sea, and lieth Northward next unto Libya and Egypt, upon the west it hath the inner Libya, and upon the south it joineth to the other Aethiopia, which is bigger and more southward. This Aethiopia in Africa, is so called of aethiop's the son of Vulcan, who governed there (as Pliny is of opinion) or else of the Greek word (aitho) which signifieth to burn, and (ops) which is the countenance, because that country is parched and burned, by reason of the nearness of the sun: for the heat there is exceeding great and continual, as being directly under 
The quality of Aethiopia.  the Meridian line. Towards the west it is mountainous, full of sand and gravel in the middle, and desert in the east. It containeth many sorts of people of diverse and monstrous countenances, and horrible shapes. They were thought to be the first people that lived, and that they 
The Aethiopians were the first people.  being in that country naturally bred, continued freemen, and were never subject to slavery: the gods were there first honoured, and sacred ceremonies ordained: they had 
The gods first worshipped in in Aethiopia.  a double use of letters, for some letters were called holy, and were only known to the Priests, & the other served for 
What letters the Aethiopians used.  the common people, nor were there forms of letters such as thereof could syllables be framed, but either like some living creature, or the outward parts of men's bodies or resembling sundry instruments of workmen, and every figure or form of letter had his proper signification, as by the Hawk was signified swiftness, mischief and craft by the Crocodile, watchfulness by the eye, and so likewise of other things. Who-so-ever of their Priests was most troubled with vain visions, him they accounted the most holiest, and creating him for their King adored him as though he were either a God, or at the least given them 
The election of their Kings.  by divine providence, and yet his supreme authority exempted him not from the obedience of their laws, but that he was to do all things according to their ancient customs, and not to reward or punish any man himself, but upon whom soever he intended to take punishment, to him he sent the executioner, to present him with the sign of death, which was no sooner viewed by him to whom it was sent, but forthwith (who ever he were) he would go home to his own house, and there procure 
The obedience of the Ethiopians.  his own death: for so great honour and affection did the subject bear to his sovereign, that if it happened at any time by an accident the King to be weakened or faint in any one part of his body, all his friends and followers would of their own accord weaken that part in themselves, accounting it an odious thing, that their King should be lame or blind of one eye, and all his friends not to be in like manner blind and lame also.  
Their custom was also (as is reported) that their King being dead, all his friends would willingly deprive themselves of life, accounting that death most glorious, and the surest testimony of true friendship: The people by reason of the nearness of the heavens went for the most 
The apparel of the Ethiopians  party naked, covering only their privities with sheep's tails, and some few clothed themselves with skins, some of them also wore breeches made of hair: their greatest employments were about their cattle: their sheep be very little and of a hard and rough fleece: 
Their exercise.  their Dogs be little likewise, but very sharp and eager: Millet and Barley are their chiefest grains, which serveth them both for bread and drink, and they have no kind of fruits unless it be Dates, and those be very rare also: Many of them lived with herbs and the slender roots of reeds, they eat also flesh, milk and cheese: The Isle of Meroê was once the head of the kingdom, the form thereof is like unto a shield, and it lieth along 
Meroê was once the King's seat.  by the river of Nilus, for the space of three thousand stadia.  
The Shepherds that Inhabited that Isle were great huntsmen, and the husbandmen had mines of gold: Herodotus saith, that those people of Aethiopia, which be called Macrobij, esteemed more of brass than of gold, 
Gold accounted base than brass.  for their gold they put to such base and vile uses, as the Ambassadors of Cambyses King of Persia, being sent thither, saw diverse offenders fettered in prison in chains of gold. Some of them sow their ground with a kind of pulse, and some others plant the Lote tree, they have Hebon wood and Pepper in great abundance, Elephants they hunt and eat, they have also Lions, Rhinocerots, (which be enemies to the Elephant) Basilisks, Leopard's, and Dragons, which winding and entangling themselves about the Elephants, destroy them by sucking out their blood. There is found the jacint stone, and the Chrisophrasus, (which is a green stone mixed with a golden brightness) there is Cinnamon gathered likewise: Their weapons were bows made of wood that was parched in 
The Aethiopian armour.  the fire, and four cubits in length; their women were good warriors, the most of them having their lips thrust through with a ring of brass. Some of the Aethiopians worshipped 
The religion of the Ethiopians.  the Sun at his rising, and inveighed bitterly against him at his going down; many of them cast their dead bodies into rivers, some other put them into earthen vessels or glass vessels, and kept them in their houses for the space of a year; during which time they reverenced them very religiously, offering unto them the first fruits of their increase.  
Some say, that thee that did most excel others in comeliness of body, skill in breeding cattle, strength and riches, him they elected for their King. And that they had an ancient law, that the Priests of Memphis, might when 
The authority of the Priests.  they pleased, deprive the King of his life (by sending unto him the messenger that carried the sign of death) and ordain an other to reign in his steed. They believed that there was one immortal God, and that he was maker of 
Their gods.  the world, and governor of all things, any other God they esteemed mortal, who was their uncertain King, as is said. And he that best deserved of their city, him next unto their King they reverenced as God. And such was the state of Aethiopia at the beginning, and for a long continuance, these their customs and manners of their nation. But at this day, as Marcus Antonius Sabellicus; (out of 
The new customs of the Aethiopians or Indians.  whose history we have taken most matters, which we treat of both in this and the books following) saith, that he had intelligence from some that were borne in those countries, that the King of Aethiopia (whom we call Pretoian or Presbyter joan, or joan, and they Gyam, 
Prestor john King of that Aethiopia which is in Asia.  which in their language signifieth mighty,) is so potent a Prince, that he is said to have under him as his vassals threescore and two Kings. And that all their great Bishops and states of all those kingdoms, are wholly guided by him, at whose hands the order of Priesthood is obtained, which authority was by the Pope of Rome given and annexed to the Majesty of their Kings, and yet he himself is no Priest, nor never entered into any holy orders. There be a great number of Archbishops, and every one of them, (who ever hath the least) hath twenty Bishops under his jurisdiction. The Princes and other Bishops of great dignity, when they go abroad have carried before them, a cross, and a golden vessel filled with earth, that the sight of the one may put them in mind of their mortality, and the other of our saviours passion.  
Their Priests are suffered to marry for procreations' sake, but if they bury one wife, it is utterly unlawful for them to 
Their Priests marry once and no more.  marry an other. Their Temples are very large, and far richer than ours, and for the most part builded up to the top arch-wise. They have many religious houses and families of holy orders, as Antonians, Dominicks, Calaguritans, Augustine's, and Macarians, who be all arrayed by permission of their Archbishops, with apparel of one colour: Next unto Almighty God, and his Mother the blessed Virgin Mary, Saint Thomas surnamed Didimus, 
Saint Thomas held in great reverence.  is chiefly honoured in that country. They hold an opinion, that their great King whom they call Gyam, was engendered of King David, and that the race of that one family hath continued ever since, he is not black as most of the Aethiopians are, but rather white. The city Garama is now the King's seat, which consisteth not of Bulwarks and houses with strong walls, but of tents or tabernacles made of fine flax or silk, embroidered with purple, and placed in decent and seemly order.  
The King according to his custom, liveth for the most part abroad, not containing himself within the circuit of the City, above two days together, either because they account it absurd and effeminate, or that they are prohibited by some law.  
They have in readiness upon any little occasion ten 
The power of the Ethiopian Kings.  hundred thousand men, well instructed in feats of arms, five hundred Elephants, besides an infinite number of Horses and Camels.  
There be also throughout the whole kingdom certain stipendiary families, the issue whereof have a gentle incision made in their skin, and be marked with a hot iron with the sign of the Cross. In wars they use bows, spears, coats of male, and helmets: the order of Priesthood 
What weapons be used in their wars.  is in greatest dignity, next unto whom are the sages or wizards, whom they call Balsamati and Tenquati. They esteem much also of innocency and honesty, accounting them the first step to wisdom, the Nobility are the third in honour and dignity and the stipendiary the last: the judges discern of causes of life and death: but refer the decree to the Praefect of the city, who is called Licomagia, who always representeth the person of the King: written laws they have none, but judge according to equity and right. If any man be convicted of adultery he shall pay for his 
The punishment for adultery.  punishment the fortieth part of his goods, but the adulteress shall receive a domestical revenge by her husband, for he shall punish her whom it doth most concern. The husbands assign dowers for their wives, requiring no portion with them. There women are attired with gold 
Husband's assign dowers for their wives  (whereof that country doth much abound) pearls also, and silk, both men and women wear garments down to the feet, with sleeves, and not open in any place, all colours are alike unto them, except black, which is there used only for mourning garments.  
They bewail the dead for the space of forty days. The second courses in their greatest banquets consist of raw flesh, which being finely minced into small pieces, and strawed over with sweet spices, they feed upon most hungerly: woollen cloth they have none, instead whereof they are clothed either with silk or flax: they use not all one language, but divers, and distinguished by divers names. They exercise themselves either in husbandry or about cattle, they have every year two harvests & two summers. All the people of Lybia from this Aethiopia or India, to 
Mahomet worshipped in Libya.  the utmost part of the west, honour the impiety of Mahomet, and live in the same kind of religion, that those Barbarians practise, which are now in Egypt, and be called Moors (as it is thought) of their wandering or straying abroad: for that country of Libya also was no less hateful than the Saracens, in those accursed times, wherein was the greatest alteration in humane matters, the manners of people, love of devotion, and names of all Nations, being for the most part changed.   

Of Egypt and the ancient customs of that country. CAP. 5.  
EGipt a region in Africa, or (as some will have it) next adjoining to Africa, 
The denomination and description of Egypt.  was so called of Aegiptus the brother of Danaus' King of Argyves, before which time it was called Aeria: This country (as Pliny in his first book witnesseth) joineth Eastward to the red sea, and to Palaestyne; upon the West it hath Cyrene, and the residue of Africa, and extendeth from the South to Aethiopia, and from the North to the Egyptian sea. The most famous cities of that country, were Thebes, Abydos, Alexandria, Babylon, and Memphis (now called Damiata) and the great city Cayrus or Alcir, which is the Sultan's seat; In Egypt (as Plato reporteth) it doth never rain, but the river of Nilus' overflowing the whole land once every year, after the summer Solstice maketh the whole country fertile and fruitful: Egypt of many is accounted amongst the number of islands. The river Nilus so dividing it, that it proportioneth the whole country into a triangular form; insomuch that of many it is called Delta, for the resemblance it hath unto that Greek letter. The Egyptians were the first that feigned the names of 
The Egyptians had their beginning from the Aethiopians.  twelve gods, they erected Altars, Idols, and Temples, and figured living creatures in stones, all which things do plainly argue that they had their original from the Aethiopians, who were the first Authors of all these things, (as Diodorus Siculus is of opinion). Their women were wont in times past to do business abroad, to keep taverns and victualling houses, and to take charge of buying 
The Egyptian women do the offices of men, and men the offices of women.  and selling: and the men to knit within the walls of the city, they bearing burdens upon their heads, and the women upon their shoulders: the women to piss standing, and the men sitting; all of them for the most part rioting and banqueting abroad, in open ways, and exonerating and disburdening their bellies at home. No woman there taketh upon her the order of Priesthood of any god or goddess.  
They enter not into religion to any of their gods, one by one, but in companies, of whom one is their Bishop or head, and he being dead, his son is elected in his steed: The male children aid and succour their parents by the custom of their country, freely and willingly, and daughters are forced to do it, if they be unwilling.  
The fashion of most men in funeral exequys is to rend the hairs off their heads, and to suffer their beards 
Their manner of funerals.  to grow uncutte, but the Egyptians did let their locks grow long, and shave their beards short, they kneaded 
Circumcision used by the Egyptians.  their Dough with their feet, and made mortar with their hands. Their custom was (as the greeks were of opinion) to circumcise themselves and their children: they write their letters from the right hand to the left; and men wore two garments, the women but one: they had two sorts of letters, the one profane, the other holy, but both of them derived from the Aethiopians. The Priests shaved their bodies every third day, lest they should hap to be polluted with any filth, when they did 
The cleanness of the Priests.  sacrifice: they wore paper shoes, and linen vestments ever new washed, and alleagded that they were circumcised, for no other cause, but for cleanliness sake, for that it is better to be clean then comely. The Egyptians sowed no beans, nor would eat any that grew in other 
beans an unclean grain with the Egyptians.  countries; and their Priests were precisely prohibited the sight of them, as being an unclean kind of grain. The Priests washed themselves in cold water, thrice in the day time, and twice in the night. The heads of their oblations they eat not, but cursing them with bitter execrations, either sold them to strange merchants factors, or if none would buy them, they would throw them into the river of Nilus.  
their sacrifices were with oxen and calves that were very clean.  
It was not lawful for the women to do sacrifice, no though they were consecrated to their God Isis: They lived of meat made of a certain corn which they call Wheat, and drink wine made of Barley, for grapes there 
The Egyptians wine.  are none growing in that country. They eat raw fish dried at the Sun, and some powdered in brine, and birds also, but altogether raw, but the richer sort feed upon Quails and Ducks. When many are assembled together at meat, and that they be arose from dinner or supper, one of them carrieth about, upon a little Beer or Chest, the picture of a dead body, either made of wood, or else much resembling a dead corpses, in painting and workmanship, of a cubit or two cubits long, and showing it unto every one of the guests, saith unto them: In your drink and merriments behold this spectacle, for such shall you be when you are dead. Young people bow and give place to their elders when they meet them in the way, and arise from their seats to such as come to them, wherein they agree with the Lacedæmonians. Those which encounter in the 
The Egyptians salutations.  ways salute one another with congee below the knee: They are clothed (as I have said) with linen garments fringed about the legs, which they call Cassilirae, over which they we are a little short white garment like a cloak, 
Woollen garments contemned.  as it were cast over the other: for woollen garments are so contemned, as they are neither worn in temples, nor serve for winding sheets. Now, because all those famous men which have heretofore excelled in any one kind of learning or mystery, and which have constituted and left behind them laws and ordinances for other nations to live by, went first unto the Egyptians, to learn their manners, laws and wisdom (in which they excelled all nations of the earth) as Orpheus, and after him Homer, Musaeus, Melampodes, Dedalus, Lycurgus the Spartan, Solon the Athenian, Plato the Philosopher, Pythagoras of Samos, and Zamolzis his disciple, Eudoxus also the mathematician, Democritus of the city of Abdera, Inopides of Chios, Moses the Hebrew, and many others, as the Egyptian Priests make brags, are contained in their sacred books, I think it very convenient to spend some little time further in describing the manner of living of the Egyptians, that it may be known what one or more things, every one of those worthy men, have taken from the Egyptians, and transported into other countries, for 
Many ceremonies used in Christian religion, borrowed from the Egyptians.  (as Phillippus Beroaldus writeth upon Apuleus Ass) there be many things translated from the religion of the Egyptians into the Christian religion, as the linen vestments, the shaving of Priests crowns, the turning about in the Altar, the sacrificial pomp, the pleasant tuning notes of music, adorations, prayers, and many other more like ceremonies.  
The Egyptian Kings (as Diodorus Siculus writeth in his second book) were not so licentious as other Kings, whose will standeth for a law, but followed the institutions and laws of the country, both in gathering money, and in their life and conversations. There was none of any servile condition, whether he were bought with money, or borne in that country, that was admitted to wait and attend 
What servants attended upon their Kings.  upon the King, nor any other, but only the sons of the worthiest Priests, and those above the age of twenty years, and excelling others in learning, to the end that the King being moved at the sight of his servants, both day and night attending upon his person, should commit nothing unfit to be done by a King, for seldom do the rich and mighty men become evil if they want ministers to foster them in their evil desires. There were certain hours appointed every day and night, wherein (by the permission of their law) the King might confer with others. The King at his rising receiveth all the letters and supplications that be sent or brought unto him, and then pausing and considering a while what is to be done, he giveth answer to every suitor in order as they came, so as all things be done in their due and convenient time. This done after he hath washed his body in the company of his greatest states, and put on his richest robes, he sacrificeth unto his Gods: There custom was that the chief Priest, when the sacrifices were brought before the Altar, and the King standing by, prayed with a loud voice 
The Priests prasied the good Kings dispraised the bad.  in the hearing of the people for the prosperous health and all good success of their King that maintains justice towards his subjects, and more particularly to relate his virtues, as to say that he observed piety and religion towards the Gods, and humanity to man, then to call him continent, just, and magnanimous, true, bountiful and bridling all his affections, and beside, that, that he laid more easy punishments upon offenders, than their crimes required, and bestowed favours beyond men's deservings, and holding on this prayer, at length he pursueth the wicked with a curse, and freeing the King from blame, layeth all the fault upon his ministers, which persuade him to do evil: Which done he exhorteth the King to lead a happy life and acceptable to the Gods, and also to follow good fashions, and not to do those things which evil men persuade him to, but such as chiefly appertain to honour and virtue. In the end after the King hath sacrificed a bull to the Gods, The Priest reciteth out of their sacred books, certain decrees and gests of worthy men, whereat the King being moved ruleth his kingdom holily and justly according to their examples.  
They have there times appointed and prefixed not only when to gather riches, and to judge according to their ancient laws, but also when to walk, when to wash, when to lie with their wives and when every thing else is to be done: They used but simple diet as having nothing 
The Egyptians simple diet.  upon their tables but Veal and goose, they were also limited to a certain measure of wine that would neither fill their bellies nor intoxicate their brains. In a word the whole course of their lives, was so modest & so temperate as they seemed, to be guided rather by a most skilful Physician for the preservation of their healths then by a lawgiver.  
It is strange to see after what sort the Egyptians lead their lives, for they lived not as they would themselves, but as the law allowed them; but it is much more admirable to see how that their Kings were not permitted to condemn others, nor yet to inflict punishment upon any offendor, being moved thereunto either through pride, malice, or any unjust cause whatsoever: but living under a law like private men, thought it no burden unto them, but rather esteemed themselves blessed in obeying the law: for by those which follow their own affections, they supposed many things to be committed, that might breed unto themselves both danger & damage: for though they know they do amiss, yet notwithstanding they persist still in error, being overcome either with love, or hate, or some other passion of mind, whereas those which live with understanding and advise, offend in few things. The Kings using such 
The King's safety much regarded.  justice to their subjects, did so purchase the good wills of them all, as not only the Priests, but all the Egyptians, were more careful of their Sovereign, then of their wives or Children or any other princes else: and when one of those good Kings die all men bewailed him with equal sorrow 
How the Egyptians be wail their dead Kings that were good.  and heaviness of heart, and renting their clothes and shutting up their Temples, frequented not the market, nor observed solemn feasts, but defiling their heads with earth for the space of seventy and two days, and girding themselves about the paps with fine linen, both men and women walked about together, by two hundred and three hundred in a Company, renewing their complaints, and in a song renumerating the virtues of their King one by one, during which time they abstained from flesh of beasts, from all things boiled, from wine and all sumptuous fare, and also from all manner of ointments and baths, yea their own proper beds, and all women's company, bewailing for those days as much as if they had buried their own children, In which mean space all things being provided for the funeral solemnities, upon the last day they 
How their Kings be buried.  enclosed the corpses in a coffinne and placed it at the entrance of the Sepulchre, where usually was made a brief narration of all things done by the King in his life time, and every one had then liberty to accuse him that would: the Priests stood by, commending the King's good deeds, and all the multitude of people that were present at the funerals, applauded his praise worthy actions, and with bitter exclamations railed against his misdeeds, whereof it happened that most Kings (through the opposition of the people) wanted the due honour and magnificence of Burial, the fear whereof constrained them to live justly and uprightly in their life times: and this for the most part was the manner of living of the ancient Kings of Egypt. Egypt is divided into many parts, every part whereof 
The ancient government of the Egyptians.  is called by the Greek word (Monos) and is governed by a Praetor or Mayor, who hath rule over all the people of that Province: The Egyptians divide their tribute, or custom money which is paid them by foreigners in three parts: the greatest part whereof belongeth to the college of Priests, which are of great authority with the inhabitants, both in regard of their service to their gods, as also for their doctrine, wherewith they instruct others, and part of this portion they bestow in ministering their sacrifices, and the rest to increase their private estates, for in no case would the Egyptians have the worship of their gods omitted, nor do they think it fit, that they that be ministers of common council, and profit, should want things necessary to live upon: for the Priests in all weighty businesses be assistant to the King, both by their labour and council, as well in regard of the knowledge they have in the stars, as by their sacrifices, foretelling things to come. Moreover they show out of their sacred volumes the acts and gests of worthy men, by which the Kings may know in their designs, how things are likely to succeed, and it is not so with the Egyptian Priests, as it is with the greeks, that one man, or one woman should have charge of their sacrifices, but there be many that be conversant about the worship and honour of their gods, which leave the same charge of holy mysteries to their children: they be all of them freed and discharged from tribute, & possess the second place of honour and estimation after their King.  
The second portion of the tribute money cometh to the Kings, which serveth them for the wars, for their maintenance, and also to reward valiant and worthy men for their prowess and good service, by which means it cometh to pass, that their own people are vexed with no kind of tribute: The Captains and Soldiers have the third part, to the end that having such wages, they might have more ready and willing minds to undergo all perils and dangers of warfare.  
Their commonwealth also consisteth of three sorts of common people, of husbandmen, shepherds and craftsmen. 
Their commonwealth consisteth of three sorts of people, husbandmen, shepherds and labourers.  The husbandmen buy their ground at an easy rate of the Priests, of the King, or of the Soldiers, and apply their husbandry without intermission, all their time from their infancy, by which means they are far more expert in husbandry than others, both for the precepts they receive from their parents, as also by reason of their continual practice. The shepherds likewise receiving the charge and skill of keeping cattle from their fathers, follow that kind of exercise for all their life long: And arts and sciences amongst the Egyptians are most exquisite, and brought to the highest strain of perfection, for the Egyptian tradesmen, (without intermeddling in public affairs) exercise no other labour but such only as is either permitted by the law, or taught by their fathers, so as neither the envy of the teacher, nor civil hatred, nor any other thing whatsoever, can hinder them from that course of life they have entered into.  
The Egyptians censured not of things at hap hazard, but with reason and discretion, for they esteemed things 
How their judgements were given.  rightly done to be very beneficial for man's life, and that the only way to avoid evil, was to punish the offenders and to succour the oppressed, but that the punishment due for an offence should be forborn in regard either of meed or money, they held to be the utter confusion of their public life, and therefore they settled the best and choicest men of the most famous cities, as at Heliopolis, Memphis, & Thebes, and set them as judges over the rest, which sessions of judges were thought to be nothing inferior to the judges of Areopagus in Athens, nor to the Senate or council of the Lacedæmonians, established long time after them: when these judges (being thirty in number) were assembled together, they made election of the worthiest man amongst them, to be their chief judge or justice, in whose absence the whole company assembled, appointed an other judge to be his substitute: These judges were all maintained at the King's cost, but the chief judge was far better allowed then the rest, who always had hanging about his neck in a chain of gold, bedecked 
The chief judge weareth the sign of Truth about his neck.  with divers precious stones, an Image which they called Truth: and when they were set in judgement, the Image of Truth being laid before them by the chief judge, and all their laws (which were contained in eight volumes) placed in the middle of the judges: their manner was, that the accuser should set down his accusation in writing, & the manner of the injury, or loss, committed and done, and how much he esteemed himself damnified: then was there a time allotted for the accused to answer his adversaries accusations by writing, and either to purge himself that he did not the injury, or to aver that what he did was justly done, or that the wrong or loss he did was not of such value as was supposed: after this the plaintiff replied, and the defendant made answer to his replication. So as the pleading of both parties being twice heard, after the judges had examined and reasoned of the matter in controversy, the chief judge turning the sign of Truth towards him that had truth of his side, pronounced the sentence, and this was the manner of their judgements. And now because occasion is offered to speak of the Institution of their laws, I think it not impertinent to our purpose, to make mention of the ancient laws of the Egyptians: that thereby we may know how far they excelled others both in order and utility. And first of all, perjured persons 
The laws of the Egyptians. against perjured persons.  were punished with death, as those which had committed a double offence, both in violating their duty towards the gods, and in breaking and abolishing faith and truth amongst men, which is the chiefest bond of humane society: if a traveler find one that is set upon with thieves and robbed and beaten, or suffered any other injury, and doth not set to his helping hand to aid him (if it lie in his power) he shall die for it, but if he could not assist him, than ought he to make the thieves known, and to prosecute the injury with his accusation; which if he do not he shall be whipped with a certain number of stripes, and be bard from all sustenance for three whole days together: 
Against false accusers.  he which accuseth an other falsely, and is called in question for it, shall undergo the punishment provided for false accusers: and all the Egyptians were at certain times constrained to give up their names in writing to the Precedents and Governors, and what trade of life they exercised, in doing whereof, if any say untruly, or lived by unlawful gain, he was punished with death: if any one kill either freeman or servant willingly, he shall die for it by the laws: which regarding not the quality of the estate, but the heinousness of the deed, and the evil mind of the doer, deliver men from evil, so as by revenging the death of servants and slaves, freemen may live in more security.  
The pains of death were not afflicted upon fathers which 
A law against parents that murdered their children.  had slain their sons, but they were enjoined to stand for three days and three nights about the dead corpse (the public watch standing by to see it done) for they thought it unjust to deprive him of life that was author of his sons life: but rather that he should be afflicted with continual grief and repentance of the fact, whereby others might shun the like offence. To Parricides was imposed a most exquisite 
A law against Pariacides.  and extreme punishment, for the law was, that the living body and the dead corpse should be bound together joint by joint, upon sharp Pikes or stakes, and burned upon a heap of thorns, adjudging it to be the most heinous offence that could be amongst men, for one to do him to death violently, of whom he had received life. If any woman great with child were adjudged to die, her death was deferred till she was delivered, for they thought it mere injustice, that an infant which committed no evil should perish with the guilty, or that two should be punished, whereas but one offended. Those which in 
Offenders in the wars punished with shame.  wars did either break their array, or would not obey their Leaders and Captains, were not punished with death, but with the reproach & ignominy of all men, which disgrace after they had blotted out by their virtue and valiant acts, they recovered their former estate and dignities, and that law brought it to pass in continuance of time, that men accounted that dishonour to be the greatest evil could hap unto them, and much more grievous than death. Those which revealed any secrets to their enemies, had their tongues cut out; and those which clipped money, or counterfeited any false coin, or altered it either in weight or fashion, or stamped it with letters, or defaced the letters, or forged any false deeds, were punished with the loss of both their hands: for they thought it fit, that that part of the body should suffer punishment during life, that was chief instrument in the offence, and that others also being warned by their miseries and calamities, might abstain from the like lewdness. There were very sharp punishments inflicted upon those that had abused any woman, for he which deflowered a free 
A law against adultery and fornication.  woman had his members cut off, for that under one fault he had committed three hanous offences which were injury, corruption of blood, and confusion of children; he that was taken in wilful adultery had a thousand stripes with rods, and the adulterous woman had her nose cut off, by which disgrace her beauty was blemished, and she punished in that part of her face which did most addorne it. It is reported that Bocchoris was the maker of those laws which partaind to civil conversation amongst men, which laws 
Bocchoris their law maker.  allow that if one lend money without specialty, and the debtor deny that he borrowed any, the creditor must stand to the debiters oath: for an oath is held of great moment as being a religious act: and certain it is that those which often swear do abrogate their faith and credits, and therefore they will swear but seldom, lest they lose their reputations and names of honest men, moreover the same lawemaker (concluding all faithfulness in virtue) judged, that men ought by good means to accustom themselves to honesty, that they may not be thought unworthy of trust, for he thought it wrong to those to whom money was lent without oath not to perform their faith by swearing, whether the goods be their 
men's bodiesnot liable to their debts.  own or no: The usury which was agreed upon by writing, forbade that the double forfeiture of the thing lent should be exacted: and all payments were satisfied by the debtors goods, but his body might not be delivered to the creditor, for they thought fit that only their goods should be subject and liable to their debts, and their bodies addicted to the Cities, whose aid and assistance they had need of, both in wars and peace; neither was it thought fit that the soldiers which ventured their lives, for their country's safety, should be thrust in prison for interest: which law is supposed to be translated by Solon to the Athenians, and by him called Sisachthia, providing that men should not lose their lives for the citizens usury: moreover the particular law and toleration for thieves amongst the Egyptians, was, that those that did steal should bring their names in writing to the chief Priest, and instantly disclose the theft, or robbery unto 
The law against thieves.  him. In like sort they which had their goods taken from them, must write unto the chief Priest, the time, day, and hour that he was robbed, by which means the theft being easily found out and discovered, he which was robbed should lose the fourth part of that which was stolen, which fourth part shall be given to the thief, and the rest restored to the owner: For the lawgivers opinion was that seeing it was unpossible that theft should altogether be prohibited, men should lose rather some portion of their substance, than all that was taken from them.  
The manner of their marriages is not all alike with 
Their marriaages.  the Egyptians, for it is lawful for the Priests to marry but once, but the rest may marry as oft as they will, according to their desire, and ability; and there are no children accounted bastards, Noah though they be begotten of such bondservants as be bought with money, for they hold that the father is the only author of their children's birth, and the mother to be but the receptacle, and to yield norrishment 
The small cost bestowed in bringing upchildrens.  to the infant.  
It is most incredible to see with what small and easy cost the Egyptians bring up their children, for the nourish them with the roots of bulrushes, & other like roots, raked and roasted in hot embers, and with herbs growing in fens and moorish grounds, sometimes boiled, sometimes broiled on the coals, and sometimes raw. They never wore shoes, but go for the most part naked, by reason of the temperature of the country: so as all the cost that a father bestoweth upon his child till he be of full age, exceedeth not twenty Drachmas. The Priests instruct children both in that learning which they call holy, and in the other which appertained to knowledge and common instruction, and they be very intentive, and exceedingly bend to the study of Geometry and Arithmetic. They suffer them not to use either wrestling or music, supposing the daily use of wrestling to be unsure and dangerous, and that thereby their bodies are made more feeble and weak, and music they condemned as utterly 
Music disallowed of the Egyptians.  unprofitable and hurtful in making their minds effeminate: They cure their diseases either by fasting or vomiting, which they use either daily, or every third day, 
How the Egyptians cure the diseased.  or fourth day, for they are of opinion, that all diseases had their beginning from surfeiting, and that therefore that is the best physic to recover health, which taketh away the cause of the disease: Soldiers and travelers are cured for nothing, for the Physicians live of the revenues of the commonwealth, and therefore are forced by the law to cure the diseased, after the strict form set down by the best Physicians and most approved writers: And the Physician that followeth the rule of that sacred book, though he cannot cure his patient, yet is he blameless, but if he cure him by any other means than is set down in that book, he shall die for it: for the maker of that law was of opinion, that there could not a better course of curing be found out, then that which was invented, and observed for long time by ancient Physicians.  
The Egyptians worship diverse creatures beyond all measure, not only while they be living, but when they be 
The Egyptians worship divers sorts of creatures.  dead also, as Cats, Rats, Dogs, Hawks, the birds called Ibis, Wolves and Crocodiles, and many more of like kind: neither be they ashamed to profess open honour unto them, but account it as commendable and laudable for them to do it, as to do their service to the gods, in so much as they will go about into cities and other places, carrying with them Images of those beasts, vaunting and glorying what creatures they have adored, at the sight whereof, all men in manner of supplyants', do reverence unto the Images. When any of these beasts die, they wrap the carcase in linen cloth, and anoint it with Salt, beating their breasts with bitter exclamations, and anointing it again with the juise of Cedar tree, and other odoriferus ointments, that it may keep the longer, they bury it in their hallowed places. He that willingly killeth any of those creatures, shall have judgement of death for it: but if a man kill the Ibis or the Cat, either willingly or at unawares, the whole multitude fall upon him, tormenting and killing him without mercy or judgement. The terror whereof enforceth the beholders to lament his death, and to aver that the beast was killed without any fault of his own. These beasts be kept with great cost and charge within the circuit of their Temples, by men of no small account, eating fine flower and porridge made of Oatmeal, which in their banquets are mingled with milk: They give them Geese also daily both sodde and broiled: and catch birds for those which eat raw flesh. To conclude they be all nourished with marvelous great charge and diligence: and their deaths as much bewailed of the people as the deaths of their own Sons, yea and their funerals are far more sumptuous than their ability can afford; in so much as when Ptolomaeus Lagus was governor of Egypt an ox dying for age in the City of Memphis, he which had the charge of keeping him bestowed a great sum of money upon his burial, which was given to him to defray that charge, besides fifty talents of silver which he borrowed of Ptolemy.  
These things which we have spoken of, perhaps, will seem strange to some, but no less strange will it seem to any that shall consider the ceremonies of the Egyptians in the burial of the dead: for when one dieth there all his 
The strange kind of burials amongst the Egyptians.  near friends and kinsfolks defile and spoil their heads with earth, and go round about the City wailing, until the dead body be buried, in which Interim they neither wash themselves nor drink wine, nor eat any meat but that which is very vile and gross, nor yet wear any good apparel: They have three forms or kinds of burial, for some be buried sumptuously, some indifferently, and some basely: In the first manner of burial is spent and laid out one talon of silver, in the second twenty minae, and some small cost is bestowed in the last. Those which have charge of the funerals (which course of life decendeth from their ancestors as by Inheritance) bring the funeral expenses in writing to the householders, demanding at what rate they will have the funerals performed, and the bargain being made, and concluded betwixt them the body is delivered unto them to be buried, at the charge agreed upon: And then the Grammarian (for so he is called) the body being laid in the ground, marketh and assigneth out a place about the flank how far from the left part the incisition must be made, after that, he which is called the breaker up or unboweler, openeth his side with a sharp Aethiopian stone, so wide as by the law is permitted, which done he instantly runneth away as fast as he can, all the standers by following after, cursing him, and throwing stones at him, for they esteemed those men worthy of hate, which had mangled or misused the body of their friend: but those which have charge and oversight of the body, which they call Salitores, they account worthy of honour and estimation, this done they carry the dead corpses into the Temple before the Priests, who standing by the dead body, on of them plucketh out of the hole, or wound in his side all the entrails, except the kidneys and heart, all which an other washeth away with red wine, compounded with odoriferous spices and perfumes, after that they anoint the whole body, first with juice of Cedar tree, and other precious ointments for thirty days space and more, and then they rub it over with myrrh and cinnamon and other like stuff, whereby it is not only preserved the longer but yieldeth a sweet savour also: the body being thus dressed, they deliver it to the dead man's kinsfolk, every part of him, yea the heaires of his brows and eye lids, being so preserved, as the form of his body remaineth whole, as though he were not dead but a sleep: before the body be interred the funeral day is declared to the judges and the dead man's friends saying, that upon that day the dead body is to pass over the fens: the judges being above forty in number assemble themselves together, and sit upon a round scaffold, beyond the pool, then is there a ship provided for that purpose, and brought thither by those to whom the charge is committed, and before the body be laid in the coffin, every one hath liberty that will to accuse the party deceased, and if he be proved to be an evillliver, the judges proceed to sentence, whereby they adjudge that his body shall be deprived of Sepulture: and if any one accuse him unjustly, he shall be severely punished: but if no one accuse him, or that it is evident that he was accused falsely and of malice, his kindred leaving off their mourning, fall to praising him, yet speaking nothing of his stock and parentage, as the greeks are accustomed to do, (for the Egyptians account themselves all noble alike,) but beginning at his childhood, they recite his bringing up and education, the beginning of his life and learning, and from that ascending to his man's estate, they remember his religion and devotion towards the gods, his justice, his Continency, and all his other virtues, and then invocating the infernal gods, they beseech them to place him amongst the Saints, to which request all the multitude make answer, extolling the deadman's worth and renown, as if he should live for ever below amongst the blessed: which done, each one buryeth his friends in his own proper sepulchre, and those which want sepulchres, bury them in the strongest walls of their house, setting the chest wherein the body lieth on the one end. But those which are forbidden burial, either for usury, or some other offence, are buried at home without a coffin, whom his posterity (growing of better ability, and satisfying for his misdeeds) do afterwards bury very solemnly.  
The Egyptians custom is to give the bodies of their dead parents as pawns to their creditors, and those children 
The bodies of dead parents given to their creditors.  that redeem them not, shall be disgraced and want sepulture themselves: one may justly marvel to see, how the authors of all these ordinances, did not only provide for things profitable for man's life, but also regarded those things which appertained to the honour and burial of dead bodies, in so much that by this means, men's lives were disposed as much as might be to good manners.  
The greeks, which by their feigned fables, and Poetical fictions, far exceeding truth, delivered many things of the rewards of the godly, and punishment of the wicked, could not with all their writings draw men to virtue, but were rather derided and contemned themselves: But with the Egyptians, due punishment being rendered to the wicked, and commendation to the just, not in show, but in substance, they did every day admonish both the good and the bad, what things were profitable for them, for they saw before their eyes, that to every one, according to his deeds was given a remembrance of his merits or demerits, which was a cause that all men imitated the best course of life, and strove to do well: for those are not to be esteemed the best laws whereby men become rich, but whereby they prove honest, and wise. And thus much of the Egyptians: and now of the residue of the people of Africa.   

Of the Carthaginians and other people of Africa. CAP. 6.  
OF the Carthaginians there be many and sundry nations: The Adrimachidae (which be a people of middle Libya) border upon Egypt, and use the same customs the Egyptians 
The Adrimachidae.  do, they are attired like other Carthaginians, the wives wear upon each of their legs a bracelet of brass, and suffer their locks to grow long: They take the vermin from out their heads and kill them with their teeth and then throw them away, which no other Carthaginians do but they only.  
There is none but Vergins given to the King in marriage, and of those which like him best he taketh his pleasure. The Nasamons (a great and stout nation and spoilers of such ships as they find entangled in the sands,) 
The Nasamons  in the Summer time leave their flocks by the seaside and go abroad to gather dates at places where be great store of date trees and those very fair and fruitful, where plucking off the fruits from the trees, before they be ready, they dry them and ripen them at the Sun, and then steep them in milk and eat them. They have many wives a piece with whom they lie openly in all men's sight, almost in the same manner that the Massagetae do (which be a people of Scythia in Asia:) The manner of the Nasamons, is, that when one first marrieth a wife, the Bride lieth 
The Masagetae.  with all her guests one after another to perform the 
The Nasomans and their marriages.  act of generation, and every one as they play their part, present her with some reward or other, which they bring with them for that purpose: Their swearing and divination which they use, is by those men which were accounted the best & justest among them while they lived, and when they swear the touch the tombs of those men, and divine near unto their monuments, where when they have finished their prayers they fall a sleep, and what vain dream soever is represented unto them in there sleep, that they firmly believe to be revealed unto them by those men, and so put it in practise accordingly. When the plight 
How the prophecy.  their troths one to another, each one taketh a Cup from the others hand and drinketh all that is in it up, but if they have no drink, than they take dust from the ground and lick that up: The Garamantes (which be people of middle Lybia also, and dwell above the Nasomons) 
The Garamantes.  abandon the sight and conversation of all other people: weapons for war have they none, neither are they so hardy as to defend themselves if they be assaulted: and about the sea coast, towards the sun setting, dwell the Macae (which be a people in Arabia-foelix) and border 
The Macae.  upon the Nasomans: these people shave the crowns of their heads round, and suffer all the rest of the hair to growlong. And in their wars, in steed of Armour, they wear the skins of such Ostriches as keep in caves under ground.  
The Gnidanes (be a people bordering upon the Macae) the women whereof have the skirts of their garments 
The Gnidanes.  guarded and trimmed with welts made of beasts skins, which (as is reported) are given unto them by those men which have lain with them (for every one which lieth with a woman there, must give her one of those guards) and she which hath the most welts upon her garment is accounted the best woman, as being beloved of most men. The Machliae (which be a people inhabiting 
The Machlyes and Auses.  about the Moor in Africa called Triton) wear long hair upon the hinder parts of their heads: and the people called Auytes upon the forepart. The Virgins of this country upon the yearly feast of Minerva, and in honour of that goddess, divide themselves into two parts, and fight one side against the other (without any cause at all given) with stones and clubs, alleging, that in so doing, they observe their country guise, in honour of her whom we call Minerva, and those virgins which die of their wounds, they call false virgins: but she that best bestowed herself in the fight, is preferred before all the other virgins, and adorned with Greekish armour and a crest or plume made of metal of Corinth, and so placed in a Chariot, and carried in triumph round about the fen. The men accompany with women confusedly like beasts without respect of kindred or blood, and when a woman hath nourished her child that he is lusty and strong with whom he dwelleth and is maintained (for the men meet together every third month to choose their children) his son he is ever after reputed. The Atlantes (so called of the hill Atlas near which they dwell,) have none of them any proper 
The Atlantes.  names. They curse the son at his uprising, blaming and reprehending it because his heat destroyeth both them and their country, they eat no flesh nor are troubled with any dreams or visions.  
The people of Africa called Pastoritij, live of flesh and milk, and yet abstain from the flesh of kine, because the Egyptians do neither eat swine's flesh, nor rear any kine: 
The Pastoritij.  And the women of Cyrene think it unlawful to strike them, by reason of Isis the God of Egypt, in whose honour they Celebrate both fasting & feasting days, but the women of Barcas do not only abstain from flesh of kine, but from swine's flesh also: & these women when their children be of the age of four years, sing the veins upon the crowns of their heads, and their temples with wool that is new shorn, to the end that they should be never after offended with phlegm or rheum, descending from their heads, by which means they say they be very healthful: when they sacrifice for their first fruits, they cut off the ear of a beast and cast it to the top of a house, and after break his neck; and of all the Gods they only do sacrifice to the Sun and Moon: All the people of Africa bury their dead as the Graetians do, the Nasomones excepted, who bury them sitting, for there when one beginneth to yield up the ghost, they cause him to sit, lest he should die with his face upright: Their dwelling-houses are made of young sprouts or sprigs of lentish trees, wound and wreathed one about another.  
The Maxes wear their hear upon the right side of their heads long, and shave the left side, They paint their bodies 
The Maxes.  with red lead or vermilion, alleging that they had their beginning from the Trojans.  
The women of Zabices which border upon the Maxes, 
The zabices.  play the wagonners in the wars.  
The Zigantes (where Bees make great abundance of 
The zigantes.  honey, and much more is reported to be made by art) be all of them died with red lead, and eat Apes and Munckies, of which they have great store, living upon hills. All these people of Libya live a rude, and Savage kind of life, 
All these people of Libya be Savage people.  and for the most part without doors, like beasts contented with such food as they find abroad, eating nothing that is tame and bred at home, and having no other garments to cover their bodies but goat's skins: Their greatest Potentates have no cities, but turrets standing near unto waters, wherein they lay up such things as they leave for their provision: They swear their subjects once every year to their allegiance, and obedience to their Prince, and that they shall be loving to their equals and persecute all such as refuse to be under their government, as thieves. There weapons are answerable to their country and their customs, for they themselves being light and nimble of body, and the country (for the most part) plain and even, do neither use swords nor knives nor any other weapons in their wars saving only every one three darts and a few stones in a leathern budget; and with those they will fight and conflict, both when they encounter, and in the retreat; being by practice made perfect to throw therein stones and darts right at a mark. They observe neither law nor equity towards strangers.  
The Trogloditae (which the greeks call shepherds, because they live by cattle) elect their King from out the 
The Trogloditae.  people of Aethiopia: wives and children they have in common, the King only excepted, who hath but one wife, and every one that cometh to him, presenteth him with a certain number of cattle. At such time as the wind standeth in the East, about the canicular or dog days, which season is most subject to showers, they eat blood and milk mixed together, and boiled: and when their pastures be parched, and burned away with the heat of the Sun, they go down into the moorish grounds, for which there is great contention amongst them. When their cattle be either old or diseased, they kill them, and eat them; for of such consisteth their chiefest sustenance.  
Their children be not called after the names of their parents, but aftet the names of Bulls, Rams, or Sheep, and those they call fathers and mothers, because their daily nourishment is yielded by them, and not by their natural parents. The meaner sort of people drink the juice of Holly-tree, or sea-rush; and those of the better sort the juice that is strained out of a certain flower which groweth in that country, the liquor whereof is like unto the worst of our Must.  
They never continue long in one place, but remove and flit often into divers Regions, taking with them whither soever they go their flocks and herds of cattle: they be naked on all parts of their bodies but their privities, which be covered with skins. All the Trogloditae circumcise their privy parts, like the Egyptians, excepting those which are lame: they remove often into strange Countries, and are never cut or shaven with razor from their infancy.  
Those Trogloditae which are called Megavares, use for their armour, round shields made of raw ox hides, and clubs studded with iron, and some use bows and lances. They have little regard how they bury the dead, for they use no other ceremonies in their funerals, but wrap the dead corpse in Holly twigs, and then binding the neck and legs together, put the carcase into a hole, and cover it over with stones, setting upon the heap of stones a goats horn in derision, and so depart from it, being never touched with any grief, though he were never so near a friend.  
They contend and fight amongst themselves, not (as the greeks do) for anger or ambition, but only for their victuals: and in their conflicts they first throw stones, till some of them be wounded, and then taking their bows in hand, (wherein they be very expert) they fight it out, till some of them be slain.  
And the ancient and gravest women give end unto those controversies, who pressing boldly into the middle of the multitude without any danger, (for it is not lawful to hurt them by any means) the men forthwith cease off their strife. Those which for age be unable to follow their flocks, tie their own necks to an ox tail, and so strangle themselves to death.  
And if any be unwilling to die, he is forced to it by his fellows, but first he shall have warning thereof, and this kind of death they account a great benefit unto them: those also which be sick of fevers, or of any uncurable disease, are served in like sort, for they account it the greatest misery that may be, for any one to enjoy his life, that can do nothing worthy of life: Herodotus writeth that the Trogloditae make them hollow Caves in the ground to dwell in, and that they have no desire to possess riches, but rather addict themselves to wilful and voluntary poverty: that they only are delighted and glory in one kind of stone, which we call Hexacontalithus (which is a little precious stone with diverse corners): that they eat the flesh of Serpents: and that they speak not any intelligible language, but in steed of speech make a kind of noise or howling, rather than speech.  
In that Aethiopia which lieth above Egypt dwell another kind of people, which be called Rhisophagis: these 
The Rhisophagis  barbarous people live only upon the roots of weeds, which when they have clean washed, they bruise & tear a pieces with stones, till they wax soft and clammy, and then make it into cakes like unto tiles, and bake them against the sun, and so eat them: and this kind of meat is their only food all their life time, for they have great abundance thereof, and it is very pleasant and delectable in taste, so as peace is there perpetually maintained, and yet they fight notwithstanding, but it is only with Lions which ranging out of the deserts to shun the shade, and to prey upon other lesser wild beasts, destroy many Aethiopians coming forth of the fens: and surely that nation had been utterly destroyed by Lions, had not nature afforded a defence against them: for at such time as the Dogge-starre ariseth and appeareth in their Horizon, the wind being calm, there flieth into those parts an innumerable multitude of Gnatts, which offend not the people, because they fly from them into the Fens and moorish grounds, but do so annoy the Lions with their stings, and terrifying them with their humming and bussing, as they compel them all to depart out of those Regions.  
Next unto these are the Ilophagi and the Spermatophagi; the Spermatophagi live without labour, by gathering 
The Ilophagi and Sparmatophagi.  the fruits which fall from trees in Summer time; and when fruits are gone, they eat a certain herb which they find growing in shady places: wherewith they be succoured in their need. But the Ilophagi, their wives and children feed themselves by climbing into Tree tops, and plucking off the tender buds from twigs and branches, which is their only sustenance, by continual use and practise whereof, they grow so expert in climbing, that (a thing strange to be reported) they will skip and hop from tree to tree like birds or squirrels without danger, and trusting to their lightness and nimbleness of their bodies, ascend to the very top of slender branches: and if at any time their footing fail them, yet will they clasp their hands about the twigs, and so save and defend themselves from falling, and though by some mischance they should fall, yet receive they no hurt, by reason of the lightness of their bodies: These people go always naked, and have their wives and children in common: They fight one against another, only for places to live in (being weaponed with staves,) and domineer and exult greatly over those they vanquish.  
They die for the most part by famine, whem their sight faileth they are deprived of that sense wherewith they sought their food. In an other part of the region dwell those Aethiopians which Bee called Cyneci, they be few in number, but of a different life from all the rest, for they inhabit the woodland, and desolate country, 
The Cyneci.  wherein be but few fountains of water, and they sleep upon the tops of trees for fear of wild beasts: Every morning they go down armed to the river sides, and their hide themselves in trees amongst the leaves, and in the heat of the day, when the beeves and Leopard's, and divers other kinds of wild beasts, go down to the rivers to drink, and that they be full and heavy with water, these Aethiopians descened from the trees and fall upon them and kill them with staves baked at the fire, and with stones and darts, and then divide them amongst their companies and eat them: By which cunning devise they devour many of those beasts, and sometimes (though but seldom) they are foiled and slain themselves.  
And if at any time their cunning fail them, and that they want beasts to eat, they take the hides of such beasts as they have eaten before, and plucking of the hairs lay the hides in steep, and then dry them before a soft fire and so dividing to every one a share, satisfy themselves with that. Their young boys (under the age of fourteen years) practise throwings at marks, and they give meat to those only which touch the mark, and therefore being forced thereto by famine, they become most excellent and fine darters.  
The people called Acridophagi border upon the desert, the men be something shorter, or lower of stature, 
The Acridophagi.  than other Aethiopians, being lean and marvelous black.  
In the spring time the West and south-west winds, blow an infinite number of slies called Locusts out of the deserts into their Country, which be exceeding great, but the colour of their wings is foul and loathsome: These Aethiopians (as their custom is) gather out of places thereabouts great store of wood and other sorts of fuel, and lay it in a great large valley, and when, at their wont time (as it were) a whole cloud of Locusts be carried by the winds over the valley, they set fire on the fuel, and with smoke stiphle and smother to death the Locusts which fly over it? so as they fall down unto the earth in such abundance as are sufficient to serve the whole country for victuals: and these being sprinkled with salt (which that country plentifully yieldeth) they preserve for a long space, being a meat very pleasant unto they taste. And so these Locusts be their continual sustenance at all seasons, for they neither keep cattle, nor eat fish, being far remote from the sea, nor have any other maintenance whereof to live.  
They be nimble of body, swift of foot, and short of life, so as they which live the longest exceed not above forty years, their end is not only miserable but also incredible, for when old age creepeth and cometh upon them, there doth certain louse with wings of a horrible and ugly shape, engendering in their bodies, knaw out, and devour their bellies, guts and entrails and in a small time their whole bodies: and he which hath the disease doth so itch & is so alured to scratch as he receiveth thereby at one and the same time both pleasure and pain, and when the corruption cometh forth, and the lice appear, he is so stirred with the bitterness and anguish of the disease as he teareth his own flesh in pieces with his nails with great wailing and lamentation; for so great is the number of those vermin issuing out of the wounds, heap upon heap, running as it were out of a vessel full of holes, as they cannot be overcome, and by this means they die a very miserable death, the cause whereof is either the meat they live upon, or the unholesomenesse of the air. Upon the utmost parts of Africa towards the South dwell a people, which the greeks call Cinnamimi, but of their neighbouring Barbarians they be called wild or uplandish people: These have 
The Cinnamini  very great beards; and for the defence of their lives, breed up great number of Mastiffs and wild dogs; for from the Summer troppicke to the middle of winter, an infinite number of Indian beeves come into their country, the cause of their coming is uncertain; whether it be that they fly from other wild beasts which pursue them, or for the want of feeding, or that they do it by instinct of nature (all which are wonderful) but the true cause is unknown: from these the people defend themselves with their dogs, their own forces being insufficient to withstand them, and kill many of them; some whereof they eat fresh, and some others they powder up for their provision afterwards; and with these dogs they take many other beasts in like sort.  
The last people, and the utmost towards the South be the Ichthiophagi, which inhabit in the gulf of Arabia, 
The Ichthiophagi.  upon the frontiers of the Trogloditae, these carry the shape of men, but live like beasts: they be very barbarous and go naked all their lives long, using both wives and daughters common like beasts: they be neither touched with any feeling of pleasure or grief, other than what is natural: Neido the discern any difference betwixt good and bad, honesty and dishonesty.  
Their habitations are in rocks and hills, not far from the sea, wherein they have deep dens, and holes, the passages in and out being naturally very hard and crooked.  
The entrances into these holes, (as if nature had framed them for their use,) the Inhabitants dam up with a heap of great stones, wherewith they take fishes as it were with nets; for the flowing of the sea (which happeneth every day twice about three of the cloak and nine of the Cloak) surrownding the borders near unto the shore, the water increasing very high and covering all places, carrieth into the continent an innumerable company of divers sorts of fishes, which seeking abroad for sustenance at the ebbing of the sea are by those stones stayed upon dry land, those do the inhabitants make haste to gather up, and taking them lay them upon the rocks against the noon Sun, till they be scorched with the heat thereof; and when one side is scorched enough, they turn the other: when they be thus broiled against the Sun, they take all the meat from the bones and put it into a hollow stone and mingling therewith the seed of holy tree, bake it therein, and make them a most pleasant meat, for the meat being so mingled they fashion it into Cakes like long Tiles, and drying them a little against the Sun, sit down and eat them with great pleasure, and not a proportioned quantity thereof, but every one as much as they can eat. This meat they have always in a readiness, as it were out of a storehouse, the sea affording it in abundance in steed of bread, whereof the land is barren: But when by the raging of the sea, those places which be near unto the shore, be drowned for diverse days together, so as they fail in their faculty of fishing (at which time they suffer great penury of victuals) than they gather certain great shell-fish, and bruising their shells in pieces with stones, feed upon the meat which is within, being very like unto Oysters. And when this raging of the sea, by force of the winds, is of so long continuance, as that they can find none of those shel-fishes, than they betake themselves to fish bones and sharp fins, which are reserved for a time of need, the tenderer and newest sort whereof they knaw with their teeth, and bruise the harder with stones, and so eat them like unto brute beasts: they eat commonly a great company together (as I have said) and cheer one another with an untuneable song, and after that, the men accompany with women, each one with her he first lighteth upon: and being void of all care, by reason of the abundance of meat which they have in readiness, bestow themselves in this manner four days together, and upon the fifth day they flock together in troops to the rivers to drink, making a disordered and confused noise as they go.  
This their going to drink, is not much unlike the going of neat to water: when their bellies are so full of water as they are scarce able to return back they eat no more that day, but every one being full of water, and strutting out as though he would burst, lieth down like a drunken man to sleep. Upon the last day they return again to their fishing, and so passing over their whole lives with such simple and slender diet, they seldom fall into any disease, yet they be shorter lived than we, for their uncorrupted nature accounteth it their chiefest felicity and summum bonum to appease hunger, expecting pleasure from no other thing: and this is the manner of living of those people which dwell within the gulf.  
But those which dwell without the gulf, live far 
Men free from all passions of the mind.  more strangely, for they never drink, and are naturally void of all passions of the mind; And being, as it were, rejected by fortune from all places fit for habitation, and cast into desert and desolate countries, endeavour themselves wholly to fishing.  
They desire nothing that is moist, and eat their fishes half raw, not that they would thereby avoid thirst, but in a savage manner, contented with such food as fortune affords them, supposing their greatest happiness to consist in wanting nothing they desire, or is fit for them.  
They be said also to be endued with such extraordinary patience, as if one should draw his sword 
Patient people.  and strike them, they would not seek to avoid the stroke, but willingly suffering themselves to be injured and beaten, they do nothing but only look back upon him that struck them, without showing the least sign of anger, or compassion of their own misery. Speech they have none, but in lieu thereof, make signs with their fingers, and by nodding their heads, what things they want, and what they would have.  
These people do generally love peace, not doing any thing to annoy others, which kind of life though it be strange and admirable, yet hath that nation for a long time retained it, being either thereunto accustomed by continuance of time, or else compelled by necessity. Their places of abode be not like the Ichthiophagi, which dwell within the gulf, but in diverse fashions, for some have their lodgings in holes, situate to the North pole, wherein they be defended from the heat of the Sun, both by the shade and the soft wind, and cool murmuring air: for those places which lie opposite to the South, are for heat like unto furnaces, therefore unpossible to be dwelled in.  
Those which dwell against the North pole, make them houses (to avoid the heat) of Whales crooked ribs, 
The Amazon's most warlike women.  (whereof there be many in that sea) set hollow one against an other, and covered over with rett or seaweed, necessity compelling Nature to find out Art for her own defence: and this is reported to be the life of the Ichthiophagi, which dwell without the gulf.  
It remaineth to say somewhat of the Amazons (which in former time were said to dwell in Libya:) their women were hardy, strong, and valiant, and lived not after the manner of other women, for their custom was for a certain space, to exercise themselves in feats of arms, for preservation of their Virginity, and the time of warrefare once ended, then to couple themselves with men in marriage for cause of procreation, the women only did govern and exercise all public offices, and the men took charge of things within doors like our women, making themselves vassals and slaves unto women, as being very expert in the wars, in government, and in all public businesses, whereof the men themselves were ignorant. When an infint is borne, he is given to the father to be nourished and brought up with milk and other things answerable to his age: and if it be a man child, they either banish him, or kill him forthwith, or else break his right arm so soon as he is borne, thereby to make him unfit for the wars: But if it be a woman child they sing off her breasts in her infancy, alleging that great breasts would hinder them in the wars, and therefore of the greeks they be called Amazons, because they want their breasts: they be said to inhabit the Isle Hesper, which is so called, as being situated towards the West, this Isle is in the Moor called Triton, which joining to the sea, is also called Tritonia, of a river that floweth into it: It bordereth upon Aethiopia, and the hill Atlas, the greatest mountain of all that country: It is very large, and produceth diverse sorts of trees, upon the fruit whereof the Inhabitants live.  
There be many Goats also and other cattle, whose Milk and flesh they feed upon. They be altogether destitute of Corn, nor do they know the use thereof if they had it.   
FINIS. Lib. 1.   

THE SECOND BOOK.  

Of Asia, and the most famous Nations thereof. CAP. 1.  
ASIA an other part of the tripartite world, is so called of Asia the daughter of Oceanus and Tethis, wife of japetus, 
Asia why so called.  and mother to Prometheus, or (according to the opinion of others) of Asius the son of Manaeus Lidus.  
It is situated in the East part of the world, and is bounded upon the West with two rivers, Nilus and Tanais, the Euxine sea, and part of the Mediterranean sea, and upon the other three parts with the Ocean, which upon the East is called Oceanus Eous, upon the South Indicus, and North Scithicus: The hill Taurus (in a manner) divideth the whole continent in the middle, which lying directly East and West, leaveth one part thereof towards the North, and the other towards the South, which two parts are by the greeks called the Inner Asia, and the utter Asia.  
This hill in many places is three thousand stadiae in breadth, and as long as all Asia, being about forty and five thousand stadia, from the uttermost edge of the sea beyond Rhodes, unto the furthermost parts of India and Scythia towards the East. Asia is divided into many parts, whereof some be bigger, some lesser, and every part is distinguished from other by a peculiar name: but so large and wide is the whole compass of ground, contained under the name of Asia, as it alone is thought, to comprehend as much land as all Africa and Europe, the other two parts of the world: The air is there very temperate, and the soil fertile, and therefore it aboundeth with all kind of cattle: It containeth many Provinces and regions.  
Upon that side which bordereth upon Africa, lieth Arabia, which is situated betwixt judaea and Egypt (and according to Pliny) is divided into three parts, one part whereof is called Petrea, or stony Arabia, which upon the North and West joineth upon Syria, and is enclosed with Arabia deserta on the one 
Arabia divided into three parts.  side, and Arabia foelix on the other, Panchaia, and Sabaea are also by some supposed to be comprehended within the compass of Arabia. Arabia is so called of Arabus the son of Apollo by Babylo: the people whereof be scattered and dispersed wide and broad, and are much different one from an other, both in their customs, and their apparel: the heir of their heads they never cut, but tie it up with fillets and head-laces, & their beards they shave close to the skin: they transfer not their arts and occupations from one to another, as we do, but there, each one exerciseth his father's trade and course of life, and the Noblest man hath the government over all the rest: all things they possess go in common to their 
The Arabians lie with their own mothers and daughters.  whole kindred, and one wife serveth all that family, for he which first entereth into the house and setteth his staff at the door, lieth first with her, but she sleepeth all night with the eldest, by which means they be all brothers one to another, they lie also with their own mothers, and sisters without any respect at all.  
And yet the adulterer is punished with death, and the lying with one of another's kindred, is adultery, but all those which be of one house or kindred, be termed legitimate.  
They celebrate their feasts for almost thirty days together, wherein two of their kinsmen that be good musicans, give their attendance in turns, first one, than an other. Their cities and towns live peaceably and quietly together without walls, and fortresses for defence: they use oil made of the grain Sesamina, & are very rich and abounding with all other things. Their sheep be of a white fleece, and their neat of a tall stature, but horses 
No horses in Arabia.  they have none, the want whereof is supplied with great store of Camels. Gold, silver, and many sorts of sweet and odoriferous ointments are peculiar to that country, Brass, Iron, Cloth, Purple, Saffron, Pepper, and all works engraven in metal or stone, are brought thither from other places: their dead bodies they account more abject and vile than dung, and the carcase of their King they bury in a dunghill; they be very careful to preserve their reputations and promises with men, and they confirm their leagues of friendship in this manner following. When a peace and agreement is concluded betwixt two, a third man standing in the middle betwixt them both, striketh them upon the palm of their hands, about the longest fingers, with a sharp stone till he draw blood, then taking a little flock from each of their garments, he anointeth with the blood seven stones, which be laid before them for that purpose, in doing whereof he invocateth the names of Dionisyus and Urania: this done, he which is the mediator for the peace, and atonement, (the friends of both parties being present) causeth the stranger (or the Citizen (if the matter be betwixt citizens) to put in sureties to continue that truce, and the league the parties, which contract the friendship, think fit and just to be observed.  
Their only fuel is the branches of Myrrh, the smoke whereof is so noisome and hurtful, as it would breed incurable diseases, if they prevented them not, by burning a sweet incense or gum called Storax: the smell whereof allayeth the contagion of the smoke. The Priests first slay the beasts they intent to sacrifice, and then go to gather Cinnamon, strictly observing, that they gather none before sun-rising, nor after the Sunsetting: and when they have appeased their gods with the sacrifice, he which is chiefest amongst them, divideth the heap of branches which they have gathered that day, with a fork consecrated for that use, then do they dedicate a part of those branches to the Sun, which (if the division made were equal) will be inflamed with the beams of the Sun, and take fire and burn of their own accord. Some of those people which live hardly, feed upon snakes, and be therefore called Ophiophagi: they be neither vexed with care, nor trouble of mind. The people called Nomades, have great store of Camels, which serve them both in their battles,, and to carry burdens. The people called Debae be some of them shepherds, & some exercise themselves in husbandry, the country abounds with gold, insomuch as they find oftentimes amongst the clods of earth, certain round balls of gold as big as acorns, of which they make themselves jewels and brooches, very pleasant to behold, and wear them about their necks and arms. They sell gold to their neighbouring nations for three times the price of brass, & twice the price of silver: both for the small account they make of gold, and for the great desire they have to traffic with other people.  
Next unto these be the Sabaei, which be rich in Frankincense, Myrrh, and Cinnamon: Some hold, that there be Balm trees growing in the confines of this country, it aboundeth with sweet Canes, and odoriferous Dates: there is also a serpent bred in that country, of an handbreadth in length, whose sting or biting is deadly, and he lieth altogether under the roots of trees. The exceeding smell and sweet savour of things growing there, breedeth a stupidity and dullness in their senses; which they cure with the perfume of a certain lime or pitch, called Bitumen, and the beard of a buck Goat. All matters in controversy are there referred to the King. Many of the Sabaei are husbandmen, and some of them are wholly occupied in gathering spices, which grow upon trees. They use traffic into Aethiopia with ships covered with leather, their fuel is the bark or rind of Cinnamon, which is of the nature of wood.  
The Metrapolitan and chief city of this kingdom, is situated upon an hill, and is called Saba: their Kings are of one kindred, and reign by succession, to whom the multitude yield honours indifferently, as well to the bad, as to the good. They never dare venture out of their Court, or chief city, fearing lest they should be stoned to death by the common people, by reason of an answer which they received long since from one of their Oracles. At Saba, where the King keepeth his Court, be silver jewels, and pots of gold of all sorts, the beds and three-footed stools have silver feet, and all the household stuff is sumptuous and rich beyond credit. The porches and galleries also be underpropped with great pillars, the heads whereof are silver and gold, the roofs and doors being set with golden bosses, intermingled with precious stones, do manifest the sumptuous decking of the whole house: for here one place shineth with gold, another with silver, another with precious stones, and Elephant's tooth, and with many other ornaments beside, of great worth and estimation: these people have for many ages flowed in perpetual felicity: for they be utterly void of ambition and desire to possess other men's goods, which bringeth many to ruin.  
The people called Garraei be no less rich than these, 
The Garraei.  for almost all their household-stuff is of gold and silver, and of ivory, whereof they make the thresholds, roofs, and walls of their houses.  
The people called Nabathaei, of all men be most continent, 
The Nabathaei.  in getting riches they be very industrious, but much more careful in keeping them: for he that diminisheth his private estate, hath public punishment. And on the other side, he is honoured and exalted, that increaseth his patrimony.  
The Arabians use in their wars, swords, bows, lances, and slings, and many times axes also. That accursed stock of the Sarrasins, which were the greatest scourges that ever happened to mankind, had their beginning in Arabia, and (as it is very credibly thought) a great part of the Arabians, became followers of the Sarrasins sect, and took their name. Yet now they have betaken them to their old names again. The Arabians that dwell about Egypt, live for the most part by stealing, trusting in the swiftness of their Camels.   

The manners and customs Of Panchaia: and of the manners of the Panchaians'. CAP. 2.  
PANCHAIA is a Region of Arabia, Diodorus Siculus calleth it an Island of 
Panchaia aboundeth with Frankincense.  two hundred Stadia in breadth, and that there be in it three stately Cities, that is to say, Dalida, Hyracida, and Oceanida, the whole country is fruitful enough, living only where it is sandy. It aboundeth with wine, and with frankincense, of which there is so great store, as is sufficient to serve all the world for sacrifices: it yieldeth much myrrh also, and other odoriferous spices of divers kinds, which the Panchaians' gather, and sell to the Merchants of Arabia, of whom others buy them, & transport them into Phoenicia, Syria, and Egypt; from whence they are conveyed into all parts of the world.  
The Panchaians' use Chariots in the wars; for so they have been always accustomed: their commonwealth is divided into three degrees of people: first, the Priests, who possess the prime place, to whom the artificers are added: the husbandmen have the second, and soldiers the third, to whom the shepherds be annexed. The Priests be governors and rulers over all the rest, to whom the deciding of controversies, and arbittement of all public affairs, and judicial causes are committed, (punishment of death only excepted.) The husbandmen employ themselves only in tilling, and manuring the ground; the increase whereof goeth in common to all. Out of the husbandmen there be ten elected by the Priests, which be most expert and industrious in husbandry, to be judges over the rest, aswell for the exhortation of others, in the art of husbandry, as for the distribution of their fruits. The shepherds likewise bring all their increase, as well of such things as appertain to sacrifices, as of all things else, to the public use, some by number, and some by weight: in doing whereof they be marvelous precise: and no one there possesseth any thing in private to himself, but only their houses and gardens: for the Priests receive all the custom and tribute-money, and all other things else whatsoever into their custody, making division thereof, as occasion requireth: whereof two parts is ever due unto themselves. The Panchaians' be clothed in soft garments; for the sheep of that country differ much from others in softness and fineness of wool, both men and women wear ornaments of gold, adorning their necks with chains, their hands with bracelets, their ears with ear-rings, like the Persians, and their feet with new shoes of divers colours. The soldiers are maintained only to defend the country from foreign invasions: the Priests live more sumptuously, and in far greater delights than others, wearing for the most part fine lightlinnen vestments down to the foot, and sometimes garments made of the best and purest wool.  
Upon their heads they have miters wrought and embroidered with gold: and in stead of shoes, sandals of divers colours, wrought very artificially. They wear ornaments of gold also (like women, excepting ear-rings) and be for the most part continually conversant about the service of their gods, reciting their worthy and memorable deeds, in laudes and hymns. They derive their pedigree from jupiter Manasses, alleging, that when he was conversant 
jupiter was banished into Panchaia.  with men, and governed the whole world, he was banished into Panchaia. The country abounds with gold, silver, brass, tin, and iron, of which it is not lawful to carry any out of the Island: neither is it tolerable for the Priests to stir out of their holy Temples; for if any of them be found abroad, it is lawful to kill them. Many oblations of gold and silver, which were long since offered and dedicated to their gods, they preserve in their temple, the doors whereof are of a very curious building, beset with gold, silver, and ivory. The bed for their god is all of gold, being six cubits in length, and four in breadth, and of a rare and wonderful workmanship: In like manner, the table for their god (which is placed near unto his bed) is equal unto it, both for state, quantity and cost. They have one great and magnificent temple, which is all erected of white stone, 
The great Temple in Panchaia  underset with great pillars, & carved columns, the length thereof is two acres, and the breadth answerable to the length: It is adorned with goodly Idols of their gods, composed and framed with admirable art and cunning. The Priests that have charge of the sacrifices, have their houses about the temple: and all the ground round about the temple, for the space of two hundred Stadia, is consecrated to the gods, and the yearly revenue thereof spent in sacrifices.   

Of Assyria, and how the Assyrians live. CAP. 3.  
ASsyria a country in Asia, is so called of Assur the son of Sem (as Saint Augustine is of opinion.) It is now called Syria, and hath upon the East, India, and part of Media, upon the West the river Tigris, Susiana upon the South, and the hill Caucasus on the North. They have seldom any rain in Assyria, but what grain soever the country affordeth, is obtained by the waterings and overflowings of the rivers, which they do not naturally of their own accords, as in Egypt, but by the labour and industry of the inhabitants: and yet by this overflowing the ground there is so exceeding fruitful, as it yieldeth two hundred, and in the most fertile soil, three hundredfold increase: the ears of their wheat and barley being four fingers in breadth, and their pulse and millet in height like trees. These things though they be certainly known unto them to be true, yet Herodotus would have them sparingly reported, and with good deliberation, as being scarce credible, especially if the relation be made to those which never saw them.  
They have great store of Dates, of which they make honey 
honey & wine made of dates.  and wine, they use boats in their rivers made in fashion of a round shield, not severed with foredeck and stern, 
The Assyrians boats.  as other boats be, but made (beyond the Assyrians in Armenia) of willow, or sallow tree, covered over with raw leather. The Assyrians wear two linen garments, one 
Their apparel,  hanging down to the foot, and the other short, over which they wear a white stole. Their shoes be such, as the Thebans were wont to wear: they suffer their hairs to grow long, and trim them with head-tires: when they go into public places, they anoint themselves with ointments: every one weareth a signet-ring on his finger, and a sceptre in his hand, in which is set an apple, a rose, or lily, or some such like thing: for they hold it base and undecent, to carry it without such a sign or cognisance in it.  
Of all their laws which were in force in that country, this seemeth most worthy to be remembered: That the maids, as soon as they were marriageable, were (once every 
Virgins that be marriageable be sold to their husbands.  year) brought into a public place, and there offered to be sold to such men, as had any disposition to marry: and first, the fairest and most beautiful virgins were set to sale, and after them, those which through defect of their beauties, or their bodies, were not only not vendible and marketable, but which no man would marry gratis, were married away with that money, the fair ones were sold for.  
Herodotus saith, that this custom was heretofore observed in Venice in the confines of Illiria (as he heard it credibly reported by others.) And Antonius Sabellicus in like manner affirmeth, that whether this custom be yet observed in that country, he is not very certain: But sure I am (saith he) that in Venice (which at this day for riches, is the most flourishing state of the world) amongst other good orders of their city, it was ordained, that bastard virgins that were gotten out of wedlock, and foundlings that were exposed and laid abroad to the adventures of the world, should be brought up in some close place, at the common charge of the city, and there instructed in some hard discipline, until they were marriageable, and that then those which were most beautiful, and well brought up, should be married without dowry, either unto such as had escaped some great peril, or some dangerous disease, or broken their vows: and that some Freemen also regarding their modesty and beauty, would marry them without dower, and ever those which were most beautiful, were married with less portion than the foul ones, although they were as well brought up as the other.  
An other law of the Babylonians being very profitable and worthy to be remembered was this, seeing they excluded 
A law excluding Physicians and how they cured the sick.  all Physicians from amongst them, it was ordained, that he which began to be sick, should ask council of those concerning his disease, that had suffered the like infirmity themselves, and that had tried some medicine for the recovery of their healths: some others write that their custom was to bring the sick persons into a public place, where the law commanded them, and that those which once had been sick themselves, and were recovered should go and visit the diseased persons, and teach them by what means they were cured.  
The Assyrians bewail the dead, as the Egyptians do: and when one hath lain with his wife all night, neither of them toucheth any thing before they have washed themselves. The custom heretofore amongst the Babylonians was, that the women would once in their life times lie with strangers, besides their husbands: the manner whereof was thus: They would come a great company of them together very reverently and solemnly unto the temple of Venus, each one having her head bound, and wreathed about with garlands, and then the stranger with whom she desired to lie, laid under his knee, as he kneeled in the Temple, such a sum of money as he thought fitting, which being consecrated to Venus, he leaveth behind him, & rising up, taketh the woman into a place a little distant from the Church, and there lieth with her: There were some families among the Assyrians which lived only upon fish, dried at the sun, and bruised in a mortar, which being moulded and laid together, & sprinkled with water, they made into lumps, like loaves, and drying them at the fire, used to eat them in steed of bread.  
They had three head officers amongst them, one of 
The officers amongst the Assyrians.  such as had been soldiers and were put to their pension: an other of the nobility and elders, and the King which was head over them all: They had their soothsayers likewise, which were called Chaldei, which were like unto the Priests of Egypt, and sacrificed to their gods: These Chaldei spent their whole lives in the study of Philosophy, they were great starre-mungers, and sometimes by their divinations, sometimes by their holy rhymes, they would defend men from misfortunes. They could truly and faithfully interpret Augurations, Dreams and Prodigies, not learning their instructions in such things of masters and tutors, as the greeks did, but receiving them from their parents as their inheritance. The children were taught and exercised in learning at home, that by the continual care of their parents, they might better profit themselves. They Chaldei were not variable and doubtful in their opinions of natural causes, as the greeks were, where every man was of a several mind, and every writer yielded reasons, repugning one an other, but they all by one general and uniform assent, supposed the world to be eternal, and that it neither had beginning, nor shall have end, and that the order and ornament of all things is established by a divine providence: That the Celestial bodies be not moved of their own accord, or by some accidentary motion, but by a certain law and immutable decree of some godhead: They mark by long observation the course of the stars, by whose speculation they prophesied of men's future fortunes: They imagined the planets to be of great power, and especially Saturn, supposing the sun to be of most beauty, and of greatest virtue, and that Mars, Venus, Mercury and jupiter, were to be observed more than the rest, for that they having each one his proper and peculiar motion, foreshowed things to come, and were the true interpreters of the gods: And of this they were so fully persuaded, as they called these four stars all by the name of Mercury: They foretold many things to come both wholesome and hurtful, by winds, showers, heat, comets, eclipse of Sun & Moon, earthquakes, and by sundry other signs and prodigies beside: And they imagined that there were other stars subject & inferior to these planets, of which some wandered in our Hemisphere, and some in that which is under us: besides this they held the like error that the Egyptians did, and feigned to themselves twelve gods, attributing unto each of them a month & a sign in the Zodiac: They prophesied of many things that should happen to their Kings, as foreshowing to Alexander the victory he should have in the fight with Darius: to Hircanor, Seleucus and to other successors of Alexander: and many things after that to the Roman successors, whose events proved true. They write also of four and twenty other stars, whereof twelve be beyond the Zodiac, towards the North, and the other twelve towards the South, of which, those which appear to our view, they suppose to have dominion over the living, and the other to pertain to those which be dead: These things & other circumstances have those Chaldeans set forth to men's sight, as they have noted by long observation, alleging that this their doctrine hath continued for the space of three and forty thousand years, from the first invention thereof to the reign of Alexander: which allegation of theirs were a very gross & impudent fable, unless we should interpret, that the time of each year were but a month, as was amongst the Egyptians.   

Of judaea and of the customs, laws and institutions of the jews. CAP. 4.  
PAlestine which is also called judaea, is a particular Province of Syria, situated 
The limits of Palestine.  betwixt, Caelosiria, and Arabia Petrea, upon the West it is washed with the Egyptian sea, and upon the East with the river of jordan: This land, the books of holy Bible, and josephus their imitator, called Canaan, a land abounding with many riches, as having 
judaea, or Palestine called also Canaan.  plenty of fruits, famous waters; and being well furnished with balm: It is situated in the very middle of the world, and is therefore very temperate, neither to hot nor to cold, which for the temperature of the elements the Israelites, or Hebreves (being a very ancient people, and with whom alone from the first Creation of mankind the knowledge and worship of the Heavenly and true God, and the first form of speech remained) esteemed to be that which was promised by God to their 
Canaan promised to Abraham and his seed.  father's Abraham, Isaac and jacob; a land flowing with milk and honey.  
And therefore in the fortieth year after the children of Israells' departure out of Egypt, under the conduct of their valiant captain josua; they obtained the dominion thereof by force of their arms vanquishing and expelling one and thirty Kings, which reigned in that 
The Israclites laws ordained by Moses.  Country: The Israelites retain, and live under those laws, which they received from Moses their first captain, & although for many ages before Moses days they lived without written law, with great devotion & sanctity, obtaining the truth by divine Oracles, and by the acuteness & magnanimity of their minds, and understandings, yet that great divine Moses, thought that no City could long continue in safety, without the practice of law and equity.  
And therefore when by rewarding the good, & punishing the wicked, he had sufficiently exhorted his people to embrace virtue and eschew vice, he proposed unto them other laws and civel ordinances, founded upon those ten chief heads and grounds of laws, pronounced by God himself in mount Sina, & written in two Tables; of which laws (being so many, as they alone would be sufficient matter to fill a whole volume) I will only touch those which be most worthy of remembrance, & they that desire to know the rest, let them read josephus & the books of the Bible.  
First Moses ordained, that young children as soon as 
Moses laws.  they were able to conceive, should be instructed in the laws, seeing they contained in them the best kind of discipline: That whosoever blasphemed the name of God, should hang all a whole day, & be cast out at night without burial: That no sacrifice should be solemnized with money gotten by whoredom: That there should be 7. chief governors in every city, which were most noted for justice & wisdom, & that two of the levitical Priests should sit in judgement with them, & if in discerning controversies, the judges would not condescend to that which was right, the whole matter should be decided by the discretion of the Priest & Elder: That the testimony of one man should not be currant to convince an other of any crime, nor yet of two, unless their honesties were approved, but the testimony of three should stand, and yet neither slave nor woman should be sufficient witness, because in one the baseness of his fortune, in the other the weakness and lightness of her sex, might rightly be suspected: that the fruit of trees new set or planted, should not be meddled withal before the fourth year, and that then they should pay for tithes the tenth part of the increase: That neighbours and strangers should have some part also, and that the residue should remain to him that planted them. That they should sow clean seed upon their grounds and not mingled, because the land would not like with seed of two sorts: That travelers should not be restrained and interdicted from fruits, but that they might gather as much as they pleased and their present necessity required, and that if they were ashamed to take it the owners should offer it unto them: That the woman that gained unlawfully, or married herself to an other, besides her lawful husband should not be regarded as a wife: That she that was supposed to be a Virgin, and was found defiled in her body with any man, and convicted of the crime, should either be stoned to death, or burned alive.  
If one deflowered a Virgin espoused to an other man, though she consented, yet both parties should suffer extreme punishment, and if he ravished her forcibly, that then only the author of the injury should be punished: That, if a man die and leave no children behind him, his widow should marry the brother of her deceased husband, and by that matrimony bring forth issue to succeed them in their stock: but if the brother refused to marry her, he should show the cause of his refusal before the elders, and if his cause were approved good, he should have liberty to marry whom he pleased: That they should bewail and lament for the dead, for the space of thirty days, and no more, which time he thought sufficient for a wise man to lament the loss of his friends: That the son which was injurious to his parents should be hanged without the City: That the enemy that was slain in battle should not want burial: That if a creditor receive a pledge or pawn of a poor man, he should restore it again before night: That if one buy one of his kindred as a slave, the bondservant should be free the sixth year after: That he that found gold or silver, should make proclamation thereof by the mouth of the Crier: That if cattle went astray, they should either be brought back to the right owner, or else kept till the right owner were known: That no Israelite should make or temper any poison, nor buy any that was made elsewhere: And that he which mingled poison, to the end to poison an other, being convicted of the offence should drink the same poison himself: That he which wilfully and wrongfully pulleth out an other man's eye, should be punished with the loss of an eye: That if a bull kill a man with his horn he should be stoned to death, and his flesh cast a-away and not eaten: That a thing committed to an other to keep, should be kept warily as a thing holy: That the son should not be punished for the father's offence, nor the sons offence be imputed as a fault in the father: And these were the domestical laws ordained by Moses, and in warfare these following: That before war were offerred, the goods wrongfully taken away should be demanded again, by Ambassadors and Heralds, and if they were not restored, that then (if they pleased) they might war lawfully: That the whole charge and government of the wars, should be committed to him that most excelled others in strength and wisdom: that the strongest soldier of all the camp should be sent as Ambassador: That if the enemy were besieged, their fruit trees should be spared, for the trees themselves (if they could speak) would certainly reprehend and reprove him that destroyed them. That the conqueror might kill all such as were rebels, but the rest which he overcame & vanquished should be made tributary and pay yearly pensions: That during the time of war no woman should touch her husband's privities, nor no man his wives: that it should be utterly prohibited for the Israelites to eat blood: That those which were either infected with leprosy, or which had caused any fluxure of their natural seed should be expelled the city.  
Menstruous women, in like manner, were kept out of the city, for seven days after the beginning of their disease, and might return in the eight: and so many days were they forced to absent themselves, that had their houses defiled and polluted with any dead body: That the Priest should sacrifice tow ewe Lambs for him whose natural seed flowed from him in his sheep, and that the party should be washed in cold water: and by the same sacrifice was he purged and hallowed that had lain with his wife at unlawful and prohibited times: That a woman after she was delivered of a child, if it were a man child, should be restrained from coming to the Church for the space of forty days, and if it were a woman child, for the space of eighty days.  
That he that supposed his wife to be unchaste should for a certain measure of barley meal called assarim, and, that then the wife being placed at the posts of the temple, should swear after the Priest, whether she had defiled her chastity or no; and if she swore false, she should die for it, having her right ham disjointed, and her womb putrefied, but if she were chaste and swore truly, she should be delivered of her child in the tenth month, without harm of her womb, and that then the Priest of God blotting out her name from out the schedule, should give her drink out of a pot with a wide mouth. That the pains of death should be inflicted for adultery, incest, and the sin of Sodom. That the Priest that was lame or weakened in his body, should be forbidden to ascend the Altar, and that he should be maintained notwithstanding with the holy oblations. That if the jews attained to the land of Chanaan, they should suffer their grounds to lie lea and unplowed every seventh year: that such fruits as the earth did naturally produce, should every fortieth year, (which was called the year of jubilee) be common, as well to strangers and foreigners, as to their own kindred; and that, in that year, money which was owing should be released and forgiven, slaves and bondmen made free and enfranchised, and possessions gotten with small cost, restored to their first owners. With these institutions and ordinances both for home and abroad did Morses instruct the Israelites, not long before his death, adding moreover a solemn prayer for the good success of those that observed and fulfilled his laws and ordinances, rightly, and as they ought, and bitter execrations, and curses against the transgressors and offenders thereof.  
And last of all, he bound the people with an oath, that they should for ever observe and keep those divine, and humane laws which he had instituted and ordained, and that if any one did violate them, they should not suffer him to go unpunished: And now seeing it is manifest that there was never any people more ceremonious and religious than the Israelites, I think it worth while, briefly to express the manner of their sacrificing, as it was first ordained.  
The jews had two sorts of sacrificing from the beginning, 
The manner of the jews oblations.  the one whereof was done by the better sort of people, and that they called Holocaustus (that is a sacrifice laid whole on the Altar) and was done in this manner, he which intended to do sacrifice either with Ox or Lamb, or what thing else he meant to offer (for the beast which he sacrificed must be a male beast, and of one year old,) brought the beast to the Altar, and then the Priest pouring forth and sprinkling the blood of the sacrifice upon the Altar, and cutting the oblation in pieces, burned it whole upon the Altar.  
The other sort of sacrificing, was for the common people, wherein they offered beasts of above a year old, the blood whereof being shed, and the kidnees, fat and suet, set on fire on the Altar, the hearts and right legs were given to the Priests, and the residue, they, for whom the sacrifice was solemnized, did eat within two days after. Those which were poor might offer two Pigeons, or two Turtle Doves, whereof the one served for a whole burnt sacrifice, and for the other, the Priests did cast lots. He which offended unawares, did sacrifice for satisfaction of that sin a Yew Lamb of an year old, or else a Kid, and those which were guilty of any secret fault in themselves, were (by the very letter of the law) to be purged by offering up a Ram. The flesh of which oblations, whether they were public or private, the Priests did eat in the Temple: one measure containing a peck of the finest flower, was allowed for the oblation of a Lamb, for a Ram two, and for a Bull three: There was also allowed Oil, which was powered upon the sacrifice: A Lamb was publicly sacrificed every morning and evening, and upon every seventh day, which was called their Sabbaoth, and which (by their law) they held most holy, there were double sacrifices offered upon their Altars: In the beginning of the month were offered for reconciliation, two Oxen, seven yearling Lambs, one Ram, and one Kid, to which were added two Kids more, the one whereof was sent out of the bounds of the City, and there offered as a satisfaction for the sins of the multitude, and the other was burned skin and all in the purest place of the suburbs of the City.  
The Priests gave a Bull sanctified for that purpose, and a Ram for a whole burnt sacrifice. There was also other sacrifices mingled with ordinary ceremonies, and holy days, such was the fifteenth day of the month (which the Macedons called Hyperueretheus:) and upon the return of Autumn, they fixed their Tents or Tabernacles, and keeping that day holy, offered yearly whole burnt offerings, the doers thereof upon the month Xanthicus, which is April, carried in their hands the boughs of Myrrh, Willow, Palms, and Peach tree; whereupon the year took his beginning upon the day of the full Moon, the sun then entering into the sign Aries.  
And because at that time the people of Israel were delivered out of the land of Egypt, they sacrificed the mystical Lamb, and celebrated the feasts of unleavened bread, or sweet bread, in the full Moon, some few days after: upon which days were ever burned, for a whole burnt sacrifice, two Bulls, one Ram, and seven Lambs, whereunto was added one Kid, for satisfaction for their sins: in the second day of Sweete-bread, were offered the first parts of their fruits, and a measure of Oil, and in the beginning or springing of their fruits, a Lamb for a whole burnt sacrifice. Their days of Penticost also were certain, which time they called Asarthan, that is to say Quinquagesima, or the fifteeths day: and then they offered leavened bread made of dry meal; two Ewe lambs, two Calves, and two Rams for a whole burnt offering, and two Kids in recompense of their misdeeds: The 
The opinion of Heathen writers concerning the jews.  Heathen writers disagree from the Ecclesiastical, concerning the jews, and Moses their Captain: for Cornelius Tacitus, in the one and twentieth Book of his diurnals, attributing the departing of that people out of the land of Egypt, not to God's divine will and power, but to necessity, writeth thus of them. The scab and noisome itch beginning in Egypt, saith he, Boch●ris the Egyptian King desired a remedy in the Temple of his god Hamon, where he was admonished to purge his kingdom, and to banish those people (meaning the jews) which were hateful to their gods, into other countries: Whereupon they being expulsed, and a great multitude of them which had the scab lest sitting together in waste and desolate places, most of them being almost blind with weeping, Moses, one of those which were banished among the rest, admonished them not to expect any help of gods, or men, but only to rely and commit themselves wholly to him as their guide and Captain, whereunto they assented and agreed, and so being utterly ignorant what would become of them, took their journey at adventures, wherein above other things they wanted water, and that they watching all night in the open fields, not far from destruction, saw a flock of wild Asses going from feeding, and sitting down upon a rock overgrown with thick woods, these Moses pursued and took, and thereupon and to the end that he might for ever be assured of that people, he gave unto them new laws and ceremonies, contrary to all other nations: for those things which we hold for holy, they account as profane, and allow of those things which with us are polluted.  
They hollowed and worshipped within their houses the picture of a beast, the sight whereof expelled both thirst and error, and sacrificed a Ram in despite of the god Hamon: they offer also an Ox in derision of the god Apis, which the Egyptians worship under the form of an Ox: They abstain from Swine's flesh for avoiding the scab, because that beast is dangerous for that disease.  
They rest upon the seventh day, because that day brought end to their labours: and yielding to slothfulness, the seventh year also is spent in Idleness, the honour whereof is by others attributed to Saturn, by reason of hunger and fasting: their bread is altogether unleavened: these laws how ever they were brought in, are there defended: and though mercy and firm faith are in great request amongst them, yet they carry deadly hatred against all other nations. They be separated in their banquets, and severed in their beds: They are much given to lust and yet they abstain from the company of women of other nations, but hold nothing unlawful amongst themselves.  
They ordained circumcision of their privities, that by that difference they might be discerned from others, and the first lesson they learn is to contemn the gods: The souls of those which were slain in battle or by punishment, they suppose to be eternal.  
They have the like regard of Hell and persuasion of Heavenly things: on the other side the Egyptians worship divers beasts and wrought Idols, but the jews in their hearts and minds acknowledge but one only God, accounting those profane which fain or portray the images of their gods in the form of men. These and many other things hath Cornelius Tacitus and Trogus in his 
Three sects of the jews,  seven and thirty book, written of the jews. Three sects of the jews were severed and distinguished one from another by their usual manner of living, which were the 
The pharisees,  Pharasies', the Sadducees and the Esseians: The Pharasies' lived very austerely and sparingly, instituting new traditions, by which they finished and abolished the traditions of Moses: They carried in their foreheads and upon their left arm certain frontlets and papers, wherein was written that decalogue, which the Lord said, thou shalt have, as it were, hanging betwixt thine eyes, and in thy hand, and these they called phylacteries of the Greek word Philatein, which signifieth to fulfil the law.  
These also fastened the edges of their vestures to the rest of their garments with thorns, that being pricked therewith as they went, they might remember God's commandments.  
They thought all things to be done by GOD and by destiny, and that to do or neglect things that were lawful and just, consisted in the will of man, but yet that in all things fate was a furtherer, whose effects they essteemed to proceed from the motion of the Heavenly bodies.  
They would never contradict their elders nor superiors: They believed the general judgement, that all souls were incorruptible, that only the souls of the good did flit and remove into other bodies, until the resurrection and last judgement, and that the souls of the wicked were detained and imprisoned in everlasting dungeons: and these were called pharisees, because in their habits and livings they differed from the common disposition of other men.  
The Saduces denied fortune and destiny, saying that 
The Saducees,  God saw all things, and that it was in the will of man to do either good or evil; they denied that the souls after this life suffered either punishment or pleasure: they denied also the resurrection of the dead, supposing their souls and bodies to perish together, nor did they hold that there were any Angels, and yet they received the five books of Moses; they were severe without measure and nothing sociable amongst themselves, for which severity they named themselves Saduces, that is to say just.  
But the Esseians lived altogether a monastical life, utterly 
The Esseians.  despising wedlock and the company of all women, not because they thought it fit by forbidding carnal copulation, to destroy the succession of mankind, but that they should beware of women's intemperance, suppo, sing no woman to be faithful & true to her husband. They had all things in common; ointments and baths they accounted a reproach, and esteemed a deformity in their trimming, to be an ornament unto them, so as they were always arrayed in white garments: they had no certain city, but dwellings in every place: They spoke no profane words before the sun rising, but prayed for his rising, and after that, worked unto the fifth hour, then washing their bodies in water, they eat together with few words: They accounted an oath as perjury, and allowed none to be of their sect under a years probation: and after the first years trial, when they were admitted, they tried their manners other two years also, in which time if they were found in any sin, they would drive them away from them, that eating grass like beasts, they might repent till their deaths. When ten of them sat together no one would speak if nine of them were unwilling, they would not spit in the middle, nor on the right side: They observed their sabbath so religiously, that upon that day they would not so much as purge their bellies: They carried with them a wooden Pickax, wherewith they digged a hole in the earth in some secret place to ease themselves in, and covered themselves diligently with their long garments, lest they should do injury to the divine lights, for which cause also they filled the hole again presently. They were long of life, by reason of the simpleness of their diet, for they lived for the most part with Dates, they had no use of money, and they adjudged that death the best which happened to a man for justice sake. They hold, that all souls were created from the beginning, and incorporated for a time in men's bodies, and that the good souls after they departed from the bodies, lived beyond the Ocean, where joy is reserved for them, and that the evil souls are assigned boisterous and stormy places towards the East: Some of them could foretell things to come, and some used the company of wives, but very moderately, for they supposed, that if they should altogether abstain from women, the whole stock of humane kind would perish. There dwell in Syria at this day greeks, which be called Gryphoni, jacobites, Nestorians, and Saracens, and two people of the Christian Religion, which be the Syriani and the Marovinis; the Syrians sacrifice as the greeks do, and were some times obedient to the Church of Rome, but the Marovinis agree with the jacobites, and use the same language and writing the Arabians do. These sundry sorts of holy men inhabit the hill Libanus, the Sarrasins dwell about jerusalem, they be valiant in war and expert in husbandry. The Syrians be unprofitable people, and the Marovines most valiant men, though they be few in number.   

Of Media, and of the manners of the Medes. CHAP. 5.  
MEDIA a region in Asia, is so called (as Solinus reporteth) of Medus the son 
Media, why so called.  of Medea, and Aegeus King of Athens, and the people thereof be called Medi: But josephus is of opinion, that they be called Medes of Medeus the son of japhet.  
This Region (according to Ptolomeus) is bounded upon the North with the Hyrcan sea, upon the West with the great Armenia, and Assyria, with Persia upon the South, and on the East with Hyrcania and Parthia. Their chiefest exercise, and which is almost peculiar to that nation, is shooting and riding: Their Kings in ancient time were of great authority, their head attires, their round caps, and their garments with sleeves, removed with the Empire and government unto the Persians. It was proper to the Median Kings to have many wives, which custom was shortly put in practice amongst private men, in so much as it was not lawful to have less than seven wives. In like manner it was thought fitting for women to have many husbands, and to have less than five they deemed a misery. The Medes make leagues and confirm friendship after the manner of the greeks, and also by striking their arms about the shoulder blade, and then to lick up each others blood. That part of Media which is towards the North, is barren, and therefore they make them a kind of paste of Apples, dried and bruised in mortars, bread of roasted Almonds, and wine of the roots of herbs, and live for the most part upon the flesh of wild beasts.   

Of Parthia, and the manner of living of the Parthians. CAP. 6.  
THe Parthians which were banished out of Scythia, and obtained this country 
The confines of Parthia.  by deceit, called it after their names Parthia: It hath upon the South Carmania, on the North Hyrcania, on the West Media, and Aria on the East: The country is full of woods and hills, and very barren of fruits: The people during the time the Medes and Assyrians possessed the Empire, were accounted base and of no credit nor estimation, but when the kingdom of Media was translated to the Persians, this people also as a barbarous nation without name, was a prey unto the vanquishers, and lastly became subject to the Macedonians: but in tract of time they grew of such virtue and valour, and were so prosperous and successful in their designments, that they governed not only the countries near adjoining, but making war against the romans, (which then were conquerors of all Countries,) overthrew them with great destruction and slaughter of their men. Pliny reckoneth fourteen kingdoms under 
Fourteen kingdoms under the Parthians.  the government of the Parthians: Trogus attributeth unto them the Empire of the East, as if they had made division of the whole world with the romans: This people after their revolting from the Macedonian Empire, were governed by Kings, which were all called Arsaces of Arsax their first King, next unto the Majesty of their Kings was the order and government of the people, out of which were elected both Captains for the wars, and Governors in time of peace.  
They have a mixed language borrowed of the Medes and Scythians, and compounded of them both: at the first their habits were answerable to their ability, and after their own country fashion, but waxing richer, they were as curiously clothed as the Medes, their weapons were after the custom of their own country, and like unto the Scythians.  
Their armies consist not of freemen, as in other nations, but for the most part of slaves, which sort of base people do daily increase, for they be all bondmen borne, and no power of manumission permitted them, yet be they brought up with as great care and industry as if they were freemen, and taught both to ride and shoot, and every one, as he is in riches, traineth up and setteth forth with the King, when he goeth into the wars a great company of horse men according to his ability, in so much as when Antonius made wars upon the Parthians, and the Parthians encountering him with fifty thousand horsemen, there were not found in all that whole troop above eight hundred freemen: They cannot endure the single combat, nor to remove the assault from Cities besieged, but their chiefest fight is with their horses running forward, or turning backward, and sometimes also they feign themselves to fly, that thereby they may wound those which unwarily pursue them: The sign of battle is not given them with a trumpet, but with a Timbrill, or Drum, neither can they endure long fight, for surely they were not to be resisted, if their courage and continuance were answerable to the assault and first brunt of the battle, and oftentimes they will leave the battle in the very heat of the conflict, and shortly after return again and begin a fresh, so as when the enemy thinketh himself most secure, he is oftentimes in greatest danger: The munition for their horsemen are Brigandines, or coats of mail embroidered, and with such be their horses harnessed likewise. In times past they had no other use of silver nor gold then in their weapons: All of them have many wives, being moved thereunto with the pleasure of the variety of women, nor is there a more grievous punishment for any offence, then for adultery, and therefore they forbid their wives not only to banquet with other men, but even the very sight of them also. There be some of opinion, whereof Strabo is one, that if the Parthians cannot beget children of their wives themselves, they will give them in marriage to their friends, thereby to raise them issue to succeed them. They eat no other flesh but what they get by hunting, and they be ever carried on horseback, for they ride to their banquets, they buy and sell, confer together, and execute all public and private offices on horseback. And this difference in the dignities and degrees of the people is very singular and worthy to be noted, that those which be of a servile and base condition, go ever on foot, but the better sort of people and freemen ride continually.  
The flesh of their dead bodies instead of burial is commonly rend in pieces and devoured, either of birds or dogs, and they cover the bones, when they be bare, with earth. They have their gods in great reverence and regard: they be of a haughty and proud disposition, seditious, deceitful, and malapert, and very violent in all their actions, but yet women be somewhat more courteous than men, they be always busied either in external or civil broils: They be naturally slow of speech, and far more apt for action then utterance. They will neither brag of their prosperity, nor despair in adversity: they obey their Princes for fear, not for shame; they be much given to lust, and of a sparing diet, and there is no trust nor confidence to be reposed in their words nor promises, but so far as is expedient and behoveful for themselves.   

The manners and customs Of Persia, and of the manners, laws, and ordinances of the Persians. CHAP. 7.  
PERSIA a country in the East, is so called of Persis the son of jupiter and 
The Confines of Persia, and why so called.  Danaé, of whom also Persepolis the Metrapolitan and chief City of that nation, taketh his name, and the people thereof be called Persians: This country (as Ptolomeus writeth in his fifth book) is bounded on the North with Media, on the West with Susiana, on the East with the two Carmania's, and on the South with the Persian sea. Their chief towns were Aximia, Persepolis and Diospolis. The Persians believe in Heaven, and in jupiter: they have the Sun also in great veneration, whom they call Mitra, and worship the Moon, Venus, the Fire, Earth, Water, and winds, as gods and goddesses: They have neither Temples, Sanctuaries, nor Idols, but do their sacrifices 
The Persian gods.  without doors, in some high place, with great reverence and devotion, having the host for sacrifice brought to the Altar, with a crown or garland on his head: they sacrifice to their gods nothing else but the heart of the oblation, neither do the gods (as they suppose) require more at their hands, and yet the custom of some in that country is, to put the entrails of the sacrifice into the fire also: when they sacrifice, they make a fire of dry wood, the bark or rind being first pulled of, and then casting upon the wood some sweet tallow or suet, and infusing a little oil thereon, set it on fire, not blowing with their mouths but with bellows, for if any presume to blow the fire with his mouth, or throw therein any dead carcase, or any other filthy thing, he dieth for it. The Persians neither wash themselves in water, nor piss, nor spit into it, nor throw any dead carcase into it, nor profane it any other kind of way, but worship it most religiously, and that in this manner. When they come to a lake, river, or brook, they make a little ditch or pond, severed from the other water, and there they kill the sacrifice, having special regard that none of the other water be touched with the blood, lest all should be polluted: this done, and the flesh laid upon a myrtle or laurel tree, the Priests or Magis make a fire with little twigs, and therewith burn the sacrifice till it be consumed, and then sprinkling and infusing it with oil mingled with milk and honey, they pray for a long space together, not to the fire, nor water, but to the earth, holding in their hands all the while a bundle of Myrtle rods. They create their Kings out of one family, and he which is not obedient unto the King, hath his head and arms cut off, and is cast out without burial. Polycritus reporteth, that all the Persian Kings have their houses builded upon hills, and that there they hide all the treasure, and tribute which they exact of their subjects, for a monument 
The Persians create their Kings all of one family.  of a well governed state: And that of the people that dwell upon the sea coast, they exact silver, and from the inhabitants of the middle part of the land, such other commodities as the country affordeth, as colour, medicines, wool, or such like, and sometimes cattle also: It is not lawful for the King to put any man to death for one only cause, nor for one Persian to commit any heinous offence against another of his own family or kindred: The Persians have many wives a piece, and keep diverse concubines beside, for increase of issue, and the King's reward those most liberally, that have begot most children in a year, nor be their children once brought into their father's sight, before they be five years of age, but all that while are brought up with their mothers, chiefly for this cause, that if any of them in those years of education, should miscarry and die, their loss should be no grief or molestation to the father. They celebrate their marriages all at one time of the year, that is, in the vernal Aequinoctium, and the Bridsgroom eateth nothing the first night he lieth with his wife, but an Apple or the marrow of a Camel. The Persian children from the first year of their age to the four and twentieth, practise nothing but riding, shooting, throwing the dart, and chiefly to learn to speak the truth. Their schoolmasters are men of great continency and severity, and such as sometimes in rhyme, sometimes in prose, rehearse unto them (for their instructions) tales and histories, containing the commendations of their gods, and the deeds of worthy men. They have a place appointed them to practise in, whether they are summoned by the sound of some wind instrument at usual hours, and their teachers are often demanded and examined by others, how their children do profit. They practise running also, choosing one of the Prince's sons to be their Captain and guide, & the field wherein they run their races, is at the least thirty stadia in length, and that they may the better endure both heat and cold, they often exercise themselves in swimming and wading over great waters, insomuch as they will eat their meat and go about their husbandry, and other business, with weapons in their hands, and wet garments on their backs: their meat is the gum, or turpentine that issueth out of Fir trees, Acorns and wild Pears, but that which they usually eat after their running & other exercises of their bodies, is a kind of heard bread, and salt herbs called garden Cresses, and flesh either broiled or boiled, and their usual drink is water: They hunt always on horseback with darts, bows and slings. In the forenoon they either plant trees, dig up roots, make weapons, or practise fishing: their children be addorned with gold and many other dainties. The stone Pyropus (which is a kind of Carbuncle stone of a fiery redness) is with them in great estimation, & therefore they apply it not to any dead body, nor yet the fire, for the great honour & reverence they yield unto it: from the twentieth year unto the fiftieth, they be soldiers and follow the wars: they have no use of pleading, neither do they buy or sell any thing: They be armed in the wars with a kind of target in form of a wheel, and besides their quiver of arrows they have weapons called sangars, and short swords, caps with high crowns, and on their breasts rough breastplates full of scales: The Princes wear a kind of garment that is three double about their shoulders, and coats with sleeves hanging down to their knees, the outside whereof is of divers colours and the lining white: In the Summer time, the Persians be clothed in purple, and in winter in changeable colours: The head attires for their Priests or Magis be like unto Bishop's mitres: The common people be clothed with two coats, hanging down to the middle of their legs, and a great bundle of linen cloth bound about their heads: Their beds and pots be trimmed with gold & silver: They consult of no serious matter but when they be half drunk, esteeming that consultation to be more firm than that which is with sobriety, & deliberation; kinsmen & equals salute one an other with a kiss, & the base sort of people reverence their betters by bowing their bodies unto them.  
They bury their dead bodies in the earth, anointing them first with wax, but their Priests or wisemen they cast out without burial to be devoured of birds; their custom was also for sons to lie with their own mothers, and these in times past were the manners and customs of the Persians. Herodotus also reciteth more of their manners, very worthy of remembrance: as, that it was held a horrible and heinous offence, to laugh, or spit before the King: That they scoffed at the greeks, who were of opinion that the gods took their original from men: That whatsoever was unlawful to be done, was by them thought unfitting to be spoken: That it was a vile thing to be in debt, but to lie was most abominable: That they did not bury their dead bodies, before they were pulled in pieces by dogs, and (which in the opinion of other nations was thought most absurd) that parents being brought to poverty, might get money by being Panders to their own daughters, which custom was allowed amongst the Babylonians also.  
The Persians at this day being overcome by the Sarrasins, and infected with the madness of Mahomet, live altogether in darkness: It was once a warlike nation, and had for a long space the government of the East: but now for want of excercise in arms, it faileth much of his ancient glory.   

Of India, and of the monstrous and prodigious customs and manner of living of the people of India. CAP. 8.  
INDIA, a Country in the East, and the utmost bound of all Asia, is so vast and 
The description and bigness of India.  large a country, as it is thought to be the third part of the whole world: Pomponius writeth, that it is as much in compass by the sea shore as a ship will sail in forty days and forty nights with a full wind: It is called India of the river Ind, where it finisheth his course upon the West part, and beginning at the meridional sea, stretcheth out unto the uttermost part of the East, extending Northward to the hill Caucasus: It containeth sundry sorts of people, and hath such great abundance of Cities, and walled towns 
Five thousand Cities and 〈◊〉 walled towns in India.  therein, as some are of opinion, that there is no fewer than five thousand, nor may it seem strange, that it hath so great numbers of people and Cities, considering that the Indians of all other people never departed from their native soil. The most famous rivers in that Country are Ganges, Indus and Hypanis, but the greatest of them is the river Ganges: The Country by reason of the Western winds is most wholesome: they have two harvests in the year, and the wind bloweth Easterly all winter: wine they have none, although there be that affirm, that the Musican soil yieldeth some wine: in the South part of India is great store of Narde, Cinnamon, Pepper and Sugar-cane, as in Arabia, and Aethiopia: It produceth Ebon-trees, Parrots and Unicorns: and aboundeth with precious stones, as Berrils, Chrysophases, Adamants, Carbuncles, Lychnites, Pearls and Unions: There be two summers, as it is said: the winds be gentle and calm, and the air temperate: they have plenty of ground and abundance of water, & therefore some of them, & namely the Musicans, live till they be a hundred and thirty years of age, & the people called Seres be longer lived than they: All the Indians wear long locks, and coloured, either 
The long lives of the Jndians.  blue or yellow. Their trimming is for the most part with precious stones, and they be not clothed all alike, but some in woollen and some in linen garments: some go altogether naked, some cover only their privities, and many of them have for their apparel the barks or rinds of trees, made flexible and bending towards their bodies: Their bodies, for the most part be black, for by the disposition of the seed generative, they be of such how in their mother's wombs, as those be which begot them, & their seed of generation is black like the Aethiopians: they be tall of stature and very hardy & valorous: they be very frugal & thrifty in their living: They be curious in their apparel as I have said, & abstain greatly from theft: they use no written 
The Jndians have neither written laws nor learning.  laws, nor know any letters, but administer all things by help of their memories: and by reason of their simple and thirsty manner of living, all things succeed very prosperously with them: They drink no wine but in their sacrifices, for their usual drink is made of rice and Barley, and their meat for the most part is thin Rycepottage: That there is great simplicity in their covenants, and contracts, may well be gathered by this, that the people be not litigious nor given to quarreling, for they have no laws to recover a thing committed or left in an other man's keeping, neither do they need witnesses or seals, but credit one an other simply without intent of fraud or guile. In so much as they will leave their houses when they go abroad with the doors open and no body in them: All which be manifest signs that they be marvelous just and continent: no man there may be admitted to live alone, & to dine and sup when he pleaseth himself, but they ought to eat and drink all at one hour, for such things they conjecture do best dispose them to social & civil conversation. They excercise their bodies by rubbing them with combs made of sweet wood for the purpose, & addorne themselves with Ebon-wood: In making their tombs and sepultures, they be very sparing, and in their apparel marvelous costly and curious, for besides gold, precious stones & very fine linen cloth, or cambric, wherewith they be arrayed, they carry about with them fans or shadows, to preserve their beauties from the sun. For they are so desirous to seem fair, as they do all things that appertain to the beautifying of their faces: truth & virtue are with them much esteemed, and they yield no more honour to old men then to others, unless they excel others in wisdom: They have many wives, some whereof they buy of their parents for a yoke of oxen, some they marry for obedience sake, some for cause of procreation, & some for pleasure and voluptuousness, and unless their husbands enforce them to live chaste, it is lawful for them to play the harlots at their pleasure: No Indian doth sacrifice or burn incense with a garland upon his head, neither do they cut the throats of the sacrifices, but strangle them to death, that their offerings to their gods may be whole and not maimed: he that is convicted of false witness bearing, hath the utmost joints of his fingers cut off, & he which depriveth an other of any member, is not only punished with loss of the like member, but hath his hand cut off beside, and to deprive an artificer of hand or eye is death: the body of their King is committed to the keeping of hireling women, who only have 
Their Kings are committed to the keeping of women.  the custody and charge of him, & none else do ever come into his presence, and if any of these women kill the King when he is drunk, for her reward, she shall marry his successor, and their sons do ever succeed them in their Kingdoms: It is not lawful for the King to sleep in the daytime, and he is constrained to change his lodging at certain hours in the night, for fear of treason. If he be not in camp, he oftentimes goeth abroad, and sitteth in judgement and heareth causes: and if it be at such a time as his body is to be rubbed with a rubbing comb, he hath three to rub his body and heareth causes all the while: He issueth forth also sometimes to do sacrifice, and sometimes to hunt, and then he is compassed about, and enclosed with a great troop of women, after the manner of Bacchus, his guard remaining without the Court gate, and the way into the house is covered with cords, and snares, and if any one offend with any of the women which stay at home, he shall die for it: The King when he hunteth hath going before him, drum's, timbrils and little bells, and when he hunteth in parks and enclosed grounds, he is assisted with two or three women armed, and when in forests and open fields, he shooteth from an Elephant: some of the women ride in chariots, some on horseback, and some on Elephants & in that manner they make wars: also they be exercised in all kind of weapons, but therein they much differ from our women. There be some writers that affirm that the Indians worship shewry jupiter, the river Ganges, and the spirits of men deified, and that when the King washeth or shaveth his beard, they celebrate that time very solemnly, and sending great gifts, strive one to an other, who shall show the greatest pomp, ioylity and magnificence: The whole people of India were heretofore 
The people of India once divided into seven orders.  divided into seven orders, the first whereof was the order of Philosophers, who though they were fewest in number, yet in honour and dignity with their Kings, they excelled all others: These Philosophers were freed from 
The first was the order of Philosophers.  all labours, they served no man, nor were served of others, and for that they were beloved of the gods, they received of private men all things necessary for them to do sacrifice, and to bury the dead bodies: There were great Prophesiers and necromancers, and therefore had many gifts and honours bestowed upon them, for that by their knowledge the Indians received great commodity, for they would assemble themselves together in the beginning of the year, and then foretell of drought, rain, winds and diseases, and other accidents, the knowledge whereof was exceeding profitable unto the people, so as both the King & people hearing what occurrents were likely to happen that year, might thereby the rather avoid future evils, & follow such courses as by probability might prove good, and no other punishment was inflicted upon any of those Philosophers that prophisied falsely, but only that he was put to perpetual silence: The second order is of husbandmen, 
The second order of husbandmen.  which are the greatest in number, and be freed from the wars, and from all other employments whatsoever, and bestow there whole time only in tilling the ground: no enemy doth either wrong them, or rob them, but esteeming them to be ever busied for their common good, sorbeare to do them any injury or damage, by which means the husbandmen, living void of fear, and tilling the land in security, their labours yield them great plenty of increase: they come not at all into the Cities, but live altogether in fields with their wives and children; They pay tribute unto their Kings (for all India is governed by Kings) and it is not lawful for any private person to possess any grounds without tribute, and besides this tribute they yield unto their Kings the fifth part of the increase of all their fruits.  
The third order consisteth of shepherds of all sorts, which live neither in Cities nor villages, but in tents and 
The third order is of shepherds.  tabernacles, and practise hunting and fowling, whereby the country is free and safe both from ravenous birds and wild beasts, for by this excercise they make all India more civil, abounding otherwise with many and divers sorts both of birds and beasts, which would be much hurtful to the husbandman: Artificers supply the forth 
Artificers the fourth order.  place, whereof some are occupied in making weapons and armour, some in making instruments for husbandry, and some in providing things necessary for themselves: these be not only free from tribute, but have all their bread corn allowed them by the King.  
Soldiers be the fifth in order, but the second in number, they be exercised in all manner of warlike discipline, 
The fifth of of soldiers.  and be wholly devoted to arms, and both they their Horses and Elephants, be wholly maintained at the King's cost and charge.  
The sixth order is of Tribunes, or Protectors of the commons: Whose special office is to spy and inquire, 
Tribunes in the sixth order.  what things are done throughout all India, and to make report thereof unto the King.  
In the seventh rank be those which be of the common 
The common Council the seventh order.  Council, they be the fewest in number, but in Nobility and understanding they exceed all the other Orders: out of this Order be elected the King's Councillors, which are to govern the commonwealth, and to discern and judge in doubtful matters: Princes moreover, and captains are chosen out of this company. The commonwealth of India being thus distributed into these seven Orders, it is not lawful for a man of one Order, to marry a wife out of another Order: neither is it lawful for any one to alter his function; as for a soldier to become a husbandman, or for an artificer to play the Philosopher. There be also certain Precedents or head Officers appointed amongst the Indians, to defend and protect aliens and strangers from injury, and oppression: and these (if any strangers be sick) are to procure Physicians to cure them, and if they die, they must bury them, and give their money and goods to their nearest friends: The judges determine controversies, and punish offenders: there be none of the Indians of servile condition; for it is ordained by a law, that none of 
No slaves amongst the Jndians.  them shall be servants; and so all being freemen, are worthy of equal right and honour, so long as they neither go about to excel others, nor to injure any man, but settle themselves to endure all chances of fortune alike. For it seemeth a ridiculous thing, that laws should be ministered to all alike, and that their fortunes should not be alike also.  
But now because there be sundry sorts of people in India, which by reason of the spaciousness and large extent of the Country, differ both in form and language: all of them therefore do not live in that civil manner, as I have here declared.  
but some are of a more barbarous and rude behaviour, of which sort some be situated towards the Sunrising, and be much given to breeding cattle, or other such like course of life: and some live altogether in moorish grounds, and feed on raw fishes, which they take by going out in boats made of Canes or Reeds, that be so great, that a boat is made of the space that is betwixt two joints of the reed. These Indians wear garments made of flags or sedge, that groweth in rivers, which they plate together, and make in fashion of a mat, and wear them as an armour for their bodies.  
Next unto these Eastward, be certain Indians, which 
The Padae kill their friends when they be sick.  be herdsmen, or breeders of cattle, and be called Padae, they feed on raw flesh, and are said to live in this manner: when any citizens, either man, or woman is sick, their most nearest and familiar friends kill him, alleging, that his languishing in sickness would make his flesh corrupted and unwholesome for those which should eat it: and although he deny himself to be sick, yet they will not pardon him, but kill him forth with, and feed upon him: and in such manner as men are used by men, be women that be sick dealt withal by women, that be their nearest friends: And such also as live in health till they be old, be then killed and eaten by their friends: and therefore, both for this cause, and for that they be killed when they be sick, there be very few of them that live till they be old. Another sort of Indians have a custom different from those which I have spoken of, for they kill no creature, they neither sow nor plant, nor provide houses, but live only by herbs: They have a certain grain much like unto millet, which naturally springeth out of the earth in a husk or cod, which they gathering, cod and all, boil them and eat them: when any of them falls sick, he goeth into some desert place, and there lieth down, and whether he languish or die, no one regardeth him: and also these Indians which I have spoken of, accompany with women in the sight of all people, after the manner of beasts.  
In India be certain Philosophers called Gymnosophists, 
The Cymnosophists.  which (as Petrarch writeth) inhabit the uttermost and shady parts of the region, and going ever naked, which is the cause they be so named. And wandering all abroad in the wilderness, do there teach Philosophy: abiding in one place from the sun-rising, till his going down, ever fixing their eyes, and beholding the circle of the brightest star: seeking out some secrets in the fiery globe. They will stand upon their feet all day long, upon the hot sands, without show of any grief at all, patiently enduring both the cold of the snow, and the heat of the Sun.  
Amongst whom be people called brahmin's; who (as Didimus their king writ to Alexander king of Macedon, when he was minded to make war upon them) do live very uprightly and simply. They be not alured with delectations of any novelties, nor desire any thing else, but what the law of nature enforceth them: their diet is nothing dainty, not such as to satisfy their luxury, is sought out in all places, but such as the earth produceth without labour or toil furnisheth their tables with wholesome and unhurtful diet, by which means they be very healthful, and unacquainted with the names and nature of sundry diseases. No one imploreth help of another, where no one liveth to himself, but all in common. They have no superior, but be all equals, and therefore void of envy and emulation: for the equality of poverty maketh them all rich: condennations they have none, because they do nothing worthy of correction: nor be they led by any law, for that they commit no crimes: only this one law is general to them all, not to transgress the law of nature, which nourisheth labour and industry, exerciseth no avarice, and flieth idleness: They give not their bodies to lust, thereby to weaken them, and they possess all things they desire not, esteeming covetousness to be a plague and scourge most cruel, which impoverisheth all those she layeth hold on, and finding no end of obtaining, the more rich she groweth, the more is her beggary. The Sun yieldeth them heat, the dew moisture, the rivers assuage their thirst, and the earth affordeth them beds; where cark and care approach not near their couches, nor be their minds wearied or vexed with vain cogitations. Pride hath no power amongst them, being all men of one condition: nor is any one oppressed with other bondage, but only this, that their bodies prostrate themselves to do service to their souls. They make neither lime nor brick wherewith to build them houses, but rather choose to inhabit in holes digged in the earth, or under the hollowness of hills, where they neither fear force of winds, nor rage of tempest: but suppose that the coverings of houses are not so sure a defence against showers, as their holes, whereof they have a double use; for they serve them for houses while they live, and for burial when they die. Costly apparel they have none, but cover their members with rushes, or to speak more truly, with shamefastness. Their women be not adorned to please others, neither do they affect more beauty than they be borne with: the men accompany with women, not for lust, but for love of increase.  
They have no war, but continual peace, which is confirmed not by force, but by friendship: the father followeth not his son to his sepulchre, nor is there any monuments made for the dead, nor the ashes of their burned bodies enclosed in costly coffins, which things they account as a punishment, not as an honour unto them.  
These brahmin's (as is said) be not oppressed with any pestilence or other diseases, because they defile not the air with their beastlike acts: but with them, nature is ever agreeable to the season, and the Elements hold on their course without offence: a sparing and moderate diet is their purest Physic, which is a ready medicine, not only to cure, but to prevent all diseases whatsoever. Pastimes and Interludes they affect not, but when they would view any spectacle, they remember the monuments of things done, and bewail them as most ridiculous.  
They be not delighted (as many of us be) in old wives tales, but in the goodly order of the frame of the world, and the disposition of natural things: they have no traffic into other Countries, nor do they study the art of Elo quence and Rhetoric, but have one simple and common Dialect amongst them, teaching them only to speak the truth. They frequent neither Court nor Schools, whose doctrine, being repugnant, defineth nothing certain and stable. Some of these people account honesty their Summum bonum, and some pleasure. They kill no harmless beast to perform their divine Ceremonies, saying, that God accepteth not of sacrifices made with the blood of things polluted, but that he is rather delighted in the unbloody sacrifice, and appeased by prayer, for they hold that God is like men in this, to be delighted in his own likeness.  
In India also be a people called Catheae, the men 
The people called Cathiae.  of that country have many wives, who (when their husband is dead) appeal to the judgement of certain grave judges, and plead their deserts towards their deceased husbands, and she that by the sentence of the judges is approved to have been most officious and dear to her husband in his life time, goes away rejoicing at her conquest, and attiring herself in her best apparel, ascendeth the pile, and layeth herself down by the body of her husband, embracing and kissing it, and contemning the fire, (when it is put to the pile) in respect of her chastity, she is there, with the carcase of her dead husband consumed to ashes, and all the other wives survive with shame and infamy. Their children be not brought up in their infancy according to the will of their parents, but at the discretion of such as are publicly enjoined to that business, who by their office are to look into their features and dispositions, and if any be found slow or dulspirited in their nonnage, or decrepit or weak in any part of their bodies, they suffer them to live no longer, but kill them outright. They marry their wives, not by wealth or Nobility, but by beauty: and not so much for pleasure, as for procreation of children.  
In some part of India is a custom used, that those that are not able, by reason of poverty, to place their daughters in marriage, should bring them in the prime and flower of their age into the common marketplace, playing before them with pipes, and other instruments of music, where the multitude being summoned and assembled together the maid coming near unto them, first uncovereth the hinder part of her body, up to the shoulders, and after that the forepart, and then if any one conceiveth liking of her, she is given him in marriage. Megasthenes writeth, that upon certain hills in India, be a manner of people with heads like dogs, armed and fenced with nails, and 
Monstrous and prodigious people.  clothed with beasts hides: they have no human voice, but a sound like the hoarse snarling or barking of dogs. Those which live about the river of Ganges, eat no meat at all, but live only by the smell of wild apples. And when they travel into other places remote, they take of those apples with them, that the smell of the apples may preserve their lives: but if at any time their bodies receive any noisome or stinking air, they die instantly: and some of these people were said to live in Alexander's camp. We read of some people in India that have but one eye, and of othersome that have such long ears, as they hang down to their heels, and that they may lie down and enfold themselves in either of their ears, by the hardness whereof they pull up trees by the roots: that there be some also that have but one foot, and that so broad, as when they lie with their faces upwards, the shadow of their foot defendeth them from the heat of the Sun. You may read in Ctesias the Cnidian Physician, of certain women, that bring forth children but once in their life time, and that their children's heads become hoary or grey, as soon as they be borne: and that there is a kind of people whose hairs be hoary or grey in their youth, and wax black in their age, and yet they live longer than we do. It is said also, that there is another sort of women, which bring forth children when they be five years of age, and live not above the age of eight years. There be some people that have no necks, and have their eyes in their shoulders, and besides those which I have already spoken of, there be certain wild people living in woods, with heads like dogs, and their bodies covered with rough hair like bristles, and make a very hideous and terrible noise: but these things and others of like kind, which are spoken and written of India, and of the sundry sorts of people therein, (because he that should give credit unto them, behoved to be of a very strong belief) are to be reported more sparingly, lest those which read foreign writings, should be more nice, unless they be moved thereunto with great earnestness, to give credit to those things, which are in a manner apparent before our eyes.  
The Cathaeians do now inhabit that part of India, which 
The Cathaeians  lieth betwixt Gedrosia, and the river Indus, which by them is now called Cathaia. The people be of the Scythians race, in whom may be perceived great alteration of manners, from that the Scythians were in the beginning, if all be true which Armenius Aitonus reported of them in his History: For (saith he) they be very wise, and report of themselves, that of all men they only see and discern with two eyes, and that all other people be altogether blind, or of one eye at the least. The quickness of their wits is great indeed, but their boasting and ostentation is greater.  
They be generally persuaded, that they excel all men in the subtlety and knowledge of arts: they be naturally white and pale of complexion, with little eyes and no beards, they use letters in form like unto the Roman letters: some of them be blinded in the folly of one superstition, and some in another; but all be void of the true religion: for some adore the Sun, some the Moon, some Idols made of metal, and many of them an ox: through which diversity of false worshipping, monstrous superstition is dispersed throughout the whole nation. They have no written laws, nor know not what faith is, and though they show great wit in their works, yet have they no knowledge thereby of divine matters. They be a timorous kind of people, and fear death greatly, yet they make wars, but it is with more policy than fortitude. They use darts in their wars, and other sorts of weapons, which to people of many other nations be unknown. They have paper money foursquare, and stamped with the King's Image, which when it waxeth old, they change with the king for coin that is new stamped: their household stuff is of gold, silver, and other metal. They have very little oil, and with that the kings do only use to anoint themselves. And thus much of the Indians, now will we speak of the Scythians, which be next unto the Indians.   

Of Scythia, and of the barbarous manners of the Scythians. CAP. 9  
SCythia, a country in the North, was so 
Scythia, why so called.  called of Scytha, the son of Hercules, (as Herodotus reports:) but according to Berosus, it was so called of another that was begotten of Scythia, of old Araxis, who was the wife of Noa. These people at their first original possessed but a small portion of ground, but afterwards by their virtue and valour, increasing by little and little, and subduing many nations, they obtained in the end great glory and government: for first they being few in number, and contemned for their baseness, contained themselves about the river Araxis, but after they had gotten them a valiant Prince to be their king, they amplified their possessions: so as now they enjoy all the uplandish, and hilly Countries, unto Caucasus, and all the champion ground unto the Ocean, and Maeotis pool, and other places even to the river of Tanais; from whence Scythia stretcheth out in length towards the East, the hill Imaus lying in the middle, and dividing it into two parts, maketh thereof as it were two Scythias, whereof one is called Scythia within the hill Imaus, the other, Scythia without Imaus.  
The Scythians were never invaded, or at the least never vanquished by any foreign government: for they forced Darius' king of Persia most shamefully to retire and fly from Scythia: they killed Cyrus with all his host, they overthrew the Captain of Alexander the Great, with all his Company: and as for the Romans, they might well hear of them, but they never felt their forces. The people be of great strength of body, and very rude both in their wars and works.  
The Scythians at the first were not distinguished into Companies, nor severed one from another, for that they neither possessed any grounds, nor had any seats or houses to dwell in, but wandered through wilderness and desert places, driving their flocks and herds of beasts before them, and carrying their wives and children with them in carts. They were subject to no law, but lived justly one with another of their own accords, and no offence throughout their whole nation was accounted more heinous than theft, because their cattle lay abroad in all men's sight, not enclosed with walls or hedges. They used neither gold nor silver: milk and honey was their usual meat: they defended their bodies against the extremity of cold with the skins of mice or rats, and other wild beasts. And the use of wool and woollen garments was unknown unto them.  
This was the manner of living of most of the Scythians, but not of all: for many of them, as they be far distant from others in dwellings, so be they as different in their manner of living, as maintaining customs peculiar to themselves; of which hereafter we will relate in particular: for as yet we shall speak of such customs as be general to them all.  
Most of the Scythians delight in human slaughter, for 
The Scythians delight in human slaughter  the first man a Scythian taketh in the wars, his blood he drinketh, and of all those which he slayeth in battle, he presenteth the heads to the King: for the heads being cut off, how ever he took them, he shall be partaker of the prey, but not otherwise. And he cutteth off the head round like a circle about the ears, and then shaketh out all which is within the skull: after this he pulleth off the skin from the body, and mollifying it with his hands, like the hide of a beast, useth it as a mantle, and hangeth it at his bridle rains, triumphing and glorying of such a prey. And he which hath the most of those mantles, is adjudged the worthiest man. There be many also which sow men's skins together, like beasts skins, and thereof make them short garments or cloaks, and wear them. Some others flay the right hands of their slain enemies, and with the same make coverings for their quivers: and many flea the whole bodies, and stretching out the skins upon blocks of wood, carry them about upon their horses: the heads being cut off in this manner, as I have said, they cover the utmost side of them with Ox leather, and those which be rich, gild them within with gold, and so use them for pots to drink in.  
And such men of estimation as give entertainment to strangers, will show unto them, that those were the heads of such men as they had vanquished in the wars, bragging thereof as a point of great manhood. Once every year all the Princes and governors of the region, fill a pot full of wine, of which all the Scythians which have slaughtered any of their enemies, do drink, but they which have done no notable exploit, taste not thereof, but sit by without honour or regard, which among them is the greatest ignominy that may be. And those which have committed the most slaughters, shall drink of two pots which they have there ready provided for the purpose. Their gods which they worship and adore, are the virgin Vesta as principal: next unto her, jupiter and Tellus, (for Tellus they suppose 
The Scythian gods.  to be the wife of jupiter) after these they honour Apollo, Venus, Mars, and Hercules: but they think it not fit to make Idols, Altars, or Temples, to any of these gods or goddesses, but only to Mars, to whom they sacrifice every hundredth captive, to the rest of their gods they sacrifice beasts, and especially horses. Hogs are in no account amongst them, neither breed they any throughout the whole region. When the King punisheth any man by death, he spareth none of his male-childrens, but slayeth them all, but he hurteth no womankind.  
When the Scythians confirm friendship, or make a league or peace one with another, they put wine into a great earthen pot, and then cutting some part of their bodies which make the peace, with a knife, or with a sword, they mingle their blood with the wine: after that, they dip their swords, arrows, axes, and javelins into the cup, which when they have done, they vow friendship one to another with many protestations.  
And then is the wine drunk up, not only by those which make the league, but all their followers and partakers, which be of most dignity and estimation, drink of it also. The manner of burial of Kings which is used of the people, that inhabit about the river of Gerrus, where Borysthenes is now navigable, is in this manner: when their King is deceased, they dig a great foursquare hole in the earth, and there lay him for a space, after that they take the dead body and bowel it, and sear it with wax, and fill it full of osier branches bruised, a sweet perfume called red Stirax, the seed of percely, smallage, and annis-seeds, and so sow it up again, and then putting the carcase into a cart, they convey it into another country, where it is used as before, and so interred.  
But the Scythians cut off their dead kings ears, clip his 
How the Scythians bury their kings.  hair round, cut his arms about, wound him in the forehead and nose, strike his left hand through with a dart, and then carry the carcase into another nation, which is under their government, the people whereof attend upon them unto another country. And when they have beheld all nations, and the king's corpse with them, they leave it to be buried of those people that inhabit the uttermost parts of their kingdom; who when they have put it into a coffin and laid it upon a bed, they stick down certain spears, and laying him upon the spears, cover him with a coat: then do they strangle one of his strumpets which he loved most dearly in his life time, one groom, one cook, one horse-keeper or muletor, one sergeant; one butler, or cupbearer, and one horse, and bury them altogether, with golden cups, and the first fruits of all their increase in the spaciousness of the Tomb or Sepulchre And when he hath lain there a year, they take the most near of the king's household servants: (and all the Scythian servants attending on the king he free borne, and by him commanded to serve: and no servant bought with money doth minister to the king.)  
And after they have strangled fifty of these man-servants, and as many of the best horses, the men's bowels being first taken out, and their garments stretched abroad, and sowed together, they set up, round about the circuit of the King's tomb upon arched work, those fifty horses, and the servants sitting upon their backs: so as they may seem afar off to the beholders, like a troop of horsemen keeping their dead King. And this is the manner and custom of interring and sepulture of their Kings in Scythia.  
Private men also observe a certain custom in their burials: for when one dieth, all his neighbours laying him in a cart, carry him about to his friends, and each one of his friends receiving him, maketh a banquet, as well to his neighbours and kinsfolk, as to the rest which accompany the coarse. His body being thus carried from place to place, for the space of forty days, is then interred, his head being first emptied and clean washed: above the body they set three sticks bending one towards another, upon which they set woollen caps, as many as they can, and then they put the carcase into a chest or coffin, made of one tree like a trough, and set it under the caps, and so fill up the coffin with bright stones.  
The men of Scythia do never wash themselves, but their wives infusing water upon their bodies, rub them against a rough stone, with Cypress, Cedar, or the wood of Frankincense, and after their bodies are rubbed, and begin to smell, they besmear their faces over with medicines or ointments; these ointments make them to have an odoriferous sme●● And the next day after, they remove those medicines, and make their faces clean and bright again.  
Their manner of swearing and ministering an oath to others, is by the King's throne, whereby if any one be convinced of perjury, (by the Devinors which make trial thereof, with willow rods or wands) he is put to death without delay, and forfeiteth all his goods to those which proved him perjured.  
The Massagetae, a people of Scythia in Asia beyond the 
The Massagetae  Caspian sea, in apparel and living be very like unto these Scythians, and therefore supposed of many to be Scythians indeed: They fight both on foot and horseback, and in both sorts of fight be almost invincible. Their weapons be darts and spears, and a certain sword or weapon which they usually wear about them, called a sangar, they use gold in their belts, sword-hangars, and head attires, and in guilding their pots: they put upon their horses breasts, breastplates of gold, their bridles and trappings be all of gold, and their speeres be pointed and their quivers trimmed with Brass, for of Iron and silver they have no use. Every one hath his wife, and they accompany with women openly, which is used by no other Scythians, but only they, if they be justly accounted Scythians: for when any one there lusteth after another woman, he hangeth his quiver at his chariot, and lieth with her without shame. The people have no time prefixed them how long they shall live, but when one waxeth old, his friends assemble together, and sacrifice him with certain sheep, and boiling the flesh together make a banquet thereof. And this kind of death they account most blessed: but they eat none which die by any disease, but bury them in the ground, esteeming them damn●●, because they could not be sacrificed. They neither sow nor plant any thing, but live of beasts and of fishes, which the river Araxis affords abundantly: their usual drink is milk. Of the gods they worship only the Sun, to whom they sacrifice horses, thinking it fit to sacrifice a beast of the greatest speed, to a star of the swiftest course. The people called Seres in Scythia, of all 
The Seres in Scythia.  others live most courteously and quietly among themselves, they avoid the company of all other men but themselves, and despise the intercourse of merchandise with other countries: for their merchants have no communication for buying and selling with strange Merchants, but only set down a price upon their goods, and deliver them by rack of eye, without buying any thing of others: with them is neither, whore, adulterer, nor thief brought to trial: neither is any man there put to death at any time: but the fear of their laws with them is of more force, than the constellation of their nativities. They inhabit in the very beginning of the world, and that they may the better live chastened, they be neither afflicted with canker or corruption, nor with hail or pestilence. When a woman is conceived with child, no man requireth her company, nor till she be purified: no one eateth unclean flesh: they know no sacrifices, and all men judge of themselves according to justice and right: wherefore they be not chastised with such punishments, as are inflicted upon men for their offences, but living a long space yield up their breaths without sickness.  
The Tauro-Scythians (so called of the hill Taurus about 
The Tauro-Scythians.  which they dwell,) sacrifice all those which suffer ship wrack unto a virgin which they worship as a goddess: as also all the Greeks which be brought thither, in this manner.  
After they have finished their prayers, they cut off his head whom they mean to sacrifice, and (as some say) throw his trunk headlong down a Rock (for their Temple is situated upon a steep Rock) which done they nail the head upon a cross or gibbet. Some agreeing that their heads be fastened to a cross, as is said, do notwithstanding deny that their bodies be thrown headlong down a Rock, but affirm that they bury them in the ground.  
The spirit or goddess to whom they doe-sacrifice, they term to be Iphigenia the daughter of Agamemnon. Every one likewise cutteth off the heads of his enemies, which he taketh in the wars and carrieth them home to his house, and fixing them upon poles setteth them upon the highest part of his house, and for the most part upon the funnel of the chimney, and the reason why they set them so high, is for that they say the heads be the keepers and watchmen over the whole house: these people live by rapine and stealth, and by the wars. The Agathirsi be a very 
The Agathirsi.  exquisite and well addorned people, their garments for the most part be of gold. Their women be common to them all, so as they be all cousins and kinsfolk one to an other, there is neither envy nor strife amongst them, but in their living they much resemble the Thracians.  
The Neury use the Scythian customs: these in the Summer before Darius' expedition, were constrained (for 
The Neuri.  the multitude of serpents which engendered in their soil) to alter their seat: they persuades themselves so firmly, as they will swear it to be true, that for certain days every year they become Wolves, and again after a while return into their former habit and shapes.  
The Anthropophagis (that it is to say eaters of man's flesh) use the most savage and rudest manners of all men: 
The Anthropophagis.  they have neither laws nor ordinances to live under, they exercise themselves about cattle: there garments be like the Scythians, and they have a language proper to themselves.  
The Melanchlaeni go all of them in black attire, 
The Melanchlaeni.  (which is the cause they be so called) and as many of them as feed only on humane flesh, live after the manner of the Scythians.  
The Budini be a great and populous nation, there Bodies be reddish or yellowish, and their eyes grey like Cats: 
The Budini.  The City Gelon (the people whereof be called Gelloni) is the chief city of their Nation: They solemnized certain feasts every third year in honour of Bacchus. They were once Greekes, but being removed from thence they seated themselves in this Country, and their language they now use is a mixed speech betwixt the Scythian and Greek tongue: The Budini differ from the Gelloni both in life and language, for the Budini being borne in the Country, breed up cattle and eat such fruits and herbs as the country naturally produceth, but the Gellony excercysing husbandry live upon corn, and plant orchards, & gardens, & be nothing like the Budini, either in colour or countenance: The country is well stored with trees, & out of a great and huge pool which they have, they take Ottors, Bevers & many other wild beasts, of whose skins they 
The Lyrcaes.  make themselves clothes. The Lyrcaes line only by hunting which is on this manner, they climb up into the tops of trees (which be very plentiful in that country) and there lie in wait for wild beasts: each huntsman hath his dog and his horse, which be taught to couch down low upon their bellies, the better to entrap the wild beast, and after he which is in the tree top hath spied the beast and stroke him with a dart, he leaveth the tree and pursueth him on horseback, with his dog, until he have taken him.  
The Argyphaei inhabit under the bottoms of high 
The Argyphaei.  hills, they be a kind of people that be bald from their births, both men and women, they have flat nostrils, a great chin and a speech peculiar to themselves: They be appareled like the Scythians, and live by fruits of trees, little caring for cattle, whereof they have no great store: They lodge under trees, and in the Wintertime they wear white caps, but none in the Summer: There is none that will wrong them, for they be accounted a sacred people, possessing no weapons of defence: They determine such controversies as arise amongst their neighbours, and whosoever flieth unto them is in safety.  
The Issedones were reported to use this custom, when 
The Issedones.  any man had his father deceased, all his kinsfolk presented him with beasts, which when they had killed and cut in small pieces, they chopped his dead father that invited them to the banquet in pieces also, and mingling all the flesh together made thereof a solemn feast, than would they take the dead man's head and slay it, and put out all the brains within the skull, and covering it with gold, use it as an Idol doing unto him yearly ceremonies and sacrifices: these things did the son to the father, and the father would do to his son as the greeks celebrate the days of their nativity.  
These people also be accounted just, and that the wives be of equal strength with their husbands: And such heretofore were the manners of the Scythians: but afterwards being subdued by the Tartarians, they followed their fashions, and live now like unto them, and be all called by one name Tartarians.   

Of Tartary, and of the customs and power of that people. CAP. 10.  
TARTARY (which according to Vincentius is also called Mongal) is situated 
The situation of Tartary.  in the north-east part of the world, and hath upon the East the land of the Cathaians' and Solangans, upon the South the Sarrasins, the Naymans' upon the West, and is compassed on the North with the Ocean sea: it is called Tartary of the River Tartar which runnet through it, and the Country for the most part is very 
Tartary why it is so called.  mountainous and full of hills: as much of it as is Champion, is so mingled with sand and gravel, as it is very barren, but only where it is watered with running waters, which be very rare and geason: And for this cause it is much of it desert and un-inhabited with people.  
There be no Cities or great towns in the whole country, but only one called Cracuris: and wood is so scarce in most places there, as the inhabitants be constrained to burn and boil their meat with horsdung & beasts dung. The weather there is very intemperate and most strange, for in the Summertime they have such horrible and terrible thunders and lightnings, as many men die for very fear: it is even now marvelous hot and by and by there will be extreme cold and snows: and the storms and winds oftentimes be so boisterous, as people be not able to ride against them, but that they blow men down from their horses, pull trees up by the roots, and do the people many and great damages: It never raineth there in Winter, and but seldom times in Summer, and then so small a rain as it scarce moisteneth the earth.  
The Country otherwise aboundeth with all kinds of 
Tartary aboundeth with cat-tail.  beasts as Camels, Oxen and such like, and labouring beasts and Horses in such abundance, as it is thought that all the residue of the world hath scarce so many beside. Tartary was first inhabited of four sundry sorts of people, 
Four sorts of Tartarians.  one sort whereof were called jecchamongall, that is to say great Mongals, the second Sumongall which is watery Mongals, and those called themselves also Tartars of the river Tartar, near which they dwelled, the third were called Merchat, and the fourth Metrit, they had all like form and lineaments of body, and spoke all one language.  
The ancient Tartarians were of a rude behaviour, and lived without manners, laws or other ornaments of life, and being of an obscure name, and very basely esteemed of amongst all the Scythians, followed their cat-tail, and paid tribute unto them for their dwellings.  
Shortly after, this people being divided as it were into certain tribes or kindreds, were first ruled by captains, who had the sole government over them, they paying tribute notwithstanding to their next bordering neighbours the Naymans': But when by a certain Oracle they had elected and created Canguista their first King, he taking 
Canguista first King of Tartary.  upon him the Empire, did first abolish the worship of all evil spirits and false gods, and made an Edict that all the Nation should worship the true God, by whose providence he would have all men think, that he received his Kingdom. He commanded likewise that all that by their age were able to bear arms, should be ready to attend the King at a certain day, where when they were assembled, the army was distributed in this manner. First that the Decurions which were captains over ten soldiers, should obey the centurions, which were captains over an hundred footmen, the centurions should be obedient to those which were Captains and Colonels of a thousand men, and those again should be at the command, of those which were governors of ten thousand: and then to try the strength of his Empire, and to have experience of his subjects hearts, he commanded that seven of those Princes or governors sons, which ruled the people before he was ordained King, should be slain by the hands of their own fathers.  
This command of the King the fathers fulfilled (although it seemed very bitter and cruel) both for fear of the multitude, and also for religions sake, for they verily believed that the God of Heaven was first author and instituor of their Kingdom, and that if they should not perform his command, they should not only transgress and violate the law of a King, but the law of God also. Canguista being thus fortified, and putting confidence in his power, first subdued by battle the Scythians, which were next unto him, and made them tributary, and with them, all those to whom the Tartarians themselves before that time paid tribute: from thence going forward to people more remote, he had such prosperous and happy success in the wars, as he subdued with his forces all Kingdoms, Countries and Nations from Scythia to the Sun rising, and from thence to the mediterranean sea, and beyond, so as now he may justly be said, to be Lord and Emperor of all the East: The Tartarians of all men be most deformed in body, they be for the most part little men, having great eyes standing far out of their heads, and so much covered with eyelids, as the sight or opening of the eye is marvelous little: their faces be broad and without beards, except that they have some few straggling hairs upon their upper lips and chins, they be all of them commonly slender in the waste, and shave all the hinder parts of their heads from one ear to the other, and up to the crown, they wear the rest of their hairs long like unto our women, of which long hair they make two strings or cords, binding or winding them over both their ears, and in this manner be all Tartarians shaved, and all those people also which live amongst them.  
Moreover they be very nimble and active of body, good horsemen, but bad footmen, and they never go afoot, but the poorest of them, whither ever he hath occasion to go, rideth either on horse or oxe-backe; their women ride also upon geldings, and such as will not strike or kick: their bridles be richly decked with gold, silver and precious stones.  
They hold it a glorious thing to have little bells hanging about their horse necks, they have a very ill favoured and clamerous kind of speech: for when they sing they howl like Wolves, and when they drink they shake their heads, and they drink very often and for the most part until they be drunk, for to be drunk they account a great commendations unto them.  
They neither dwell in Cities nor Towns, but in the fields under tents and Tabernacles, after the ancient custom of the Scythians. They be (for the most part) all shepherds and herdsmen: In Winter they lie in the plain and champion grounds, and dwell upon the hills in Summer, living there upon the profits of the pastures; They make themselves mansion places in manner of tents or pavilions, either of little sprouts or twigs, or else of cloth sustained up with small timber, in the middle whereof they make a round window, which serveth both to give light and to let out the smoke, and they make fires for all uses, the men take great delight in shooting and wrestling. They be wonderful good huntsmen, and be armed from the top to the toe when they go a hunting, and when they see any wild beast, they presently enclose him in round about on every side, and stopping and hindering him with darts, kill him and so take him by that means: bread they have none, and therefore they have no use of bakeing, neither do they use any towells, napkins nor table-clothes: They believe that there is one God, and that he is the maker and author of all things visible and invisible, yet do they not worship him with any ceremonies or religious rites, but rather making themselves certain Idols, either of cloth or of silk in the form of men, and placing them upon each part of their Pavilions, pray unto them to be defenders of their cattle, and giving them great reverence, offer unto them of the milk of all their sheep and cattle, and before they begin either to eat or drink any thing, they set part thereof before those Idols: what beast soever they kill to eat, they lay his heart in a platter all night and in the morning boil it and eat it, they worship also and do sacrifice unto the Sun, the Moon, and the four elements, and most religiously adore Cham their King and Lord, esteeming him to be the Son of God, and to him the do sacrifice and attribute so much honour, as they suppose him to be the worthiest man in all the world, nor will the suffer any one else to be compared unto him: all other people they do so much contemn and despise, and think themselves so far excelling others in wisdom and goodness, as they scorn to speak unto them, but drive them from them with rebukes and disdain.  
They call the Pope and all Christian men dogs and Idolaters because they worship stocks and stones, they be much given to Devilish and Magic arts, and observing dreams have their wise men to expound and interpret them, who do ask and receive answers of their Idols, for they persuade themselves that GOD hath conference with their Idols, and therefore they do all things by Oracles, they observe certain times, and especially when the change of the Moon is, yet they do worshipppe nor honour no one time before another, either by Feasting or Fasting, but esteem of all alike.  
The Tartarians be so much given to covetousness and avarice, as when any one of them seeth a thing, that he hath a desire to, if he may not have it by the good will of the owner, he taketh it by force, so it be not belonging to one of their own country men, supposing it lawful so to do, by the commandment and ordinance of their Kings, for they have this power given them by Canguista and Cham their first Kings, that what Tartarian soever, or Tartarian servant, shall find upon the way any horse, or meet any man or woman not having the King's passport, or letters of safe-conduct, he may challenge them to himself and ever after use them as his own.  
They will lend no money to those that want, but for an excessive and intolerable gain, as taking a penny for ten pence for every months use, and usury upon usury if the payment be deferred, and they molest and grieve those which be tributary unto them, with such payments and exactions, as it was never read of any nation that did the like, It is incredible to be reported how they covet and extort, as if they were lords of all, but give nothing, not so much as an alms to beggars, yet in this they are to be commended, that they exclude and put back no guest that cometh to them to dinner or supper; but rather invite them and give them to eat very courteously and charitably.  
They be of a very unclean diet, for they have neither table-clothes nor napkins as is said, neither do they wash their hands, bodies nor apparel. They make no bread for they eat none, neither do they eat herbs or any kind of grain but the flesh of all beasts, as dogs, cats, horses and rats, and to show their barbarous cruelty and desire of revenge, they sometimes roast or broil the bodies of their captive enemies upon the fire, and in their solemn banquets tear and devour them with their teeth like wolves; and saving their bludds, power it into a pot and drink it, and sometimes also they drink milk, the country yieldeth no wine, but what is brought to them from other places, and that they drink most greedily, they eat the vermin from one another's heads, or other places, in eating whereof they use to say these words sic inimicis nostris faciam, this will I do unto our enemies.  
It is accounted a great offence, that either meat or drink should be spoiled, and therefore they throw not their bones to dogs before they have taken out the marrow, they be so sparing and niggardly as they will eat no beast while he is whole and sound, but when they be lame or begin to languish, either through age or some other infirmity.  
They be exceeding frugal and thrifty and content with a little, insomuch as they will drink in the mornig a bowl or two of milk, and sometimes neither eat nor drink more of all the day after. The men and women be almost appareled alike, for the men wear 
How the Tartarians are appareled.  shallow Mitres upon their heads, made blunt before, and a tail or label hanging down behind, of a hand breadth in length, and as much in breadth; and that they may stay upon their heads, and not be blown of with the wind, they have strings sowed to them about the ears; and those they tie under their chins. The married women wear upon their heads a certain round cap, made like a basket of a foot and a half in length, and plain upon the top like a barrel, wrought either of party-coulered silk, or of Peacock's feathers, and adorned about with great store of gold and precious stones, upon the rest of their bodies they wear such garments as their abilities be able to afford them, the richer sort of women go in Purple and silk, and their husbands likewise: their coats be of a very strange fashion, for the slit or hole whereby they put them off and on is upon the left side, and buttoned with four or five buttons. In the Summer they wear black garments, and in Winter and rainy wether, white, and their clothes come down no lower than their knees: they wear garments also made of skins, but not as we do with the hairy side inwards, but with the flesh sides towards their bodies, and the hairy sides outwards, showing the hair for comeliness and decency: maids by their apparel can hardly be discerned from married women, nor the married women, be distinguished from the men, for there is no great difference betwixt them, either in habit or behaviour, for all wear breeches alike. When they prepare themselves to the wars, some of them cover their arms (which otherwise be naked) with iron plates linked together with Leathern thongs, and some with diverse folds of Leather, with which also they make defences for their heads: shields they have none, and but few of them either lances, or long swords: yet they have swords, but not above the length of ones arm, and made with an edge upon the one side like back-swords wherewith when they fight, they strike with that side which is sharp, they be very light and perfect horsemen, and marvelous good archers, and he is accounted of the greatest courage and valour which is most obedient unto government.  
They serve in the wars without wages, and be very subtle and cunning both in the wars and other businesses, and ready to take upon them any charge, or to undergo any matter of importance whatsoever, the Captains and governors enter not into the battle themselves but standing aloof incourrage & exhort their soldiers diligently, foreseeing and considering what is necessary to be done, and to the end their army may seem the greater, and more terrible to the enemy, they bring their wives and children into the army with them, and sometimes the images of men set fast upon horses, nor do they think it a disgrace for them to fly if it be either behoveful, or necessary: when they shoot they disarm their right arms, and then their darts fly with such vehement forces, as they will pierce any kind of armour: they begin the battle in order, and keep their array in retiring even, then destroying and slaying with their darts their enemies which pursue them, and if they perceive the number of those which pursue them to be but small, they suddenly return into the battle, wounding with their darts both men and horse, and even then they get the greatest conquest, when they were thought to have been conquered: When they intent to invade or make war upon any country, they divide their army into sundry companies and give the assault on every side, so as they can hardly be encountered or resisted, nor any of the inhabitants escape; and by this policy they have always the victory in their own own hands.  
And they use their victory very proudly and cruelly sparing neither old men, women, nor children, but put all to the sword without difference, artificers only excepted, which they reserve to work for them. They divide them to be slain by the Centurions, assigning to every servant for his part of the slaughter, ten, or more, or less, as the number of the Captives be, which when they have butchered with Axes, like Swine, for a greater terror to others, they take every thousand Captive, and turning his head downwards, hang him up by the heels upon a stake made fast in the ground, in the middle of those which be slain, as if he should then admonish and advise his friends, whilst the most of those murderers, approaching to the slain bodies, do with their mouths swill up the blood which springeth from their green wounds.  
They keep their faith and promise with none, how ever they be obliged unto them, but rage towards their own subjects in this manner, and far more grievously: It is lawful for them to deflower as many young Virgins as they will or can get, and those which be any thing beautiful, be carried away with them, and constrained to serve continually in extreme penury of all things. The Tartarians of all men be most incontinent, for although they may marry as many wives as they will, or as they be able to keep, and that they be not forbidden marriage with any degree of affinity, or consanguinity (mothers, daughters, and sisters only excepted) yet be they exceedingly given to the sin of Sodom, accompanying both with their own sex and with beasts, as vilely as the Sarrasins, without either difference or punishment: They account not the woman which they marry for their wife, nor yet receive her dower before she hath had a child, and if she be barren it is lawful for them to put her a way and to marry another. And this is strange, that although many women have but one husband, yet they never fall out for him amongst themselves, although one be preferred before another, and he sleepeth now with one, and by and by with another, and every one of these wives have their abiding place by themselves, and every one keepeth her own family. They live most chaste from other men's wives, for as well the men as women which be taken in adultery, suffer death by their law: those men which be not trained up in the wars, keep cattle in the fields, practise hunting and wrestling, without doing any other domestical business but commit all to women upon whose care it resteth to provide all things necessary both for victuals and clothing.  
This nation observeth many superstitions, for to put a knife into the fire, or at the least to let it touch the fire, or to pull flesh out of a pot with a knife, is held a great offence, moreover they cut nothing with a hatchet near unto the fire, lest they should hurt it any manner of way, for they honour the fire most religiously, persuading themselves that therewith all things ought to be purified and cleansed.  
They greatly abhor to lay either their body or arms, when they sleep or take their rest, upon a whip wherewith they drive their horses, (for spurs they use none) or to touch their darts with a whip; and young men do not only avoid the kill of birds, but the taking of them also: they will not beat a horse with his bridle nor break one bone with an other, nor yet spend either meat or drink out of measure and especially milk, no one dare piss within his pavilion or mansion house, for if any one do it abstinately, he is put to death without mercy, but if necessity constrain one to do it, as oftentimes it happeneth, than the tent or pavilion wherein it was done, and all things within it, aught to be purged and cleansed, on this manner: First they make two fires three paces distant one from another, betwixt which they fasten two forks or javelins upright in the ground, by each fire one, then drawing a cord from the one fire to the other, they carry forth through the middle of the javelins, as it were through a gate, all things which are to be purified, two women (to whom the business is committed) standing upon the other side, one over against an other, casting water upon the stuff, and muttering out certain verses to themselves.  
No stranger is admitted into the king's presence, of what estate or dignity soever he be, and be his business of never so much importance, unless he be first purified: he that spurneth with his foot at the threshold of the pavilion, wherein the Emperor, or any Prince dwelleth, is slain in the very place: moreover if any one bite a bit of any thing which he cannot swallow down, but is forced to vomit it up again, all the people fall upon him, and digging a hole under his pavilion drag him through it, and so kill him most cruelly, there be many other such frivolous things which they account as sins that cannot be purged, or appeased, but to kill a man, to enter upon another man's possession, to take other men's goods violently, without right or equity, and to neglect the commandments of God, they account as little or no offences.  
They believe that after this life they shall live eternally in an other world, but what that world is they cannot describe, and that they shall there be rewarded according to their merits. When any one is sick, and draweth near unto death, they set a spear at the tent door, wherein he lieth, with a black cloth at the end of it, to the end that those which pass by, seeing it, may forbear to enter in, and no one dare come in though he be called, if he see the spear: but when the sick person is dead, all his family meeting together carry the coarse privily out of the tent, into a place (chosen before for the purpose) where is made a great large pit, in which pit they build a little pavilion, and set in it a table furnished with diverse dishes of meat, then setting thereat the dead corpse attired with rich and gorgeous garments, they forthwith cover them altogether with earth, he hath also one labouring beast, and one trapped horse buried with him: The great men choose out one servant in their life time, upon whom they set their own mark, with a marking iron, to be entombed with him when he is dead, and this they do, that they may make use of them in an other world. After all this, the man's friends that is dead take an other horse, and killing him, and eating his flesh, and then filling the hide full of hay, and sowing it up again, they set it upon four stakes upon the top of the Sepulchre, to show that there the dead man lieth, which done, the women burn the horses bones for the expiation of the dead man's ghost. But the richer sort cut the horse hide into slender thongs, and extending them in length, measure out therewith a circuit of ground round about their dead friends Sepulchre, believing that the dead man shall obtain so much ground in an other world, as by his friends shall be measured out unto him, with those thongs: all these ceremonies performed, upon the thirtieth day they leave of their mourning.  
There be some Tartarians which be a kind of Christians but very bad ones, and these to hasten their father's deaths 
Some Tartarians are Christians, but very bad ones.  when they wax old, cram and feed them with fat meat, and when they be dead burn them, and gathering up the ashes as clean as they can, esteem them as a very precious relic, seasoning their meat daily therewith. Now with what pomp and jollity the Tartarians after the death of their King, elect and appoint another in his room, because it is over-troublesome to be writ at large, and perhaps as tedious to be read, I will unfold in few words: the Princes, Dukes, Barons, and all the people of the kingdom, 
How the Tartarlans elect their Kings.  assembling themselves together in a place in the open fields, fit and accustomed for that purpose, place him to whom the kingdom is due, (either by succession or election) in a throne of gold, and all of them prostrating themselves before him, cry out with a loud voice, and with one consent, in this manner. We wish, will, and command thee, to be our governor, to whom he answereth; If you will have it so, I must needs be content, but then be you ready to do what ever I command, to come when I call you, to go whether I send you, and who ever I bid to be slain to do it without fear, and to give and commit all the whole kingdom into my hands: and when they have answered, we are ready and willing: he saith again unto them; you shall hereafter stand in as much awe of my word, as of my sword, at which speech the people give a great applause: then the Princes taking him from his Kingly throne, and causing him to sit down humbly upon a cloth laid upon the ground, say thus unto him; look upwards towards heaven and acknowledge God, and behold downwards the cloth, whereon thou sittest, if thou govern well, thou shalt have all things according to thine own desire, but on the other side, if thou rule naughtily, thou shalt be so humbled and spoiled of all thou hast, as thou shalt not have left thee so much as this little cloth, whereon thou sittest: which said they give unto him that wife which he loveth best, and lifting them up both together upon the cloth, salute him as Emperor of all the Tartarians and she as Empress, then is he forthwith presented with gifts from all people, over whom he is Emperor, and all those things which the dead King lest behind him, be brought unto him likewise, of which the new Emperor giveth unto each Prince some, and commandeth the rest to be kept for himself, which done, he dissolveth the company: all things be in the King's hands and power, no man can or dare say this is mine, or that is his, nor no one may dwell in any part of his dominion, but where he is assigned; the Emperor himself distributeth a proportion of land to the Dukes, the Dukes to those which be Captains of thousands, the Captains of thousands to the governors of hundreds, the governors of hundreds to the rulers of ten, and the rulers of ten, distribute to all the rest. The seal which the King useth hath this inscription, Deus in coelo & Chuichuth Cham in terra: the strength of God, and Emperor of all men. He hath five very strong and puissant armies, & five Dukes by whom he maketh war with all that resist him, he never speaketh with the Legates or ambassadors of other nations, nor admitteth them into his presence, unless both they & their gifts (for without gifts they dare not come) be first purged by certain women asfigned to that business: he answereth in the middle of the people, and all men to whom he speaketh aught to listen unto him, kneeling upon their knees, when & how long soever his speech be, and so diligently to attend his words as they misconstrue not his meaning in any point, for it is not lawful for any to alter the emperors words, nor in any sort to contradict or gainsay the sentence he pronounceth: he never drinketh in any public assembly, nor yet any other Tartarian Prince, unless some do sing and play unto him upon a harp before he drink, and men of great worth when they ride, are shadowed with a certain fan or curtain, fastened to a long spear and carried before them, which custom is said to be used also by the women: And these were the customs and manner of living of the people of Tartary, about two hundred years sithence.  
The Georgiani (whom the Tartarians overcame much about that time) were worshippers of Christ; observing 
The Georgians a kind of Christians.  the custom of the Greek Church, they dwelled near unto the Persians, and their dominion extended a length ways, from Palestine to the Caspian hills: they had eighteen Bishoprics, and one Catholic or universal Bishop, who was instead of a Patriarch: at the first they were subject to the Patriarch of Antioch, the men be very warlike, their Priests heads be shaven round, and the laymen four square; some of their women were trained up in the wars, and served on horseback. The Georgians having disposed their armies, and entering into the battle, were wont to carouse a gourd as big as one's fist, filled full of the best wine, and then to set upon their enemies with greater courage: The Clergy be much addicted to usury and simony; there was mutual and perpetual enmity betwixt the Armenians and them. The 
The Armenians were Christians likewise, till they were vanquished by the Tartarians  Armenians were Christians also, until the Tartarians, after they had subdued the Georgians overcame them likewise, but they disagreed in many things from the faith, and approved fashion of the true Church: they knew not the day of our Lord's nativity, for they observed no feasts, nor no vigils, nor yet the four Ember weeks, they feasted not upon Easter Eve, alleging that Christ rose from the dead, about the evening of that day: they would eat flesh upon every Friday, betwixt the feasts of Easter and Penticost, yet they fasted much, beginning their fast so strictly and precisely in Lent, as they would neither use oil, wine, nor fish, upon Fridays and Wednesdays throughout the whole Lent, holding it a greater sin to drink wine on those days, then to lie with a strumpet in a brothel house: Upon Monday's they abstained wholly from all meats, upon Tuesdays and Thursdays they did eat once, and received no sustenance at all upon Wednesdays and Fridays, but upon Saturdays and Sundays they would eat flesh, and refresh themselves well. They would not celebrate the office of the Mass throughout all Lent but upon Saterdaies and Sundays, nor upon Fridays throughout the whole year, for thereby (as they were of opinion) they broke and violated their fasts: Infants moreover of the age of two months, and all others whatsoever were indifferently admitted to their communion, and they put no water into the Sacrifice. In the use of Hares, Bears, Choughes, and such other like creatures, they imitated the jews, as well as the greeks, they celebrated their Masses in glass and wooden Chalices, and some having no paraments nor Priestlike vestments at all, some of them also wore Mitres belonging to Deacons or Subdeacons': both Clergy and Lay-men, allowed of usury and Simony, as well as the Georgians: the Priests exercised themselves in Divinations and necromancy, they used more drinking then lay men, and all of them had, or might have wives, but after the death of one wife, as well laymen as the clergy men were prohibited to marry again, the Bishops gave liberty to any to put away their wives that were sound in adultery, and to marry an other: they believed not that there is a purgatory, and obstinately denied that there was two natures in Christ. The Georgians report, that they erred in thirty articles from the right path and diameter of Christian religion.   

Of Turcia, and of all the manners, laws and ordinances of the Turks. CHAP. 11.  
THat country which is now called Turcia or Turkey, hath upon the East the greater Armenia, 
The limits of Turkey.  and extendeth to the Cilicke sea, upon the North it is bounded with the Euxine sea: Aitonus calleth it Turquia, it consisteth of many Provinces, as Lycaonia, wherein Iconium is the chief town; Cappadocia, where Cesaria is chief city of the Province; Isauria where Seleucia is head; Licia now called Briquia: jonia now called Quiscum, wherein standeth the city of Ephesus, Paphlagonia where Germanopolis, and Lenech where Trapezus be chief cities: All this vast country which is now called Turcia, is not inhabited by one only people, but by Turks, greeks, Armenians, 
Turkey inhabited by people of sundry nations.  Sarrasins, jacobitans, Nestorians, jews & Christians, all of them for the most part, living after the laws and institutions, which that false Prophet Mahomet a Sarrasin, ordained for the people of Arabia, in the year of 
Mahomet his parentage.  our Saviour Christ 631. This Mahomet some say was an Arabian, some a Persian, but whether he was it is doubtful, but his father was certainly a worshipper of evil spirits & his mother an Ismaelite, and therefore not ignorant in the true law: now whilst his father and mother instructed him in both their laws, they distracted the boy, and made him doubtful and wavering betwixt both, so as being trained up in both religions, when he grew of man's estate, he followed neither of them, but being a very crafty fellow, & of a subtle wit, and long conversant with Christians, he framed and invented out of both those laws, a religion most dangerous and pernicious to all mankind. First he affirmed, that the jews did very ill in denying that Christ should be borne of a Virgin, seeing that the Prophets, men of wonderful sanctity and integrity of life, & endued with the spirit of God, did long before prophesy and soreshew that it should be so, and that he was to be expected: on the other side, he condemned the Christians folly, in believing that jesus the dearest friend of God, & borne of a Virgin, would suffer reproaches & punishments of the jews: Martinus Segonius Novomontanus hath written thus of the Sepulchre of Christ our King and Lord. The Sarrasins and Turks (saith he) (by the ancient preaching of Mahomet) laugh the Christians to scorn, which attribute any honour to that Sepulchre, affirming that the great Prophet Christ proceeded from the spirit of God, that he was void of all earthly blot or sin, and that he he shall come to be judge of all people, but that they may approach unto his true Sepulchre, they utterly deny, because his glorious body, conceived by the divine spirit, was altogether impassable: thus much hath Segonius written, & more to the same purpose, which the Mahometans are wont to cast in our teeth, with as much folly as impiety: when that false Prophet Mahomet had infected his people & nation, with these pestilent evils, he made & established a law, and (lest by men of understanding it might be resisted and abrogated) he ordained a capital punishment against the breakers thereof, commanding and decreeing in his Koran, that no one should presume upon pain of death to dispute thereof, by which ordinance and decree, it appeared most evidently, that in that law was no sincerity, which as a hidden mystery he covered and sealed up so closely, that all men were forbidden to meddle with it, so as the people should not by any means know what that was which he had done. In the doing 
Sergius the Monk a helper of Mahomet.  whereof, and in settling his new sect, he chiefly used the council and help of Sergius a Monk, and a Nestorian heretic: and to the end his law might be more popular and better esteemed of all nations, he took something 
Mahomet's laws compounded of diverse sects.  out of all sects, of every nation, holding first that Christ is much to be praised, and affirming him to be a man of great sanctity, and of singular virtue, and that he was of more than humane condition, calling him sometimes the word, sometimes the spirit, and sometimes the very soul, life, or breath of God, and that he was borne of a Virgin: then did he greatly extol the Virgin Mary, assenting to the miracles written by the Evangelists, so far as they disagreed not from his Koran. The Gospels he said were corrupted by the Apostles Disciples, and therefore aught to be corrected by his Koran, and the more to win and allure the minds and affections of the Christians unto him, he would needs be baptized by Sergius, and then to procure the goodwill of other sects, he denied the Trinity with the Sabellians, affirming with the Manechees, that there were but two persons in divinity: he denied that the Son is equal to the Father with Eunomius; with Macedonius he held that the holy Ghost is a creature: with the Nicholites, that it is lawful for one man to have many wives, and he allowed of the old Testament, although (said he) it is faulty in many places: with these circumstantial tales, he covered an incredible allurement wherewith men's minds be soonest enticed, which was, the giving to his people free liberty and power to pursue their lusts and all other pleasures, for by these means, this pestilent religion hath crept into innumerable Nations, so as now how few the number of true believers is, in respect of the great multitude of misbelievers, may well be gathered by this. That not all Europe profess Christ, but the greatest part thereof, together with all Asia and Africa, believe in Mahomet and his accursed religion.  
The Sarrasins which first embraced the impiety and madness of that false prophet Mahomet, inhabited in that part of Arabia which is called Petrea, there where the land upon the one side joineth to judaea and Egypt, and they be called Sarrasins of a place called Sarracus near unto the people called Nabathei, or (as they themselves would have it) of Sara the wife of Abraham, whereupon they yet persuade themselves, that of all men they be the legitimate and sole successors of the divine promise. Some of them were husbandmen, some followed their flocks, but the greatest part were soldiers, and being hired and retained by Heraclius to serve in the Persian wars, and finding themselves deceived by him, after he had obtained the victory, they (incensed with ire and ignominy) departed thence into Syria, having a Mahomet for their captain and councillor, where they won Damascus, and then, their army and provision necessary for the wars increasing more and more, they made wars upon Egypt and brought it to subjection, after that they subdued Persis, Antioch and jerusalem, and so augmenting and increasing every day both in fame and force, void of all fear of any that could resist them, the Turks, a cruel and barbarous nation of Scythia, being by their neighbours expulsed from the Caspian hills, descending by the narrow passages of the hill Caucasus, first into Asia the less, and after that into Armenia, Media and Persis, by their force and arms brought all those people under their subjection and government, when the Sarrasins to defend the confins of their Country, went forth to meet the Turks, but being not able to make their party good and to encounter them, they were in very short time brought to such desperations, as they were contented the Turks should reign with them in Persia, so as the would embrace the faith of Mahomet: so as whether nation had the greater loss can hardly be judged, either they that departed from such a Kingdom, or those which for desire of rule were forced to receive so pestilent a religion.  
And both Nations being thus bound with the bonds of one religion, were for a space so confounded in name, as there was no difference betwixt Turks and Sarrasins, yet now the name of Turks is only known and the other utterly abolished and forgotten: There be divers sorts of horsemen that serve in the wars amongst the Turks: As first the Thimarcini, which be such 
The manner of the Turks warfare.  as dwell in Cities and pay tribute, and are to the number of fourscore thousand: and these by the King's leave and permission possess (in the nature of pay or wages) towns, villages and castles, each one as he deserveth, and be ever ready at the call of the Sensachus (that is he, that is captain of that Province to whom they pay tribute:) they be now divided into two armies, one in Asia, the other in Europe, under the conduct of two great captains, whereof one governeth in Asia and the other in Europe: Which captains in their Country's speech be called Bassas: the other sort of soldiers be natural, and are called Aconiziae: These serve in the wars without wages, and always go before the company of footmen for prey, yielding the fifth part of their prey unto the King, in the name of the chief captains or generals part of the booty, and of these there be about the number of some forty thousand.  
The third sort be the Charrippi, the Spahiglani and the Soluphtari, the best of which be they Charippi, and the most famous soldiers in dignity; these continually attend upon the King, and be about eight hundred in number, all elected out of the Scythians and Persians, and of no other nation else, and these are to fight venturously, in the presence of the King when need requireth.  
The Spahi and Soluphtari, are such as at the first when they were children attended upon the King to do some vile and dishonourable business, but when they once become to be of man's estate, the King giveth them power to marry wives, so as they growing greater by their wives dower and by their wages, do for the most part execute the Office of Orators, guarding and attending upon each side of the King, when he goeth abroad, and of these there be a thousand and three hundred: out of this order be elected, for the most part, all the chief Governors, and men of great authority and dignity.  
There be three orders of footmen, first the janissaries, 
Three sorts of footmen.  who while they be young under the age of twelve years, be elected out of the whole Empire by the Searchers, Inquisitors or Muster-masters, and for a space trained up in military discipline in public places of excercise, and then sent into the wars clothed in short garments, and round caps, turning upwards, and armed with shields, swords and bows, these defend the camps and besiege Cities, and are more in number then twenty thousand.  
The Asappi be of the second order, which be footmen armed with a light armour, they use swords, shields & long spears, and wear red caps to distinguish them from the janissaries, these gall the enemy's horses in battle, and the number of them is answerable to the greatness of the army, and at the least 4000 of them go with the King, and it is decreed that their wages shall surcease, when the wars are ended. The regal army consisteth of two hundred thousand fight men, but the company of footmen, which be either voluntaries, or such as have been dismissed from the wars, and be summoned to serve again, serve without wages, & with these be mixed slaves, pages, skullions and drudges, carpenters, pioneers and victuallers of the camp. These make ways even and plain in rugged and rough places, build bridges over rivers & pools, erect Rampires and Bulwarks against the enemy, and make all others things ready, which be profitable for the assaulting and conquering of Cities: Usurers, Bankers, Exchangers and Brokers that sell garments for soldiers, and an infinite rabble of such like people, follow the camp also, lest any thing should be wanting that is necessary for the soldiers.  
But their is no one thing so much to be admired and wondered at in that people, as their celerity in action, their constancy and perseverance in dangers, and their obedience of government: for they lose their lives for the least offence that is: they will swim deep rivers and whitlepits, climb the steepest hills, and when they be commanded run headlong through thick or thin, rough or smooth, not so much regarding their lives as the will of the commander: they most patiently endure both watching and want, their is no sedition, no tumult, no clamours or outcries raised in their armies, and in the night time there is such continual and hushed silence in their camps, as they will rather suffer captives to escape, then to have any tumults or hurly burly raised amongst them.  
Of all men now living the Turks make wars most orderly, so that it needs not seem strange to any, what the cause should be that hath raised them to this height at this day, that about two hundred years since there was no nation like them. For it may be truly said of them that they be an invincible Nation, unless they be vanquished by some great plague or pestilence, or else by civil dessention amongst themselves.  
The soldiers be attired very comely, wearing nothing that is undecent or unhonest: in their saddles and bridles is neither curiosity nor superfluity, and none of them go armed but when they be in fight, and at other times they have their armour carried after them in carriages. They use no Standards or Ensigns, but Lances, upon the tops whereof hang down certain threads of divers sundry colours, by which each captain is known of his company, yet they use drums and physes to summon and incite them to fight: the battle finished, all the army is set in readiness, and viewed by the Register (who is one of the noble men) that they may know, who and how many were slain in the fight, and for the ordaining of others in their places.  
In all their assemblies and banquets they pray for the soldiers, but more devoutly for such as were slain in defence of their country, esteeming those happy and blessed, that died not at home, amidst the sorrow and lamentations of their wives and children, but abroad amongst the outcries of their enemies, clattering of armour, and shattering of spears.  
They describe, extol and chant out the victories of their ancestors, thinking thereby to make their soldiers more forward and courageous: Their buildings and dwelling houses be made for the most part of timber and mortar, and very few of stone, unless the houses of great men, Baths and Temples, which be commonly builded of stone, & yet there be some of the Plebeians, or common people, of such exceeding wealth, as some one alone is able of himself to furnish and set forth a whole army, but being (as indeed they are) very frugal, and shunning all sumptuousness, they cherish humility, and patiently endure this voluntary poverty. And for this cause they utterly renounce all pictures, and so much abhor and detest the carving of Images, as they term Christians Idolaters, because they be delighted in these things, contending that they affirm the truth in saying so: They use no seals at all to their letters, neither the King nor no man else, but give credit so soon as they hear the name of him that sent it, or view the style of the writer, neither is there any use of bells, no not so much as any of the Christians that dwelleth amongst them are once permitted to use them. They play at no game for money or any thing else, but persecute all gamesters with many ignominies and reproaches, no man of what dignity, estate or condition soever he is of, desireth to sit upon any stool, form or seat, to sustain him from the ground, but disposing and placing his body, and garments, in comely and decent order, sitteth him down upon the ground, as children do: The table whereupon they eat their meat, is made (for the most part) of an oxhide, or of a stags skin undressed and the hair on, being made round and some four or five handful in breadth, and with many iron rings sowed unto the sides thereof, through which they put a leathern thong, by which devise, it is opened, shut and carried like a purse.  
No one doth enter into any house, Church or other place wherein they may sit, but they must first put off their shoes, for they account it unhonest and undecent, for any one to sit with his shoes on, and therefore they use such manner of shoes as they can easily put off and on.  
The places wherein they sit either in their houses or Churches are covered with course woollen blankets, or else with mats, and sometimes by reason of the baseness and uncleanness of the places, they be boarded or plancked. Both men and women wear long and large garments, made open with a slit before, that they may the better cover, and bend themselves when they purge their bodies of their natural excrements, in doing whereof, they be very precise that they turn not their faces towards the Sun rising, which way the do turn themselves when they pray, they be very careful likewise, that in doing thereof, no one see them, lest their shameful and unclean parts should be discovered, the men make water as the women do with us, bending themselves, for if any man doth piss standing, he is of all men held either for an Idiot or an heretic: They be compelled by a law, to abstain from wine as the nurse, garder, or seminary of all sin and filthiness, yet they eat grapes and drink Must.  
They abstain likewise from all swine's flesh and swine's blood, and from all carrion, and things that die 
Friday a solemn holy day with the Turks.  of themselves, eating all other things that be to be eaten and man's meat, the Turks keep Friday holiday with as much devotion and religion, as we do our Lord's day, or the jews their sabbath.  
In every City is one principal Church, into which upon that day in the afternoon, all people assemble themselves to prayer, and prayer being solemnly ended, they have a sermon, wherein they acknowledge one God and that there is none like or equal unto him, and that Mahomet is his faithful Prophet.  
All the Sarrasins or Turks ought to pray every day five times, with their faces towards the Sun rising, and before they go to prayer to have their bodies perfectly clear, and decently to wash both fundament, yard, hands, arms, mouth, ears, nostrils, eyes and the hairs of their heads, and last of all their feet, and this they ought to do more strictly & precisely, after their companying with women, and purging their bodies, unless they be either sick or traveling, but if at any time water be wanting to wash in, which happeneth but very seldom, or never (for that in every City be baths for that purpose) than they supply the want thereof with the dust of clean and fresh earth: and he which is defiled with any pollution, permits no one (as much as is possible) either to speak unto him, or yet to see him before he be washed and made clean: they fast five weeks in every year very strictly, neither eating nor drinking any thing of all the day before sun-setting, nor accompanying with women: but from the Sun going down, until his rising the next morning they spend the whole time at their pleasures, in eating, drinking, and venery: upon the sixtieth day from the beginning of their fast, they celebrate their passover, in memory of the Ram, which was showed unto Abraham for a sacrifice in his sons stead: and in memory of a certain night, wherein they dream their Alcoran was given them from heaven.  
The Turks ought once every year also to go to the Temple which is in Mecha, both for the profession of their religion, as also to yield the annual honours due unto Mahomet, whose sepulchre is there kept and worshipped.  
The Sarrasins force no man to forsake their faith, and Religion, neither will they persuade any one to theirs, although their Alcoran command them, to afflict, and by all means to prosecute their adversaries in Religion and their Prophets. Whereof it cometh to pass, that in Turkey dwell people of all Sects and Religions, and every Sect doth sacrifice unto his God, according to their own customs.  
Moreover; there is no great difference betwixt the Priests, and the lay-people, betwixt their Temples, and their ordinary habitations and dwelling houses: for it is sufficient for the Priests to know the Koran, and what things appertain to prayer, and the worship of their law, without spending any time in meditations, or obtaining of learning, neither do they take upon them the cure of souls, or care of churches: Sacraments they have none, they make no observation of Relics, sacred Vessels or Altars, but possessing wives, children and families, apply their time like laymen, in husbandry, merchandise, buying and selling, hunting, and such like labours and exercises, to get their living: there is nothing unlawful for them to do, nor any thing prohibited: they be freed from servitude and exactions, and be reverenced and honoured of all men, as those that understand the ceremonies of their law, govern their churches, and be able to instruct others. They have many and great schools, wherein, be great multitudes instructed in the civil laws ordained by their kings for the government and defence of their kingdom, of whom some be afterwards made rulers of Churches, and some of other secular offices.  
In that sect be divers sorts also of religious persons, of which, some living in woods and deserts, fly the fellowship and conversation of all men: some other living in cities, practise hospitality towards poor travelers, allowing them houseroom and lodging at the least, if they have not meat to refresh them, for they themselves live by begging. There be some others likewise, that wandering through the cities, carry wholesome and fresh water in certain bottles, giving thereof to drink to every one that demandeth. For which religious act, if any one give them any thing, they will receive it, though they desire nothing at all, carrying such boast and ostentation of sanctity and religion, both in their words and deeds, manners and behaviour, as they may rather be thought Angels then men, and every one carrieth a certain badge or sign, whereby he may be discerned of what profession he is of. The Sarrasins or Turks be very strict observers and maintainers of justice: for he that sheddeth another man's blood, shall have the like punishment himself: he that is found in adultery, shall (together with the adulteress) be stoned to death without mercy or delay: there is an express punishment also for fornicators; for he that is found guilty of fornication, shall suffer eight hundred stripes with a whip: A thief for the first and second offence shall suffer the like punishment; for the third fault he shall have his hand cut off, and his foot for the fourth: he which iniureth another shall make him satisfaction according to the quantity of the wrong done. In case of extortion of goods and possessions, it is ordained by a law, that the thing required shall be proved by witnesses, and that the defendant shall purge himself by his oath. They admit no witnesses, but such as be honest and fit persons, and whose testimony may be taken without oath. There be throughout the whole nation divers Inquisitors or searchers, who finding out those that neglect the form of prayer, to which they are all enjoined, afflict and punish them, by hanging about their necks, a table or paper with many fox tails, and so leading them throughout the city, dismiss them not, until they have paid a certain sum of money for their liberty. And this ignominy and reproach is accounted an extreme punishment: no one that is of full age, may live unmarried, and every one may have four lawful wives, and (mothers and sisters only excepted) may marry whom they list, without respect of kindred, and besides the four lawful wives, they may have as many concubines as they please, or be able to maintain: and as well the children that be borne of their concubines, as of their lawful wives, shall equally inherit their father's goods, only this is observed, that one son shall have as much as two daughters: no one may keep two or more wives in one house, nor yet in one city, for avoiding of scolding, contention, and unquietness that would be amongst them: but in every city they may keep one, and the husband's háue liberty to be divorced from their wives three sundry times, and so oft to take them again: and the woman divorced may stay with her husband that receiveth her again, if she please. The Turkish women be very decent in their apparel, upon their heads they wear miters, set upon the top of their veils, wherewith their heads being bound in a comely fashion, one side or edge of the veil hangeth down upon the right or left side of their heads, wherewith if they go from home, or come into their husband's presence at home, they may forthwith cover or mask their whole faces, but their eyes: for the wife of a Turk dare never come where a company of men be gathered together: neither is it lawful for them to go to markets to buy and sell. Likewise in their great Temple, the women have a place far remote from men, and shut up so close, as no one can come to them, nor hardly see them. Which closet is not allowed for all women, but only for the wives of noble men or head Officers, and that only upon Friday, at their noontide prayer, which they observe with great solemnity (as is said) and at no times else. There is seldom any speech or conference betwixt men and women, in any public place, it being so out of custom, as if you should stay with them a whole year, you should hardly see it once, but for a man to sit or ride with a woman, is accounted monstrous: married couples do never dally or chide in the presence of others, for the husbands do never remit the least jot of their authority over their wives, neither will the wives omit their obedience towards their husbands. The great Lords that cannot always tarry with their wives themselves, depute and set Eunuches to be keepers over them, which observe and watch them so warily, as it is unpossible for them to talk with any man but their husbands, or to play false play with their husbands.  
To conclude, the Sarrafins yield so much credit to Mahomet and his laws, as they promise assured happiness and salvation to the keepers thereof: to wit, a paradise abounding with all pleasures, a garden situated in a pure and temperate Climate, watered on all parts with most sweet and delectable waters, where they shall enjoy all things at pleasure; dainties of all sorts to feed them, silks and purple to clothe them, beautiful damfels ever ready at a call to attend them with silver and golden vessels, and that Angels shall be their cuppe-bearers; and minister unto them milk in golden cups, and red wines in silver.  
And on the other side, they threaten hell, and eternal damnation to the transgressors of his laws. And this also they firmly believe, that though a man have been never so great a sinner, yet if at his death, he only believe in God and in Mahomet, he shall be saved.   

The manners and customs Of the Christians, and of their original, and Customs. CAP. 12.  
CHRIST jesus (the true and everlasting Son of God the Father omnipotent, the second Person in the holy, individual, coequal, and eternal Trinity, by his incomprehensible decree and mystery hidden from the world, to the end that he might raise and reduce us miserable, and unfortunate wretches, lost and forlorn by the disobedience of our forefathers Adam and Eve, and therefore for many ages exiled and excluded out of the heavenly country, and in heaven to repair the ancient ruin of Lucifer, and the Angels for pride expelled thence, (for supply of which vacancy we were chiefly created,) was, one thousand, six hundred and ten years since (by the cooperation and working of the holy Ghost) conceived man, and borne in judaea of the blessed Virgin Mary, being of the house and lineage of David: from the thirtieth year of whose age unto the 34. (at which time through the envy and hatred of the jews, he was crucified,) he traversed over all the land of judaea, exhorting the jews, from the ancient law of Moses; and the Gentiles, from the profane worship of Idols, unto his new doctrine and religion: those followers which he could get, he called his disciples; out of which, electing twelve, and appearing unto them alive after his death, (as he had foretold them he would) he gave them commission, that as his Legates and Apostles, they should go into all places of the world, and preach to all people such things as they had seen and learned of him. Simon Peter (who long before was by Christ ordained chief head & ruler of his Church after him, when (after the receiving of the holy Ghost) the Apostles went some to one people, some to another to preach, as they were allotted and sent) came first to Antioch, where consulting and erecting a Church, or chief seat or Chair for the practice of Religion: he, with many other of the Apostles which often repaired unto him, celebrated a Council; in which, amongst other things, it was decreed, that the professors and imbracers of Christ's doctrine, and true religion, should after him be called Christians. This chief Chair of the Church being afterwards translated from Antioch to Rome, he and his successors were very careful and vigilant to reduce the Christian religion (being as yet indigested, unpolished, and little practised) and the professors thereof into better order & uniformity Out of the law of Moses, (which Christ came not to abolish, but to fulfil) out of the civil and politic government of Romans, Greeks, and Egyptians, and out of both sacred and profane rites, laws, & ceremonies of other nations, but most especially by the wholesome doctrine and direction of Christ jesus, and the inspiration of the holy Spirit: when they had undertaken this business, and saw that not only among the Hebrews, but in all other nations else, the people be divided into religious and laity, and that all of them by an excellent subordination, are in dignity and degrees different one from another: as that the Emperor of Rome was Monarch of the whole world, and that next unto him were Consuls, Patricians, & Senators, by whose direction and advice, the state and commonwealth was well governed. Again, that in every other country of the world were Kings, Dukes, Earls, Precedents, Lieutenants, Deputies, Tribunes of soldiers, Tribunes of the common-people, Praetors, Captains, Centurions, Decurions, Quaternions, Sheriffs, Treasurers, Overseers, Portars, Secretaries, and Sergeants, and many private people of both sex. That in the temple of the feigned gods, the king was chief sacrificer, and that there were Arch-Flammins, Proto-Flammins, Flammins, and Priests. That also amongst the Hebrews the High Priest was chief sacrificer, under whom were inferior Priests, Levites, Nazareans, Extinguishers of lights, Exorcists, Porters, Clerks, and Singers. That amongst the greeks were Captains of thousands, Captains of hundreds, Captains of fifty, Governors over ten, and rulers over five: and that besides these, as well amongst the Greeks as Latins, there were divers sorts of convents, and religious houses both for men and women, as the Sadduces, Esseyes, and pharisees, amongst the jews: the Salij, Diales, and Vestales amongst the Romans. All the holy Apostles, (as Peter, and those which succeeded him in the chair of Rome) agreed & established, that the universal, Apostolic, most holy, and high Bishop of Rome should ever after be called the Pope, that is to say, the father of his country: and that he should proceed and govern the Catholic Roman Church: as the Emperor of Rome was Monarch over the whole world, and that as the Consuls were next in office and authority to the Emperor, and were ever two in number, so should there be four patriarchs in the Church of God, that in degree and dignity should be next unto the Pope: whereof one was seated at Constantinople, another at Antioch, the third at Alexandria, and the fourth at jerusalem. That the Senators of Rome should be expressed by Cardinals, that such Kings or Princes as governed three Dukedoms, should be equalled with Primates that should govern there Archbishops, and that the Archb. or Metrapolitans should be compared to Dukes: that as the Dukes had Earls under them, so should Bishops be under the Archbishops.  
That Bishops likewise should be resembled unto Eatles, their Assistants and Suffragans unto Precedents, and Provosts unto Lieutenants: Archpriests should supply the place of Tribunes of the soldiers: for Tribunes of the people were ordained Chancellors, and Arch deacons were put in the place of Praetors: for Centurions were placed Deans, parish Priests for Decurions and other Prelates, and Ministers for Advocates and Attorneys: Deacons represented the Aediles, subdeacons the Quaternions, Exorcists the Duumuiri, hostiarii or dore-keepers, the treasurers, readers, singers, and Poets, the Porters of the Court, and Acolites, and Priests, Ministers, the Secretaries & Taper-bearers: decreeing, that all these sundry Orders of Church-officers should be called by one general name, 
Whereof the Clergy be so called.  Clerks, of the Greek word (Cleros) a lot, or chance, whereby at first they were elected out of the people for God's part, or portion of inheritance. This done, they ordained, that seven sorts of these Clerks should be of more special name and note then the rest, as having every one his peculiar function, habit and dignity in the church, and that they should be already to attend upon the altar, when the Bishop of Rome doth sacrifice, to wit, the Pope himself, Bish. Priests, Deacons, Subd. Priests, and singing men.  
The office of Bishops, is to give orders, to veil virgins, to consecrate Bishops, to confirm children by imposition of hands, to dedicate Temples, to degrade Priests from their functions, and to put them in again upon their reformation, to celebrate Counsels, to make Chrismes & unctions, to hollow vestments and Church vessels, and to do any other things which meaner Priests may do as well as they, as to catechize and baptise, to make and consecrate the Sacrament of the Altar, and to communicate it to others, to pronounce absolution to the penitent, to restrain the stubborn, and to preach, and declare the Gospel of Christ.  
The crowns of their heads must be shaven round like the Nazareans, and they ought neither to wear locks, nor long beards: they are bound to perpetual chastity, and they have the command and pre-eminence over other priests: their livings and maintenance ought to be only of first firuites, tithes, & oblations: nor may they meddle or busy themselves in worldly matters, their apparel and conversation should be decent, comely, & honest, and they are tied only to serve God and the Church, and to occupy and employ themselves seriously in reading the holy Scriptures, that thereby they may perfectly know all things which belong to Christian Religion, wherein they are bound to instruct others.  
There be divers conventicles, and houses of religious persons, both men & women, as Benedictines, Friars preachers, Franciscans, Augustine's, Bernardines, Antonians, joannites, Carthusians, Praemonstratentians, Carmelites, Cistertians, & many others, every one of which Orders, have distinct habits and customs different one from another, by the rules which they have privately set down, and prescribed for themselves to live under. And all of these profess perpetual chastity, obedience, and wilful poverty, & live for the most part a solitary life: for which cause they were called Monks, as men living a monastical kind of life. Some of these Orders have for their heads and governors of their houses and societies, Abbots: some Provosts, and some Priors, but the Bishops be only subject to the Bishop of Rome: most of these Orders we are hoods or cowls, though not all of one colour, and abstain wholly from flesh. Bishops when they offer up the sacrifice of the Mass, were commanded by that sacred Synod, to be attired in holy vestures; which for their perfection are borrowed out of the law of Moses: & of these garments be 15. to wit, the Sandals, the Amice, the long Albe that reacheth down to their ankles, the Girdle, the Stole, the Maniple, the purple Coat with wide sleeves, the Gloves, the Ring, the Linen garment called Castula, the Napkin or Sudary, the Pall or Cope, the Mitre, the Crozier staff, & a chair standing near the altar for him to sit in: of these 15. church-ornaments, six were made common, as well to other inferior Priests, as to Bishops, that is to say, the Amice, the long Albe, the Girdle, the Stole, the Manuple, & the Castula: besides these 15. sundry sorts of garments, the Pope (by the donation of the Emperor Constantine the Great) weareth in the celebration of the Mass, all the Robes used by the Emperors of Rome, as the scarlet coat, the short purple cloak, the sceptre, and the triple Diadem, and with these he is arrayed in the Vestry: when he saith Mass upon any solemn festival days, and from thence goeth to the Altar attended with a priest on his right side, and a Deacon on his left, before him goeth a subdeacon, with a book in his hand shut, two taper-bearers, & one with a censor burning incense: when he approacheth near to the Altar, he puts off his mitre, and kneeling down with his attendants upon the lowest step, pronounceth the Confitcor, or public confession of sinners, and then ascending up to the altar, he openeth the book and kisseth it, and so proceedeth to the celebration of all the ceremonies belonging to that sacrifice, the subdeacon reading the Epistle, and the deacon the Gospel.  
bishops, and all other eminent Priests, be likewise bound to praise God every day seven times, and to use one certain order and form of prayer, and not only to do so themselves, but to give commandment to all inferior Priests whatsoever, under their charge and jurisdiction to do the like, as to say Evensong in the afternoon, Compline in the twilight, Matins in the morning, and their hours at the first, third, sixth, and ninth hour of the day, and that all this (if it be possible) should be done in the Church, humbly kneeling or standing before the Altar, with their faces towards the East: The Lord's prayer, and the Apostles Creed were then used to be said, as they are now at this day.  
Saint Hierome (at the instance of Pope Damasus) distributed and digested the Psalms by the days, assigning to every hour his proper Psalms and their number, as nine at nocturns upon holy days, and 12. upon working days, for the laudes at Matins five, five at evensong, and at all other hours three: and it was chiefly he, that disposed and set in order the Gospels, Epistles, & all other things which as yet be read out of the old & new Testament, saving only the hymns. Damasus dividing the Choir of singing men into two parts, appointed them to sing in course the Anthems written by S. Ambrose Bishop of Milan, & added Gloria Patri to the end of every Anthem. The Toledan & Agathon Counsels allowed the lessons & hymns which be read before every hour: The prayers, grails, tracts alleluias, offertories, communions in the Mass, anthems, versicles, tropes, and other things sung and read to the honour of God in the office of the Mass, as well for the day as night, were penned by S. Gregory, Gelasius, Ambros. and divers others of the holy Fathers, not all at once, but at divers times.  
The Mass (for so is that sacrifice called) was celebrated at the first in that simple furniture and plain manner, as it is now used upon Easter Eue. Pope Celestinus added the Priest's manner of entrance to the altar, the Gloria in excelsis was annexed by Telesphorus, the hymn which begins et in terra, was composed by Hilary Bishop of Poitiers, and was afterwards by Symachus ordained to be sung.  
The salutations taken out of the book of Ruth, which the priest pronounceth 7. times in the Mass, by saying, Dominus vobiscum, were appointed by Clement & Anacletus: Gelasius disposed the rest to the offertory, in the Order they be now used, except the Sequentiae which are said after the Mass, and these Nicholas added, & the Apostles Creed which Damasus annexed unto them out of the Constantinopolitan council. The Sermon which is preached to the people, by the priest or deacon standing in a pulpit, upon holidays, was rather used by tradition, after the examples of Nehemias' or Esdras then instituted by any other, in which Sermon the people that be present at Mass, be admonished to communicate, as in duty they are bound, and that they should embrace mutual love, that they should be purged from their sins, & not be polluted with vices, when they receive the Sacrament of the altar: and for that cause he concludeth his Sermon, with the public confession of sinners: he declareth moreover unto them the contents of the old and new Testament, and putteth them in mind of the ten Commandments, the twelve Articles of our belief, the seven Sacraments of the Church, the lives and Martyrdoms of Saints, the holidays, and fasting days instituted and ordained by the Church, the vices and virtues, and all other things necessary for a Christian to know.  
Pope Gregory added the Offertory to the Mass, and Leo the Prefaces, Gelasius and Sixtus the greater and lesser Canons, and Gregory the Lord's prayer out of the Gospel of Saint Matthew: Martial, Saint Peter's Disciple, instituted, that Bishops should give the benediction: and Innocentius, that inferior Priests should offer the Pax: Agnus Dei was adjoined by Sergius, the Communion by Gregory, and the Conclusion, in these words, Ite, missa est, Benedicamus Domino, or Deo gratias, was invented by Pope Leo.  
The twelve Articles of our Faith, which the holy Apostles 
The Creed.  have commanded every one, not only to acknowledge, but most constantly to believe, be these following: The first, that there is one God in Trinity, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth: the second, That jesus Christ is his only begotten Son our Lord: the third, that he was conceived of the holy Ghost, borne of the Virgin Mary: the fourth, that he suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, dead, and buried: the fifth, that he descended into hell, and the third day rose again from the dead: the sixth, that he ascended into heaven, and that there he sitteth on the right hand of God the Father Almighty: the seventh, that he shall come again in glory to judge both the quick and the dead: the eight, that there is a holy Ghost: the ninth, that there is a holy Catholic Church: the tenth, that there is a Communion of Saints, and remission of sins: the eleventh, that there is a resurrection of the flesh: and the twelfth, that there is an eternal life after death in another world.  
The ten Commandments which were written with the finger of God, and delivered by the hands of his 
The 10. Commandments.  servant Moses, to the people of Israel, and which he willed us to observe and keep, be these following. The first, to believe, that there is one God: the second, not to take the name of God in vain: the third, to keep holy the Sabbath day: the fourth, to honour our fathers and betters: the fifth, to do no murder: the sixth, not to commit adultery: the seventh, not to steal: the eighth, not to bear false witness: the ninth, not to covet other men's goods: and the tenth, not to desire another man's wife, nor any thing that is his.  
The seven Sacraments of the Church, which be included 
The seven Sacraments.  in the last five Articles of our faith, and which the holy Fathers have commanded us to believe, be these following: First, Baptism, and this Sacrament heretofore (as it was established by a canonical sanction) was not ministered unto any, (unless upon very urgent necessity) but unto such as were aforehand well instructed in the faith, and sufficiently catechized and examined thereof seven sundry times, to wit, upon certain days in Lent, and upon the vigils of Easter, and Penticost, being the usual times for consecration in all Parishes. But this Sacrament being above all the rest most necessary unto salvation, and lest any one should depart out of this life, without the benefit thereof, it was ordained, that as soon as an infant was borne, he should have Godfathers procured for him, to be his witnesses or sureties, and that then the child, being brought by his Godfathers before the church door, the Priest, (standing there for the purpose) should demand of the child, before he dip him in the holy Font, whether he will forsake the Devil and all his pomps, and whether he steadfastly believe all the Articles of the Christian faith, and the Godfathers affirming on his behalf, the Priest bloweth three times in the Infant's face, and when he hath exorcized and catechised him, he doth these seven things in order unto the child: first, he putteth hallowed salt into his mouth, secondly, he anointeth his eyes, ears, and nostrils with earth moistened with his spittle, thirdly, (giving him his name after which he shall be called) he marketh him with the sign of the cross upon his breast and back with hallowed oil: fourthly, invocating the name of the blessed Trinity, the Father, Son, and holy Ghost, (in whose name all other Sacraments are ministered) three times, he dippeth or ducketh him into the water, or else poureth water upon him three times in form of a cross: five, (dipping his thomb into the holy Chrism) he signeth his forehead with the sign of the cross: sixtly, he covereth him with a white garment: and seventhly and lastly, putteth into his hands a burning candle.  
It was ordained by the Agathon Council, that jews before they were baptised, should be instructed in the Christian faith nine months, and fast forty days, and that they should refuse all their substance, make free their bondservants, and put from them their children, (if they had any such) as were circumcised after the law of Moses: and fo● those causes it is no marvel, that the jews be so hardly induced to receive the Sacrament of Baptism.  
2. The second Sacrament, is Confirmation, which is given only by the Bishop in the Church before the altar, to children of fourteen years of age or upwards, and if it may be, while they be fasting; in this manner: All the children which come to be confirmed, being there present with their godfathers, the bishop (having said a prayer over each of them) dips his thumb into moist Chrism, signing every one of their foreheads with the sign of the cross, In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the holy Ghost, and for their better remembrance, and to the end they should not require this Sacrament again, he giveth every one a blow upon his right cheek, and then the Godfathers (for fear lest the moist unction should run off or be wiped away through negligence or carelessness) bind their foreheads with a linen cloth, (which they bring with them for that purpose) and that cloth they may not put off until the seventh day after. And such force have the holy fathers attributed to this Sacrament, as if a man dislike of his name he took in his Baptism, in taking of this Sacrament he may have it changed into an other name by the Bishop.  
3. The third Sacrament is the Sacrament of holy orders, which in the primitive Church was likewise ministered by the Eishop, and that only in the month of December, but now it is ministered at six times in the year appointed for that purpose, that is to say upon the Saterdaies of all those 4. feasts called Ember weeks, which were ordained for that end, upon the Saturday called (Sitientes) which is the Saturday before passion Sunday, & upon the eve of the blessed Passover: and then to men only, and to such whose condition of life, bability of body, & quality of mind is sufficiently known and approved: There be seven orders of Priests or (according to some) nine, all of which (as the holy fathers have ever been of opinion) have imprinted in their hearts, by their holy orders, such special characters of grace, as they be ever after held holy & sanctified: which be singing men or organists, doorekeepers, readers; Exorcists, Priests, Ministers or Acolits, Subdecons, Deacons, Priests & Bishops, & yet it is held to be but one Sacrament, not many, by reason of the final office, which is to consecrate the Lords body: Every one of these nine orders of Priests hath his peculiar office in the Church, & ornaments allowed him by the Toledan council, to distinguish him from the rest, for the door keepers, or sextons are to defend and keep the Churches, and to open & shut them, and therefore a key is given unto them when they be ordained: to the readers that have power to read the old Testament, and holy histories, is given a book; the office of Exorcists is to dispossess such as be possessed with evil spirits, and have a book given unto them, wherein be contained those exorcisms for a mark to signify that office. The office of the Acolites is to set the candlesticks upon the Altar, and to light the tapers, as also to set in readiness the vyoles or pots of water, & to carry them away when mass is done, and therefore be they manifested by carrying a candlestick with a taper in it, and an empty vial or cruet. The Subdeacons' are to take the oblations to handle the chalice and patin, and make them ready for the sacrifice, and to administer wine and water to the Deacons in the vials, and therefore the Bishop giveth them a chalice and a patin, and the Archdeacon, cruets full of wine & water, and a towel. The Deacons proper function is to preach the word of God to the people, and to be assistant to the priests in the holy mysteries of the Church, and to them is given the book of the New-Testament & a stole cast cross over one shoulder like a yoke. The power of the priests is to consecrate the Lords body, to pray for sinners, and (by enjoining them penance) to reconcile them again unto God, and therefore is he honoured with a chalice full of wine, a patin with the host upon it, a stole hanging on both shoulders, and the linen garment called Castula. What is given to Bishops at their consecrations, you have heard before, and they be ever ordained & consecrated, about three of the clock on the Lord's day at the celebration of the office of the mass, before the reading of the Gospel, by three other Bishops whereof the Metrapolitan to be one, who do it by laying there hands, and a book upon his head: In the primitive Church there was little difference betwixt Bishops and other priests, for all of them by common consent did join together in the government of the Church, till such dissensions grew among them, as every one would call himself not of Christ, but rather of him by whom he was baptized, as one of Paul, an other of Apollo, a third of Cephas. And therefore for the avoiding of schisms, & maintaining an uniformity in the Church, the holy fathers though it necessary to establish a decree that all which should ever after be baptized should he called by one general appellation Christians, of Christ, and that every Province should be governed by one Priest, or more, according to the quantity & bigness, who for their gravity and reverence should be called Bishops, and they should govern and instruct both lay people & clergy that were under their charge, not after their own wills and pleasures as was used before, but according to the prescript rules, canons and ordinances of the Church of Rome and holy Counsels, and then by the permission & furtherance of good and holy Princes, all Kingdoms throughout the Christian world were divided into Dioceses, the Diocese into Shires and Counties, and they again into several parishes, which good and godly ordinance both for clergy and laity, is yet of that validity & estimation as the people of every village yield there obedience to their parish Priest, the parish Priest to the Dean, the Dean to the Bishop, the Bishop to the Archbishop, the Archbishop to the Primate or Patriarch, the primate or Patriarch to the Legate, the Legate to the Pope, the Pope to general counsels, and general counsels only unto God.  
4 The fourth Sacrament is the most wholesome Sacrament of the body & blood of our Lord & Saviour jesus Christ, & every priest that is duly called & ordained according to the rules of the Church, and intendeth to consecrate, may (by observing the usual form of words used in the consecration) make the true body of Christ of a piece of wheaten bread, and of wine his right and perfect blood. And this Sacrament the same Lord jesus Christ in the night before he suffered his bitter passion, did celebrate with his disciples, consecrating it, and ordaining that it should ever after be celebrated and eaten in remembrance of him. It behoveth every one that receiveth this Sacrament to be strong in faith, that he may believe and credit these thirteen things following: First that he believe the transmutation or transubstantiation of the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ: Secondly that though this be done every day, yet is not the body of Christ thereby augmented: Thirdly that the body of Christ is not diminished, though it be eaten every day: Fourthly that though this Sacrament be divided into many parts, that yet the whole and entire body of Christ remaineth in every little particle: Fiftly, that though it be eaten of wicked & malicious men, yet is not the Sacrament thereby defiled: Sixtly, that to those which receive it worthily, & as they ought, it bringeth salvation, & eternal damnation to those which receive it unworthily: Seventhly, that when it is eaten it converteth not into the nature & property of him that eateth it, as other meat doth, but rather converteth the eater into the nature of the Sacrament rightly, that being eaten it is taken up into heaven without hurt: Ninthly that in every little form of bread and wine is comprehended the great and incomprehensible God and Man Christ jesus: Tenthly that one and the same body of Christ is received and taken at one moment in divers places of divers men, and under a divers form: eleventhly, that the substance of the bread being turned into the true body of Christ, and the substance of the wine into his blood, the natural accidents of bread and wine do yet remain, and that they are not received in form of flesh and blood: Twelfthly, that unto those that eat it worthily, it bringeth twelve great commodities, which are expressed in these verses following.  
Inflammat, memorat, substentat, roborat, auget  
Hostin spem, purgat, reficit, vitam dat, & unit,  
Confirmat fidem, minuit, fomitemque remittit.  
The effect whereof is, that the host inflameth, remembreth, sustaineth, strengtheneth and augmenteth our hope. It purgeth, refresheth, quickeneth and uniteth: It confirmeth our faith and mitigateth and utterly quencheth in us all concupiscence.  
Lastly, that it is wonderful good and profitable for all those for whom the priest specially offereth it as a sacrifice, be they living or dead, and that therefore it is called the communion or Sacrament of the Eucharist: In the beginning of Christian religion, & yet in some places, there was consecrated at one time such a loaf of bread, as being afterwards cut into small mammocks by the priest, and laid upon a saucer, or plate, might well serve all the communicants that were present at the sacrifice, and at that time did Christians communicate thereof daily. And afterwards they were limited to receive it only upon sundays, but when the Church perceived that this sacrament was not taken every sunday so worthily and with such due observation as was sitting, it was ordained that every Christian man of perfect reason & understanding, should with all diligence he could, and with his best preparation both of body and soul, receive the same thrice a year, or at the least every year once at Easter, as also when he found himself in any danger of death, as a ready preparative against all perils, by which name it is often called.  
5 Matrimony (which is a lawful conjunction of man and wife, instituted and ordained by the law of God, the law of nature, & the law of nations) is the fifth Sacrament: and the holy fathers in Christian piety have commanded, that but one marriage shall be solemnized at one time, and that it shall not be done in secret, but publicly, either in the Church or Church-porch, but most commonly in the Church-porch, where the priest meeting the parties that are to be married, first asketh of the man, and then of the woman whether they be willing to be contracted, who answering that they are content and agreed (which is a thing most necessary in that Sacrament) he taketh them by the right hands, & joining them together in the name of the blessed and indevided trinity in unity, the Father Son, and holy Ghost, he admonisheth and exhorteth them, that being ever mindful of this union and holy communion they never after forsake one an other, but to live in mutual love, honour and obedience one to an other, that they should not desire one an others company for lust, but for procreation of children, and that they should bring up their children honestly, carefully, and in the fear of God, this done he marrieth them with the ring, and sprinkleth holy water on them, and then putting on his stole which is thither brought him, he leadeth them into the church, and causing them to kneel humbly before the Altar, there blesseth them (if they were not blessed before) the woman when she is married hath her hair tied up with a red fillet or headband, and a white veil over it, without which veil or head cover, it is never lawful for her after that time to go abroad, or to be in the company of men: There be twelve impediments that hinder marriage before it be solemnized, and dissolve it after it is contracted, that is to say, the error or mistaking of either party, the breach of some condition, kindred, a manifest offence, disparity of religion, violence or forcible ravishment from their parents, holy orders, breach of reputation, public defamation, affinity, and disability to perform the act of matrimony.  
6 The sixth Sacrament of the church is penance, which is given by Christ as a second repair of our shipwreck, and every Christian man is bound undoubtedly to belceve, that this Sacrament consisteth of these four things, to wit, repentance for sins past, canonical confession, absolution, and satisfaction: for he that will be partaker of this Sacrament must first of all repent & be sorrowful in his very soul, that through his grievous and heinous sins he hath lost that purity and innocency which he once had, either by the Sacrament of Baptism, or by this Sacrament formerly received, & his grief must be so hearty & effectual, as he must thereby assuredly hope to be reconciled again unto God, then must he humbly acknowledge, and make verbal recital unto some reverent priest his confessor (as unto the vicar and minister of God) of all these sins & offences, as were causers of the loss of that innocency, & stirred up the wrath of God against him, & then let him firmly believe, that such power and authority is given by Christ unto his priests & ministers on earth, that they can clearly absolve him from all such sins as he confesseth & is heartily sorry for. Lastly for a satisfaction & amends for all his sins, let him with alacrity & cheerfulness undergo & do whatsoever his confessor shall enjoin him, believing most steadfastly that he is absolved from all his sins, as soon as the priest hath pronounced the words of absolution.  
7 The seventh and last Sacrament is the Sacrament of extreme unction, which is ministered with oil, which for that purpose is yearly consecrated and hallowed in every Diocese by the bishop himself upon the thursday before Easter-Day as the holy Chrisine is consecrated by the priest. This Sacrament according to the council of the holy Apostle Saint james, & the institution of Pope Felix the 4. is ministered only to such as are at the point of death & of full age, and not then neither, unless they desire it, and by the prescript form & repeating of the words of the Sacrament, & often invocation of the Saints those parts of the body being anointed which are the seats of the five senses, seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling and touching, and are the chiefest instruments in offending, as the mouth, eyes, ears, nose hands and feet; the holy fathers have been ever of this opinion, and firm belief, that he which is so anointed & receiveth it worthily, is not only thereby remitted & purged from all his light and venial sins, but is either suddenly restored to his former health, or else yieldeth up his spirit in more tranquillity and peace of conscience.  
The festival days which were commanded to be observed in The festival days which were commanded to be observed in the Church throughout the year, begin with the 
The festival days, throughout the year.  Aduent of our Lord jesus Christ: In which by the institution of Saint Peter (in the month of December,) the continual exercise of fasting and prayer was commanded for full three weeks and a half together, before the feast of the Nativity of our Lord, with us called Christmas, which with all joy and solemnity is celebrated all the last eight days of December. The year is divided into 52. weeks, the weeks into twelve months, and every month (for the most part) into thirty days: upon the first day of january the Church celebrateth the circumcision of our Lord, according to the law of Moses: Upon the third day after is represented unto us, how our Saviour Christ, by the adoration of the three Kings, and his being baptized of john in the river jordane, laid the foundation of the new law: upon the second of February is showed how his immaculate mother, showing herself obedient to the ceremonies of the jews, presented her son jesus in the Temple, and was purified, in memory whereof there is on that day a solemn procession used by the Church, and all the tapers and wax lights be then hallowed: Upon the 25. day of March is represented unto us the Annunciation of the birth of Christ to the Virgin Mary, by the Angel; and how he was conceived in her womb by the inspiration of the holy ghost, at which time is commended unto us also the remembrance of the forty days, which our Saviour, when he lived here on earth amongst us, vouchsafed to fast, willing us likewise to fast that time after his example, & then to celebrate his passion and death, which willingly he offered himself to suffer, to enfranchise and redeem us from the thraldom and slavery of the devil. Upon the last day of which feast (which often falleth out in April) is solemnized the greatest of all feasts, how Christ having conquered death descended into hell; where after he had overcome the Devil he returned alive again to his Disciples and in a glorified body appeared unto them. In May is solemnized his Ascension into Heaven, by his own virtue in the sight of all his Disciples, at which time by the ordinance of Saint Mamertine Bishop of Vienna it was instituted that throughout the whole Christian world Pilgrimages and processions should be used upon that day from one Church to an other. In june, and sometimes in May is the feast of the coming of the Holy Ghost, who being before promised was on that day infused upon all the Disciples of our Saviour Christ appearing unto them in the form of fiery tongues; by virtue whereof they spoke and understood the languages of all nations. The eight day after is the feast of the blessed Trinity, and then out of the first decretal of Pope Vrban the sixth, the feast of Corpus Christi was instituted and with great solemnity generally celebrated the fifth day after Trinity Sunday, as a perpetual memorial of the most wholesome Sacrament of the body and blood of Christ, by him bequeathed unto us in his last supper, under the forms of bread and wine, and continually of us to be seen and eaten after his departure: upon the fifteenth day of july we are put in mind (by a new festivity) of the departure of the blessed Apostles according to their several alotment, the twelfth year after the ascension of our Lord into heaven, to preach the Gospel unto all nations of the world: The death of the Mother of Christ is celebrated the fifteenth day of August and her nativity the eight of September: How, being presented in the Temple, she continued in the daily service of God, from three years of age till she was marriageable, is showed the one and twentih day of november: upon the eight day of December the Church reverenceth her immaculate conception of her long barren parents. And the second of july how passing over the Mountains she visited her Cousin Elizabeth. There are likewise holidays dedicated to the memory of the twelve Apostles, of whom some were martyrs, some confessors, and some Virgins, as namely the twenty four of February to Saint Mathias, the twenty five of April to Saint Mark the Evangelist, on which day Saint Gregory ordained the litanies, called the greater litanies, to be said. To Saint Philip and jacob, the elder, the first of May, to Saint Peter and Paul, the twenty nine of june, the twenty four day of which month is dedicated to the nativity of Saint john Baptist, the twenty five of july to Saint james the younger, to Saint Bartholemew the twenty four of August, to S. Matthew the twenty one of September, the twenty eight of October to S. Simon and Jude, the last of November to Saint Andrew, the twenty one of December to Saint Thomas, and the twenty seven of the same month to the Evangelist Saint john, the next day before Saint john's day is dedicated to Saint Seeven, the first Martyr and the next after to the blessed Innocents': the tenth of August to Saint Laurence: the twenty three of April to Saint George: To Saint Martin and S. Nicholas only of all the confessors are dedicated particular feasts, to the one the sixth of December, to the other the eleventh of November: the twenty five of november to Saint Katherne the Virgin, and to Saint Mary-Magdalen the second of july. They have likewise appointed one day to be kept Holy and dedicated to all the blessed Angels, in the name of Saint Michells feast the Archangel and the first of November, as a general feast and common solemnity to all the Saints and elect of God.  
Furthermore upon every seventh day, called by the name of Sunday, they have commanded all Christians, (as the jews did on their Sabbath) to abstain from all servile labours, which day they must only spend in the service of God, and hearing of Mass in the Church, to hear the Gospel and precepts of faith explained and taught by the Priests in their Sermons, and to pray and make satisfaction to God for all such offences, whereby we have cause to fear that we have in the other six days any way provooked the wrath of God towards us. In times past every fifth day was in this manner kept holy, but lest we should seem to lean unto the custom of Idolaters, who on that day did sacrifice to jupiter, it was otherwise determined. Moreover the Priests and people did use every Sunday and Thursday, before Mass, to go on procession about the Church, and then the Priests sprinkled holy water upon the people, and this ceremony did Pope Agapite institute, in remembrance of the Ascension of Christ in that glorious day of his resurrection, which is celebrated with a perpetual festivity, Sunday after Sunday, as it were by so many Octaves all the year about. All the Clergy and people by the institutions of the Church, were wont to watch all those nights which went before the principal solemn feasts, but in respect of sundry enormous scandals and crimes committed in the dark, by lewd people, under pretext of watching, that use was taken away and prohibited, and instead thereof the day immediately before every such solemn feast, was commanded to be fasted, which fasting days do yet retain the name of Vigils.  
The ancient Fathers have determined, that the Church shall represent unto us four things in her yearly service, from Septuagesima sunday (so called of the seventy days included between that & Easter) the Church representeth unto us, the fast of our Lord jesus Christ, his passion, death and burial, and besides these, the miserable fall of our forefathers, as also those gross errors of mankind, through which being drawn from the knowledge and worship of the true God, they have fallen to the profane worship of Idols, and malicious devils, together with the slavish, and intolerable servitude, which the people of Israel were subject unto under Pharoa King of Egypt, for which cause the books of Exodus and Genesis are read in the service of the Church, which all that time weareth a mourning habit both in her service and ceremonies: from the Octaves of Easter, till the Octaves of Whitsuntide, the Church celebrateth the Resurrection and Ascension of Christ, and the coming of the Holy Ghost, and withal the redemption and reconciliation of mankind, to God the Father by his son Christ, of all which the Reduction of the children of Israel to the land of Promise was a figure; wherefore the books of the New Testament are then read, and all things express mirth and rejoicing. From the Octaves of Whitsunday till Aduent (which is twenty weeks and more) we are appointed to celebrate the miracles and conversation of our Saviour Christ, whilst he lived amongst us in the world, as likewise that long peregrination of mankind, from generation to generation, since the redemption of the world, even to the last day thereof; Wherefore in respect of the multitude of uncertainties, through which we are tossed like a ship in the raging sea, the Church exceedeth neither in joy nor sadness, but to the end that we should walk warily, and be able to resist all turbulent storms, she readeth for our instruction and heartening, diverse books of the New and Old Testament.  
Moreover, from the time of Aduent to the feast of the Nativity we are put in mind of the time betwixt Moses and the coming of the Messias, in which interim mankind being assured of their salvation by him, out of the law and Prophets, did with most ardent desire expect his coming and future reign over them, for which cause they have caused the Prophets to be read, and this time to be fasted, that the Church being instructed in the one, & exercised by the other, should both worthily and joyfully as it were with one continual solemnity, celebrate the nativity of Christ her Saviour (which always falleth the week after Aduent) till Septuagessima, receiving him into the world with all devotion, and with condign joy and exultation, accepting the first appearance of their saluamtion. The Oratories or Temples which are usually called Churches, they would not suffer to be erected without licence of the Bishop of the Diocese, whose office is (after all things necessary for the buildings be prepared, and the place where it shall stand agreed upon) to bless the first corner stone of the foundation, to put on it the sign of the cross, and to lay it Eastward towards the Sun rising, which done, it is lawful for the workmen to lay on lime, and to go on with their building. This Church is to be built after the form of man's body, or of a cross: The Choir in which the high Altar is to be placed, and where the Clergy do sing (whereof it is so called) must represent the head, and it is to be built towards the East, and to be made rounder and shorter than the rest of the building, and because the eyes are placed in the head, it is therefore to be made more lightsome, and to be separated from the body of the Church, with bars as it were with a neck: adjoining hereunto, must stand a steeple, or more properly two, on either side one, instead of ears, and in these aught bells to be hanged, to call and summon the people by their sound to divine service. The lower part of the building must be every way so disposed, as that it may aptly express and represent the arms and feet, and the rest of the body, with a convenient length and breadth. There aught to be also a private room with partitions, which is usually built under one of the Turrets, having a door opening into the Choir, in which the holy Vessels, ornaments and other necessaries belonging to the Church may be kept: This private room is called the Vestery. There must be two rows of pillars, upon the tops whereof the roof must rest and be supported; and the Altars must lean to the lower parts.  
The Altars are always to be decently covered with two linen clothes, having a cross set upon them, or a shrine, containing the Relics of Saints, two Candlesticks on each end, and a book. The walls both within and without must be fretted and carved with variety of sacred Images: In every parish Church there must be a hollow Font stone, in which the hollowed water to baptise withal is preserved and kept. Upon the right side of the Altar must stand a Pix or Custodia, which is either set up against the wall, or carved out of it, in which the blessed sacrament of Christ's body, holy oil to anoint the sick, & Chrism for those which are baptized, is to be kept fast shut up: Furthermore in the midst of the Church must be placed a pulpit, out of which the Curate on festival days teacheth the people all things necessary to salvation: The Clergy only are permitted to sit in the Choir, and the laity in the body of the Church, yet so divided, as that the men take place on the right side, and the women on the left, both of them behaving themselves modestly and devoutly, and diligently avoiding whatsoever is opposite to good manners and Christian religion: In the Primitive Church the manner was both for men and women to suffer their hair to grow long without cutting, and to show their naked breasts; nor was there much difference in their attire. Saint Peter the Apostle did first command, that men should cut their hair, and women should cover their heads, and both should be appareled in distinct habits: That there should be laid out to every Church a piece of ground, in which the bodies of Christian people, deceased, should be buried, which piece of ground is called the Churchyard, and is hallowed by the Bishop, and hath all the privileges belonging to the Church itself.  
The funerals of the departed are not solemnized in all places alike; for some wear mourning apparel seven days together, some nine, others thirty, some forty, some fifty, some an hundred, and some for the space of a whole year. The Toledan Council hath decreed, that the dead body shall be first washed and wrapped in a shroud or cerecloth, and so carried to the grave with singing by men of the same condition, as Priests by Priests, and lay folks by lay folk, and that a Priest should go before the corpse incensing it with Frankincense, and sprinkling holy water on it, and that it should be laid in the grave with the face upwards, the feet to the East, and the head to the west, the Priest using certain imprecations all the while the Sexton is covering the dead body with earth. And to show that a Christian is their buried their must be erected at the gate a cross of wood with a wreath of ivy cypress or bays about it. And these be the institutions of the Christian religion.   
The end of the second book.   

THE THIRD BOOK.  

Of the most famous countries of Europe the third book. CAP. 1.  
NEXT unto Asia order induceth me to speak of Europe, the third part of the world, which is so called of Europa the 
Europe why so called.  daughter of Agenor King of Phoenicia, who was ravished by jupiter & brought into Crect.  
It is bounded on the West with the Atlantic sea, with 
The limits of Europe.  the British Ocean on the North, on the East with the river Tanais, the pool of Maeotis, and the sea called Pontus (which is the Sea between Moeotis and Tenedos) and 
The commendations of Europe.  with the Mediterranean Sea on the South.  
The soil of Europe is of diverse sorts and qualities, very aptly befitting the virtue and disposition of the people of each several Province, every one transferring the commodities of their own countries unto other nations: for Europe is all habitable, some little part only excepted, which (by reason of the extremity of cold) can hardly be endured, which is that part that is nearest unto the river Tanais, and the pool of Meotis, as also those that dwell upon the banks of Borysthenes, which live altogether in Chariots.  
That habitablest part of the Region which is also extreme cold and mountainous, is very hardly inhabited, and difficult to dwell in, and yet all the difficulties and extremity thereof is well mitigated and appeased by honest and good governors, even as we see those greeks which dwell upon mountains and rocks, live indifferently well, by reason of their great care and providence of Civility, Arts, and understanding how to live.  
The romans also receiving unto them many people out of those cragged and cold countries, (or unfrequented for other causes) which naturally were barbarous, inhuman and insociable, have so reclaimed them, by mingling them with other people, as they have learned those rude and savage people to live together soberly and civilly.  
The Inhabitants of so much of Europe as is plain and hath a natural temperature, are apt to live orderly; for those which dwell in temperate and fortunate Regions, be quiet and peaceable, but the rough and difficult places are inhabited by quarrelous and cumbersome people, and yet all of them participate their commodities one with an another, some helping and furnishing others with weapons, some with fruits, and some with arts and instructions of manners; the inconveniences and hindrances which happen to those that use not this reciprocal aid is most apparent, for that the other by means of this mutual intercourse of commodities are of sufficient power & puissance to carry weapons, wage war, and defend themselves, so as they be never vanquished, unless by a greater number. And this commodity also is incident and natural to all Europe, as that it is plain and even, and distinguished with hills, whereby it is in all parts limited, well ordered, civil and valiant: and (that which is more) well disposed to live in peace and tranquillity: so as what first by the Grecian forces, next by the Macedonians, and lastly by the romans, no marvel though it hath achieved great conquests and notable victories, by which it plainly appeareth, that Europe is sufficient of itself, both for war and for peace, as having a competent and sufficient number of able fight men, and husbandmen and Citizens enough beside.  
Europe moreover aboundeth with the best fruits and those which be most profitable for man's life; and all manner of mettells whereof is any use, besides odours for sacrifices, and stones of great worth, by which commodities, both poor and rich have sufficient means to live: It yieldeth also great store of tame cattle, but very few ravenous or wild beasts.  
And this is the nature of Europe in general, the first Particular part whereof Eastward is Greece.   

Of Greece and of Solon's laws which he made for the Athenians and which were after established by the Princes of Greece. CAP. 2.  
GReece (a country of Europe) was so called of one Graecus, who had the government of that country: It beginneth at the 
The description of Greece.  straits of Isthmus, and extending north and south, lieth opposite to that part of the Mediterranean sea which is called Aegeum, on the East, and on the West to the sea jonium: as the hill Apennyne divideth Italy in the middle, so is Greece separated and divided with Mountains called Thermopilae, the tops of the hills stretching 
Thermopilae.  in length from Leucas and the Weasterne sea, towards the other sea which is Eastward.  
The utmost hills towards the west be called Oeta, the highest whereof is named Callidromus, in whose valley there is a way or passage into the Maliacan gulf, not above threescore paces broad, through which way, (if no resistance be made) a whole host of men may be safely conducted: but the other parts of those hills be so steep, craggy and intrycate as it is not possible for the nimblest footman that is to pass over them: there hills be called Thermopilae, of the piles or banks that stand like gates at the entrance of the hills, and of the hot waters that spring out of them: by the sea side of Greece lie these regions, Acarnania, Aetolia, Locris, Phocis, Boeotia and 
The Region of Greece.  Eubaea, which are almost annexed to the land: Attica and Peloponesus run further into the sea than these other countries do, varying from the other in proportion of hills: and upon that part which is towards the North it is included with Epirus, Phirrhaebia, Magnesia, Thessalia, Phithiotae and the Malican gulf.  
The most famous and renowned city of Athens, the nurse of all liberal sciences and Philosophers, (than the 
Athens, and why so called.  which there is no one thing in all Greece of more excellency and estimation,) is situated betwixt Achaia and Macedonia, in a country there called Attica, of Atthis the King's daughter of Athens, who succeeded Cecrops in the kingdom and builded Athens.  
Of this Cecrops it was called Secropia, and after Mopsopia of Mopsus. And of jan the son of Xutus, or (as josephus writeth) of janus the son of japhet, it was called jonia: and lastly Athens of Minerva, for the greeks call Minerva Athenae: Draco was the first that made laws 
Dracoes' laws to the Atheninians.  for the Athenians, many of which laws were afterwards abrogated by Solon of Salamin, for the too severe punishment inflicted upon offenders: for by all the laws which Draco ordained, death was due for every little offence, in such sort as if one were convicted but of sloth or Idleness, he should die for it, and he which gathered roots or fruits out of an others man's grounds, was as deeply punished as those which had murdered their parents. Solon divided the city into societies, tribes or wards, according 
The city of Athens divided into societies by Solon.  to the estimation and valuation of every one's substance and reveneus, In the first rank were those whose substance was supposed to consist of five hundred medimni: those which were worth three hundred medimni, and were able to breed and keep horses, were counted in the second order, and those of the third degree were equal in substance to the second, the charge of keeping horses only excepted: And of these orders were all magistrates and high officers (for the most part) ordained, and, those which were under these degrees were in the fourth rank, and were called mercenary, and were excluded from all offices, saving that they might have the charge of pleading and deciding causes: This institution of civil government, Servius Tullius is supposed to have followed and imitated at Rome.  
Moreover Solon appointed a Senate or Council consisting of yearly Magistrates, in Areopagus: (though 
The councellin Areopagus.  some have reported that Draco was the founder of that assembly) And to the end that he might take away all occasion of civil dissension, that might happen at any time afterwards, and that the inconsiderate multitude should not trouble the judicial sentences, by their doubtful acclamations, (as usually they did,) out of those four tribes that were then in Athens, he made choice of four hundred men, an hundred out of every tribe, giving them power to approve the acts and decrees of the Arreopagites, if they were agreeable to equity, if otherwise to council them and annihilate their doings: by which means the state of the city (stayed as it were by two sure anchors) seemed secure, unmovable and of likelihood to continue: if any were condemned for parricide, or for affection and usurping the chief government, they were excluded (by Solon's law) from bearing rule, and not there only, but all those also were barred and prohibited to bear offices, that if any sedition were set a foot in the city, stood neuter, and took neither part: for he thought it an argument of a bad Cittyzen, not to be careful of the common good and peace of others, when he himself hath settled his own estate and designs in safety: Amongst the rest of Solon's acts this is most admirable, whereby he granted liberty that if any woman had married 
A strange law for women.  a man unable to beeget children, she might lawfully, and without controlment, depart from him and take unto her any one of her husband's kindred whom she liked best.  
He took away all use of mony-dowries from amongst them, so as a woman might take nothing with her from 
Money dowries forbidden.  her fathers, but a few clothes and other trinkets of small worth, signifying thereby, that marriages should not be made for money, but for love and procreation of children, lest their evil life might be a blot and skandall unto them after their deaths.  
If any man slandered his neighbour, either at the solemnisation of their divine ceremonies, or at their sessions and public assemblies, he was fined at four drachmas: 
Against slanderers.  He granted power and authority unto Testators, to dispose and bequeath legacies of money, and goods amongst whom they pleased: whereas before (by the custom of the country) they were not to bequeath any thing from their own families, and by this means friendship was preferred before kindred, and favour before alliances: Nevertheless this was done with such caution and provision, that no one could grant such legacies, being moved thereunto either through their own frantic madness, or by the subtle and undermining persuasions of other, but merely of his own accord and good discretion.  
He forbade all mournings and lamentations at other men's funerals, and enacted that the son should not be bound to relieve his father, if his father had not brought him up in some art, or profitable occupation: nor that bastards should nourish or relieve their parents, and his reason was this, that he which forbeareth not to couple with a strumpet, giveth evident demonstration, that he hath more care of his own sensual pleasures then of the procreation of children, and thereby he becometh unworthy of reward or relief of such children, if the fall into poverty.  
Besides these, Solon judged it meet, that the adulterer 
The punishment for adultery.  apprehended in the deed doing, might lawfully be slain: and that he that forced and ravished a freeborn Virgin, should be fined at ten Drachmas. He abrogated and took away their ancient custom of selling their daughters and sisters, unless they were convinced of whoredom: and amongst others of his acts and decrees, these are likewise to be found: that whosoever was victor in the games of Istmos, was rewarded with an hundred Drachmas: and he that got the best in the games of Olympus, had five hundred: He that killed a Dogge-wolfe, had five Drachmas out of the common treasury: but he that killed a Bitch-wolfe had but one: for the reward due for slaying the Dogge-wolfe was the worth of an Ox, and the price of a sheep for killing the she-wolf: and their ancient manner was to persecute these kind of beasts, as enemies to their cattle and grounds.  
He ordained that the children of such as were slain in the wars, should be brought up at the common charge, 
A law for the maintenance of soldiers children.  (that men by that means, being assured that their children should be cared for, though themselves miscarry, might be more thoroughly encouraged to fight, and behave themselves valiantly and venturously:) commanding also, that those which lost their eyes in the wars, should ever after be sustained by the common purse: and withal 
A law for the benefit of Orphans and Wards.  he very worthily provided, that the overseeers or they that had the ward of Orphans should not keep together in the same house with the children's mothers, and that none should be guardians that might by possibility inherit the Orphans goods, if they should hap to die during their nonage and wardship. Furthermore he forbade all jewellers to reserve in their custody the stamp or seal of any ring, after they had sold it. And that he which putteth out an others eye should lose both his own eyes: adjudging it also a capital offence for any one to take up that which is none of his own and keep it to himself.  
Furthermore he established that Princes or rulers being found drunk, should be punished with present death: advising the Athenians likewise, to reckon and account their days according to the course of the Moon.  
Of all fruits and commodities, he only permitted wax and honey to be transported out of Attica into other countries: and he esteemed no man meet or worthy to be made free of the City, unless he were an artificer and would with his whole family come dwell at Athens, or such as were doomed from their native soil to perpetual exile and banishment: These laws being engraven and recorded in wooden tables, were by Solon established to continue for a hundred years, presuming that if the City were so long enured with them, they would ever after remain without alteration: but Herodotus is of opinion that these laws which Solon made for the Athenians, were enacted but for ten years continuance.  
Now that these laws might be esteemed more sacred and be more carefully observed and kept. Solon, after the manner of other lawgivers which fathered their statutes and decrees upon some one god or other, as Draco had done before him, avouched that Minerva was the author and inventor of his laws, and so caused both the Senators and people to swear themselves to the performance thereof, at a stone which stood in the Senate-house.  
The Athenians were not strangers at the beginning, 
The original of the Athenians.  nor was their City first inhabited by any rabble of wandering people, but in the same soil they now inhabit, their were they borne, and the self same place which is now their seat and habitation, was also their original and foundation.  
The Athenians were the first that taught the use of clothing, and of oil, and of wine, instructing those 
Their inventions.  which formerly fed upon acorns, how to plow, plant, sow and gather fruits: In a word, Athens may justly be termed the temple and sanctuary of learning, eloquence and civil conversation.  
The three laws which Secrops enacted against women, 
The three laws made by Cecrops against women.  (for the appeasing of god Neptune's wrath, for that by women's suffrages Neptune was scorned, and Minerva preferred before him) were then in force and observed, which were these. First, that no woman should enter into the Senate-house. Secondly, that no child should be called after his mother's name, and the third that no one should call women Athenians, or women of Athens, but women of Africa.  
Those which were slain in the wars (according to 
How the Athenians bury those which are slain in the wars.  Thucydides) were buried in this manner following. First they pitched up a tent, or pavilion three days before the funerals, wherein were put the bones of those which were slain, every one laying some thing (what he thinketh fittest) upon his dead friends relics, thereby to know him again, then were the bones of all those which were slain of each several tribe, enclosed in chests, or coffins made of cypress tree, and every coffin carried by a several coach, or car belonging to the tribe, whereof the dead parties were: after this there was an empty bed, or hearse brought with them, purposely for such as were missing, and could not be found amongst the slain bodies, which done, all those which were present, as well Citizens as strangers, indifferently, conveyed them forth, and interred them in a public monument, or sepulchre near unto Calistus tomb, in the suburbs of the City (the women all the while weeping and lamenting the loss of their friends) which is the usual place for burial of all such as perish 
Marathron is a city not far from Athens.  in battle: unless they were of the City of Marathron who for their singular and extraordinary valour and prowess were entombed in their own City.  
When they were thus interred, some one choice Citizen, esteemed for his wisdom, and by reason of his dignity and worth fit for such an employment, was elected and assigned, to pronounce a funeral oration, or sermon, in the due commendation of those which were slain: which being ended every one departed to his several home.  
And this was there usual form of burial of such as were slain in the wars.   

Of Laconia and of the customs and ordinances of the Laconians or Lacedæmonians. CAP. 3.  
LACONIA (a Province in Peloponesus) is also called Ocbalia, and Lacedemonia, of Lacedaemon the son of jupiter and Taygete, by whom a famous and mighty City was builded in that country, and called after his name Lacedaemon: This City was likewise called Sparta of Spartus the son of Phoroneus, and was the Palace or Court of Agamemnon.  
When Lycurgus that famous Philosopher, brother unto 
Lycurgus' law given to the Lacedæmonians.  King Polydictes, governed in Laconia, (as tutor or protector unto his brother Polydictes son) he altered the state of that City and Country, and adorned them with wholesome laws and good ordinances, the people whereof before his time were the worst mannered, and had the 
Eight and twenty Elders elected, Democratia.  least government (both in their own carriages & towards strangers) almost of all the people of Greece, as using no commerce, custom nor conversation with other people.  
Lycurgus therefore courageously taking the matter upon him, abrogated and disannulled all their ancient laws, ordinances and customs, and in their steed instituted laws more civil and much more laudable: And first he elected certain of the most ancientest, wisest & sagest men of all the commonwealth, to consult and advise with the Kings (whereof there were ever two created) of all matters of state and government, which were chosen of purpose to be Arbitrators and indifferent umpires betwixt the power of the Kings, and the force of the multitude, to the end that neither the one should rebel through contumacy and stubborness, nor the other oppress by reason of their government and greatness: of these Seniors or elders (according to Aristotle) there were eight and twenty, who were ever assisting and aiding the Kings, carefully providing that neither the government of the people should be of two great force, nor that the Kings should tyrannize over the commons, and that all the rest of the multitude should be made acquainted with whatsoever was decreed by this order.  
Many years after this, unto the government of the 
Olygarchia or government of the Tribunes,  people was added the power and authority of the Ephori, or Tribunes (which were Protectors of the liberties and benefits of the commons against the power of the Nobles) which kind of government in the Greek tongue is called Oligarchia, that is the government of a few: and this manner of government was purposely ordained as a bridle, or restraint unto the administration of the Kings and Elders when they seemed over violent and outrageous towards the commons, and was annexed unto the other, in the hundredth year after the death of Lycurgus, when Theopompus reigned in Lacedemonia.  
One institution ordained by the Olygarchia, or Protectors of the commons, was the division of their grounds, for those Protectors persuaded the multitude of the commons, that every one should yield up all the grounds they formerly had in their possession & occupation, & that them to each one should be distributed an even & equal portion. For their opinion was that every Citizen should contend to excel others in virtue and understanding, and not in riches and rioting. The whole land was therefore divided into nine and thirty thousand parts, the fields adjoining 
The division of their land by the Olygarthy.  to the City and belonging to the City into nine thousand, and the rest of the land which lay in the country, and was occupied by farmers, was three times as much & more: so that every portion was such as would yield seventy measures of corn called Medimni yearly to a man, and to a woman twelve. Lycurgus was once in a mind to make like division of all movable goods, but fearing the envy that for that cause might ensue (for many seemed to take it discontentedly) he forbore to do it, 
The use of money prohibited and iron money made.  yet he utterly took away all use both of silver and gold from amongst them, and brought in iron money, and stamping it cross wise like the letter X commanded that it should be of little value, whereby all occasion of stealing was avoided: and to the end that the iron, whereof that money was coined, should not be desired for other purposes, he caused it when it was burning and glowing hot, to be quenched with vinegar, that being thereby mollified and softened, it might serve to no other use: This done he rejected all arts, as things mere unprofitable and frivolous, which were then easy to be rejected, for the use of silver and gold being once prohibited, the artificers departed thence of their own accord, considering that iron coin would stand them in no steed in other places.  
After this (that he might utterly extirpate and root out of the City all ryotting and excess) he instituted public feasts, wherein he commanded that both poor and rich should sit and eat together in one place, and at one table, without difference or exception of persons: And if any came to that diet, in that public place, so gallant and gorgeous that his queasy stomach would not serve him to eat with such companions, or that he would not be pleasant at his meat, he was chidden and reviled of all those that sat at the Table with him, as an unthrift, and a waster, by which ordinance all pomp and sumptuousness was utterly avoided: at this institution the great and wealthy men began to grudge and repine, and were so much incensed against him, as in a rage they violently rushed upon him and struck out one of his eyes with a staff, whereupon he ordained that no Spartan whatsoever, should ever after that time come to meat with any staff or other weapon. This their manner of dieting together, they called (Philias) which is as much to say as friendship, for doubtless it was an argument of public friendship and great humanity, and might well be termed (Phiditia) that is fellowship, or fraternity: besides that by this their dieting together, they were very much given to sparingness and parsimony.  
Those which by reason of their sacrificing, or hunting were absent from their meals, were permitted to dine and sup at home, but all others ought to be there present, all excuses set apart, and every one allowed for the upholding and maintaining of this common diet, yearly, a certain measure full of fine meal or flower called Medimnum, eight measures called (Corus) full of wine, five pounds of cheese and two pound and a half of figs.  
Children also frequented this common banqueting place, as the school or university of temperature and all civil discipline, for there they accustomed to commune and confer together soberly ad discreetly, their they learned to jest and board pleasantly and merrily, and to quip and taunt one an other without scurility or offence.  
The Spartans' in their wiving, and accompanying with women (by reason of their continual wars) regarded not chastity, so much as procreation and increase of issue, and the husbands were so loving and 
Men called their wives their mistresses.  obsequious to their wives, as they would call them their mistresses.  
Maids practised and exercised themselves in running, wrestling, throwing stones, slinging and darting, that 
maids exercises.  (flying and shunning idleness, and all womanish niceness) they might be thereby more strong and lusty, and better able to endure the pains of childbearing: in doing which exercises, they went naked like boys in sight of all men, and would dance and sing at solemn feasts in the presence of young men: which nakedness was neither inconvenient, nor dishonest, for they were covered with shamefastness, without the least touch of impudence or wantonness: and hereof ensued a towardness and natural aptness in the women of Laconia, for any action: They which lived single and were never married, were excluded from those public games and exercises of naked virgins, and (the more to disgrace them) were constrained to go naked themselves about the market place in the winter season, lest they should have as much honour, and estimation with young men as those had which were married.  
The marriageable virgins were married, or rather stolen away perforce, and the bride being conducted into her chamber, sheared the hair of her head close to the skin, and then the bridegroom going in to her, unlooseth her girdle, and accompanieth with her in the night time only, without once seeing her in the day time, before he hath got her with child. The care and regard of their children and issue was committed to worthy men, and it was lawful for any old man (for cause of increase and procreation) 
Old men that had young wives permitted young men to lie with them.  to bring some young man that was honest and well thought of, to lie with his wife, and if she conceived with child by the stranger, he would repute it as his own child, and bring it up as his own, nor was it accounted a shame for any to persuade such old men that had chaste wives, and fit to bring forth children, that they might be with them to bring forth seed out of so good a soil: for they laughed at the folly of some people, that would put their mares and bitches to couple with the best makes they could get, (of their kind) sometimes for hire, and sometimes for love and favour, and to keep their wives so warily under watch and ward, that none might lie with them but themselves: whereby their issue be either mad and distracted, or otherwise very weak and feeble, unfit for any exercise.  
Parents might not be allowed to educate and bring up their own children themselves; but so soon as they were borne, they were brought into the streets amongst the people, unto a certain place there called (jeschen) where they were nourished, until they were of some stature, and then the forms and lincaments of their bodies, were perused by certain overseers, and whosoever was allowed by these overseers, had assigned unto him one of those 9000. portions of ground, into which the soil belonging to the city was divided: but those which were weak and deformed, wear brought unto a steep rock not far from Taygetum, called Apotheca, where they were thrown down headlong as unprofitable for the commonwealth. The women used not to wash their children with water, but with wine, by the application of which liquor, it is most certain, that their bodies would be weakened and made feeble, if they were any wise subject to the falling evil, nor would they apply any thing to them, to strengthen and keep their natural heat, nor wrap them in swathing clothes, or use them to whittles, or rattles, but brought them up in solitary and dark places, and therefore (by reason of this severe education) many people of other nations would have their children nourished and brought up by Lacedaemonian nurses.  
These children when they accomplished the age of seven years, began to exercise themselves in the company of their equals, and to get such learning as was necessary for them, attaining to all other disciplines by their own industry and endeavour, they were shorn and shaven to the skin, and went barefooted, and bare legged, and when they were twelve years of age, they allowed them one cote, but they were prohibited baths, and all things else that might nourish their natural heat: the beds whereupon they took their rest, were made of reeds, wherein (in the winter time) they accustomed to put a kind of thistles which they called Licophona's. There was one created and ordained to be governor and tutor over the children, whom they called Iren: this Iren taught them of the bigger sort, to get and provide wood and fuel, and the lesser sort to steal and carry it away, to intrude themselves into the company of their betters, when they were at their banquets, and from thence to filch and purloin what they could get, and those which were apprehended and taken in the deed doing were whipped and driven away, not for because it was an offence to steal, but for that they did it not warily and advisedly. Some he would command to sing, some other to propose subtle and witty questions, the answerers whereof must be both sharp and sudden, and if any were found negligent in performing their exercise, the Iren would bite them hard by the thumb in the way of correction. Moreover, they were taught to use grave speeches, but such as were mixed with some mirth: and in few words to comprehend whole sentences, in such manner as it was an usual proverb to say, That it is more easy to play the Philosopher, then to imitate the concise manner of speaking of the Lacedæmonians.  
It is worth the labour to express and set down the exercises of each several age, and what contention and emulation was amongst them, who should most excel in virtue. The whole people were distinguished into three companies or quires, according to their ages, and first, the troop or assembly of old men, (when in their solemn sacrifices they began to sing) pronounced with a shrill voice these words following, We were once young and lusty, to whom the young men following after, make this answer, And we now are young and lusty, and thereof you shall make trial if you please. And lastly, the Choir of children coming hindermost, pronounce and say, We shall once be as good as you and better.  
Plutarch reports, that a certain modulation and measure in music, which was observed and practised by the Laconians, continued until his time, and which they were accustomed to sing to their flutes or pipes, when they set upon their enemies. Thucydides also (the reporter of this Laconian institution) hath written, that those musical songs, and harmony set unto their flutes, were used in the wars, but he denieth, that they were used in any ceremonies of Religion, or for the performance of divine service, nor yet thereby to encourage men's minds, or to incite and provoke them to fight, (as the horns and trumpets were wont to do amongst the romans) but that at their meeting together, they might enter into the battle by little and little, as it were, with equal and measured paces, and not to suffer their orders and ranks to be broken or scattered.  
There is a verse extant of the Lacedaemonian Poet, whereby it appeareth, that the Spartans' used not only the fluite and pipe in the on set of their battles, but the musical sound and consent of the harp also. Which custom may seem to be derived from the Cretans.  
Herodotus writeth, that Haliattes' King of Lydia, in the wars he made against the Milesians, had not only pipers and minstrels in his camp, to delight his ear, but (a thing unfit to be reported, because it seems somewhat incredulous) the daintiest fare that could be gotten by any possible means whatsoever. The romans (besides the noise of horns and trumpets) began their battle with exceeding great clamour and shouting of soldiers, which is far different from that which Homer writeth of the people of Achaia: For they (saith he) guarding and defending their forces, enter into the battle with quietness and silence.  
The Frenchmen (as Polybius and Livy report) use dancing, tripping of the toe, and shaking their shields over their heads: and there be some barbarous people that enter into battle with howling and crying: by which variety of customs we may gather, that but few other nations follow and imitate the Spartans' in their consorts and symphony in music, which they use in their wars.  
Moreover, the Spartans' fashion was to keep their hair and beards long from their youth, according to that memorable and worthy saying of the Lawgiver himself, which was, That men's bodies be much more beautiful and comely, when their heads be thick grown with hairs, and smoothly combed, then otherwise they would be, if their hair were shaggy, rugged, uncombed, and neglected.  
The King when he beginneth battle, sacrifiseth a she-goat to the Muses: They use one certain and strict kind of living, both at home, and in the wars: For they held, that they were not borne only to themselves, but for the good of their Country: They practised no gainful and commodious arts, but were wholly employed in the study of matters belonging to martial discipline; spending their spare time in solemn banquetings, by which means it came to pass, that (as Plutarch hath very well noted) the Spartans' never would; or if they would, yet they knew not how to live privately, with a self-regard, but were wholly devoted to the common good of their country.  
The Spartans as they differed from all other nations 
The manner of electing officers.  in many other things, so did they in giving their voices for electing of Officers: For there were a few picked out from the rest to undergo this business, who were enclosed in a Chamber next adjoining to the Council-house, where they should neither see nor be seen of any, and then as the names of the Competitors were particularly drawn out one after another, and at happe-hazard they did diligently mark and observe the applause and assent of the people unto every name, advisedly noting and setting down in a table, who had the greatest applause, and who the least, which being afterwards openly read, it was thereby known which of the competitors had the most voices.  
Furthermore Lycurgus was the first that (removing all superstition) permitted the Citizens to bury the dead bodies in the city, allowing them plots of ground about the Temples, wherein to erect their monuments: but it was not lawful for any one to engrave or imprint the name of either man or woman upon their sepulchre, but the names of those only which were manfully slain in the wars: nor to lament for those which were dead above the space of eleven days.  
The citizens moreover were restrained from traveling into other countries, lest they should bring into their city strange customs and manners: and all strangers and travelers which arrived there, were barred and excluded from out their city, (unless their presence were profitable to the commonwealth;) jest (as Thucydides saith) foreign nations should learn, and be partakers of the Laconian discipline, which may justly be termed a very inhuman part; or else (as Plutarch writeth) lest by the mutual concourse and passage too and fro of strangers, new speeches and languages might creep into the city, from whence might proceed new judgements, and dissonant desires, which to the commonwealth would be matters most pernicious and dangerous. Young men he allowed to wear but one coat throughout the whole year, nor might any one go finer, or fare more daintily than others did. He commanded, that nothing should be bought with ready money, but by exchange of wares and commodities: & that children (when they were of the age of twelve or fourteen years) should not be suffered to come into the marketplace or chief part of the city, but were brought into the fields, to the end they should not spend the prime of their youth in luxury and wantonness, but in labour and painfulness, ordaining that they should have nothing laid under them to sleep upon, and that they should eat no pottage nor gruel, nor once return into the city before they were men.  
He ordained also, that maids should be married without portions, to the end that none should covet wives for their wealth, and that husbands might carry the more severity over their wives, when they could not upbraid them with the greatness of their portions, and how much they were advanced by them: that men should be esteemed honourable, not for their riches and greatness, but for their age and gravity; for old age was held in more reverence and reputation amongst the Spartans', then in any other country beside.  
To the Kings he granted power over the wars: to the Magistrates, judgements and yearly successions: the keeping and custody of the laws to the Senate, and to the people, power and authority both to elect the Senate, and to create Magistrates whom they pleased.  
Now for because these new laws and institutions (all former customs being dissolved and abrogated) seemed very harsh and difficult, he feigned, that Apollo of Delphos was the author and inventor of them, and that from thence (at the commandment of that god) he brought them to Sparta, thinking thereby, that the fear and reverence of religion, would vanquish all tediousness and irksomeness of using them. And finally, (to the end his laws might remain and continue to all eternity) he bound and obliged the citizens by an oath, that they should alter none of those laws which he had made and established for them, until he himself returned back unto them; alleging, that he intended to go to Delphos, to ask counsel of the Oracle there, what he should alter or add to his laws, which done, he took his journey to Crete, and there lived in perpetual exile, commanding, when he lay upon his 
Lycurgus' exiled himself voluntarily.  deathbed, that as soon as he was dead, his bones should be cast into the sea, lest by any chance they might be conveyed to Lacedaemon: whereby the Spartans' might suppose themselves absolved and released from that oath which they had taken, not to alter those laws before his return unto them.  
It is not amiss in this place to describe, and set forth, what honours and dignities the Spartans' were wont to give to their Kings. And first, they had two Orders or Estates of Priests, attending upon them to do sacrifices, one of the Lacedaemonian jupiter, and the other of the celestial jupiter: and their law of arms was, that upon what people or country the Kings intended to make wars, it rested not in the power of any of the Spartans', to prohibit or gainsay it: for if they did, they offended so heinously, as they would hardly purge themselves: that in their marching and setting forward to the wars, the kings should go foremost, and be last in the retreat. And that they should have an hundred choice and select men to be their guard: that in their expeditions and setting forward on their voyages, they might have what beast they would for sacrifice, and that they might take to themselves the hides and skins of the beasts that were offered. And these were their privileges in the wars. And the honours and dignities attributed unto them in time of peace, were these, when in their Commonwealth, any banquets were made for the death of any great man, the Kings should sit down first, and be first served, and that they two alone should have betwixt them twice as much meat, as all those that sat with them, besides the skins of all beasts sacrificed. Moreover, in the Kalends of every month, they had each of them a beast given them from out the revenues of the city, to be sacrificed to Apollo, a measure of fine wheat flower called Medimnum, containing six Modia, and a measure of wine, called a Laconian quart.  
In the beholding of single combats, the Kings preceded and governed certain places, having for their assistants what Citizens they pleased: And each king might choose two Pitheans, which were such as were wont to be sent to Delphos to ask counsel of the Oracle, and these did commonly diet with the Kings. The King's allowance when they came not to meals in the usual place, was, two measures full of fine flower called Chaenices, or Chaeniae, (which is much about half one of our pecks) and a measure full of wine called Cotyla, that is as much as Sextarius, (which is about a pint and an half English:) but when they were present, they had double in quantity as much of every thing as all the rest that sat with them.  
The Kings were to determine who should be husbands of orphan maids, whose parents were deceased, whether he to whom the father bequeathed her, or he on whom the mother bestowed her: they had power also over common ways, and over such as made adopted sons against the king's minds: they had seats in the Council or Senate-house, (which consisted of 28. Senators,) wherein they might sit at their pleasures: but if they would not come thither, then two of the Senators which were most near and dear unto them, represented their persons, and had power to pronounce to voices or suffrages for the Kings, and two other for themselves. And such were the honours and dignities given to the Kings, by the Commonwealth of Sparta, while they lived, and when they were dead, these following.  
First, certain horsemen proclaimed and divulged the King's death, throughout all Laconia: the like was done also by certain women which walked up and down about the city, striking and beating upon pots or kettles: which done, there must of every house two, (one man and one woman, and both freeborn) be stained, soiled, and defiled with weeping and lamenting, which if they refused to do, they were severally punished.  
The Lacedæmonians used the same orders in their King's Funerals, as the barbarous people of Asia did: for in this manner did most of those barbarous people bury their Kings.  
The death of the King being thus divulged, the citizens of Sparta summoned all their friends and kinsfolks out of all the Country of Lacedemonia to the funeral. And after many thousands both of them and of their servants, as also of the Spartans' themselves, were there assembled, (both men and women mingled together:) they lamented and wept, beating and striking upon their foreheads, and roaring, and howling most bitterly, concluded their lamentation with this saying: That this last deceased king was the best of all their kings. And if any of their kings were slain in the wars, they fashioned and portrayed an image like unto him, and (laying it upon a bed very richly furnished) spent some ten days in the interring thereof, during which time there was continual vacation and ceasing from prosecuting laws, and exercising justice in places judicial, nor was there any Sessions of Magistrates or Officers in all that time, but continual lamentation and bewailing. And in this the Lacedæmonians agreed with the Persians: for when the Lacedaemonian King was dead, he which succeeded him, pardoned and released every Spartan of all his debt, what ever it was, that he owed either to the King or Commonwealth. And so likewise in Persia, he which was newly created king, remitted and forgave unto all the Citizens their tribute which they owed.  
In this also the Lacedæmonians imitated the Egyptians: for in Lacedemonia, as well as in Egypt, both Criers, Minstrels and Cooks succeeded their fathers in their arts and occupations,; so as a Cook was begot by a Cook, a Trumpeter by a Trumpeter, and a Crier by a Crier. Nor did any intrude themselves into another man's function or calling, but persevered and continued in their father's trade and vocation.   

Of the I'll of Crete, and of the customs most common amongst the Cretensians. CAP. 4.  
CRETE, (which is also called Candy 
The discipline of Crete. ) is an Iland-situated in the Mediterranean sea, and very famous and renowned for having in it an hundred Cities. This Island (as Strabo writeth) is compassed upon the north with the Aegean & Creetish sea, and with the Libican or African sea upon the South: it lieth towards Egila, and Cythera upon the west, and hath upon the East the I'll Carpathus, which lieth in the midst betwixt Rhodes and Crete.  
The whole Island containeth in length two hundred and seventy miles, and fifty miles in breadth: and the circuit or compass round about the Island, is five hundred, eighty and eight miles. The most renowned Cities of Crete, be Gortyna, Cydonea, Cnossus, and Minois or Minon, which is the King's seat: And of all the hills in the country, the hill Ida is most famous, as being of an exceeding and wonderful height, the length whereof (as Apollodorus saith) is two thousand, and three hundred Stadia, and five thousand and more in compass: but Artimedorus saith: That it is not so much in compass by a thousand stadia.  
In Crete live no noisome or offensive creatures, 
No venomous creatures in Crete.  there be neither Serpents, nor owls bred, and if any be brought thither from other places they die instantly. There be abundance of Goats, but few or no Deer at all: it yieldeth great store of the best and daintiest wines, and produceth an herb called Diptamus (which is a biting and drawing herb, and by us called Dittanie, Dittander, or garden Ginger:) and the Alunosa, which being eaten, is a present remedy against extreme hunger. It bringeth forth also the poisoned and venomous Sphalangi: and a precious stone called Idaeus Dactylus.  
It was first called Cureta, of the Inhabitants of Curetes, and now by contraction, Crete: Some others say, it was called Crete of one Cres, (who was son unto jupiter king of the Curetes) and some, of Crete the Nymph, who was daughter to Hesperideses.  
The people (at the first) were very rude and barbarous, till Rodomanthus reduced them to more civility and better manners, after whom succeeded Minois, who adorned and furnished them with more equity and justice. Plato saith, that the Lacedæmonians and other ancient cities of Greece, derived their laws and ordinances from Crete.  
But the good estate of that nation, was overthrown and turned upside down, first, by the government of Tyrants, and afterwards by the robbery and wars of the people of Cilicia: For the Cretans were very studious in divers sciences, and desirous of liberty, which they esteemed their Summum bonum, and supposed they possessed all such things as were not subject to the wanton lusts, and unlawful desires of Tyrants.  
They had a great care, provident respect, and regard of Concord and Amity, as they be mortal enemies to Discord and Sedition, which are the nurses and fosterers of Covetousness, and unsatiable desire of riches: and therefore the people of Crete in ancient time, lived very moderately and sparingly: their children frequented those meetings and assemblies, which they called Greges. And their young men (when they came to man's estate) haunted and celebrated public feasts, practising feats of arms, for the good and general commodity of the Commonwealth, and exercising and enuring their bodies (in their youth) to all kind of labour and extremity whatsoever, as heat, and cold, storms and tempests, both by sea and by land, to run through thick woods and un-even paths, to provoke and stir up brawls and contentions in places appointed for their exercises: To be skilful and experienced in shooting and darting and usually to practise and frequent a certain form of dancing in armour and weapons, invented by Pyrrhus, and therefore called the Pyrrichan dancing or vaulting, in which dancing they used to bow and bend their bodies, the better to shun and avoid weapons and wounds: Their garments were short Cloaks or Cassocks, and soldiers shoes; and they esteemed of weapons and armour, as most rare and precious gifts.  
Moreover, they were so skilful and expert in seafaring matters, as that it was an usual Proverb, if one dissembled, that he knew not that which he knew right well, to say, No more is a man of Crete acquainted with the Sea.  
All Marriages were made and solemnized betwixt equals: and it was lawful and tolerable for Virgins to choose and elect them husbands out of that troop of young men: But the custom was, that their husbands should not take them from their father's houses, before they were fit to govern an house, and play the good housewives at home: And their dower was, (if they had any brother) the one half of the patrimony.  
Children by their law were instructed in learning, singing and music, and brought to the Feasts called (Syssitia) where men were assembled, and there made to sit down upon the ground, appareled in base attire, and to fall out and brawl amongst themselves; and the boy of the best courage was made captain over the whole company: And every one as he was of power, got the most companions upon his side. Then would they go a hunting, and practise running. And upon certain days, the whole company of children were put together, and taught to sing to the pipe and harp, as is used in wars.  
Some report, that the custom of this country-people was, to note their lucky and fortunate days with a white stone, and their dismal and unhappy days with a black, though othersome ascribe this custom to the Thracians.   

Of Thrace, and of the barbarous manners of the people of Thrace. CAP. 5.  
THRACIA (which is now called Romania) is a Region of Europe, and accounted as part of Scythia: It lieth next unto Macedonia on the one side, having upon the North the river Ister, the seas called Pontus and Propontis upon the East, and the sea Aegaeum on the South. It was once called Scython: and after that Thracia, of Thrax the son of Mars, or else of the people's rudeness, and barbarous manners: for the Greek word (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) signifieth rudeness and incivility.  
This Country (as Pomponius writeth) hath neither fruitful soil nor temperate air, unless in some places nearest unto the sea side: for it is marvelous cold and hardly bringeth forth any fruit that is planted or sowed: for there be few trees which yield any increase at all, and though they have many vines, yet the grapes never ripen and come to perfection, unless they be covered with leaves, to keep the air and cold from them.  
The Cities of Thrace which heretofore were of greatest fame and renown, were Apollonia, Aenos, Nicopolis, and Byzantium, (which was afterwards called Constantinopole, of the Emperor Constantine) who re-edified and enlarged it, making it the chiefest seat of his most glorious Empire, and the head City of all the East) Perinthos also, Lysimachia, and Calliopolis. The chiefest rivers are Hebrus, Nessus, and Strymon, and the greatest and highest hills, Haemus, Rhodope, and Orbelus.  
The country is very populous, and the people very fierce and barbarous, in such manner as if they were all subject unto the government of one man, or that they were all of one mind, they were then (as Herodotus the father of Histories, is of opinion) a people invincible, and the most valiant of all Nations: but because this is too hard a matter to be hoped for, and too unpossible to be expected, therefore be they weak and of little force.  
In Thrace be many and divers Regions, distinguished by several names, but all of them endued with like manners and opinions: the Getae and Transi only excepted, and the people that dwell above Crestonae: of which three sorts of people, the Getae are of opinion, that they shall never die, but that (after their departure out of this life) they go instantly unto Zamolxis their god: This Zamolxis was once the Disciple of Pythagoras, who (upon his return into Thrace) perceiving how rudely, uncivilly, and sottishly the Thracians lived, (he himself being formerly instructed of the manner of government in jonia) taught and furnished them with manners, laws, and civil institutions, and after persuaded them, that those which kept and observed his laws and ordinances justly, and as they ought, should after their deaths come unto him into a place, where he would stay for them, and that there they should ever live and enjoy his presence & all other things that good were, by which means (having settled in them a conceit of his godhead) he withdrew himself from their sight, and (vanishing away they knew not whether) left them in a great desire and longing after him. And unto this Zamolxis their god do the people as yet send messengers, the manner of which superstition is thus, first they elect by lot one to undergo that business, and (putting him into a ship furnished with five watermen or owers) they instruct him in those things which they chiefly want, and which he shall desire of their God & so send him away: Then do they give charge unto the mariners, that some of them shall hold three darts or javelins upright, and the rest to take the messenger that is sent to Zamolxis by the legs and arms, and to hoist and toss him up upon their pikes or javelin points, & then if he die suddenly they imagine that their god is appeased and well pleased with them, but if he die not instantly, but languish and linger long, than they accuse the messenger as a wicked and lewd fellow. Whom after they have accused and blamed they forthwith send an other, giving unto him the like charge unto the first.  
These Thracian Getae when it lightens and thunders, shoot arrows and fling darts up towards heaven menacing and threatening, as it were revenging themselves of God, and for that they believe that there is no other God in deed but theirs.  
The Trausi agree with the Thracians in all other things, saving only concerning their births and deaths: wherein this is their order. As soon as a child is borne into the world, presently all his kinsfolk and friends flock about him, bewailing greatly his nativity, and saying, that seeing he is borne, he must of necessity suffer and endure all humane and worldly calamities, and again, when one is departed out of this life, they commit him to the ground with great joy and exultation, showing what and how many evils he hath escaped, to live for ever in eternal happiness.  
But those which dwell beyond the Crestonae have many wives a year, and when a man dieth, there is great controversy amongst his wives (all their friends being accited to give their judgements of the matter) which of those wives was best beloved of her husband, and she that is adjudged to have been dearest unto him in his life time (which she esteemeth a great honour unto her) is both by the men and women, adorned and gallantly decked up and so brought unto her husband's tomb, and there killed by one of her own dearest friends, and interred with her dead husband, all the other wives lamenting, and accounting that a great cross and disgrace unto them.  
All other Thracians in general sell their children openly, nor be virgins there restrained from accompanying with their nearest kin, no not with their own fathers, but may lie with whom they please, and yet husbands be very chary of their wives chastity, for they buy them of their parents with great sums of money, and the sign them in the foreheads with certain marks, which kind of marking is held a very generous and worthy thing: but to be without those marks is an argument of ignominy and baseness: where divers maids are to be married, those which be most beautiful be first taxed and prized, and being once prized their parents will not by any means give them in marriage for less money than they were rated at: and when all the fairest be bought, than those which be deformed be sold at more easier prices, so as in conclusion all go away.  
In their banquets both men and women sit round about a fire, whereinto they cast the seeds of certain herbs, which grow in those parts, the very smell and savour whereof doth so stop and stifle them, as their senses be dulled, and they as pleasant and jocund as if they were merry drunk. To live idly, and by theft, they account an honest course of life, but to labour and husband the ground, they hold base and ignoble. The gods which they chiefly worship and religiously adore, be Mars, Bacchus, Diana and Mercury, but they swear only by Mars, accounting him as the author, and original of their race.  
The people of Thrace exceed all other men in bigness and stature of body, their eyes be grey, their looks grim, frowning and menacing, their speech terrible, and themselves long of life. Their buildings be very low and base, & their diet is nothing dainty: they have no vines, but great store of apples: the King is elected as well by the voices of the commons, as by the nobility: and they elect such a one as is of approved good manners, singular clemency and (by reason of his age) of very great gravity, and one that hath no children, for he which is a father, is not admitted amongst them to be a governor, be his life and conversation never so upright and laudable, and if at any time in all his reign, he chance to have a child, he is therefore deprived of his government: For by no means will they admit that their Kingdom should become hereditary: and though the King be never so just and rightful. Yet will they not allow him the whole power in his own 
No King admitted that hath children because their Kingdom shall not be hereditary.  hands, and to rule as he list himself, but he must be assistwith forty Rectors or judges, to the end he should not be sole judge in capital causes, and if the King himself be found faulty of any offence he is punished with death, yet not with such a death as any one shall lay violent hands upon him, but (by the common consent of all) he is deposed 
The King that offendeth is famished to death.  from his Kingly authority, and then famished to death, whom (when he is dead) the great men bury on this manner.  
First they lay forth his body upon the ground for the space of three days, and then fall to banqueting and slaying of all sorts of beasts for sacrifices, which done they weep over him, burn his body and bury his bones in the ground, and lastly upon his monument they proclaim and set out combats of all sorts, and especially the Monomachia, which is the single combat or fight of two hand to hand.  
The armour and weapons which (as Herodotus writeth) they used in the wars against Darius, were helmets made of fox's skins, soldiers coats, and short cassocks over them, and upon their legs they were buskins made of fawns skins, their weapons wore darts, targets, short poyniardes and bows, wherein they be so skilful and expert as they allege that they were the first inventors of that weapon: Their language and the Scythians is all one.  
Pliny writeth, that all Thrace was once divided into fifty Stratageas, which are counties or captainships: that part of Thrace which was once called Getica (where Darius the son of Hydaspis' was well-nigh overthrown) is now called Valachia of the Flacci a family of Rome. For the romans after they had overcome and utterly vanquished the Geteses, sent thither a Colony under the conduct of one Flaccus, whereupon the country was first called Flaccia, and afterwards by corruption Valachia, which opinion carrieth more likelihood of truth, for that the Roman language is yet spoken in that Country, but they speak it so corruptly, as a Roman can scarce understand it, the Roman letters also be there used, saving that the form or fashion of the letters is somewhat alterred, their rites and ceremonies of Religion do jointly agree, cohere, and are all one with the greeks.  
The Daci afterwards possessed this Country, of whom for a certain space it was called Dacia, but now it is enjoyed by the Almains, the Siculi, and the Null.  
The Almains or Teutones were a very valiant and hardy people, sent thither out of Saxony, by Charles the Great, who in their own natural language and dialect were called Seibemburges, of the seven Cities which they inhabited. The Siculi or Sicilians were an ancient people of Hungaria, and such as (abandoning their own Country) first came thither from out of Scythia, and seated themselves in that Country.  
Of the Null were two sorts of people, and of two sundry factions, the Dragulae and the Dani, otherwise called Davi (for there do some Greek writers report, that the Geteses and Davi, were the names of servants, which in times past came thither from other places.  
The Dragulae being neither equal nor matchable to the Danes, nor able to make their party good with them (not much above a hundred year since) brought the Turks into that country, by whose force & arms the Dani were almost utterly killed and vanquished, had not that valiant man john Huniades brought aid unto them, who rescuing them, and recovering the land again from the enemy, took seizure thereof for himself: the chief excercise of the Null is husbandry and keeping of cat-tail, which argueth and declareth the original of that people: They pay tribute to the Kings of Thrace, and but once to every King, and then (by the King's declaration) each family giveth him an ox in the name of a tribute: and the number of families in Valachia, is said to be above sixty thousand: Those which be commanded to go to the wars and refuse to go, are punished with death.  
Valachia upon the West bordereth upon Transiluania, and runneth Eastward into the Euxine sea, upon the north-east and North it joineth to Russia, and upon the South it is washed with the river of Ister, about which whatsoever those wandering people be that therein inhabit, the air is very intemperate and cold, and their winter in a manner continual, the soil in Valachia was heretofore very barren, yielding them but slender sustainance, and their chief defence against rain and ill wether, was either reeds or leaves, they would go over great pools and waters upon the Ice, and their victuals was such wild beasts as they could catch: mansion houses or set places of abode they had none, but rested where ever they were weary.  
Their diet was very vile and base, by reason of the horrible intemperateness of the air, and they went always bareheaded.   

Of Russia or Ruthenia, and of the latter manners and customs of the Russians. CAP. 6.  
RUSSIA (which is also called by two other 
The division and bounds of Russia.  names Ruthenia and Podolia) is divided into three parts (viz) Russia Alba, Russia superior, and Russia inferior. That part which extendeth in lengthwise towards Sarmatia or Poland, is bounded North with the river Peucis, towards the East lieth the river Moscus, and Westward are Livonia and Prussia, the furthest parts of Germany.  
The bounds and limits of the Ruthenians or Roxallanians (for by that name they be also called) at this day, is the space of eight days journey over, from the river Tanais to the North Ocean, and from the German Ocean (which they call the Balthean sea) to the Caspian sea, is the space of above ninety days journey.  
The country is so fertile and fruitful, as though the soil be but rudely and unhusbandlike tilled, and corn thrown upon it will yield increase three years together, 
One seed time yieldeth three harvests.  and that without ploughing the two latter years, for the corn which sheddeth at reaping, will be seed sufficient to yield an other harvest, and the second a third likewise: and the grain which it produceth groweth up a full perch in height; There is such great store of Bees in Russia, that 
Russia aboundeth with Bees.  for want of hives and hollow trees, they build in rocks and holes of the earth, there is great store of the baste Meth and wax, which is, carried thence into divers other countries in great abundance.  
The Russians store not their ponds and pools with fish, because (as they say) fishes do their naturally breed, and multiply by the influence of the heavens. In a certain lake there called Katzibe (when the wether is dry) is salt gotten, for which there is much war betwixt the Russians and the Tartarians, and it is very strange which is reported, that in the Country of the Chelmenses, if the arms and branches of pine trees, be cut off from 
Wood turned ●nto stone.  the trees, and lie upon the ground for the space of two or three years, they will be hardened and turned into stones: there is also good plenty of chalk.  
And towards the river Tanais and Maeotis pool, groweth great store of sweet cane or reed, called Callamus Aromaticus, or Callamus Reuponticus, and many other herbs and roots which be not found in other places.  
There chief City and King's seat is called Moscovia, it is seitutated upon the river Moscus, and is fourteen miles in circuit: coin or stamped silver they have none in that City: and in the middle of the market place, standeth a foursquare stone, upon the top whereof, he that can climb up and ascend, and in performance thereof, be not violently thrust down by others, obtaineth the principality and government of all the City: whereupon oftentimes arise great contentions and debate amongst the people, each one endeavouring to supplant his corrival, that himself may ascend: The Country is so populous and strong, that not long since, in a certain warlike assembly in the King's camp, were numbered and reckoned a hundred and twenty thousand horsemen, every one whereof were able to lead an army.  
In their wars they use bows (which weapon by long usage is most familiar and proper to that nation) and lances of twelve foot long: their horsemen which serve in complete armour, wear iron breastplates upon their brigandines or coats of mail, with the belly or middle standing out: In steed of helmets, they have hats made sharp upon the crown, and this kind of horsemen be more serviceable and in greater request in the wars, than footmen.  
Some footmen fight with a certain weapon called Scorpio, because it is like a scorpion, wherewith they shoot small arrows or quarrels (it is the same which the Italians call Balista, and with us a Crossbow, Stocke-bow, or tiler) some others do use for to shoot leaden bullets out of brazen pieces, after the manner of the Almains.  
The Russians cannot endure for to have their Governors called Kings, but Dukes, as being a name more 
The Russians cannot endure to call their Governor a King, but a Duke as a name more popular.  popular, and he that is Duke hath the dominion and government over the whole nation, betwixt whom and the Nobles, there is no difference in their apparel, saving that the Duke weareth a cap somewhat higher than the rest: Their garments be of all colours saving black: and both men and women are appareled in fine linen cassocks or shirts, hanging down to their knees.  
This garment they trim and garnish round about the neck with gold and red silk, it is wide and loose and but little different from those which the Grecians wear: the like also is worn by the Turks and all the Northern people, but that the Ruthens garments have wider sheeves, and be hemmed or guarded with gold about the breasts and shoulders, & edged or welted round about the skirts with Otters skin.  
None but only the wife, lamenteth and bewaileth the death of her husband, and then is her head covered with a white linen cloth, hanging down to her elbows: the richer sort of people have a banquet made them upon the forteeths day after the funerals, in remembrance of him that is dead, but the poorer sort be feasted five times within the forty days: the days of their deaths be likewise observed, wherein they celebrate yearly feasts. And those which survive keep a register of all their friends which be dead, to the end they may know upon what days the obites and Annual feasts are to be celebrated, for every one that is departed: the dead bodies be buried and interred with weeping and lamentation.  
The women usually hang at their ears pearls and precious stones, which in men is not so commendable but only while they be children, and then it is decent enough: a woman that hath had two husbands may be thought chaste, but she that hath been thrice married, is condemned as lewd and lascivious, and yet it is no impeachment to men's credits though they have had three wives.  
Maids before marriage suffer there hair to hang down behind them, but when they be married they cover it carefully, and men cut theirs short, round about their ears, esteeming all trimming of there hairs to be a reproach unto them.  
This Nation is generally addicted to venery and drunkenness, for to be drunk they hold a glory unto them, and esteem of lust and lasciviousness as of a thing lawful, and commendable, so as the marriage bed be not defiled. Usury also is there very common and usual, and not held to be deceit in any one, not so much as in the Clergy.  
A great part of the Russians be bondmen and servile, 
Many Russians make themselves bondmen.  and that willingly, for many of them, and those sometimes of the better sort, set to sale themselves, their wives and children, other, for because they may thereby live more idly, or enjoy greater pleasure.  
The inferior priests wear black copes (after the manner of the Grecians) and the better sort of them wear white, having hanging at their breasts, tablets or bullions, wherein be written the decalogue or precepts of the law divine. The holy Virgins, or Nuns (whereof there is but one family or order, which is the order of Saint Anthony the Abbot) by the ordinance of the same Saint Anthony their author and first founder, be appareled in black stoles.  
The Russians have a speech peculiar to themselves, but whether it be the Scythian tongue or no I am not able for to judge, their letters are not much unlike the Greek characters: they do for the most part learn music and gammer after the Greek manner, and have all other arts in contempt.  
Touching matters of faith, they believe as the greeks do, use like ceremonies in their service, and like honour to the Saints. There be twelve men chosen and elected for to do justice and determine controversies, whereof one first searcheth out the quality of the crime, and then maketh report thereof to his fellows, and sometimes to the Duke himself. And if the matter be of greater weight or difficulty, then can well be discerned and decided by that council, or that it rests doubtful, so as the accused cannot be convicted, than the defendant is enforced to try the matter with the plaintiff by combat, and he which is vanquisher shall have double the value in money of the vanquished as the wrong supposed to be done, was valued at.  
They be very much given to husbandry, they plough with horses, and their soil is very fruitful of all things but wine, there drink is a kind of beer or ale made of millet and barley boiled together, which kind of liquor is most commonly drunk in all the Northern parts. They make oil of hempseed, poppy and nuts: olive trees they have none, nor is the juice or liquor thereof brought thither from other countries, Russia breedeth many sorts of wild beasts, whereof divers be of rich furs, and highly commended of ancient writers: there is great store of fish, amongst which, is a most excellent one called Seldis, which is taken in a lake called Pareslacus, and is very like the fishes that be caught in the lake Benacus (which is a lake near Betrona in Italy.)  
In Ruthenia be seven famous lakes, and nine great rivers, one of which is by some conjectured to be the river Borysthenes by reason of the wonderful things they report of the bigness and nature thereof.   

Of Lithuania, and of the manner of living of those people. CAP. 7.  
LITHVANIA joineth upon the East unto Poland, it is nine hundredth miles about, and the greatest part thereof is either moors, fens or woods, which is the cause that it is very hard 
Lithuania is full of moors and fens.  and difficult to come unto, and in a manner inaccessible, all the whole country being overflowed with moorish waters.  
There is no other fit or convenient time for merchants, strangers, to trade and traffic in this Country, but in winter, only than the fens being all congealed, and frozen together, and the ice of an exceeding thickness and covered with snow, every place is passable, and all the whole country being of a sea, they can find no more certain way to any place, but as they be guided by the stars.  
In Lithuania be very few towns, cities or villages: the inhabitants chiefest wealth is cat-tail, and skins of divers kinds of wild beasts, as of the Harmoline and Zobelline, whereof there be great plenty in that country: Of wax and honey there is great abundance, but they have no use of money. The women have their chamber-mates & friends by their husband's permission, & those they call helpers or furtherers of matrimony, but for a husband to commit adultery is held disgraceful and abominable: Marriages there be very easily dissolved, by consent of both parties, and they marry as oft as they please.  
This people is so different from all other nations in their manner of living, as they hold with the absurd opinion of Aristippus, which is, that honesty consisteth not by nature but by custom: Wine is very scarce and geason amongst them, the want whereof is supplied with milk, by reason of the great abundance of beasts, and there bread is brown, being neither sifted nor bolted, they speak the Slavonian language as the Polonians do, which language is common to many other nations beside, whereof some follow the rites and ceremonies of the Roman Church, as the Polonians, the Dalmatians, the Croatij and the Carni: some others the Greek Church, as the Bulgarians, Ruthenians and most of the Lituanians, and some again hold certain opinions differing from both Churches, as the Bohemians, Moravians and Bosnienses, of which some follow the opinion of john Husse, and many others the sect of the Manachies: and there be some which as yet continue still in their paganism and superstitious blindness, by worshipping of Idols, and such be many of the Lithuanians.  
jerom of Prage who (in the time of Pope Eugenius the forth of that name) preached the gospel in the country, & was the first that acquainted us with the manners and ceremonies of that people (before that time utterly unknown unto us) reported that divers of the Lithuanians (amongst whom he first arrived) had certain serpents every household one, to whom they sacrificed as to their house-hold-gods, and that he wrought so far with the worshippers of them, that they destroyed and killed them all, one only excepted, which could not be burned: some others worshipped the fire, and from it received their divinations, and many others the Sun, in the form of a huge iron mallet, accounting that to be there guide, and giving it to name Magnus.  
These people be oftentimes subject to the King of Poland: the chief City of the Region is called Vilna, it is a Bishop's seat, and as big as all Cracovia with the suburbs: the houses whereof join not together, but stand one a good distance from an other, as they do in the Country, having orchards and gardens betwixt them.  
There be in it two very strong castles or holds, one situated upon a hill, and the other lower upon the plain or champion ground: This city of Vilna is distant from Cracovia, the chief city of Poland, one hundred and twenty miles.  
About the City there are certain Tartarians have places assigned them for to dwell in, who tilling and manuring the ground after our manner, do labour and carry commodities from one place to an other.  
They do speak the Tartarian tongue and worship the Religion of Mahomet.   

Of Livonia, Prussia, and of the soldiers called Mariani in Spain. CAP. 8.  
LIVONIA (now professing the true and sincere religion) joineth Northward unto Ruthenia, and the borders of Sarmatia, or Poland. The Tartarians a people of Scythia, have made often incursions, into that Country: The people of Livonia were first made partakers of the Christian religion, by soldiers of Spain called Mariani of Marianus, whereas before they acknowledged and adored no other god, but evil spirits.  
There hath been very much controversy and wars about the possession of that country, sometimes one, sometimes an other getting the upper hand and government.  
It is environed upon the West part thereof with the Sarmatian sea, and with a gulf of an unknown bigness, the mouth whereof Westward is not very far from Cimbrica Chersonesus, the which is now called Dacia or Denmark: about this gulf Northward there doth dwell or inhabit a savage and wild kind of people, which (being void of any language used in other lands) do exchange there Merchandise by signs and becks: Prussia (the inhabitants whereof be called Pruteni) partaketh now with Germania and Sarmatia, which countries it incountreth upon the West.  
This land (if Ptolomeus report a truth) is washed with the famous River Vistula, from the City Tornum to Gedanum, where it falleth into the Baltean sea, it lieth beyond Germany, and reacheth from the river Vistula, to the Sarmatic Ocean.  
Upon the East and South, is the Province of the Massovitae, (the inhabitants whereof be Polanders) and the Saxons upon the West: Prussia is an exceeding fruitful country, well watered, and very populous. It is pleasant withal, and abounding with cattle, there is very good fishing, and much hunting. jornandes writeth, that this land was inhabited by a people called Vlmerigi, at such time as the Goths removed from the Island of Scandinavia, into the continent and main land: And Ptolomeus reporteth, that the Amaxobijs, the Aulani, the Venedes, and the Gythones, dwelled near the river Vistula or Wixell.  
The people of this Country were worshippers of evil Spirits, until the time of the Emperor Frederick the second: and than our Lady's soldiers, which be also called Deiparini, or Mariani, after they had lost the town of Ptolomais in Syria, returned into Germany, and being men of haughty and noble spirits, and very expert in feats of arms; and to the end their courages should not be daunted, and they out of use by overmuch idleness, they came unto the Emperor, declaring unto him, that the people of Prussia which border upon Germany, were utterly ignorant of the Christian Religion, and that they made often incursions upon the Saxons, and other their bordering neighbours, stealing from them whole herds of cattle: showing him moreover, that they had a desire to suppress that barbarous nation; whereunto the Emperor consented, and gave the kingdom to his two brethren, as their lawful inheritance, if they could conquer it by arms: the Dukes & Governors of Massovia, (which before had proclaimed themselves Lords of that land) surrendered their estates and titles forthwith to the emperors brothers; which gift was thankfully taken by the Emperor himself, who commending his brother's intent, gave unto them what letters and commission they desired, signed with the golden seal. These brethren providing themselves for the wars, in a short time brought under their subjection, all the Countries which were under the Prussian government, on each side the river Vistula; who being conquered by battle, willingly submitted themselves to their subjection, and embraced the true faith, and Christian Religion therewithal, exchanging their speech for the Almain tongue. Near unto the river Vistula grew an Oak where the victors achieved the conquest, and there they first erected a Castle, which shortly after (as many things in time grow great of small beginnings) grew up into a great town, and was called Maryburge: it is now the chief city of the Country, and his seat which hath the government of that whole order of soldiers; which holy order of warfare, had his beginning from the Almains, and there is none but Almains, which enter into that order or bond, and those too must be nobly or worshipfully descended: at their entrance into that order, they are enjoined to be always in readiness to fight against the enemies of the holy Cross of Christ: they be clothed in white cassocks, with black crosses sowed on them, all of them suffering their beards grow long, but only such as be Priests, and are employed in their services. The soldiers in stead of the Canonical hours, repeat the Lord's prayer, for they be altogether unlearned, yet be they very rich, and their power as great as if they were Kings. They have many conflicts with the Polonians, for encroaching upon the Confines of their country, in which sometimes they have the better, and sometimes the worse, and they will never refuse to submit all their forces to the hazard of the wars, what ever the event or success be.  
There is a little Region bordering upon Prussia, and 
Samogithia.  Lithuania, called Samogithia, it is closed and environed round about with woods and waters, and is fifty miles in length: the people thereof be very tall, and of a comely stature, and yet very uncivil, and of rude behaviour: they marry as oft as they will, and without respect of kindred or blooud: for the father being dead, the son may marry his stepmother; and one brother deceased, his other brother may marry his wife. Money they have none; their buildings be base and low, and their houses for the most part made of hemp stalks and reeds, and fashioned like boats or helmets, upon the ridge or tops whereof is made a window to give light to the whole house, and in every house is but one fire, which is ever burning, both to dress their meat and drink, and other necessaries belonging to their bodies, as also to expel the violence of cold, which is there very vehement and extreme, a binding frost continuing for the most part of the year. These houses have no attorneys in them, for all the smoke goeth out at the window.  
The people be much inclined to divination and witchcraft: the god in whom they repose most confidence and trust, and which they especially honour and adore, is the Fire, which they persuade themselves to be most holy, and everlasting, because it is fed with continual fuel, and there was a fire kept ever burning by the Priests upon the top of a high hill near unto the River Meviasa.  
Vladislaus King of Poland, (who first reduced that nation to the Christian Religion) quenched that fire, and overthrew the turret wherein it was kept, together with all the woods, which the people of Sarmatia held to be as holy as the fire, and worshipped them with as much devotion, and Religion, esteeming and accounting them to be the dwellings and habitations of the gods, according to the saying of the Poet:  The gods inhabited and kept the woods. 
Nor did they worship and reverence the fire and woods only, but every other thing likewise, which usually remained and abid in the woods, as birds, and wild beasts: and if any one violated and contemned their witchcrafts and Invocation of devils, their heads and feet would incontinently close and shrink together, by the deceit and illusion of their evil spirits. Within the woods each family had a place or hearth, wherein they kept a fire for all that family; in which fire their custom was, to burn their dead bodies, with their horses, saddles, and best garments: firmly believing, that in that place those which be dead and burned, meet together in the night, and therefore they made them settles or benches to sit upon of Corcke tree, and placed them in readiness, the best meath, and a kind of meat made of paste like unto a cheese, for them to eat.  
Every year upon the first day of October all the people of the whole country assembled and met together in those woods, and there (using all kind of devotion) celebrated a solemn Feast, each family feeding in his own cottage, upon the daintiest fare, and most delicious viands they could get. At which feast they sacrificed by the firesides, unto all their gods, and especially unto one who me they called Percumo, which in their language signifieth thunder.  
Their language is all one with the Lithuanians, and the Polonians, for the Priests preach unto the people in the Polonian tongue: they observe the Customs of the Roman Church, although there be some Ruthens towards the South, and Muscovites which dwell far north, which observe the Ceremonies of the Greek Church, yielding their obedience to the Bishop of Constantinople, and not to the Bishop of Rome. Upon the North side of this Country lieth Muscovia, it is five hundred miles in compass, rich in silver, and upon all sides so guarded, environed, and defended with such strong holds, as not only strangers, but their own native countrymen, be interdicted and prohibited to pass in and out at their pleasures without the Duke's letters of safe-conduct. The country is even and plain, no hills but great store of woods and marish grounds: it is watered with many great rivers, as Occa, Volha, Dzuvina, Boristhines and Dinaper, and therefore affordeth as many fishes and wild beasts as Lithuania, from which it differeth not much, neither in customs nor situation, saving that it is somewhat colder, because more Northward, and therefore be their cattle little and small, and for the most part halting and lame of their limbs.  
The Metropolitan and chief City of the Region, is Moscua, it is twice as big within the compass of it, as Prague in Bohemia, the building is of timber as all their other Cities be, it hath many streets and lanes, but they stand straggling with broad fields betwixt them, the river Mosca runneth through the middle of it, and divideth it into two parts, and in the midst of the City standeth a castle or tower, builded upon level ground, wherein be seventeen turrets, and three bulwarks or Blocke-houses, so strong and so stately, as there be but few such to be found: within this Castle be seventeen Churches, whereof those three which be dedicated to our blessed Lady, Saint Michael, and Saint Nicholas be walled about with stone, but the rest be made of timber: there is also in it three large and spacious Courts, for Noblemen and Courtiers to spend their time in, a stately and beautiful palace also for the Duke to dwell in, builded after the Italian fashion, but not very large.  
The Country containeth many famous Dukedoms, out of which, upon any occasion, in the space of three or four days, they will get together in a readiness two hundred thousand able men: Their usual drink is water and meath, and a certain leavened or sour liquor, which they call Quassatz: they plow with wooden ploughs, and harow their ground with branches of trees, or thorns. Their corn (by reason of continual cold) ripeneth but slowly, and therefore they dry it in hot houses, and so thrash it.  
Against the extremity of cold, they use divers spices, and make a kind of water to drink of oats, honey and milk; so strong, that they will sometimes be drunk with it: Wine and oil they have none; and to avoid drunkenness, the Governor of the country forbiddeth the drinking of all strong drinks, upon pain of death, except twice or thrice in a year, and then it is tolerable for them to be drunk.  
They have silver coin of two sorts, a bigger, and a lesser, it is not made round, but somewhat long, and with four corners: This coin they call Dzuvingis.  
They speak the Slavonian language, and in religion follow the Greek Church: Their Bishops be under the Patriarch of Constantinople, and by him be confirmed. They be all Christians saving the Kosannenses, which worship Mahomet, like the Sarrasins: there dwell some Scythians also towards the North, which speak their own language, and worship Idols, and one Idol above the rest, which they call Zlota baba, that is to say, the image of an old woman made of gold: this Idol they do so highly reverence and adore, as every one that passeth by it, falleth down and worshippeth it, offering thereunto a hair from their garments, if they have nothing else to offer.  
And although the Slavonian tongue be generally spoken throughout the whole nation, yet is there so great difference in their speech, (it being so mixed, confounded and corrupted with other languages) as they can hardly understand one another.  
In the time of Idolatry they had one high Priest or Bishop which they called (Crive) his dwelling was in the city Remove, so called of Roma. And this custom was general to all the whole nation, not only to sell their servants and slaves, like beasts, but their sons and daughters likewise, yea & sometimes themselves, suffering them to be carried into other countries, in hope of better means to live: for in their own, their diet was gross and bad.   

Of Polonia, and of the latter customs of the Polonians. CAP. 9  
POLONIA, a vast country of Europe, is so called of his plainness and eevennesse, for (Pole) in the Slavonian tongue, which is spoken by the Polanders, signifieth plain, level, or even: it is otherwise called Sarmatia: Upon the West it bordereth upon Slesia, upon Prussia and Massovia upon the North, upon the East lieth Ruthenia, and Hungaria on the South.  
The hill Carpathus (which is there called Crapack) divideth the Country into two parts, whereof that part which is next unto Saxony and Prussia, is called the greater Polonia, and the other the lesser, lying over against Russia and Hungaria.  
The whole kingdom is divided, as it were, into four several and distinct Provinces, all which the king visiteth every year, in course one after another, and each of them maintaineth the king and his whole court for three months together, but if he stay longer than three months in any one part of the kingdom, it is at their choice whether they will yield him any further maintenance or no.  
The king's seat is the great and famous city Cracovia, where is preserved and kept all the wealth of the kingdom and all the other cities are mean and simple in comparison of it: most of their houses be made of rough stone, rudely compacted and heaped together, without mortar or clay, and daubed with mud: the country is full of woods, and thickets, the people be prudent and wise, courteous towards strangers, and exceeding great drinkers, (as most of your Northern people be) yet is there small store of Wine, as having no Vines in all the whole country: instead whereof they drink a kind of counterfeit Ale made of Wheat and other grain, for the soil is very fertile, and affordeth great store of wheat, it is also very commodious and fit for feeding, yielding large grounds for beasts to pasture in. There is very good hunting, as namely of wild horses, which have horns like Hearts, and the wild Bull, which the romans call Vrus: metal mine's there be none but only of Led, but Salt is there digged out of the ground in such abundance, as no one thing yieldeth more custom to the King than that doth: and there is so-great store of honey both in Poland and Russia, that they have not spare places sufficient wherein to keep it, for all their trees and woods be covered black over with Bees. The form of their letters is much like unto the Greek Character, their ceremonies of religion are indifferent betwixt the Roman and the Greek Church, and both men and women in their apparel do much resemble the greeks.   

Of Hungaria, and of the institutions and manner of living of the Hungarians. CAP. 10.  
HUNGARIA is the same which was once called Pannonia, although it was not so 
The limits of Hungaria.  large and spacious a country when it was so called, as now it is, all betwixt the the river Laytha and the river Savus, is known by the name of the inferior or lower Pannonia. Hungary beyond Danubius reacheth unto Poland and comprehendeth all the country which was inhabited by the Gepidae and Daci, so as the limits of the Empire is now far larger than the name of the nation.  
This land (as ancient writers report) is divided into nine parts or divisions, which in the German tongue be called (Hagas,) every one whereof is compassed and enclosed with walls, made of blocks or piles of oaks, beech or fyr tree fixed fast in the ground, twenty foot high and twenty foot broad. The soil is full either of hard stones or stiff clay, and all the valleys be covered over with turfs, upon the borders or marches of the land, be many trees or shrubes planted and set, which being cut up and cast away will notwithstanding bear leaves and flourish.  
Every one of these nine circles or divisions of ground, be twenty German miles distant one from another, although they be not all of one length, but some one shorter than other some, and in every part of them be Cities, castles and Villages, builded in such good order and uniformity, as a man may be heard speak from one Castle Town or village to another.  
Their buildings be compassed and enclosed with strong walls, but their gates be over narrow for them to go in and out at their pleasure, to steal and filch from others. Every one of those Circles or enclosed portions of ground called hags, were wont to give signs unto others of every accident, by the sound of a trumpet.  
The Pannones (long since called Paeones) were first that inhabited that land, after whom it was possessed by the Huns a people of Scythia, and after them by the Goths, which came out of the islands of the German ocean: when the Goths were gone it was possessed by the Longabards, which came from Scandinavia an island of the Ocean also; And lastly by the Hungarians, who came from out the other Hungaria in Scythia, which is not far from the head of the river of Tanais, and is now called juhra: This Scythian Hungary is a miserable could country, as being situate wholly under the Frigid zone, it is tributary to the Duke of Muscovy: the tribute which the inhabitants pay is neither gold nor silver, (for thereof they have none) but rich Skins and furs of sundry wild beast as of Sabells' and such like.  
They neither plough nor sow, nor have any kind of bread, but live only upon flesh of wild beasts and fish, and drink water: and their lodgings be cabins made of twigs and bows, in groves and thick woods: whereupon it ensueth that men living in woods with wild beasts, wear neither linen nor woollen garments but skins only either of heart's bears or wolves. Some of them addore the Sun, some the Moon and other Stars, or what ever first cometh to their view; they have a proper and peculiar language to themselves.  
They fish for corals that grow in the sea, and fishes called Balenae of whose skins they make coaches and purses, They have exceeding fat Bacon whereof they sell much to other nations. Upon that side of this Hungary in Scythia which is nearest unto the Ocean, be sundry little hills or cliffs, upon which certain fishes called Mors or death fishes, making offer by means of their teeth, to climb to the top of the rocks, when they be almost at the highest their hold faileth them and they fall down and kill themselves with the fall. These fishes do the Inhabitants gather up and eat, reserving their teeth which be very white and broad, which they exchange with strange Merchants for other commodities, of these fish teeth be made very good knives hafts.  
But Hungaria in Europe hath upon the west Austria and Boemia, upon the South that part of Illyria which is next to the Adriatticke sea; upon the East lieth Servia (once inhabited by the Triballii and Misii) and now of many called Sagaria) and upon the North and north-east, Poland and Muscovie. The chief City and King's seat is Buda, so called of Bada the brother of Attila: the soil of the country (so much thereof as is errable) is very fertile, and there be many veins of gold and silver. It is strange that is reported by the Inhabitants, that there is a river in Pannonia, whereinto if Iron be oftentimes dipped, it will be turned into Copper. The men wear garments that be made hollow about the shoulders, and linen coats or shirts under them, the collars whereof appear about their necks higher than their uppermost garments, and be wrought with silk and gold: They be indifferent what manner of stockings they wear, for that they ever have buskins over them. They be very curious in anointing and trimming of their hair, and they ever go in linen hats, which they seldom put of, or once remove from their heads, unless when they sit still and be idle: but women's petticoats be made more straighter to their bodies than men's coats be, and reach higher towards their chins to cover their necks and breasts, over which they wear gowns, and their faces be masked with linen Veals richly wrought and embroidered, so as you can see no part of them but their noses and eyes: Their heads be covered with linen kerchers or coifs set with pearls and precious stones, and they as well as men wear buskins that come up to the calves of their legs. Their time of mourning in Hungary is for some a year, and for some two, and they shave of their beards all but the upper lip: They judge of matters concerning the true religion according to their law: but in disciding of other matters, their course is (if the matter in question be difficult or doubtful, and cannot other wise be determined) that the plaintiff or defendant shall fight it out by combat in the presence of the King or his deputy, who is to judge of the victory, for of his trial by battle death doth not always follow, for it is conquest sufficient for one, if his enemy either faint, or fight unwillingly or fly out of the lists appointed for the combat: The horsemen's fight in Hungary is first with lances and then with swords, and foot soldiers fight naked on all parts but their privities; They have a proper speech but not much differing from the Boemian language, and though they have a form of letters of their own, yet use they altogether the Roman character. They be a cruel kind of people, very hardy & valiant in war, & much more fit to fight on foot than on horseback: They be under the government of a King or rather a Duke, that hath Kingly authority: They use barbed horses in the wars, but wear light armour themselves, and they fight one after another, and not all together. And surely there is no one Christian country in the world that hath held wars so long against the Turk, as the Hungarians have done; the other Hungary in Scythia which is the mother of this Hungary, is almost like unto this in language and manners, saving that the people be more barbarous and live still in Idolatry.   

Of Boemia, and of the manners of the Boemians. CAP. 11.  
BOHEMIA is a country on the North side 
The limits of Boemia.  of Germany, and included in the limits of Germany, it hath upon the East Hungaria, Bavaria on the South, Noricum on the west, and Poland on the North: It is (in a manner) as broad as it is long too, and about three days journey either way, being on all sides compassed and environed with the Hyrcanian wood, as with a natural wall. Through the middle thereof runneth the river Albis, and an other river called Multavia, upon the banks whereof standeth that goodly City Praga, the chief and Metropolitan City of the whole nation: The country affordeth great store of Wheat and Barley, and aboundeth with all kind of victuals, both flesh and fish, Oil there is none, neither there nor in any other part of Germany, nor doth it yield much Wine, but great store of Beer, and that of the best of any other country, which for the goodness is carried thence as far as Vienna in Austria.  
The Boemians notwithstanding they be hemmed and compassed round about with Germans, yet do they not speak the German language, it being expelled thence by the coming of the Dalmatae, for their Chronicles report (as Volateranus affirmeth) that two brethren borne in Croatia, departing thence, and seating themselves one in Boemia, the other in Poland, altered the countries both in their names and languages, and yet there be many in Boemia at this day, that observe and retain both the language, and ancient customs of the Germans: for in their Sermons the German tongue is spoken, and the Boemian in their funerals. And Friars Mendicant of all others only, had power heretofore when there was any Friars there, to preach & instruct the people in what language they listed. The people be very licentious, as having no strict laws nor statutes to restrain them, but every one doth what best pleaseth himself, without controlment, for they have rejected the authority and rites of the Roman Church, and received the Waldensian doctrine, which they defend tooth and nail: This doctrine not many years since was first preached by one Hus, and by him generally received, whereby the traditions of the Roman Church, are at this day there, utterly neglected and derided, for this is now their practice of religion: First they esteem of the Bishop of Rome no otherwise then of other Bishops, denying him to be of any more reverence and authority than other Bishops are, holding also that there is no difference among Priests, and that it is not the dignity of Priesthood that maketh one better, but his deserts and well living. That souls as soon as they be departed out of the bodies, go instantly either to perpetual pains, or eternal pleasures. And that there is no Purgatory at all, to purge and purify them of their sins after this life. To pray for the dead they account foolish and absurd, and a thing invented only for the profit of Priests.  
The Images of our Saviour Christ and of his Saints, they utterly abandon and contemn, and deride and scoff at the Benedictions and hollow of Water Palms, or any other things whatsoever: They hold that the religion and practice of Friars mendicant, was invented by the Devil: and that the Priests ought to be poor and not to possess money nor substance, but to live only of the alms of the people: that every one hath free power and liberty to preach and expound the word of God: That no mortal sin is in any sort to be tolerated, although by the committing of that sin a greater inconvenience may be avoided, and that he that is convinced of deadly sin, is not worthy to possess and enjoy any secular office nor Church dignity, nor is fit to be obeyed: confirmation and extreme unction they exclude from the number of the Sacraments, and esteem of auricular confession as frivolous and vain, and that it is sufficient to acknowledge their sins unto GOD secretly in their chambers.  
That Baptism is to be ministered with water only without any commixtion of holy oil: That Churchyards are vain and superfluous, & invented only for covetousness, and that no one place is fitter for burial than other, (for that the whole world is the universal Temple and open Sanctuary of God,) And that those which build and erect Churches, Monasteries and Oratories do go about to restrain and limit God's power and Majesty: That Priests Vestments, Ornaments for the Altar, Palls, surplices, Chalices, Patens and such other like vessels, are trifles and trash of no moment, and that the Priest hath power to consecrate the body of our Lord at all times, and in every place, and to minister it to those which desire it, and that it is sufficient only to provonce the words of consecration.  
That we ought not to pray to Saints to be intercessors for us unto Christ, and that it is lost time that is spent in singing or saying the Canonical hours. That no days should be kept holy from labour, but the Lords day only; that no feast days should be celebrated in honour of the Saints, and that (by the institutions of the Church) fasting is of no merit, The report also is, that the Boemian Priests do minister the Sacrament of the body of our Lord, unto infants and to all others indifferently, under both forms, which is a greater sacrifice than that which is used in the Church of Rome, and one George Poggebratius is saidt o be the Author of this Ministration: One Picardus coming out of France, infected this nation with this monstrous and abominable madness, for he having enticed a great number of the base sort both of men and women, to be his followers, instructed them to go naked, and (as the author of all licentious living) called them Addamites, by whose instructions venery was openly practised without difference of kindred or alliance, and many other most horrible offences: some of which sect are said to remain as yet, for there be some Bohemians (which be therefore called Gruebenhamer) which choose out for the excercising of their religion, vaults and hollow caves in the ground, and when their Priest (according to their custom) hath pronounced this part of Genesis crescite et multiplicamini et replete terram, that is, increase and multiply and replenish the earth, instantly they put out all their lights and fall to their lechery in the dark, every man with the woman he first lighteth upon, without respect of age or kindred, and when they have finished their busiesse they light their lights again, and go every one into his own place and so be their ceremonies ended. This execrable custom of that damnable sect, is not much different from those feasts called Bacchanalia, which are first celebrated in Hetruria and afterwards in Rome, by women in the night time, who having pampered themselves with wine, and banqueting, accompanied with men in secret corners without difference or respect either of kindred or age, whereby grew such confusion, as oftentimes the mothers were defiled by their own children, and many other enormous villainies were perpetrated and done, which they took their beginning as from the warehouse of all wickedness. The ringleaders of this preposterous celebration were first cut of at Rome, when Quintus Martius, Philippus and Posthumius Albinus were consuls (as Sabellicus reporteth in his first Aenead and seventh book) but this irreligious impiety and horrible heresy of the Boemians, could not be extirpated and rooted out, in the reign of four Kings, Veneceslaus, Sigismundus, Albertus and Vladislaus although they opposed themselves against it with all their force and power.   

Of Germany and of the customs of the Germans. CAP. 12.  
GERMANY is the largest nation of all Europe, it lieth far North, and is divided 
The ancient limits of Germany.  from France with the river of Rheyne, from Rhetia and Pannonia with the river Danubius, from Sarmatia and Dacia with certain hills, but more with the fear which one nation hath of the other, and upon all other sides it is enclosed with the ocean: But the limits of Germany at this day exceed these bounds & extend further, comprehending under that name Rhetia, Vindelitia, Norica & the upper Pannonia, the Alps, part of Illiria & even to the gates of the City of Trent. All the country of Belgia in like sort, (which was heretofore under the French government) and all about the river of Rheyne, are united to the Germans, embracing both their law and language, and forgetting, or not daring, or else scorning to call themselves French: The Heluetians likewise by little and little have almost lost both their name and speech, and become perfect Germans, & Germany challengeth as her own, a great part of transalpine France: besides all these the soldiers of Germany have (within the space of three hundred years) brought under their subjection the Prutenia barbarous and cruel nation, waning them from the worshipping of Idols, to their own language, and the Christian religion: this country therefore as now it is, compared unto what it was before, it will appear that it hath added more to itself from foreign nations, than was formerly comprehended in his own limits.  
All Germany was once divided into two parts, whereof 
Germany divided into superior and inferior.  that part which is nearest unto the Alps, was called the higher Germany, & the other the lower which lieth northward and towards the Ocean: this partition doth yet continue, and the higher part is now called Alemania (as some think of a certain lake or river called Alemanus) and each of these parts consisteth of sundry Provinces, for the higher Germany (going upwards from the river Moganus, which runneth along by Franconia) containeth Davaria, Austria, Styria, Athesis, Rhetia, Helvetia, Suevia, Alsatia, and the Province of Rhine, unto the city Mentz in Almania. The inferior or lower Germany hath in it Franconia (a good part whereof towards the South is held to be in high Germany) Hassia, Lotharingia, Brabant, Gelderland, Zeiland, Holland, Frysland, Flanders, Westphalia, Saxony, Dacia, Peninsula, Pomeranià, Livonia, Prussia, Sletia, Moravia, Boemia, Mysnia, Marchia, and Thuringia.  
Germany (although some part thereof seemed better than other) was first (as Cornelius Tacitus writeth) for the most part either overgrown with woods, or rover-flown with waters, being more base and barren to wards France, and more subject to storms and tempests towards Noricum Styria, & Pannonia, so that it yielded neither fruit nor grain, only it bred good store of cattle, but such as were both little and low: gold and silver it affordeth none, and therefore as a poor and base county, it was despised and very little regarded. But surely Cornelius was either much deceived, or else the country is much altered from what it then was, for Germany at this day, is so pleasant and so plentiful of all things, so beautified, strengthened and addorned, with famous Cities, strong Castles and stately buildings, as it is nothing inferior either to France Spain or Italy, for the heavens smile upon them, the fields affords them store of fruits, the Sun solaceth himself amongst her hills, she hath whole mountains of wines, woods at will, and all kind of grain in abundance, being watered on all sides with Rhine, Danubius, Moganus, Albis, Neccharus, Sala, Odera, and with many other great and famous rivers and brooks: there be fountains likewife of sweet waters, hot baths and mines of Salt, and it is equal to any other country for all sorts of metals yea all Italy, France, and Spain, store themselves with silver and other metals out of Germany: and there is some gold gotten, so as if those old writers were now living, and beheld the present estate of Germany, as now it is, they would doubtless think it strange and wonder to see such alteration, to perceive each place so wholesome and convenient to dwell in, the air so temperate, the soil so fertile, such abundance of wine, and all kind of grain, such planting of trees, such beautiful buildings of Cities, Temples and Sanctuaries, such advancement of religion, such civility amongst citizens, decency in apparel, experience in feats of arms, such furniture and provision for wars, and such store of all manner of ornaments, besides the extraordinary sincerity and perfection of the Peers and Nobility, if (I say) they beheld and marked all these things well, I am of opinion they would not condemn the ground as barren, rude, ill favoured, or little beholding to the heavens, yea they should see how true that saying is; That good things are spoiled for want of workmanship and well husbanding: the air is there more calm and temperate in winter, then in other countries, and therefore it produceth more excellent fruits, yet be their summers more intemperate, through which intemperature many of those fruits be oftentimes corrupted and spoiled, beside there be many venomous beasts, and other, creatures pernicious and hurtful to the inhabitants, and yet for all this, is it hardly to be judged, what Province may be compared unto it, much less preferred before it.  
The reason why this country assumeth the name of Germany, is, for that there is such a sympathy and concordance 
Germany why so called.  amongst all the people, both in the disposition of their bodies, their manners and courses of life, as all of them agree and live together like brothers and equals. It was first called Teutonia of Tuisco the son of Noah, and Alemanin, of Mannus his son, who were said to be the first authors and original of that nation: though some be of a contrary opinion, and affirm, that Germany was first inhabited by such as were there bred and borne, and not by such as were brought from other places; of which opinion is one which hath written thus.  
Well situated toward the North, d●th lie the Germaires soil,  
A people famous through the world, that never fell the foil  
Of foreign foes: no heat nor cold, nor pains can them molest,  
For that they scorn to spend their time in idleness and rest.  
Borne certes in that land they were, with first that were alive:  
Nor but from Demogorgon's loins can pedigree derive.  
Those did the greeks Adelphi name, whom Latins Germane call:  
Because in unity and love, they live like brethren all:  
A name which unto noble hearts doth yet great honour yield,  
Large limbs hath la●ish nature lent, their huged trunks to wield,  
Unto their bodies answerable, that be both tall and strait:  
Their necks and all their body else is Alabaster white,  
Their eyes their hairs and bushy locks of yellow colour be,  
In temperature their members all and bodies do agree:  
What inwardly is thought or meant, their outward voice forth shows  
Their tongues be traitors to their hearts, their secret to disclose.  
Their speech is not effeminate but lofty big and strong,  
So that their valiant warlike hearts, may known be by their tongue,  
They love to wander much ahroad, to hunt and eke to ride,  
And some by Arts and Sciences, their livings do provide,  
Some Bacchus tender budding sprouts do wind on naked piles,  
And some do till the fertile earth that barren was ere wh●les,  
Some men in travel much delight their youthful days to spend,  
And other to Minerva's laws their course do wholly bend.  
Or hoisting up their sails aloft do cut through foreign floods,  
And store their wants with sundry sorts of far-fetched strangers goods.  
If foreign foes be wanting, then within themselves thcile jar,  
A light occasion will suffice to stir them up to war,  
And all the while that cruel Mats doth bloody flag display,  
They hold it then no injury to ravish, filch and prey.  
Some in Hircinian woods delight to hunt the tusked Boar,  
And some the brazen-footed Hart with yelping Hounds to gore,  
Through forests, woods and mountains some pursue the cruel Bear,  
And some with Eaulcons' talents seek the silly birds to tear:  
And pluming of their feathers clean disperse them in the air.  
No enterprise so doubtful is, but they will hazard all.  
Nor can the fear of grifley death th●i● valiant minds appall,  
If wrongs be done, they seek revenge: but for their country's good,  
Or kin or friends, they will not stick to spend their dearest blood.  
The● constant be in Christ his faith, and him do duly serve:  
Nor from sincere religion, do sela or never sw●rue,  
Their dealings honest, true, and just, all lying they detest,  
And evermore their tongue declares what's hidden in their breast.  
The Germans before they began their battles, used to chant forth a song or holy hymn, in honour of Hercules, holding opinion that he was once in that country: when they joined battle they would cry out with a most grievous and clamorous noise, not so confused and dissonant, as terrible to their enemy. Their eyes be (for the most part) blew, their looks stern, and their hair red or yellow, they be tall of stature, and naturally very sudden and headlong in all their enterprises, but they cannot away with much labour and toil, nor can they endure heat and thirst, so well as the Frenchmen can, but cold they can endure passing well. Of gold and silver they made no account, for the plate and jewels of silver which were sent them from foreign Princes, they esteemed as base and vile as earthen vessels: But since by traffic and trading with other countries, the use thereof hath crept in amongst them. And there be some hold opinion, that there is neither silver nor gold gotten there as yet, and but small store of Iron, which was the cause that they used no swords in the wars, but long Spears or javelins with short Iron pikes, being a very fit and handsome weapon to fight withal both aloof and near at hand.  
Their horsemen fought with shields and those short spears, and footmen with stones and darts, and both of them naked, or in little short gabberdines or cassocks: the soldiers were distinguished and known one from an other by the colour of their shields, which were painted with select and curious colours, and but few of them wore either privy coats, helmets, or headpieces. Their horses were neither well shaped nor speedy paced, nor could they run the ring, or career like Italian horses, but only strait forward: he that lost his shield in fight was severely punished, for he was utterly excluded from their sacrifices, and not admitted to come into the Senate or Council house, and many were so deeply touched with that indignity, as they would violently procure their own deaths, rather than endure such disgrace.  
Their Kings were elected for their worth and Nobility, and their power and authority was not altogether free, but limited and restrained: the worthiest soldiers, and men of greatest valour, and such as could effect more by their good examples, then by all their force and authority, were ordained leaders and conductors of their armies. There was none had power to chastise, beat, or punish an other, but the Priests only, for they held that revengement belonged only unto the gods, whose ministers the Priests were. They would portray the Images of their gods, and carry them with them into the wars, as a special encouragement to fight. And their friends and kinsfolk likewise were placed near unto the battle, that in their presence they might either achieve a glorious victory, or end their days with honour: and their parents, wives and children were eye-witnesses of their valour and prowess, and ever as any of them that fought were wounded, they were brought unto their mothers and wives, and other friends that were lookers on, who were ever ready and willing to heal and cure them, and to supply the soldiers with victuals, exciting and encouraging them to fight manfully: through which exhortations (as some have written) the battle hath renewed and begun a fresh, when the soldiers were almost spent and wearied out: for they esteemed their women to be of great sanctity and providence, and therefore their Counsels were not to be contemned, nor their advises despised. Upon certain days they used to sacrifice men unto Mercury, and beasts to Mars and Hercules, and they were generally given to sorcery and witchcraft.  
Trifling and petty causes were managed and decided by the Rulers and Magistrates of the cities; but all great businesses and difficult affairs, were handled by the whole body of the city in general. They would never begin any business, but when the Moon was either in the change or in the full, and they reckoned their computation not by the days, but by the nights.  
They came armed into the Council-house to decide controversies, and to maintain the right of causes, and he upon whose side the sentence passed, and was conmended, had a javelin shaken and brandished against him; which manner of sentence giving, they accounted to be most honourable, and again those whose causes were nought, were condemned by the judges frowns and stern looks.  
All traitors an● turne-coates, and such as fled to the enemy, were hanged: Sluggards, dastards, and such infamous persons, and those that had any noisome disease, were laid upon a hurdle, and dragged till they were dead.  
No Magistrate would execute any public or private business, but when he was armed: there was great emulation amongst them about their diet, and they were incredibly given to affectation, for he carried the greatest credit and estimation amongst his friends and neighbours, that was best attended and accompanied with young gallants, when he went abroad about any business. If the Prince that was General or Leader of the army, departed out of the field without victory, he lived in discredit and infamy all his life time after, for the Prince fighteth only for victory, and the other Noblemen for the safety of the Prince.  
They would oftentimes take occasion to make wars without cause given, only because they could not endure to live quietly and peaceably. For they held it a point of sloth and sluggishness, to get their living by their labours, if they might get it by wars, though it cost them their lives: if they had no wars, the valiantest men of them all, spent their times wholly in eating, drinking, and sleeping; committing both houses and husbandry to the care and guidance of old men and women.  
So as it seemeth strange to see two such contrary dispositions in one people, to be both lovers of idleness, and yet enemies to peace and quietness. Their dwellings were in villages, and every one in several houses, their apparel, short cassocks, or soldiers coats, buttoned together with clasps, or pinned with thorns, and the richer sort were known and distinguished from others by their clothes: for they wore their coats so close to their skins, as you might plainly perceive the perfect proportion of each limb and member, and the self same fashion of apparel which served men, was worn by women likewise.  
Most part of the Germans which dwelled towards the East and North side of the country, contented themselves with one wife a piece, some few excepted which had many; and the wife was not endowed by the husband, but the husband by the wife; nor was their dowers of such dainties as were only fit to make them fine and gay, but of such things as they had most use of, as yokes of oxen, horses, with their furniture, shields, swords, javelins and such like.  
The women were wonderful chaste and modest, and their looks nothing want on to procure allurements: they frequented no banquets nor common feasts, so as (though the nation were very populous) there was few women found offending in adultery; but if any were thereof convicted, her own husband would pull her headlong out of his house stark naked, before her neighbours and friends, and whip her round about the town, nor was there any place for pardon for such lascivious strumpets, no not their youth, beauty, nor riches could any whit privilege them, or reconcile them to their husbands. It was not tolerable for any one to scoff at vice, for thereby they thought they both corrupted others, and were corrupted themselves. And as every woman had but one body and one life, so should she have but one husband, nor ought she to have any idle cogitation or wanton desire, as if she more regarded the act of matrimony, than her husband's love: so as more good was done by their manners and examples, then in other places by wholesome & strict laws. Young men were not very prone to lust, & especially when their youthful days drew to an end, and maids were not married till they were of good years, that they might be more strong and able to bear children.  
Murder was punished with a certain number of cattle, 
The punishment for murder.  which the murderer must give to all the dead man's friends as a satisfaction for his death: They were very desirous to diet together, and to keep good hospitality, accounting it an unhonest and undecent part to forbid any one their houses or tables. Rewards were willingly taken and given, nor would they upbraid any one with that they had given, nor think themselves in any matter beholding for what they received.  
They would spend whole nights and days in drinking 
Drunkenness a commendation amongst the Germans  and carousing, esteeming and accounting it a credit to be drunken: and oftentimes after their gluttony and gormandize, they would brawl and fall out one with another, exchanging ill words, and sometimes blows, whereof oftentimes ensued maiming and murder. They consulted of all serious matters, touching both war and peace, amidst their banquets, deeming their judgements more acute, and themselves more careful at that time, then at any other, and more fit to undergo any notable enterprise.  
The people were plain and simple, without craft, dissimulation or cunning, and easily drawn to lay open and discover the very secrets of their hearts: They would call to mind the day after, what they had done before, considering of the matter more deliberately, when they knew not how to alter it, showing then what their intent was, when they could not be deceived.  
They drunk a corrupt drink made of barley, in stead of wine, but those which dwelled near unto great rivers had wine brought them out of other countries: their meat was simple and gross, as wild apples, new dough, thick milk, or clottered Cream: but their drink was much more immoderate: They delighted to behold and see young men naked, amongst swords and spears, and other military weapons belonging to war, and to see how finely and nimbly they could deliver themselves out of the danger of them, the often practise whereof made them skilful, and their agility and skill was a great ornament unto them. They were so exceedingly given to dicing, as when they had lost all that ever they had, they would adventure their own liberties upon one chance at dice; and if they 
The Germans were great dicers.  lost, they would willingly become slaves, and suffer themselves (though never so strong and lusty) to be bound and sold like beasts. They divided the year into Winter, Spring, and Summer, making no recknning of Autumn, by reason of their scarcity of wine and fruits.  
In their Funerals they made little show of sorrow, by weeping and outward lamentations, but the dolour and grief of their hearts continued long, and women only bewailed the dead, it being enough for men to remember them. And these in times past were the customs of the Germans, and their manner of living.  
But how much they be altered from what they then 
The later manners of the Germans.  were, (as well as other nations) may be gathered by this their present estate: for now the whole state and condition of the Germans, consisteth of four sorts of people: the first sort or Order is the Clergy, which be of two sorts likewise: that is to say, secular Priests, and religious persons; 
The Germans divided into four sorts of people whereof the first is the Clergy.  both of them being endowed with great and large rents, revenues, and riches, and held in great honour and estimation with the people, both for that they offer sacrifice unto God, extol the praises of the Saints, and have cure of souls; as also for that they understand the Scriptures and holy Writ, be able to interpret and expound them, and lead a single life; for those which have not all these good parts in them, are despised and contemned of the vulgar sort of people: And every order of religious persons, have their garments made of their own fashion, very decent and comely: The secular, or lay-Priestes wear loose Coats, for the most part black, or russet, and linen miters on their heads, not very high crowned, but sticking close about their ears. And when they go abroad, they cast about their necks, for decencies sake, a broad lace, either of silk or linen, which hangeth down on each side their shoulders: Upon their shoes are pumps: they wear Pantofles or Sandals, putting them off ever when they come home.  
Most of them live very idly, bestowing little time in obtaining learning, but spending all the afternoon's in gaming and drinking. The inferior Priests, if any one injure them, complain unto their Bishop, and sometimes to the Court of Rome: whereby they work their own security, and condign punishment is inflicted upon the offenders.  
The second estate or condition is of the Nobility, whereof 
The second order is of the Nobility.  there be many degrees; as Princes, Earls, Barons, and Knights, which is the lowest degree of that Order: the Princes excel all the other degrees, as well in dignity and blood, as in power and strength, as having very large lands and ample possessions.  
The Earls, Barons, and other Nobles live dispersed abroad in the country, some in one place, some in another, flourishing like so many flowers in a green field. But that which is very strange & worthy to be observed in the Nobility, is this, that both Princes & Earls acknowledge a sovereignty: & yield their obedience unto the Emperor; so oft as necessity, or the Emperor himself requireth it: and yet the Knights say, that they be exempted, and that they will not serve any one, nor suffer those which be under them to serve, but for wages and stipend, yet notwithstanding they acknowledge and say, that the Roman Emperor is their Sovereign Lord and Governor. The Nobility in general, think it a great discredit unto them, and a blemish unto their kindred and house, to exercise merchandise, or any mechanical art, or to take a wife from among the common people, or that is their inferior, or to live in a strange city like townsmen: for they (scorning all company and commerce with citizens) live freely with their wives and families, in stately castles, strong holds, and beautiful palaces, situated some upon mountains, some in woods, and some in champion countries. Some of the Nobles frequent the Courts of Kings and great Princes, and follow the wars, and some others live at their own houses upon their Rents and revenues.  
They be much given to hunting, affirming, that by continual custom, and their ancient liberty, they only are allowed to hunt, and all other interdicted and deprived of that pleasure; for, for a private man to hunt either hares, ro-buckes, kids, hynd-calues, or stags, in some place is punished with the loss of his eyes; and in some other places with the loss of his head: but it is lawful for every one that can, to take such wild beasts that be noisome and hurtful.  
Moreover, they fare daintily, and be sumptuously clothed, as well men as women, both at home and abroad, being decked and adorned with gold, silver, and silks of sundry colours: When they walk abroad they are attended with a troop of their friends and familiars, and they may easily be known and discerned from the common-people, only by their gate, it is so grave and demure: They never go far from home but on horseback, for to take a journey on foot they account a great dishonour unto them, and a plain demonstration of poverty: but if they stand in want of any thing, they will strain courtesy to take it from others, either privily or by force. They seldom go to law with any one for injuries done unto them, but rather gather a troop of their friends together, and revenge themselves, either by fire, sword, or rapine: thereby compelling the wrong-doers to make what satisfaction they think good.  
They be proud, turbulent, and covetous, practising how to get Church-mens goods by deceit, and wracking their slaves and clowns of the country, with an unrelenting authority. It is almost incredible to be spoken, how they vex, pill and poll those miserable and unfortunate caitiffs, & surely Germany were an hundred times more happy, if those Centaurs, worse than Dionysius and Phalaris, were either utterly expelled the land, or at the least, their tyranny and power so restrained & abridged, as they might be enforced to live private like unto the Nobility in Helvetia. The 3. estate or order of the Germans, is of citizens and townsmen: and of these, some be only subject 
The third order is of citizens.  to Caesar, and some to other Princes and Prelates of the church. Those which yield obedience to the Emperor, have many privileges, laws, and customs common to themselves: and every year (by the voices of the citizens) is one chief magistrate elected; who for his year hath a sovereign authority over them all, and he of himself hath power to punish any one of the same order with death.  
When an offence is committed, the offendor is brought before the magistrates elected, where being set in council, the accuser is called for, who having set down his accusation, the defendant hath free liberty to plead for himself; and when both parties be heard, at large, the judges proceed to sentence, which is not by any course of law (for that these manner of magistrates be ignorant of the laws) but as they be induced by reason, and as the custom hath been aforetime in like cases: the like form of judgement is used in civil causes likewise, saving that in civil and criminal causes, the party accused may appeal unto Caesar, which offenders in other causes may not do.  
In every Imperial City be two sorts of Citizens, the 
Citizens divided into two sects.  one of Gentlemen, the other of Plebeians: the Plebeians or commonalty of the city, be occupied in trading and keeping shops, but the Gentlemen (which be also called patricians) live only upon their patrimony & revenues, in as good fashion as the Nobility or Knights of the country do, if any of the commonalty wax so rich, that he (either by custom or commerce) will intrude himself into the society of Gentlemen, he is (notwithstanding his wealth) discarded their companies, whereof it proceedeth that each of these orders of Citizens, have for many years, continued in there own estate without alteration. And yet for all this the administration and government of their commonwealth, is common and permitted as well unto the Plebeians as patricians, so as the communality is no way in subjection to the gentility, but every one hath his own substance in safety, with free liberty (not transgressing their laws) to live as they list: and justice is ministered (for the most part) throughout all the whole country, by men which have little learning or none at all, for in every City (and in many towns likewise) be elected 12. judges, which be such as be most notorious for uprightness and integrity of life, not respecting whether they be learned or no, which twelve must of necessity take upon them the office of justice and judgement, for which they expect no other wages nor reward, but only honour, and they be so diligent in performing their duties therein, that (for the common good) they will not stick to neglect all private affairs and business whatsoever (be they never so urgent) to observe the times appointed for judgement and hearing of causes. And they be all of them sworn to minister justice unto every one, according to right and equity, from whose sentences in times past, they would never appeal, esteeming it a great indignity unto them, to contradict the decrees of such men as executed their offices gratis, but now adays appeals be usual, which were the more tolerable a great deal, if the judges to whom the appeals be made, would in their judgements observe the customs of the former judges, but their doings are so little regarded, that their sentences, though never so just and upright, be retracted and wholly altered, only because they seem to repugn their written laws, whereby the judges of the former rank, are undeservedly taxed of ignorance, their good endeavours reproved, and blemished, and the parties to be relieved oftentimes oppressed: which kind of judgement, how corrupt it is, themselves may easily perceive.  
Furthermore the Citizens live and accord together very familiarly and friendly, meeting and assembling themselves, sometimes in public places, sometimes in private houses, where they spend their time, some in buying and selling, some in conference one with an other, some in feasting and banqueting, and some in gaming and disporting, in all which sundry actions can hardly be discovered any deceit or contention.  
They be very courteous and affable, for at all times and in all places, be they men or women, so often as they meet together, so often do they salute one an other. Upon working days they be very frugal and sparing, both in their diet and apparel, but upon festival days they will go more gallantly and far more daintily. Those which labour eat four times a day, and playmen but twice; the men's apparel for the most part is woollen, and the women's linen, and each of them so much differrent one from an other, both in colour and fashion, as you shall hardly find one man or one woman appareled like an other, for they be so new fangled as they will fall into every new fashion, imitating the Italians, but more usually the French men, from whom now of late years, the men have gotten their broad nosed shoes, their coats with wide hanging sleeves cut, and woven caps (which they call Pyrethia) And not long since, they wore shoes with sharp snouts, short coats close to their bodies, and hoods with tails or flaps behind: This sparingness in apparel heretofore used by men, is now descended unto women and by them practised, for whereas they were wont to wear many kerchers upon their heads, which made their heads seem great, by reason of their many folds of linen, they now wear but one only: They be also more modest in all their other clothes then heretofore, they have been in a manner utterly rejecting gold, silver and pearls, and all sumptuous guarding of their garments with rich furs and silks.  
I need not speak of their long trains carried up behind them, which (though they were common) be now only worn of the Nobility, and the women be now so decent and comely clothed, as they cannot justly be reprehended for any thing they wear, saving that some women's gowns be over wide and to much hollowed about the neck.  
In their funerals and celebration of their friends obites, they be attired in black, and their time of lamentation is thirty days, within which space they do sacrifice for them three times, the first day, the seventh day and the thirtieth day.  
They be so devout and religious a people, that every artificer before he begin his work, will go to the Church and hear mass, yea both men and maid servants be by their masters compelled thereunto, for they hold it a beastly and hateful thing, for any one to neglect his service to God, either for idleness, or for any business whatsoever. In giving alms they be very charitable, for there is almost no City but it hath in it a covent of Mendicant Friars, and a common house to relieve and harbour poor Pilgrims and strangers. There be also sostred and brought up many young youths that have left their own countries and father's houses, to attain learning in Germany, of which sort of striplings and young students, you shall see so many in one City as you will think it strange how they should be maintained; And these be only nourished and brought up, by the alms and charity of the Citizens, and go singing from house to house for victuals, whereof they have enough given them, for because they frequent the Church daily, and help the Priests to sing mass, and be afterwards made priests themselves.  
In every parish is one public house or free school, wherein as well these, as the citizens sons, be brought up in learning, their masters and tutors be such as be both learned and virtuous, who chastise those which be shrewd, or neglect their learning, sometimes with words and sometimes with stripes.  
Their dwelling houses for the most part be joined together, and builded according to every man's ability, some high, some low, but all aptly and conveniently disposed for their trading, the rich men's houses be builded stately with lime and stone, and poor men's with timber and mortar, and all of them covered either with tile or slate, which whether it be done for state, or to prevent danger of fire I am not able to say.  
In Saxony and diverse other places beside, they cover their houses with smooth shingles, which maketh their building seem more base and more subject to burning: The streets (for the most part throughout all the Cities of Germany) be paved with flint stone, and upon the gates of every City stand high turrets or watchtowers, wherein (in the day time) be placed certain scouts, to give notice unto the warders below, by the sound of a trumpet, of all horsemen they perceive coming towards them, to the end, that having warning aforehand, they may be more provident to provide for the safety of the city: Their cities (for the most part) be defended both naturally & artificially, being situated either upon the tops of hills, or by winding rivers, such as be situated upon the plain ground, be compassed and immured with strong walls and trenches, & defended with innumerable towers and bulwarks: the fields also about many of their cities be so enclosed on all sides with deep and large ditches, as they serve for a sufficient defence against the invasion of foreign enemies.  
The fourth last and lowest estate of the Germans, be 
The fourth order is of husbandmen.  of such as dwell in country villages, and follow husbandry, and be therefore called clowns or bores, whose estate and condition of all others is most hard and miserable, for they live basely by themselves, utterly separated from all other sorts of people, so as they have no fellowship with others, but their own families and their cat-tail. Their dwelling houses be low cottages made of timber and clay, and covered with straw, their bread is mean and course, their meat either oatmeal pottage or sodden beans or pulse, and their drink is either water or whey: their apparel a Canvas frock (such as our Carters use in England) high shoes or startups and coloured caps.  
These clowns be a very turbulent, toilsome and beastly kind of people, they carry into Cities near adjoining them, all their fruits and increase that arriseth from their corn and cat-tail (other then what their Landlords have, for they themselves do scarce taste of any fruit of their travail that good is) where they sell them, and make their provision of such things as they have need of, for amongst them dwell few artificers or none at all. Every village hath a Church in it, whether in the forenoon upon holy days, all the people resort to hear service, and in the afternoon, some of them meet together in one place or other, where they fall to chopping and chainging, or conferring of other business, the youth fall a dancing after the minstrels, and old men a tippling in taverns: and none of these clowns will go abroad amongst other people, but with weapons about them, for they have their swords ready at all assays: Every village chooseth out two or four of the most substantial men amongst them, whom they call their masters, these be indifferent men to decide contentions and controversies growing by contracts, and have the disposing and ordering of their little commonwealth next unto their Landlords, for it is they that have the sole government and authority over them all, other then what is by them permitted to these chosen prefects, which in their vulgar tongue they call Sculteti. These clowns live in great drudgery and slavery under their Landlords, for they plow their grounds, sow their seeds, get in their harvest, provide them fuel, repair their houses, skoure their ditches, and maintain their fencing: in a word, there is no slavery whatsoever, but is wholly imposed upon those bores, nor dare they for their lives once refuse to do any thing their Landlords command them, for if they do they shall be sound punished, and yet there is no one thing that oppresseth them more nearly, then that the farms they possess be none of their own, but that (notwithstanding they be every way else slaves unto their Landlords) they must pay unto them yearly a great part of their corn and grain for rent: And these be generally the manners of the Germans at this day and this their course of life.   

Of Saxony and how the Saxons lived in times past and how they now live. CAP. XIII.  
SAXONIA (a particular Province of Germany) is bounded upon the West with the river Visera or (as 
The limits of Spain.  some will have it) with the river of Rhine, upon the North with Dacia and the Baltean sea, with Franconia on the South (against which lie opposite a longth-wise Boiarie and Bohemia) and with Prussia on the East within which bounds and limits how many sundry sorts of people, distinguished by sundry names, be at this day comprehended, and included, may easily be understood by the precedent description of Germany, all which are said to live under the Saxon law.  
This country was named Saxony of a people called Saxons, who (according to the opinion of some writers) 
Saxony why so called.  were the remnant of the Macedonian army, which followed Alexander the Great, and at his death were disperse into all parts of the world. Some others affirm that they were wandering Britan's, and such as had no certain habitations, and that they forsook their native soil to seek them better seats, and getting shipping and arriving in Germany, expelled thence the Thuringij and possessed their land. For at the first the people of Saxony were turbulent and troublesome, ill and overthwart neighbours unto all those which dwelled near unto them, yet were they at home peaceable and quiet, and marvelous vigilant and industrious for the good of their country and commonwealth, besides that they had a very provident care and extraordinary regard, for doing any thing that should be a touch or debasement to their stocks, or against their honours, holding it a stain and pollution to their blood to marry with women of other nations, or with any inferior to themselves, and endeavouring their uttermost to make themselves a people proper and natural without mixture of other nations, and only like unto themselves; whereof ensued that though the number of them were great, yet in their external habits, in the stature and proportion of their bodies, and colour of their hair, they were almost all alike.  
The Saxons were divided into four sorts or differences 
The Saxons divided into noblemen freemen, libertines and slaves.  of people, which were noble men, freemen, libertines (that is such as had been slaves, and obtained their freedom and manumission) and bound-men or slaves, and to the end that each of these orders might remain in his own Estate, it was established by a law, that no man of one estate, should marry or take to wife a woman of an other, but that the Nobility should match with nobility, the freemen with freemen, the manumitted with those which were manumitted and the slaves with slaves: the penalty for the transgressing of which law was present death. They had many good and wholesome laws for the punishment of malefactors.  
They were upright in condition, sincere in life, and of uncorrupted and irreprehensible manners, doing nothing but what was profitable, honest and agreeable to the laws of nature: all which had been sufficient for their salvations, if withal they had known and believed in the true and everliving God. But they were great Idolaters, worshipping trees, and fountains of water, but more especially a huge stock of wood set up an end, which they accounted for a god, calling it in their language (Irminsaul) that is to say a universal and general pillar or column, whereby all other things are sustained & held up: Mercury also they observed and honoured as a god offering unto him upon certain days humane sacrifices, nor 
Merccury observed as a god by the Saxons,  did they hold it fit or lowable (by reason of the great dignity and divinity of their gods) to include them in Temples and Churches, nor to figure them in the proportion of men, but they consecrated unto them, woods & groves, calling them after their names, and they never perused those secret and mystical places, but with great devotion and reverence: Witchcraft and socery was much in practice amongst them. Their manner of taking advise whether a thing were to be done or not done, was thus, first they would cut from a fruit tree, divers little sprigs or young sprouts, marking and distinguishing them each from other, with certain notes or differences, and so cast them suddenly and at adventures upon a white garment.  
And then (if the consultation were general for them all) the priest, if private, the goodman of the household, lifting up his eyes towards heaven, and praying to their gods, taketh up those branches one by one, and layeth them down again three sundry times, and ever as he taketh them up, he expoundeth and interpreteth what is to be done, according to the note or imprese written upon them; and than if the priest or good men of the house forbid it to be done, they advise no more of the matter that day, but if they allow it, the people were so strong of belief as they would put the project in practice what ever they event proved: they gathered and conjectured of many things by the chirping and flying of birds, and oftentimes made experiment of forewarnings and admonitions of horses, which (to presage of things to come) were nourished and kept in those woods and groves dedicated to their gods.  
These horses were white and never did any manner of work, and (being coupled together and set before the holy Chariot) they were attended and followed either by the priest, the King or chief ruler of the city, who diligently marked and observed their neighing, whynying and stoming, and this manner of prediction or foreshowing of things to come, was of all others in greatest credit and estimation, both by the Princes, priests and people, for they held them to be the ministers of the gods, and partakers of their divine counsels.  
They used also an other sort of soothsaying or witchcraft, whereby to know aforehand what success they should have in the wars, which was in this manner: when they took a captive of any nation against whom the waged battle, they compelled him to fight with one of their own people, and as the victory went betwixt them two so would they judge of the ensuing wars. The Emperor Charles the Great was the first, that by continual wars, compelled this impious people to admit the Christian religion, which both they and all other Germans do now most religiously adore.  
In Saxony be many sumptuous and Princely palaces, and magnificent and stately Temples, Churches and Monasteries, as one in Alberstandium consecrated to our blessed Lady, whereinto never entereth any profane or unhallowed person, but only such as be professed in Religion 
A Temple in Alberstade de dicated to our Lady.  and to the service of God, except upon Ash-wednesday, and then is there one of the people brought into the Church, who must ever be such a one, as in the eye of the world is of most wicked and abominable life and conversation, this man being brought into the Church all in black, and his head covered, is placed where he may hear mass, which being duly solemnized, he is cast out of the Temple, and enforced to wander up and down the city barefooted, all the time of Lent, visiting all the Churches one after an other, during which time, he is maintained by the priests, and by them brought again into the Church upon Easter-day, where (having first an alms given him which he offerreth with great devotion to the Church) after the consecration of the oil, he is expiated and hallowed by the whole Clergy, and so dismissed. This man they commonly called Adam, comparing him for his innocency, unto Adam our first father and founder, who was void of all sin, and by him they suppose their city to be purged and purified.  
The soil of Saxony is very fruitful of all things but wine, and hath divers mines of silver and base: toward Gosleria, and in many places beside be brine-pits, and fountains of salt water, whereof they make a fine white and most delicate salt, which yieldeth them a large commodity yearly.  
They have great store of barley and wheat, whereof they make very fine white bread, and a kind of ale or 
The Saxons immoderate drinkers.  beer to supply the want of wine, which they drink so immoderately and out of measure, as when they be at their feasts and banquet, and that their ordinary cups and drinking glasses will not hold sufficient for them to carouse at one draft, those which do give attendance at the table, will set before them a great pail full of that drink with a dish in it, wishing every one to be their own skinkers and so to drink what they please, and it is almost incredible to report how much of that liquor those immodest and druken people will devour and swallow up at one sitting, utging and enforcing one an other to drink, till they be worse than brutish swine, not thinking they have enough, when they are so drunk as they lie wallowing in their own vomit, but even then they will stick close to it night and day, until they be sober again, and he which drinketh most, and out sitteth them all, is not only highly extolled and commended of the rest, for that notable exploit, but also in sign of victory and triumph, hath given him a garland or nosegay made of roses and sweet flowers, or else some other reward for which they contended.  
This their wicked and beastly custom of drinking, is now (the more pity) disperse over all Germany, so as all of them in general, do now drink strong wines as liberally, as the Saxons do their ale, to their inspeakable hindrance and hazard of their healths, in such sort, as (not content to do ill themselves) if any stranger or other come into the room where they be drinking, they will rise up and reach him their cups, persuading him very earnestly for to sit down and to bear them company, accounting him their enemy if he look for much bidding or inviting, or refuse to drink, without showing just cause, which hateful disorder is oftentimes the cause of bloodshed and murder.  
These quaffing Saxons fare very hardly and sluttishlie, for their usual meat is small guts or chitterlings dried, raw onions, fat bacon and salt butter, and they seeth their meat upon sunday to serve them all the week after.  
They feed not their young children as we do, with pap or pottadge made of milk and flower, but with more solid and stronger meats, which is first champed or chawed in the nurse's mouth, and so given the children to swallow down, which kind of diet when they be young maketh them more strong and lusty, and better able to endure extremities.  
The Saxons have a peculiar language to themselves, but in their apparel and other things, there is no difference betwixt them and the Germans.   

Of Westphalia, and of the manner of judgement ordained for the Westphalians by Charles the Great. CAP. 14.  
WESTPHALIA is comprehended and included within the bounds and limits 
The bounds of Westphalia.  of Saxony, having upon the East the river of Rhine, Visurgus or Visera upon the West. Frizland and Holland upon the North, and upon the South the hills of Hassia, which Ptolomeus calleth Obnobijs; out of which hills springeth the river Amasis, which running by the two renowned cities, Padeburne & Monasterium, divideth the Province as it were into two parts, and so passing by Frizland is carried into the sea.  
There is also the river Sala which is famous for the notable overthrow of Drusus, son in law to Augustus: This country (as Strabo writeth) was first inhabited by a people called Dructerij, and (as others write) by the Sicambry: This people being subdued by Charles the French King, surnamed Charles the Great, was by him induced, or rather enforced to embrace the Christian religion, whereto they 
secret Judges ordained by Charles the Great over the Westphalians.  were hardly drawn; and being a mutinous and rebellious people, ever when they rebelled, they would return again to the worshipping of Idols, nothing regarding the true faith, nor their oaths whereby they were obliged to observe and keep it, which when Charles perceived, to the end that he might bridle and restrain their temerity and rashness, with fear of corporal punishment, he ordained secret judges, and gave them full power and authority to execute judgement at their pleasures, without trial or purgation, upon all such as had either violated their oaths, abrogated their faith, or otherwise committed any notable villainy: In choosing of which judges he had a special care and regard, to elect just and upright men, that the guiltless and innocent might not be punished without cause. This law and manner of execution thereof, struck a great terror into the Westphalians, and at length enforced them to continue in the faith, seeing before their eyes both noble men and mean men hanged and trust up in trees without any accusation or trial at all, and understanding that they were executed either for breach of their faith or some such other heinous offence. This kind of justice or martial law, is yet in force and is called, judicium vetitum, or judicium occultum, a hidden or secret sentence, and the judges or executioners of that law, be called Scabini, who be now grown so presumptuous and insolent, as they would challenge and usurp the like liberty and jurisdiction over all Germany.  
They have secret customs and hidden laws, known to few more than themselves, whereby they doom men to death, and it is very hard to find out their manner of proceedings, for neither fear nor reward can allure any one of them to reveal their secrets.  
The mayor part of those Scabini be not discovered what they are, but go up and down the country (like Promoters) noting men's faults, and accusing them for their offences in places of judgement; and arraiging them (as their custom is): which done the malefactors be condemned, & their names inroled in a catalogue, and so delivered to the junior Scabini, to whom the execution belongeth, by which means many evil doers lose their lives, that never knew of their condemnations.  
But this their manner of judgement, is now much altered and degenerated from his first perfection, for sometimes very base and mean persons be admitted into that office, and those whose power and function was only to find out offenders, and punish misdeameanors, do now busy and occupy themselves in all other ordinary businesses. The country of Westphalia is cold, and very bare of wine and all kind of grain, their bread is brown & course, and their drink or beer made of barley, for the wine which is brought unto them by the river of Rhine, is marvelous dear, and therefore little used, unless of the wealthier sort of people. The natural inhabitants be both warlike and witty, whereof ensueth this proverb. That Westphalia breedeth more flatterrers than fools, it is under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Colen.   

Of Franconia and of the nature and customs of that Country. CAP. 15.  
FRANCONIA, or East France is a 
Franconia why so called.  part of Germany, & situated in the very heart & middle of the country, it was so called of the Sycambrians, who expelling thence the Alani in the reign of the Emperor Valentinian, were after called Franci. It is environed on the south with Suevia & Boioaria, with the river Rhine on the west, upon the east lieth 
The bounds of Franconia.  Bohemia, and Hassia, and Thuringia, (two Provinces of Saxony) upon the North. This country is on all sides so enclosed with huge thick woods, and cragged mountains, as the passage into it is both dangerous and difficult, yet within it is very even ground, garnished and adorned with an innumerable sort of Cities, walled towns, and fortified Castles and Villages. It is environed round about with the Hyrcanian wood, which with his high hills encloseth and defends it on all sides like a natural wall; and through it run Sala, Thuberus, Neccharus, and the navigable River Moganus. These Rivers pass by many wide and large Valleys, upon the banks whereof on both sides be planted great store of vineyards, which yield wines so rare, and of so great worth, as they be transported into other countries far remote.  
The land is fertile enough, and not sandy and overgrown 
The fertility of Franconia.  with Fearne, as (Aeneas Silvius reporteth) saving that part of the country which is now called Norica, or in some places near unto rivers.  
It yieldeth great increase of barley, wheat, and all other kind of grain and pulse, and no one part of Germany affordeth so many and so great Onions, Rape roots, and Rape stalks as this doth: beside, about Babenburge grow such great store of Lycoras roots, as they be carried away by cart loads.  
It is full of gallant meadows, and goodly Orchards, very populous and abounding with beasts, there is much fishing by reason of the multitude of Rivers, and better hunting, for the great store and variety of wild beasts: for the Princes preserve them of purpose in woods and forests, making them stables and dens to lie in, and to defend them from winter's boisterous and cold storms, allowing them meat also if need be, and no private man may be suffered to take or hunt any of these beasts.  
The whole country of Franconia is under the dominion 
The Princes of Franconia.  of five princes, whereof two be secular or lay Princes, that is to say, the Burgrave of Norinburg, and the Count Palatine of Rhine, and the other three be ecclesiastical Governors, to wit, the Bishops of Babenburg, Herbipolis, and Magnus.  
The Bishop of Herbipolis holdeth his Dukedom, by 
The Bishop of Herbipolis, one of the Princes of Franconia.  having a naked sword, and an ensign or flag placed before him upon the altar, while he is at Mass. And the first day that he entereth into the Metrapolitan or chief city, and taketh upon him the Episcopal seat, he is usually attended with a great troop of gallant and excellent horsemen: and when he is admitted and entered into the city, he lighteth off his horse in the very gate of the city, and there disrobeth himself of his uppermost garment, and putteth on a poor and base coat, and girdeth himself about the waist with a cord: and in this humble manner bore headed and bore handed, he goeth up into the palace, unto the Canonical or Regular Priests, who after they have done their fealty unto him, exalt and install him in his seat, but before his installment, he is conducted to the picture of some devout Bishop that is dead, where he is seriously and earnestly admonished to follow and imitate his examples, who being elected of a poor student, did notwithstanding govern the State of the Church uprightly, & as it ought. And none of the lineage of either Dukes or Earls may possess this Cathedral sea, but only such as be of the inferior Order of Nobility: not for that it is not sufficient to maintain a Prince, (for the possessions and revenues be very large and great) but because none may enjoy the Bishopric, but only such as be canonical or regular persons, which are for the most part of the meanest degree of Nobility. To be Bishop of Herbipolis, is a title of marvelous great dignity and honour: and when a Bishop is new created, the custom is, that at his first entrance into his Bishopric, he should progress over all his dominion, and visit all the towns and villages which pay him tithe, and in every town he bringeth out into the streets whole hogsheads of wine, with dishes for every one to drink that will.  
The Franconians do nothing differ from the rest of the Germans, either in their apparel or shape of their bodies: They be very laborious, and none of them given to idleness, but the women as well as men plant in vineyards, and yet (by reason of their poverty) they sell their wines, and drink water themselves: Beer they cannot endure nor will have any brought unto them, yet in Herbipolis upon fasting days, those which will drink no wine, may buy it in dock and roads without the city, to drink in stead of water.  
The people be insolent, arrogant, and proud, contemning all others in respect of themselves, and so much given to cavilling and brawling, as no stranger can endure to stay with them, unless he can flatter and dissemble, and behave himself discreetly and soberly: but those which can endure their flouts and taunts, and pocket up their injuries with patience, may safely dwell with them: for such they account and esteem honest and sufficient men, and permit them to marry wives, and enter into consanguinity with them, by which means many Suevians, Bavarians, and Hassians do dwell, and continue in Franconia.  
They be very devout, and religiously given, and yet subject to two horrible and execrable vices, which are, swearing and filching: for they will glory and vaunt themselves in blasphemy, and horrible profanation, and account stealing, a thing honest, commendable, and lawful, because long used as a custom. They observe many strange ceremonies, which I will here set down for the more credit and better approbation of such things as be written and reported of them by strangers.  
In the nights of those five days of Aduent, which go immediately before the day of our Lord's Nativity, all the children of the town, both man-children, and women-childrens, go up and down the streets from one house to another, knocking and beating at every one's door, wishing them a happy and prosperous new year, and showing them in a song, that the birthday of our Saviour Christ is nigh approaching, and every household giveth them either apples, pears, nuts, or money, or some other thing that they can best spare.  
But with what joy and exultation, the birthday of our Saviour jesus Christ is solemnized in their churches, both by Priests and lay-people, may be understood by this Ceremony following: for than they place upon the Altar the image of a young child, in representation of the new birth of the babe jesus; which done, the young men and maids dance and hop round about the Altar, and those which be married, and old folks sing a song or hymn: which kind of ceremony is not much unlike to the triumph and exultation, which (as Poets feign) was used by the Coribants in a cave in the mountain Ida, about the image of their god jupiter. In the Kalends of januarie (which by their computation is the beginning of the year) is a solemn meeting of friends and kinsfolks together, who joining their hands, and lifting them up to heaven, with one heart and consent, pray for a prosperous and happy new year, spending all that day in pleasant congratulation, merriments, and drinking. Which done they send new years gifts to their friends which be absent, which gifts, the romans in their Feasts dedicated to Saturn, (which were solemnized about that time) called Saturnalitia, and by the greeks, they be called Apophoreta, that is to say, presents or things given to guests to be carried away with them.  
This custom and ceremony of theirs, was described by the Author of this book, in these verses following: 
O Christ the Word of Father dear, etc.  
In honour of thy blessed birth we celebrate eight days:  
All which we spend in holy hymns, and chanting forth thy praise.  
And following thy examples true, we gifts do often send  
Fat Capons, Hares, or some such thing unto each loving friend:  
Fine wafers stamped with Images and Pictures rarely signed:  
Or basket full of Oranges, doth argue friendly mind:  
Ten Oranges that plumde and topped be with green boxes crest,  
And spices rare of sundry sorts in honour of this Feast.  Upon the Feast day of the Epiphany of our Lord commonly called Twelfte-day, every family maketh a cake of flower, honey, ginger, and pepper, and therewith they elect and choose them a King, in this manner following: the goodwife of the house kneadeth and maketh the cake, and in the moulding she putteth a penny into it, without consideration into what place of the cake she putteth it, but even at adventures, then doth she rake away the fire and bake it upon the hearth, and when it is baked, she breaketh it into as many pieces, as there be men in the whole household, and so distributeth unto every one apart, assigning one part thereof unto Christ, another to our blessed Lady, and three portions more to the three Wisemen, for, and in the name of an alms. And in whose part soever the penny is found, him do the rest set in a chair, and lifting him up on high three times, with great jollity and mirth, they salute him as their king: and all the while he is lifted up, he hath in his right hand a piece of chalk, with which he maketh a great many crosses upon the roofs of their chambers and parlours; and these crosses they have in great estimation, thinking, that by them they escape many dangers.  
And there is no house throughout the whole country of Franconia, especially if it be a dwelling house, but in some one of these twelve nights which be betwixt the Nativity of our Lord, and the Epiphany, it is perfumed either with Frankincense, or some other sweet smelling perfume, against the deceits and illusions of Devils and Sorcerers.  
It were in vain to mention in particular, in what manner of Epicurism, the Franconians spend the three days next before Lent, if you knew what general and wilful madness possessed all the rest of Germany at that time, (wherein the Franconians do equal them,) and in what licentious manner all of them then live, for all those three days the Germans practise nothing else, but eating, drinking, and playing, plying it so lustily, as though they should never eat or drink more, or, as if (with the Epicure) they should say, I will take my pleasure, I will eat and drink my belly full to day, for to morrow I shall die.  
Every one will invent some new device or other to delight their minds and senses withal, and to hold them in admiration, and to the end they should not blush, nor be dashed out of countenance, in acting their apish toys and interludes, they mask their faces, and change their habits, the men wearing women's apparel, and the women mens, some represent satires, and some play the devils part, being made black with woad or ink, and clothed in loathsome apparel like Devils indeed. Some others go stark naked, imitating the Priests of Pan, of whom (I think) the Germans have learned that yearly custom of doting and unnatural madness. This their manner of reveling differeth not much from the Feasts called Lupercalia, which the noble young Roman gallants were wont to celebrate in the month of February, in honour of the Licaean Pan. For as those Roman youths went round about the City naked, and their faces besmered with blood, lashing all they met with cords and whips, in rude and barbarous manner most loathsome to behold, even so the Germans strike those they meet, with bags stuffed full of sand or ashes.  
There is a strange custom used in many places of Germany upon Ash-wednesday: for then the young youth get all the maids together, which have practised dancing all the year before, and carrying them in a cart or tumbril, (which they draw themselves in stead of horses,) and a minstrel standing a top of it playing all the way, they draw them into some lake or river, and there wash them well favouredly.  
What the reason of this ceremony is, I cannot perceive but as I conjecture, they imagine the doing of this, to be a purgation and satisfaction to God, for practising such light and wanton behaviour, upon Sundays and Holidays, directly against the Canons and precepts of the Church.  
In the middle of Lent, at which time they be commanded by the Church to rejoice, the youth of Germany where the Author of this present Work was borne, make an Image of straw, resembling the picture of Death; and hanging it upon aspeare, carry it up and down the streets, with great shouting and exclamations, and many give them good entertainment, offering them such things as they usually eat, as peason, milk, and mellow pears; and when they be well refreshed, they return home again: but some others on the contrary part, give them john Drums entertainment, reviling and beating them away from their houses, deeming the picture of death to be ominous and a foretelling of their deaths indeed. The like custom to this, is used by the Franconians, and at the same time: for there the young men take an old cart wheel, and cover it all over with straw, and then (being a great troop of them together) they carry it to the top of a high hill, where, after they have sported themselves most part of the day, unless the cold drive them soon home, in the evening they set it on fire, and set it going down the hill burning, being a sight able to astonish the beholders, that know not what it means: for it tumbleth into the valley all of a flaming fire, with such a pother, as if the Sun or Moon should tumble down from heaven.  
Upon Easter day, some one of the wealthiest amongst them, causeth certain cakes to be made, and giveth one or two of them to the young men, and as many to the maids, and when they be all met together a little before night, in a plain meadow, in the presence of an infinite number of spectators, those which be most nimble of footmanship, run for those cakes, the young men against young men, and the maids against maids.  
Then have they their solemn ceremonies at the dedication of their parish Churches, which (by the Institutions of the Church) ought to be solemnized by all the parishioners, once every year, with great joy and banqueting: to which solemnisation come many young men out of other parishes, not for any devotion they bear unto the Churches, but only to dance, drink, and revel, for their manner of coming argueth little devotion, but rather an intention to brawl and quarrel, for they come all well weaponed, and Minstrels playing before them, and oftentimes they fall out and go together by the cares, and part with cracked crowns. The like kind of meetings and assemblies we have in many places of England, which we call wakes.  
Upon Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday in Rogation week, or cross week, (when as general Litanies and Processions are used to be said over all the Christian world) there meet together at one Church in most parts of Franconia, many crosses (for by that name be the whole company of parishioners called that go the preambulation with the Procession, and have a banner with the sign of the cross carried before them) & when many several crosses or companies be met together in one Church, they sing not altogether, but each several company hath a several choir, and a several place to sing by themselves.  
The young men and maids be arrayed in their holy day apparel, with wreaths or garlands of flowers about their heads, and willow staves in their hands: The Priests and Ministers of the Church stand by giving diligent ear to their singing, and which of the Quires they think have song sweetest, and made the best melody, they adjudge that the other Quires shall give unto them certain bowls of Wine.  
And upon Whitsunday this is their order: every one which hath either a horse of his own, or can borrow one, do meet in one place, and ride together, to view the bounds, and limits of their fields, having with them a Priest, with the body of our Lord jesus Christ put in a purse, and hanging at his neck, and all the way as they ride they sing and pray, beseeching God of his great mercy, to defend and preserve their corn, and to send such temperate and seasonable wether, as they may receive the fruits of the earth to their comfort and sustentation.  
Upon Saint Urbin's day, all the Vintners and masters of Vineyards, set a table either in the market steed, or in some other open and public place, and covering it with fine nappery, and strawing upon it green leaves and sweet flowers, do place upon the table the Image of that holy Bishop: And then if the day be clear and fair, they crown the Image with great store of Wine, but if the wether prove rugged and rainy, they cast filth, mire, and puddle water upon it, persuading themselves that if that day be fair and calm, their grapes (which then begin to flourish) will prove good that year, but if it be stormy and tempestuous, they shall have a bad vintage.  
Upon Saint john Baptists day at night, in every village and street in Germany be common fires, (or as we call them here in England bonfires) about which all the people gather together, both men, women and children, dancing and singing, and using many other superstitions, as wearing upon their heads garlands made of Mugwort and Vervin, and flowers in their hands wreathed and pleated together in fashion of a spur, (which wreaths they call military spurs) and they dare not look upon the fire, unless they look through those spurs, firmly believing that by that means their eyes be preserved all the year after from all pains and diseases, and every one as he goeth away, throweth the garland he wore about his head into the fire, using this conjuration, Go thy way and burn, and all my ill luck perish and burn with thee. The like fashion is used by the Bishop of Herbipolis servants and courtiers, for they cause a great fire to be made before the tower, which standeth upon a hill above the city of Herbipolis, and throw into the fire many wooden hoops bored full of holes, which when they be all of them on a red fire, they put crooked sticks into the holes of the hoops, and cunningly and forcibly hoist them up into the air a great height, so as they flying from the top of the hill over the river of Moganus, which runneth under the hill, seem to be fiery Dragons, to those which never saw the like before.  
At the same time of the year their manner is to make earthen pots, with so many holes in them as they will hardly hold together, and these pots do the maids buy and cover them round about with red Rose leaves, and then put Candles into them, and hang them upon the tops of the houses, instead of Lanterns: the young men at that time bring into their villages each one a Pine tree, with all the little shoots and undermost branches lopped off, and garnishing and trimming the upmost boughs with little hoops, garlands, glasses and glittering rays or plates of gold or copper they set their trees fast in the ground, where they must stand all summer, resembling many poles in England.  
In Autumn when their Grapes wax ripe, they gather not their Grapes one, one day, and an other an other day, but all the owners of a Vineyard are appointed to pull their Grapes all at one time, to continue pulling till they have all done that vinyeard, for they have not power to pluck them when they please themselves, but when they be allowed by those to whom the tithe is due: And these tithe-maisters appoint such a hill of Grapes to be got such a day, and such a Vineyard such a day, and their tithes be ever brought by the owners of the Vines, into the valley at the hill foot; but those which neglect to gather their Grapes at the time appointed, aught and are enforced, whether they will or no, to carry the tithe into the Lords Winepress, at their own cost and charge: But about the city of Herbipolis, the owners of tithes be more precise, for they (distrusting that the Vine masters will not tithe truly) set a boy over every one of them, to mark their manner of tithing, and to see that their master have his due, and when harvest is done, and all the Grapes gathered, all those boys meet together in the field, and every one being covered all over with straw, and a Torch or two in his hand, they kindle their Torches a little before night, and so come singing with their Torches burning into the city. And in this sort they say they burn and make clean Autumn.  
The Franconians celebrate the feast days of the two pillars of the Church Saint Martin and Saint Nicholas, with great joy and triumph, but after a diverse manner, for the one is solemnized in Churches and Altars, the other in victualling houses and taverns: and there is 〈…〉 throughout all the whole country be he never so needy, or never so niggard, but upon Saint Martin's day he will have some roast meat, or boiled meat, and it be but Hog's entrails, or calves entrails, & glut themselves with wine, for than they taste of their new wines, from which till that time they have abstained; and all their households drink wine with them: and upon this day in Herbipolis and in diverse other places beside, is much wine given to the poor for charity: then have they their public shows and pastimes, as to have two or three Boars put into a place together, and to behold them fight and tear one another with their tusks, till their guts trail about their heels, dividing the flesh when the Boars be dead, some to the common people, and some to the Magistrates.  
But upon Saint Nicholas day, all the young fry and Scholars, choose out three amongst them, one to represent the person of a Bishop, and the other two Deacons, he which is elected in the place of a Bishop, is solemnly upon that day conducted into the Church by all his Schoolfellows, decked and trimmed with a Bishop's Mitre, and all his other ornaments, and so sitteth in place of authority, as Lord and Protector over them all the while Mass is in saying, and when the sacrifice is finished, he chooseth out a few of them from amongst the rest, and he and they go singing up and down the town from house to house, collecting and gathering money, and alleging that the money they got by this means, is not taken as an alms or benevolence, but given frankly for the maintenance of the Bishop.  
Upon Saint Nicholas Eeve Parents will advise their children to fast, and the more to incite them there unto they persuade them, that if they set their shoes under the table over night, what so ever they shall find in them in the morning, is sent them from that bountiful Bishop Saint Nicholas, which causeth the children to fast so truly and so long, as their parents be fain to compel them to eat for being sick with over long fasting: and these be the most usual customs of the Franconians; these their annual ceremonies.   

Of Suevia, and how the people of that country lived heretofore, and how they now live. CAP. 16.  
SVEVIA a Province of Germany, is at this day limited and bounded upon 
The limits of Suevia.  the East with Baioaria, upon the West with Alsatia and the river of Rhine, it hath the Alps upon the South, and Franconia on the North. Suevia (as Antonius Sabellicus is of opinion) was so called of a certain people called Suevi, who departing from that part of Scythia, which is now called Livonia & Prussia, obtained this country to dwell in: which opinion 
Suevia, why so called.  of Sabellicus, Lucan seemeth to confirm, where he saith: He brought the yellow Suevians from the utmost Northern coast: Before it was named Suevia, it was called Alemannia, of the lake Lemannus which is also called Lausanensis. Suevia is the utmost part of all Germany, and is watered with two notable rivers Rhine and Danubius, whereof the one running slowly falleth into the sea Westward, the other running a contrary course, passeth by many regions, and falleth at length into the sea called Pontus.  
The country is some part of it plain and even, and some part cragged and mountainous, and all of it fertile and fruitful, saving lakes, mountains and woods. There be great store of woods, and therefore very good hunting, and especial good fowling, by reason of the multitude of rivers and lakes: Of cattle there be great abundance, and plenty of all kind of grain, it is also full of gallant and flourishing valleys, watered and manured with brooks, rivers and running waters, some running one way, some an other, overflowing and fatting the soil: all which disburden themselves either into Rhine or Danubius. The land is very wholesome and healthful, and well replenished with stately cities, towns and castles, aspiring towers likewise, walled and fortified both by art and nature: and for the advancement of Christian religion, it is sufficiently furnished with beautiful and rich temples, parish Churches and Chapels, Bishops Palaces, Colleges, and monasteries, containing sundry orders of religious persons, both men and women: upon the hills be mines of Silver, Iron, and diverse other metals: it is very populus, and the people very hardy, strong & valorous; they be tall of stature, yellow haired, fair and well-favoured, and marvelous ingenious, so as Plutarch concludeth them in a word, for the most famous people of all Germany.  
The glory and fame of this people grew once to that height, as they obtained the Empire and government of the world, and in that honour and renown continued for one age, but afterwards being destitute and deprived of their Princes, I know not how it came to pass, whether by the fickleness and variety of fortune, or by their own folly and sloth, but their government ceased, and their power and strength in short time became so weak and feeble, as they could hardly hold their own and defend themselves, much less extend their fame to her former greatness, in such sort as no one considering their present estate, would think that ever they had been Lords and Governors of the world.  
julius Caesar in the fourth book of his commentaries, writeth of this people thus. The Suevians (saith he) the worthiest and warlikst people of all Germany, are said to have a hundred Cities, great Burrowes or towns, out of every of which hundred cities & towns yearly is furnished and set forth to the wars a hundred thousand armed men, well appointed, These hundred thousand men wage wars abroad, and be maintained by those which remain at home, and at the years end return home again to husbandry, and send forth as many more of those which were at home, so as going to the wars and remaining at home in course, they be all well exercised is husbandry and skilful in feats of arms, and having no grounds nor possessions private to themselves, they yield reciprocal Maintenance one to another, for it is not lawful for them to remain and abide in one place longer than one year.  
Their usual food is bread, milk and flesh, they be much given to hunting, as well for their daily excercise and liberty of life, which they much regard, (for they be never from their infancy under the rule and correction of any or constrained to do any thing against their wills,) the practice of hunting also maketh them more fierce and courageous, and their bodies more strong & able to endure all extremities, as (although they dwell in a very cold climate) they will wash and bathe themselves in cold rivers, and wear no other garments but skins, and those so little, as the most part of there bodies be stark naked, if any merchants traffic thither, it is more to buy such things of them as they have got by the wars, than for any great desire the Suevians have of their commodities: beside they have great store of labouring beasts, more than they have use for, which the French men much desire, and pay dear for them, and those beasts which with them be naturally froward, ill-favoured and almost good for nothing, by much use and handling be made fit and able both to draw and carry, or to be employed in the wars: for their horses be so well manned and taught, as when the skirmish is at the hottest, their riders for their better adrantage, will oftentimes skip of their backs and fight on foot, and find their horses again in the very same place they were left, when they have occasion to use them: nor do they esteem any one thing more ilde or more ilbeseeming them, than to ride upon horses that be harnessed, or have saddles on their backs, by continual use whereof (though they be but few) they dare and boldly will adventure to encounter with a troup of armed men and harnessed horses, though the number of them be very great.  
The Suevians will suffer no wines to be brought unto them, supposing that the drinking of wine maketh men more effeminate, and less able to endure labour: they hold it a general commendations to them, to have their 
There may no, wines be brought into Suevia,  fields and territories of their cities large and wide, signifying thereby that their forces be not able to maintain such a multitude of cities, for which cause in Suevia the fields be said to extend a thousand and six hundred paces from their cities on every side.  
Cornelius Tacitus writing the situation of Germany, and the manners of the people, speaketh thus of the Suevians, The Germans (saith he) have distinguished the greatest part of Germany, by sundry names and nations, although they be all called by one general name, Suevians, and the property of that people is to plate their locks, and then to knit and bind them up on a knot, by which mark and token the Suevians be discerned and known from other Germans, and the Freemen from slaves: There use is to turn up their curled locks, until they wax so old that their hair grow white, and oftentimes they will bind it on a knot upon the crown of their heads, in doing whereof the better sort of people be most curious.  
They observe a certain time by tradition from their fathers, (which ceremony they esteem so reverent as they dare not omit it) that all the people of one stock or kindred, assemble themselves and meet together, in a certain wood (consecrated and made holy after their fashion) there to do sacrifice, which (as a most barbarous and horrible ceremony and detestable sacrifice) is ever solemnized by killing of a man: This wood, or holy grove they reverence another way also, for there is none of them will adventure to go into it, unless he be bound hand and foot with a cord, that they may perceive the power of their Gods, and if any of them happen to fall, it is not lawful for him to be taken up, or to re-enfore himself to rise again, but he must be rolled or tumbled thither upon the ground: And all this their superstition tendeth to no other end, but to know thereby the original of their nation, where God the governor of all things is, and of all inferior things that are in subjection, and yield obedience unto that God. Some of the Suevians as Cornelius also reporteth do sacrifice unto Isis: And as for all their other customs, though heretofore never so peculiar, they be now common to all the rest of the Germans: But so it is, that at this day, not only the manners of the Suevians, but almost of all other nations else, be changed and turned clean topsie turuy, and (that which is most to be lamented) alterred from better to worse, for now most of the wealthiest men of all Suevia be merchants, and a great company of them compact and confederate themselves together, every one disbursing a sum of money to be employed in Merchandise, wherewith they do not only buy up and get into their hands spices, silks and other things of great value, which be brought thither by sea from foreign countries, but sometimes also they will deal with things of small worth, as spoons, needles, spectacles, and puppets, and many such like trifles and trinkets, engrossing up much wine and grain likewise, which manner of traffic is not to be commended, for it is not only grievous and hurtful to craft's men and husband men (who be constrained to sell their wares and commodities to these grypers, (as I may term them rather than Merchants,) before they can make the best profit of them, when need shall afterwards enforce them to buy the same of them again for double the price,) but prejudicial also to all the whole country in general.  
For whereas the people were wont to make their provision of such things as they wanted, from their neighbour Princes, at the cheapest rate, they have so fed and bribed those corrupt Princes and governors of the country, that nothing shall be bought but of themselves, either in Stutgardia, or in other places where they keep Marts and fairs. And yet those rich men do not traffic themselves but by their servants and common factors, who gathering in the moneys disbursed with the increase, yield an account thereof, at such time as they be called thereunto, rendering unto every man truly and faithfully his own money, and his part of the gain.  
The common people of Suevia do most of them practise dressing of Toe and spinning, which manner of work 
Much cloth made in Suevia.  they apply so busily, and use so generally, as in the winter time in some parts of Suevia, you shall not only see maids and women, but men and boys also with Spindle's and Distaffs in their hands: They make a kind of cloth, the warp whereof is linen, and the oofe silk, which they call (Pargath) and an other manner of cloth which they call (Golsch) and that is all linen, of these manner of clothes they make great abundance, for it is known to be true, that the Vlmenses only do make every year a hundred thousand of these clothes, and if so many be made in one part of the country, which is but a handful in respect of the whole, one may easily conjecture that the number which is made in the whole land is almost infinite. These clothes be carried to nations far from them, and especially twice a year to Frankford Mart, from whence the people of Sueveland receive great custom and tribute. Moreover (as evil things be oftentimes mingled with good, and no one thing is perfect in all points) the Suevians be marvelous lecherous people, the women as willing to yield as the men to ask, yea both sides be apt to slide, but slow to repent; and surely I think, that this vice is generally favoured, both in Suevia and throughout all Germany, for neither there nor in any other part of Germany, is any punishment inflicted, nor any one excommunicated by the Ecclesiastical censure, either for open fornication, adultery, nor yet for ravishing of women: And thereof ariseth this Proverb, that Suevia only is able to yield whores enough for all Germany, as well as Franconia affendeth good store of thieves and beggars, Boemia heretics, Bavaria pilferers and slaves, Helvetia Butchers and Bawds, Drunkards in Saxony, perjurers in Frisia and Westphalia, and gluttons about the Rhine.   

Of Bavaria and Carinthia, and of the laws and customs of those people heretofore, and how they live at this day. CAP. 17.  
BAVARIA, a Province of Germany, is so named of a people called Auarij 
Bavaria, why so called.  by putting thereunto the letter B, who being a remnant of the Huns, expelled thence the Norici, and possessed their country. It is also called Boioaria of a people of Cisalpine France called Boij, who were once said to inhabit those parts, before which time it was called Noricum.  
Upon the East thereof lieth Hungaria, and Suevia upon 
The bounds of Bavaria.  the West: Italy joineth unto it upon the South, and Franconia and Boemia upon the North. The famous river: Danubius coming from Suevia runneth through Bavaria, and under the name of Bavaria at this day, is comprehended Austria, Stiria, and Cari●thi●, the people whereof be all a like both in life and language: whereas heretofore it contained no more than that only which was called Noricum. That good and holy King Lucius King of Britain, was the first that instructed them in the Christian religion, and after him Saint Rupertus, and lastly they were confirmed in the faith by Boniface Bishop of Moguntinum.  
Bavaria is divided into four bishops seas, that is to say, Saltzburga, Patavia, Phrisinberge and Ratisbon, it hath in it more famous Cities than are in any one province of Germany beside, the Metropolitan whereof is Saltzburge heretofore (as is surmised) called Iwania: Schiren was once the Duke's seat, but now it is translated to 
Bavaria heretofore governed by Kings but now by Dukes.  Monachium.  
This land before it was reduced into a Province, was governed by Kings of their own nation, until the reign of Arnolphus the Emperor: And as all the Kings of Parthia were named Arsaces, and the Egyptian Kings Ptolemy's, so was every king of Bavaria called Cacannus but after it was subved by Arnolphus and annexed to the Empire the government was committed to Dukes, which manner of government remaineth still: and all the Dukes for many successions together, have been elected out of that most worthy and renowned family of the Agilolphingij.  
The manners and customs of that people may be understood, 
The laws used in Bavaria which they received when they received Christianity.  by the laws which were given them when they first received the right faith of Christ, which were these following: first that if a freeman borne would bestow any thing towards the maintenance of the Church, whether it were lands money or goods, he should make a deed thereof in writing, and seal and subscribe it with his own hand and seal, and put to the names of six witnesses to confirm it, and then deliver it as his deed in the presence of the Bishop, by which act both he himself, and all his posterity were utterly bard for ever after to enjoy or repossess the same again but by permission of the Church: And whatsoever was so given to the maintenance of God's holy Church, was committed to the bishops custody, and by him defended and protected: If any one wronged the Church or any thing thereunto belonging, he incurred the judgement of God, the displeasure of holy Church, and was constrained (either by the King or Prince for the time being) to render restitution, and forfeited three ounces of gold beside, but if he denied the fact, he was brought before the Altar and there in presence of Priest and people, swore and deposed what wrong he had done and of what value: He that persuaded another man's servant to run away from his Master, (were he manservant or maid servant) was enforced to fetch him again, and to put an other into his place as a pledge till he came, and was fined at fifteen shillings beside.  
If a servant did privily burn any Church goods, he had his hand cut off, and his eyes pulled out, that he might never after see to commit the like villainy, and the master of such servant made good the value of that which was burnt: But if a Freeman committed such a fault, he restored again the full value of the loss, and forfeited for his folly three pound; and if he denied the fact, he was to purge himself by the oaths of twenty four men; who standing by the Altar before the defender of the Church, laid their hands upon the holy Evangelist, and swore whether they thought him faulty or Noah.  
If an offendor took sanctuary for refuge he was secure, nor was it lawful for a Master to fetch his servant thence, otherwise to hurt him, for if he did, the judge would compel him to pay forty shillings to the Church, as a recompense for infringing his privileges: He that injured any one that was in any inferior order in the Church, made satisfaction with twice the value of the injury done, which was paid over unto his parents or nearest friends: But if the wrong were to one of an higher order, he paid three times the value.  
He that killed a Priest, forseited and paid forthwith to the Church where he was Minister, three hundred pieces of gold, and he that killed a Deacon, two hundred; and if he were not able to pay such a sum of money; he was delivered both himself, his wife, and children into bondage and servitude, and detained in slavery, until he could make shift to pay the money. No one might offer violence to a Bishop although he did him wrong, but might make his complaint, and commence his suit before the King, Duke, or commons, whether it were for homicide, fornication, or consenting to the enemy; and if it was proved that he would have brought in enemies to invade the country, or sought the spoil of those he ought to preserve, he was either deposed or banished.  
He that contrary to the laws of the Church, married a recluse or Nun out of her Cloister, was compelled to restore her thither again, and to leave her where he found her: and the Bishop (by the Duke's assistants) would thrust her into the Nunnery again whether she would or no, and the man (if there were no hope of his amendment) was banished the country.  
It was not lawful for either Priest or Deacon to keep in his house any strange woman, lest by often company and familiarity with her, he might hap to be polluted, and so offer an unworthy sacrifice unto God, and the people be plagued for his offences. If any difference or controversy arose betwixt Priests, Deacons, or other Clergy men, the Cannon law committed the deciding thereof to the Bishops: farmers, husbandmen and servants paid tribute and tithe to the Church, every one according to his ability, as every tenth bushel of grain, every tenth perch of land, every tenth faggot, the tenth part of their honey, and for every four pullets fifteen eggs. They were bound also to bring stone, timber, and lime for the reparations of the Churches, but yet with this special care, that no man should be taxed more than he was well able to endure.  
If any one were false unto his Duke, and by treason procured enemies into the Province, or betrayed any City, and was thereof convicted by three witnesses, all his goods were confiscate to the Duke, and the Duke had power to use him at his pleasure: but to the end that no one should be overthrown or spoiled by another's envy or malice without cause, there was this provision made, that the accused might challenge the single combat with one of his accusérs; and if he overcame the other he scaped free, and forfeited nothing. He that killed his Duke, was killed himself, and all his goods confiscate for ever without redemption: and he that stirred up sedition against him, forfeited to the Duke 600. shillings. When an army was conducted into the enemy's land, the soldiers had no cause to fall out amongst themselves for provision; for every one might take what would serve his turn: but he which wrangled without cause, was forced either to yield himself to the law of arms, in that case provided, or suffer fifty stripes with a truncheon before his Lieutenant. And the Lieutenants and Governors were to have a special care every one with in his limits or county, that the soldiers did not spoil & prey upon the enemy, before they were commanded by the Duke: for if any fault were committed through their negligence, they were to make it good. If a freeman damnified, or wronged another, he was constrained to make good as much as the party was hindered, and was amerced beside at 40. shil. but such offences were death in servants, and their master made restitution for them, because they forbade them not the committing of such crimes. If a servant stole or purloined any thing from the soldiers in the camp, and was thereof convicted, he lost his hand for that offence, and his master notwithstanding restored the value of the goods stolen: and a freeman for such a fault, was mulcted at forty shillings over and above the due restitution of the thing stolen.  
If any one were commanded by the king or duke to kill another, and he did it, the king or duke which commanded him, aught for ever after to defend and protect him from danger: & if the king or duke which was his protector died his next successor did take upon him the like warranty and protection of that man. If the Duke were so stubborn and rebellious as to contemn and despise the decrees of the king, he was deprived of his Dukedom, and was utterly void of all hope ever to recover his former estate and dignity. If the Duke had a son so froward, foolish, or arrogant, as (through the counsel and abetting of lewd and evil persons) he went about to depose his father from his government, so that his father were yet well able to govern, to conduct an army, to get up upon his horse, and to carry arms, and was neither deaf nor blind, & well able to perform the king's command, he was disinherited, and for ever after uncapable of the Dukedom; or, (if his father pleased) he was banished to perpetual evile for offending his father in so high a degree against the law.  
He that by rashness, indiscretion, or drunkenness bred a scandal in the Duke's Court, forfeited forty shillings, and was for ever after liable to make good the value of the inconvenience that arose of that ill example: but a servant for such a fault lost his hand.  
If any thing were found in the Duke's Court, and taken up, and concealed one night unrevealed, it was accounted theft, and such an offendor forfeited into the Duke's Exchequer fifteen shillings, because the Duke's house was accounted a public house.  
He that detracted, or by his ill speeches depraved the Duke's government, was punished at fifteen shillings: and forced to finish and make perfect all that he was commanded to do, that all pleas or suits might be dispatched and ended every fifteenth day, in each several County of the country; for the doing whereof, all the freemen assembled together, and they which neglected the meeting, forfeited fifteen shillings: the judge (to the end he might do justice, and judge uprightly) had a book of the law lying open before him, which served as a rule and pattern whereby to judge of all controversies.  
And if the indictment were without partiality, and that he judged uprightly without respect of persons, or rewards, he then had, and enjoyed to himself the ninth part of the composition, but if the judgement were partial, or smelled of bribery; he forfeited the double value of that which by his false sentence and corruption, was paid, and was fined moreover at forty shillings.  
He which killed the Duke, paid either unto his friends or unto the king for composition, 1460. shillings, whereof his friends had six hundred. And it was ever observed, that the composition for the death of the Duke, was three times as much as for the death of any of his friends.  
The Agilolsingi (out of which family the Dukes be ever created) had the fourth part of the composition, and then the Huosis, the Trozzi, the Sagavi, the Hahilingi, and the Aennonni had the one half of that which remained. He that killed a freeman, paid (either unto the Duke or unto his parents that was slain) 8. pounds, he that put out a freeman's eye, or cut off his hand or foot, paid 40. shillings: he that lamed him paid 12. shillings, and for a maim 20. shillings, for a wound 3. shillings, for striking out a cheek tooth, or grinding tooth 12. shillings, and for every other tooth 6. shillings. They were very strictly forbidden to molest or hurt strangers, in so much as he which injured any of them, paid unto the party grieved the double value of the wrong sustained, and beside forseited 8. pounds into the Duke's Exchequer: & he that slew a stranger, forfeited an hundred pounds in gold. If a servant molested or sold a freeman, & were complained of to the judge, he escaped not without some great punishment, as the loss of hand or eye. Libertines which had been manumitted & made free, had more easy compositions by the one half, than those which were freeborn. All incestuous marriages were there utterly prohibited, so as it was not lawful for any man to marry his first wives mother, his sons wife, his daughter-in-law, his step mother, his brothers or sister's daughter, his brother's wife, or wives sister: and those which offended in any of these points, all his goods were confiscate by the judge.  
he that profaned the Lords day with any manner of work, after the first warning and admonition, had fifty lashes upon the back with a whip, and if he offended again the second time; he forfeited the third part of all his goods, and for the third offence he lost his liberty: for it is fitting, that he which will not be free upon that day, should be a slave for ever after. A servant for labouring upon the Lord's day was beaten, but if he held on his course without amendment, his right hand was cut off. And a stranger for the like fault, having been warned aforehand, paid 12. shillings. He that detained a freeman against his will in servitude and bondage, or forcibly took away his inheritance or goods, was forced to restore what ever he violently took away, and forfeited forty shillings beside. If any one lay with another man's wife that was a freewoman, he paid unto her husband 7. pounds for amends, and if he were taken in the deed doing and slain, his death was not to be revenged.  
He that committed fornication with a freewoman by her consent, and refused to take her to his wife, paid 12. shillings. If a servant offered violence to a freewoman, his master delivered him to the woman's father to be punished, who might justly kill him if he pleased. He that ravished or stole away a freewoman, without her parent's consent and her own, forfeited 11. shillings, and if she that was stolen away were manumitted, he forfeited 8-shillings, but if she were a servant, the forfeiture was but 4. shillings. If a freeman put away his wife being a freewoman without just cause, he paid unto her parents 40. shillings, and duly repaid unto the woman her dower and full portion, she brought with her, according to the family out of which she came. If a freeman were troth-plight to a free-woman, and afterwards forsook her and married another, he paid unto the wench's parents 24. shillings, & brought twelve men to swear with him, that he forsook her not for any fault of hers, nor for any malice he bore to his parents, but only for the great love and affection he bore unto the other. He which stole away another man's wife, restored her again, and paid eight pounds unto her husband for amends. If a bondwoman gave a potion to a woman that was with child, to procure an abortive, she had two hundred lashes with a whip; and if she were a freewoman that tempered the poison, she lost her freedom, and became a slave for ever. If a woman with child were strucken and brought forth an abortive, and died herself of the blow, he or she that struck her, was reputed and taken as an homicide, and if the woman lived, and the abortive not living at the time of the stroke given, the party that gave the blow, paid her twenty shillings: but if the abortive had life, the forfeiture than was fifty Weregelds, three shillings, and a Tremissis. If a Freeman stole any thing out of the Duke's Court, Churches, shops, worke-houses or Mills, which be public places of resort, he was constrained to swear what the value of that was which he stole, and was forced to restore nine times the worth, or else to fight hand to hand with the party grieved, or his champion. If a thief were taken stealing in the night and slain, his death was not revenged: and he that alured, persuaded, or enticed another man's servant to steal from his master, or otherwise to wrong him, and was thereof detected, was condemned as a thief, and paid nine times as much as the master was damnified: the servant also restored what he took away, and was openly whipped beside, with two hundred stripes, but the master suffered no prejudice.  
And all felons for all thefts whatsoever, were brought before the judge, and suffered such punishment as the law ordained in such cases: but they first made composition and satisfaction out of their own goods, unto those they had wronged sundry times, before they were adjudged to die for stealing. He that bought any thing in the Province, was first diligently to inquire, whether it was stolen or no: for he which bought stolen goods was bound to restitution, and forfeited twelve shillings into the Duke's Exchequer. The same penalty was inflicted upon him that took any stolen goods committed to the charge or custody of another. And no man could make composition with a thief, but before the judge: for he which did it in of purpose to conceal the theft from the judge, was accounted and punished as a thief himself. As oft as any contention arose amongst them, about the bounds or limits of their grounds, there were certain surveiors appointed to view and find out the ancient meres and marks betwixt land and land; against which prescription, or long continuance of possession was of no force: and if no marks could be found, than he that sold the land, showed the meare-stones to the Surveyors: but if the controversy were such, as it could not otherwise be decided, and the parties appeased, they then fought it out hand to hand: And no one party might set down a new mere stone or mark, without the consent of the other, and that in the presence of the Surveior: for if a freeman offended herein, he was fined at six shillings, and a slave was openly whipped with two hundred lashes. If one freeman pulled down the wall or ditch of another freeman, he forfeited 3. shillings, and unto the party grieved, as much as he was damnified, and he which pulled down either post, pillar, beam, or rafter, forfeited 3. shillings likewise, and 12. pence for either shingle or tile, or any other part of the house, besides restitution for the loss sustained.  
It was not lawful for any one to take a pledge or distress without the Duke's permission: for he which did, was forced safely to restore the pledge or mortgage so taken to the owner, and paid unto the Duke 40. shillings for a fine: and if the thing so mortgaged or distrained, happened to miscarry in his hands, he then made satisfaction to the owner, at the discretion of the judge. He which cut down another man's standing corn that was ripe, paid for composition six shillings; and if he denied the fact, he was deposed himself, and produced six men to be sworn with him, that he took a true oath. He which destroyed another man's corn or grain by enchantment or sorcery, and was thereof convicted, forfeited 12 shillings, and was forced to provide food for his whole family, that had his corn so destroyed, for all the year following, and restored unto him over & above, the value of that which was destroyed: but if he denied the fact, he then either purged himself by the oath of 12. men, or by battle. If any man either by his means or abetment, enticed another man's servant to run away from his master, he was enforced to bring him again, and forfeited for a man servant 12. shillings, and six shillings for a maid: but if he denied it, he purged himself either by the oath of a full jury, or by combat.  
No one might either kill or hurt another man's cattle, though he found them in his own grounds dammagefesant, but he might impound and detain them, until he had made it known unto the owner, or unto his neighbours, what loss he had sustained, and then the owner of the cattle was to set him forth as much other ground, as that which was eaten. In gathering in of their harvest, every one that was damnified by an others cat-tail, was recompensed by the owner of the cat-tail, who ought not to make the offence greater than it was, but he which killed an other man's cat-tail in breach of this law, took the dead carcase himself, and gave unto the owner an other beast as good as his was. If he struck out his eye, he paid unto the owner the third part of the price, that the beast was worth, and if he cut off either tail or ear, he paid twelve pence & a tremissis for every horn. But he which committed any of these outrages, either for hatred, contempt, or despite, his penalty was doubled, he which took an other man's horse or ox to keep for hire, and lost him by his own default, paid the full price for him, and had no hire, but if he purged himself by his oath, that the beast was not lost by his neglect, than he had the hide allowed him.  
He which received into his house an other man's goods (were it gold, silver apparel or any thing else) either to sell or to keep, and that his house, together with those goods were burned by misfortune, if he would depose that his own goods were burned with them, and that he had no profit nor commodity by those goods so committed unto him, he made no restitution for them.  
If a house were on fire, and one making show to quench the fire, did steal and purloin any thing thence, he paid fouretimes the value of that which he stole, and made composition besides according to the Statutes.  
If a thing was in contention betwixt two to whom the property belonged, it was not lawful for any one whatsoever either to give it or sell it, until it was decided to whom the right property did appertain. If a woman buried her husband and remained a widow afterwards, she had an equal portion with one of his children, both of the goods and of the yearly profit of the living, but if she married an other husband, she then took such goods only as she had of her own, and her dower, and departed the house the same day she married, and that portion which was allotted unto her, after the death of her husband, during her widowhood, was equally divided amongst her children.  
If a man had children by divers wives, they all of them equally inherited, but the mother's children inherited such goods only as belonged unto her, and the son of a bondwoman might not inherit with the son of a freewoman. If a man died without issue and made no will, his wife so long as she kept herself widow, enjoyed the one half of all her husband's goods, and the other half remained to his kinsfolk: But if she died, or married again, she then presently departed, and carried with her such goods only as were her own, and due unto her by the law, and that part which she had was distributed to her husband's kinsfolks likewise. If either man or woman died and neither devised their goods by testament, nor gave them away in their life time, and had no kindred living within seven degrees, than were all their goods confiscate and escheated into the Duke's Exchequer. He which sold any thing and took money for it, was to confirm the sale either by writing, or in the presence of two witnesses at the least, and no sale was firm and good, unless he which sold it did it voluntarily and unconstrained. He which sold an other man's goods without the owner's consent or privity, restored the same again, and an other as good as that was beside, but if the thing so sold could not be gotten again, than he paid two other things as good as that was which he sold. He which bought any thing and gave earnest for it, was forced to stand to his bargain, unless the other party were willing to release him, or else he lost the thing he gave earnest for, and paid the full price agreed upon, notwithstanding: If a man sold a thing which was nought, he was constrained to take it again at any time within three days, or else he was deposed and brought one other to swear with him, that he knew not of the fault, and so the bargain stood currant.  
If a bondman purchased his freedom by his own purse, and not with his masters money, and the deceit were discerned, he was restored again to his master, because his master received no other thing for him, but that which was his servants, which he knew not of. And the same law that was in buying and selling, was likewise in exchanging.  
If any one entered into an other man's ground, and claimed it for his own, he paid for his rashness six shillings, and restored the ground to the owner again: A witness produced to give testimony, neither could nor ought to be resisted, unless in case of one that is dead, in which case he was to make good his evidence by battle, and if he hap to get the victory, he was then creditteds, and no longer impugned. If there were many witness, than one was elected by lot to swear, and the manner of his oath was thus: I am elected as a witness, and I offer myself to be deposed, and as God shall help me and him whose hand I hold, I am produced as a witness to speak the truth, touching this matter now in question, and then joining all their hands together to swear and protest the truth, he alone holding in his other hand one other that sweareth with him, deposed as seemeth him good, and if he swore false and was convicted of perjury, he restored and made good unto the party damnified by his false oath, as much as he was hindered thereby, and paid twelve shillings more for composition, or else defended his innocency by battle.  
If one champion killed the other in battle, if he were a freeman, than the party that unjustly procured him to undertake the combat, paid twelve shillings for composition, but no more. He which sold any thing from a freeman that was dead and buried, paid unto his parents or friends forty shillings, and restored that which he stole away. He that murdered a freeman secretly, casting his body either into a river or other base place, whereby he was deprived of due sunerals and exequys, did first pay forty shillings, and afterwards a were-geld. If a freeman was slain and cast into a river, or into the sea, and after his body happed to be cast upon shore, if any one tumbled him into the water again, he forfeited forty shillings. And if a servant or bondman were so slain and cast up, than he which adventured to throw him in again forfeited nine pounds. He which slew a man and took his apparel from him, paid twice the worth of his apparel, and he which cut or mangled the carcase of a dead man paid twelve shillings for every member he so cut or mangled. He which found the body of a dead man, and out of his compassion afforded it burial, lest it should be devoured by beasts or birds, the friends or master of the dead man gave him twelve pence for his pain. He which removed an other man's ship or boat out of his place, restored unto the owner either the same again in as good plight as it was, or an other as good. But if he took it out of the water, and concealed and denied it being asked, it was accounted as theft, and he then paid for it as if he had stole it: He which stole a hound restored him back again, or an other as good and paid six shillings beside, and three shillings for a shepherds cur: And these were the laws that the Bavarians lived under not many ages since, and divers of them be yet in force at this day.  
The Bavarians be earnest & devout Christians, & will go on pilgrimage by great troops, to Churches and Monuments a far off, and especially to a Temple in Aquisgrane: And within their own Province there be two notable & famous places, both for miracles of the Saints, & great concourse of pilgrims, which are the blessed Virgin Mary of Ottinga and Saint Wolfangus. The country yieldeth no vines, unless some few in the south part thereof, for it is full of mountains and great woods, the trees whereof afford great plenty of Acorns, and wild Apples, by which means they have great store of hogs, so as Bavaria furnisheth other countries of Europe with as many swine, as Hungary doth with oxen, and the people themselves be very hoggish and perticipate of a swinish nature, so as in comparison of all other Germans, they may justly be termed barbarous and favadge, and surpassing all others in two horrible and abominable vices, that is to say cruelty, and theft: Their apparel is for the most part blue, and they go more commonly in boots then in shoes: upon that side of Bavaria towards Austria, lieth part of Carinthia & part of Stiria: Carinthia is a mountainous country, and bordereth Eastward upon the people called Carni, and upon the West & South upon Stiria, & so reacheth to the Alps of Italy, and Forum julij.  
In Carinthia be many fruitful valleys and hills for wheat and other grain, there be many great meres and rivers, the chief whereof is the river Draws, which running by Stiria and Pannonia falleth into Danubius, and is not much inferior to the river Savus.  
This country is under the dominion of the Archduke of Austria, and when a new Prince is ordained and taketh upon him the government of their commonweal, they observe a strange solemnity, the like whereof is not used in any: other country, the manner of it is this. In a large valley near unto the town of Saint Vitus, are remaining 
The manner how the Carinthians elect their Duke.  the ruins of a decayed City, near unto which place in a plain field standeth there on end a great marble stone, and when a new Archduke is to be created, a country clown (to whom that office descendeth by inheritance) standeth upon the stone, having upon his right hand a black Cow in Calf, and a Mare upon his left, so lean as she is nothing but skin and bone, and round about him stand a great rabble of country people, and others gazing at him, in which interim a great multitude of nobles and gentlemen in gallant and sumptuous attire, having the ensigns of principality carried before them, conduct the new Prince towards the stone, the Prince himself being meanly arrayed in a clowns cap, high shoes and a shepherds staff, and seeming indeed rather a silly shepherd than a powerful Prince: when the clown upon the stone perceiveth him coming so gallantly attended, he crieth out with a loud voice in the Slavonian tongue (for the Carinthians be Slavonians) who is this that cometh so proudly? to whom the whole multitude make answer that the Prince and governor of the country is coming, what is he (saith the clown) is he a just and upright judge? Doth he regard the welfare of his county? Is he of a free condition and worthy of honour? Is he a professor and defender of the Christian religion? And all the people ●●erre that he both is and will be such a one, than the clown again demandeth: how or by what right he can displace him from his seat, to whom the master of the Duke's household answereth and saith: the Duke shall give thee for thy seat sixty pence and these two beasts which stand on each side of thee, besides that thou shalt have all the Duke's apparel he now weareth, and both thou and all thy family shall for ever after be free from tribute, which said the clown giveth the Duke an easy blow upon the check, willing him to be an upright judge, and so receiving the rewards promised, he departeth from the stone, and the Duke getteth up into his place, and there drawing a naked sword, and brandishing it round about upon every side, he speaketh unto the people, and promiseth them to be an equal and just judge and governor, the report is also that they give him drink in a clowns cap, which he drinketh in token that ever after he will be sober, and continent.  
After this he goeth thence to the Church of Solemnensis, that is situated upon a hill near adjoining, and is dedicated to our blessed Lady, and called after her name, and there he heareth mass, which done he putteth off the base attire which he wore till then, and putting on a coat armour, he banketteth and feasteth with his nobles, and lastly he returneth again into the same field, and there sitteth in judgement, doing right unto every one, and casting and reckoning his yearly revenues.  
This honour of investing the Prince is given unto clowns, for because they were the first in that country that embraced the Christian religion, the Nobility and Princes remaining in error until the time of Charles the Great, in whose days they were baptised, and became earnest followers of the faith likewise.  
The Duke of Carinthia was master of the Emperor's 
A severe punishment against thieves.  hounds, whereupon the deciding of all controversies and contentions, concerning huntsman and hunting, was referred unto him. And when any one is accused before the Emperor for any such cause, he must answer his accusors in the Slavonian tongue. They have an other custom in that Province which is chiefly put in use about the town called Klagen concerning theft, which is most strict & severe; & withal very unreasonable, for there if one be but suspected of theft he is instantly trussed up, & the next day after he is hanged they inquire of the suspicion, and then if he prove guilty in deed, they suffer him to hang still, until he rot and fall down piecemeal, but if it appear that he was unjustly put to death, then is he buried, and his funerals performed at the common cost of the city. The Carinthians wear for the most part cloaks made of such wool as their own country sheep bear, and self coloured, and caps upon their heads, their language is the Slavonian tongue.  
But the Stirij be a more rude and rustical kind of people, 
The description of Stiria.  having marvelous great throats, yea their throat bowls are so big as they are an impediment unto their speech, and that which is more (if it be truly reported of them) the women that give suck will cast their throats behind their backs like a wallet, to the end they should not hinder their children in their sucking: the cause of this strume or great throats, they attribute to the water and air whereof they drink, and be nourished. The Stirians resemble the Germans both in speech, habit and behaviour, excepting those that dwell about the river Dravus, that speak the Slavonian tongue. There is much Salt made which they carry into other countries, and exchange it for other commodities. There be also mines of Iron and Silver, though but little gotten, which happeneth through the negligence and carelessness of the Princes and governors.  
This country was once called Valeria, it is very mountainous and craggy, excepting the East part thereof next unto Pannonia, and there it is very plain and even.   

Of Italy, and of the manners of the Italians: of Romulus also and his civil institutions. CAP. 18.  
ITALY a Region of Europe, was first 
Italy first called Hesperià, and then Ocnotria.  called Hesperia, of Hesperus the brother of Atlas, who being expelled by his brother, left his name both unto Spain and Italy: But Macrobius is of opinion, that it was called Hesperia of the star Hesperus, which is their evening star. It was also called Oenotria, either for the goodness of the wine which is made in Italy, for Ocnum in Greek signifieth wine) or else of Oenotrius King of the Sabines. And lastly it was named Italy of Italus King of Sicily, who taught them the Art of husbandry, and gave them laws to live under, for he coming into that part wherein Turnus afterwards reigned, called it after his name, as is proved by Virgil in these verses thus translated by master Phaer.  
There is a place the greeks by name Hesperia do call,  
An ancient l●nd, and fierce in war, and fruitful soil withal:  
Out from Oenotria they came that first did till the same,  
Now Italy men say 'tis called so of the captains name.  
But Timaeus and Varro hold opinion, that it was called Italia, of the great store of goodly Bulls which be there 
Italy why so called.  bred, above other places, for Bulls in the ancient Greek tongue were called Itali. That part of Italy which is next unto the mouth of Tiber is called Latium, even as that part is called Ausonia (according to Aristotle) which is next unto the Tyrrhen fea.  
Italy is in form like a cross, and situated betwixt the Adriattick and the Tuscan sea; and extending from the Alps and the hill Appenine, reacheth unto the city Rhegium, and the Brutian shores: Towards the end it divideth itself into two parts, whereof the one looketh into the Ionian sea, and the other into the Sicilian: in the utmost part whereof standeth the city Rhegium.  
The length of Italy from Augusta Praetoria, passing by 
The length of Italy.  Rome and Capua to the city Rhegium, (according to Solynus) is a thousand and twenty miles, and the breadth where it is broadest, four hundred and ten miles, and a hundred thirty and six where it is narrowest, having as it were a belly jetting further out then the rest, in Agro Rh●●ith, which now is confined with the river Rubicon, sliding by the side of the Adriatic sea:  
Italy is divided into many Regions, for from the river 
Italy divided into many Provinces.  Varus to the river Macra is Liguria, where Genova is the chiefest city: from Macra then to Tiber is Hetruria, the Metropolitan city whereof is Pisa; from Tiber unto Lyris is that part of Italy called Latium, wherein standeth Rome: and the city Antium (which we call Netnut) is situated within the province upon the shore side: from Lyris unto the river Sarnus is Campania, where Naples is chief city: from Sarnus to Silarus, is the country called Picentum, the two greatest towns whereof be Surrentum and Salernum, betwixt Silarus and Laius is Lucania, of which province the most notorious towns be Pestum and Buxentum, with us called Beluedere: from the river Laius to the promontory of Leucopetra, is the country called Brutium, wherein standeth the city of Rhegium julium: from the promontory of Leucopetra to the promontory of japigium, otherwise called Salentinum, is the borders or frontiers of great Greece, wherein are situated the two famous cities Croton and Tarentum: from japigium to Brundisium is Calabria, wherein is Hydruntum: from the city Brundisium to the hill Garganus now called Saint Angelus hill, is Apulia, wherein stand the cities Barium or Barry & Salapia: from the hill Garganus to the mouth of the river Sarnis, is the country of the Frentani, in which Province Isconium is chief city: from the river Sarus to the river Apernus is the coast of the Marrucini, and therein is the city Orton: from Apernus to the river Aesius, whilom the utmost bounds of Italy dwell the Piceni, whose city is Ancona: from Aesius (or Asius as others write it) to Rubicon, the latter confines of Italy, be the Senones, whose chiefest towns are Phanum fortunae, Pisaurum and Ariminum: from Rubicon to the mouth of the river Padus, live the people called Boij, amongst whom is the city Ravenna: betwixt Padus and Tilta vemptum, is the Venetians country, wherein standeth the famous and renowned city of Venice: from Tilia vemptum to Natison, are the people called Carni or Foroilienses, and in that province is Aquileia: from Natison to Arsia are the japyges and Istri and therein is the city of Tergestum, and the river Formio which is now the utmost limits of all Italy.  
The hill Appenyne divideth all Italy as it were into two climates or regions, leaving the one part towards 
The hill Apennine divideth Italy into two parts.  the west and South, and the other towards the North and East: This hill taketh his beginning from the Alps, and from thence runneth into Liguria, and after that it parteth Cisalpine France and Picenum, from Hetruria and Sabinia and so passeth to the City Ancona, from whence it averteth his course and extendeth into Apulia, and the hill Garganus, separating the countries of the Marucini, the Peligni, and the Frentini, from Latium and Campania, and so finisheth his race from the hill Garganus, when it cometh to the promontory of Leucopetra, having upon the one hand Apulia, Calabria, the confines of great Greece and Picenum, and the Lucani and Brutij upon the other. Italy of all other countries is most wholesome and healthsome, both for sweenesle of the air and temperature of the heavens, it aboundeth with all sorts of metal, 
The praise of Jealy.  Ceres adorneth her fields, and Phoebus dallyeth upon her hills: the forests, parks and chases be safe and secure for passengers, and replenished with goodly trees of sundry kinds, which yield great variety of fruits and commodities to the inhabitants: of wines and oils there is plenty, and exceeding great store of all sorts of grain, their sheep carry very fine fleeces, and their oxen and bulls of all other places be most beautiful, their rivers, lakes, and pools be clear and full of fish, and delightsome: of havens and port towns there be great abundance, the land herself in sundry places making (as it were) roads and breaches into the sea, for the exceeding desire she hath to avail mankind, whereby she becometh (as I may say) the lap and bosom, that openeth and offereth traffic and trading into all countries, so as she is justly 
Italy the nurse of all nations.  termed of some, the nurse of all other nations, and elected by God's divine providence, as parent and Princess of all other Provinces, and such a one as should gather together under one head, and government, all dispersed dominions, and should assuage and mitigate the rage and rudeness of many barbarous people, and (by the divine help of learning and the Latin tongue) should unite and bring to sociable conference, all nations, though never so different in life and language: for to pass over many people and kingdoms which the romans have won and 
The commendations of Rome.  conquered with their armies and eloquence, the City of Rome alone is as amply stored with examples of all virtues, as the Grecians with all their eloquence are with precepts, yea they themselves deuining (as it were) that their land should become the head and governor of all others, when they surnamed one part thereof great Greece.  
In a word, it was not without the divine providence ordained, that where that most wise and omnipotent God had rejected all other nations, it pleased him to make that the chief Empire, fortress and defence of all people, that should afterwards be the seat, throne and chair of the head of God's Church, and the Christian religion: The 
The stature and complexion of the Italians, and how they differ.  Italians differ much amongst themselves both in countenance and stature, for in Cisalpine France, and about the gulf of Venice, the people be of a pale complexion, neat in their apparel, and curious in their speech: but the inhabitants of Hetruria, Latium, Campania, Lucania and the Brutij be of a more brown and swarthy complexion, and their hair black, in stature they be lower and withal very lean, and in apparel and speech more plain and simple. The Piceni and those which dwell on the skirts of the Adriatticke sea, until you come to great Greece, have much resemblance to the former, but in Apulia, Calabria, and in the uppermost parts of Italy towards Greece, their speech and behaviour doth little differ from the greeks.  
Throughout all Italy, and in a manner throughout all Europe, it is not lawful for any man to have more wives than one, and all divorces betwixt man and wife, had their original from the City of Rome, for there it was that Spurius Carbillus, complaining of his wives barrenness, was the first that ever was divorced from his wife. The Citizens heretofore consisted of three sorts of people, 
Three sorts of Citizens.  that is to say, slaves, libertines (which were such as were once slaves, and were manumitted and made free) & freemen. The freemen were likewise divided into three orders 
Three orders of Freemen.  or ranks, to wit, the Plebeians, the Equestri, and the Patritij; the solemnizing of their sacrifices and sacred rites was committed to Priests and Flamens, besides whom they had diverse colleges and societies of religious persons, whereof some did sacrifice to one God, and some to an other. The Dictator was most honoured of all other officers, and bore 
The Dictator their chiefest officer.  the greatest sway amongst them, from whom no appeal was sufferable, for he bearing a Kinglike government, they had no higher officer to whom they might appeal: the dignity of the Dictator continued but half a year, & for the most part they came to that high office by degrees, as being first Questors or Treasurers, than Aediles, or overseeers, & after that Praetors or chief justices, than were they made Consuls, than Censors, & then they attained to the highest office of all, which was Dictatorship. But yet it did not always necessarily follow, that the Dictator had born all those offices before recited, for he was oftentimes elected out of some inferior office for his valour & worthiness, yet he had chiefest power and authority over all those civil governors, as likewise over all officers that bore rule in the wars, for in military affairs they had their degrees of governors, aswell as in domestical businesses, for there the common soldiers yielded obedience to the Centurions, the Centurions to the Tribunes, the Tribunes to the Lieutenant, the Lieutenants or deputies to the Consuls, or unto their Vice-presidents by them assigned to rule in their steeds, and all these together with the Captains and conductors of horsemen, were subject to the authority of the Dictator. In wars that were lawfully begun, soldiers might continue for the space of ten years, if in all that time they never skirmished with the enemy, nor were summoned away to wage wars in other countries. Besides this lawful making of wars, whereof I now speak, there was an other sort of warfare called Causaria, which was when the army for some reasonable cause was dismissed, and the camp removed. This latter manner of warfare as it was not so honourable as the first, yet did it carry with it no touch of ignominy nor disgrace, because they were called thence for some special cause; Servius Tullius ordained, that none should be soldiers but such as were betwixt the age of seventeen years, and eight and forty: those which were men of peace went always in gowns, and the soldiers in short cassocks and coat armours. When they intended to make battle against any country, they would first send an herald or officer at arms to denounce wars, and being once entered into it, they might not leave it but for some lawful cause.  
All the cities of Italy were either confederates with Rome, or such as were newly inhabited by those that came out of Rome, and were called Colonia, or Municipia, which were such Cities as had liberties and privileges proper 
Three sorts of Cities.  and peculiar to themselves: of which sort some were made by plurality of voices, and some otherwise, and those cities called Municipia, were ever governed by their own decrees, but the cities called Coloniae were accounted as members of Rome, and lived under the Roman law. In the cities or corporations called Municipia, where there were Burgesses and Free denizens together, their chiefest officers were called Decurions, which were the same that Senators were at Rome. The order of the Patritij were distinguished from the Equestri by their purple robes, and the Equestri were known from the Plebeians, by their gilded garments, if he which had the chiefest authority, and bore the prerogative royal amongst them, had misdemeaned himself, his cause was discerned by the whole body of the city, and the hearing and determining of all other capital offences, was committed to certain judges elected by lots to that dignity, out of that band of soldiers which were assistants to the Magistrates in matters of life and death for that year: The deciding of all civil contentions, belonged to the Praetor of the Centumuiri, and so in like sort other crimes were committed to the consideration of other Magistrates: And such generally were the manners and customs of all the people and cities of Italy, which institutions and form of government, they received from Romulus.  
Now Romulus (after he had finished and perfected the walls, ditches, forts of defence, and all other necessary buildings of the City of Rome:) ordered and disposed the state of the city in manner following. First he divided the whole multitude of people into three parts or ranks, selecting out of every of those orders or degrees, 
How Romulus disposed the citizens of Rome into sundry orders and degrees.  the chiefest and worthiest men to govern and rule the rest. After this he made a subdivision, distributing each of those three several parts into ten equal and indifferent portions, and setting as governors over every portion the best and most substantialest men amongst them; he called the three greater parts Tribes, and the lesser Curiae or wards: the governors of the Tribes he likewise called Tribunes, and the Precedents of the wards, Centurions: The Curiae or wards were lastly divided into lesser bands, called Decuriae, and their wardens or leaders he named Decurions.  
All the people being thus divided into Tribes and 
The ground divided into thirty equal parts.  wards, he then made like partition of the land, dividing it into thirty equal parts or portions, and allotting unto every ward their part thereof, he reserved only so much for himself, as was sufficient for him wherein to build Temples and places for sacrifices, leaving also some little in common to them all: And thus this first partition both of the people and ground, wrought a common equality amongst them. This done, he made a second division of the people only, giving unto every one stipends and honours, according to the worthiness and dignity of their persons, and severring those which were honourably descended, and of approved virtues, and that were wealthy withal, and had issue to inherit after them, from those which were poor, needy and ignoble, he named those men of basest and meanest condition Plebeians, and the Nobility he called Patres or fathers, whereof ensued, that the whole descent and posterity of the Patres, were ever after them called patricians.  
When Romulus had thus separated the better sort of people from the worse, the rich from the poor, the noble from the ignoble, he then ordained them laws to live under, allotting unto every of them their proper offices and functions, according to their degrees and calling. To the Patritij he gave power to do sacrifice, to bear offices, to 
The office of the Patritij.  decide controversies, and to see that every one had his right, to participate with him in the government of the commonweal, and to have a vigilant regard and provident respect of the safety of the city: the Plebeians or commonalty (both for that they were poor and wanted experience) were eased from bearing offices, and only employed some in husbandry, some in feeding of cattle, and some in handicrafts, or other profitable trades. And to the end that all these several sorts of people should live peaceably, and free from contention one with an other, and neither the poor injured by the rich, nor the rich envied by the poor, he committed the Plebeians to the care of the patricians, permitting every one of the commonalty to choose one of the Patritij whom he pleased, for his Advocate and defender, calling that a Patronage or protection. 
How the patricians and Plebeians behaved themselves one towards another.  And thus the poor being taken into the protection of the patricians, he instituted for them both, their proper duties one towards an other, which was that the Plebeians should reverence their patrons, and the patrons defend their clients whom they had taken into protection, and so he united them together in friendly affection and civil conjunction, making it unhonest and utterly unlawful for either of them to accuse the other, or for the one to give testimony against the other, or that there should be any hatred or enmity betwixt them; by which means, unity and mutual concord was most firmly settled and established amongst the romans.  
After this he elected an hundred Councillors, out of the patricians, the manner of their election was this; First he himself assigned and nominated one to be his viceroy, 
The Centumviris elected, which were after called Senators of Rome.  or Lieutenant in the government of the commonwealth, when he went to the wars, out of the confines of his own country: then he commanded the Tribes to choose out of every Tribe three, of the best esteem amongst them, for gravity, wealth and honour: after which nine so elected by the tribes, he likewise commanded the Curiae or wards, that every ward should choose three of the patricians, whom they thought most fit for that purpose, which done, adding to the ninety elected by the thirty wards, the nine that were chosen by the three Tribes, and that one chief Captain or Commander assigned by himself, they all of them made up the complete number of a hundred Councillors, which number of Councillors were by the romans in short time after their institution called the Senate of Rome, and they themselves for their reverence and authority called Fathers, and for their age and gravity Senators: Moreover after all this, he elected out of the most generous and renowned families, three hundred young men, of the choicest and strongest 
The election of three hundred young men called Celeres.  amongst them, which were first pricked and nominated by the suffrages of the Curiae or wards, every ward nominating ten as in the former election of the Senators, and this their election was afterwards by him confirmed: And those three hundred young men stood ever in readiness about him as a Court of guard to defend his person, and were all of them called by this general name Celeres, for their speediness and readiness at all assays to execute the King's command.  
Furthermore, the offices and duty of the King were prescribed as followeth; First by his authority regal he 
The office of the King.  was chief head and principal governor of sacrifices, sepulchres and temples consecrated to divine service, wherein he ought not do any thing that redounded not to the glory of their gods: next he was in duty bound to observe and keep the laws and customs of his country, he had also power to summon a Senate, to assemble the commons, and in military affairs, he had chief Empire and command over all: To the Senate was given power 
The office of Senators.  and commission to hear and determine all complaints and controversies that were brought before them, which was done by voices of the Senators, and the sentence was ever given on his side that had the most voices.  
The Plebeians or commonalty had also these three privileges, 
The privileges of the Plebeians.  to create Magistrates, to make laws, and determine of wars when the King was so pleased, nor was this power absolute in themselves, but it must ever be approved and allowed by the Senate, neither yet had every person his particular voice, but every ward was called severally, and that which was agreed upon by the mayor part of the words, was referred to the consideration of the Senate. But now this manner of giving voices is changed and altered in most places, for neither hath the Senate power to discern and give allowance of the ordinances and decrees of the commons, but rather the commons have authority to alter or allow the statutes established by the Senate.  
By this division of Romulus the three hundred young men of his guard called Celeres, did not only accomplish 
The office of Celeres.  his commands in matters concerning the civil estate and government of the City, but they had also the managing of military affairs, so as when the King intended to raise an army, it was needless for him to create Tribunes over the Tribes, decurions over the wards, or governors and prefects of his horse men: but it was enough for him to command the Tribunes, and they the centurions, and then the Decurious by their instructions were to bring forth such soldiers as they thought fittest for that purpose, by which means they would be altogether in readiness at an instant: He elected also a thousand fighting-men which (as some write) he called Milites, because they were a thousand in number.  
And then the more to show his Majesty, and to be 
The Milites elected.  thought more honourable in the eyes of his people, he ascribed and took unto himself titles, marks and ornaments of Empire and honour, as to go in sumptuous attire, and to have ever going before him twelve Sergeants or Ministers of execution, which he called Lictores, 
The lictores ordained.  carrying every one a bunch of rods in their hand: In ordering these Sergeants or executioners to march before him, it may seem his intent was by them (being in number twelve) to represent the twelve Augurs or south sayers, which told him by divination and conjectures of things to come, which manner of diviners he called Vultures, though some be of opinion that in that ceremony he imitated the Hetrussi or Tuscans, who being Twelve sorts of people in number, when by general consent they elected a chief Magistrate, that should have the sovereignty over them, every one of those twelve tribes or sorts of people, would present unto their governor such a Sergeant, Bedell ot apparytor, to make way before him, and to be ever in readiness for execution of any project, from whence likewise were undoubtedly derived the little Chariots with chairs of estate in them, wherein the Roman Kings used to ride: their kirtles or robes which they wore under their mantles of estate, and all their other ensigns and ornaments of honour: Now Romulus the better to settle, secure and strengthen the state of this City, invented and devised this honest pretence and stratagem following (intending it wholly to the honour of his Gods) for he erected and builded up a Temple, or Church in a dark and shadowed place, into which if any stranger did fly and take sanctuary he would undertake and secure them (in argument of the awe and reverence he bore ununto his Gods) that their enemies should not wrong, molest or disturb them, promising further that if they would stay with him he would make them partakers of the privileges of his City, and give them a portion of the ground which he had gotten by the wars to live upon: Then did he make an institution that no city gotten by the sword, should be utterly ruinated and destroyed, or brought into bondage and slavery, but that there should be colonies and competent companies of people sent thither from Rome, answerable to the quantity of ground so gotten, there to inhabit and dwell, and that those conquered Cities, should be accounted as under Cities unto Rome, and within the compass of the commonweal.  
But after the death of Titus Tatius (which whom Romulus reigned five years both over the Sabinians and 
●●wes made by Romulus.  the romans who were then united together into one people) he began to be more religious, and instituted divers new statutes and decrees as well private as public. first he made a law concerning Matrimony, that the wife should have equal power with her husband over all their money and goods, and as much authority in their sacrifices, 
wives made equal to their husbands.  and that she should live in as good sort as her husband and be called Mistress over the house, as well as he Master, and that if he died without Issue his wife should succeed him, and inherit all his goods and possessions, and if he left children behind him, yet she should have an equal share with them: That if she were convicted of adultery it should be lawful for her husband or his kinsfolk to kill her, and that if she drink any wine at her own house, she should be punished as an adulteress: by means of which institution, arose this custom amongst the romans, that the husbands when they had been a broad 
It was Death for a woman to drink wine  and came home to their houses, should embrace and kiss their wives and daughters, of purpose (as Fortius Cato interpreteth it) to smell whether they had drunk any wine, thereby approving, that as corruption is the beginning of madness, and frenzy, so is drunkenness the forerunner of rottenness and corruption.  
Then he ordained that parents should have full power over their children, to dispose of them as they pleased, to restrain and keep them under, to beat them and bind them and set them to all drudgery, yea it was lawful for 
What power parents had over their children.  them to slay them, or sell them for slaves, and if any were sold by his father, and of himself regained his liberty, his father might sell him again, and again after that, if he were so disposed; The contents of this law was three hundred years after the institution thereof written in twelve tables, but yet the rigour and authority was first mitigated and abridged by Numa Pompilius, next King to Romulus, for he ordained, that if the son did marry by his father's consent, all the authority his father had over him before, was then extinct; from this severe law Romulus proceeded to other ordinances, establishing that no freeman should exercise any art or occupation, wherein his work was done sitting, as Tailors, Shoemakers, Scriveners, etc. and that the Citizens should practise themselves in husbandry, as well as in martial discipline, whereby in aftertimes it was a great commendation for one to be accounted both a good soldier and a good husbandman, for the King thought it a point of great imperfection, in any man, to be ignorant in either of these exercises, but that to be skilful in manuring and tilling the ground, and expert in feats of arms, should inseparably go together, according to the law of the Lacedæmonians, and in time of peace his will was that they should wholly give themselves to husbandry, permitting them notwithstanding to buy and make provision of such things they wanted, when necessity constrained them thereunto. And in argument that he was not unmindful of matters of religion, he ordained and made Temples, Altars, and Images of the gods; adding thereunto festival days, and times of solemnity, oblations, sacrifices, holidays, fairs and martes, wherein as well to buy any thing they wanted, as also to understand their laws and many other things, pertaining to the honour of their gods, excluding notwithstanding out of the city all foreign and outlandish sacrifices, and especially those which were solemnized after the ceremonies of the greeks, those only excepted which were dedicated and celebrated in honour of Heroules, and were long since instituted in the days of evander.  
Dionysius Halicarnasseus, following the opinion of Varro herein, saith that Romulus ordained three score priests to make public sacrifices, through every tribe and every ward, annexing unto them as their assistants, the diviners and soothsayers: every ward likewise had his proper Genius, or spirit, which they supposed did defend them, and their proper ministers to do sacrifice unto them: but the goddess Vesta was generally worshipped of all.  
And lastly he divided and digested the year into ten months, by all which ordinances and decrees it may easily be gathered and plainly perceived that Romulus was most skilful and expert in all matters both divine and humane, and that they detract much from his glory and wisdom, which report that the people of Rome lived without morality amongst themselves, or religion towards their gods, until the reign of Numa Pompilius. And these were the civil institutions ordained by Romulus.  
But Numa Pompilius that afterwards succeeded him in the Kingdom, in some part altered and in some part 
Numa Pompilius and his laws.  added unto his Statutes, and first in following the course of the Moon, he disposed the year into twelve months, whereas before Romulus made it to consist but of ten, and altering the order of the months, he set january and February before March (whereas till that time March was the first month and the beginning of the year) and so he made March for to be the third in order and rank: Next he appointed some days to be festival and holy, and some other as dismal, ominous and unlucky, wherein he would not any way meddle with the people or begin any business.  
After this he created one chief Flamen or Priest to do sacrifice to jupiter, whom he called (Dialis) and honoured him with a robe of dignity and chair of state, he then created two other priests, one to sacrifice to Mars and the other to Romulus, and these were also called Flamines, for the caps of honour which they wore upon their heads: moreover he elected the Virgin Vestals which for the first ten years did nothing but learn the rites and manner of sacrificing, the next ten years they spent in doing sacrifice themselves, and the third ten years they taught and instructed novisses and fresh comers into that profession, and then at the thirtieth years end it was in their choice, whether they would marry or continue still in that course of life.  
And those Virgin Vestals were maintained at the common cost of the City, and reverenced with titles of perpetual virginity, and other ceremonies, but if any of them were convicted of incest, her sentence was sorrowfully pronounced by the Citizens, that she should be set quick in the ground, at the gate called Collina, which is in the hill Quirinalis and there covered with earth till she were dead. He dedicated also unto Mars twelve other priests which he called Salij, whose office was upon certain days in the month of March (which took his name of the god Mars) to lead a solemn dance in some of the principal places of the City, they were clothed with coats of divers colours, and their uppermost garments were red and changeable, they had swords by their sides hanging in brazen belts, in their right hand they carried lances and rods, and brazen bucklers in their left, and upon their heads they wore high hats waxing sharp towards the crown.  
These priests which for their solemn dancing the romans called Sallij (according to the opinion of Dionysius) did little differ from the Coribantes or Sibyl's priests, which the greeks called Curetes: finally he created a Bishop or high priest, to whom he gave supreme authority over all infreior priests, and in him it lay to appoint what oblations should be offered, upon what days and in what Temples. Besides all these holy orders of priests and religious persons, he ordained the Feciales or herraulds 
The Feciales ordained.  to denounce war or peace, and they were to have a special regard that the Romans should not make wars against any unjustly, and if the romans were injured or robbed by any others, these Feciales were to require restitution of the goods wrongfully taken and detained, but if they denied to make restitution, than were they to denounce open war against them.  
Their power was likewise to deliver offenders to be punished, to those whose goods they had injuriously taken, if wrong were offered to Legates or Ambassadors, they were to correct it, and if the causes were honest and just, they might conclude a peace, and break it again if it appeared that the League was unlawfully established.  
And if either the captain, or chief conductor of the army, or the whole army in general, had done any thing contrary to their oaths and allegiance, in them it rested wholly to punish the offence.  
This done he limited their times of mourning, commanding that the death of infants under three years old, should not be lamented at all, and that for elder children they should bewail them as many months as they were years old, so as it exceeded not ten months, which was the uttermost time prescribed for mourning for any one's death.  
When Numa Pompilius had established these laws, for the government of the commonwealth, he then severed and distributed the people into sundry companies and societies, according to their arts and profession, as minstrels, craftsmen, head-carpenters, dyers, shoemakers, tanner's, masons, potters, etc. making of divers of those arts one fraternity or body politic. Servius Tullius 
The people divided into sunday bands called Classes, and centuries.  divided the whole multitude of citizens into sundry orders, ranks or armies, which he called Classes, and into centuries or bands consisting of a hundred men, the manner of his disposition of them was thus.  
In the first order or degree he inroled those who were 
The first Classis.  taxed in their subsidy books at a hundred thousand Asses, and of this order there was fourscore centuries, consisting indifferently of young men and old, so as the old men should ever remain at home to save and defend the city, and the youth were to try the fortune of wars abroad; he than commanded them both, to wear armour and weapons both of defence & of offence, as helmets, shields, privie-coates and boots to defend themselves, and spears and swords to offend the enemy: to this first rank or degree he added two centuries of workmen, or pioneers, which were to cast trenches, build rampires, and to make all their engines and instruments of war, and they ever went unarmed, to be always in readiness for any labour.  
The second order or degree consisted of twenty centuries, and were such as were taxed betwixt seventy 
The second Classis.  five and a hundred thousand Asses, they were divided into young and old as the former order, and tolerated to wear the same armour and weapons the other did, save only the coat of fence which they might not wear.  
The third order was of such as were taxed at fifty thousand 
The third order or Classis.  Asses, & they consisted of as many centuries as the other, and did nothing differ from them in their weapons, saving that they wore no boots.  
The fourth order was taxed at five and twenty thousand 
The fourth Classis.  asses, and they wore no other weapons but little javelins or darts. And the fifth and last degree consisted of thirty centuries, their warlike weapons were slings and 
The fifth and last degree.  stones, and they were valued at forty thousand, and with these were cessed and taxed the cornetters and trumperters, which were three centuries in number, the rest whose substance was but small, he both spared from the wars, by reason of their poverty, and remitted their tribute.  
After this division he ministered an oath to the Citizens, that they should make a just estimation of their goods, and declare out of what family & stock they were descended, what children they had, and of what age and by what names they were called, and whether any of them had wives, and where every of them dwelled: and if any of them dealt doubly with him, and falsified their oaths and fidelity, all their goods were (ipso facto) confiscate and taken from them, and they themselves first whipped and then sold for slaves.  
The companies of footmen being thus distributed, he elected out of the chiefest of the Citizens, nine orders of horsemen, so as the whole number of horseme reckoning those that were ordained by Romulus, and those which were afterwards added by Tarqvinius, were now two and twenty centuries: to every centuary he allowed ten thousand pieces of money out of the common treasury, to buy them horses, and two thousand pieces a year to keep them, beside, all the widows of the city paid unto the horsemen yearly pensions towards their better maintenance, every one according to her ability: And so all the whole number of horsemen and footmen were a hundred ninety and three centuries, and every century kept their place and dignity in giving their voices, & they that were best able bore the greatest charge in the wars, and gave their voices first. For Servius thought it fitter that the centuries should pay tribute according as they were valued, and not particularly by the pole, as they did before.  
The centuries of horsemen were to mingle their voices, amongst the centuries of the first rank of footmen, which were fourscore centuries as is said before, and so Dionysius reckoneth, that there were fourscore and eighteen centuries, that had the first place in giving their voices, which were more than all the centuries of the other orders, whereof ensues, that what ever was concluded by the suffrages of the first order, was immutable, but if the voices of the first degree were divided, which happened but seldom, than the centuries of the second order were called, and if they could not agree, than the others after them in their course, but it was very rare that ever it should come to the centuries of the last order.  
And thus by the wisdom of King Tullius, all the orders seemed to have an equality of voices, but yet the priority was granted to those which were at greatest charge, and though none were excluded, yet was all in a manner done by the centuries of the first order, and the equites or horsemen: For they created magistrates whom they pleased, they established laws and denounced wars, which three privileges and prerogatives were before by Romulus given to the Plebeians or communality.  
But when Taquin the last Roman King, was deposed and banished Rome, the form of this government was clean altered and changed: for in steed of Kings they created Consuls, who had all the types and ornaments of honour given unto them, that the Kings had before, saving only the crown, and the gown wrought with palms, which the Kings used to wear after they had achieved any conquest: And when Brutus, the defender of their liberties, was by the voices of the centuries made 
The Kings put down and Senators ordained.  fellow Consul with Collatinus, he bound the Citizens by an oath, that they should never after that suffer any one man to reign over them as their King: Then he ordained three hundred Senators, and one chief ruler over the sacrifices, whose office was to perform all things belonging to sacrifices, that the King before was wont to do.  
Valerius (who was the third Consul) permitted it lawful to appeal from the Consuls to the commonalty, forbidding under pain of death that no one should accept of any office, without the consent of the commons, and that the Citizens should be eased of tribute, which made men more willing to fall to trading and other labours; adding thereunto an other law, whereby it was present death for any one to affect any kind of government for his own private profit: He than appointed the Temple of Saturn to be the common treasury, wherein to keep the revenues of the City, and suffered the people to create two Treasurers, or Chamberlanes, to see the disposing thereof: Not long after this they agreed to have such a magistrate, as from whom they might not appeal, and him they called a Dictator, (a dictando) by reason of the authority he had to command, 
The Dictator elected.  or rather (a dicende) because he was not elected by the voices of the people, but by him only that bore the chiefest sway in the city.  
In ordaining this high office of Dictatorship, the Romans may seem to have imitated the greeks, who (as Theophrastus writeth in his book Deregno) were wont to make certain chief officers whom they called Esimnetes, to rule over them for a time limited. For the Dictator of Rome continued in his place and dignity but half a year, and was never created but in time of war, or other imminent danger of the City, and then he had power to elect new magistrates and officers under him, as the master or captain of the horsemen, who in authority was next unto him, especially over the horsemen and best soldiers, and was assistant to the Dictator as the Tribune was to the King: And when Spurius Cassius, and Posthumius Cominius were Consuls, they gave the people commission, to choose them magistrates of great reverence and authority, to be their protectors against the violence of the Consuls, expressly forbidding that no Patrician 
Tribunes of the people ordained.  should take that office upon him, and these high officers were called the Tribunes of the people.  
These Tribunes grew in short time so proud and insolent, as they would cassire and make void the decrees of the Consuls and Senate at their pleasure, unless they agreed with their humours, and of them at the first (whether it were by general consent, or foreshowed by divination, or whether religion moved them) were but two in number created, shortly after there was an other added to them, and in the end they came to be five.  
There was in Rome three sorts of Parliaments, or societies of people to choose officers: the first called Curiata, or assembly of the wards, which was ever summoned by the Lictors or Sergeants: the second Centuriata, which was of such as were divided into sundry Centuries or degrees, according to their age and ability, as is said before: and to this they were called by a trumpeter or cornetter. And the third was of such as dwelled in divers parts of the country, & paid tribute unto the city. By the Parliament or convocation-house of the Centuries, where the Consuls put down, and the Decemviri created, to whom all the power 
The Decemviri created, and Consuls put down.  and Empirie of the Senate descended, even as the authority of the Consuls was first derived from the Kings: nor was it lawful in any case, to appeal from them. These Decemviri when they went about to make any new laws, would do it in this manner: first, one of them had a whole day allowed him to consider what was fitting to be done; in which day he bore the greatest authority, and when he had set down his opinion in writing, the next day was allowed for another, and to have the like prime place in government: and so likewise the rest every one his several day: and when every one had had his day, and their opinions, and doings written in several tables, and laid before them altogether, they then collected and confirmed what they thought good out of every one's sentence, and so calling them the laws of the ten tables, they published them to the people.  
And there went ever before him, that had the chiefest jurisdiction, twelve men carrying bundles of rods, and the other nine had every one his Usher going before him.  
But this kind of government continued not long, for even as the power and authority of the Tribunes was utterly banished out of the city by the Decemviri, so (upon mature consideration) it seemed good to the Patricians, that the Tribunes in requital should extinguish and put down theirs. And then was there a law ordained, that whatsoever was decreed by the Plebeians, should go currant through all the people: and if any one hindered or impeached the Tribunes or Aediles in their judgements, his head should be sacrificed to jupiter, and his whole family that were free, should be sold for slaves at the Temple of Ceres.  
After this there was another Council created out of the Plebeians, and then was it made lawful and tolerable for the Plebeians to marry, and enter into consanguinity with the Patricians. Besides these, there were created two Censors, who had the charge over the Scribes, the keeping 
The two Censors created.  of the tables, and the order and form of taxing, and levying of money, and mustering soldiers committed unto them.  
This petty office being but mean at the first institution, grew in process of time to an incredible height, in so much as the whole rains of correction and civil discipline, were in conclusion let loose into their hands: for the government of the Senate, the Equites and Centurians, were so kerbed and restrained, as they had power only to decide controversies touching honour and reproach: and in the Censors consisted the chiefest sovereignty, as to view and oversee public places, to give pensions to the people, and again to tax them with exactions and tribute: to consecrate sacrifices every fifth year for the purgation of the city, to displace and thrust the Senators out of the city, or to defame them: and these continued in their office for five years, and then new were created in their rooms. Then was there another Magistrate created to hear and determine matters, whom they called a Praetor, and to him was committed power and authority, over 
A Praetor ordained.  all public and private dealings, and to constitute and ordain new laws and statutes, and to abrogate and repeal the old: Of these Praetors there was first but one created, and he was called Vrbanus Praetor, because he had the government of the citizens, to whom (he alone being not able to undergo so great a burden, by reason of the great access of strangers that daily resorted thither to dwell) there was afterwards another Praetor added, and him they called Praetor peregrinus, as having the charge over aliens and strangers, and this kind of government was called Ius honorarium, for the great honour and dignity that belonged to the Magistrates: for they had all the ensigns and ornaments attributed unto them, that before belonged to the Kings, and their apparel and furniture was almost equal to the Consuls.  
In this state did the city of Rome continue until julius Caesar's time, who reduced the government into a Monarchy again, by taking upon him the name of Imperator, which kind of government by Emperors did long after continue, and then began to be celebrated at Rome the 
The manner of celebration of the games called Ludi Circenses.  plays called Ludi Circenses, the solemnity whereof was thus: The whole train of Players issuing orderly from out the Capitol, passed by the forum, into a great circle or rundle of ground, like a theatre, made for the Spectators to behold the games; And first went the sons of the Equites, that for age, strength, and agility were most fit for exercises, both on foot and horseback, riding upon horses, and distinguished by their companies and Centuries, to show unto strangers and foreigners, the great hope the city conceived of her future happiness, by the exceeding aptness and towardness of their youth: after them followed the wagoners with chariots, some drawn with four horses, and some with two, and some others leading little low horses, that would stand without the bridle.  
And after them followed the champions that were to try the masteries, as wrestling, running, and the whirleabout, called Caestus, which was done with plummets of lead, being all of them naked saving their privities, than followed the troop of dancers, lepers and vaulters in their companies, the men first, the young striplings after, and then the children: in the next rank unto these followed the trumpeters and minstrels, some playing upon flutes, some upon pipes, and some with a kind of ivory haps with 7. strings called Dulcimers: the lepers and vaulters were appareled in red coats, girded in the waist with brazen belts, and swords at their sides, and the men's swords were shorter than the others, they had also brazen helmets, & great plumes of feathers: before every company went men that were skilful in those kind of exercises, to show them the manner of that dancing and skipping, and other more violent and warlike motions, by words in meeter consisting of four syllables. They practised also the Enoplian dancing, otherwise called the Pyrrhichian dancing, invented (as is supposed) by Pallas, though some of a contrary opinion think, that the Curetes were the first authors of that kind of dancing. Then followed the troop of the Satyrisci with an Enoplian dance: these Satyrisci were figured into Sileni and satires, and they used taunting and scoffing motions in their dancing, & had also a consort of music following after them. Then went there a company with censors in their hands, casting round about them sweet odours, amongst whom were divers that carried upon their shoulders the images of their gods, all guilded with gold and silver: and last of all followed the chief Magistrates of the city, attended with great troops, making show by their easy pace, and demure looks, of great devotion & religion. The place or circuit of ground appointed for both these sort of dancers to practise in, was three stadia and a half in length, and four akres in breadth: so that whole compass of ground lying betwixt Pallatinum and Auentinum, having gates in three several places to go in and out, was able to hold an hundred & fifty thousand spectators, which were orderly placed upon Skaffolds round about the Theatre: there were also acted within this Theatre divers Interludes, the beginning whereof at Rome was thus: there 
Jnterludes, & how they began  were certain fencers, or such as could flourish a two hand sword, sent for from Hetruria, who dancing there after the stroke of the music, made divers sorts of motions after the Tuscan manner: these fencers or dancers, the youth of Rome did afterwards imitate, pronouncing at the first their jests & devices in harsh verses, their motions also being as disagreeable, as their voices were untuneable, but in tract of time, by much practice, they came to more perfection: so as they were as cunning in those exercises, as the Etrurians, and then the professors thereof were called Histriones; for Hister in the Tuscan tongue, is Ludio in Latin, which signifieth a player: and in time they utterly abandoned those disorderly and confused kind of verses, which they used at the beginning, as most scurril and dishonest, and began to settle themselves to more civil & decent motions, pronouncing their speeches & Satyrs with more harmony, and singing pricksong to their instruments.  
Lucius Andronicus digressing somewhat from these satires, devised fables unto their arguments, and caused them to be pronounced with a low voice, he appointed a boy also to sing before the minstrel, and at his side he set the players to act their parts, and so by little and little it grew from a ridiculous toy to be an art, and then the Roman youth leaving off the dancing and mimic actions, used by the Histriones, or players, fell to acting of Comedies composed in good verses, and this was the beginning of their fables and merry interludes, and these kind of plays being derived from the people called Osci in Campania, were ever after put in use, and the histriones forbidden the practice of those sorts of plays.  
Now the manner how the Senate and people of Rome 
How the Romans deified their Emperors.  did consecrate and deify their dead Emperors, was thus: first (as Herodianus writeth) they placed in the portal or entrance into the Emperor's palace, an image made like unto the dead Emperor, upon a bed of ivory decked and garnished with gold, so as the image lay upon the bed pale and wan like one that were sick; and about the bed upon the left hand, for the most part of the day, sat all the Senate attired in black, and the noblemen's wives upon the right hand in white, (for white was then used by women for mourning attire) and they then used no curiosity at all in their apparel: and thus they did for seven days together: the Physicians all that while visiting the Image, as though it had life, and telling them that his death was near approaching: at the end of the seven days (as though the Emperor had then died) all the youth of the Order of the Equestri and Senators, carried the bed betwixt them, whereon the image lay, by the way called sacra via, where none might pass but living Priests and dead Emperors unto the Forum, and there placing it in the pulpit, wherein they used to plead and make orations, a great sort of boys and girls of the order of the Patricii, (the whole company being orderly placed on each side of the pulpit) did sing in a mournful and lamentable Ditty certain hymns in commendation of the dead Emperor. Then did they carry the ivory bed with the Image on it from the forum, to campus Martius, (which is a field near Rome, wherein they used all manner of exercises) and there placed it upon a high throne of estate made of wood, and four square, and rising higher by degrees, and narrower towards the top, in manner of a watchtower, all the troop being decked in gold and purple, and adorned with images and ensigns of ivory, and divers other pictures: within the hollowness of which throne was set a great pile of dry wood: then was the image placed upon the second step or degree of the throne, with all sorts of odours and sweet perfumes, which were brought thither from all parts of the city, and the noblest young men of the Order of the Equestri, clothed and attired in linen garments, road round about the throne with a Pyrrhichian motion, and solemn gate, and with them all the Nobility in chariots and coaches: and last of all the successor of the deceased Emperor brought a torch ready light, and delivered it to the people, who set the pile on fire at the bottom of the throne. And when the fire began to burn, they had a devise, that an Eagle should fly out from the top of the building, which wilfully and foolishly they supposed to be the soul of the Emperor, flying and ascending into heaven, & all the Roman Emperors that were consecrated by these absurd ceremonies, they ever after superstitiously honoured as gods: And thus much of the state of the city. All parts of Italy be now perfect and religious Christians, and observers of the ceremonies of the Roman Church, some few excepted, which dwell in the uttermost part towards Greece, which indeed be more than half Grecians: no man may have more wives than one, from whom they may not be divorced, but by the permission of the bishop of Rome. The eldest sons of Princes and Noblemen inherit their father's possessions, but amongst private men all the issue male do equally inherit, so as they be legitimate, (like our gavelkind in Kent:) The law of Italy is of three sorts: first, the spiritual law, whereof the Bishop is head, than the Emperor's law, which is general over all, and the particular laws and orders of each several city which particular customs do much differ one from another, & yet all concur for the good government of their cities. In some cities the examination of all civil matters, is committed unto certain judges, and in some again to the Magistrates of the same city, for every city hath not one & the same form of government. The chiefest of the Nobility of Italy addict themselves unto the wars, and the meaner sort unto learning: & to be a priest is a more venerable title, then to be a Nobleman: for of all learned men, the Divines be best esteemed, and next unto them the Lawyers: the Physicians live in greater wealth than admiration: & Mathematicians Logicians, Astronomers, and Poets, be more famous amongst themselves, then amongst the people, but Grammarians of all others be less esteemed, who only live and die among children. Merchants live now in as great fame as ever they did, and painters, carvers of images, and bellfounders be better esteemed then husbandmen; although husbandry in times past was preferred before all trades. The Romans of all the Italians be most given to breeding cattle, and yet they busy not themselves therewithal, but have them looked to and kept by strangers and hirelings.  
Their fashions in apparel are not every where alike, for 
The apparel of the Italians.  the Venetians go sumptuously in long loose garments, and the citizens of Venice more rich than other cities of that state. The Florentines and Etrurians be very neat and civil in their attire, but not so costly as the Venetians, but about Milan, and in Aemilia and Liguria, they go very gallant, but their garments be shorter than in Venice. And the Courtiers of Rome excel them all in length of their garments and variety of colours, but the citizens of Rome be more sparing and frugal, yet fine enough, and especially the women: and in the Realm of Naples, they go neat but not so gorgeous, and strange fashions be there in more request than their own. In all other parts of Italy their apparel is more simple and plain, but of sundry fashions and altering every day: In Aemilia and all Cisalpine France the better sort of women imitate the Spaniards in their apparel, and the Noblemen the French. The women of Rome of late do much affect the Tuscan fashion, and the Venetian Ladies were wont to lay open their breasts, arms, and shoulders, but now degenerating from their own customs, and following the Spaniards, they cover all with loose sleeves: The ancient Roman coin and images of metal, do argue, that the Italians were wont to go ever bore headed, and bare legged, all but soldiers, and that in time of wars only, but now they use both hats and stockings, & the custom of covering their heads may seem to be derived from some other country.  
In times past they used no placards, nor stomachers, as as by the proportions of their old statutes and pictures may be gathered, but now that attire is much taken up by the Roman youth. The language now used in Italy is not the same it was heretofore, nor altogether differing from it, but grown more barbarous, and composed of divers languages, according to the sundry sorts of people, that have possessed the Provinces: for they which dwell about the shore of Histria, speak the Venetian tongue, which is very eloquent and grave, but compounded of sundry tongues (and so is every several speech in Italy) yet heretofore it was more simple, and not so pleasant to the ear, as now it is. In Corinth they have a mixed language, and somewhat different from the Italian tongue: but it is not so harsh in sound, as the speech used in Taruisium, Patavium, Verona, Vicentia, Mantua, and Ferrara, and in all of them the citizens use finer terms than the countrymen: but in Cisalpine France they be almost mere strangers to the Italian tongue, though otherwise there is no gallanter a country in all Italy. Their speech in Ravenna, Ariminum, Pisaurum, Faventia, Bononia, Flaminia, and throughout all Aemilia, is very Rhetorical, and the Tuscans speech is very concise, like as it is in Laconia, and soundeth better in strangers mouths then their own: moreover, at Rome by reason of the great concourie of people, that flock thither daily from all parts, their language is well improved. The Piceni, the Sabines, and Marsi speak thick & short, & in Vmbria, Apulia, and Lucania, together with the Brutii and Samnites, and the rest of Italy their speech is more barbarous, and but little borrowing of strange languages, saving that in the Realm of Naples they much affect the Spanish tongue. And to conclude with the opinion of Antonius Sabellicus herein, in his 11. Aenead, and first book: Search (saith he) throughout all Italy, and you shall find no one people, city, nor Province, but they somewhat differ in language one from another.   

Of Liguria, and of the ancient manners of the Inhabitants of that country. CAP. 19  
LIGURIA, a mountenous Province of Italy, is situated betwixt the rivers Varus and Macra, having on the one side the hill Apennine, and the river Po on the other, and so adjoineth unto Tuscia. The chief city of this Province is Genova: this country was called Liguria, of Lygistus the son of Phaeton, by turning Y into V, (as Fabius Pictor is of opinion.) The first inhabitants of this country (as Thucydides supposeth) were people called Siculi, who once inhabited a great part of Italy, and being thence expelled by those people of Italy, called the Oenotrians, they seated themselves in the isle of Sicily: The people of this Country live very painfully and hardly, for their grounds be overgrown with thick woods, the trees whereof be marvelous good timber for ships, and of such a thickness, as they be eight foot square at the least, for which cause many be employed in felling of woods, and breaking of timber, and many others in ridding their grounds from stones, whereof they have such store, as they can hardly plough or dig for them, by which means although they take great pains, yet receive they but small profit of their great labour, whereof it proceedeth, and from their sparing diet, that their bodies be generally very lean, but strong withal, and the women as well able, and as much accustomed to undergo any labour, as the man: They be much given to hunting of wild beasts, the flesh whereof supplieth their wants of fruits and grain, & by reason of their continual snows, and often hunting and running over craggy and steep mountains, they be both nimble and strong: their chief diet is either the flesh of wild beasts, or homebred cattle, and their drink is for the most part water: many of them also live upon such herbs and roots as their country affords, being in a manner destitute both of bread and wine, the most necessary nourishments, & profitablest provision for mankind: their beds for the most part is the bare ground, without coverture of either house or coat, unless they repose themselves in such hollow caves, as nature hath provided for them: & this is their manner of life which they have ever used. Their women moreover, be as strong as other country men, & the strength of their men is almost equal unto beasts. And the report is, that the gallant and lusty Frenchmen have been often foiled in single conflicts, by these lean and macilent Ligurians: their armour is more light than the Romans, their fouldiers' coats be short, and their shields long. Some of them also wear Bears skins, and lions skins, and arming swords, & some have altered their weapons and armour to the fashion of the romans, whom they have imitated in that point. They be a cruel & stout people, and exceeding ingenious, not only in warlike affairs, but in all other businesses: at this day they be much given to merchandise, and traveling by sea, wherein they be so expert and hardy, as they will sail by the main sea of Lybia and Sardinia, in hulks or cockboates, so badly rigged and furnished, as in any man's judgement, they are not able to brook the sea; willingly opposing themselves to all dangers of the sea, which be so many as they be oftentimes in extreme hazard in storms and tempestuous wether to be cast away.  
This people (as Sabellicus writeth in his first book and 7. Aenead) is yet so proud, rebellious, and revengeful, as they have much exercised the Romans in wars, to their no little prejudice. Their chief victuals at this day is flesh, milk, and drink made of barley.   

Of Tuscia, and of the ancient manners of the Tuscans. CAP. 20.  
TUSCIA, a famous country in Italy, was so called of their sacrifices: (as some suppose) for the Greek word Thuein doth signify to sacrifice, or else of the latin word Thus, which signifieth Frankincense, by reason that Frankincense is much used in sacrifices. Other ancient Writers are of opinion, that it was called Tuscia, of Tusculus, the son of Hercules. It was once called Tyrrhenia; but whether it was so called of Tyrrhenus, the son of Atis, or of the son of Hercules and Omphale's, or (as some others affirm) of the son of Telephus, who conducted Colonies into that country, it resteth doubtful and uncertain. Dionysius will needs have it to be called Tuscia, of those circles made without the walls of cities, for men to solace themselves in, called Tyrses, which is a manner of building the Tuscans much use. The Romans call the people of this nation, sometimes Tuscans, and sometimes Hetruscanes, but the greeks call them Tyrrheni.  
The ancient wealth of this people is well declared by the name of their sea, stretching all along by the side of Italy, and also by the confines of their country, extending from the Tuuscane to the Adriatic sea, and in a manner to the top of the Alps: so that it is manifest, that all that compass of ground that lieth betwixt the Alps and Apennine, was once inhabited by the umbri, who were thence ejected by the Tyrrheni, and the Tyrrheni by the French: the French were likewise displaced by the Romans; and the romans by the Longobards, who lastly left their name unto that nation: so as for as much as concerneth their name, all those which were called Latini, Vmbri, and Ausones, were once called by the greeks by this general name Tyrrheni. There be some hold opinion, that the city Tyrrhena, is that which is now called Rome. These people of Tyrrhenia were of an exceeding strength, & of large dominions, and erected many stately and rich cities: they were also very strong by sea, insomuch as they were lords thereof so long, till the Italian sea had lost his name, and was by them called the Tyrrhen sea. They be able likewise to make an infinite army of footmen fit for the wars, and they were the first that invented the trumpet, which is so necessary an instrument for the wars, and by them is called Tyrrhenum. They give and ascribe many honours and titles of dignity unto their Captains, & conductors of their armies, as Lictor's, or Sergeants to go before them, to do execution upon offenders, little drayes or carts made like chariots, with chairs of estate, which they called Praetextae, and Officers called Fasces, that carry bundles of rods before them, an ivory sceptre; and many other things: beside, they may have porches or galleries annexed to their horses, for their servants and attendants to sit and repose themselves in, which kind of building was afterwards imitated by the Romans, and by them bettered, & translated into they Commonwealth. The Tuscans be great scholars, and much given to divinity, but more to the study of natural Philosophy; wherein, and in the interpretation of the thunder and lightning, and in the art of soothsaying, they excel all others so far, as at this day they be admired throughout all the world, and their wisemen much sought unto. Moreover, they be very expert in their sacrifices, insomuch as the romans which have ever been very studious and careful, not only to maintain and uphold, but to increase and augment the true and sincere Religion, did send yearly (by the decree of the Senate) unto the Tuscans, ten of their chief Princes and Magistrates sons, there to be instructed in their manner of sacrificing.  
From thence came unto the Romans that vain and idle talk of evil spirits: And from thence likewise came the celebration of the Feasts of Bacchus, which by the consent of all good men, & due punishment inflicted upon the first authors and inventors, is now utterly rooted out of Italy, as a thing most pernicious and hurtful. The ground in this country is sufficient fruitful, yet by their study or industry it is much amended. They eat usually twice a day, and then they fare very daintily, and feed liberally, using to cover their tables with curious carpets, and fine table clothes, distinguished and set with flowers, cups of gold of sundry fashions to drink in, and great store of ministers and servants to attend upon them, which are not all slaves, but many of them freemen and citizens: This people is generally more superstitious than warlike.   

Of Galatia in Europe, and of the old customs of that country. CAP. 21.  
GALATIA, a spacious country in Europe, lieth (as Diodorus Siculus writeth) beyond that part of France called Celtica, and extendeth southward to the Ocean, and the shore adjoining, and to the hill of Hircinia in Germany, and from the bounds of Ister or Danubius, up unto Scythia: It was so called of Galatis the son of Hercules, and of a certain woman of Celtica, it is inhabited of many sorts of people, 
Galatia why so called.  and lieth very far Northward, and therefore so cold in the winter, as all their waters be frozen over, and the ice so exceeding thick, as whole armies with horses, chariots, and munition may safely pass over the rivers without peril: Galatia hath many great rivers running through it, some taking their beginning from deep standing pools, and some from springs issuing out of rocks and mountains, whereof some disburden themselves into the Ocean, as the Rhine, and some into the sea called Pontus, as Danubius, and some others into the Adriatic sea, as Eridanus, which is also called Padus or Po, and all these rivers be so congealed and frozen over all winter, as all passengers may securely go over them, especially if chaff or straw be thrown upon the ice for slipping.  
By reason of this violent coldness, the country is utterly and altogether destitute both of oil and wine, in stead whereof they make a certain drink of barley, which they call Zitum, they use also to drink a certain water or meath wherein they wash or steep their honey combs.  
They take great delight in drinking wines, buying it of merchants, and drinking it without putting any water to it, and they be so weak brained, that a little of it will overcome them, and make them drunk, and then they be either lion drunk and fall a raging, or swine drunk and go to sleeping: This their inordinate desire of wine maketh many Italians, in hope of gain, to bring it unto them both by water and by land, and they be so greedy of it as for a measure of wine called Amphora, they will sell one of there own sons to make a page or waiting boy of.  
Silver there is none in Galatia, but gold in great abundance, and that so naturally, as when the rivers that flow out of hills exceed their banks, and overflow the meadows, they leave behind them upon the grass, a golden sand, or gravel, which being afterwards tried and forged, and the pure gold severed from the dross, both men and women use it to addorne themselves withal, making thereof bracelets, rings and chains all of massy gold, whereof they wear great store, guilding their breastplates, curets, and armour with gold also.  
The richer sort observe a ceremony peculiar to themselves, & withal very strange, which is to scatter gold upon the flowers and pavements of their Churches, which they offer as an oblation unto their gods, and it is strange to see, how that the common people (notwithstanding they be covetous and greedy of gold) be so zealous and religious, as they will not once offer for to take up one piece of that gold so carelessly disperse abroad, or so much as touch it.  
The people of Galatia be tall of stature, soft skinned and pale of complexion, and though their hair be naturally red, yet will they seek out means by art, to bring that natural colour to a deeper die: they curl and friszell their hair with a curling pin or crisping wire, casting the locks of their foreheads behind them on their shoulders, so as at the first sight, they look like boys, Satyrs or wood gods, using such art in making their locks bushy and thick, as they differ but little from horse-manes: some of them shave their beards, and some suffer them to grow long, and especially the nobility, who do not so much as cut the hair of their eyelids, and for their beards they suffer them to grow in such a length and breadth, as the will almost cover their bodies, so as they can neither eat nor drink, but that the meat will stick in their beards, and the drink trickle down as from a conduit pipe.  
They eat their meat sitting, but not upon stools and forms, but upon wolves skins, and dogs skins cast on the ground, and they be attended by little boys, having their fires made close by them, wherewith they boil and roast their meat, and ever the best men eat the best meat, as the Poet writeth, that the greatest honour was by the nobles attributed to Ajax, when he overcame Hector in single combat. Such meat as they have, they will give unto their guests, but they will first know the cause of their coming. And their manner is when they have filled bellies to fall a brabbling, and oftentimes upon light occasations they will fight very desperately, for so natural is their inclination to wrangling, as it is grown into a habit. This opinion of Pythagoras is crept in amongst them, and by most of them plainly maintained, that the soul is immortal, and that after a certain time that it is departed out of the body, it goeth into an other, and therefore some of them will write letters, and cast them into the pile of wood prepared to burn the dead body, as though they should read them when they be dead: When they travel, and when they fight they be carried in Chariots drawn with two horses, having one to sit before the wagon to guide the horses, and an other to go by to drive them; and when the battle is begun, they first encounter their enemies, by casting darts from their Chariots, and when their darts be spent they alight from their Chariots and fight on foot: And some of them be so desperate and careless of death, as they will fight naked: Their watchmen and guard for their bodies be the poorest sort of freemen, which they use also for waggonners and to carry their shields, and their place is to go in the forefront of the battle, provoking and challenging the hardiest and stoutest of their enemies to fight with them hand to hand, ever shaking and brandishing their naked blades, the more to terrify and daunt their foes: and when any captain or common soldier behaveth himself valiantly, and atchieveth any notable victory, they cease not to extol and commend both him and all his ancestors, giving unto every soldier commendations due for his valour and merits, and detracting from the acts of their enemies, as base and contemptible, though never so worthy of honour.  
They cut off the heads of their vanquished enemies, and hang them about their horse-neckes, besprinkling and goring with blood their spoils, armour and furniture; and then giving them to their servants, who set them as signs of conquest over their masters gates, with as much exultation and triumph, as many do the skins and heads of wild beasts they have taken in hunting: but if they hap to vanquish any noble men, they cut off their heads, and spice and season them with sweet spices, diligently preserving and keeping them in bags and cases, to show them for a vaunt to their guests and strangers, and after sell them for a trifle to their parents, children or other friends to keep as a memorall.  
The Galatians garments (to make them seem terrible) be of skins with the hair on & unshorn, these garments be of sundry colours, and by them called (Braccas) they wear also cassocks or short cloaks, stripped or rayed either with gold, or some other thing and well lined, and thick for winter, but against summer they have them slender and thin, they use also thick earthen vessels distinguished with flowers.  
Their warlike weapons and armour be long shields, proportionable to the stature of their bodies, and trimmed according to every ones several device, for some have the shapes of beasts figured in brass, and set on the tops of their shields, which is both an ornament to the shield and a defence for the body: their helmets be all of brass decked with more bravery than their shields, upon the crest whereof standeth either some horns, or else the picture of some bird or beast: they have trumpets in like manner, but very ill favoured ones, and such as yield a rude, harsh and untuneable sound: some of them wear iron breastplates, and some other again no other armour but what nature affordeth them, going naked and wearing long two-handed swords guirded to their right sides with chains or girdles of brass, some wear short coats trimmed with gold and some silver girdles, and their darts which they use in the wars and call lances, have iron pikes above a cubit long and two handful broad, and their swords be almost as long and as big as hunting staves, or boarspears, whereof some be straight and some crooked, being very fit both to annoy their enemies, as also to dig & make holes in the ground. In countenance they be terrible and austere, in speech grave and severe, their language is brief and obscure, and for the most part carrying a double sense and doubtful understanding: they be great boasters of themselves and despisers of others, menacers, braggarts and detractors, proud and puffed up in their own opinions, sharp-witted and learned withal: They have a certain manner of Poets or Musicians which they call (Bardi) that sing unto Organs and wind Instruments, as others do to the Harp or Lute, praising some in their songs and sonnets and dispraising others: but those that be of greatest estimation and honour amongst them, be the Philosophers, which they call Saronidae: Divyners and Soothsayers be also there in great request, and highly honoured and obeyed of the common people; these (by their sorceries and sacrifices) foretell things to come, using (when they consult of any weighty affairs) a ceremony most horrible and execrable, and almost incredible, for they cut a man's throat with a sword, and when he fainteth, they judge of future events, both by his falling and sinking down, as also by ripping up his members, and opening his entrails and bowels, and by the effusion of his blood.  
And they will never offer sacrifice without some one of these Philosophers, supposing that no sacrifice can be acceptable, unless it be offered by some of those nature searchers, being (in their opinions) men most near to the Gods. And their Poets be of such reverence and estimation, as when the battle is set in array, their swords drawn, and their darts thrown, if any of these Poets approach near unto the battle, the whole host, yea and the enemy himself, will at his coming abstain from fight: so as even amongst these rude and barbarous people, anger will yield to wisdom, and Mars give place to the Muses.  
The Galatian women be equal unto the men both in strength and bigness of body: there boys be for the most part white, and old men carry a very grave and fatherly aspect: The Galatae that dwell under the North-pole and be nearest unto Scythia, and therefore more barbarous than the other, are said to feed on man's flesh; like unto those that inhabited that part of Brittany called Iris. These Northern Galatians, through their courage and cruelty, are reported to be those people, that once overrun almost all Asia, and were called Cimmerij, and are thought to be the very same that afterwards by corruption of the name, for Cimmerij were called Cimbri: they live after their old accustomed manner by rapine and stealth, little regarding such things as they have of their own, for the great desire they have to steal and filch from others.  
And these Galatae be they, who (after they had sacked Rome and spoiled the Temple of Apollo at Delphos) subdued and made tributary unto them a great part both of Europe and Asia, utterly ruinating many Kingdoms, and possessing their lands: for those that came into Greece, called that part of the country they enjoyed there, Gallo-Gretia, or the Region of Galatia in Asia the less: It is bounded on the East with Cappadocia, and the river Halis, with Asia and Bythinia on the West, on the South lieth Pamphilia, and Pontus Euxinus on the North: But those Cimbri whereof now we speak, were people of an intolerable cruelty, using such blasphemous and impious ceremonies, in their sacrifices of their gods, as is strange and incredible, for they had ever following and attending upon their hosts, certain women priests that were very skilful in divinations, the hair of their heads was hoar and grey, and their garments white, and they had under those white gowns yellow smocks made of fine linen, and clasped together with brazen buttons or copper clasps, they had girdles about their wastes and went barefooted: and if any captives were taken and brought into the camp, they were encountered by these she priests with their naked blades, and by them lugged and drawn upon the ground unto a place where stood a brazen pot or kettle, conayning twenty Amphoras, over which stood a pulpit or high seat, where-into they would nimbly ascend, and take the captive up with them, and there cut his throat over the cauldron, and ever as the blood distilled and ran into the kettle, they would pronounce their prophecies: of some they would rip the bellies and bowel them, prophesing by their entrails of their success in the wars: And every fifth year they would sacrifice one of their own people, that was guilty and condemned of some crime, by fixing him quick upon spears or stakes: and all the beasts and cat-tail, that they took from their enemies, they would kill and slay as well as the captives, and either burn them upon piles of wood, or put them to death by some other kind of torture, and the Cimbrian women as they were very beautiful and goodly women, so were they marvelous luxurious and wanton: There beds were beasts skins laid upon the bare ground, upon which when they slept, they would have upon each side of them, an excubitor or watchman: there carts also when they had any wars were covered with skins, whereon they would labour and strike so hard, as they would make a horrible and ill favoured noise and clankering: But their impudence was of all things most admirable and odious, for they so far exceeded the bounds of modestic, as they would offer their naked bodies to men in the open streets, esteeming it no fault, but rather condeming those for dastards and fainte-hearted cowards, that should refuse their offered favours: Valerius Maximus reporteth, that the Cimbri and Celtiberi would exult and rejoice when they were in the wars, because if they died there their ends were honourable and happy, but if they languished in any disease, they would lament and be sorrowful, accounting that kind of death as base and reproachful.   

Of Gallia, and of the ancient customs and latter manners of the Frenchmen. CAP. 22.  
GALLIA a broad Country of Europe, is situated betwixt the inner 
The bounds of Gallia.  French sea and the Britain Ocean, the river of Rhine, the Alps and the Pyrenean hills. The Pyrenean hills include it in upon the West and the Britain Ocean upon the North: upon the East lieth the river of Rhine, which environeth as much of France from the Alps to the Ocean, as the Pyrenaean hills do from the inmost to the uttermost sea, and upon the South it is enclosed with the Narbon sea: It is called Gallia of the whiteness of the people for (gala) in Greek signifieth milk. 
Gallia why so called.  All that part of France which is called tonsa or togata Gallia is also named Cisalpina, and is comprehended within the limits of Italy, and all that part which is called Transalpina, or France beyond the Alps, is surnamed Gallia Comata, and is by Historiographers divided into three Provinces, of the three sorts of people that inhabit 
The division of France.  therein (to wit) Belgica, Celtica and Aquitanica, which three Provinces be thus bounded and limited: Belgica is all that Country which lieth betwixt the rivers Scaldis and Sequana, from thence then to the river Garumna is the Province of Celtica, which is all that which is now the country of Lions, and from that again unto the Pyrenaean hills, is the country of Aquitanica, once called Armorica: Augustus divideth France into four parts, by adding to those three the Province of Lions: And Ammianus maketh many subdivisions, by distributing the country of Lions into two parts, and Aquitanica into two parts. Braccata Gallia which is also called Narbon, was so called of a certain fashion of mantles or breeches 
The several provinces, of Gallia Belgica.  called Braccae which by them were much worn: Gallia Belgica which adjoineth unto Rhine, speaketh for the most part the Almain tongue, and comprehendeth many provinces, as Helvetia, Alsatia, Lotharingia, Luxenburg, Burgundy, Brabant, Gelderland, Holland & Zealand, all which may be more rightly accounted part of Germany then of France, but that the river of Rhine hath divided it from Germany: And surely I see no reason why hills & rivers should limit & bond Kingdoms, but rather the language and government, and that each Country should extend as far as his own proper language is spoken. The Romans called the people of Gallia by one general name Celtae, after the name of their King, and Gallatae of Galata his mother's name: but they be now called Franci and Gallia France, of those people of Germany so called by whom it was all subdued, as Baptista Mantuanus writeth in his book entitled Dionysius, and Antonius Sabellicus in his third book of the tenth Aeneade. The Dictator Caesar saith that the French men do differ much amongst themselves, both in language, laws and institutions, and that many things be common to most of them, as to be factious, which is a general aspersion not 
The French men a factions people.  only unto Citizens and Burgesses, but in private families also, for every one as he excelleth others in wealth or wisdom, contendeth to have the sovereignty, and to advance his own faction, coveting to have all things done by his own direction rather than by others, though as wise & wealthy as himself: an other institution they have very ancient and grounded upon good reason, that is, that the common people should live in security and not be injured by the nobility, for but for that, there is no country in the world wherein the clowns live in greater contempt and slavery then in France, for there was held little difference betwixt them and slaves, being never called to any public council but oppressed with tributes, or constrained to lend their money without security, in so much as they were content to retain to noble men and gentlemen, yielding themselves as slaves and bondmen unto them, only to be freed from other men's extortions and wrongs: There were two sorts of men that carried most estimation amongst them, which were the Equites and the 
The office of the Druids.  Druids, some likewise did attribute as much honour to Poets and Prophets, as unto the Druids, for that the Prophets bended their whole courses to find out the causes of natural things, & the Poets wholly employed themselves in praises and poems: and all these were by Caesar called by the name of Druidae: These Druidaes had the charge and oversight of all sacrifices both public and private, their function was also to expound and interpret their religion, and to instruct and bring up children and young men in learning and decipline, for the assemblies and troops of such youth were much accounted of; to them was committed likewise the disciding of controversies, the bounding & limiting of men's grounds, & power to punish offenders by death, torments, or otherwise, and if either private person or Magistrate offered to withstand or gainsay any of their decrees, or refused to stand to their award, they would interdict and forbid him to come to their sacrifices, which amongst that people was the greatest punishment that could be inflicted: The Druids shunned the communication and company of all men, lest they should be polluted, and no one could have justice, or be honoured and reverenced according to his place, dignity and deserts, if any of these Druids were against it.  
They had one that was the governor and Archpriest over them, who bore the chiefest sway, as head of the whole order, and ever as one of those provosts or governors died, an other was elected in his room out of those Druids, either by worthiness of person or plurality of voices. This council or Senate of Druids assembled at one time of the year at Lions, which is about the middle of France, and there they kept their Sessions for the hearing and determining of all controversies that were brought before them from all parts of the Country, which kind of judgement, and establishing of laws and statutes was afterwards received amongst all the nobles & commons of France (the superstition being first brought out of Brittany) and by them called the Parliament, of which I will speak more hereafter. The Druids were exempted from the wars, and had immunity from tribute, and whosoever addicted himself to that kind of profession must learn by heart thousands of verses, yea so many as some of them spent twenty years in cunning verses without book, nor was it lawful for them to commit any thing to writing, that belonged to the knowledge of that science, for that they avoided all means that might either be a help unto their memories, or anywise concern the authority of that discipline, and also that their idle superstitious rites might not be laid open to the common people: and yet all other sorts of Gauls and themselves in all other matters, both public & private, used at that time the Greek character: The Druids believed and preached the immortality of the soul, & that after her departure out of one body, she removed into an other, by which means all fear of death being taken away, they were more hardy and venturous to undergo all dangers.  
They would reason and dispute much of the stars and of their motion, of the magnitude the world and situation of the earth, and of the natural causes of things, and power of their profane gods, they held a position likewise that the world was eternal and that the elements of fire and water prevailed one against 
The Equites, an other sort of people.  an other by turns: An other sort of religious persons and which were most devout of all others, were those they called Equites, and they, when they fell into any dangerous disease, or any other peril of their lives, would offer for the recovery of their health, or avoiding of imminent danger, a humane sacrifice, which sacrifice must ever be solemnized by the assistance of some one of the Druids: Some others of that sect had great huge Images made hollow and covered with twigs, into the concavity whereof they would put men alive, and then set fire about the Image until all were consumed away.  
The punishment inflicted upon thieves and offenders, they esteemed most grateful and acceptable to their gods, and all those ancient Gauls held the god Mercury in great veneration, as first founder and inventor of all arts and mysteries, the chief guide and conductor in all their travels, and very propitious unto them in traffic and trading. All the spoils they took in the wars, they vowed and consecrated unto Mars for their victory obtained, so as in many Cities you might see great heaps of warlike spoils laid together, and if any one stole any part of the prey to his own purse, he was severely punished.  
The Gauls persuaded themselves that they were the of spring of Pluto the god of riches, and therefore they celebrated the beginning of their feasts the night before the feast day, supposing that night to be consecrated unto Dis: The men suffered not their children once to come into their sights, before they were grown to man's estate, that they were able to manage arms, holding it unfitting and absurd, that the son while he is a child should approach near the presence of his father: The husbands look how much money they received with their wives in portion, so much did they add unto it out of their own stock, and all the increase that came of that coin, was reserved and kept for him or her that was survivor.  
The husbands had power and authority of life and death, as well over their wives as over their children: and 
Husbands had power to kill their wives.  if any man's wife were convicted of witchcraft or sorcery, she was put to death by her husband's neighbours and friends, either by fire, or by some other grievous torments: In their funerals, all those things which the deceased person held dear unto him in his life time, yea the beasts he loved best, were burned with him: and not much before the Country was conquered by julius Caesar, their servants and retainers were burned with their masters dead bodies.  
In their Cities (which were marvelous well governed) a few of the most worthy and substantialest men amongst them, ruled the rest, having at the first one chief ruler over them, who continued his office for a year, and in wars they used likewise to appoint one to take the charge and command upon him of all matters belonging to the wars.  
If any private person heard any thing spoken by strangers touching the commonwealth, they were to make report thereof to the Magistrates, though some things they might conceal without danger. It was not lawful for any one to mutter any thing in secret of the commonwealth but in public places, and he that came last into the council-house was put to death. If any factious fellow raised any tumult or mutiny, there was sent unto him an officer with a sword in his hand ready drawn, to proclaim silence, and if he desisted not at the second or third proclamation, the officer would curtail so much of his cloak or cassock (thereby to put him to disgrace) as the remnant that was left would serve him to no purpose. The chief Magistrates had golden maces carried before them, they wore chains about their necks and bracelets on their arms. The common people wore short cloaks, and in steed of coats a loose garment slit on the one side, that would scarce cover half their buttocks: their wool is very rough, long and shaggy, so as their cassocks they called (Lenae) were marvelous rugged and hairy.  
They took great delight in trimming & dressing their hair; They be tall of stature and for the most part pale of complexion, and their armour and weapons are answerable to the proportion of their bodies, for they wore long swords hanging at their right sides, and long shields proportionable to their spears, wherewith they might cover their thighs, some of them also had bows and were very good archers, but yet they used shooting more in fowling and birding, then in the wars, and few of them would go into the field either with slings or clubs.  
They lay upon the ground and eat their meat sitting upon straw, the substance of their meat was either milk or flesh, and especially hogs-flesh, for they have such store of swine feeding in their fields, and so large, so strong, and so swift, that strangers that know not their nature, are as fearful of them, and in as much danger as if they were wolves. They have sheep in as great abundance as swine, whereof when they be fed and powdered they send many to Rome and divers other parts of Italy and there sell them.  
Their buildings & dwelling houses were made of wood in proportion of shells, being very large with many spars or rafters. They be naturally cruel and simple withal, and in the wars more valiant than politic, and much more addicted to follow the wars than husbandry: The French women be exceeding fruitful, in so much as Gallia Belgica alone, sent unto the wars at one voyage, above three hundred thousand fight men: when they have had any victory they be wonderful joyful, and as much amazed after an overthrow: Their custom was when the battle was ended and the soldiers departed the field, to cut off the heads of their vanquished foes, and to hang them at there horse necks, and so to carry them home, and there to stick them upon poles, for a spectacle unto others. But the heads of worthy and renowned soldiers (if any such were slain) they would season with odours of Cedar-tree, and keep them for strangers to look upon, not suffering them to be ransommed for their weight in gold: The ancient Country guise was to wear chains of gold, bracelets and garments spangled with gold.  
In their Divinations their manner was to strike a man (ordained for that purpose) upon the back, and then by his impatience and manner of affliction in his death to judge of future events. They had other sorts of humane sacrifices also, for some they would shoot to death and then hang them upon gibbets within their Temples, and some of them would make a great huge Image, and put therein men, wood, sheep and divers other sorts of cat-tail, and so sacrifice them altogether.  
The Frenchmen by reason of their continual labour, and exercise, were wont to be very macilent, lean and lank bellied, for they were so careful to avoid all pampering and excess, that if any young man's belly did outgrow his girdle, he was openly punished.  
But at this day the Frenchmen by reason of their commerce, 
The latter customs of the French.  conversation, and continual acquaintance with the romans, are greatly altered from what they were, and their manners much bettered: for they be now most ardent professors of the true Religion, and all under the government of one King. Their marriages be solemnized after the Italian rites: they be very studious in all the liberal arts, and in divinity especially, which is well demonstrated by the great multitude of Students in the city of Paris, which is now the most famous and renownedst University in all Christendom.  
The laws in France be executed by Magistrates, but instituted by the kings: their horsemen in time of wars go all in complete armour, and their footmen in light harness: they have many good archers that shoot well in long bows, and their bows be not made of cornel trees like unto their bows in Scythia, and in all the East country, but of Yew, or some other hard wood: their Ordinance is carried along with their armies in carts, & they fight more rather in order, one seconding another, then in troops, & with more courage & cruelty, than skill or policy, although their cunning be sufficient to manage their military businesses. Their Ambassadors to denounce wars, or treat of peace, they call Heralds, who be loyal subjects to their Sovereign. The Frenchmen be very religious, their Bishops of mighty power and dignity, and all the Clergy in general of high reverence & veneration: in their divine ceremonies they use much singing, by reason whereof the study of music is in a manner peculiar to that nation: Their fashions in their apparel and shoes be much altered in our age: for (saith Sabellicus) when I was a boy, all the Courtiers and Gentlemen of France (the Clergy only excepted) wore short cloaks with sleeves, that would hardly reach to their mid thighs, pleated from the top to the bottom, and stuffed or quilted about the shoulders. Their shoes were tipped on the snouts with thin horns, half a foot long, such as are pictured in arras and tapestry: and their bonnets which they called (Bireta) were high and sharp towards the Crown: but all these ancient fashions be now laid away, and new fangles invented: for the shoes they now wear be broad-nosed, (like a bears foot) and narrow heeled, and their garments be much more loose & long then before they were, reaching down to the calves of their legs, with loose sleeves slit on one side, and laced all over with lace of divers colours, set on lattise-wise: their hats be for the most part red and very large, but their bonnets called (Bireta) be much bigger than their ordinary hats, and very unfitting for their heads; butotherwise, were it not for these unhandsome hats, no nation could compare with them for neatness and gallantness in apparel. And now of late years their manner of attire is much imitated by the Italians, who do wholly follow the French fashion, manifestly presaging thereby what afterwards came to pass. The women be not so variable & fickle in following every new fashion, as the men be, but keep their old fashion still. Baptista Mantuanus in his book entitled Dionysius, maketh a description of France to this effect: 
Of all the parts of th'universe, fair France is not the least,  
A wide, a large, and spacious land, and equal to the best:  
It eastward joins to Italy, and westward unto Spain,  
And compassed upon the South with the huge Ocean main,  
And wholly bounded on the north with famous river Rh●i●e.  
With men, beasts, and all sorts of grain this land doth much abound.  
The earth is fruitful, and the air is whole some, sweet, and sound,  
Not pestered with such poisonous beasts, as is the Lybian coast,  
Nor like the Hyperborean hills still mantled o'er with frest:  
It is not fried like India pale, with Phoebus' scorching beams,  
Which barren makes the fattest fields, on whom he spreads his gleams,  
Nor is there such extreme sharp cold, nor such perpetual night,  
Like Island, and the frigid Zone, where Sol scarce shows his light;  
Nor doth their land lie soaked in fens, like unto Egypt's soil,  
But temperate heat and moist doth yield increase with little toil.  And a little after the same Author saith: 
The Gauls are of a fiery mind, and of complexion white,  
Which is the cause they were so called, as divers Authors write:  
Nature beheld the Paphian Queen when she gave them their hue,  
Whereby of colours white and red a perfect union grew.  
In dancing, plays, and pleasant verse consist their chiefest joys,  
Most pron● they are to banqueting, most prore to Venus' toys:  
Yet be they zealous towards their God, and for they are free borne,  
Tabase themselves with servitude, their haughty minds do scorn:  
No lying, nor hypocrisy can harbour in their breast,  
But like free men, so free of speech, all rudeness they detest.  
To hunt fish, fowl, the fields, and floods, and hills they often haunt:  
Long wars hath so enured them, no foes their minds can daunt.  
Their chiefst delight is barbed horse, with jerking spur to gall,  
Bows spears, shields swords, and Brigandines to them are natural.  
By day to suffer heat of Sun, to watch in fields all night,  
To bear huge armour on their backs, amid their foes to fight.  
To run through dangers, swords and pikes, t'oppose themselves to death  
For king, or kin, or country dear, to spend their dearest breath.  
They much delight, and there in think their honour most doth stand.  
And for the Goat (if stars speak truth) is ruler of their l●nd: 
Capricorn ruleth in France.   
From's influence (if we so may judge) this is th'effect ensues,  
A wavering heart, unconstant breast, mind greedy still of news.   
I think it not amiss in this place to make some description 
The Parliament of France.  of the Parliament of France, which is the worthiest commendation, and greatest ornament belonging to the Court of France: by whom, or from whence this court of Parliament was first instituted and derived I can gather no more certainty by writers than I have signified before, that by all likelihood the Druids were the first authors thereof, and that it hath continued ever since, though now much differing from what it then was: for the Parliament (as the Council of the Druids before) was held yearly at Lions, at times appointed by the King in this manner:  
They assembled thither from each several city of the Province, all such as were skilful in their laws and customs, (being thereto chosen aforehand) to do equity and justice unto all that would bring their causes before them by way of appeal: but because this institution was at the first uncertain, and not well settled: the seat of this Court of Parliament was afterwards translated from Lions, and is now established at Paris, and certain judges appointed to hear, and finally to determine all appeals whatsoever: of these judges there be fourscore which have annual stipends out of the King's Exchequer, for their better maintenance. They be divided into four Courts, and every Court above other, and each hath his proper Precedents, or chief justices.  
In the first Court or Chamber (as they call it) sit sour chief judges or Precedents, and thirty Councillors or Assistants, and these hear all complaints, controversies, and delays, and set down what is Law in every case: and if the matters be light, or lately begun, they end and determine them. In the second and third Court or Chamber sit in each eighteen, whom they call Aequati, as having equal authority, and these be called counsellors of Inquests & Inquisitions, because they have the chief stroke in Inquisitions and verdicts; and of them, some be lay, and some Clergymen, and each of these chambers or courts hath four Precedents: These when they have set down their opinions touching any matter in question, some one of the Precedents at certain times appointed, delivereth their sentence to the first Court of Parliament, which is there by them so ratified and confirmed, as no one can appeal from it; and he which is found guilty before them, must pay unto the Courts threescore pounds of Tours weight; and some are adjudged to pay more, according to the quality of the offence: but if the party so condemned think, that his cause was not well understood and discussed, and that he had some injury done him, thereby receiving some loss or hindrance, he may bring the matter (thus crazed by misinformation) again into question before the judges, but it shall not be heard, unless he pawn and put into their hands, an hundred and twenty pounds to stand to their censure.  
The fourth Court in the Court of Requests, and is kept by the Masters of the King's palace, or Masters of requests and supplications, and none shall have their causes heard there, but only the king's servants, or such as have some privileges from the King, and they shall not be molested in other Courts: of this Court there be only six judges, & it is lawful to appeal from them to the Parliament. If in handling controversies any great difficulty arise, it must be decided by the assembly of all the judges and Councillors of every Court together, which happeneth oftentimes in matters proposed by the King, touching the government of the Commonwealth: for no law can be thoroughly established without the consent of this Senate or Parlament-house.  
In this Parliament the Peers of France, and other masters of Requests that be the king's favourites, may sit as assistants unto the judges, and their places be next unto the Precedents of the first Court or Chamber: but all matters touching the king, or any of the Peers be defined and determined by the Peers themselves, and the judges of the first Court.  
There be twelve chief Peers elected out of all the Nobility 
The 12. Peers of France.  of France, whereof six be spiritual men, & six temporal: the spiritual Peers be the Bishop of Rheims, the Bishop of Laudunum, and the Bishop of Langres, (which be called Episcopi Deuces, or chief Bishops) the Bishop of Beuvois, the Bishop of Noyon, and the Bishop of Challons, (which be Episcopi Comites, or secondary Bishops:) The six secular Peers be the Duke of Burgundy, the D. of Normandy, and the Duke of Aquitania, (which be chief Princes or Archdukes) the Duke of Flanders, the Duke of Tholousa, and the Duke of Campania, which be secondary Princes.) These twelve (according to the opinion of Robertus) were first instituted by Charles the great, who taking them with him into the wars, called them his Peers, as having equal power in assisting of the King, and they were ever present at his coronation, and yielded obedience to no other Court but only to the King, and his Court of Parliament.  
And these be the ancient and later manners of the Gauls and Frenchmen, and their customs most worthy of memory.   

Of Spain, and of the manners of the Spaniards. CAP. 23.  
SPAIN, the greatest country in Europe, 
The commendations and riches of Spain and her bounds  is situated betwixt France and Africa, and bounded with the Ocean sea, and the Pirenaean hills: It is comparable to any other country, both for fertility of soil, and abundance of fruits and vines, and so sufficiently stored with all kind of commodities, that be either necessary or behoveful, as it affordeth great part of her superfluity to the city of Rome, and all Italy over. If you require gold, silver, or precious stones there they are in abundance, if mines of Iron, and sundry other metals, you shall find no defect; if wines, it giveth place to none; and as for oils, it excelleth all other nations of Europe: besides that, they have such store of salt, as they never boil it, but dig it out of the earth in full perfection. Yea there is no part of their ground (be it never so barren) but it yieldeth increase of one thing or other the heat of the Sun is not there so violent as in Africa, nor be they tossed with such continual storms and tempestuous winds, as France is, but there is an equal temperature of the heavens, and wholesomeness of the air over all the Region, it being greatly wasted with marine winds, without such foggy mists and infectious exhalations as proceed from fens and moorish grounds. There is great plenty of hemp, flax and broom, the pill or skin whereof serveth to tie up their vines: and it affordeth more vermilion than any other country beside. The currents of their rivers be not so swift and violent, as they thereby become hurtful, but gentle and mild to water and manure their fields and meadows, and the arms of the Ocean sea which adjoin unto them, afford great store of fish: and yet for no one thing was Spain more commended in times past, then for the swiftness of their horses, whereof grew this fiction, That the Spanish horses were conceived of the winds.  
Spain taketh her beginning at the Pyrenaean hills, and winding by Hercules' pillars, extendeth to the Northern Ocean, so as all places contained within that compass, may justly be said to be of Spain. The breadth of Spain, (as Appianus writeth) is ten thousand stadia, & the length much answerable to the breadth: it joineth unto France only at the Pyrenaean hills, and on all other sides it is enclosed with the sea: it is distinguished and known by three names, Tarragon, Bethica, and Lusitania: Tarragon (the chief cities whereof were called Pallantia, and Numantia, now called Soria) at the one end joineth unto France, and unto Bethica and Lusitania at the other: The Mediterranean sea runneth by the Southside thereof, and upon the North it lieth opposite to the Ocean: the other two provinces be divided by the river Anas, so as Bethica (the chief cities whereof were Hispalis and Corduba) looketh Westward into the Atlantic sea, and into the Mediterranean upon the South: Lusitania lieth opposite only to the Ocean, the side of it unto the Northern Ocean, and unto the Western at the end: the city Emerita being once the chief City of that Province.  
Spain was first called Iberia, of the river Iberus, and after 
Spain why so called.  that Hesperia, of Hesperus the brother of Atlas, and lastly, it was named Hispania, of Hispalis now called Sibilia. Their bodies be very apt to endure both hunger and labour, and their minds ever prepared for death: they be very sparing and strict both in their diet and every thing else, and they be much more desirous of wars then of peace. So much, as if wars be wanting abroad, they will grow to civil dissension and homebred garboils among themselves: They will suffer torments even unto death, rather than reveal a thing committed to their secrecy, having more care of their credits, and trust reposed in them, then of their lives. They be marvelous nimble and swift of pace, and of an unquiet and turbulent disposition: their horses be both speedy and warlike, and their arms more dear unto them than their blood.  
They furnish not their tables with dainty and delicate meats, unless upon festival days, and they learned of the Romans (after the second Carthaginian wars) to wash themselves in cold water: but for all this in so many ages as have passed since their first original, they never had any notable or famous Captain, that ever achieved any great Conquest, but Viriatus only, and he indeed held the romans in play some ten years with variable success of fortune.  
The women dispatch all business both within doors and without, & the men employ themselves either in wars, or to purloining & stealing from others: they wear short black garments made of rough will like goat's hair: their shields or bucklers which they use for their defence in the wars, be little ones made of nerves and sinews, which they will wield with such agility, as they avoid all dangers both of darts, arrows, and hand-blowes. Their darts be all of Iron and crooked, their helmets of brass and crested, and their swords of Iron, and as broad as the palm of ones hand; wherewith in a troop or crowd, they will make great slaughter.  
They have a devise to make Iron very tough and strong for weapons, which is, to beat and hammer it into thin plates or sheets, and then to lay those sheets in the ground so long, till the weakest of the Iron be rusted away, and none left but what is marvelous pure & strong, and of this they make their swords, and other weapons for the wars, which be so substantial and good, as neither shield nor helmet can withstand them, but that they kill all before them: and of these swords every one commonly carrieth two. Those which have any regiment in the camp, after they have escaped the conflict on horseback, forsake their horses, and help the footmen, they will fling their darts a great way from them, & that with great skill, & they will endure the fight a long time, & their bodies be so nimble and quick, as they can easily fly from their foes, and set upon them again as occasion is offered They be so desirous of wars, that for the least cause that is, they will swarm together by troops, and sing for joy when they encounter their foes.  
In peaceable times they practise singing and dancing; for which exercise they be very light and active: towards their enemies and evil persons they practise great cruelty, but to strangers much bounty and humanity: for they be so forward to entertain strangers and travelers, as they will every one strive to exceed other in courtesy, with a kind of emulation, esteeming those most worthy of honour and in greatest favour with God, that have most strangers to accompany them: The women wear iron chains or jewels about their necks, with crooked or bending crests, that compass the head from the neck behind over the crown, and so hang down upon their foreheads, unto which they fasten their veils when they please to mask their faces, which they account a great ornament unto them.  
In like manner in some part a little struck of a wheel compasseth their heads, and is bound to the sinews in the hinder part of the head, and reacheth down to the laps of their ears, waxing, by little and little, sharper and narrower towards the top. Some shave off all the hair of the forpart of their heads, and some others have a pillar of a foot long, standing upright upon their foreheads, to which they fasten their hair, and then cover it with a black cap or bonnet. They feed of divers sorts of flesh, and make drink of honey, whereof the country hath sufficient store, and such wines as are wanting in their own, are brought unto them out of other countries: and although they be very neat and cleanly in their diet, yet is it strange to see, what a beastly and filthy custom they generally observe, which is, to wash their whole bodies, yea and to rub their teeth with urine, accounting it very good and wholesome for their bodies. But (to omit nothing that may bring us to a perfect knowledge and understanding of the country) all the Region now called Spain, was heretofore divided into the further and nearer Spain; the nearer Spain is that which is now called Tarragon, extending to the Pyrenaean hills: & the further Spain by reason of the length, is divided into two Provinces, Bethica, and Lusitania: Spain also was once divided into five kingdoms, which were, Castille, Arragon, Portugal, Navarre, and Granata.   

Of Lusitania, and of the ancient manners of the Portugals. CAP. 24.  
LUSITANIA, a Province in the furthermost part of Spain, and at this day called 
The bounds of Portugal.  Portugal, hath Bethica on the South, Tarragon on the East, and the Ocean sea upon the West and North. It was first called Lusitania, (according to Pliny) of Lusus the father of Bacchus, and Lysa his luxurious and dissolute companion.  
Of all Spaniards, the Portugals be most valiant, subtle, active and nimble, and through their extraordinary skill in navigation have found out more strange and unknown lands, than any people in the world again: Their shields which they use in the wars be two foot broad, and made crooked towards the upper end where they hold their hands, (for other handle they have none) and these will they use with such agility, as they will thereby easily avoid both arrows, darts, and hand-blowes: They have also short swords or poniard hanging by their sides, and some have breastplates made of linen cloth, and yet but few wear other privy coats or crested helmets, but only such as be made of nerves or sinews.  
They be very skilful in darting, & can cast them a great way from them, they continue the battle long, and by reason of their nimbleness, quick agility, and lightness, they will easily fly from their enemy, and again pursue him, as makes most for their advantage: footmen have their legs harnessed, and every one a bundle of darts, and some carry javelins pointed or headed with brass. There be some Portugeses dwelling near the river Durius, which are said to live like unto the Spartans: these use two kind of ointments, and sulphury or fiery stones to warm them withal, and all cold things are washed. They eat all one kind of meat, which is wholesome, though it be homely: when they sacrifice, they cut not the beast in pieces, but opening his belly, they look into the bowels or garbage of the oblation, as also into the veins of his side, and by handling of them conjecture of things to come. Another kind of divination they have by men's entrails, and especially captives; in doing whereof they first cover the man ordained for that purpose, with a cassock, and then the Augur or Soothsayer maketh an incision in the bottom of his belly, and by his fall prophesieth of future events, which done, they cut off the right hands, and offer them to their gods.  
Those Portugeses which inhabit on hills fare but meanly, they drink water, and lie upon the bare ground: They suffer their hair to grow long, and to hang down about their shoulders dangling like women, and they fight with miters upon their heads, in stead of helmets. Their daintiest meat is buck goats, which they also sacrifice to Mars, as they do captives and horses.  
They have also (in imitation of the greeks) their Hecatombs, which are sacrifices made with an hundred beasts of all sorts, and (as Pindarus is of opinion) they sacrifice and offer every hundredth thing likewise. They have their Gymnick plays, (which are so called, for that they be done by naked men) and these plays are exercised with weapons, horses, plummets of Lead, called the Whirleabout, running and disordered fight: and sometimes they divide themselves into parts, and fight one side against another.  
These mountainous Lusitanians feed two parts of the year upon Acorns, which when they have dried and ground into meal, they make bread thereof and so eat it. In stead of wine (whereof those parts are barren) they have drink made of barley, and that they ever drink new, assoon as it is brewed.  
When kinsfolk and friends are assembled together to banquet, in stead of oil they use butter, and have seats made in the walls for them to sit in; where every one taketh his seat according to his worth or gravity, and ever in their drinking, they use to sing and dance after music; leaping and capering for joy, as the women in Boetica do, when they join all their hands together, and so fall a dancing: Their apparel (for the most part) is black cassocks, which they will wrap about them, and so lie themselves down to sleep upon straw or litter: They eat their meat in earthen platters, as the French men do, and women wear for the most part red garments.  
In stead of money they use thin plates of silver, or else exchange and barter one commodity for another. Those which are condemned to die, are stoned to death, and Parricides are carried from out the confines of their hills, or beyond some river, and there covered and overwhelmed with stones. They contract matrimony after the manner of the greeks, and (according to the custom of the Egyptians) bring those which are sick into the streets, to the end that those which have been troubled with the like griefs themselves, may show them how they were cured. And these be the customs used in those mountainous and northern countries of Spain.  
It is reported, that those Spaniards which inhabit the utmost parts of Portugal, when they be taken prisoners by their enemies, and ready to be hanged, they will sing for joy: That the men there give dowers to their wives, and make their sisters their heirs, who do also marrv their own brothers. And that they be so barbarous and bloody-minded, that mothers will murder their own children, and children their parents, rather than that they should fall into the hands of their enemies. They do sacrifice to a god, whose name is unknown: when the Moon is in the full, they will watch all night every one at his own door, dancing and skipping all the night long. The women have as good part of all profits and increase as men have, for they practise husbandry, and be obedient and serviceable to men, when they themselves are with child.  
The Spaniards make poison of a kind of herb much like unto Persley, which offendeth not upon a sudden, but by little and little, and this they always have in readiness for any one that wrongs them, in so much as it is said to be proper to the Spaniards to be great poisoners, and that their custom is also to offer themselves to be slain and sacrificed for those to whom they are newly reconciled.   

Of England, Scotland, and Ireland, and of many other islands, and of the manners and customs of the Inhabitants. CAP. 25.  
ENGLAND, otherwise called great Britain, is the greatest Island contained 
England also called great Britain.  within the bosom of the Ocean: It is in the form of a triangle, much like unto the I'll of Sicily, and is wholly embraced and enfolded within the arms of the Ocean, in no part touching, but altogether divided from 
England once called Albion.  the continent. It was first called Albion, of the white cliffs or rocks that show the country a far off unto passengers. Some are of opinion, that after the destruction of Troy by the greeks, the Trojans (guided by the Oracle of Pallas) rigged a navy, betook them to the seas, and (arriving in this Island) fought many battles with the Giants, which then inhabited the country, destroyed some, expelled the rest, and possessed the soil themselves. These also (continuing their possession many years together) were afterwards driven thence by the Saxons, a warlike people of Germany, under the conduct of Angla their Queen. The 
The Saxons once Lords of England.  Inhabitants wholly vanquished and expelled, and their soil and substance shared amongst soldiers, utterly to extinguish and root out all memory of the former name and nation, they called the country Anglia, after the name of Angla their guide and governess. Some others are of 
Anglia why so called.  opinion, that it was called Anglia, as being an angle or corner of the world.  
Upon the North it lieth opposite to France and Spain, and the circuit or utmost bounds of the whole Island, is about 1836. English miles. Their longest day consisteth 
The compass of England.  of seventeen hours: their nights are light in the Summer season: the eyes of the Inhabitants are grey, their stature tall, and their natural complexions so comely, so fair and so beautiful, as Saint Gregory seeing by chance certain English boys in Rome, and demanding of what Country they were, said that they might well be called, Angli, their faces and countenances resembling the Angels, and lamenting that such devilish Idolatry should harbour in such divine features, he shortly after effected, that the faith of Christ was planted in the Country.  
In war they are undaunted, and most expert Archers, their women be marvelous comely and beautiful, their common sort of people rude, barbarous and base, their nobility and gentry, courteous, civil and of singular humanity. They salute one an other with cap and knee, and encounter the women with kisses, lead them into Taverns and there drink together, which they deem no touch to their reputations, if therein be discovered no lascivious intent.  
If they have wars, they delight not in subverting cities, destroying, burning, and consuming, corn, cat-tail or country, but bend their forces wholly to the destruction of their enemies, and he that is vanquisher hath command of all.  
England of all other provinces, was the first that embraced 
England the first Christian Island.  the Christian religion: The country aboundeth with cat-tail and wool: wolves it breedeth none, nor nourisheth any that are brought thither, in so much that their flocks may feed at liberty without fear or guide. The country is rich in metals, as lead, copper especially and some silver, there is also the Magerite or pearl, and the stone Gagates (there called jest) which burnoth in water and is extinguished with oil. In steed of wine (whereof the land is barren) they use a kind of liquor which they call Ale and Bear, and they have much wines brought them out of other countries.  
There be many villages, borrows and cities, whereof London is the chiefest of the nation, the King's seat, and 
London the chief city.  the most famous for traffic and trading.  
These are their customs and manners they use in this age, which are much differing from their customs they used the time of julius Caesar, for at that time it was not lawful for them to eat Hare, Hen or Goose, and yet 
The ancient manners of the Britan's.  would they nourish and keep them for their pleasures. The people that inhabited the middle part of the country, lived (for the most part) upon milk, and flesh (being utterly destitute of corn) and clothed themselves with skins. Their faces they would die with woad, to the end that in battle they might breed a great terror to their enemies: They wore long hair hanging down about their shoulders, and shaved all parts of their bodies but their heads: one woman would have ten or more husbands at one time, and it was lawful for the brother to enjoy his brother's wife, the father the sons, and the son the fathers, and the children were accounted children to them all: Strabo (dissenting from the opinion of Caesar) saith, that the English are far taller than the Frenchmen, and of a shorter hair: Thick woods served them in steed of cities, wherein they builded them cabbines and cottages, harbouring themselves and their cat-tail under one roof. The country is more subject to rain then snow, and when the weather is fair, the earth is covered sometimes with a black cloud, that for the space of four hours together you shall see no Sun at high noon  
Scotland the uttermost part of Britan towards the 
Scotland denied from England.  North, is divided from the other part of the Island only with a river or small arm of the sea.  
Not far distant from Scotland lieth Ireland, the people whereof use one kind of habit, in no point differing one from an other. They speak all one language and use the self same customs. They have nimble wits and are very apt to revenge, using great cruelty in the wars, though otherwise they be sober and can endure all manner of wants with great facility. They are naturally fair, but nothing curious in their apparel.  
The Scots of whom I spoke before (as some are of opinion) were so called of the painting of their bodies, 
Of Scotland.  for it was an usual and ancient custom there (and especially amongst the rudest and barbarous kind of people) to paint and die their bodies, arms and legs with varnish or vermilion, which custom (if all be true as is written by ancient authors) was practised by the Britan's, especially in time of war, the more to terrify the enemy as before is said.  
Aeneas Silvius saith, that the shortest day in winter there, is not above three hours long, and it is a thing worthy the noting to see how poor folks there stand about the Temples of their gods, begging stones of passengers for them to burn, for the country affordeth but small store of fuel, and the stones which they crave and get together in this manner, are of a fat and sulphery condition, and will burn like coals: Aeneas saith that he heard there was a tree in Scotland, that in Autumn when the leaves were withered, they fell of the tree into a river, & by virtue of the water were turned into birds. This tree he saith he sought for in Scotland, but could not find it, and that lastly it was told him, by some that knew the Country well, that this strange miracle was to be seen in one of the Isles of Orcades.  
And thus far mine Author, concerning the estate of this Island, by which appeareth the little acquaintance both he and those writers out of which he frameth this collection had with it, for else would they not so slightly have slipped over the commendation of so worthy a Country, and therefore I thought it not amiss, in this place to supply their defects with this short addition of mine own, wherein happily you may perceive a more lively description of this our Realm of Great Brittany, and the condition of the inhabitants than could well be expected from mere strangers.  
BRITANNIA, sometimes called Albion, the worthiest and renownedst Island of all the world, is in compass as is said before (according to the opinion of the best writers) about 1836. English miles: It is situated in a most mild & temperate climate, the air being neither too hot in Summer, nor too cold in winter, through which temperature it aboundeth with all sorts of grain, fruits and cat-tail, that be either necessary or behoveful for man's life: for besides that the Country is wholesome, pleasant and delightsome, there be such store of ponds, rivers and running waters for fish and foul, such abundance of forests and chases for timber and fuel, such large fields & champion grounds for corn and grain, such pastures and meadows for sheep and cat-tail, such orchards and gardens for pleasure and profit, such hunting and hawking in fields, floods and forests, such strong castles, such stately buildings, such goodly cities and walled towns, such beautiful houses of the Nobility disperse in all parts of the country, such large territories, such renowned universities for the advancement of learning and good letters, such practice of religion, such places for pleading, such traffic and trading, such maintenance of justice, such generous dispositions in the nobles, such civility amongst citizens, such intercourse amongst the commons, in a word such is the pomp, riches & flourishing state of this Realm, under the government of our most gracious Prince King james, that England at this day is so amply stored with nature's richest gifts that she is not only furnished with things sufficient to serve herself, but sendeth forth sundry of her superfluous commodities into other countries also, and for all things may justly be compared, if not preferred to any country in Christendom: who were the first inhabitants of this Island, and why it was so called, I find it so diversly reported that I rather leave every man to his opinion, then by setting down mine own incur the censure of ignorance and indiscretion: but howsoever, although it hath been inhabited by sundry nations, and divided into several Kingdoms, yet do I not find that ever it admitted any other form of government but the Kingly authority only, no not when it was dismembered into many Kingdoms, but that then every King had a perfect and absolute command over his subjects, nor that any King of England, either then, or since it grew into a Monarchy, did ever receive his authority from any other Prince as his supreme, but that every King within the limits of his Kingdom was (next unto God) sole and absolute governor, the idle example of King john only excepted, who without consent of his commons, or establishment by act of parliament, forced thereunto by the rebellion of his Nobles aided by the Dolphin of France, resigned his crown to the Pope's Legate, and received it again at his hands only to appease the Pope being then his enemy.  
To pass over the several peoples that have inhabited this Island, and the times of their continuance, as Britan's, Romans, Danes and Saxons, and to come to times more near unto us, for that my purpose is not to wade in uncertain waters, but briefly to touch the present state and condition of my country, too slightly slipped over by mine author.  
William surnamed the Conqueror bastard son to Robert the sixth Duke of Normandy, and cousin germane unto King Edward the Confessor by the mother's side, pretending a title unto this Kingdom by the gift of Edward his kinsman, and also by a covenant confirmed by oath betwixt Harrold and him, entered this land, slew King Harrold in battle and obtained the crown by conquest, upon the fourteenth day of October 1066. He alterred the whole state of the country, dispossessed the Inhabitants, and distributed their lands by portions unto his people that came in with him, he reigned twenty years, eight months and sixteen days, and left the Kingdom to William his third son, surnamed William Rufus, who was slain in hunting, after he had reigned twelve years, eleven months and eighteen days, and having no issue, left the government to Henry his brother, and youngest son to William the Conqueror.  
Henry the first, surnamed Henry Beuclarke, reigned five and thirty years, four months and eleven days, and dying without issue male, left the crown unto Stephen Earl Morton and of Bologne, son to the Earl of Bloys, and Adela, William Conquerors daughter, and nephew to King Henry the first.  
Stephen reigned eighteen years, eleven months and eighteen days, and Henry son to Maude the Empress, whose mother was Maude Queen of England, wife to King Henry the first and daughter to Margaret Queen of Scots, who was daughter to Edward the son of Edmund, surnamed Ironsyde (by which means the Saxon line was again restored) succeeded in his Kingdom.  
Henry the second reigned four and thirty years, nine months and two days, and then departing this life left the managing of the estate unto his third son Richard surnamed Richard Ceur de Lyon.  
Richard the first reigned nine years, nine months and two and twenty days, and dying without issue, his brother john (disinheriting Arthur and Eleanor, the right heirs to the crown, as being the issue of jeffrey Duke of Britan his elder brother, who was fourth son to Henry the second, and died before his father) took upon him the government. john reigned seventeen years, seven months, and Henry his eldest son reigned in his steed.  
Henry the third reigned six and fifty years, and one month, and left his son Edward surnamed Longshanks to rule after him.  
Edward the first reigned four and thirty years, eight months and nine days, and exchanging his Kingdom, for the Kingdom of heaven, left the crown to his son Edward of Carnarvan so called because he was borne there.  
Edward the second reigned nineteen years, seven months and six days, and being then deposed, the government was committed to Edward his son.  
Edward the third reigned fifty years, four months and seven days, and left the Kingdom unto Richard his grandchild, the son of Edward the Black Prince, who died before his father.  
Richard the second was deposed, when he had reigned two and twenty years, fourteen weeks and two days, and Henry Plantagenet, son to john of Gante Duke of Lancaster, fourth son to Edward the third got possession of the crown rather by force then by lawful succession.  
Henry the fourth reigned thirteen years, six months, and four days, and his son Henry succeeded him in the Kingdom.  
Henry the fifth, whose valour France well knew, reigned nine years, five months, and four and twenty days, and left the government to his son Henry likewise.  
Henry the sixth reigned eight and thirty years, six months and nineteen days, and Edward Earl of March, eldest son to Richard Duke of York, claiming the crown by lineal descent, from Lionel Duke of Clarence, third son to Edward the third, and elder brother to john of Gante Duke of Lancaster, succeeded him in the government.  
Edward the fourth reigned two and twenty years five weeks & one day & left the Kingdom to his son Edward.  
Edward the fifth was murdered by Richard Duke of Gloucester, youngest son to Richard Duke of York, and youngest brother to Edward the fourth, when he had reigned only ten weeks and four days.  
Richard the third having butchered his Nephews, and usurped the crown of England, was slain by Henry the Seventh when he had reigned two years, two months and five days, and left the Crown unto the said Henry, who was next heir from the house of Lancaster, and married Elizabeth, Daughter unto Edward the Fourth, next heir from the house of York, by which marriage he reunited the two long divided houses of York and Lancaster.  
Henry the Seventh, reigned three and twenty years, eight months and nineteen days, and left the Kingdom to Henry his Second son, for his eldest son Arthur died before his father without issue.  
Henry the Eight, reigned seven and thirty years, ten months and one day, and left the charge of the government to Edward his son.  
Edward the Sixth, reigned six years, five months and nineteen days, and Queen Mary his eldest sister succeeded him.  
Queen Mary reigned five years, five months and two and twenty days, and her sister Queen Elizabeth reigned after her.  
Queen Elizabeth reigned four and forty years four months and fourteen days. She was the mirror of the world for Government and (her sex considered) beyond compare admirable, religious, prudent, magnanimous, merciful, beloved, evil spoken of by none but only the wicked, never to be remembered of any true hearted Englishman, but which rejoicing for her birth, and sorrowing for her death. Her Virgin life was such, as that (for politic respects) being moved to marry in the first year of her reign, her answer was that that estate liked her best, wherein she then lived with all concluding for satisfaction to her subjects with a Deus Providebit, God shall provide an heir for this Kingdom, which blessed be God therefore, our eyes have after four and forty years of her gracious reign now to our comfort seen. But for your better satisfaction, I will here set down her words at large as they are penned by Master Stow in his Annals of England.  
AS I have had good cause, so do I give you all my 
Stows Annal Anno Eliz. primo.  hearty thanks, for the good zeal and loving care you see me to have, as well towards me, as the whole estate of your Country: your petition, I perceive, consisteth of three parts, and mine answer to the same shall depend of two.  
And to the first part, I may say unto you, that from my years of understanding, sith I first had consideration of myself, to be borne a servitor of almighty God, I happily chose this kind of life, in the which I yet live, which I assure you, for my own part, hath hitherto best contented myself, and, I trust, hath been most acceptable to God. From the which, if either ambition of high estate offered to me in marriage by the pleasure and appointment of my Prince, whereof I have some records in this presence (as you our Treasurer well knew) or if the eschewing the danger of mine enemies, or the avoiding of the peril of death, whose messenger, or rather a continual watchman, the Prince's indignation was no little time daily before mine eyes, by whose means, although I know, or justly may suspect, yet I will not now utter, or if the whole cause were in my sister herself, I will not now burden her therewith, because I will not charge the dead: if any of these, I say, could have drawn, or dissuaded me from this kind of life, I had not now remained in this estate wherein you see me, but so constant have I always continued in this determination, although my youth and words may seem to some hardly to agree together, yet is it most certain and true, that at this day I do stand free from any other meaning, that either I have had in times past, or have at this present, with which trade of life I am so thoroughly acquainted, that I trust in God, who hath hitherto therein preserved, and led me by the hand, will not of his goodness suffer me to go alone.  
For the other part, the manner of your petition I do well like, and take it in very good part, because that it is simple, and containeth no lymitation of place or person: if it had been otherwise, I must needs have misliked it very much, and thought it in you a very great presumption, being unfitting, and altogether unmeet for you to require them that may command, or those to appoint, whose parts are to desire, or such to bind and limit, whose duties are to obey, or to take upon you to draw my love to your like, or to frame my will to your fantasy: For a guerdon constrained, and a gift freely given, can never agree together. Nevertheless if any one of you be in suspect, that whensoever it may please God to incline my heart to another kind of life, you may well assure yourselves, my meaning or resolution is not to do or determine any thing, wherewith the Realm may, or shall, have just cause to be discontented, or complain of imposed injury. And therefore put that clean out of your heads, and remove such doubtful thoughts, for I do assure you, what credit my assurance may have with you I cannot tell, but what credit it shall deserve to have, the sequel shall declare; I will never in that matter conclude any thing that shallbe prejudicial to the Realm, for the benefit, weal, good and safety whereof, I will never shun to spend my life.  
And whomsoever my chance shallbe to light upon, I trust he shallbe such, as shallbe as careful for the Realm, and you, I will not say as myself, because I cannot so certainly determine of any other, but at the leastwise, by my good will and desire, he shallbe such, as shallbe as careful for the preservation of the Realm, and you, as myself. And albeit it might please Almighty GOD to continue me still in this mind, to live out of the estate of marriage, yet is it not to be feared, but he will so work in my heart, and in your wisdoms, as good provision by his help may be made in convenient, whereby the Realm shall not remain and stand destitute of an heir to succeed me, that may be a fit Governor, and peradventure more beneficial to the Realm and generality, than such offspring as may come of me.  
For though I be never so careful of your well doings, and mind ever so to be, yet may issue grow out of kind, and become perhaps ungracious. And in the end this shallbe for me very sufficient, that a marble stone shall declare, that a maiden Queen having reigned and ruled such a long time, lived, and died a virgin.  
And here I end, and take your coming unto me in good part, and give unto you all eft-somes my hearty thanks, more yet for your zeal and good meaning, then for your petition.  
And thus far Stowe.  
THIS good Queen ELIZABETH was the last of the Royal issue of King Henry the eight, she died without any issue herself and left the Kingdom unto james King of Scotland, and next heir to the crown of England.  
King james the first of that name since the Conquest by the death of Queen Elizabeth, united the two famous Kingdoms of England and Scotland, which had been long divided, the crown of England rightfully and lineally descending unto him from Margueret, eldest daughter to Henry the seventh, and Elizabeth wife of the said Henry, & eldest daughter to Edward the fourth, which Margueret was married to james the fourth King of Scotland, who had issue james the fifth, father unto Mary the last Queen of Scots, who was mother unto james the sixth King of Scotland, and of great Britain France and Ireland the first.  
To omit Ireland an Island under our King's dominion, the people whereof of late years have grown to more civility, by conversing with other nations, and to speak something more in particular of this Island as now it is, we may divide the whole Island of Britanny into three parts, that is to say England, Wales and Scotland.  
Scotland the North of this Island, having for a long time been a Kingdom of itself severed and distinct from England, is now by this happy union (as I said before) made one again with England, and both of them governed by one King and Monarch.  
This Country in respect of England is very barren and mountainous, and the Inhabitants, especially the vulgar sort, far more rude and barbarous: their language in effect is all one with the English, the Northern Scots excepted, which speak and live after the Irish fashion, nor is their any difference in their religion, but all causes and controversies be there determined by the civil law, as in most other Countries, for with our common laws of England they are little acquainted.  
Wales an other part of this Island, and the proper habitation of the Britan's, expelled thither out of England by the Englishmen, was governed by Princes of their own blood until the reign of Henry the third, who slew Lhewellen ap Griffith, the last Prince of the British race, united that Province unto the Kingdom of England, and forced the Inhabitants to swear fealty and allegiance unto Edward of Carnarvan his eldest son, whom he made Prince of Wales: After the decease of Edward the first, this title of Prince of Wales lay dormant during all the reign of Edward the Second, and was again revived by Edward the Third, who created his son Edward surnamed the Black Prince, Duke of Cornwall, Earl of Chester and Prince of Wales, and ever since hath this title been duly conferred unto the eldest sons of the Kings of England, for the time being, and now lastly, and but lately by our dread sovereign Lord King james, unto Henry Frederick his eldest son, the hopeful issue of a happy father, borne certes (as evidently appeareth in his minority) to be a perfect mirror of chivalry, for the advancement of our country and common wealth, and the subversion of his enemies.  
The Inhabitants of Wales, though they be much improved, yet do they not equal the English in civility, nor their soil in fertility: Their whole Country consisteth of twelve shires (that is to say) Anglesea, Brecknock, Cardigan, Carmarden, Carnarvan, Denbigh, Flint, Glamorgan, Merionneth, Mongomerry, Pembroke, and Radnor-shire, and four bishops Seas (to wit) the Bishopric of Saint David's, the Bishopric of Landaffe, the Bishopric of Bangor, and the Bishopric of Saint Asaphe. They have a language peculiar to themselves, yet do they live under the self same laws the Englishmen do, but for because that part of the Island is far remote from London, the King's seat and chief tribunal of judgement, where the laws are executed and pleas heard for all the Realm, and by reason of their different language, the King by his commission maketh one of his nobles his deputy or lieutenant under him, to rule in those parts and to see the peace maintained, and justice ministered indifferently unto all. This governor is called the Lord precedent of Wales, who for the ease and good of the country, associate with one judge and divers justices, holdeth there his Terms and Sessions for the hearing and determining of causes within Wales and the Marches. This Court is called the Court of the council of the Marches of Wales, the proceedings whereof are in a mixed manner betwixt our common law, and civil law.  
England, accounting Cornwall for one, though much differing in language, is divided into 41. parts, which are called counties or shires, the several names whereof are these following, viz.  

Berck-shire.  
Bedford-shire.  
Buckingham-shire.  
Bishopric of Durham.  
Cambridge-shire.  
Cornwall.  
Cumberland.  
Cheshire.  
Devon-shire.  
Dorcetshire.  
Derbyshire.  
Essex.  
Gloucestershire.  
Huntingdon-shire.  
Hertford-shire.  
Herefordshire.  
Hamptshire.  
Kent.  
Lincolne-shire.  
Lecester-shire.  
Lancaster-shire.  
Middlesex.  
Monmoth-shire.  
Northumberland-shire.  
Norfolk.  
Northamptonshire.  
Nottinghamshire.  
Oxfordshire.  
Rutland-shire.  
Richmondshire.  
Sussex.  
Surrey.  
Suffolk.  
Somerset-shire.  
Staffordshire.  
Shrop-shire.  
Wiltshire.  
Westmore-land.  
Worcester-shire.  
Warwickshire.  
Yorkshire.   
Every shire is divided either into Hundreds, Laths, Rapes, or Wapentakes, and every of those into sundry parishes, and Constable-weekes, and over every shire is one principal governor, called the Lieutenant of the shire, and a Sheriff to collect money due unto the King, and to account for the same in the Exchequer; as also to execute his writs and processes: and for the more particular peace of each several part of the country, there be ordained in every County, certain of the worthiest and wisest sort of Gentlemen, who are called justices or conservators of the peace; under whom high Constables, Coroners, petty constables, headboroughs, and tything-men have every one their several offices.  
England moreover, is divided into two ecclesiastical provinces, which are governed by two spiritual persons called Archb. to wit, the Archb. of Canterbury, (who is primate and Metrapolitan of all England,) and the Archb. of York, and under these two Archb. are 26. Bishops, that is to say, 22. under the Archb. of Canterbury, and 4. under the Archbishop of York.  

In the Province of Canterbury are these Dioceses bounded as followeth.  
1 & 2 The Dioceses of Canterbury and Rochester, which have under them all the County of Kent:  
3 The Diocese of London, which hath Essex, Middlesex, and a part of Hartford shire.  
4 The Diocese of Chitchester, which hath Sussex.  
5 The Diocese of Winchester, which hath Hamptshire, Surrey, and the Isles of Wight, Gernsie and jersey.  
6 The Diocese of Salisbury, which hath Wiltshire and Berkshire.  
7 The Diocese of Excester, which hath Devonshire and Cornwall.  
8 The Diocese of Bath and Wells, which hath Somerset shire only.  
9 The Diocese of Gloucester, which hath Glocestershire.  
10 The Diocese of Worcester, which hath Worcester shire, and a part of Warwick shire.  
11 The Diocese of Hereford, which hath Herefordshire, and a part of Shropshire.  
12 The Diocese of Coventrie and Lichfield, which hath Staffordshire, Derbyshire, and the rest of Warwickshire, with some part of Shropshire.  
13 The Diocese of Lincoln, which hath Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, Huntingtonshire, Bedfordshire, Buckinghamshire, and the rest of Hartfordshire.  
14 The Diocese of Ely, which hath Cambridgeshire, and the I'll of Ely.  
15 The Diocese of Norwich, which hath Norfolk and Suffolk.  
16 The Diocese of Oxford, which hath Oxfordshire.  
17 The Diocese of Peterborow, which hath Northamptonshire and Rutlandshire,  
18 The Diocese of Bristol, which hath Dorcetshire.   

And to these are added the four Bishopprickeses of WALES. viz.  
19 The Bishop of S. David's.  
20 The Bishop of Landaffe.  
21 The Bishop of Bangor.  
22 The Bishop of S. Asaph.   

In the Province of York are these four Dioceses comprehended within these limits following. viz.  
1 The Diocese of York, which hath Yorkshire, and Nottinghamshire.  
2 The Diocese of Westchester, which hath Chesshire, Richmondshire, a part of Flintshire, and Denbighshire in Wales.  
3 The Diocese of Duresme, which hath the Bishopric of Duresme and Northumberland.  
4 The Diocese of Carlisle, which hath Cumberland, and Westmoreland.   
And to these are added the Bishopric of Sodor in the I'll Mona.  
The whole number of Parish Churches, and impropriations in all these several Dioceses are reckoned about 131209.  
Having thus divided the whole kingdom of England into shires and Bishops seas; it resteth, to say something of the Cities and Corporations, whereof there be so many, and that so goodly and so well governed, by sundry Orders of Officers, as I think but few countries in Christendom go beyond it: of all which, London the Metrapolitan city of the Island, is most famous, both for the great concourse of strangers, that continually flock thither from all parts of the world: some for merchandise, some for manners: as also for the conveniency of the place, being situated upon the famous river of Thames, beautified with rare & sumptuous buildings, both of Prince and Peers: (who for the most part keep their resiance in or near unto the same, as being the only place of Parliament, and holding of pleas for the whole Realm.) And for the great multitude of Students and practitioners in the laws, which there keep their Terms of pleading four times in the year, which set together, is about one quarter, during which time the judges and all other Courts keep their Courts and Sessions, and at other times is vacation and ceasing from execution of the laws: These judges, Sergeants, and other Students and practitioners of all sorts have their lodgings, and diets in 14. several houses, whereof two are only for judges and Sergeants, and are therefore called the Sergeant's Inns: the next four are the four famous houses of Inns of Court, the only receptacle of Gentlemen, students and Councillors, & the other eight be inferior houses to the Inns of Court, furnished with Attorneys, Solicitors, and young Gentlemen and Clerks, that are to live and study there for a space as probationers, before they be thought fit to be admitted to the Inns of Court, which eight houses be called the Inns of Chancery.  
This city and suburbs is divided into six and twenty wards, and about an hundred and twenty Parishes: The chiefest Magistrate there under the King, is the Lord Maior, under whom are divers inferior Officers over every several company and ward, who do all of them attend the Mayor when he takes his oath in such seemly manner, as he that beholds their stately Pageants and devices, their passage by water to Westminster and back again: their going to Paul's, the infinite number of attendants of Aldermen, and all sorts of people: their rare and costly banquets, and all their form of government, surely I suppose, he will hold opinion, that no city of the world hath the like.  
This superficial commendation of this renowned city of London shall suffice for all: and therefore I will pass over the rest in silence, for that there is no one thing worthy memory in any city or town of the whole Realm, that the like or better is not to be found in the city of London: the Universities only excepted, which are the nurse-gardens, and Seminaries of all good arts and sciences. And of these there be two, Oxford and Cambridge, which consisting of sundry Colleges and Hals erected and founded by godly and devout founders and benefactors, and endowed with large rents, and revenues, for the maintenance of poor scholars, who are there maintained, and instructed in learning of all sorts: and being next unto London, the two Worthies of our kingdom; and in truth the most famous Universities in Christendom. I think it not amiss (omitting to speak any thing of the citizens and townsmen, or the divided government betwixt them & the Universities) to recite in particular the names of the Colleges and Hals in both Universities, their founders & benefactors, and the times of their several foundations.  
First therefore of Oxford, (without addition of superiority, for that (as the Proverb is) As proud goes behind as before:) there be contained in that University, (besides nine hals, viz. Gloucester hall, Broad-gate, S. Marry hall, Albaine hall, White hall, New Inn, Edmund hall, Hart hall, and Magdalin hall; which differ from the Colleges, for that the Colleges have lands to maintain their Societies, which the hals in Oxford do want; and therefore though all scholarlike exercises be there practised as well as in the Colleges, yet in respect of the want of maintenance they do in part resemble the Ins in court) sixteen Colleges, that is to say:  

1 University College founded by Alured king of the Saxons, in the year of our Lord, 872.  
2 Baylyoll College founded by john Baylyoll, king of the Scots, in the year of our Lord, 1263.  
3 Martin College, founded by Walter Martin, bish. of Rochester, in the year of our Lord, 1273.  
4 Excester College, and heart hall founded by Staphel●n bishop of Excester, in the year of our Lord, 1316. which said College was much augmented by Sir William Peter, Secretary to king Henry the eight, in the year of our Lord, 1566.  
5 Oriall College, founded by Adam Browne, brought up in the University of Oxford by king Edward the second, in the year of our Lord, 1323.  
6 Queen's College, founded by Robert Eglesfield, chaplain to Philippe, king Edward the thirds wife, in the year of our Lord, 1349.  
7 New College, founded by William Wicham bishop of Winchester, in the year of our Lord, 1375.  
8 Lincoln College, founded by Richard Fleming, Bishop of Lincoln, and increased by Thomas Rotheram, Bishop of the same Diocese, in the year of our Lord, 1420.  
9 All Souls College, founded by Henry Chechelsey, Archbishop of Canterbury, in the year of our Lord, 1437.  
10 Magdalin College, and Magdalin Hall, founded by William Wainflet, Bishop of Winchester, and Chancellor of England, in the year of our Lord, 1456.  
11 Brazen-nose College, founded by William Smith, Bishop of Lincoln, in the year of our Lord, 1513 and lately increased by Doctor Nowell, Deane of Paul's.  
12 Corpus Christi College, founded by Richard Fox Bishop of Winchester, in the year of our Lord, 1516.  
13 Christ's Church, founded by Cardinal Wolsey, in the year of our Lord, 1526. and endowed with lands by king Henry the eight.  
14 S. john's College, founded by Sir Thomas White, Maior of London, in the year of our Lord, 1557.  
15 Trinity College, founded by Sir Thomas Pope Knight, in the year of our Lord, 1566.  
16 jesus College, founded by Hugh Price, Doctor of the civil Law.   
There is another College now in building, the foundation whereof is already laid by M. Waddam of Merryfield in Somersetshire.  
CAmbridge was first a common school, founded by Sigebert, king of the East English, in the year of our Lord God, 637. since which time it hath been so increased and augmented, that at this day it is equal to Oxford: it consisteth (reckoning Michael house, and King's hall for two, which have been since added to Trinity College) of eighteen halls & Colleges, the Halls having lands belonging to them as well as the Colleges: for there is no difference there betwixt halls and Colleges, but in name only, saving that the Colleges have more lands then the Hals, and therefore maintain more Scholars than the hals do: the names of the houses, and by whom and when they were founded and augmented, is as followeth:  

1 Peter-house, founded by Hugh Bishop of Ely, in the year of our Lord, 1280.  
2 Michael house, founded by Sir Henry Stanton Knight, one of the judges of the common Bench, in the year of our Lord, 1324.  
3 Trinity hall, founded by William Bateman, in the year of our Lord, 1354.  
4 Corpus Christi College, founded by john of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, in the year of our Lord God, 1344.  
5 Clare hall, was first called Scholar hall, and afterwards the University hall, and being burnt with fire, was afterwards re-edified by Elizabeth, daughter of Gilbert Clare, Earl of Leicester, in the year of our Lord God, 1326. and by her called Clare hall.  
6 Pembroke hall founded by Mary Countess of Pembroke, in the year of our Lord, 1343.  
7 King's hall, repaired by king Edward the third, in the year of our Lord, 1376.  
8 King's College, founded by king Henry the sixth, in the year of our Lord, 1441.  
9 Queen's College, founded by Margaret wife to king Henry the sixth, and finished by Elizabeth, wife to K. Edward the fourth, in the year of our Lord God, 1448.  
10 Katherine hall, founded by Doctor Woodlabe Provost of King's College in Cambridge, in the year of our Lord, 1459.  
11 jesus College, founded by john Alcocke, Bishop of Ely, in the year of our Lord, 1504  
12 Christ's College, founded by Queen Margaret, Grandmother to King Henry the eight.  
13 Saint john's College, founded by the said Queen Margaret, in the year of our Lord God, 1506.  
14 Magdalin College, founded by the Lord Audley, in the year of our Lord, 1509. and enlarged by Sir Christopher Wrey, Lord chief justice of England.  
15 Trinity College founded by k. Henry the 8. for the enlarging whereof he added thereunto Michael house and King's hall, and made thereof one College in the year of our Lord, 1546. so as now the names of Michael house, and king's hall is almost worn out of memory.  
16 Gonvel and Caius College, first founded by one Gonvell, about the year of our Lord, 1348. and perfected by john Caius Doctor of Physic, and by him called Gonuell and Caius College, in the year of our Lord, 1557.  
17 Emanuel College, founded by Sir Walter Mildmay, in the year of our Lord, 1588.  
18 Sidney-Sussex College, founded by Francis Sidney, Countess of Sussex, for the erecting whereof she bequeathed at her death five thousand pounds, it was begun in the year of our Lord, 1597.   
Now having thus far spoken of the Country in particular, it resteth to say something with like brevity of the several sorts of people that inhabit the same, their proceedings in courses of law, as well spiritual as temporal, and their several Courts. The whole number of English men may therefore be divided into these four ranks or degrees of people, that is to say, Gentlemen or Noblemen, Citizens, Yeomen, and artificers or labourers.  
Of Gentlemen or Nobility there be two sorts, to wit, the king himself, the Prince, Dukes, Marquesses, Earls, viscounts and Barons. And this sort of Gentlemen are called Nobilitas maior, and the second sort of Gentlemen or Nobility, which are also called nobilitas minor, consisteth of Knights, Esquires, and private Gentlemen, into which rank of gentry are added Students of the laws and scholars in the Universities: next unto the Gentry are citizens whose fame and authority (for the most part) extendeth no further than their own cities and boroughs wherein they live, and bear rule, saving that some few of them have voices in our high Senate of Parliament: The third order or degree are the yeomanry, which are men that live in the country upon competent livings of their own, have servants to do their business for them, serve upon juries and Inquests, and have generally more employment in the government of the commonwealth, than citizens have. And the last and lowest sort of our people are artificers or labourers, which though they be rude and base in respect of our gentry, yet are they much improoved and bettered by conversing with Gentlemen, citizens, and yeomen: so as if those authors were now living, that have written so contemptuously of all estates of our people under the degree of gentry, and saw the civility now generally practised amongst most of us, they would not for some few of the rascality, censure and condemn all as base and ignoble.  
All these several sorts and degrees of people in our kingdom, may more briefly be divided into two Orders or ranks, that is to say, the Nobility and the Commons: under the title of Nobility are comprehended all the Nobilitas maior, together with the Bishops that have place in the upper house of Parliament: and by the commons are meant the nobilitas minor, citizens, yeomen, and labourers, who by common consent elect from amongst them Knights and Burgesses to possess the lower house of Parliament, who have their voices there in the name of the whole multitude of commons, for the making and establishing of laws, ordonances, and statutes.  
The Parliament therefore is the highest & most absolute Sessions or judicial Senate in the whole kingdom, consisting of the King himself: and the Lords spiritual and temporal in their own persons, which is the higher house, and the whole body of the commons represented by the Knights and Burgesses lawfully elected, and those are called the lower house.  
In this high Court of Parliament are such new laws made and ordained, and such old statutes abrogated and annihilated in part or in all, as are agre●● upon by consent of both houses, and confirmed by the King, so as whatsoever is there decreed and constituted, is inviolably to be observed, as established by the general assembly of the whole kingdom.  
There be three manner of ways by one custom of England, whereby definitive judgements are given, by act of Parliament, by battle, and by great assize. The manner of giving judgement in the Parliament in matters depending betwixt Prince and subject, or party and party, concerning lands and inheritances, is by preferring of bills into the houses of Parliament, and by the allowance or disallowance thereof: but such bills are seldom received, for that the Parliament is chiefly summoned and assembled, for the settling and establishing of matters for the good of the King and commonwealth, & not to busy themselves in private quarrels.  
The trial by battle likewise, though it be not utterly abrogated, and altogether annihilated, yet is it quite grown out of use at this day.  
So as the most usual manner of judgement, is by the verdict of twelve men, lawfully impaneled and sworn to give a true verdict concerning the matter in question, be it for life or land, or any thing tending to the hurt or good of any subject whatsoever.  
These twelve men ought to be Legales homines, as we term them, that is, men of good quality, fame, and ability, and they are to give their verdict according to their evidence, before a lawful judge, in their Sessions, at terms and times usually appointed for those purposes. And for that there be many suits of divers natures, therefore be the trials thereof in divers courts and before divers judges, whereof the chiefest bench or tribunal seat of judgement is the King's bench; so called, for that the Kings of England have sat there themselves in person, and this Court is chiefly for pleas of the Crown, the judges whereof be called justices of the King's bench, and they be commonly four or five in number, whereof one is head, and therefore called the Lord chief justice of the King's bench, and by that place he is also Lord Chief justice of England.  
Next unto the King's bench, is the Court of Common pleas, which is for all matters touching lands and contracts betwixt party and party: and of this Court be likewise four or five judges, the chiefest whereof is called the Lord chief justice of the Common-pleas, and this court may well be called the Common-pleas, as being the chiefest place for the exercise of the Common law. And there may none plead at the Common pleas bar, but Sergegeants at the law only; whereas in all other Courts, councillors that be called to the bar may plead their Clients causes, as well as Sergeants.  
The third Court for practise of the common law, is the Exchequer, where all causes are heard that belong to the King's Treasury. The judges of this Court are the Lord high Treasurer of England, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the Lord chief Baron, and three or four other Barons, which be called Barons of the Exchequer.  
Besides these three Courts of the common law, and the court of the Council for the Marches of Wales, whereof I have spoken before, there is a Court for the North part of England, which is likewise called the Council, having a Precedent, justices and assistants, as in the Council of Wales, and the same form of proceeding. And for the more ease and quiet of the subject, the King by his commission sendeth the judges and Barons of the Exchequer, twice a year into every several County of the country, as well to see the laws executed against malefactors, as for the trial and determining of causes depending betwixt party and party.  
These two Sessions are usually called the Assizes or Goal delivery, and their manner of proceedings, is by jurors who are to give their verdicts according to evidence.  
And for because the time of these judges commission, is over short to determine all matters, that may arise in half a year, the justices of peace in their several Counties, have their Sessions likewise, which be kept four times in the year, and be therefore called the quarter Sessions; in which Sessions are heard and determined all petty causes, for the more ease of the judges in their circuits.  
And for the better maintenance of peace in every part of the Realm, there be divers other petty Courts, as county Courts, hundred Courts, town Courts, Leets, Court Barons, and such like: all which hold plea according to the course of the common law.  
Next unto these Courts of common law is the Court of star-chamber, which is the court of the king's Council: & therein sit as judges the L. Chancellor as chief, the L. Treasurer, and the rest of the privy Council both spiritual and temporal, together with the chief justices of both benches. And in this court be censured all criminal causes, as perjury, forgery, cozenage, riots, maintenance, and such like. The court of Wards and Liveries is next, which is a court of no long continuance, being first ordained by Henry the 8. the matters that are determinable in that court, are as touching wards and wardships: and the judges are the Master of the wards and liveries, the Attorney of the court of wards, and other officers and assistants.  
Then is there the Admiral's court, which is only for punishment of misdemeanours done at sea, the judges of which court be the Lord high Admiral of England, and a judge, with other officers.  
The Duchy court, which is a court for the determining of matters depending within the Duchy of Lancaster, wherein be judges, the Chancellor of the Duchy, and the Attorney.  
And a late erected court called the court of the Queen's revenues, for the deciding of controversies amongst the Queen's tenants.  
Next unto these, are the courts of Equity, which are, the Chancery, and the court of Requests. The court of Chancery, which is commonly called the court of conscience, is chiefly for the mitigation of the rigour of the common law, wherein the Lord high Chancellor of England is chiefest judge and moderator, to whom are joined as assistants, the M. of the Rolls, and certain grave Doctors of the civil law, which are usually called Masters of the Chancery.  
The court of Requests is much like to the Chancery, and is chiefly for the king's servants: the judges whereof, are the Masters of Requests, which be always reverent men, and well seen in the civil law: and one of them is ever attendant on the King to receive supplications, and to answer them according to the King's pleasure.  
Having thus passed over the several courts of common law, the courts of Equity, and those which are of a mixed nature, betwixt the common & civil law, I will only name the spiritual courts, the chiefest whereof are these:  
The first and most principal, is the convocation of the Clergy, which is a Synod of the chiefest of the Clergy of the whole Realm, held only in Parliament time, in a place called the Convocation house, where cannons are ordained for church-government. And this court may be called a general Council: next unto which are the particular Synods of both Provinces, Canterbury and York, and are called provincial Synods. Then is there the Archb. of Canterbury's court, called the Arches: the court of Audience: the Prerogative court: the court of Faculties: & the court of Peculiars; with many other courts in each several Diocese. In all which courts, what matters are there handled, their judges and assistants, and all their whole manner of proceedings, I leave to the report of such, as are better acquainted in those courts.  
And thus much may suffice for the present estate of our country, as it is now in the ninth year of the reign of our dread Sovereign Lord, K. james the first, whom God grant long to rule and reign over us.  

OF IRELAND.  
HIBERNIA, an Island bordering upon Britain on the North and West side, and much about half as big as Britain, was so called (according to some) ab hyberno tempore, that is to say, of the winter season. The ground there is so exceeding rank, and the grass so pleasant and delicious withal, that their beasts in Summer time will kill themselves with feeding and supersluosly grazing, if they be not driven from pasture some part of the day.  
This Island breedeth neither spider nor toad, nor any other venomous or infectious creature, nor will any live that are brought thither out of other Countries, but die instantly as soon as they do but touch this Country's soil.  
Bees there be none, the air is very temperate and the earth fruitful, and yet be the people exceeding barbarous, uncivil, and cruel. For those which prove vanquishers in their battles, swill and drink up the blood of their slain enemies, and then defile and gore their own faces with it, And whether they do right or wrong, it is all one unto them.  
When a woman is delivered of a male child, the first meat she giveth him, she putteth into his mouth with her husband's sword point, signifying by that manner of feeding, (and also praying after her country fashion) that the child may die no other death, but in the field amongst his enemies. Their greatest gallants adorn the hilts and pummels of their swords, with beasts teeth, which be as white as ivory, and brought thither out of other countries. And their chiefest delight and greatest glory is to be soldiers.  
Those which inhabit the hilly and mountainous part of the country, live upon milk and apples, and are more given to hunting and sporting, then to husbandry. The Sea betwixt England and Ireland is very raging, unquiet, and troublesome all the year long, and (but in summer) hardly navigable: Yet do they sail over it in boats or whirries made of Ozier twigs, and covered with Ox hides or buff skins: they abstain from meat all the while they are upon the seas. And this sea (according to the opinion of the best writers) is in breadth one hundred and twenty English miles. The inhabitants of the I'll of Sillura, retain 
Syllura.  as yet their old customs and course of life, money they have none, nor no marketting, but give and take one of an other, furnishing themselves rather by exchanging one thing for an other, then by buying and selling: They believe in the gods, and aswell women as men, be very skilful in predictions and soothsaying.  
Those which possess the Isles called Eubudes (whereof there be five) live altogether on milk and fish, not caring 
The Jsles called Eubudes.  for corn nor any kind of fruits. These Islands are separated one from an other only by a little river, and are all under the government of one King, who possesseth nothing in private to himself, but occupieth all in common with his subjects.  
Their laws enforce him to equity and right, and least covetousness should divert him from truth, he learneth justice through poverty, as being maintained at the public charge, without having any thing proper to himself, no not so much as a wife, in so much as enjoying the company of women by turns with his subjects, he is utterly deprived of all hope of issue, that he may justly say are his own.  
The utmost Island in the British seas is Thyle, wherein, in the Summer solstice, when the Sun is in Cancer, 
The Island called Thyle now called Island.  there is almost no night, and as little day in the winter solstice: The Inhabitants in the beginning of the spring live amongst their cat-tail with herbs and milk, and in winter with fruits of trees, for the Island yieldeth great store of apples: They have certain marriages, but enjoy their women in common like the Inhabitants of the Eubudes.  
There be other Islands also in the Mediterranean sea towards the West, which of the greeks be called Gymnesiae, because the people thereof go naked, but of the 
The Gymnesiae or Baleares.  Romans, and by the Inhabitants themselves, they are called Baleares, of slinging or casting of stones, because they be more expert in that excercise, than any other people. The biggest of these Islands, is the greatest Island that is excepting seven, which are Sicilia, Sardinia, Creta, Eubaea, Cyprus, Corsica and Lesbos: It is distant from Iberia now called Spain one days sailing.  
The lesser of them lieth more Eastward, and aboundeth with all kind of cat-tail, and especially mules, which be greater than other country mules, and will bray louder: both of these Islands are fertile and fruitful, and well replenished with people. They be very greedy of wine (whereof their country yieldeth none) and in steed of oil (which is also wanting) they anoint their bodies with swine's grease, and mastic mingled together. Women there are in far more estimation than men, in so much as if a woman be taken prisoner, they will ransom her with three or four men.  
Their dwellings are in hollow caves, made in steep rocks, which are their only covering and defence for their bodies: And they are so far out of love with gold and silver, as they forbid it to be brought into their Island, supposing that by wanting money, they are in security from all plots of treason: And therefore at such time as they served in the Carthaginian wars, they brought home nothing with them, but wine and women, which they bought with the money they received for pay. Their manner of marriages are both strange and prodigious, for all the bride's family and friends that are present at the nuptials, lie with her one after an other according to their age, and the bridegroom last of all: the form of burials also is proper to themselves, and different from all other people, for they dismember and cut the dead body into small pieces, and put them into a vessel and so cover the vessel with stones.  
Their weapons are every one a sling, and there budgets to put stones in, the one he hangeth about his neck, an other he guirdeth about his waste, and the third he carrieth in his hand, their stones are bigger than other men are well able to throw, and yet will throw them so strongly that they fly with such violence as if they were shot out of a pecce: And with these stones when they assault any city, will they wound and kill their enemies that guard and defend the walls and bulwarks of the city, and bre●● their shields and helmets, and all other kind of armour: and they will level so rightly, as they will very seldom miss the mark they aim at, for they be trained up in this kind of excercise from their childhood, and thereunto constrained by their mothers, who will set a piece of bread upon a stake for them to throw at, and give them nothing to eat, before they have struck the bread off the stake with a stone.  
Now having entered into the relation of Islands, opportunity is offered to speak somewhat of a new found Island situated in the South part of the Ocean sea, and 
Of the Island found out by jambolus.  of the strange things that are reported to be in that Island, as also of the cause and manner of the finding thereof, which was thus.  
One jambolus being in his youth trained up as a scholar, after the death of his father (who was a merchant) betook himself to merchandise, and sailing into Arabia for spices, he with all his partners were surprised and taken by Pirates and Robbers, and one of his fellows and himself being by those thieves set into the fields to keep sheep, were afterwards found and taken away by certain maritine Aethiopians, and by them carried over into Aethiopia, where (for because they were strangers) they were assigned to be a sacrifice and expiation to the gods of that Country, for those Aethiopians which lived upon the sea coast, had an ancient custom of six hundred years continuance, which they received by Oracle from their gods, to expiate and make satisfaction to their gods with two men: the manner whereof was this: They had a little bark or boat, provided for that purpose, that was able to brook the seas, and which two men were able to govern: and into this vessel they put jambolus and his companion, and victuals for six months; commanding them that (according to their Oracle) they should direct their ship and sail South ward, and that then they should attain to a fortunate Island, the people whereof were marvelous courteous and civil & flourished in great felicity: Into which Island if they arrived in safety, their own Country should for six hundred years after enjoy perfect peace and happiness: But if (through the terror or tediousness of the seas) they diverted their course, that then (as impious and wicked varlets) they were causers of great calamities that should fall upon their region.  
This done and the boat launched out, those maritine Aethiopians are said to keep that day holy, and to do sacrifice to the seas, praying for their good success, and that their expiation, may take good effect: When jambolus and his companion were thus committed to the mercy of the sea, and had been long tossed in storms and tempests, after four months sailing, they arrived into an Island in form round, and in compass about five thousand stadia, into which when they were entered, some of the Inhabitants came to meet them, and some others running towards them (being greatly amazed, and wondering at the coming of strangers into their Island) received them very courteously, and bountifully offered them such things as their country afforded.  
The Inhabitants of that Island, are nothing like to us, either in stature or manners, for though they carry the same proportion of body and members, yet be they far taller than we are, the most of them being above four cubit's high, and notwithstanding their exceeding height, their bones be not solid like ours, but flexible like nerves or sinews, by which means they exceed us in agility and nimbleness of body, and they are so strong with all, as what ever they grasp with their hands can hardly be wrested from them. They be a very beautiful, comely and well featured people, and their skins so smooth and so slike, as you can hardly perceive any wrinkle or hair upon any part of their bodies.  
The hollowness of their ears is much wider than ours, and their tongues as far different, for nature (assisted with their ingenious wits and dispositions) hath endued them with this extraordinary privilege, that their tongues are naturally so cleft and divided from the root to the tip, as they seem to have every one two tongues, by which means they do not only speak a humane and intelligible voice, but they can truly imitate the chirping and singing of divers birds likewise, and that which is more strange, they will talk and confer with two several persons, of several matters, at one and the self same time, the one part of the tongue speaking and giving answer unto one, and the other part to the other: The air is there very pure and wholesome all the year long (according to the saying of the poet, that apples, pears and grapes will rot and corrupt upon the trees and vines) and the days and nights are ever of an equal length, and when the Sun is directly over their heads, there is no shadow of any thing towards the South.  
All the people of one stock or kindred live together, so as they exceed not the number of four hundred: their chiefest abode is in the fields, for the earth naturally produceth great store of fruits, without tillage or travel, in so much as through the virtue and quality of the Island, and temperature of the air, they have more than they are able to spend.  
There be a kind of reeds growing in that Island, which bear great store of fruit like unto white vetches, the fruit of these reeds they gather and sprinkle with warm water, and then every grain will be as big as a doves egg, which they afterwards grind or beat into meal, and make thereof a kind of bread, which in taste is most pleasant and delicious.  
There be many great springs, and fountains of water, whereof some be hot and serve for baths, and to cure diseases, and some cold, and withal marvelous sweet and very physical likewise.  
They be a people very industrious and greedy of learning, and especially of Astrology: Their letters which they use in sense and signification, are eight and twenty, but their carecters are but seven in number; for every caractar hath four several significations or interpretations, and they write not from the left hand towards the right, as we do, but begin at the top and write downwards.  
They be very long of life, the most of them living the full age of a hundred and fifty years, and (for the most 
They have a time prefixed how long to live.  part) without any sickness at all: and if any hap to fall either into an ague or any other infirmity of body, they are compelled by their law to die forthwith: They are also appointed how long they shall live, which age when they have accomplished, they willingly procure their own deaths, some by one means and some by an other: There is an herb in that country, upon which if any one lay his body, he falleth into a sweet and delectable 
An admirable herb.  slumber, and in that sheep departeth his life without pain.  
Marriages they have none, but women be there common to all, & children equally loved of all and brought up in common amongst all, so as no man can say, this is my wife, or this is my child: yet oftentimes they take the children from their nurses, least mothers should afterwards reknowledge their own sons: through which community it happeneth that (being void of ambition and affectation, or curious desire of that which nature denieth them) they live quietly, and peaceably without sedition or dissension. There be also in that Island certain beasts, which though they be little of body, yet in respect 
A rare beast.  of their nature and virtue of their blood, they be most rare and admirab, they be of a round body like unto a Tortoise or Seacrable, and have two lines crossing their middle, upon every end whereof standeth an ear and an eye, so as they hear with four ears and see with four eyes, and yet have but one belly or paunch that receiveth their meat, and round about their body grow many feet, with which they can go backward and forward at their pleasure, the blood of this beast is said to be of a marvelous strange efficacy, for if a body be cut and mangled into pieces (so as it appear to have life in it): & be anointed with the blood of this beast, every part will instantly grow to other, and the body will be whole again.  
Every family or company that live together, do likewise breed and nourish up great birds of a diverse nature, and by those birds they make trial how their children will prove afterwards, for they set them when they be very young upon the backs of the birds, and if they sit fast when the birds biginne to flutter and fly, without fear of falling, those children they bring up, but if they show themselves dastardly and timorous, they are rejected and thrust away, and suffered to live no longer, as being unprofitable for any excercise of the mind: And the eldest of every kindred or company that so live together is Lord, and commander over the rest, to whom they yield obedience, as to their King, and when he accomplisheth the age of an hundred and fifty years, he depriveth himself of life (for so their law commands) and he that is next unto him in age taketh the government upon him: The sea that encloseth the Island is very boisterous & rugged, yet is the water most pleasant & delightsome in taste, the North pole and many other stars which are seen in our Horizon appear not in theirs.  
There be other seven Islands of like quantity, and of like distance one from an other, and endued with like 
Seven other Jslands.  manners and laws as this is: The Inhabitants of these islands use the fruits of the earth (which she bountifully affordeth of her own accord) very sparingly, for their diet is simple, and they covet for nothing but to suffice nature, they eat flesh sometimes boiled and sometimes broiled, and dress their meat themselves, rejecting the Art of Cookery, and all seasoning of their meats with salt or spices, as frivolous and unnecessary. They worship the Firmament, the Sun, and the rest of the celestial bodies, they catch diverse sorts of fishes and birds, and they have great store of olive trees and Vines, which naturally hold their increase, so as they have Olives and Grapes in abundance, without travel or cost.  
These islands also produce serpents that be great ones, but nothing hurtful, the flesh whereof is marvelous sweet and delicious. Their garments are of a sine white Cotton or Downe, which groweth in the middle of Reeds, which being died with the juice of these sea fishes that coloureth purple: they make themselves purple garments thereof. There be also diverse sorts of living creatures of strange and almost incredible natures: They observe a certain order and strict course in their diet, eating but only one kind of meat upon one day, for some day they eat fishes, an other day fowls, an other flesh of beasts, and sometimes Oil, and the table where they eat their meat is very mean and simple.  
They be addicted to diverse exercises, for some serve and are served in course, some are employed in fishing, some in fowling, some in sundry Arts and manual occupations, and all of them in general are busied in some one thing or other that redoundeth to their common good.  
In their sacred ceremonies, and upon holy days, they sing lawdes and hymns in honour of their gods, and especially of the Sun, to whom they dedicate themselves and their Islands.  
They bury their dead bodies upon the sea coast, covering the carcase with sand, that by the flowing and inundation of the waters, there may be a great heap of sand in the place where the corpses are buried.  
The canes whereof they eat the fruit (as they say) do increase and decrease according to the disposition of the Moon: The water of their fountains is both sweet and wholesome, always hot, unless it be mingled either with wine or cold water.  
When jambolus and his companion had lived in that Island seven years, they were forced to depart, for the Islanders held them to be evil livers, and of bad behaviour and conversation, and therefore providing their ship ready, and victualling her, they set forward on their journey, though fore against their wills, and at the four months' end they came to the King of India, by whom they were afterwards safely conducted through Persia, and brought into Greece.    

Of the Island called Taprobane and of the manners of the Inhabitants. CAP. 26.  
TAPROBANE before man's venterousnesse (by exquisite, searching into 
Of Taprobane.  every creak and corner of the sea) had truly and thoroughly discovered it, was held to be (as it were) an other world, & that wherein the Antipodes were supposed to dwell: But Alexander the great, by his prowess and valour, removed the ignorance of this common error, which did much augment and increase the glory of his name: for Onesicritus the praefect of his navy, being by him sent to search out what manner of land it was, what commodities it yielded, and how and by whom it was inhabited, made it most apparent and manifest unto us.  
The length of the Island is seven thousand stadia, and five thousand in breadth, and it hath a river running through the middle of it, that divideth it into two parts: Some part of this Island is wholly replenished with beasts, and Elephants, which be far bigger than India breedeth any, and some part of it is well peopled: There be great store of Pearls and precious stones of diverse kinds: It is situated East and West, and beginneth at the sea called fretum Indioe: from Prasla a country in India into Taprobane, at the first discovery thereof, was the space of 25. days sailing, but it was with such boats as the river of Nilus carried, that were made of reeds, for at this day with our ships it is not above seven days sail.  
The sea that divideth the Island in twain, in many places is very shallow, being not above seven foot deep, but in some other places again, the channel is so exceeding deep that no anchor can reach the bottom: In sailing they observe not the course of the stars, for the North pole and the seven stars do never appear to their view, and the Moon is no longer seen in their Horizon, but from the sixth day after his change to the sixteenth, but the clear and radiant star called Canopus shineth there very bright, and the Sun riseth upon their right hands and setteth upon their left. With coin they were altogether unacquainted, until the reign of the Emperor Claudius, and it is reported that they were greatly amazed at the sight of money, because it was stamped with sundry figures and similitudes, and yet in weight and substance was all one: In stature and bigness of body, they exceed all other men, of what nation so ever.  
They die and colour their hair brown, their heirs be grey or blue, their visage grim and stern, and their voice harsh and terrible. Those which die an untimely death, live commonly till they be a hundred year old, but those which spend out the full course of nature, live till they be marvelous old, far exceeding man's ordinary frailty: They never sleep in the day time, and but part of the night neither, for they ris● exceeding early: Their buildings be mean and low, and their victuals always alike, they have great store of Apples, but no Vines.  
They honour Hercules as their God. Their Kings are elected as well by the voices of the commons, as by the nobility, for the people's care is to choose one of great clemency, and unprooveable manners, and such a one as is well stricken in years, and withal that hath no children, for he which is a father, is not there admitted to be a King, be he never so good and virtuous: and if the King at any time during his reign, hap to have a child, he is therefore instantly deposed, and deprived of all Princely jurisdiction: and this they do, for because they will not have their kingdom become hereditary: Moreover, be their King never so just and upright, yet will they not commit the absolute government wholly into his hands, for to the end he should not be sole judge in capital causes, there be forty Rectors or Guides annexed unto him as his assistants, and if the judgement of the King, and his forty assistants seem partial or distasteful to any one, he may from them appeal to the people, who have likewise seventy judges allowed them for the determining of such causes as come to them by way of appeal, and the sentence that is pronounced by these seventy judges must of necessity stand inviolable.  
The King in his apparel differeth much from the people, and if he be found guilty of any offence, and thereof convicted, he dieth for it, yet not with such a death as any one should lay violent hands upon him, but by common consent he is shut up in some close place from the sight and company of all men, and there famished to death.  
This people be generally addicted to husbandry, and hunting of Tigers and Elephants, for other common beasts they little regard: and some delight in fishing for shell fishes, the shells weereof be so big, as one shell will make a house sufficient to contain a whole family: The greater part of this Island is burned with the heat of the Sun, and is therefore desert, upon the side of the Island beateth a sea that is very green. They esteem much of gold, whereof, and of all sorts of precious stones, they garnish and beautify their pots. They have great store of Marbles and Margarites, and very big ones.  
And these be the people, countries and nations, whose manners, customs and institutions, are commended unto 
The conclusion of the book.  us by Historiographers, and which by any means I could collect out of them: yet I confess there be many other, which I have either wholly omitted, or lightly passed over, because I could not write more of them, than I found in other Authors, having never by traveling into those parts, been eye witness of them myself, nor could otherwise attain to the perfect knowledge thereof, neither do I think it possible for me or any man else, to know and declare the manners of all nations, but God only, to whom nothing is hidden, nor nothing unpossible, for he only it is that first laid the foundation of the earth, it was he that first founded the depth and bottom of the sea, and pointed unto us the passages through the deep, he only it is that so bountifully hath bestowed upon us, wealth, dignities, honour and riches, and all other commodities necessary for our being, and he it is that hath allotted unto every one his profession and course of life wherein to employ himself, for some he hath ordained to be husbandmen, permitting then to grow wealthy by unripping the bowels of the earth, to some others he hath given the sea, wishing them to provide their livings, some by fishing, and some by merchandise, some others he hath addicted to the study of Sciences and Philosophy, that thereby they may attain to honour and estimation, and some others he hath put in places of authority to govern and precede the rest: And therefore it is no marvel, that all men are not of one condition, nor of one nature, nor yet endued with like manners, seeing we perceive such difference and variety in kingdoms and countries, as that one country produceth white people, an other swaithy, an other tawny, and some clean black, or like unto flowers which grow in Assyria: and even so hath God appointed, that people should be of variable minds and dispositions, as other things are, and that every one should rest contented with that course of life, that God hath appointed for him.   
FINIS.   

The manners of diverse nations, collected out of the works of NICHOLAS DAMASCEN.  
THE Thyni (which be a people of 
Of the Thyni.  Thrace) receive such as have suffered shipwreck, or fallen into poverty by their own defaults, very courteously and friendly, and all strangers likewise which come willingly unto them, are highly honoured; but those which come perforce, whether they will or no are as severely punished.  
The Aritoni kill no kind of beast, they have their Oracles 
Of the Ariton●.  written in lots, which they keep in golden covers.  
The Dardani (a people of Illyrium) be washed only 
Of the Dardani.  three times in all their lives, that is to say, when they be borne, when they be married, and when they lie a dying.  
The Galactophagi (a people of Scythia) live not in 
Of the Gelactophagi.  houses as most of the other Scythians do, their sustenance consisteth for the most part of Mare's milk, which serveth them both for meat and drink: They be seldom overcome in battle for that their provision of victuals is in every place and at all turns in readiness. This people forced Darius to return home without conquest: they be marvelous just one towards an other, as having both wives and wealth in common to all: they salute old men by calling them their fathers, the young men their children, and their equals brethren: of this people was Anacharsis, one of the seven wise men, who came into Greece to learn the laws & ordinances of other nations: Homer remembreth this people, where he saith, the Mysi fight nigh at hand, the Agavi milk Mares, and the Galactophagi and Abij be most just men. And the reason why he calleth them Abij, is, either because they would not till the earth, or for that they lived without houses, or else because they only used bows in the wars (for a bow of the Poets is often called Bios: there is not one amongst them all (as is reported) that is either stirred with envy, swelled with hatred, or stricken with fear, by reason of their exceeding great justice, and community of all things. The women there be as warlike as the men, and go with them to the wars when need requireth, and therefore it may well be true, that the Amazons be women of such valorous and generous spirits, as that they went forth with an army unto Athens and Sicily, at such time as their abode was about the pool of Maeotis.  
The women of Iberia do once every year being their 
Of the Iberi.  whole years work, into an open and public place, in presence of all the people where certain men be elected by voices, as judges to censure of their labours, and those which by them are adjudged most laborious, are most honoured, and in highest estimation: they have also a girdle of a certain measure, within the compass whereof, if the belly of any will not be comprehended, they be thereby much disgraced.  
The Vmbrici in their battles against their enemies, 
Of the Vmbrici.  hold it unfitting for the vanquished to survive, and that it is necessary either to overcome the enemy, or to be slain themselves: This people when any controversy happeneth amongst themselves, fight armed, as if they made war against their open enemies, and he which killeth his adversary in fight, is supposed to have the justest cause.  
The Celtaes (a people inhabiting near the Ocean) account it a disgrace for any one to withdraw himself, or 
Of the Celtaes.  lean his body to a wall, or house: when any inundation cometh towards them from the sea, they arm themselves to meet the flood, and make resistance until they be drowned, never retiring back, nor showing the least fear of death any manner of way: They wear their swords aswell when they be occupied in the affairs of their commonwealth, as in the wars, and a greater punishment is infllicted upon those which kill strangers than Citizens, for the first is punished with death, the other with banishment: And those above all others be most honoured, which atchiving any victory, have thereby purchased any ground for their public use: the gates of their houses be never shut but stand always open.  
Amongst the Pedalians (a people of India) not he 
Of the Pedalij.  which is chief in the sacrifice, but he that is most prudent of all those which be present, deuineth, and they desire nothing of the gods in their prayers but justice, only the Praysijs or Phrasij succour with sustenance their neighbours afflicted by famine.  
The people called Telchines dwelled first in the I'll of Crete, and afterwards inhabited the I'll of Cyprus also: 
Of the Telchines.  from whence they removed into Rhodes, and enjoyed that Island, where they began to be very malicious and envious, and exercising themselves in Mechanical Arts and imitating the works of their elders, they were the first that erected the Idol of Telchinian Minerva, which is as much to say, as envious Minerva.  
It is not lawful amongst the Tartessians, for the younger to give testimony against the elder. 
Of the Tartessij   
The people of Lucania excercise judgement and inflict punishment as well for luxury and sloth, as for any other 
Of the Lucani  offence whatsoever, and he which is proved to lend any thing to a luxurious person, is fined at the value of the thing lent.  
Amongst the Saunites or Samnites is once every year a public judgement pronounced, both of young men 
Of the Samnites.  and maids, and which of the young men is adjudged best, by the censure of the judges, shall first make his choice which of the Virgins he will have to his wife, and the second to him, chooseth next, and so of all the rest in order.  
The Limyrnijs have their wives in common, their children be likewise brought up at their common charge, until 
Of the Limyrnij  they accomplish the age of five years, and in the sixth year they be brought together, into one place, where all the fathers be assembled to make conjecture whom every child doth most resemble, which done they assign unto every father the child that is likest unto him, and by that means every one acknowledgeth his own child as near as he can, and bringeth him up as his own, whether he be so or Noah.  
The Sauromatae or Sarmatae pamper and gorge themselves with meat for the space of three days together, 
Of the Sauromatae.  that they may be thoroughly filled: they obey their wives in all things, as their Ladies and Mistresses, and no maid there is admitted to marry, before she hath been the death of some enemy.  
The Cercetae punish all offenders so severely, as they 
Of the Cercetae.  prohibit them to sacrifice: And if any marryner or governor of a boat, split, or run his ship or boat upon a rock, all men that pass by him spit at him in contempt.  
The Mosyni keep their Kings in strong castles, and if 
Of the Mosyni  any of them be adjudged careless of the commonwealth he is there famished to death: The grain which the earth yieldeth there, is equally distributed amongst the people, saving some small part thereof which is reserved in common, to relieve strangers.  
The Phryges' or Pryges' abstain from all swearing, so as they will neither swear themselves, nor constrain others 
Of the Phryges'  to swear: And if any man amongst them kill a labouring or draft ox, or privily taketh or stealeth any instrument of husbandry, he is punished with death: They bury not their Priests when they be dead in the ground, but place or set them upright upon pillars of stone of ten cubits high.  
The Lycij attribute more honour to their women then 
Of the Lycij.  to men, and all of them take their names after their mothers: In like manner they make their daughters their heirs, and not their sons, And if any freeman be convicted of theft, he is punished with perpetual servitude: They give not their testimony in deciding controversies at an instant, but always at the Month's end that they may have time enough to delibrate what testimony to give.  
The Pisidae at their banquets sacrifice the first of their feasts to their parents, as unto the Gods, the protectors 
Of the Pisidae.  of alliance and friendship; Their sentence for the misusing of things laid to gage is most severe, for he which is there convicted deceitfully to put them to other use, then taken in adultery, he together with the addulteresse woman, are for a punishment led through the city sitting upon an ass, and that for the space of certain days appointed.  
The Aethiopians attribute the chiefest honour unto their sisters, and the Kings leave their sister's children to 
Of the Ethiopians.  succeed them in their Kingdoms, and not their own, but if there be no such children, to whom the right of succession belongeth, than they choose for their King he that is most endued with valour and comeliness of parsonage: piety and justice are much practised amongst them; dwelling houses they have none but live altogether without doors, and when (as many times it happeneth) much of their goods lieth abroad in the common ways, yet they be so true as no one stealeth any thing from them.  
Amongst the Buaei (a people of Libya or afric) 
Of the Buaei.  a man hath dominion over the men, and a woman over the women.  
The Basuliei (a people of Lybia) when they make wars join their battles in the night and keep peace all the 
Of the Basuliei  day.  
The Dapsolybies assemble themselves together into 
Of the Dapsolybies.  one place, and marry at the same time they be so assembled after the setting of the seven stars: their manner of marrying is thus; after they have banqueted a while their lights or torches (for their meetings for this purpose are in the night) are put forth and extinguished, and then they go unto the women sitting by themselves in the dark, and which of the women any man shall take at adventures, her he hath to his wife.  
Amongst the jalchleveians (a people of Libya, (when 
Of the jalchleveians.  many corrivals go about to obtain the love of one woman, they sup all together with the father of the woman they desire in marriage, where they spend the supper time in taunting and scoffing one another with pleasant quips and jests, and he whom the woman doth most arride, and best conceive of hath her to his wife.  
The Sardolybies make no provision of household stuff, but only of a cup and a sword. 
Of the Sardolibies.   
The Alytemij (a people of Libya) choose the most pernicious Kings, they can get, but for the rest of the people he 
Of the Alitemij  which is most just, is of greatest dignity.  
The Nomads (a people of Libya also) in their computation 
Of the Nomads.  of times, account by the nights and not by the days.  
The Apharantes (a people of Libya) are not distinguished and known by proper names, as other people be, 
Of the Apharantes.  they revile the Sun at his rising, because he produceth and bringeth all evils to light, and they account those daughters the best, which keep their virginity longest.  
When any of the Baeotians are become bankrupts, 
Of the Baeoti.  and not able to pay their debts, they are brought into the common market place, and there constrained to sit together and be covered all over with a basket, and those which have this punishment inflicted upon them, are accounted for ever after for infamous persons, which punishment (as some think) was imposed upon the father of Euripydes, who had his beginning from the people of Boeotia.  
The Assiryans sell their virgins in the open market to any that desire to marry them, and those which be most 
Of the Assirij.  beautiful, be first sold, and then the rest, but when they come to the most deformed they make proclamation by a common crier how much money any one will take to marry them; and so by this means that which is gotten for the sail of the fair virgins, is bestowed in placing the foul, in like-manner they join together those that in their manners be most like for gravity and humanity.  
With the Persians that which is esteemed dishonest to be done is held unfitting to be spoken, if any one kill his 
Of the Persae.  father they esteem him a changeling and not a natural child, if the King command any one to be beaten or whipped, he is as thankful, as if he had received a great benefit, because the King remembered him: they which have many children are for that cause regarded of the King, and they teach their children as well to speak the truth as to learn any art whatsoever.  
Amongst the Indians when any one is deceived or cozoned 
Of the Indi.  of that which he lent or left in trust with an other, he bringeth not his action against him that deceived him, but imputeth the fault to himself, because he trusted him: if any one cut of the hand or pull out the eye of an artificer he is punished with death for it: he which is guilty of any heinous offence, is by the Kings command shaven, which is the greatest ignominy amongst them that may be: when an Indian man dieth, one of his wives which he most loved in his life time is laid on the pile and burned with him: And there is great controversy and strife amongst them, (every one having their friends to speak and plead for them) who shall be she that shall be burned, with her deceased husband, for each one desireth it.  
The Lacedæmonians think it not fitting nor honest 
Of the Lacedemonij.  to bestow themselves in learning any other arts than such as belong to the wars: the men diet all together in one place, they reverence all old men as their parents: and as the men have exercises proper to themselves, so have the maids likewise to themselves: It is not lawful for strangers to dwell at Spatta, nor for a Spartan to travel into other countries: they give power and licence to their wives to take the fairest men they can find to beget children of them, whether they be Citizens or strangers. It is unseemly for a Spartan to make any gain of any thing: their money is made of Leather, and if any man have either gold or silver found in his house, he dieth for it: They account it the greatest glory that may be, to show themselves humble and obedient unto Magistrates: and far more happy are they accounted amongst them, that die an honourable death, than those which live in great prosperity: Their children (by a certain custom they use) are whipped round about a pillar, till most of them be run away, and those which tarry still under the whips, have Garlands given them for a reward, for they hold it unhonest to take any dastard for their companions schoolfellows or friends. Old men when they draw near their deaths, be censured who of them have lived well, and who otherwise: when an army is conducted without the limits of their country, a certain Priest which they call (Pirphorus) that is to say, a fire-bearer, maketh and kindleth a fire at the Altar of jupiter their guide, which fire he carrieth before the King, keeping it ever from going out. The King when he goeth to the wars is attended with Prophets and Soothsayers, Physicians and Minstrels, and they use Pipes or Flutes in the wars in steed of trumpets, and those which fight be adorned with garlands. All men arise to the King to do him reverence, but the officers called Ephori: and the King is sworn before he enter into his Kingdom, to govern according to the laws of the commonwealth.  
The Cretenses were the first of all the Grecians that obeyed 
Of the Cretenses.  the laws ordained by King Minos, who was first that obtained dominion of the sea: This Minos when he invented and framed those laws feigned that he learned them of jupiter, and therefore for the space of nine years, together he would usually go unto a certain hill, wherein was a den consecrated to jupiter, and ever when he returned back, he brought some new laws to the Cretenses, as though he had been their instructed by jupiter. Of this Minos and his feigned conference with jupiter, Homer speaketh thus. Amongst them (saith he) is the City called Gnossus, where Minos who had often conference with the great god jupiter, reigned nine years.  
The Cretensian children be brought up altogether in one public place, and that very hardly and painfully, for they be much accustomed to hunting when they be young, and to run barefooted, as also to go armed to the Pirrichan vaulting or leaping (whereof Pyrrichicus, Cydoniates a Cretensian born, is said to be the inventor) which is a very laborious & difficult exercise for youth: The men in like manner eat together in one public place, & by reason of their sustenance and provision, all things be indifferently ministered unto them: the gifts or presents which amongst them be in most request, be weapons.  
The Autariatae, if any of there soldiers faint or sick, by 
Of the Autariatae.  the way, will rather kill them, then leave them living in a strange place. The Triballi set their army in four squadrons, or orders, the first rank consisteth of those which 
Of the Triballi.  be feeble and weak, the next unto it of such as be strong and lusty, the third of horsemen, and the last of women, which (when all the rest be put to flight) stick to their enemies, still pestering and afflicting them with their revilings and skolding.  
The Cusiani bewail those which be borne into the world, and account them happy and blessed that depart 
Of the Cusiani.  out of this life.  
The Cij when they have burned their dead bodies, gather 
Of the Cij.  up all their bones and beat them to powder in a mortar, and then taking ship, they launch into the deep, where putting the powder into a siue, they scatter and disperse it in the wind, till all be blown away and consumed.  
The Tauri (a people of Scythia) when their King is dead, 
Of the Tauri.  bury with his body such of his friends as he loved best in his life time, and on the other side the King when any of his friends die, cutteth off part of the lap of his ear, either more or less as his deceased friend was of deserts.  
The Sindi, when they bury any one, look how many 
Of the Sindi.  enemies he slew in his life time, just so many fishes do they cast into his sepulchre with him.  
The Colchi bury not their dead bodies in the ground, but hang them up upon trees. 
Of the Colchi.   
The Panebi (a people of Libya) when their King is dead, bury his whole body in the ground, but cut off his 
Of the Panebi.  head, and reserve it, guilding it with gold, and esteeming it as a sacred relic.  
FINIS.   

Certain things concerning America or Brasil, collected out of the History of JOHN LERIUS.  
THe Barbarous Americans that inhabit the land of Brasil, be called Tovoupinambaltij: 
The stature and disposition of the Barbarians.  their bodies be neither prodigious nor monstrous, but in stature much like unto ours that live in Europe: yet be they more lusty and strong than we, sounder and less subject to diseases, few of them being either lame or blind, so much as of one eye, neither be any of them deformed, and although they live until they be a hundred and twenty years of age (reckoning their years by the Moons, which computation they only 
The age of the Barbarians.  observe) yet do few of them wax grey or door, which argueth the country to be of a marvelous temperature, which being never dried with any colds or frosts, hath both herbs, fields and trees ever green and flourishing. And the people themselves being void of all cares and 
The Barbarians neglect all worldly things.  troubles, which age men before their times, seem as the proverb is, as though they had drunk of the fountain of youth: and for because they go not into muddy and unwholesome waters or pestilent springs, which be the causes of many diseases, that consume us before our time, weaken and make feeble our bodies, excruciate and vex our minds, and in the end destroy both the one and the other, therefore be they free from all such infirmities: Distrust, covetousness, strife, envy & ambition, have no place amongst them, their complexions be not altogether black, but by reason of the vehement heat of the Sun, somewhat swarthy, like unto the Spaniards: Both men, women and children go altogether naked without covering any part of their bodies, as being ashamed of 
All Barbarians go naked.  their nakedness, nor be their bodies full of hears (as some are of opinion) but even as any hears appear upon their bodies they pluck them off, either with their nails, or else with certain little pincers or nippers which they have from the Christians, their beards and the hairs that do grow upon their eye lids and eyebrows, they pull up by the roots, the which is the cause that many of them be purblind and squint-eyed, which same fashion is used of the Peruerses in the Isle of Cumana.  
The hair of the hinder parts of their heads they let grow, and shave all the fore part of the heads of their male children when they be young, beginning at the crown like unto the religious order of monks, suffering it to grow long behind down to their necks like old men.  
In that same country there be certain herbs of the breadth of two fingers, and somewhat crooked, which do grow up long and round, like the reed that covereth the ear of that great millet, which the French men call Arabian wheat, and with two leaves of this herb, stitched together with a cotton thread, some old men (but neither young men nor children, nor yet all old men neither) do cover their privy parts, and sometimes also they hide them with little rags or clouts; wherein at the first sight, may seem to appear some little spark of natural shamefastness, if the did it for that cause, but it is more probable they do it to hide some disease or infirmity, wherewith those parts be molested and grieved in their old age: Moreover their custom in that country, is to make a hole in the neither lip of every child when he is young, and to put into the hole a certain bone, polished and made smooth and as white as ivory, in fashion big and square at the one end, and sharp at the other, this bone is placed in good and exact order, upon the brother part of the grinding teeth, and therewith a devise they have, skrewed in and set fast having the sharp end standing an inch or two fingers breadth out of the lip, and is so artificially fastened to their gums, as they will take it out and put it in again at their pleasure: And this sharp and white bone they wear only when they be young, for when they grow in years, that they be called in their language (Coromi Ovassau) that is to say tall and well grown stripling, then in steed of this bone they put into the hole a certain green stone, being a kind of counterfeit Emerald.  
The Tovoupinambaultij will often times for their delight take these stones out of their lips, and put their tongues through the holes, so as they may seem to those that behold them to have two mouths, but whether this strange spectacle be pleasing, or whether it doth make them more deformed, it is easy for to be judged: Some of them also, not contented to carry these green stones in their lips, make holes through both their cheeks, and put stones into them for the same purpose.  
As for their noses, whereas the midwives with us, use when a child is new borne to stretch forth his nose with their fingers, to make it more comely and sharp, the custom of the people of America is clean contrary, for they account those children most comely that have the flattest noses, and therefore as soon as an infant is borne, they press his nose down flat to his face, with their thumbs (much like as they use to do, to certain whelps in France:) in this point those people disagree very much, from the Americans that dwell in a certain country of the Kingdom of Paruania, who are said to have such great noses, as they use to hang at them, in golden threads, Emeralds, sapphires, and other little stones both white and red.  
These Brasilians die and varnish their bodies with divers paintings and colours, staining their legs and theighes so black, with the juice of a certain fruit, which they call Genipat, as they seem to such as behold them a far off, to wear black breeches like Church-mens slops: and that ivise which is strained or pressed out of that black fruit called Genipat, entereth so deep into their skins, as it will hardly be got out in ten or fifteen days, though they wash them never so often in that time.  
They wear also about their necks a jewel made of a kind of bone that is very smooth and slike, and as white as Alabaster, this bone they call Yaci (borrowing that name of the moon, which in their language is so called) it is above two handful long, and is tied about their necks with a cotton thread, and so hangeth down upon their breasts.  
In like manner they polish and make smooth and even with a stone they have, divers little pieces of shells working them till they be thin and round like unto a penny, and then boring a hole in the middle of them, they put a great many together upon a cotton thread, and wear them about their necks like a chain, these chains in their language be called (Bower) and they wear them in imitation of the little chains of gold, which are usually worn amongst Christians, and that which of many is called Buccinum, may very well be the same, whereof we see many women to wear girdles with us. These barbarous people likewise make these chains, they call Bou re of a certain kind of wood that is black and hard, and namely, as Matheolus witnesseth of the tree called Sicomorus, which is much like unto a wild fig tree, and this tree is much used in those chains, because in weight and brightness it is very like unto jest.  
Furthermore the americans have great store of hens, the breed whereof they first had from the Portugeses, from these hens they pluck all the white feathers, and with their instruments of iron (which now they have) and before when they had none of those instruments, then with sharp stones, they hack and chap into very small pieces the softest of those feathers, and putting them, when they be chopped small into hot and seething water, die them with a certain red colour of Brasile, this being done they anoint their bodies with a clammy gum, for to make the feathers stick on, and then cover and deck themselves all over both body, arms and legs with those feathers, painting them also with divers colours, so as they seem to be covered with a down, or soft wool like unto young pigeons, and other birds new hatched.  
Whereupon it is very likely, that when divers of our Countrymen came first into those coasts, and saw them so attired, and not searching out the reason thereof, spread abroad this rumour, that the barbarous Americans were hairy all over their bodies, though the matter be far otherwise, for they be not naturally so, but this rumour arose by the ignorance of the cause, and being once spread abroad was easily believed to be true.  
There is one hath written that the Cumani use to anoint themselves, with a certain gum or clammy ointment, and then trim themselves with feathers of divers colours, like these Americans.  
The manner how the Tovoupinamkijs (for so they be also called) attire their heads is thus, besides the shaving of the forepart of their heads, in manner of a Monks crown, and the hairs of the hinder parts, hanging down long to their necks (as is said) their manner is to wear frontlets or ornaments for their foreheads of feathers of sundry colours, orderly disposed and set together, these frontlets do much resemble the Periwigs, used to be worn, by noble women, who may justly be said to receive that kind of attire from the Barbarians: they be called in their language Yempenambi.  
They wear earrings also made of very white bones, not much unlike unto those bones which (as we have said before) young men put into the holes of their lips: In that country is a bird which they call Toucan, all her body is as black as a raven, and about her gorge she hath a ring of downy feathers that be yellow, and under that an other ring of vermilion colour, from this part of the bird that is yellow, they pull of the skin (the bird being never the worse) and dry it, and so lay a round piece thereof upon each of their cheeks, making them for to stick on with a kind of wax that they had which they call Trayetic: which being fastened and made fit, one would think they had bridles in their mouths, and that the yellow rounds were bosses guilded with gold.  
These people, if they either prepare themselves to the wars, or (according to their custom and solemn pomp) to kill any captive, to be devoured, to the end that nothing may be wanting, to make them fine and brave, they put on their garments, settle on their caps, put bracelets upon their arms, of divers coloured feathers, as green, red, yellow, blue, and such like, so artificially and cunningly compacted and joined together, with slender Canes, and cotton threads, as I think there is scarce any embroiderer in all France, that can set in order, and make fit those feathers, with more industry and curiosity than they do: in so much as the garments woven and trimmed in this precise manner, may be thought to be made of a hairy kind of silk: the same kind of trimming do they likewise bestow upon their wooden clubs.  
The last kind of their garments are made of Ostrich feathers, which in colour be brown or russet, and which they get from their borderers, (whereby we may guess, that those great birds be bred in those parts) the garments be made in this manner:  
They sow all the quills of the feathers together in rank one by another, disposing of them so orderly, as no one feather stand out longer than another, which done, they put the one side to the other, and make it round like a rose or canopy: and this strange garment in their language is called Araroye.  
This bundle they put upon their backs, binding it fast with a cotton thread, and the stalks nearest unto their skins, wherewith when they be decked & arrayed, they seem as though they carried upon their backs, a cage or coupe to put young chickens in.  
Those which would be accounted most warlike, (that they may better manifest their strength, & show that they have slain many enemies, and also for a vaunt how many captives they have killed, to be devoured) cut and gash their breasts, arms, and thighs, and then stain and colour the wounds and gashes with a certain black dust, the prints of which gashes remain in their flesh to their deaths, representing to those which behold them, breastplates and slops cut after the Helvetian manner: When they give themselves to banqueting, carrousing, and dancing, (wherein they spend much time) the more to stir up their minds thereunto, besides their horrible clamours, outcries, and houling, they have a certain fruit that hath a hard shell, in form and bigness like unto a Chestnut: out of this shell they take the kernel, and put little stones into the place where the kernel was, so tying a great many of them upon a thread, put them upon their legs, like unto bells used here in England by morris dancers: no less noise would they make in their hopping and skipping, if the shells of snails were used in the same manner, which do not much differ from those rattling instruments they use in dancing And in these things the barbarous people exceedingly delight, and take surpassing pleasure in them when they be brought unto them.  
In that Country also groweth a certain kind of tree, the fruit whereof in fashion and thickness is like unto an Ostrich egg, through which they bore a hole, in such manner and fashion as boys with us bore holes in nuts to make Whirligigges, and put therein little stones, or the bigger corns or grains of millet, or any other convenient thing, and then putting through the hole a stick of a foot and a half long, make thereof an instrument which they call Maraca, which will make a huge noise and rattle louder than a swine's bladder with pease in it: & therefore those barbarous people carry them ever about with them in their hands.  
And thus far have I spoken in brief, of the disposition, manners, customs, apparel, and behaviour used by the Tovoupinambaltii.  
There is brought unto them from the Christians a curled or wrinkled cloth, some red, some green, and some yellow, whereof they make them all manner of garments, these the Christians do give unto these barbarous people, and have for them in exchange, victuals, marmosets, monkeys, Parrots, Brasile wood, cotton, Indian pepper, and many such like things which are very good merchandise: And most of them wear loose and flaggring breeches, & all the parts of their bodies else bare, some of them again will wear no breeches, but a cote reaching down to their buttocks, where with when they be clothed and ready to go abroad, they will behold themselves oftentimes, and instantly put it off again, and leave it at home, until it be their humour to wear it again, which maketh all our people that behold them to laugh at them, and in like manner do they with their shirts and caps.  
But for as much as can be said of the external habit of their bodies, both of men and children, I suppose I have spoken sufficiently, and therefore if out of this my description, any one desire to represent unto his mind one of these barbarous men, let him first imagine, that he beholds the shadow and resemblance of a naked man, with all his members and lineamentall proportion fitly framed and set together, the hairs of his body plucked off with pincers, all the forepart of his head shaven, with holes in his lips and cheeks, in which be put either sharp bones or green stones, ear rings thrust through his ears, his body died with divers colours, his thighs and legs stained and coloured with that black painting called by them Genipat, and about his neck a chain made of the shell which they call Vygnoll, and then you shall see and easily discern the perfect picture of those that live in that country.  
The Tovoupinambaltian women do usually carry their little children in their arms, wrapped and swaddled in a Cotton scarf, who embrace and wind about their mother's sides with both their legs: They have beds also made of Cotton like nets, and hanged up from the ground: Their best fruit is that which they call Ananas.  
But now if you will imagine in your mind, a barbarous man in another fashion, he shall be disrobed of that ridiculous attire and antic habit, and his whole body daubed with a glewish and slimy gum, and their feathers chopped small, shall be cast upon his body: and when he is attired with this artificial Wool, or Feather-downe, how fine a fellow he will seem unto you, I need not to show.  
Moreover, whether he retain his natural colour, or be disguised in divers colours, or in feathers: yet let him have those garments, cap, and feather bracelets, which we have described, and then certainly he is arrayed in the best manner he can be: but if you please to give him his garment made of that curled cloth, and (as we have said their custom is) to clothe him with his cote, all the other parts of his body being naked, and one sleeve yellow, and the other green: by these marks you may suppose him to be either an idiot, or an artificial fool: To conclude, if you will add to these, his instrument called Maraca, and his bundle of feathers, which they call Araroye, set handsomely upon his back, his rattling instruments also made of shells, with stones in them bound unto their legs, by this representation you must imagine, he is dancing and drinking.  
Many patterns and figures are not sufficient to express the extraordinary care and industry of those barbarous people, in attiring their bodies, according to the whole description which before we have set forth: for no similitude can make a lively representation of the whole matter as it is, unless every thing be in their proper colours, but the attiring of those women, which they call Quoniam, and in some places where they have acquaintance and commerce with the Portugals, they name them Maria, how much more excellent it is than the others, let us diligently mark and consider. For first of all, as we said in the beginning of this chapter, the women go naked as well as the men, and all of them pluck off their hairs as men do, leaving not a hair upon their eyebrows or eyelids: but as concerning the hair of their heads, they differ much from men: for the men (as is said) shave all the foreparts of their heads, and let the hinder parts grow long, but women there do not only nourish their hairs on their heads, but (like our Country-women) use often to comb and wash them, as also to bind and wrap them up, with Cotton head-laces died black, though for the most part they go with their hairs loose and spread abroad, like unto those ancient madbrained Bacchides of Rome: for they much delight to have them hanging down, and flaggering about their shoulders.  
In another thing also the women differ from the men; for they make no holes in their lips as men do, and therefore they adorn not, nor beautify their faces with jewels and stones, but they make such great holes in their ears; as when their ear-rings be forth, they may put in their fingers: and their ear-rings be made of that great shell, which they call Vignol, being in whiteness and length, like unto a middling candle, so as if you behold them afar off hanging upon their shoulders, and dangling upon their breasts, you would judge them like the hanging ears of a hound.  
As for their faces, they trim them in this fashion, and in doing thereof, every one helpeth other: first, they paint with a pencil a circle in the middle of their cheeks, either red, blue, or yellow, in form of a cockle or snaylehouse, sterring them until their faces be varied and distinguished all over, with those sundry colours: in like manner do they paint the place, where the hair of their eye-lidds and eyebrows did grow, (which fashion I have heard, is used of some light housewives in France.) They have bracelets also made of pieces of bones, cut like fish-scales, or Serpent's scales, joined and made fast with wax mingled with gum, so artificially and finely, as they cannot be amended by any artificial skill or cunning, they be an handbreadth in length, and do somewhat resemble the bracelet or wrist-band, which is used with us in blowing of bellows.  
They usually also wear bright and exceeding white chains, which they call Bower, but they wear them not about their necks as men do, but about their arms in stead of bracelets: and for this purpose they have a great desire of glasse-buttons, either yellow, blue, or green, with holes in them, and put upon a thread: these they call (Maurobi) and whether we go into their villages or marches, or that they approach near unto our castles or bulwarks, they urgently seek to get of us some of these buttons, offering us their fruits, and other commodities in exchange: and oftentimes they will urge us for them with these glavering words: Mair Deagat-orem amabe mauroubis, that is to say, You are a good Frenchman, give us some bracelets of your glass buttons. In like manner do they importunately require of us combs, which they call Guap or Kuap: glasses also which they call Arava, and other such like trinkets, wherein they take great delight. But above all things, this seemeth most strange, that although their bodies, arms, thighs, and legs, be not distinguished with divers colours like men, and that they use not those ornaments of feathers, yet could we never entreat them, to put on any clothes made of that curled cloth, or smocks, though we oftentimes offered them: for they persisted in that stubbornness, from the which I think they be not yet reclaimed, alleging for excuse, the ancient received customs of all the borderers. For all of them use when they come near any waters or rivers, to fall down and to take up water with their hands, to wash their heads, and oftentimes (like ducks) they will plunge and dive into the water ten times in one day, and then to put off their garments so oftentimes in the day, would be very troublesome unto them: an excellent and goodly reason sure, yet must we needs allow it, for we could nothing alter or dissuade them by disputing with them, for so great a delight is nakedness unto them, that not only the free Tovoupinambaltian women, which lived upon the Continent, would thus stubbornly reject all apparel, but the captives also and slaves, which we bought of them, and which we used as villains, and drudges, to defend our castles, could not be restrained, but would every night before they slept, put off their smocks and all their other apparel, and wander naked up and down the Island.  
To conclude, if the power were in themselves either to take or leave their garments: (for we could hardly force them to put them on by beating) they had rather endure the heat of the Sun, and hurt their arms and shoulders with carrying stones and earth naked, then to put on any clothes. And thus much is sufficient to speak of the ornaments, bracelets, and all the other complete attire of the American women, and therefore without any further Epilogue to my speech: I leave it for every one to conceive of, as to him seemeth good, & will in this place add a word or two of the bigger sort of children, those which be three or four years of age, and which they commonly call Canomi mitri: for in these we were much delighted: they be fatter of their bodies, & of a whiter bone than any children with holes in their lips, their hairs of their heads shorn round, and their bodies oftentimes painted: And in this manner they would come dancing by flocks to meet us, when we came to their villages. And for to have us give them some things, they would often repeat these flattering words, Coutovassat amaebe pinda: that is, good fellow give me these hooks: and if they obtained of us, what they desired, as oftentimes they did, and that we threw some ten or twelve little hooks upon the sand, they would strive and scramble for them, and greatly exult and rejoice, and lying along upon the ground, would scrape in the earth like Conneys, which was no little pleasure unto us: Finally, although I diligently perused and marked those barbarous people, for a whole year together, wherein I lived amongst them, so as I might conceive in my mind a certain Idea, or proportion of them, yet I say, by reason of their diverse gestures and behaviours, utterly different from ours it is a very difficult matter to express their true proportion, either in writing or painting: but if any one covet to enjoy the full pleasure of them, I could wish him to go into America himself. But perhaps you will say it is more than one days journey: that is truth indeed, and therefore I will not persuade any one to enterprise the matter over rashly.  
But before I conclude my speech, I must say something to answer those that either think or write, that the often familiarity with those barbarous naked people, and especially with the women is a great provocation to lust and lasciviousness, I say therefore, that although at the first sight that nakedness may justly be accounted the nourishment of concupiscence, yet notwithstanding as experience hath made manifest, it is most true, that men by that uncivil and uncomely nakedness, are not so much as stirred in their minds to lust, so as I dare presume to affirm, that gallant and gorgeous attire, painted beauties, counterfeit hair, crisped and frizzled locks, those great and costly rails which women wear so artificially folded, and wreathed, those lawn gorgets, loose and flaggering garments, and such other like, wherewith our women do so busily falsify and counterfeit themselves, are more hurtful and dangerous, than the nakedness of those barbarous women, although in beauty they be nothing inferior unto them, so as if it were lawful for others, (observing a decorum) to follow their fashions, I could allege very substantial reasons to make good my opinion, and refute all arguments that can be objected for proof of the contrary.  
But not to dwell longer upon this matter, I refer me to the testimony of those which sailed with me into Brasilia, and which have beheld both the one and the other, yet would I not have my words wrested to that sense, as though I any ways approved that nakedness, against the authority of the holy Scripture, which saith, that Adam and Eva perceiving they were naked after their sin, were ashamed, for I detest the heresy of those, which having violated the law of nature, (not well observed in this case, of those wretched and miserable Americans,) do their uttermost endeavours, to bring in this wicked and beastly custom.  
But what I have said touching these rude people, tendeth to no other end, but that it may appear, that we are no less faulty, who condemning them that go naked without regard of shamefastness, do ourselves offend as grievously in the contrary, to wit, in sumptuous and gorgeous apparel: And now having described the external habit and trimming of the Barbarians, it will not break square or order to say something in this place, of their manner of diet: And this is chiefly to be noted, that although they neither sow nor have any kind of corn or grain, nor plant any Vines, yet notwithstanding (as I have often found true by experience) do they live most finely and daintily, though they be utterly destitute of bread and wine: for they have two sorts of roots, the one called Aypi, the other Manyot both of which wax so exceedingly within three or four months, that they will be a foot and an half long, and as thick as a man's thigh: these the women (for men be never troubled with the business) pluck up and dry against the fire, mingling them with that which they call Boucano, sometimes also they bruise and break them in pieces, when they be green and fresh, with sharp flint stones fastened to a beam, as we are wont to grate Cheese and Nutmegs, and make thereof a very fine white meal or flower, so as that new meal being steeped in water, the whole juise which is pressed out of it, (of which I will speak by and by) doth taste and savour like new and moist Wafers made of Wheat: insomuch, as after my return into France, every place where I came smelled thereof; which renewed the memory of that wherewith those barbarous and rude people's houses or rooms be usually washed and sprinkled, with so great hindrance and loss is that meal made of those kind of roots.  
For the preparation of this meal, the women of Brasilia devise great earthen Vessels, very fit for that use, containing every one a bushel, or thereabout, which being set upon the fire, they put thereunto the meal, and ever as it boileth, the gourd being cut in the middle, they take out that which is within, and use the utmost rind in steed of dishes to eat pottage, and this when it is boiled is like unto little comfits. Of this flower or dough they make two sorts, for one manner is thoroughly boiled and hard, which they call (Ouy-entan) and this they carry into the wars with them, because it will keep longest, the other sort is less boiled and softer, and that they call Ouy-pov, in this respect this is better than the former, because it tasteth like the crumbs of white bread, but that first savour whereof I spoke before, becometh more pleasanter and sweeter by boiling; And as this meat, especially when it is new, is of an excellent savour and taste, so is it very nourishing and easily concocted, yet notwithstanding (as I have tried) they cannot by any means make bread thereof: but they will make it into a lump, which smelleth like a batch of wheat dough, and is marvelous fair to look upon, and as white as fine wheat flower, yet in boiling it is so dried and crusted upon the outside, that it being cut or broken, the inner part thereof is marvelous dry, and like as it was before it was boiled. Whereby I am induced to think, that he was much deceived, which first reported (not well regarding my speeches) that those which dwell two or three degrees beyond the equinoctial line (which people be certainly the Tovoupinambaltij) did eat bread made of rotten wood, which is to be understood of these roots whereof we spoke. And both sorts of meat in making a kind of gruel which they call Myngant, especially if it be mingled with fat broth or liquor, is then like unto rice, and being so seasoned, it tasteth very well and delicately. But the Tovoupinambaltij, both men, women and children, from their Cradles upwards, do eat this kind of dry meal or dough instead of bread: whereunto they are so apt by often use, that with the ends of their fingers they will take it out of their earthen vessels, and throw it steadfastly into their mouths, without losing the least crumb, and therein we oftentimes assayed to imitate them, but being little exercised, we spilt it upon our faces, and therefore unless we would be ridiculous, we must needs use spoons. Moreover those roots called Aypi and Manyot be sometimes chopped when they be green into little gobbets, of the meal whereof being moist, the women make round balls, which being pressed betwixt their hands, they wring out of them a certain liquid white juise like unto milk, and putting it into earthen vessels, set it out in the sun, by the heat whereof it doth cured and cream over like milk, and when they eat it they power it into dishes made of shells, wherein it is boiled as we are wont to boil eggs.  
Moreover, the root Aypi is not only accustomed to be made into meal, but it eateth also very well being roasted in the Ashes, whereby it will wax tender and cleave, and be very like in taste unto Chestnuts broiled upon the coals, and being so ordered it is very good to eat, but the root called (Manyot) is far otherwise, for unless it be made into dough and boiled, it is a very dangerous meat; the stalks of both those roots be like one unto an other, and of the bigness of low juniper, and the leaves be like unto an herb called Peony or Pyony. But that which is most to be wondered at in these roots of Brasile called Aypi and Manyot, is the great abundance of them, for the branches of them which be as brittle as hemp stalks, how many so ever of them be broken and put deep into the earth, without any husbandry at all, within two or three months space, will bring forth a great abundance of roots.  
The women in like manner do plant that great Millet whereof we spoke before, which we commonly call Sarrasins wheat, or Arabian wheat, and which those barbarous people call Anati, and of that also they make a certain meal which they boil and eat, in the same manner, as I said they do the other: And thus much sufficeth to say of the manners, apparel and diet of the Americans: and he which desireth to understand more, let him read the Indian history of john Lerius, out of whom we have gathered that which we have here set down.  
FINIS.   

The faith, religion and manners. of the Aethiopians, Living within the dominion of Precious joan (commonly called Prestor john) together with a declaration of the league and friendship established betwixt the Emperors of Aethiopia and the Kings of Portugal.  Damianus a Goes a Portugal Knight, being Author and interpreter. 
Hereunto is added certain Epistles of Helena, who was grandmother to David Precious Joan, and from the same David, to the Bishop of Rome, and to Emanuel, and john Kings of Portugal: very worthy the reading the same:  Damianus a Goes and Paulus Jovius being interpreters. 
The deploration of the people of Lappia,  collected by the same Damianus a Goes. 
Damianus a Goes, a Knight of Portugal, to Pope Paulus the third, health.  
THere is nothing wherein we ought to be more careful and vigilant, and more diligently to endeavour ourselves, than that by our labour, cost, punishment of our bodies, yea martyrdom itself (if by other means it cannot be effected) all people of the world may be brought and won to the faith of Christ, and being once won, may then be reduced to live in an uniformity and one manner of living. The care and regard whereof doth more especially belong to you (right reverent Pope Paulus) than to all the rest of us, as being high Bishop over all, the Vicar of Christ, and head of the universal Church under him; Wherefore it is your part (which with the great hope of all men you have already begun) to cure the calamities where with the Church is daily oppressed, and with your care and industry so to effect it, that all the whole world may obey and believe in one only Christ, and embracing the true belief, may be obedient unto you (as unto Peter's successor) and to your admonitions in all things which pertain to the salvation of their souls: which when you have brought to pass, we will say that by your means, the prophesy of one shepherd, and one flock is fulfilled, the true commendations whereof when you have obtained, which of the Popes may be deemed so famous as yourself, either in honour, happiness or merit, or to whom with so much right may we yield the triple Crownc, as to yourself? For the obtaining whereof, although the times be otherwise very unfortunate, yet have you many occasions ministered unto you. I call the times unfortunate by reason of those calamities, which in Europe are by yourself to be cured, for of none be we more strongly resisted, then of the enemy that liveth at our elbow, but let us now omit to speak of those troublesome cares, which, (we be well assured), are ever in your mind, and come to other matters more calm and temperate, which carry great hope, that as it were an other new world embracing the faith of Christ, may acknowledge your holiness, Majesty and Empire: Wherefore if you shall so handle these businesses, that the Church both in Aethiopia, and Europe (having you her governor and protector) may escape and avoid all peril and shipwreck, and arrive into the haven of salvation, we shall then sing in your praise that Prophetical Canticle contained in the Book of Wisdom, viz. I will pass through all lower parts of the earth, I will behold all those that sleep, and illuminate all those that trust in the Lord, behold I have not laboured for myself only, but for all those that seek the truth. Now at length is the time wherein we trust, that this prophesy will be fulfilled by you, behold here the Aethiopians, a large and spacious nation, and most desirous of Christ, whose Emperor a man of great sanctity, desiring the amity and friendship of the Christian Princes of Europe, hath sent his Ambassadors unto you, and to the mighty and invincible Kings of Portugal, by whom (as by his letters doth appear) he doth not only covet Christian friendship and charity betwixt himself and the Princes of Europe, but also (perceiving the bitter discords and dissensions that continually reign amongst them) doth most devoutly and fervently admonish and exhort them to Christian peace and concord, a matter whereof all of us may be ashamed, for now the Queen of Saba riseth up and calleth us into judgement, reprehending our faults, Christ's Prophecies be now fulfilled: And those which he elected are by little and little fallen out of his fellowship, and his commandments and promises are come unto those, which were teputed Ethnics and strangers unto Christ: for the Emperor of Aethiopia with all the kingdoms under his dominion, as by this our declaration shall appear, covet nor desire nothing more, then to live under your discipline, neither is he ignorant by the doctrine of the Apostles, which he hath divided into eight books, that the government and principality of all the Bishops of the world, belongeth and is due to the Bishop of Rome, whom plainly and godlily he is willing to obey, desiring of him to be well and holily instructed in the institutions and ordinances of the Church of Christ, for which purpose he coveteth with great desire, to have learned men sent unto him, and not contented therewith, to the end that the memory of his desires may remain to all posterity, he entreateth that the truth of this matter may be recorded and registered in the Pope's Annals, that so his Epistles and most godly requests, may be enlightened by the Ecclesiastical history, and that those which shall be borne hereafter, may know at what time and under what Pope these things were done: And I nothing doubt but that your holiness hath already sent, or forthwith will send unto him, learned men and skilful in the Scriptures; and well instructed in other arts, by whose learning and industry, and also by the preaching and labour of many others, already sent thither by the renowned Kings of Portugal Emanuel and john his son, you will so handle the business, that all the Christians living in Aethiopia and India, may by little and little, yield obedience to the laws of the Roman Bishops, whom they fear not already to confess to be the Vicars of Christ; and so they being once, by your endeavour, joined unto us by the true religion, and gathered together into one fold, under one shepherd Christ, we may perceive that the mercy of our Lord is confirmed over us, that his kingdom endureth for all ages, and that his power extendeth unto all generations, and then all flesh shall praise his holy name for ever and ever. But lest my exhortation may seem more tedious than is needful, especially unto him of whose life and doctrine, we are, and aught, all of us to be imitators, I will proceed to my declaration, which I will set out more at large, that thereby I may more plainly show upon what grounds and principles, this sacred league and amity betwixt Prestor joan and the Kings of Portugal was established, hoping that in declaring those things which be true and lawful, I may inflame the minds of the Readers, and accite them to those designments, whereby the faith of Christ may be more abundantly planted, preached, and reverenced in all corners of the earth.  
In the year from the birth of our Saviour and redeemer jesus Christ, one thousand, four hundred thirty and three, john the first King of Portugal, surnamed of famous memory, he which freed Portugal from the often incursions and assaults of the Castilians, wherewith it was almost made vast & desolate, departing out of this mortal life, of all his other sons which he left behind him, his son Henry excelled in learning, and especially in the study of Mathematics, who for the great desire he had to know the motion of the heavens, lived a single life, and for that he might more deeply and accurately meditate and consider the course of the stars, he lived in a holy promontory called Saint Vincents head, which place he chose out, for that the heavens be there for the most part calm and temperate, lest the clouds interposing themselves betwixt the heavens and his instruments, his consideration, and judgement of the course of the heavens, might be thereby hindered.  
This Henry to the end he might receive some fruit of his studies, determined to seek out with his own ships, and at his own charge, that which by often watchings he had found out to be so, to wit, that the Atlantic Ocean floweth into the Indian, and the Indian again into the Atlantic, and thereupon sending ships thither diverse times, they entered into great part of the Atlantic shore, wherein many towns, cities, and Islands were discovered and found forth: in all which places by his means, the faith of Christ was made known, and Churches there erected, especially in those Islands which before lay desert, the principal whereof was the Island of Wood, commonly called Medeyra, now a most famous and fruitful Island. But in the end, (as there is no certainty in mortal matters) in the year of our Saviour Christ, one thousand, four hundred and three score, this Henry was surprised by death, and for that he was never married, he had lest all which he had got by his voyages & traveling by sea unto the crown of Portugal as his proper inheritance: which being given by his own hands, continued unto the time of john the second of that name, without envy or emulation of other foreign kings or Princes, In which Kings days Columbus a Genoan borne a very skilful Sailor, being repulsed, unregarded and dismissed, by the same King john, (to whom he promised to discover the West Indies,) by the aid and furtherance of Ferdinand and Elizabeth King and Queen of Castille, he most fortunately attempted the voyage, and found out those large and ample provinces, to their great and unspeakable profit, showing also how they might come to them by ships: This john oftentimes revolving in his mind the affairs of the East Indies, of whose fruitfulness many and sundry things were delivered by ancient writers  
Amongst his other great labours and costs, whereof he was no niggard, he determined to send certain men skilful in the Arabian tongue unto those provinces, and especially unto Prestor john, whereof two of them which he sent were Alfonsus of Payva borne at the white Castle, and another john Peter of Covilham both Portugese's. These luckily began their journey from Schalabiton, the seventh day of May, in the year of our Saviour Christ, one thousand four hundred fourscore and six, and feigning themselves to be Merchants for their more quietter passage, they journeyed first to Barchiona, from thence to Naples and so to Rhodes: then taking their journey from Alexandria, they arrived lastly at Cayre, and their getting the company of some Merchants they took their journey towards Thor: where taking shipping they arrived near a certain city called Cuaquen, situated on the Aethiopian shore, from thence they sailed towards Adenes, where they agreed betwixt themselves, that Alphonsus should return again into Aethiopia unto Prestor john, and that Peter should go forward into India, but john having found out calicut Goa, and the whole shore of the Malabars, sailed to Zofala, and from thence again to Adenes, & so went strait to Cairo, expecting to find his companion there and that they might return together into Portugal to their king (for they appointed when they went from Adene, to meet again, at a time limited, at the same Cayre) whither when he was returned he received letters from King john out of Portugal, by the hands of two jews, whereof one was called Rabbi Abraham a Biensian, and the other joseph a Lamacensian, by which letters he was certified, that his fellow Alfonsus was there dead, and whereby he was also commanded not to return into his country before he had viewed Ormuzia and saluted Prestor john, of whose state the king did greatly desire to be certified.  
Wherefore john Peter not knowing what his companion Alphonsus had done in his life time, went back again to Adenes accompanied with the same Rabbi Abraham and sent joseph back again to the King with letters, signifying his travels and what he had done, & so taking water sailed from Adenes to Oromuzia, where leaving Abraham the jew and dispatching him with more letters to the King, he determined to sail towards Mecha, which when he had deseryed he earnestly desired to see mount Sinai, from thence he departed to Thor, and again taking shipping and passing over the straits of the Erythraean sea, he came to Zeila and from thence went all the rest of the way on foot, unto the court of Prestor john, who was then called Alexander, of whom being very courteously received he delivered unto him the letters which he had from King john offerring into his hands also the Topography or Map, wherein he might see all our voyage. This Alexander determining to send him back to his King, was prevented by death that he could not do it, who being dead his brother surnamed Nau, succeeded him in his place, of whom this john Peter could never obtain licence to depart into his country, and Nau dying likewise, his liberty to depart was in like manner denied him by David the Son of Nau and next heir to his Kingdom, but seeing he could by no meaves have leave to depart from that province, and to mitigate and assuage the exceeding desire he had to return home, the King bestowed upon him most ample and large gifts, and then he took to his wife a noble woman, of whom he begot many children.  
This man our Ambassadors found out in the court of Prestor john, and had conference with him, from whence when they departed in the year of our Lord one thousand five hundred twenty and six, they were very desirous to take him with them into their country, and he himself was as willing to depart, but they could never get leave of king David, for he ever answered to their desires, that he received that man of his father Nau when he received his Kingdoms, and that he would regard him with the like care and love as he did his Kingdoms.  
And that there was no cause why it should be irckesome to him to live amongst the Aethiopians, where, both from his father's liberality and his own he had received great wealth and riches: This john Peter (as our Ambassadors reported) was skilful almost in all languages, for which cause, and more especially for his wisdom (which was very great,) was he so earnestly retained of the Aethiopian Emperors, from whom they exactly understood the estate of Portugal and their navigations, by the often recytall whereof, (as he was very learned and eloquent,) he purchased the love and affections of the people of Aethiopia, both to himself and to us all, After john the second King of Portugal was dead, and Emanuel most happily succeeded him in his Kingdom, he sent a navy whereof Vascus a Gama was govenor, in the year of our redemption one thousand four hundred ninety and seven, for Aethiopia, who disankerring at Vlysbone, and recovering and escaping that dangerous point, called caput bonaespei at last arrived in East India, where by arms they reduced many provinces and cities under our subjection, and government; which news being made known in Aethiopia by the borderers, as also by some portugals which at that time came out of India to Prester john's Court, Helena the grandmother of David, (who by reason of David's non age, had the administration and government of his Kingdoms) sent one Matthew Armenius a skilful man and learned in many languages, into Portugal to King Emanuel, and (that his Embassage might carry more credit and authority) she sent with him a noble young man called Abesynus, which two I have often met in our Court, and have had familiar conference with them, This Matthew came by divers journeys to Goa unto Alphonsus Albuquercus viceroy there, of whom he being received very courteously, and dispached thence liberally rewarded, he arrived in our navy at Vlispone, in the year of Christ 1513. who showing to the King the cause of his embassage, presented him with a cross finely wrought, made of that tree whereof our Saviour Christ was Crucified, which cross I have oftentimes seen and worshipped, while my brother Fructus a Goes was the King's chamberlain and had it in his custody: the Queen's letters which he brought unto King Emanuel purported thus much.  

A letter of Helena the grandmother of David Precious john Emperor of Aethiopia, written unto Emanuel King of Portugal in the year of our Lord. 1509.  
IN the name of God the Father the Son and Holy Ghost, one God in three presons, the health grace and benediction of our Lord and Redeemer jesus Christ, Son of the blessed Virgin Mary, borne in Bethlem, be upon our dear brother, the most Christian King Emanuel, governor of the sea, and conqueror of the Barbarous and incredulous Moors: Our Lord God prosper thee and give thee victory over all thine enemies, and that your Kingdoms and dominions (by the devout prayers of the Messengers of our Saviour Christ, to wit the four Evangelists S. john, Luke, Mark and Matthew, whose sanctity and prayers be ever thy defence, may extend and stretch themselves wide and broad.  
These are to certify you most dear brother, that there came unto us from your great and famous Court, two Messengers, whereof one was called john, who affirmed himself to be a Priest, and the other john Gomez and desired of us soldiers and provision for the wars, wherefore we have sent unto you our Ambassador Matthew, the Brother of our service, with the licence of Mark the Patriarch, who giveth us his benediction, sending us Priests from jerusalem, he is our father, and father of all our dominions, the pillar of the faith of Christ, and of the Holy trinity, he at our request sent unto your great Captain and leader of those Soldiers, which make wars in India for the faith of our Saviour jesus Christ, to signify unto him, that we were ready and willing to send unto him Soldiers and provision for the wars, if need required; and because we have heard it reported that the Prince of Cairo hath sent forth a great Navy against your Forces, to be revenged (as we be well assured) of the losses and damages which he hath often received of the Captains of your Army which you have in India, whom God of his great goodness vouchsafe to assist, and so to prosper their proceedings every day more and more, that all those unbelievers may once become subject to your government. We therefore to withstand their assaults will forthwith send an Army which shall stay at the sea of Mecha, that is to say, at Babel mendell, or if you think it more fitting, at the haven of Inda, or Thor: that so you may destroy, and root out all those Moors, and miscreant unbelievers from the face of the earth, so as the gifts and obiations which be brought and offered at the holy Sepulchre be no more devoured of dogs: for now is come that time promised, which (as is said) Christ and his mother Mary foretold, to wit, that in the latter days a King should arise from out some Christian Region, that should abolish and bring to nought the universal stock of the Barbarians and Moors. And now certainly is that time come, which Christ promised to his blessed Mother. Moreover, what ever our Ambassador Matthew shall say unto you, accept it, and give credit unto it, as that which proceedeth from our own person, for he is one of the chiefest of our Court, and therefore have we sent him unto you: We would have committed these things unto your Messengers, which you sent hither, but that we were afraid lest our businesses might be taken otherwise then we intended. We have sent unto you by this Matthew our Ambassador, a Cross made (undoubtedly) of a piece of that Tree, whereupon our Saviour Christ was crucified at jerusalem. Which piece of sacred wood was brought to us from jerusalem, and thereof we made two Crosses, whereof one remaineth with us, the other we have delivered to our Ambassador to be presenred to you, the wood is of a black colour, and hangeth at a little silver ring.  
Furthermore, if it shall seem good unto you, either to give your daughters in marriage to our sons, or that we shall give one our sons to your daughters, it shall be very acceptable unto me, and profitable to us both, and the beginning of a brotherly league betwixt us, which conjunction of matrimony, we shall ever desire to enter into with you, as well hereafter, as for the present time.  
And thus we end with our prayer unto God, that the salvation and grace of our redeemer jesus Christ, and of our blessed Lady the Virgin Mary, may extend and remain both upon you, your sons and your daughters, and all your family. Amen.  
Moreover, these are to certify you, that if we would make wars, and join our Armies together, we should (by God's help) be strong enough, utterly to destroy and root out all the enemies of the faith of Christ. But our kingdoms and dominions are so situated in the middle of the land, as by no means we can have passage into the sea. In the sea therefore we have no power, wherein (praise be given to God) you be the strongest of all Princes. jesus Christ be your guide, for your affairs, which you have done and achieved here in India, seem rather to be done by miracle, then by man; but if you would furnish a Navy of a thousand ships we will give you provision, and abundantly minister unto you all things necessary for such a Navy.  
This letter, with some other Articles of the Faith, religion, manners, and state of the Ethiopians, which Matthew expressed before King Emanuel and his Council, I have by the entreaty of john Magnus Gothus, Archbishop of Vpsalia in the kingdom of Suetia, with whom I had extraordinary familiarity and friendship in Prussia, translated out of the Portugal language, wherein I found it written, into Latin: which letter, together with the said articles, were afterwards imprinted at Antwerp, without my privity.  
These things understood from the Aethiopian Ambassadors, King Emanuel (as he was exceeding wise, and most desirous to increase the Christian religion) instituted an Embassage sufficiently furnished with very grave and reverend men, the chiefest whereof were Edward Galuanus, a man well stricken in years, and of great wisdom and experience. And Francis Aluarez, a Priest, and of very renowned authority with the King, who was also old, and of unreprovable manners: both which I have known by sight. These two, and Matthew the Ethiopian Ambassador, sailed towards India, under the conduct of Lupo Soarez the Viceroy, and after his death, under Viceroy Didaco Lupeza a Sequeira, who was Lupos successor, with a Navy well furnished, which he had prepared against the Turks, by whom they were brought to a haven called Arquicum, situated upon the Erythraean shore, & under the dominion of Prester john, into which haven the ship arrived upon the second day of April, in the year of Christ 1520. In which journey Edward Galuanus died in Camara, an Island in the Erythraean sea, & Rhodericus Limius was placed in his stead, who with his fellows in Embassage set forwards on their journey from the said haven of Arquicum, towards the Court of Prester john, having Matthew with them as their guide and companion (for that young man Abesynus, whom I formerly mentioned, was dead before this time.) And in this journey Matthew died likewise, and was buried in a famous Monastery called Bisayn, after whose funerals performed, they set forwards on their intended journey, and after great travels, infinite labours, and many dangers, they arrived at the Court of Prester john, of whom, Rhodoric with his associates, were very honourably received, and he having perfected his business, and received new message, was sent back again unto King Emanuel: which done, he went to the haven of Arquicum, but found not the Navy there of whom Ludovicus Menesius was governor, and which came purposely thither to carry them back again: for they stayed so long, that the ship could no longer expect their coming, by reason of the outrageous and vehement tempests within those coasts, by an admirable secret of nature, blow six months together from one climate, and the other six months from the other.  
At Arquicum he found letters with the Governor of the town, left there by Praetor Ludovicus, perporting the death of king Emanuel: wherefore he determined to return again to Prestor john's Court, at whose return Prester john writ letters unto the Pope of Rome, committing them to Francis Aluarez, to be carried to him at Rome.  
All these having remained in those provinces for the space of six years, in the the end, together with the Ethiopian Ambassador, whom Prester john sent anew unto our King, entered into one of the King's ships at Arquicum, which was there laid for the purpose, in the month of April in the year of Christ 1526. and disankering thence, sailed towards India, and at length by tedious travels at sea, they returned to King john at Lisbon, in the month of july, in the year 1527. who retained the Ethiopian Ambassador with him, touching certain points of his Embassage, unto the year 1539. and sent Francis Aluarez unto Pope Clement the seventh, with letters from Prester john, from whom he came as Ambassador. Which letters the Pope received at the hands of the said Francis Aluarez, at Bononia, in the month of january 1533. In the presence of the Emperor Charles the fifth; of which letters, and of others written to Emanuel, and john King of Portugal, Paulus iovius, a very learned man was interpreter, who hath translated them out of the Portugal language, wherein they were written, into Latin, as here you may see.   

A letter from David the most renowned Emperor of Aethithiopia, written to Emanuel, King of Portugal, in the year of our Lord 1521. Paulus iovius being interpreter.  
IN the name of God the Father, as he always hath been, void of all beginning: in the name of God his only son, who is like unto him, and was before the stars gave light, and before he laid the foundation of the Ocean, who at another time was conceived in the womb of the blessed Virgin, without the seed of man, & without marriage, for in this manner was the knowledge of his duty: in the name of the holy Ghost, the Spirit of sanctity, who knoweth all secrets that be, where he was before, that is of all the altitudes of heaven, which is sustained without any pillars or props, he who amplified the earth, which before was not created nor known through all parts, from the east to the west, & from the north to the south. Neither is this the first or second, but the undivided Trinity in the only eternal Creator of all things, of one only council, and one word for ever and ever Amen.  
These letters are sent by Atani Thingil, that is to say, the incense of a virgin, which name was given him in baptism, but now at his first entrance into his kingdom, he took the name of David, the beloved of God, the pillar of faith, a kinsman of the tribe of juda, the son of David, the son of Solomon, the son of the pillar of Zion, the son of the seed of jacob, a son of the hand of Mary, and the carnal son of Nav Emperor of great and high Ethiopia, and of great kingdoms, lands, and dominions, king of Xoa, Caffate, Fatigar, Angote, Boru, Baaligaze, Adea, Vangue, Goiame (where is the head of the river Nilus) of Damaraa, of Vaguemedri, Ambeaa, Vagne, Tigri Mahon, of Sabain, where Saba was Queen, and of Bermagaes, and Lord unto Nobia the end of Egypt.  
These letters I say, be sent from him, and directed to the high, mighty, and invincible Lord Emanuel, who dwelleth in the love of God, and remaineth firm in the Catholic faith; the son of the Apostles Peter and Paul, King of Portugal, and of the Algarbians, friend of Christians, enemy, judge, Emperor and vanquisher of the Moors and of the people of Africa and of Guiennea, from the Promontory and Island of the Moon, of the red sea of Arabia, Persis and Armutia, of great India, and of all places, and of those Islands and adjacent Countries: spoiler and overthrower of the Moors, and strange Pagans, Lord of Castles, high Towers, and Walls, and increaser of the faith of Christ. Peace be unto you King Emanuel, who (by God's assistance, destroyest the Moors, and with your Navy, your Army, and your Captains, drivest them up and down like unbelieving dogs. Peace be unto your wife the Queen, the friend of jesus Christ, handmaid of the virgin Mary, the mother of the Saviour of the world. Peace be unto your Sons, who be as a Table well furnished with dainties, in a green Garden amongst the flourishing Lilies. Peace be unto your Daughters, who are attired with garments, and costly ornaments, as Prince's Palaces be garnished with Tapestry. Peace be unto your kinsfolks, which be procreated of the seed of the Saints, as the Scripture saith, the sons of the Saints be blessed both within doors and without. Peace be unto your Councillors & officers, your Magistrates & Lawyers. Peace be unto the captains of your castles & borders, and of all matters of munition. Peace be unto all your Nation, and to all your inhabitants (Moors and jews excepted.) Peace be unto all your parishes, and to all that be faithful to Christ and to you. Amen.  
I understand my Lord, King, and Father, that when the report of my name was brought unto you by Matthew our Ambassador, you assembled a great number of your Archbishops, Bishops, and Prelates, to give thanks unto Christ our God for that Embassage, and that the same Matthew was received very honourably, and joyfully, which thing did exceedingly rejoice me, and for which I in like manner, and all my people with me, praised God, with great devotion. But it grieved me when I understood that Matthew was dead in the Monastery of Bisain in his return home, when he should have entered into the limits of our Country, yet I myself sent him not, because I was then a child of eleven years of age, and had scarce taken upon me the government of my kingdom after the death of my father, but Helena the Queen, whom I did reverence as my mother, and who governed the kingdom for me, she sent him. That Matthew was a Merchant, and his right name was Abraham, but he called himself by another name, that he might travel more securely through the Moors, yet notwithstanding he being known to be a Christian by the Moors in Dabull, was there cast into prison, which when he had signified unto the Praefect of your Army, the same praefect sent divers valiant men to deliver this Christian out of that vile prison, which he did more willingly, understanding that he was my Ambassador, and when he had delivered him from the hands of his enemies, he committed him to your ships, to be brought unto your presence. That Matthew declared his message in my name unto your King, and writ unto me that he was honourably received, and abundantly rewarded with gifts of all sorts, which is likewise affirmed by your messengers, which Didacus Lupez de Sequeira, chief Governor of your Fleet, sent unto us, who presented those letters unto us which Edward Galuanus that died in the Isle of Cameran, should have brought. Upon view of which letters I greatly rejoiced and praised God, conceiving great pleasure, when I beheld the breasts of your Messengers marked with Crosses, and proved by inquiring of them, that they observed the Ceremonies of the Christian Religion, which be most infallible true: and I was exceedingly stirred up with a singular devotion, when I understood that they found their way into Ethiopia by miracle: for they told us that the Captain of the ship wandering long by the Arabic sea, and therefore despairing to find our haven, determined to leave this business undispatched, and to return into India, the rather for the cruel tempests wherewith they were tossed upon the sea, but in the same morning betimes that he intended to retire, a red Cross appeared unto him in heaven, which when he had worshipped, he commanded the Mariners to turn the foredeckes of their ships that way as the Cross stood, and so by God's appointment was our haven discovered and found out, which thing I held to be miraculous. And surely the Governor of that Navy is beloved of God, seeing he obtained so great felicity, as no man before him had obtained of God. This mutual Embassage was formerly spoken of by the Prophet in the book of the life and passion of S. Victor, and in the books of the holy Fathers, that a great Christian King should make peace with the King of Ethiopia: yet did I not think that this would have come to pass in my days, but God knew the certainty, that his name might be extolled, who directed the Messenger unto me, that I might send the like unto you again, my Father, and friend in Christ, that we may remain in our Faith, seeing I never had any Messenger, nor certain knowledge from any other Christian King.  
Hitherto the Moors have been about me the sons of Mahomet and Gentiles, some of them be slaves, which know not God, some others worship the fire and blocks, some others adore the Sun, and some suppose Serpents to be Gods. With these I never had peace, because they refuse to come unto the truth, and to these I preach the faith in vain. But now I am at quiet, and God hath given me rest with all mine enemies, and yours, for when I march in Arms against them in the bounds of my Country, they turn their faces and fly from us, and our Captains and Soldiers have the conquest of them and their Camps: neither is God angry with me (as the Psalmist saith) and God fulfilleth the desires of those Kings which require just things, yet this belongeth not to our praise, but the praises are to be given unto God, for he it is that hath given the world unto you, and hath granted unto you the lands of the Gentiles for ever, and the lands of other people from the limits of your own Country, even to the entrance into Ethiopia. Wherefore I give incessant thanks unto God, and declare his great and incomprehensible power and majesty, conceiving great hope that the sons of those people which come under your dominion, shall undoubtedly be partakers of the truth of religion, and therefore I praise God, and hope that your sons, and myself, and you also, shall exceedingly rejoice for the good success of these things. And you ought continually to pray unto God, until he give you his grace to obtain the holy Temple in jerusalem, which is now in the power of the enemies of Christ, the Moors, Gentiles, and Heretics, which if you bring to pass, your estimation and renown shall be replenished with all praise.  
But three of those Ambassadors which came unto me with the said Matthew, and the great Praefect of your Navy came down to Macua to commune with the King of Bernagaes, who is subject to our government, and forthwith sent Ambassadors unto me, and great gifts which were most dear and acceptable unto me: but yet your fame and renown was more dear and precious unto me then all jewels and treasures whatsoever. But let us omit these things, and confer amongst ourselves how we may invade and take the infidels Countries, for which purpose I shall willingly give one hundred thousand thousand drachmas of gold, & as many fight men, timber, iron, and copper likewise, for to build and furnish a Navy, besides great store of furniture and provision for wars, and we will accord and agree friendly together, and for because it is not my custom, nor fitting for my dignity, to send ambassadors to require peace, and seing you yourself have formerly required it, with great sincerity (to confirm the sayings of our Saviour Christ, for it is written: Blessed be the Teet which bring peace,) therefore I myself am most ready to embrace it, after the manner of the Apostles, which were of one consent, and of one heart. O King, and my Father Emanuel, God who is only one, the God of heaven, and always of one substance, never waxing younger or older, preserve and keep thee in safety. He which brought the message from you unto us was called Rhodericus Lima, he was the head and chiefest man of that embassage, and with him was Francis Aluarez, whom for his honesty of life, singular religion, and justice, I have held most dear, and especially for that being demanded of his faith, he answered thereunto very fitly and truly. And therefore you ought to exalt him, and to call him master, and to employ him in converting the people of Macua, and of Dalaca, of Zeila, and of all the Islands of the red sea, because they be in the bounds of my kingdoms.  
And I have granted unto him a Cross, and a staff in token of his authority, and do you command that these things may be given unto him, and that he may be made Bishiop of those Countries and Islands, because he well deserveth it, and is very fitting to administer that office, and God shall do good unto thee that thou mayest be always strong against thy enemies, and constrain them to prostrate themselves at thy feet, I pray God prolong thy life, and make thee partake of the kingdom of heaven, in the best place, even as I wish for myself, for with my ears have I heard much good of you, and I see with mine eyes that which I thought I should never have seen, and God will make all things to go well with you, and your seat shall be upon the tree of life, which is the seat of the Saints. Amen.  
As a young child I have done what ever you commanded me, and will do if your Ambassadors come hither, that we may aid one another by our mutual forces: & I shall give, and cause to be given unto all your Ambassadors which shall come hither, what ever you will signify to be done, and as you did at Macna, at Dalaca, and at the ports in the straits of the red sea, that we may be prosperously joined together, both in Council and action, as I do chiefly desire: for when your Forces shall come to those Coasts, I will speedily be with them with my Army also, and because there be no Christians in the Marches of my Country, nor any Churches for Christians, I will give unto your people those lands to dwell in, which be nearest unto the dominion of the Moors, for it behoveth that you bring your beginnings to a good end. In the mean space send to me learned men, and carvers of Images of gold and silver, workers of copper likewise, and of Iron, of tin, and of lead, and Artificers to imprint books for the Church in our language, and some that can make gold foil, or thin plates, or rays of gold, and with the same can gild other metals, these shall be courteously entertained in my house, and if they shall desire to depart, I will give unto them large & ample rewards for their labours. And I swear by God, jesus Christ the son of God, that I will freely suffer them to depart when they please. This I most boldly and confidently desire, because your virtue is apparent unto me, and your goodness well known. And for that I know you love me well, whereof I am most assured, because for my sake you received Matthew very honourably, and liberally, and so sent him back again: and therefore I covet to desire those things, neither be thou ashamed of it, for I will truly accomplish and perform all things. That which the Father desireth of the Son, cannot be denied, and you are my Father, and I your Son, and we be coupled and joined together, and as one brick is joined to another in a wall, so we being so to agree together, in one heart, and in the love of jesus Christ, who is the head of the world, and those which be with him be likened to bricks joined together in a wall.   

Letters from the said DAVID, Emperor of Aethiopia unto john the third of that name, King of Portugal, written in the year of our redemption 1524. and interpreted by Paulus iovius.  
IN the name of God the Father almighty, maker of heaven and earth, and of all things that be made either visible or invisible: in the name of God the son Christ, who is the son and Council, and prophet of the Father: in the name of God the holy Ghost, the Advocate of the living God, equal to the Father and the Son, who spoke by the mouth of the Prophets, breathing upon the Apostles, that they might give thanks and praise unto the holy Trinity, which is ever perfect in heaven, and in earth, in the sea, and in the deep. Amen.  
I surnamed Virgins Frankincense, which name was given me at my baptism, and now taking upon me the government of my kingdom, I have also assumed the name of David, the dearly beloved of God, the pillar of the faith, the issue or stock of juda, the son of David, the son of Solomon Kings of Israel, the son of the column, or pillar of Zion, the son of the seed of jacob, the son of the hand of Mary, and the son of Nav by the flesh, send these letters and message unto john the most high, mighty, and potent King of Portugal, and of the Algarbians, the son of King Emanuel: Peace be unto you, and the grace of our Lord jesus Christ remain always with you. Amen.  
At that time that the power of the King your father was reported unto me, who made war against the Moors, the sons of the abominable & accursed Mahomet, I gave great thanks unto God for your increase & greatness, and for the crown of your conversation in the house of Christianity. In like manner I took pleasure by the coming of your Ambassadors, which reported unto me that king's speeches, whereby a singular love, knowledge, & friendship was established betwixt us, utterly to extirp & drive away those wicked & accursed Moors, and unbelieving Gentiles, which dwell between your kingdoms & mine. But while I was thus joyful, I heard that your father and mine was departed out of this life, before I could dispatch my Ambassadors from hence unto him: and therefore my joy was suddenly turned into sadness, so that in the great sorrow of my heart all the States and Noble men of my Court, and Ecclesiastical Prelates, and all which live in Monasteries, and all our subjects wholly, made great lamentaion with me, so as the pleasure we conceived of the first message, was equalled and extinguished with the sorrow of the last.  
Sir, from my first entrance into my kingdoms unto this present time, no message nor messenger hath come unto me either from the King or kingdom of Portugal; but in the life time of the King your Father, who sent his Captains and Governors unto me, with clerk and Deacons, which brought with them all solemn provision and apparel for the Mass, for which I rejoiced greatly, and received them honourably, and shortly after dismissed them, that they might return with honour and peace. And after they came to a Haven of the sea, which is within my limits in the red sea, they found not the great Governor of the Navy there, whom your father had sent, for he expected not their coming, but certified me that he could not stay their coming, for that your custom is to create a new chief Governor of the Fleet once every three years, in which mean time he that was newly created, came thither, and this was the cause that the Ambassadors stayed longer than was needful. But now I send my Messages by Christopher, the brother of Licontius, whose name at his baptism is Zoga Zabo, which is as much to say, as the grace of the Father, and he shall manifest my desires before you.  
In like manner I send Francis Aluarez unto the Pope of Rome, who in my name shall yield my obedience unto him, as is fitting.  
O Sir King, & my brother, give ear and attend, & endeavour to embrace that friendship which your Father opened betwixt us, and send your Messengers and Letters often unto us, for I greatly desire to see them, as from my brother, for so it should be, seeing we are both Christians. And seeing the Moors which be wicked and nought, accord and agree together in their sect. And now I pretest I will never hereafter admit any Ambassadors from the Kings of Egypt, nor from other Kings, which send Ambassadors unto me, but from your highness, which I much desire should often come: for the Kings of the Moors account me not their friend, by reason of our disagreement, and disparity in religion: yet they feign friendship, that by that means they may more freely and safely exercise merchandise in our kingdoms, which is very profitable unto them, for they carry great store of gold (whereof they be very greedy) out of my kingdoms: though they be but hollow friends unto me, and their commodities bring me but little pleasure, but this hath been tolerated, because it hath been an ancient custom of our former Kings, and though I make no wars upon them, nor utterly overthrow them, and bring them to destruction, yet in this I am to be borne withal, lest, if I did so, they should violate and pull down the holy Temple which is at jerusalem, wherein is the sepulchre of our Saviour Christ, which God hath suffered to be in the power of the wicked Moors, and also lest they should make level with the ground other Churches which be in Egypt and Syria. And this is the cause why I do not inwade and subdue them; which thing greatly irketh me, and I am the rather persuaded so to do, seeing I have no bordering Christian king to assist me, and to cheer and encourage my heart in that, or the like enterprise.  
And therefore myself (O King,) have no great cause to rejoice of the Christian Kings of Europe, understanding that they agree not together in one heart, but that wars be very rife amongst them. Be you all of one Christianlike mind, for you ought all of you to be content of a firm peace amongst you.  
And certainly, if any of my neighbouring Christian Kings were joined with me in an amiable league (as they ought) I would never depart from him one hour. And of this I know not well what I should say, or what I should do, seeing they seem to be so ordained by God.  
Sir, send your Messengers more often unto me, I beseech you, for when I look upon your letters, than me thinks, I behold your countenance. And surely greater friendship ariseth betwixt those which be far distant, than those which dwell near together, by reason of the great desire wherewith they be delighted, for he which hath hidden treasures, though he cannot see them with his eyes, yet in his heart he ever loveth them most ardently, as our Saviour jesus Christ saith in the Gospel, where thy treasure is, there is thy heart also.  
And in like manner ought you to make me your treasure, and to cowple your heart sincerely with mine. O my Lord and brother, keep this word, for you be most prudent, and (as I hear) much like unto your Father in wisdom, which when I understood, I forthwith gave praise unto God, and laying aside all grief, conceived joy and said: Blessed is the wise son, and of great estimation, the son of King Emanuel, which sitteth in the throne of his father's kingdoms. My Lord beware then, faint not, seeing thou art as strong as thy father was, nor show thy forces to be weak against the Moors and Gentiles, for by the assistance of God, and thine own virtue, thou shalt easily vanquish and destroy them, neither shalt thou say that thou hadst small power left thee by thy father, for truly it was great enough, and God shall ever bring thee help.  
I have men, money, and munition, in abundance, like the sands of the sea, and the stars of heaven, and we joining our forces together, may easily destroy the rudeness and barbarousness of the Moors. And I desire nothing else of you but skilful men, which be able to instruct my soldiers to keep their orders and ranks in battle. And thou, O King, art a man of perfect age, King Solomon took upon him the government of his kingdom when he was but twelve years of age, yet of great power and more wise than his father. And myself likewise was but a child of eleven years of age when my father Nav departed this life, and being entered into my Father's seat, by God's ordinance, I obtained greater wealth and forces then ever my Father had: for in my power be all the borderers and Nations of the Kingdom. Wherefore both of us ought to give incessant thanks unto God for so great benefits received.  
Give care unto me my brother and Lord, for this at one word I desire of you, that you will send unto me learned men, that can carve images, imprint books, and make sword, and and all kind of weapons for the wars: head Masons likewise, and Carpenters, and physicians that have skill to make medicines and cure wounds.  
I would also have such as can draw gold into thin plates, and be able curiously to carve and engrave gold and silver, and such likewise as have knowledge to get gold and silver from out the veins of the earth, and to work in all manner of metal mines. Besides these, I shall much esteem of such as can make coverings for houses of lead, and will teach others how to make tiles of chalk or clay.  
To conclude, I shall have use of all manner of Artificers, and especially of such as can make Guns. Help me therefore, I pray you, in these things, as one brother should help another, and so God will help you, and deliver you from all evil, God will hear thy prayers and petitions, as he hath received holy sacrifices at all times, as first of all, the sacrifices of Abel, and of Noah when he was in the Ark, and that of Abraham when he was in the land of Madian, and that of Isaac when he departed from the Ditch or Trench of the Oath, and that of jocob in the house of Bethlem, and of Moses in Egypt, and Aaron in the Mount, and of jeson the son of Nav in Galgale, and of Gedeon in the Coast, and of Samson when he was a thirst in the land of drought, and of Samuel in Rhama, of the Prophet, and of David in Nacira, and of Solomon in the City of Gabeon, and of Helias in mount Carmell, when he raised from death the Widow woman's son, from Rhicha above the pit, and of josaphat in battle, and of Manasses when he sinned, and converted again unto God, and of Daniel in the lions Den, and of the three brethren, Sydrach, Mysaach, and Abednago on the fiery furnace, and of Anna before the Altar, and of Nehemias', which made walls with Zorababell, and of Mathathia with his sons, over the fourth part of the world, and of Esau upon his blessing, even so our Lord will receive your sacrifices, and supplications, and will help you, and stand with you against all persuersnes, and overth wartnes at all seasons, and every day.  
Peace be with you, and I embrace you with the arms of sanctity, and in like manner I embrace all those which be of your Council of the kingdom of Portugal, Archbishops likewise, and Bishops, Priests, and Deacons, and all men and women whatsoever. The grace of God, and blessing of the Virgin Mary the mother of God be with you, and with you all. Amen.   

Letters from the same most renowned David, Emperor of Ethiopia, unto the Pope of Rome, written in the year of our Lord 1524. and translated into Latin by Paulus iovius.  
IN the name of God the Father Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible: in the name of God the Son jesus Christ, which is the same with the Father from the beginning of the world, and is light of light, and true God of true God: in the name of the holy spirit of the living God, who proceeded from God Father.  
These letters I the King do send, whose name the Lions do worship, and by the grace of God, I am called Athani Tinghil, that is to say, the incense of a virgin, the Son of King David, the son of Solomon, the son of a king by the hand of Mary, the son of Nav by the flesh, the son of of the holy Apostles, S. Peter and S Paul by grace.  
Peace be unto you most just Lord, holy, mighty, pure, and sacred Father: unto you, which are the head of all Princes, and fearest no man, seeing no one can speak evil of thee: unto you, which are the most vigilant Curate and observer of souls, and friend of strangers and and peregrine's.  
O holy master, and preacher of the faith, enemy of all those things which offend the conscience, lover of good manners, sanctified man, whom all men laud and praise.  
O happy and holy Father, I yield obedience unto you with great reverence, for you are the peace of all things, and deserve all good, and therefore it is fitting that all men should show their obedience unto you, as the holy Apostles command to yield obedience to God. This truly belongeth unto you; for so also they command us to worship Bishops, Archbishops, and Prelates. In like manner that we should love and reverence you, as our father, fear you as our King, and have confidence in you as in God. Wherefore I humbly confess, and with my bending knees say unto you, O holy father, that you are my father, and I your son. O holy & most mighty father, why did you never send any unto us, that you might better understand of my life and health, seeing you be the shepherd, and I your sheep? For a good shepherd will never forget his flock, neither ought you to think that I dwell so far remote from your regions, that messengers cannot come unto me, seeing your son Emanuel, the King of Portugal, hath sent Ambassadors unto me, very conveniently, from his kingdom, which is the furthest from us in the world, and if God had spared him life, and not incited him so suddenly to heaven, (without doubt) those things which we then had in hand, had been brought to a happy conclusion. But now I much desire to be certified by some trusty messengers, of your holiness health and happiness, for I never yet heard any message from your holiness, but something I heard of our own people, who to perform their vows, went a pilgrimage into those parts, but seeing they went not in my name, nor brought with them my letters from you, their reports are but an uncertain belief: for I questioning with them, they said they came from jerusalem, where having performed their vows, they went to Rome to visit the Churches of the Apostles, understanding that they might easily come to those places which be inhabited by Christians. And surely I take great pleasure in their speeches, because in my sweet cogitation, I do behold the similitude of thy holy countenance, which seemeth unto me like the countenance of an Angel. And I confess, that I do love and reverence that image as an angelical likeness, but yet were it more acceptable and pleasant unto me, devoutly and diligently to consider and view your words and Letters.  
And therefore I most humbly beseech you to send Messengers unto me with your benediction, thereby to cheer and exhilarate my heart, for seeing we agree in faith and religion, before all things I desire and entreat that you will set my love and friendship in the principallest part of your heart, as the ring which you wear upon your finger, and the chain of gold which you put about your neck, that so the remembrance of me may never be blotted out of your memory: for with thankful words & letters friendship is increased, it is embraced with sacred peace, from whence all human joy springeth & ariseth, for even as he that is thirsty greatly desireth cold water (as the scripture saith) so doth my heart conceive an incredible joy from the messengers & letters which come to me from the furthest parts of the world: neither shall I only rejoice to hear from your holiness, but also I shall be glad to hear certain news from all the Kings of Christendom. And full as joyful as those that in battle do get the best spoils. And this may be done with great facility, seeing the King of Portugal hath made the whole journey plain unto them, who long sithence hath sent his Ambassadors unto us with strong Armies: but neither when my father was living, nor sithence, have we received any Message or Letters from any other Christian King, or from the Pope himself, although in our treasuries of Monuments, and Charters of my great Grand father, is preserved the memory of those Letters which Pope Eugenius sent into this Country, when the King of Kings, of all Ethiopia being the seed of jacob, and a King to be feared, had the government of this kingdom.  
The form of which letters were thus. Eugenius the Bishop of Rome to our beloved son the King of the seed of jacob, the King of all the kings of Ethiopia, and chiefly to be feared, etc.  
And in the conclusion of the same letters is mentioned that his son john Paleologus, which died about two years before, the King of the Romaean Kings, was called to the celebration of the sacred Synod. And that joseph the Patriarch of Constantinople, came with him with a great number of Archbishops, and Bishops, and Prelates of all sorts, among whom were the Proctors or Factors of the patriarchs of Antioch, Alexandria and jerusalem, who when they had joined themselves together in love of holy faith and religion, the unity of the Church being ordained and established, all the difficulties and troubles of ancient time, which seemed erroneous, & contrary to religion, were (by God's divine assistance) utterly taken away & abolished: which things being rightly established and set in order, the Pope himself brought great joy unto them all.  
This book of Pope Eugenius we have sent unto you, which we have kept uncorrupted, and we would have sent unto you the whole order and power of the Pope's blessing, but that the volume of these things would seem too great, for it would exceed in bigness the whole book of Paul to all the nations he writ unto.  
The Legates which brought these things unto us from the Pope, were Theodorus, Peter, Didymus, and George, the servants of jesus Christ, and you shall do well (most holy Father) to command your books to be looked over, where (I suppose) some memory of these things which we write of, may be found out. Wherefore holy father, if you will write any thing unto us believe it confidently, that we will most diligently commit it to our books, that the eternal memory of those things may remain to our posterity, and surely I account him blessed whose memory is preserved in writing in the sacred city of Rome, and in the seat of the Saints, S. Peter and S. Paul, for these be Lords of the kingdom of heaven, & judges of the whole world. And because that this is my belief, I therefore send these letters, that I may obtain grace of your holiness, and your most sacred Senate, that from thence may come unto me a holy benediction, & increase of all good things. And I most earnestly beseech your holiness to send unto me some images & pictures of the Saints, & especially of the virgin Mary, that your name may be often in my memory, & that I may take continual pleasure in your gifts. Furthermore I heartily entreat you to send unto me men learned in the Scriptures, workmen likewise that can make images & swords, and all manner of weapons for the war, gravers also of gold and silver, and Carpenters, & Masons, especially which can build houses of stone, and make covering for them of lead and copper, whereby the roofs of the houses may be defended. And besides these, such as can make glass & instruments of music, and such as be skilful in music, those also that can play upon Flutes, Trumpets, and pshalmes, shall be most welcome & dear unto us: and these workmen I much desire should be sent me from your Court: but if there be not sufficient store in your court, your holiness may command them of other Kings, who will obey your command most readily. When these shall come to me, they shall be honourably esteemed of according to their deserts, & from my liberality shall be amply rewarded, and if any shall desire to return home, he shall depart with liberal gifts whither he please: for I will not detain any one against his will, though I should have great fruit and benefit by his industry.  
But I must now speak of other matters, & demand of you (most holy father) why you exhort not the Christian kings, your children, to lay aside their arms, and as becometh brethren, to accord and agree amongst themselves, seeing they be thy sheep, and thou their shepherd? for your holiness knoweth right well what the Gospel commandeth, where it is said: That every kingdom divided in itself shall be desolated, and brought to ruin. And if the Kings would agree in their hearts, & conclude an assured league and peace together, they might easily vanquish all the Mahometans, and by their fortunate entrance, and sudden irruption utterly burst, and throw down the sepulchre of that false Prophet Mahomet. For this cause (holy father) endeavour yourself that a firm peace and assured league of friendship may be concluded and established amongst them, & admonish them to be assistant & aiding unto me, seeing in the confines of my kingdoms, I am on all sides enclosed and encompassed about with those most wicked men the Mahometan Moors, for those Mahometan Moors yield mutual aid one to another, & the kings with kings, petty kings with petty kings, do sincerely and constantly assemble themselves against us. There is a Moor very near neighbour unto me, to whom the other bordering Moors minister weapons, horses, and munition for the wars. These be the kings of India, Persis, Arabia, and Egypt, which things grieve and molest me exceedingly every day, when I behold the enemies of the Christian religion joined together in brotherly love, and to enjoy peace, & to see the Christian kings my brothers to be nothing at all moved by these injuries, nor to yield me any help, as assuredly behoveth Christians to do, seeing the impious brood of Mahomet do aid and assist one another: neither am I he, that for that purpose should require Soldiers & provision for wars of you, seeing I have Soldiers left of mine own: but only I desire your prayers and orisons, wishing also favour & grace with your holiness, & with all Christian Kings my brethren: for I must seek to obtain friendship of you, that I may be fully instructed and furnished of those things which I formerly desired, to the terror of the Moors, & that my neighbours, the enemies of the Christian faith may understand that the kings do favour & aid me with a singular care & affection, which surely will redound to the praise of us in common, seeing we agree together in one verity of religion and faith, and in this council we will conform, which shall be firm and absolute with that which shall fall out to be more profitable. God therefore fulfil all your desires about the praises of jesus Christ, and of God our Father, to whom all men give praises for ever and ever. And you most holy Lord and father embrace me, I beseech you, with all the Saints of jesus Christ which be at Rome, into which embracings let all the boderers of my kingdoms, and those which dwell in Ethiopia be received, & give thanks to our Lord jesus Christ with your spirit. These letters your holiness shall receive at the hands of my brother john King of Portugal, the son of the most mighty King Emanuel, by our Ambassador Francis Aluarez.   

Other letters from the same David, Emperor of Ethiopia, written to the Pope of Rome in the year of our Lord God 1524. and interpreted by Paulus iovius.  
HAppy and holy father, which art ordained of God to be the consecrator and sanctifier of all nations, and the possessor of Saint Peter's seat: to you be given the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatsoever you either bind or loose upon earth, shall be bound or loosed in heaven, as Christ himself hath said, and as S. Matthew hath written in his Gospel.  
I the King, whose name the Lions do worship, by the grace of God, called Athani Tingil, that is to say, virgin's incense, which name I received in baptism, but now, when I first took upon me the government of the kingdom, I assumed unto me the name of David, the beloved of God, the pillar of faith, the kinsman of the stock of juda, the son of David, the son of Solomon, the son of the pillar of faith, the son of the seed of jacob, the son of the hand of Mary, the son of Nav by the flesh, Emperor of great & high Ethiopia, and of great kingdoms, dominions & lands King of Xoa, of Caffate, of Fatigar, of Angote, of Baru, of Baaligaze, of Adea, of Vangue, of Goiame (where is the head of the river Nilus) of Damaraa, Vaguemedri, Ambeaa, Vague, Tigri Mahon, of Sabain, where Saba was Queen, & of Bernagaes', and Lord unto Nobia in the end of Egypt. All these Provinces be within my power, and many other, which now I have not reckoned: nor have I expressed these kingdoms & provinces in their proper names, for pride or vainglory, but for this cause only, that God may be praised more and more, who of his singular benignity hath given unto the kings, my predecessors, the government of such great and ample kingdoms of the Christian religion, and yet surely he hath made me worthy of a more excellent favour and grace, than other Kings, that I might continually devote myself to religion, because he hath made me adel, that is, the Lord and enemy of the Moors, and Gentiles which worship idols, I send unto you to kiss your holiness feet, after the manner of other Christian Kings my brethren, to whom I am nothing inferior, neither in religion nor power, for I within mine own kingdoms am the pillar of faith, neither am I aided with any foreign help; for I repose my whole trust and confidence in God alone, who governeth and sustaineth me up, from the time wherein the Angel of God spoke unto Philip, that he should instruct in the true faith, the Eunuch of the mighty Queen Candace, the Queen of Ethiopia, as she was going from jerusalem to Gaza. And Philip did then baptise the Eunuch, as the Angel commanded, and the Eunuch baptised the Queen, with a great part of her household, and of her people, which hath ever since continued Christians, remaining for all times after that, firm and stable in the faith of Christ. And my predecessors having no other aid but only God's assistance, have planted the faith in very large kingdoms, which I myself do likewise daily contend to effect. For I remain in the great bounds of my kingdoms, like a Lion encompassed about with a mighty wood, and hedged and enclosed against the Moors that lie in wait for me, and other nations which be enemies to the Christian faith, and refuse to hear the word of God, or my exhortations. But I myself being girded with my sword, do persecute and expel them out by little & little, indeed by God's divine help, which I never found wanting, which happeneth otherwise to Christian kings, for if the limits of their kingdoms be large, it may easily be obtained, for that one may assist & minister help unto another, and receive further help by your holiness benediction, of which I am partaker, seeing in my books be contained certain letters, which long since Pope Eugenius sent with his benediction, unto the king of the seed of jacob, which blessing given by his own hands, being accepted and taken, I do enjoy, and thereof greatly rejoice. And I have the holy temple, which is at jerusalem in great veneration, unto which I oftentimes send oblations due by our pilgrims, and many more and fatter I would have sent, but that the passages be hindered by Moors and Infidels: for (besides the taking away from our messengers our gifts and treasures) they will not suffer them to pass freely, but if they would suffer us to travel, I would come into the familiarity & fellowship of the Roman Church, as other Christian Kings do, to whom I am nothing inferior in the christian religion, for even as they believe, I confess one true faith, and one Church, and I most sincerely believe in the holy Trinity, & in one God, and the virginity of our Lady the virgin Mary, and I hold and observe all the articles of the faith, as they were written by the Apostles. Now our good God hath by the hand of the most mighty and Christian King Emanuel, made the passage open and plain, that we may meet by our Ambassadors, and that we being Christians joined in one faith, might serve God with other Christians. But while his Ambassadors were in my Court, it was reported unto me that K. Emanuel was dead, & that his son my brother john had the rule of his father's kingdom, whereupon as I was sorrowful for my father's death, even so I rejoiced greatly at the happy entrance of my brother into his kingdom, so as I hope that we joining our power and forces together, may make open the passages both by sea and land, by the regions of the wicked Moors, and greatly terrifying them, utterly expel them from their seats and kingdoms, that the way being made fit & peaceable, christians may freely come and go to the temple of jerusalem. And then shall I be partaker of his divine love in the Church of the Apostles S. Peter and S. Paul. And I covet greatly to obtain the sacred benediction of the Vicar of Christ, for without doubt your holiness is God's Vicar, and when I hear many things of your holiness by travelers & pilgrims, that go and come miraculously from our countries to jerusalem, & from thence to Rome, they breed in me an incredible joy & pleasure, but I should be more glad if my Ambassadors could make a shorter cut in their journeys to bring news unto me, as my hope is they will once do before I die, by the grace of almighty God, who ever keep you in health and holiness, Amen.  
And I kiss your holiness feet, and humbly beseech you to send me your blessing. These letters also your holiness shall receive at the hands of my brother john King of Portugal, by our said Ambassador Francis Aluarez.  
These Epistles translated by Paulus iovius I have joined to this work, for the better knowledge of this history, wherein we have changed nor altered nothing (although in many places they require alteration) some few excepted, which being badly translated into Spanish, out of the Arabian and Abesenicke language, did clean alter the whole order of the Epistles. The same iovius also in his declaration of these Epistles, hath promised to translate into Latin the book which Francis Aluarez composed, concerning the situation, manners and behaviour of the Ethiopians, in which book he expresseth and setteth forth his whole journey or travels. One copy of which book I myself have in my keeping. But if iovius surcease to translate it, I would not be strange to take the matter in hand, although not willingly, unless (most holy father) it please you to command, and then shall I be more free and safe from all malicious detractors, who may happily suppose that I undergo the business not with a desire to further the Christian commonwealth, but rather in emulation of iovius glory. For the doing of which business effectually & faithfully, I suppose I am sufficiently instructed, for when I had executed my embassage into Germany and Sarmatia, & was returned unto my king, john the third of that name, (of whose great courtesy and bounty in receiving of me, I had sufficient trial) I fell in conference with the Ethiopian Ambassador at Lisbon, a man honoured, and endued with the dignity of a Bishop, admirable for his credit, doctrine, and eloquence in the Chaldean and Arabian tongue, and in brief, a man most fit to be sent from the most mighty Emperor of Ethiopia, unto great and potent princes, for urgent and weighty affairs, his name was Zaga Zabo, and after an assured and firm friendship was established betwixt us, I had often conference with him, and reasoned and debated with him, especially of the manners and Religion of the Christians of Aethiopia: for I desired to know those things, not by the bare narration of traveling interpreters, but from a man borne in that Country; and that in his presence, and receiving it from his mouth. Amongst other things, I showed unto him an Epistle sent into Portugal by Matthew the Ambassador, which Epistle together with the Articles which he proposed before King Emmanuel, I translated (as I have said) into the Latin tongue, and many things I have corrected by his direction, where the interpretation obtained not sufficient credit, nor likelihood, which he affirmed, did oftentimes happen both to me and to iovius: for as then I had with me the Epistles of the same iovius, which we conferred with great diligence, and after unfeigned friendship and the true love of Christ flourished and was esteemed amongst us, I was emboldened to require of him a plain and sincere declaration of the faith and religion of the Aethiopians, and to have it penned down with his own hands, which he granted unto me with great alacrity, and forthwith began to make description thereof, which relation of his, I have faithfully translated into Latin, as by the sequel will appear, wherein I went forward with greater desire, my conscience urging me that I was not ignorant, that if these things should have perished with me, they, could never after that be published by any other man: for because they were so framed and composed after the Chaldean and Aethiopian phrase, as they could hardly of any man be understood but of myself, who by much familiarity, might attain to the knowledge of all those things, as well from the mouth, as from the writings of the said Aethiopian Ambassador.   

In the name of our Lord jesus Christ, Amen.  
THese be the things which be used & observed amongst us Aethiopians, as touching our faith and religion:  
First, we believe in the name of the holy Trinity, the Father, Son, and holy Ghost, who is one Lord, three in name but one in Divinity, three representations but one similitude, the conjunction of the three persons is equal; equal I say in Divinity, one Kingdom, one throne, one judge, one Charity, one Word, and one Spirit: but the word of the Father, and of the Son, the word of the holy Ghost and the Son, is the same word; and the word with God, and with the holy Ghost, and with himself without any defect or division, the Son of the Father, and the Son of the same Father, without beginning, to wit, first the Son of the Father without mother: For no one knoweth the secret and mystery of his Nativity, but the Father, Son, and the holy Ghost, and the same in beginning was the Word, & the Word was the Word with God, and God was the Word, the Spirit of the Father, the holy Spirit, and the Spirit of the Son is the holy Spirit, but the holy Spirit of his Spirit, is without any diminution or augmentation: for that the holy Ghost, the Advocate, or Comforter, the true God which proceedeth from the Father and the Son, spoke by the mouth of the Prophets, and descended in the fiery flame upon the Apostles in the porch of Zion, who declared and preached throughout the whole world, the Word of the Father, which Word was the Son himself.  
Moreover, the Father is not first, in that he is Father, nor the Son last, in that he is the Son, even so the holy Ghost is neither first nor last; for they be three persons, but one God, which seeth, and is seen of no man, and who by his only counsel created all things: and after that, the Son of his own accord, for our salvation, (the Father himself being willing, and the holy Ghost consenting thereunto,) descended from his high and heavenly habitation, and was incarnate by the holy Ghost of the Virgin Mary; which Mary was adorned with a double Virginity, the one spiritual, the other carnal: he was also borne without any corruption: the same Marry his mother after her childbearing remaining a Virgin, & inspired with great wonder, and hidden fire of Divinity, brought forth without blood, pain, or dolours her Son jesus Christ, who was a man innocent, and without sin, perfect God, and perfect man, having one only aspect. As he was an infant he grew up by little and little, sucking the milk of his mother Mary the Virgin, and when he attained to the age of thirty years, he was baptised in jordan; he walked like other men, he was weary, he sweat, he was both hungry and thirsty, and all these things he suffered freely and voluntarily, working many miracles, and by his Divinity he restored sight to the blind, healed those which were lame, cleansed the lepers, and raised up the dead, and last of all, he was willingly apprehended and taken, scourged, beaten with buffets, and crucified, he languished and died for our offences, and by his death he overcame death and the devil, and by his sorrow in his life time, he dissolved our sins, and bore our griefs, and with the Baptism of his blood, (which Baptism was his death) he baptised the Patriarches and Prophets, and he descended into hell, where was the soul of Adam and his sons, & the soul of Christ himself which is of Adam; which soul of Adam Christ himself took of the blessed Virgin Mary: and in the brightness of his divinity, and strength of his cross, he broke the brazen gates of hell, binding Satan in chains of iron, and redeeming thence Adam & his sons. All these things Christ did, wherefore he was replenished with divinity, and that divinity was with his soul, & also with his most holy body: which divinity gave virtue to the cross, & which divinity he ever had, & yet hath common with the Father in Trinity & Unity: nor did that Christ, while he walked upon the earth, ever want his divinity, for the least twinkling of an eye. After this he was buried, and the third day the same jesus Christ, the Prince of resurrection, jesus Christ the chief of the Priests, jesus Christ the King of Israel, arose again with great power and fortitude, and after all things were fulfilled which the holy Prophet's foreshowed, he ascended with great glory & triumph into heaven, and sitteth on the right hand of the Father: and he shall come again in glory, carrying his cross before his face, and the sword of justice in his hand, to judge both the quick and the dead; of whose kingdom shall be no end. I believe one holy Catholic and Apostolic Church: I believe one Baptism, which is the remission of sins, I hope for and believe the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen.  
I believe in our Lady, the blessed Virgin Mary, a Virgin I say, both in spirit and flesh, who (as the mother of Christ) is the charity of all people, the Saint of Saints, and Virgin of Virgins, whom I do worship all manner of ways. I believe the sacred wood of the cross, to be the bed of the sorrow of our Lord jesus Christ, the son of God; which Christ is our salvation, by whom we be saved, a scandal to the jews, and foolishness to the Gentiles.  
But we preach and believe the strength of the Cross of our Lord jesus Christ, even as S. Paul our Doctor hath taught us. I believe S. Peter to be the rock of the law; which law is founded upon the holy Prophets, the foundation and head of the Catholic and Apostolic Church, both east and west, where ever is the name of our Lord jesus Christ: the power of which Church, Peter the Apostle hath, and the keys of the kingdom of heaven, with which he can shut and open, loose and bind, and he shall sit with the other Apostles his fellows, upon twelve seats (with honour and praise) with our Lord jesus Christ, who in the day of judgement shall pronounce the sentence upon us, which day to the Saints, shall be cause of joy; but to the wicked, grief and gnashing of teeth, when they shall be cast out into the burning flames of hell fire, with their father the Devil. I believe that the holy Prophets and Apostles, Martyrs, and Confessors, were the right imitators of Christ, whom with the most blessed Angels of God, I worship & honour: & in like manner also do I embrace, & affect as their followers. Also I believe that vocal and auricular confession of all my sins is to be made to the priest, by whose prayers (through Christ our Lord) I hope to obtain salvation. Moreover, I acknowledge the B. of Rome to be the chiefPastor of the sheep of Christ, yielding obedience unto all patriarchs, Cardinals, Archb. & Bishops, of whom he is head, as unto the Ministers of Christ himself. This is my faith and law, and of all the people of Aethiopia, that be under the power of Precious john; which faith & the love of Christ, be so confirmed amongst us, as (with the help of our Saviour) I shall never deny it, neither by death, fire, nor sword; which faith all we shall carry with us in the day of judgement, before the face of the same Lord jesus Christ.  
Now having gone thus far, I will express the discipline, doctrine, and law, which the Apostles in their holy books of Counsels and Canons, (which we call Manda & Abethylis) have taught us: and of those books of the ordonances of the Church there be 8. all which were compiled by the Apostles when they were assembled together at jerusalem: whereof making great inquiry of many Doctors, after I came into Portugal, I found none that did remember them. The observations which the Apostles prescribed unto us in these books, be these following: First, that we ought to fast every wednesday in remembrance of the jews Council; for upon that day they consulted and decreed amongst themselves, that Christ should be killed: and that we should fast every Friday; upon which day Christ jesus was crucified, and died for our sins: and upon these two days we are commanded to fast till the Sunsetting. They also enjoined us to fast with bread & water the forty days of Lent; and to pray seven times in the day and night. By those edicts also we be bound to celebrate our sacrifice upon Wednesdays and Fridays in the evening, because at that time our Lord jesus Christ yielded up the ghost upon the holy Cross. They willed also, that upon Sundays we should all assemble together in the holy church at the third hour of the day, from the Sun rising, to read and hear the books of the Prophets; and that after that we should preach the Gospel, and celebrate Mass. Moreover, they appointed nine festival days to be celebrated in memory of Christ, to wit, the Annunciation, the Nativity, the Circumcision, the Purification or Candlemas, his Baptism, Palm sunday unto the octaves of good Friday, (as we term it) which be 12. days, the Ascension also, and the Feast of Penticost, with their holy days. And by the precepts of these books, we eat flesh every day without any exception, from the Feast of Easter unto Penticost: neither be we bound to fast in all this time unto the octaves of Penticost; which thing we do for the more honour & reverence of the resurrection of our Lord jesus Christ. They will us also to celebrate the day of the death & assumption of the Virgin Mary, with all honour. Moreover, besides the precepts of the Apostles, one of the Precious johns, surnamed, The seed of jacob, ordained, that besides these days every thirtieth year, 3. days should be celebrated in honour of the same blessed Virgin, he also commanded one day in every month to be celebrated for the Nativity of our Saviour Christ, which is ever the 25. day of the month: in like manner he appointed one day in every month to be kept holy in honour of S. Michael. Furthermore, by the commandment of the Apostles Synods, we celebrate the day of the Martyrdom of S. Stephen, and of other Martyrs. We he bound also (by the institution of the Apostles) to solemnize two days, to wit, the Sabbath; and the Lords day, in which days it is not lawful for us to do any manner of business, no not the least trifle. The Sabbath day we observe for this cause, for that God having perfected the Creation of the world, rested upon that day; which day, as it was his will it should be called the Holy of Holies, so if that day should not be reverenced with great honour and religion, it would seem to be done directly against the will and commandment of him, who had rather that heaven and earth should perish, than his word, especially seeing Christ himself came not to destroy the law, but to fulfil it: wherefore we observe that day not in imitation of the jews, but at the bidding of our Lord jesus Christ, & his holy Apostles: the grace of which jews is translated unto us Christians. And upon this sabbath day, Lent excepted, we ever eat flesh: which use is not observed in the kingdom of Bernagues and Tygri Mahon: the natural people of which two kingdoms, by an ancient custom, eat flesh upon the sabbath days and Sundays in Lent: now we celebrate the Lords day, as other Christians do, in memory of Christ's resurrection, but we know that the Sabbath day is to be observed and kept holy by the books of the law, and not by the Gospel: and yet notwithstanding we be not ignorant that the Gospel is the end of the Law, and of the Prophets: And upon these two days, we believe that the souls of the godly departed which remain in Purgatory, be not there tormented, which rest God hath granted unto those souls upon these most holy days: until (the end of their punishments due for their offences in this world being determined) they be delivered thence: for the diminishing of which pains, and to extenuate & shorten the time of their punishments: we believe, that alms deeds done for the dead, be very profitable unto those souls which live in purgatory. To the remission of which souls the Patriarch giveth no Indulgence, for that we believe doth belong unto God only, and to the constitution of the time of their punishment: neither doth the Patriarch allow any days for Indulgences, By the reading of the Gospel, we be only bound to keep 6. precepts, which Christ explained with his own mouth: I was an hungered (saith he) and you gave me to eat, I was thirsty, and you gave me to drink: I was a stranger, & you took me in: naked, and you clothed me: sick, and you visited me: I was in prison, and you came unto me: Which words Christ will only pronounce in the day of judgement, because the law (as Paul witnesseth) showeth unto us our sins; which law (Christ jesus excepted) no one can keep.  
And Paul also saith, that we be all borne in sin for the transgression of our mother Eva, and for her curse and malediction: and the same Paul further saith, that we die through Adam, and live through Christ, which Christ of his abundant mercy hath given unto us these six precepts, to the end that we might be saved, when he shall come in his Majesty, to judge both the quick & the dead, by which words and commandments in that fearful and terrible day of judgement, he will pronounce and show unto the good everlasting glory, and to the wicked fire and eternal damnation. And we reckon but only five deadly sins (as they term them) which we gather out of the last Chapter of the Revelation; where it is said, For without shallbe dogs, and enchanters, and whoremongers, and murderers, and idolaters, and whosoever loveth or maketh lies. It is ordained by the holy Apostles in their books of counsels, that it is lawful for the Clergy to marry, after they have attained to some knowledge in divinity, and being once married they be received into the order of priests, into the which order none is admitted before he accomplish the age of 30. years, neithey be any bastards by any means allowed to enter into that most holy order: & these orders be given by no other but by the Patriarch only, & where the first wife of a Bishop or Clercke, or Deacon is dead, it is not lawful for them to marry an other, unless the Patriarch dispense therewith (which sometimes for a public good is granted to great men) nor is it lawful for them to keep a concubine, unless they will refuse and put themselves from saying service, which if they once do, they may never after meddle in ministering divine matters: and this is observed so strictly that those priests which have been twice married, dare never take in their hands so much as a candle that is consecrated to the Church, and if any Bishop or Deacon be found to have any bastard child, he is deprived from all his benefices, and from his holy orders, & his gods (if he decease without lawful heirs) come unto Prestor john, and not to the Patriarch: and the warrant that we have that our priests may marry is taken out of Saint Paul, who had rather that both Clergy and Laity should marry then burn: And he also saith that a bishop ought to be the husband of one wife, and that he should be sober and irreprehensible, and in like manner would he have Deacons: and further, that Ecclesiastical persons should have their proper wives by lawful marriage, even as secular people have, but Munckes marry not at all, and both Lay men and Clergy have but one wife a piece, and matrimony is not contracted before the gates of the holy Church, but in the private houses of those that bear most sway at the bridal: we have have also received from the ordinance of the Apostles, that if a priest be found in addultery, or committing manslaughter, or theft, or bearing false witness, he shallbe deprived and put from his holy orders and punished like other malefactors: again by the institution of those Apostles, if any person, either Ecclesiastical or Lay, do lie with his wife, or be polluted in sleep, he cometh not into the Church for the space of four and twenty hours after: nor is it lawful for menstruous women to come into the Church, unless upon the seventh day after their sickness, and then to have all their garments thoroughly washed, which they wore during the time of their monthly disease, and they themselves purged from all filth: A woman also that bringeth forth a man child, must not come into the Church till after the fortieth day, and if she brought forth a woman child then she must not come into the Church till after the eighteeths day: This is our custom founded upon the ancient law, and also upon the Apostolic law, which laws, ordinances and precepts, we observe as diligently in all points as possible may be: Moreover we be prohibited, that neither swine nor dogs, nor other such beasts shall enter into our Churches: Also we may not go to the Church but bare footed, neither is it lawful for us to laugh, walk, or talk of profane matters in the Church, nor once there to spit, hawk or him, because the Churches of Aethiopia be not like unto that land, where the people of Israel did eat the Paschall lamb departing from Egypt, in which place God commanded them to eat it with their shoes on, and girded with their girdles, by reason of the pollution of the earth, but they be like unto Mount Sinai, where the Lord spoke unto Moses' saying, Moses, Moses, put off thy shoes from thy feet, because the ground whereupon thou standest is holy ground, and this Mount Sinai is the mother of our Churches, from whom they took their beginning, as the Apostles did from the prophets, and the New Testament from the Old: Furthermore it is not lawful for Lay-men or Clergy, or for any other person of what condition soever he be, after he hath received the blessed Sacrament of the Altar to spit or cast, from the morning till the sun setting, and if any do spit he is severely punished: Also in memory of Christ's Baptism, we be all every year baptized upon the feast day of the epiphany of our Lord, and this we do, not that we believe that it pertaineth to our salvation, but for the laud, praise and glory of our Saviour: neither do we celebrate any other feast more solemnly or bountifully, with shows, plays and ceremonies, than we do this, because upon this day the holy Trinity did first manifestly appear, when our Lord jesus Christ was baptized in the river of jordan, when the holy Ghost descended upon his head in form of a Dove, and a voice proclaiming from Heaven, This is my beloved Son in whom I am well pleased: which holy Ghost appearing in form of a white Dove, appeared in show and figure of the Father and Son in one Divinity: In like manner Christ was seen of the holy Prophets in many similitudes, forms and likenesses, first in form of a white Ram for the preservation of Isaac the Son of Abraham.  
And in like manner, he named jacob, Israel and jacob: judas the Lion's whelp, to whom he gave power over his other brethren, saying, thou diddest rise up my son to the prey, and when thou diddest rest thou diddest lie still like a Lion and Lioness: who shall raise him up.  
He also manifested himself to Moses in Mount Sinai, in form of a flame of fire, he showed himself to the holy Prophet Daniel, in similitude of a Rock, he appeared also to Ezechiell the Son of Man, and to Isaias in likeness of an infant, he declared himself to King David, and to Gedeon like a frost upon a fleece of wool, and besides these similitudes recited, he was seen of his holy Prophets in many other forms, and notwithstanding he was seen in so many sundry forms, yet he always represented the similitude of the Father and of the holy Ghost.  
And when GOD created the world he said, Let us make man according to our similitude and likeness, and he made Adam after his own similitude and likeness, wherefore we say that the Father, Son and holy Ghost are three countenances in one similitude and divinity: We have received circumcision ever from the time of Queen Saba, which we observe until this day.  
The proper name of this Queen Saba was Maqueda, who was a worshipper of Idols after the manner of her ancestors, into whose ears when the fame of the wisdom of Solomon was entered, she sent a certain wise man unto jerusalem, to find out the truth, and to certify her of the wisdom of that King, who being returned and showing the truth unto her, she suddenly provided herself to take her journey towards jerusalem: and when she was thither come, besides many other things which King Solomon taught her, she learned the law and the prophets, and returning into her country, having obtained liberty to depart, in her journey, she brought forth a son, which was gotten by a King, whom she called Meilech, and him the Queen brought up with herself in Aethiopia, until he was 20. years of age: and then sent him back unto Solomon his father, that of him he might learn understanding and wisdom, desiring by her letters, that he would consecrate and make his Son Meilech King of Aethiopi a before the Ark of the covenant of the will, or testament of the Lord, and that from thenceforth women should govern no more in Aethiopia, as then the custom was, but that the male children, should lineally succeed in the Kingdom.  
When Meilech came to jerusalem, he easily obtained of his father, his mother's requests, & for Meilech was called David, whom (when he was sufficiently instructed in the law, & in other disciplines) his father Solomon determined to send him back to his mother decked in gallant attire and furniture fit for a King, and the more to show his bounty he gave unto him noble followers & companions, and the sons of great men, who should serve him as their King, Moreover he decreed to send with him Azarias' the high priest, the son of Zadoch the high priest likewise, which when Azarias understood, he exhorted David that he would entreat liberty of his father for him to sacrifice (for good success in their journey) before the Ark of the covenant of the Lord: which being obtained of Solomon, Azarias as suddenly and as secretly as he could, caused tables to be hewn and squared like unto the tables of the Testament of the Lord, and when they were perfected, he went to sacrifice, and in the time of sacrifice he privily, and very cunningly stole the true tables of the covenant of the Lord from the Ark, and set in there places the counterfeit tables, which he brought with him, without the privity of any man butonly God and himself. This declaration we Aethiopians receive as most holy and most approved, as by the History of the same King David (which is most pleasant to read) doth appear: the volume of which History is full as thick as all Saint Paul's Epistles.  
When David was come into the borders of Aethiopia, Azarias entered into his tent, & disclosed and revealed unto him that which thetherto he had kept secret to himself, that is to say, that he had the Tables of the covenant of the Lord, which when David understood he ran hastily to the tent where Azarias had the tables of the covenant of the Lord, and there in imitation of King David his grandfather, he began to dance (for exceeding joy) before the Ark wherein the tables were, which when the people saw, and understanding the matter, they all of them in like manner exulted with mirth and great joy: And then David passing through much part of Aethiopia came lastly to his mother, who forthwith yielded up into his hands the government of all the provinces, laying upon his shoulders the whole care of the Kingdom: And from that time even until this day (being almost the space of two thousand and six hundred years) the Kingdom of Aethiopia hath lineally descended from male heir to male heir, and since that time we observe the law of the Lord and circumcision as before is said, and likewise since that time hitherto, the offices which Solomon ordained for his son David, for the guiding of his Court, are kept and observed in the same order and families as they were at that time, neither hath the Emperor himself power to assign others of other kindreds, to execute those offices of the court: the women likewise by the commandment and decree of the same Maqueda, be circumcised, she being induced thereunto by this reason, that even as men have a foreskin that covereth their yards, in like manner have women a certain kernelly flesh which is called Nympha, arising up in the middle of their privy parts, which is very fit to take the character of circumcision: and this is done both to males and females upon the eight day, and after circumcision the men children be baptized upon the fortieth day, and the women children upon the eighteeths day, unless any sickness or infirmity happeneth, which may cause it to be done sooner, but if any children be baptized before the time appointed, it is not lawful to give them suck of their mother's milk, but only of their nurses, until their mothers be purified, and the water wherein they be baptized, is consecrated and blessed with exorcisms, and that very same day wherein children be baptized they receive the blessed body of our Lord in a little form of bread: we received baptism almost before all other Christians from the Eunuch of Candace Queen of Aethiopia, whose name was Indich, as it is said in the Acts of the Apostles, which together with circumcision (which we had at that time as before is said) we observe most holily and Christian like, and by God's assistance ever shall observe, nor do we observe or admit of any thing but of those only which are expressed in the law and the prophets, and in the Gospel, and in the books of the counsels of the Apostles, and if we receive any things besides those, they be only observed for the time, for that they seem to appertain to the government and peace of the Church, and that without any bond of sin: Wherefore our circumcision is not unclean, but the law and grace is given to our father Abraham, which he received of God as a sign, not that either he, or his children should be saved through circumcision, but that the children of Abraham should be known from other nations: And that which is inwardly understood by the sign or mystery of circumcision we do highly observe, that is, that we may be circumcised in our hearts: neither do we boast of circumcision, nor therefore think ourselves more noble than other Christians, nor more acceptable unto God, with whom is no acception of persons, as Paul saith, who also showeth us that we be not saved through circumcision but by faith, because in Christ jesus, neither circumcision nor the cutting off the foreskin prevaleth, but the new creature, but Paul preached not to destroy the law, but to establish it, who was also baptized, and being of the seed of Benjamin, he also circumcised Tymothy, who was become a Christian, his mother being an Hebrew and his father a Gentile, knowing that God doth justify circumcision by faith, and the foreskin by faith: and as he himself was made all to all that he might save all. To the jews he was as a jew, that thereby he might win the jews, and to those which were under the law, he was as one under the law, although he was not under the law, to the end he might gain those which were under the law, and to those which were without the law, he was as one without the law, although he was not without the law of GOD, but under the law of Christ, that he might get those which were without the law: and he became weak, that he might gain those which were weak, which he did to show that we be saved not by circumcision but by faith.  
And therefore when he preached to the Hebrews he spoke unto them in divers speeches, like an Hebrew, saying, God heretofore spoke many ways and in many manners to our fathers in the prophets, showing unto them out of the same prophets, that Christ was of the seed of David after the flesh. Moreover he preached unto them that Christ was with our fathers in the tents in the Desert, and that he led them into the Land of promise by the hand of josua.  
And Paul also testifieth in the same place, that Christ was the chief of priests, and that he entered into a new tent, which is the Sanctum sanctorum, The holy of holies, and that with the sacrifice of his body and blood, he abolished the blood of goats and bulls, whereby none that killeth them shall be justified: and so he spoke sundry ways to the jews, and also suffering himself to be worshipped of his people, by many ceremonies in a holy and uncorrupted faith: Moreover those children with us be accounted half Christians, which here I understand in the Roman Church be called Pagans, who because they die without baptism ought to be called half Christians, because they be children of the sanctified blood of parents baptized, and of the holy Ghost, and of the blood of our Lord jesus Christ, by which three Testimonies all Christians be so reputed: because there be three things which give testimony in earth, the spirit, water and blood, as Saint john witnesseth in his first canonical Epistle: the Gospel also saith, a good tree bringeth forth good fruit, and an evil tree bringeth forth evil fruit, and therefore the children of Christians are not like unto the children of the Gentiles, and of the jews, and of the Moors, which be withered trees without any fruit, but the Christians be elected in their mother's wombs, as holy jeremias the prophet, and Saint john Baptist were: Furthermore the children of Christian women are elected and consecrated by the communication and imparting of the body & blood of our Lord jesus Christ: for when women great with child do take the most blessed body of our Lord and Saviour jesus Christ, the infant in the womb receiving nutriment is thereby sanctified, for even as the child in the mother's womb, conceiveth either sorrow or joy, according as the mother is affected, so also is it nourished by the mother's nourishment, and as our Lord saith in his holy Gospel, if any one eat my body and drink my blood, he shall not taste of eternal death: and again, if any one eat of my body and drink my blood he shall remain with me: and Paul the teacher of the Gentiles saith, the unbelieving husband is justified by the believing wife, & the unbelieving wife is sanctified by the believing husband, otherwise your children should be unclean, but now they be sanctified, which, if it be so that the children of an unbelieving mother be sanctified by the faithfulness of the father, then be they much more holy that be borne of faithful fathers and mothers: for which cause it is far more holy to call children before they be christened half Christians, than Pagans: and the Apostles also have said in their books of counsels, that all which believe and be not baptized, may justly be termed half Christians, who also say in the said books: if jew, Moor, or Gentile will receive the faith, he is not forthwith to be admitted, but they will that he first come unto the gate of the Church, and there to hear Sermons, and the words of our Saviour Christ, that before he be incited and brought, as it were, by stealth unto the faith, he may know the yoke of the law, which when he hath done he may be called half a Christian, although he be not baptized, as the Gospel teacheth, he that believeth, and is baptized shall be saved, and he which believeth not shall be damned. And our custom is that women with child before they be delivered should be confessed, and that then they should receive the Lords body, and those which do not this, as also the fathers of those children which compel not their wives to do it, be accounted wicked and evil Christians: Moreover you must understand that confirmation and chrism, or extreme unction of oil, be not accounted Sacraments, nor be in any use with us, as I see they be hear by the custom of the Roman Church. Also by Moses' laws and the ordinance of the Apostles it is not lawful for us to eat unclean meats, and this we do for the full observation of the law and the Scriptures, which consist of one and four score books in both Old and New Testament, that is to say forty and six books of the Old Testament, and thirty five of the New, which express number of books of the Scriptures we have by computation from the Apostles themselves, from which books of the Old and New Testament it is not lawful for us to add or diminish any thing, no though an Angel from heaven should endeavour to persuade us thereunto. And he which dare to attempt any such thing ought to be reputed as accursed: Wherefore neither the patriarch nor our Bishops, by themselves, nor in their counsels, do think or suppose that they can make any laws thereby any one may be bound to a mortal or deadly sin: for in those books of counsels it is ordained by the holy Apostles, that we should confess our sins, and what penance we ought to take, according to the heinousness of each sin, is there set down. They instruct us also how we should pray, fast, and do deeds of charity: and this is very familiar in use amongst us, that as soon as we have committed any sin, we forthwith, run to the feet of the confessor, and this is used both of men and women, of what estate or condition soever they be of: And as oft as we be confessed we receive the body of our blessed LORD in both kinds, in sweet or unleavened wheaten bread: and if we should be confessed every day, we should likewise every day receive the most blessed and reverent Sacrament, and this custom is common as well to the Clergy as to Lay people: And the Sacrament of the Altar is not kept with us in Churches, as it is here amongst the people of Europe. Neither do those which be sick receive the Lords body, until they begin to wax strong and recover there health: and this is done because all men both Lay and Clergy, do usually receive it every week twice, and all which be willing so to do come unto the Church, for it is ministered to none but in the Church, not so much as to the Patriarch or to Prestor john himself: We always use one consessor, and do never take any other unless he be absent, and at his return we go to him again, and the confessors (by there power they have from the Church) give us absolution of all our sins, reserving no case to the Bishops or patriarch, though it be never so heinous.  
Moreover the Priests may not here their confessions, to whom they be confessed themselves: Both priests also and monks, and all Ecclesiastical Ministers with us live by their own labour, for the Church neither hath nor receiveth any tithes. Yet it hath revenues and lands which both Clerks and Monks dig and till, either by there own or other men's labour, and other alms have the none but such as be freely offered in the Churches, for the burial of the dead, and other Godly matters: neither is it lawful for them to beg in the streets, nor to extort or wrest any alms from the people.  
In our Churches also is every day only one Mass celebrated, which we account as a sacrifice, nor is it lawful (by our old ordinances) to solemnize more than one in a day; & for this Mass we take no hire nor reward: and in the ministry thereof, the Sacrament of the Altar is not showed as here I perceive it is. And with us, all Priests, Deacons and Subdeacons, and those which come unto the Church, receive the body of our Lord: and we say no Mass for the remission and forgiveness of souls departed; but the dead be buried with crosses and Orisons, in a certain place, and over the dead bodies we chiefly amongst other prayers recite the beginning of Saint john's Gospel, and the day following the burial of the corpses, we offer alms for him which we do upon certain days after, upon all which days we keep funeral banquets: and thus far I have spoken of our faith and religion. But now, for that after our coming into Portugal, we had many and often disputations and contentions with divers Doctors, & especially with our masters Didacus Ortysius Bishop of Saint Thomas Isle, and Deane of the King's Chapel, and with Peter Margalhus, concerning the choice and difference of meats, it shall not be unfitting to say something of that matter.  
First you must understand, that we observe a difference of meats out of the Old Testament, which difference is appointed by the word of GOD itself, which word was afterwards borne of the Virgin Mary, and walked and was conversant with his Disciples, and that word of God I have always accounted an ever living, whole and inviolated word, neither did that mouth which heretofore forbade to eat of uncleanness, say afterwards in any part of his Gospel, that we should eat.  
And whereas it is said in the Gospel, that which entereth in by the mouth defileth not the man, but such things as proceed forth of the mouth, he pronounced not this speech, for because he would break that which before he had appointed, but that he might refute the superstition of the jews, which taxed and blamed the Apostles, because they did eat meat with unwashed hands, for neither the Apostles at that time that they lived with our Lord jesus Christ, did ever use any unclean things, or tasted of those things which be forbidden in the law, nor yet did any of the Apostles transgress the law, nor can it be proved by any of our writings, that the Apostles at those times which followed our Lord's passion when they began to preach the Gospel, did either eat or kill any unclean things, and yet it is true that Paul said, eat of every thing that cometh into the shambles making no question for conscience sake, and after that, if an Infidel call you to supper, and that you will go, eat of all things which be set before you, making no question for conscience sake: and again, if any one shall say, this is sacrificed to Idols, eat not of it because of him that showed you, and for conscience sake etc.  
All these things Paul speaketh to please those which were not yet confirmed in the faith, because there arose many disputations and contentions betwixt those and the jews, for the appeasing whereof he did more easily yield unto them, and conform himself unto their will, which were not thoroughly confirmed in the faith. And this he did not that he would break the law, but that by gratifying others in releasing them from ceremonies, he might thereby win them to the faith: The same Apostle saith, Let not him that eateth despice him that eateth not, & let not him that eateth not condemn him that eateth, because he which eateth, eateth to the Lord, and he which eateth not, eateth not to the Lord, wherefore it is very unworthily done to reprehend strangers that be Christians so sharply and bitterly, as I have been oftentimes reprehended myself, both for this matter and for other things which belonged not to the true faith: but it shall be better and more standing with wisdom, to sustain such Christians whether they be greeks, Americans, or Aethiopians, or of any other of the seven Christian Churches in charity and embracings of Christ, and to suffer them to live and be conversant amongst other Christian brothers, without contumelies or reproaches; for we be all the sons of baptism, and join together in opinion concerning the true faith: and there is no cause why we should contend so bitterly touching ceremonies, but that each one should observe his own ceremonies, without the hatred railing or inveighing of other: neither is he that hath traveled into other nations, and observeth his own country ceremonies therefore to be excluded from the society of the Church. Moreover that which we have in the Acts of the Apostles, to wit, how Peter saw Heaven opened, & a certain vessel descending like unto a great sheet, bound or closed up at the four corners, wherein were all kind of four footed beasts and serpents of the earth, and fowls of the air, and a voice said unto Peter, arise Peter, kill and eat, to whom Peter said, God forbid Lord, for I did never eat of any thing common or unclean, and the voice replied unto him again saying, that which God hath made clean do not thou call common or unclean: which words being repeated three times, the vessel was again taken up into Heaven: which done the spirit sent him into Caesaria unto Cornelius a dew out man, and one that feared God, with whom when Peter spoke, the holy Ghost fell upon all those which heard the word of God, and when they had received the holy Ghost, Peter commanded that all Cornelius household should be baptized: But when the other Apostles and brethren which were in judea, heard that Cornelius was baptized, they were displeased at Peter that he had given Baptism, and the word of God to the Gentiles, saying, why goest thou to men that be not circumcised and didst eat with them, but when Peter had declared unto them the whole vision, they were pacified and gave thanks unto God, saying, And therefore hath he given repentance unto the Gentiles for their salvation. And they remembered the word of the Lord, which he spoke when he ascended up into heaven Go throughout all the world and preach the Gospel unto all creatures: he that believeth and is baptised, shall be saved, but he which believeth not shall be damned.  
Then the Apostles began to preach the Gospel through out all the world unto every creature, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the holy Ghost; and the sound of them went throughout all the world. And this vision wherein both clean and unclean things did appear, we in Aethiopia expound thus: That by the clean beasts was meant the people of Israel: and by the unclean beasts the people of the Gentiles. And for this cause be the Gentiles called unclean; for that they be worshippers of Idols, and willingly do the works of the devil, which be unclean: and whereas the voice said unto Peter, Kill, that we interpret in this manner, Peter, baptise: and when it is said, Peter, eat; that is interpreted, as if he had said, Teach and preach the law of our Lord jesus Christ, to the people of Israel, and to the Gentiles.  
Moreover, it is most certain, that it cannot be found in any place of the Scriptures, that either Peter or the other Apostles did kill or eat any unclean beast, after this vision.  
And also we must understand, when the Scripture speaketh of bread, he meaneth not meat or corporal nourishment thereby, but the explication and exposition of Christ his doctrine, and of the Scriptures.  
And surely it were well done for all teachers and preachers of this sheet, which was showed unto Peter, to teach high and great matters, and not petty or light things, and such as do seem little to appertain unto salvation, nor thereby cunningly to hunt after this document, as though it should be convenient or lawful for us to eat unclean things, seeing no such thing can be gathered out of the Scriptures: for what is the cause, that the Apostles in their books of Counsels have taught us not to eat beasts that be strangled, suffocated, or killed ' of other beasts, or blood, because the Lord loveth cleanness and sobriety, and hateth gluttony and uncleanness. And our Lord also greatly loveth those that abstain from flesh, but much more those that fast with bread and water, and herbs, as john Baptist the Eremite did beyond jordane, who did ever eat herbs: and S. Paul the Eremite, who remained in the wilderness four score years ever fasting: and S. Anthony, and Saint Macarius, and many other their spiritual children, which did never taste flesh.  
Therefore my brethren we ought not to despise and inveigh against our neighbours, because james saith, He which detracteth his brother, or condemneth his brother, detracteth the law, and condemneth the law: Paul also teacheth, That it were better for every one to live contented with their own traditions, then to dispute with his Christian brother of the law: and again, Not to know more than is behoveful, but to be wise unto sobriety, and unto every one as God hath divided the measure of faith: wherefore it is undecent to dispute with our brethren of the law, or of the difference of meats, because the meat doth not commend us to God, especially seeing Paul the Apostle saith: We shall neither abound if we do eat; nor want, if we do not eat. And therefore let us seek those things which be above, and the celestial food, and leave off these vain disputations. All these things which I have written concerning Traditions, I have not done to breed disputation, but that as much as in me lieth, I may defend and protect my country-folkes against the bitter taunts and reprehensions of many, who setting aside all reverence, will not stick to defame & revile that most potent Prince precious john and us his subjects, with slanders and reproaches, calling us jews and Mahometans, because we observe Circumcision, and keep holy the Sabbath day, like unto the jews: and also for that like the Mahometans, we fast until the Sun going down, which they allege is unfit for a Christian man to do: and this they object against us most bitterly, that we allow and hold it as lawful for Priests to marry, as for lay people: this also they omit not to speak against us, and that most nippingly; for that we, as it were, distrusting in our first Baptism, be rebaptized once every year, & that women be circumcised as well as men, which custom was never used amongst the jews.  
Furthermore, because we hold, that a difference of meats is most religiously to be observed: and last of all, because we call those children half Christians, which before Baptism be wont to be called Pagan's: to which slanders and misreports, I am enforced to say thus much; that I may purge our people from such reproaches and calumnies, & that I may make the Doctors of the holy Roman church more affable unto us, by whom (how holily I know not) I have been forbidden to receive the body of our Lord ever since I came into Portugal, which is the space of 7. years, and that (which I speak with grief and tears) I am reputed amongst the Christian brethren as an Ethnic, and one accursed, which he that quickeneth and refresheth all things, may see and discern, to whose judgement I commit all these matters.  
And I am not sent from my most mighty Lord the Emperor of Aethiopia, unto the Bishop of Rome, and unto john the most renowned king of Portugal, to move disputations and contentions: But to begin friendship and fellowship, and not either to increase or diminish human traditions: but that I should inquire and diligently understand, touching the Heresies of Arrius, Prince of Heretics: whether the Christians of Europe would meet with us to overthrow the opinions of this man, for the destroying of whose errors, there was a Council assembled together at Nicaea, under Pope julius, consisting of three hundred and eighteen Bishops; and withal, that I might know, whether that be observed among the Christians of Europe, which the Apostles teach in their books of Synods: that is, That a Council should be celebrated in the church of Christ twice every year, to dispute of matters of faith: the first of which Counsels (by the Apostles desire) should be assembled at the feast of Penticost, the other the tenth of October: as also to understand, how we did agree together, touching the errors of Macedonius; for which cause there was a Council of an hundred and fifty bishops assembled together at Constantinople, under Pope Damasus: and likewise of the errors of Nestorius, for whom there was a Council of two hundred Bishops, assembled together in Ephesus under Pope Celestine. Lastly, that I might also know of the fourth Chalcedonian council; wherein, for the errors of Eutiches, were assembled 632. bishops, at which time S. Leo was bishop of Rome, from which Council, after many disputations, and nothing concluded for the peace of the church, the matter being left as it was, they all departed home every one remaining in his own opinion: The books of which Counsels and of others which were celebrated afterwards, our most mighty Lord the Emperor of Aethiopia hath in his keeping: and of this cockle which the enemy of truth, the devil, hath sown amongst Christians, my Lord is much grieved and all his subjects which believe in Christ.  
Our countrymen even from the beginning of the primitive Church, have acknowledged the bishop of Rome to be the chief Bishop, whom at this day we obey as the Vicar of Christ: In whose court we would often be, but that the journey is over long, and many kingdoms of the mahometans betwixt us, that may hinder our passage: so as, though you should enter into all those great dangers, yet you can effect nothing, although that most wise and invincible King Emanuel, of happy memory, who was the first that by his navigations, (not without God's celestial assistance) made passage into East India, gave great hope that it might afterwards be done more commodiously: for he having overcome the Ocean with his navy, brought the red sea into his subjection, being no whit deterred with the greatness of the coast, so as he might increase the faith of Christ, and (as it were) make a way open to make use of our friendship.  
And seeing that is now done, and that each nation may receive aid from the other, we hope that in short time, by the Portugals forces and our own, all the Mahometans, and other unbelieving Ethnics, shall be driven and expelled from the whole Erithraean sea, and from all Arabia, Persis, and India.  
In like manner we trust, by the power of jesus Christ, that it will come to pass, that (peace being established amongst all the Christians of Europe) the enemies of the cross shall be expelled also from the mediterranean places, Pontus and other Provinces, that according to the words of Christ, There may be upon earth, one law, one fold, and one shepherd.  
Of which thing we have two Oracles or predictions: one, out of the Prophecy of S. Ficator, the other of S. Synoda the Eremit, who was borne in the uttermost rock of Egypt: neither of which two differeth from other. And since the time that my most mighty Lord received the ambassadors of the most famous king Emanuel, the truth of these oracles doth seem to hasten to an end; for truly our Prince thinks of nothing more, than of that: meditating also (both by his council & forces) how he may root out all Mahometans from the face of the earth. For these causes, and for others which I have laid open before the most famous King john, the son of Emanuel, was I sent hither by my most mighty Lord as an Ambassador, and not for frivolous and vain disputations: And I pray with an unfeigned heart, that the great and mighty God may bring the decrees and endeavours of our Prince, for which I was sent, to a happy end, and to his glory. Amen.  
Having gone thus far, I will now briefly expound something by the way, of the state of our Patriarch and Emperor. And first you must understand, that (by a solemn custom) our Patriarch is created by the voices of our Monks of Jerusalem, which remain there about the sepulchre of our Lord, his election & creation is in this manner: The Patriarch being dead, our Emperor Prester Iohn ●endeth forthwith a speedy messenger unto Jerusalem, unto the Monks there, (as is said) who receiving the message and the gifts which our Lord the Emperor sendeth unto the holy Sepulchre, they presenrly, and with all possible expedition, elect another Patriarch by the most voices: but it is not lawful to elect any other, than one of Alexandria, and one of incorrupt manners, and untainted conversation; who being created, they sign their suffrages, and give them into the Legates hands that came for that purpose: he forthwith goeth to Cayre, whither when he is come, he offereth that creation unto the Patriarch of Alexandria, whose seat is always there, to be read.  
And when he perceiveth which of the people of Alexandria they have elected, he forthwith sendeth the man ordained to such honours, with the Legate into Aethiopia, who by an old ordnance ought always to be an Eremit, of the Order of S. Anthony: with whom the Ambassador goeth strait into Aethiopia, where he is received of all men with great joy and honour: in which business sometimes is spent a year or two; in all which time, precious john doth dispose of the revenues of the Patriarch according to his pleasure. Now the chiefest office of the Patriarch, is to give orders; which none but he can either give or take away, but he can bestow upon none, either Bishopric, or other Church-benefice: this only belongeth to precious john, who dispenseth of all things according to his will. And the Patriarch being dead, he whose power and yearly revenues is the largest, is made heir of the whole substance of all his goods. Moreover, the office of the Patriarch is to proceed to excommunication against the stubborn, the observation whereof is so strict, as the punishment of perpetual starving to death is inflicted upon the offenders.  
Indulgences he giveth nor granteth none, neither be any interdicted the Sacraments of the church, for any offence whatsoever, be it never so heinous, but only for homicide: the name of the Patriarchship in our speech is called Abunna: but he which now executeth the office is called Marcus, which was the proper name given him in Baptism, he is a man of an hundred years of age or above.  
And you must note, that we begin our year in the Kalends of September, which day always falleth upon the vigil of Saint john Baptist, the other festival days, as the Feast of the Nativity of our Lord, Easter and the rest, be celebrated with us at the same times they be in the Roman Church.  
And this I may not obscurely pass over as though it were not so, that Saint Philip the Apostle did preach the Gospel and faith of our Saviour jesus Christ our Lord in our country.  
Now if you desire to know of the name of our Emperor, he is fully persuaded, that he was ever called precious john, and not Presbyter john, as is falsely bruited abroad: for in one speech it is written with characters, that signify joannes Belull, that is as much to say, as precious or high john: and in the chaldaean tongue it is joannes Encoe, which being interpreted, doth signify precious or high john. Neither is he to be named Emperor of the Abyssini, as Matheus hath untruly declared, but Emperor of the Aethiopians: and Matthew being an Armenian, could not thoroughly understand our matters, especially those which appertained unto faith and Christian Religion: and therefore he related many things in the presence of the most prudent and most potent king Emanuel of happy memory, which with us are nothing so, and this he did not with a desire to speak untruths, for he was a good man, but for that he was not thoroughly instructed in matters concerning our religion: The succession of his Kingdoms and Empire doth not always descend upon the eldest son, but unto him upon whom the father pleaseth to bestow it, And he which now governeth the Empire was his father's third son, which he merited and obtained by an awful and holy reverence to his father, for when his father lay a dying, he commanded all his sons to sit down upon his throne, which all the rest of his children did saving he, and he refused, saying, God for bid that so much should be attributed unto me, that I should sit in my Lord's chair, whose devotion when his father saw, he endued him with all his Kingdoms & Empire, he is called David, the power of whose Empire, as well over Christians as Ethnics, is large and ample, wherein be many Kings and petty Kings, Earls, Barons and Peers, and much Nobility, all which be most obedient to his command: In all whose dominions there is no money used, but such as is brought from other places, for they give and receive silver and gold by weight: we have many cities and great towns, but not such as we see here in Portugal, the reason whereof (for the most part) is, that precious joan liveth always in camps and tents, which custom is used for this purpose, that the nobility may continually excercise themselves in military affairs: And this I may not omit to tell you, that we be compasled about on all sides with the enemies of our faith, with whom we have many and ever prosperous conflicts, which victories we attribute to gods divine assistance: written laws we have none in use amongst us, neither be the complaints of those which sue others expressed in libels or writings but by words, which is done least by the covetousness of judges and counsellors controversies should be protracted. And this more I think sit to show you, that this Matthew was not sent by David our Emperor unto the most invincible and potent King Emanuel of happy memory, but by Queen Helena the Emperor's wife, surnamed the hand of Mary, who at that time by reason of David's, nonage, took upon her the government of the Kingdoms, being a woman without doubt most prudent and holy: And the same Helen (as she was excceeding well learned) writ two books in the Chaldean tongue, one of the which is called Enzera Chebaa that is to say, praise God upon the Organs and instruments of Music, in which book she disputeth very learnedly of the Trinity, and of the virginity of Mary the mother of Christ. The other book is called Chedale Chaay, that is to say, the son beam, containing very acute disputations of the law of God. All these things concerning our faith, religion and state of our country, I Zaga Zabo, by interpretation the grace of the father, both Bishop and Priest, and Bugana Raz that is Captain, Knight and Veceroy of the Province, have declared, which I could not deny at your request my most dear Son in Christ Damianus, nor yet any other man desiring to be instructed there in, neither is it lawful to deny it for two causes, the first whereof is, for that I am commanded by my most mighty Lord Precious john Emperor of the Aethiopians, to satisfy every one that demandeth of me, concerning our faith, religion, and provinces, & that I should conceal nothing, but faithfully declare unto them the truth of all things both by words and writing; the other reason is, for that I deem it very fitting and labour well spent, that our names, customs and ordinances, and the situation of our countries should be publicly known, which matters I never writ unto any one till this time, nor yet declared in words, not that I was sparing of my labour, but because no Christian, after my coming into portugal, desired to know such things of me, whereof I could not, nor cannot but greatly marvel. And seeing by many arguments I perceive that you much desire the knowledge of our affairs, I beseech you by the wounds of our Saviour Christ and by his cross to put this my confession of our faith and religion into the latin tongue, that by your means all the Godly Christians of Europe, may understand our customs & the integrity of our manners. Moreover if in your travels you hap to go to Rome, then let me entreat you to salute in my name, the Pope & the most reverent Cardinals, patriarchs, Archbishops and Bishops, and all other the true worshippers of Christ, by Christ jesus in a kiss of peace, and that you will desire of the Pope, that he will send unto me Francis Aluarez furnished such letters, whereby he may answer my Lord the Emperor of Aethiopia, that after my long stay I may return into mine own country and visit my own mansion house, for I have been long here detained, that before my death (which by reason of my great age is at the door) I may effect that which I am commanded. And that having furnished this Embassage I might dedicat the residue of my life unto God, & only spend my time in devotion, moreover I entreat you if you find any thing in my writings not well penned, that you will frame it to the latin phrase, but in such manner as in no point you alter the sense: & lastly I desire you that in your translation you will search the old & new testament, that you may know from what place I have alleged my authorities, that you may be more certain in your translation: but if I have not handled every thing so happily as may satisfy those which be curious, I am to be pardoned by reason of my want of Chaldean books whereof I have none, for those I had I lost by misfortune in my journey: wherefore being destitute of the use of all books, I could speak of nothing but what was fresh in my memory, yet have I delivered all things most faithfuly.  
Farewell my dear beloved son in Christ. Vlispone the twenty four day of April, in the year of our Lord God 1534.  
When I had finished this business I remembered myself of that place whereas I say that Christ descended into hell for the soul of Adam, and for the soul of Christ, which the same Christ received of his mother S. Marry the virgin.  
Of which thing we have an assured testimony in those books which we call the books of governance, which Christ jesus delivered unto his Apostles, in which books be expressed these words, which be called the mysteries of doctrines, by whose authority and testimony we all of us continue in this opinion without doubting: but after I came into Portugal I found divines teaching a contrary doctrine against all our opinions, which is so certain, as we do not only believe this, but also affirm that the souls of all men had their beginning from Adam, and that as our flesh is of the seed of Adames flesh so likewise our soul being, as a candle, kindled by the soul of Adam, had her original and nature from Adam, whereby it appeareth that we be all the seed of Adam both of the flesh and of the soul.  
All the relation above said was written and subscribed with the Ambassadors own proper hand with the Chaldean characters.   

The deploration of the people of Lappia by the same Damianus a Goes.  
I Think it not unfitting (most worthy Bishop) to make some mention in the end of this treatise (because this also appertaineth to faith and to the union of the Church) of john Magnus Gothus Archbishop of Vpsalia in the Kingdom of Suetia, that by him we may be moved to take compassion of the people of Lappia: for this john Magnus Gothus was borne of very good parents and rich, marvelous well seen in the Scriptures, and of an honest conversation, and so addicted to the Roman Church, that for the zeal thereunto, he lost the great Archbishoppricke of Vpsalia with all the revenues thereunto belonging, amounting to forty thousand crowns a year, and all his patrimony beside, and having lost both dignity and goods, and tossed in the variable streams of fortune he lay close in Prussia, living poorly a long time at the City Daniz in Germany, where (while I was dispatching my King's affairs in those parts of Germany) I grew into great familiarity and indissoluble friendship with him, and with Olaus Magnus Gothus his brother: which two I afterwards found unlooked for, at Vecenza, in poorer estate than before they were, unto which place they went purposely, by reason of a council divulged, whereby they conceived much hope for themselves and redress of their calamities: And when the council was discontinued & adorned, those good men being utterly deprived of all their goods, wherewith while they enjoyed them they often in those Northern parts contended much in defence of the Roman Church, and yet would have contended (if matters had prospered) removed to Venice, there to get their living either upon others liberality, or by their own industry, and labour, which was chiefly in teaching and instructing others, for other succour could they get none, but that they reposed their whole confidence in God's assistance: whither when they were come, they were very courteously entertained, only of Hieronymus Quirinus the Patriarch of Venice in his Patriarchship, and there they remain to this day expecting the divulging of that council; under the Archbishoppricke of Vpsalia is contained a great part of that large and vast province of Lappia, the people whereof be ignorant of the laws of our Saviour Christ, which (as I understand by many good and credible men) proceeded from the abominable extortion and covetousness of the prelate's and nobles, for if they were Christians they should be free from those taxations and tributes, wherewith they as Ethnics be punished: on the other side the nobility and Bishops wax rich and wealthy, and therefore they forbid them to be Christians, least bearing the sweet and delectable yoke of Christ, they might withdraw from there tyranny, and extortion, some part of their gains, and diminish some part of their taxations, whereby that miserable nation is most beastly and insatiably vexed and oppressed by those monarchs, bearing the burden most impatiently, for if they were Christians they should pay no more tribute unto them than other Christians pay unto their princes: And therefore nothing regarding the salvation of so many souls, they prefer their horrible & sacrilegious gain, before the true Faith and Christian religion: so as they may rightly be said to carry the keys, and neither enter themselves, nor suffer others to enter. Q insatiable covetousness and intolerable impiety, and from Godly breasts to be expelled both by weapons, writings and all our forces: and without doubt it had been quenched and buried by this time, if this good man were restored to his former dignity, for he desireth nothing more, nor meditateth of any thing more earnestly, than that this people may be reduced to the faith of Christ: nor doth he lament for any thing more, than that by his means (as he ever desired in his heart) these miserable beasts (as yet by reason of their impious religion) be not made the flock of Christ, by embracing the Christian faith: neither doth he complain so much for the loss of his Archbishoppricke, nor that he was thrust from his goods, left him by his ancestors, as for that he wanteth strength, aid and substance wherewith to cure this plague of Lappia, to bring them under the yoke of Christ, and to unite them to the Roman Church: And this he oftentimes confirmed by his letters sent me: wherewith myself not fully contented made earnest mention of this business, in the end of that first Embassage of precious joan, which I dedicated to the same john Magnus Gothus: neither did I then satisfy myself in this business, but by my letters dealt with Erasmus Rothrodamus, that he would commit the cause of this matter to writing. Afterwards living in his company (for I was with him at Friburg Brisgoia the space of 5 months) I had speeches with him of that business, by which means he was induced and appointed to frame a just volume of this matter, but being prevented by death, the substance of the business he had undertaken was utterly dissolved, notwithstanding upon his death, he concealed not the wicked Ecclesiastical impiety, which truly he did, that he might accuse all Christians to whom God hath granted power and learning, and cry for revengement against them in the last judgement before Christ the just judge of all men.  
the Christian Princes & monarchs may now see what account and reckoning of so many lost souls they can make at the last day before the Tribunal seat of Christ, where is no place for pardon or grace, and where no excuse nor fair speeches will be received. And you, most reverent Bishop, are only he that can cure this infirmity, you only are he that can show unto this people the ways of the Lord, and direct them, that they may walk rightly in the same: you only are able to redeem them from the lowest hell: by you little children may come unto Christ, and by the power of thy right hand be delivered from the bondage and deceits of the Devil, and enjoy the plentiful redemption of Christ, both in this world and in an other. Behold what reward thou shalt obtain if by your labour that great harvest may be carried into Christ's barn, and no doubt you will carry it in, if once you begin.  
There be at this day with Gostavus King of Suetia and Gothia some great peers & states that be fallen from the Roman Church: there be some in those Kingdoms also that do altogether dissent and disagree from the right Diameter and true course of religion, unto these by your dignity & pastoral function, may you direct your letters, requiring them by the wounds of our Saviour Christ, (whom all men, though never so far differing from the Roman Church, do acknowledge to be God's son and our Saviour) that they will permit and suffer this East and West Lappia, with those large provinces of Finmarchia Scrifinia and Biarmia (the greatest part where of knoweth not Christ) to come and embrace the sweet yoke of Christ: and that they will extort no more from them, than other Christian Princes are accustomed to take from their subjects, either by course of law or by voluntary extortions.  
And it were good, not only to send letters, but learned men also, and men of approved sanctity and holiness of life, that these Provinces may be annexed to the Roman Church by the faith of Christ: whom (together with the people of Aethiopia) being reduced to the right law of Christ, although the people be offended, yet the Lord shall reign, sitting upon the Cherubins, and although the earth be moved, it shall rejoice, and all islands shall be joyful. Farewell right reverend and high Bishop in Christ jesus, Amen.  
From Louvain, in the Calends of September, in the year of our Lord God 1540   

Of the situation of Lappia, and of the inhabitants of that country: by the same DAMIANUS A GOES.  
THE country of Lappia (through which runneth the Botnian sea) is divided into East and West Lappia, the utmost part of which sea is Tornia, upon the East part it joineth unto the white lake, towards the North it compasseth divers Provinces, and so extendeth itself to a place unknown, and inclining Westwards towards Island, it joineth unto part of Noruegia: upon the South it is compassed about with the other part of Noruegia, with Suetia, Finland and both the Botnias.  
East Lappia hath in it a church dedicated to Saint Andrew, in the eighty fourth degree of the elevation of the pole, which is adorned and beautified with a magnificent and sumptuous Sepulchre, and with men skilful and learned in the holy Scriptures '. This Church is under the Archbishop of Vpsall, within whose Diocese it is, and yet, notwithstanding the neighbours round about that church, whether it be by the carelessness & negligence, or through the covetousness of the Prelates, and great men, do not acknowledge Christ (as is reported). Lappia in the Latin tongue is interpreted a foolish and sottish or heartless nation, which name (as I think) is imposed upon them, for that the soil by the continual and binding cold, being as it were dull, is less apt either to receive or bring forth fruits: the natural borne people of Lappia be very strong set, and of a middle stature, they be mavelous nimble and dexterious in using their bows and darts, which practise of throwing the dart they exercise even from their infancy, in such sort, that if a boy shoot at a mark and miss it, he hath no meat given him until he have hit the mark: instead of other garments they wear skins finely sowed together, wherewith they defend themselves from the cold; which they be so accustomed to endure, that if need be, they will overcome it without any defence at all of those skins: their dwellings are in tents, for of houses they have no use, because they often remove out of one place into another: other course of life have they none then hunting, fishing, and fowling, wherein they be marvelous expert and skilful, for in that Province is great abundance of those things. They use no tillage, and they have ships made without any Iron nails or pins, which being charged and burdened with fishes dried in the air, and with pelts, or skins, they transport them to their neighbours, and bordering people, and get for them in exchange victuals and money, in doing whereof they use no speech but signs and becks, which only happeneth through the barbarousness and harshness of their language, which their neighbours can by no means understand, for otherwise they be very wise and cunning in their exchanges.  
The people be very valiant and warlike, in steed of horses they use a kind of beasts, which in their language be called Raingi, being of the stature and colour of Asses, having cloven hooves: they be made & horned like Bucks, but that they be covered over with a kind of down, & be not so long, nor have so many branches as Bucks horns have (as we ourselves have seen:) these beasts be of such wonderful swiftness, that in the space of twelve hours, they will draw a chariot thirty German miles, and in their going, whether they go swift or softly, by the stirring of the joints of their legs, you may hear a noise like unto the cracking of nuts. The religion of this people is to worship the fire and pillars of stone for gods. They presage and judge the event of the whole day, by every living thing that meeteth them in the morning: they observe matrimony, and be exceeding jealous: they be so famous in enchantments, that amongst many other very strange and almost incredible things to be reported, which I omit to speak of, they will by their enchantments stay a ship under full sail, so stone still as no force of winds can remove her: which evil is cured with Virgin's excrements, being laid upon the hatches of the ships, and upon the benches where the rowers sit to row, for these Virgin's excrements (as I have heard reported by the inhabitants) those spirits do naturally abhor.   

Certain things concerning the Aethiopians, collected out of joseph Scaliger his seventh Book: De emendatione temporum.  
THis is not the first time that the name of the Christian Aethiopians, hath been heard amongst us, for their Churches be not only at jerusalem and Constantinople, but for a space it hath been lawful for them to solemnize and celebrate their sacrifices at Rome and Venice, and many things may be understood of them and of their customs, both by the Portugals navigations, and by the book of Francis Aluarez travels, who went himself into Aethiopia. For as yet we have only heard of the name of Aethiopia, but it is strange that the name of the Emperor of Aethiopia, in our great grandfathers days, was first known to us out of Asia, not out of Aethiopia: for before these three hundred years the Aethiopian Kings had ever large dominions in Asia, especially in Drangiana in the confines of Susiana, in India and in Sinus, until the Tartarian Emperors expelled them from their government in Asia: for the Abyssini being vanquished and expelled from the country of the people of Sinae, by Cingis King of Tartary, Vncan the great Emperor of Aethiopia being slain, shortly after Cincan the son of Cingis, and Cincanus son Bathin can, did utterly expel and drive out all the Abyssini, from Moin and the kingdom of Sinae, and compelled them to fly into Africa.  
Surely we have often wondered, that a nation at this day altogether ignorant in seafaring business, should be so mighty and potent, both by sea and land, that they have enlarged their dominions from Aethiopia to the people of Sinae.  
In those days the knowledge of that Emperor came unto us, but by the name of Prestigian, which in the Persian tongue (now used almost throughout all Asia, as Latium is in the West) signifieth Apostolic, under which name is certainly understood, a rightful and Christian King.  
That the government of the Aethiopians was great and large in Asia, is signified by the Aethiopian crosses which are in Giapan, Syna, and other places, as also by the Temple that is situated in the Region of Maabar, and dedicated to Saint Thomas, which hath crosses, and many other things in it, as are in Aethiopia, and is builded after the Aethiopian fashion, and (that which is more) retaineth as yet the Aethiopian name.  
FINIS.    


A Table of the Chapters contained in the first Book.  
THe true opinion of Divines concerning man's original. Chap. 1.  
The false opinion of the Ethnics concerning man's original. Chap. 2.  
Of the situation and perfection of the world. Chap. 3  
Of Aethiopia, and the ancient customs of that country. C. 4  
Of Egypt, and the ancient customs of that country. chap. 5.  
Of the Carthaginians and other people of Africa. Chap. 6.   

A Table of the Chapters contained in the 2. Book.  
OF Asia, and the most famous nations thereof. chap. 1  
Of Panchaia, and of the manners of the Panchaians'. cha. 2  
Of Assyria and how the Assyrians live. chap. 3  
Of Indaea, and of the customs, and institutions of the jews. c. 4  
Of Media, and of the manners of the Medes. chap. 5  
Of Parthia, and the manner of living of the Parthians. chap. 6  
Of Persia, and of the manners, laws and ordinances of the Persians. chap. 7  
Of India, and of the monstrous and prodigious customs and manner of living of the Indians. chap. 8  
Of Scythia, and of the barbarous manners of the Scythians. c. 9  
Of Tartary, and of the customs and power of that people. c. 10  
Of Turcia, and of all the manners laws and ordinances of the Turks. chap. 11  
Of the Christians, and of their original, and customs. cha. 12   

A Table of the Chapters contained in the 3 Book.  
OF the most famous countries of Europe. chap. 1  
Of Greece, and of Solon's laws which he made for the Athenians, and which were after established by the Princes of Greece. chap. 2  
Of Laconia, and of the customs and ordinance of the Laconians or Lacedæmonians, ch. 3  
Of the I'll of Crete, and of the customs most common amongst the Cretensians. chap. 4  
Of Thrace, and of the barbarous manners of the people of Thrace. chap. 5  
Of Russia or Ruthenia, and of the the latter manners & customs of the Russians. chap. 6  
Of Lithuani●, and of the manner of living of those people. cha. 7  
Of Livonia, Prussia, and of the Soldiers called Marciam in Spain. chap. 8  
Of Polonia, and of the later customs of the Polonians. cha. 9  
Of Hungaria and of the Institutions and manners of living of the Hungarians. chap. 10  
Of Boemia, and of the manners of the Boemians. chap. 11  
Of Germany and of the customs of the Germans: chap. 12  
Of Saxony, and how the Saxons lived in times past, and how they now live. chap. 13  
Of Westphalia, and of the manner of judgements ordained for the Westphalians by Charles the Great. chap. 14  
Of Franconia, and of the nature and customs of that country. chap 15  
Of ●ueuia, and how the people of that country lived heretofore, and how they now live. cha. 16  
Of Bavaria, and Carinthya, and of the laws and customs of that people heretofore, & how they now live. chap. 17  
Of Italy, and of the manners of the Italians: of Romulus also, and his civil institutions. c. 18  
Of Lyguria, and of the ancient manners of the inhabitants of that country, chap. 19  
Of Tuscia, and of the ancient manners of the Tuscans. ch. 20  
Of Galalia in Europe, and of the old customs of that country, chap. 21  
Of Gallia, and of the ancient customs and later ●●nners of the Frenchmen, chap. 22  
Of Spain, and of the manners of the Spaniards. chap. 28  
Of Lusitania, and of the manners of the Portugals. chap. 24  
Of England, Scotland and Ireland, and of many other islands and of the manners & customs of the Inhabitants. chap. 25  
Of the I'll of Taprohane, and the customs of that people. cha. 26  
FINIS. Lib. 3.   

NIcholas Damascen of the manners and customs of sundry nations. fol 472  
Certain things of America or Brasill, gathered out of the writings of johannes Lerius. fol. 483  
The faith, religion and manners of the Aethiopians, and the deploration of the people of Lappia, compiled by Damianus a Goes a Knight of Portugal, wherein is contained,  
A letter of Damianus a Goes, a Knight of Portugal to Pope Paul the third. fol. 503  
A letter of Helena the grandmother of Prestor john Emperor of Aethiopia, to Emanuel King of Portugal, written in the year 1509. fol. 512  
The letters of the most renowned David Emperor of Aethiopia, to Emanuel King of Portugal, written in the year 1521. Paulus iovius being Interpreter. fol. 517  
The letters of the same David Emperor of Aethiopia to john the third of that name King of Portugal, in the year 1524. fol. 526  
The letters of the same Emperor to the Pope of Rome, in the same year 1524. the same Paulus iovius being Interpreter. fol. 533  
Other letters from the said Emperor to the Pope, the same year. fol. 540  
The faith and religion that the Aethiopians hold and observe. fol. 546  
The deploration of Lappia. f. 581  
The si●uation of lap a. fol. 585  
A short discourse of the Aethiopians taken out of Scaligers seventh book, De emendatione temporum. fol. 588   
FINIS.